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St Paul's Cathedral is an Anglican cathedral in London, England, and is the seat of the Bishop of London. The cathedral serves as the mother church of the Diocese of London. It is on Ludgate Hill at the highest point of the City of London. Its dedication in honour of Paul the Apostle dates back to the original church on this site, founded in AD 604. The present structure, which was completed in 1710, is a Grade I listed building that was designed in the English Baroque style by Sir Christopher Wren. The cathedral's reconstruction was part of a major rebuilding programme initiated in the aftermath of the Great Fire of London. The earlier Gothic cathedral (Old St Paul's Cathedral), largely destroyed in the Great Fire, was a central focus for medieval and early modern London, including Paul's walk and St Paul's Churchyard, being the site of St Paul's Cross.
The cathedral is one of the most famous and recognisable sights of London. Its dome, surrounded by the spires of Wren's City churches, has dominated the skyline for over 300 years. At 365 ft (111 m) high, it was the tallest building in London from 1710 to 1963. The dome is still one of the highest in the world. St Paul's is the second-largest church building in area in the United Kingdom, after Liverpool Cathedral.
Services held at St Paul's have included the funerals of Admiral Lord Nelson, the Duke of Wellington, Winston Churchill and Margaret Thatcher; jubilee celebrations for Queen Victoria; an inauguration service for the Metropolitan Hospital Sunday Fund; peace services marking the end of the First and Second World Wars; the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer; the launch of the Festival of Britain; and the thanksgiving services for the Silver, Golden, Diamond, and Platinum Jubilees and the 80th and 90th birthdays of Queen Elizabeth II. St Paul's Cathedral is the central subject of much promotional material, as well as of images of the dome surrounded by the smoke and fire of the Blitz. The cathedral is a working church with hourly prayer and daily services. The tourist entry fee at the door is £23 for adults (January 2023, cheaper if booked online), but no charges are made to worshippers attending advertised services.
The nearest London Underground station is St Paul's, which is 130 yards (120 m) away from St Paul's Cathedral.
History
Before the cathedral
The location of Londinium's original cathedral is unknown, but legend and medieval tradition claims it was St Peter upon Cornhill. St Paul is an unusual attribution for a cathedral, and suggests there was another one in the Roman period. Legends of St Lucius link St Peter upon Cornhill as the centre of the Roman Londinium Christian community. It stands upon the highest point in the area of old Londinium, and it was given pre-eminence in medieval procession on account of the legends. There is, however, no other reliable evidence and the location of the site on the Forum makes it difficult for it to fit the legendary stories. In 1995, a large fifth-century building on Tower Hill was excavated, and has been claimed as a Roman basilica, possibly a cathedral, although this is speculative.
The Elizabethan antiquarian William Camden argued that a temple to the goddess Diana had stood during Roman times on the site occupied by the medieval St Paul's Cathedral. Wren reported that he had found no trace of any such temple during the works to build the new cathedral after the Great Fire, and Camden's hypothesis is no longer accepted by modern archaeologists.
Pre-Norman cathedral
There is evidence for Christianity in London during the Roman period, but no firm evidence for the location of churches or a cathedral. Bishop Restitutus is said to have represented London at the Council of Arles in 314 AD. A list of the 16 "archbishops" of London was recorded by Jocelyn of Furness in the 12th century, claiming London's Christian community was founded in the second century under the legendary King Lucius and his missionary saints Fagan, Deruvian, Elvanus and Medwin. None of that is considered credible by modern historians but, although the surviving text is problematic, either Bishop Restitutus or Adelphius at the 314 Council of Arles seems to have come from Londinium.
Bede records that in AD 604 Augustine of Canterbury consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Saxons and their king, Sæberht. Sæberht's uncle and overlord, Æthelberht, king of Kent, built a church dedicated to St Paul in London, as the seat of the new bishop. It is assumed, although not proved, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the same site as the later medieval and the present cathedrals.
On the death of Sæberht in about 616, his pagan sons expelled Mellitus from London, and the East Saxons reverted to paganism. The fate of the first cathedral building is unknown. Christianity was restored among the East Saxons in the late seventh century and it is presumed that either the Anglo-Saxon cathedral was restored or a new building erected as the seat of bishops such as Cedd, Wine and Erkenwald, the last of whom was buried in the cathedral in 693.
Earconwald was consecrated bishop of London in 675, and is said to have bestowed great cost on the fabric, and in later times he almost occupied the place of traditionary, founder: the veneration paid to him is second only to that which was rendered to St. Paul. Erkenwald would become a subject of the important High Medieval poem St Erkenwald.
King Æthelred the Unready was buried in the cathedral on his death in 1016; the tomb is now lost. The cathedral was burnt, with much of the city, in a fire in 1087, as recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
Old St Paul's
The fourth St Paul's, generally referred to as Old St Paul's, was begun by the Normans after the 1087 fire. A further fire in 1135 disrupted the work, and the new cathedral was not consecrated until 1240. During the period of construction, the style of architecture had changed from Romanesque to Gothic and this was reflected in the pointed arches and larger windows of the upper parts and East End of the building. The Gothic ribbed vault was constructed, like that of York Minster, of wood rather than stone, which affected the ultimate fate of the building.
An enlargement programme commenced in 1256. This "New Work" was consecrated in 1300 but not complete until 1314. During the later Medieval period St Paul's was exceeded in length only by the Abbey Church of Cluny and in the height of its spire only by Lincoln Cathedral and St. Mary's Church, Stralsund. Excavations by Francis Penrose in 1878 showed that it was 585 feet (178 m) long and 100 feet (30 m) wide (290 feet (88 m) across the transepts and crossing). The spire was about 489 feet (149 m) in height.[citation needed] By the 16th century the building was deteriorating.
The English Reformation under Henry VIII and Edward VI (accelerated by the Chantries Acts) led to the destruction of elements of the interior ornamentation and the chapels, shrines, and chantries.
The would come to include the removal of the cathedral's collection of relics, which by the sixteenth century was understood to include:
the body of St Erkenwald
both arms of St Mellitus
a knife thought to belong to Jesus
hair of Mary Magdalen
blood of St Paul
milk of the Virgin Mary
the head of St John
the skull of Thomas Becket
the head and jaw of King Ethelbert
part of the wood of the cross,
a stone of the Holy Sepulchre,
a stone from the spot of the Ascension, and
some bones of the eleven thousand virgins of Cologne.
Old St Paul's in 1656 by Wenceslaus Hollar, showing the rebuilt west facade
In October 1538, an image of St Erkenwald, probably from the shrine, was delivered to the master of the king's jewels. Other images may have survived, at least for a time. More systematic iconoclasm happened in the reign of Edward VI: the Grey Friar's Chronicle reports that the rood and other images were destroyed in November 1547.
In late 1549, at the height of the iconoclasm of the reformation, Sir Rowland Hill altered the route of his Lord Mayor's day procession and said a de profundis at the tomb of Erkenwald. Later in Hill's mayoralty of (1550) the high altar of St Paul's was removed overnight to be destroyed, an occurrence that provoked a fight in which a man was killed. Hill had ordered, unusually for the time, that St Barnabus's Day would not be kept as a public holiday ahead of these events.
Three years later, by October 1553, "Alle the alteres and chappelles in alle Powlles churche" were taken down.[19] In August, 1553, the dean and chapter were cited to appear before Queen Mary's commissioners.
Some of the buildings in the St Paul's churchyard were sold as shops and rental properties, especially to printers and booksellers. In 1561 the spire was destroyed by a lightning strike, an event that Roman Catholic writers claimed was a sign of God's judgment on England's Protestant rulers. Bishop James Pilkington preached a sermon in response, claiming that the lightning strike was a judgement for the irreverent use of the cathedral building. Immediate steps were taken to repair the damage, with the citizens of London and the clergy offering money to support the rebuilding. However, the cost of repairing the building properly was too great for a country and city recovering from a trade depression. Instead, the roof was repaired and a timber "roo"’ put on the steeple.
In the 1630s a west front was added to the building by England's first classical architect, Inigo Jones. There was much defacing and mistreatment of the building by Parliamentarian forces during the Civil War, and the old documents and charters were dispersed and destroyed. During the Commonwealth, those churchyard buildings that were razed supplied ready-dressed building material for construction projects, such as the Lord Protector's city palace, Somerset House. Crowds were drawn to the north-east corner of the churchyard, St Paul's Cross, where open-air preaching took place.
In the Great Fire of London of 1666, Old St Paul's was gutted. While it might have been possible to reconstruct it, a decision was taken to build a new cathedral in a modern style. This course of action had been proposed even before the fire.
Present St Paul's
The task of designing a replacement structure was officially assigned to Sir Christopher Wren on 30 July 1669. He had previously been put in charge of the rebuilding of churches to replace those lost in the Great Fire. More than 50 city churches are attributable to Wren. Concurrent with designing St Paul's, Wren was engaged in the production of his five Tracts on Architecture.
Wren had begun advising on the repair of the Old St Paul's in 1661, five years before the fire in 1666. The proposed work included renovations to interior and exterior to complement the classical facade designed by Inigo Jones in 1630. Wren planned to replace the dilapidated tower with a dome, using the existing structure as a scaffold. He produced a drawing of the proposed dome which shows his idea that it should span nave and aisles at the crossing. After the Fire, it was at first thought possible to retain a substantial part of the old cathedral, but ultimately the entire structure was demolished in the early 1670s.
In July 1668 Dean William Sancroft wrote to Wren that he was charged by the Archbishop of Canterbury, in agreement with the Bishops of London and Oxford, to design a new cathedral that was "Handsome and noble to all the ends of it and to the reputation of the City and the nation". The design process took several years, but a design was finally settled and attached to a royal warrant, with the proviso that Wren was permitted to make any further changes that he deemed necessary. The result was the present St Paul's Cathedral, still the second largest church in Britain, with a dome proclaimed as the finest in the world. The building was financed by a tax on coal, and was completed within its architect's lifetime with many of the major contractors engaged for the duration.
The "topping out" of the cathedral (when the final stone was placed on the lantern) took place on 26 October 1708, performed by Wren's son Christopher Jr and the son of one of the masons. The cathedral was declared officially complete by Parliament on 25 December 1711 (Christmas Day). In fact, construction continued for several years after that, with the statues on the roof added in the 1720s. In 1716 the total costs amounted to £1,095,556 (£174 million in 2021).
Consecration
On 2 December 1697, 31 years and 3 months after the Great Fire destroyed Old St Paul's, the new cathedral was consecrated for use. The Right Reverend Henry Compton, Bishop of London, preached the sermon. It was based on the text of Psalm 122, "I was glad when they said unto me: Let us go into the house of the Lord." The first regular service was held on the following Sunday.
Opinions of Wren's cathedral differed, with some loving it: "Without, within, below, above, the eye / Is filled with unrestrained delight", while others hated it: "There was an air of Popery about the gilded capitals, the heavy arches ... They were unfamiliar, un-English ...".
Since 1900
St. Paul's was the target of two suffragette bombing attacks in 1913 and 1914 respectively, which nearly caused the destruction of the cathedral. This was as part of the suffragette bombing and arson campaign between 1912 and 1914, in which suffragettes from the Women's Social and Political Union, as part of their campaign for women's suffrage, carried out a series of politically motivated bombings and arson nationwide. Churches were explicitly targeted by the suffragettes as they believed the Church of England was complicit in reinforcing opposition to women's suffrage. Between 1913 and 1914, 32 churches across Britain were attacked.
The first attack on St. Paul's occurred on 8 May 1913, at the start of a sermon. A bomb was heard ticking and discovered as people were entering the cathedral. It was made out of potassium nitrate. Had it exploded, the bomb likely would have destroyed the historic bishop's throne and other parts of the cathedral. The remains of the device, which was made partly out of a mustard tin, are now on display at the City of London Police Museum.
A second bombing of the cathedral by the suffragettes was attempted on 13 June 1914, however the bomb was again discovered before it could explode. This attempted bombing occurred two days after a bomb had exploded at Westminster Abbey, which damaged the Coronation Chair and caused a mass panic for the exits. Several other churches were bombed at this time, such as St Martin-in-the-Fields church in Trafalgar Square and the Metropolitan Tabernacle.
War damage
The cathedral survived the Blitz although struck by bombs on 10 October 1940 and 17 April 1941. The first strike destroyed the high altar, while the second strike on the north transept left a hole in the floor above the crypt. The latter bomb is believed to have detonated in the upper interior above the north transept and the force was sufficient to shift the entire dome laterally by a small amount.
On 12 September 1940 a time-delayed bomb that had struck the cathedral was successfully defused and removed by a bomb disposal detachment of Royal Engineers under the command of Temporary Lieutenant Robert Davies. Had this bomb detonated, it would have totally destroyed the cathedral; it left a 100-foot (30 m) crater when later remotely detonated in a secure location. As a result of this action, Davies and Sapper George Cameron Wylie were each awarded the George Cross. Davies' George Cross and other medals are on display at the Imperial War Museum, London.
One of the best known images of London during the war was a photograph of St Paul's taken on 29 December 1940 during the "Second Great Fire of London" by photographer Herbert Mason, from the roof of a building in Tudor Street showing the cathedral shrouded in smoke. Lisa Jardine of Queen Mary, University of London, has written:
Wreathed in billowing smoke, amidst the chaos and destruction of war, the pale dome stands proud and glorious—indomitable. At the height of that air-raid, Sir Winston Churchill telephoned the Guildhall to insist that all fire-fighting resources be directed at St Paul's. The cathedral must be saved, he said, damage to the fabric would sap the morale of the country.
Post-war
On 29 July 1981, the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer was held at the cathedral. The couple selected St Paul's over Westminster Abbey, the traditional site of royal weddings, because the cathedral offered more seating.
Extensive copper, lead and slate renovation work was carried out on the Dome in 1996 by John B. Chambers. A 15-year restoration project—one of the largest ever undertaken in the UK—was completed on 15 June 2011.
Occupy London
In October 2011 an anti-capitalism Occupy London encampment was established in front of the cathedral, after failing to gain access to the London Stock Exchange at Paternoster Square nearby. The cathedral's finances were affected by the ensuing closure. It was claimed that the cathedral was losing revenue of £20,000 per day. Canon Chancellor Giles Fraser resigned, asserting his view that "evicting the anti-capitalist activists would constitute violence in the name of the Church". The Dean of St Paul's, the Right Revd Graeme Knowles, then resigned too. The encampment was evicted at the end of February 2012, by court order and without violence, as a result of legal action by the City of London Corporation.
2019 terrorist plot
On 10 October 2019, Safiyya Amira Shaikh, a Muslim convert, was arrested following an MI5 and Metropolitan Police investigation. In September 2019, she had taken photos of the cathedral's interior. While trying to radicalise others using the Telegram messaging software, she planned to attack the cathedral and other targets such as a hotel and a train station using explosives. Shaikh pleaded guilty and was sentenced to life imprisonment.
National events
The size and location of St Paul's has made it an ideal setting for Christian services marking great national events. The opportunity for long processions culminating in the dramatic approach up Ludgate Hill, the open area and steps at the west front, the great nave and the space under the dome are all well suited for ceremonial occasions. St Paul's can seat many more people than any other church in London, and in past centuries, the erection of temporary wooden galleries inside allowed for congregations exceeding 10,000. In 1935, the dean, Walter Matthews, wrote:
No description in words can convey an adequate idea of the majestic beauty of a solemn national religious ceremony in St Paul's. It is hard to believe that there is any other building in the world that is so well adapted to be the setting of such symbolical acts of communal worship.
National events attended by the royal family, government ministers and officers of state include national services of thanksgiving, state funerals and a royal wedding. Some of the most notable examples are:
Thanksgiving service for the Acts of Union 1707, 1 May 1707
State funeral of Horatio Nelson, 9 January 1806
State funeral of the Duke of Wellington, 18 November 1852
Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, 22 June 1897
Thanksgiving service for the Treaty of Versailles, 6 July 1919
Silver Jubilee of George V, 6 May 1935
Thanksgiving services for VE Day and VJ Day, 13 May and 19 August 1945
Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II, 7 June 1977
Wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer, 29 July 1981
Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II, 4 June 2002
Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II, 5 June 2012
Ceremonial funeral of Margaret Thatcher, 17 April 2013
Thanksgiving service for the Queen's 90th Birthday, 10 June 2016
Platinum Jubilee National Service of Thanksgiving, 3 June 2022
Ministry and functions
St Paul's Cathedral is a busy church with four or five services every day, including Matins, Eucharist and Evening Prayer or Choral Evensong. In addition, the cathedral has many special services associated with the City of London, its corporation, guilds and institutions. The cathedral, as the largest church in London, also has a role in many state functions such as the service celebrating the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. The cathedral is generally open daily to tourists and has a regular programme of organ recitals and other performances. The Bishop of London is Sarah Mullally, whose appointment was announced in December 2017 and whose enthronement took place in May 2018.
Dean and chapter
The cathedral chapter is currently composed of seven individuals: the dean, three residentiary canons (one of whom is, exceptionally, lay), one "additional member of chapter and canon non-residentiary" (ordained), and two lay canons. Each has a different responsibility in the running of the cathedral. As of October 2022:
Dean — Andrew Tremlett (since 25 September 2022)
Precentor — James Milne (since 9 May 2019)
Treasurer — vacant
Chancellor — Paula Gooder (since 9 May 2019; lay reader since 23 February 2019)
Steward — Neil Evans (since June 2022)
Additional member of chapter and canon non-residentiary — Sheila Watson (since January 2017).
Lay Canon — Pamela (Pim) Jane Baxter (since March 2014). Deputy Director at the National Portrait Gallery, with experience in opera, theatre and the visual arts.
Lay Canon — Sheila Nicoll (since October 2018). She is Head of Public Policy at Schroder Investment Management.
Lay Canon — Clement Hutton-Mills (since March 2021). He is also a Managing Director at Goldman Sachs.
Lay Canon — Gillian Bowen (since June 2022). She is Chief Executive Officer of YMCA London City and North and is a magistrate.
Director of Music
The Director of Music is Andrew Carwood. Carwood was appointed to succeed Malcolm Archer as Director of Music, taking up the post in September 2007. He is the first non-organist to hold the post since the 12th century.
Paul's Cathedral
Organs
An organ was commissioned from Bernard Smith in 1694.
In 1862 the organ from the Panopticon of Science and Art (the Panopticon Organ) was installed in a gallery over the south transept door.
The Grand Organ was completed in 1872, and the Panopticon Organ moved to the Victoria Rooms in Clifton in 1873.
The Grand Organ is the fifth-largest in Great Britain, in terms of number of pipes (7,256), with 5 manuals, 136 ranks of pipes and 137 stops, principally enclosed in an impressive case designed in Wren's workshop and decorated by Grinling Gibbons.
Details of the organ can be found online at the National Pipe Organ Register.
Choir
St Paul's Cathedral has a full professional choir, which sings regularly at services. The earliest records of the choir date from 1127. The present choir consists of up to 30 boy choristers, eight probationers and the vicars choral, 12 professional singers. In February 2017 the cathedral announced the appointment of the first female vicar choral, Carris Jones (a mezzo-soprano), to take up the role in September 2017. In 2022, it was announced that girls would be admitted to a cathedral choir in 2025.
During school terms the choir sings Evensong six times per week, the service on Mondays being sung by a visiting choir (or occasionally said) and that on Thursdays being sung by the vicars choral alone. On Sundays the choir also sings at Mattins and the 11:30 am Eucharist.
Many distinguished musicians have been organists, choir masters and choristers at St Paul's Cathedral, including the composers John Redford, Thomas Morley, John Blow, Jeremiah Clarke, Maurice Greene and John Stainer, while well-known performers have included Alfred Deller, John Shirley-Quirk and Anthony Way as well as the conductors Charles Groves and Paul Hillier and the poet Walter de la Mare.
Wren's cathedral
In designing St Paul's, Christopher Wren had to meet many challenges. He had to create a fitting cathedral to replace Old St Paul's, as a place of worship and as a landmark within the City of London. He had to satisfy the requirements of the church and the tastes of a royal patron, as well as respecting the essentially medieval tradition of English church building which developed to accommodate the liturgy. Wren was familiar with contemporary Renaissance and Baroque trends in Italian architecture and had visited France, where he studied the work of François Mansart.
Wren's design developed through five general stages. The first survives only as a single drawing and part of a model. The scheme (usually called the First Model Design) appears to have consisted of a circular domed vestibule (possibly based on the Pantheon in Rome) and a rectangular church of basilica form. The plan may have been influenced by the Temple Church. It was rejected because it was not thought "stately enough". Wren's second design was a Greek cross, which was thought by the clerics not to fulfil the requirements of Anglican liturgy.
Wren's third design is embodied in the "Great Model" of 1673. The model, made of oak and plaster, cost over £500 (approximately £32,000 today) and is over 13 feet (4 m) tall and 21 feet (6 m) long. This design retained the form of the Greek-Cross design but extended it with a nave. His critics, members of a committee commissioned to rebuild the church, and clergy decried the design as too dissimilar to other English churches to suggest any continuity within the Church of England. Another problem was that the entire design would have to be completed all at once because of the eight central piers that supported the dome, instead of being completed in stages and opened for use before construction finished, as was customary. The Great Model was Wren's favourite design; he thought it a reflection of Renaissance beauty. After the Great Model, Wren resolved not to make further models and not to expose his drawings publicly, which he found did nothing but "lose time, and subject [his] business many times, to incompetent judges". The Great Model survives and is housed within the cathedral itself.
Wren's fourth design is known as the Warrant design because it received a Royal warrant for the rebuilding. In this design Wren sought to reconcile Gothic, the predominant style of English churches, to a "better manner of architecture". It has the longitudinal Latin Cross plan of a medieval cathedral. It is of 1+1⁄2 storeys and has classical porticos at the west and transept ends, influenced by Inigo Jones's addition to Old St Paul's. It is roofed at the crossing by a wide shallow dome supporting a drum with a second cupola, from which rises a spire of seven diminishing stages. Vaughan Hart has suggested that influence in the design of the spire may have been drawn from the oriental pagoda. Not used at St Paul's, the concept was applied in the spire of St Bride's, Fleet Street. This plan was rotated slightly on its site so that it aligned, not with true east, but with sunrise on Easter of the year construction began. This small change in configuration was informed by Wren's knowledge of astronomy.
Final design
The final design as built differs substantially from the official Warrant design. Wren received permission from the king to make "ornamental changes" to the submitted design, and Wren took great advantage of this. Many of these changes were made over the course of the thirty years as the church was constructed, and the most significant was to the dome: "He raised another structure over the first cupola, a cone of brick, so as to support a stone lantern of an elegant figure ... And he covered and hid out of sight the brick cone with another cupola of timber and lead; and between this and the cone are easy stairs that ascend to the lantern" (Christopher Wren, son of Sir Christopher Wren). The final design was strongly rooted in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The saucer domes over the nave were inspired by François Mansart's Church of the Val-de-Grâce, which Wren had seen during a trip to Paris in 1665.
The date of the laying of the first stone of the cathedral is disputed. One contemporary account says it was 21 June 1675, another 25 June and a third on 28 June. There is, however, general agreement that it was laid in June 1675. Edward Strong later claimed it was laid by his elder brother, Thomas Strong, one of the two master stonemasons appointed by Wren at the beginning of the work.
Structural engineering
Wren's challenge was to construct a large cathedral on the relatively weak clay soil of London. St Paul's is unusual among cathedrals in that there is a crypt, the largest in Europe, under the entire building rather than just under the eastern end. The crypt serves a structural purpose. Although it is extensive, half the space of the crypt is taken up by massive piers which spread the weight of the much slimmer piers of the church above. While the towers and domes of most cathedrals are supported on four piers, Wren designed the dome of St Paul's to be supported on eight, achieving a broader distribution of weight at the level of the foundations. The foundations settled as the building progressed, and Wren made structural changes in response.
One of the design problems that confronted Wren was to create a landmark dome, tall enough to visually replace the lost tower of St Paul's, while at the same time appearing visually satisfying when viewed from inside the building. Wren planned a double-shelled dome, as at St Peter's Basilica. His solution to the visual problem was to separate the heights of the inner and outer dome to a much greater extent than had been done by Michelangelo at St Peter's, drafting both as catenary curves, rather than as hemispheres. Between the inner and outer domes, Wren inserted a brick cone which supports both the timbers of the outer, lead-covered dome and the weight of the ornate stone lantern that rises above it. Both the cone and the inner dome are 18 inches thick and are supported by wrought iron chains at intervals in the brick cone and around the cornice of the peristyle of the inner dome to prevent spreading and cracking.
The Warrant Design showed external buttresses on the ground floor level. These were not a classical feature and were one of the first elements Wren changed. Instead he made the walls of the cathedral particularly thick to avoid the need for external buttresses altogether. The clerestory and vault are reinforced with flying buttresses, which were added at a relatively late stage in the design to give extra strength. These are concealed behind the screen wall of the upper story, which was added to keep the building's classical style intact, to add sufficient visual mass to balance the appearance of the dome and which, by its weight, counters the thrust of the buttresses on the lower walls.
Designers, builders and craftsmen
During the extensive period of design and rationalisation, Wren employed from 1684 Nicholas Hawksmoor as his principal assistant. Between 1696 and 1711 William Dickinson was measuring clerk. Joshua Marshall (until his early death in 1678) and Thomas and his brother Edward Strong were master masons, the latter two working on the construction for its entirety. John Langland was the master carpenter for over thirty years. Grinling Gibbons was the chief sculptor, working in both stone on the building itself, including the pediment of the north portal, and wood on the internal fittings. The sculptor Caius Gabriel Cibber created the pediment of the south transept while Francis Bird was responsible for the relief in the west pediment depicting the Conversion of St Paul, as well as the seven large statues on the west front. The floor was paved by William Dickinson in black and white marble in 1709–10 Jean Tijou was responsible for the decorative wrought ironwork of gates and balustrades. The ball and cross on the dome were provided by an armorer, Andrew Niblett. Following the war damage mentioned above, many craftsmen were employed to restore the wood carvings and stone work that had been destroyed by the bomb impact. One of particular note is Master Carver, Gino Masero who was commissioned to carve the replacement figure of Christ, an eight-foot sculpture in lime which currently stands on the High Altar.
Description
St Paul's Cathedral is built in a restrained Baroque style which represents Wren's rationalisation of the traditions of English medieval cathedrals with the inspiration of Palladio, the classical style of Inigo Jones, the baroque style of 17th century Rome, and the buildings by Mansart and others that he had seen in France. It is particularly in its plan that St Paul's reveals medieval influences. Like the great medieval cathedrals of York and Winchester, St Paul's is comparatively long for its width, and has strongly projecting transepts. It has much emphasis on its facade, which has been designed to define rather than conceal the form of the building behind it. In plan, the towers jut beyond the width of the aisles as they do at Wells Cathedral. Wren's uncle Matthew Wren was the Bishop of Ely, and, having worked for his uncle, Wren was familiar with the unique octagonal lantern tower over the crossing of Ely Cathedral, which spans the aisles as well as the central nave, unlike the central towers and domes of most churches. Wren adapted this characteristic in designing the dome of St Paul's.[91] In section St Paul's also maintains a medieval form, having the aisles much lower than the nave, and a defined clerestory.
Exterior
The most renowned exterior feature is the dome, which rises 365 feet (111 m) to the cross at its summit, and dominates views of the city. The height of 365 feet is explained by Wren's interest in astronomy. Until the late 20th century St Paul's was the tallest building on the City skyline, designed to be seen surrounded by the delicate spires of Wren's other city churches. The dome is described by Sir Banister Fletcher as "probably the finest in Europe", by Helen Gardner as "majestic", and by Sir Nikolaus Pevsner as "one of the most perfect in the world". Sir John Summerson said that Englishmen and "even some foreigners" consider it to be without equal.
Dome
Wren drew inspiration from Michelangelo's dome of St Peter's Basilica, and that of Mansart's Church of the Val-de-Grâce, which he had visited. Unlike those of St Peter's and Val-de-Grâce, the dome of St Paul's rises in two clearly defined storeys of masonry, which, together with a lower unadorned footing, equal a height of about 95 feet. From the time of the Greek Cross Design it is clear that Wren favoured a continuous colonnade (peristyle) around the drum of the dome, rather than the arrangement of alternating windows and projecting columns that Michelangelo had used and which had also been employed by Mansart. Summerson suggests that he was influenced by Bramante's "Tempietto" in the courtyard of San Pietro in Montorio. In the finished structure, Wren creates a diversity and appearance of strength by placing niches between the columns in every fourth opening. The peristyle serves to buttress both the inner dome and the brick cone which rises internally to support the lantern.
Above the peristyle rises the second stage surrounded by a balustraded balcony called the "Stone Gallery". This attic stage is ornamented with alternating pilasters and rectangular windows which are set just below the cornice, creating a sense of lightness. Above this attic rises the dome, covered with lead, and ribbed in accordance with the spacing of the pilasters. It is pierced by eight light wells just below the lantern, but these are barely visible. They allow light to penetrate through openings in the brick cone, which illuminates the interior apex of this shell, partly visible from within the cathedral through the ocular opening of the lower dome.
The lantern, like the visible masonry of the dome, rises in stages. The most unusual characteristic of this structure is that it is of square plan, rather than circular or octagonal. The tallest stage takes the form of a tempietto with four columned porticos facing the cardinal points. Its lowest level is surrounded by the "Golden Gallery" and its upper level supports a small dome from which rises a cross on a golden ball. The total weight of the lantern is about 850 tons.
West front
For the Renaissance architect designing the west front of a large church or cathedral, the universal problem was how to use a facade to unite the high central nave with the lower aisles in a visually harmonious whole. Since Alberti's additions to Santa Maria Novella in Florence, this was usually achieved by the simple expedient of linking the sides to the centre with large brackets. This is the solution that Wren saw employed by Mansart at Val-de-Grâce. Another feature employed by Mansart was a boldly projecting Classical portico with paired columns. Wren faced the additional challenge of incorporating towers into the design, as had been planned at St Peter's Basilica. At St Peter's, Carlo Maderno had solved this problem by constructing a narthex and stretching a huge screen facade across it, differentiated at the centre by a pediment. The towers at St Peter's were not built above the parapet.
Wren's solution was to employ a Classical portico, as at Val-de-Grâce, but rising through two storeys, and supported on paired columns. The remarkable feature here is that the lower story of this portico extends to the full width of the aisles, while the upper section defines the nave that lies behind it. The gaps between the upper stage of the portico and the towers on either side are bridged by a narrow section of wall with an arch-topped window.
The towers stand outside the width of the aisles, but screen two chapels located immediately behind them. The lower parts of the towers continue the theme of the outer walls, but are differentiated from them in order to create an appearance of strength. The windows of the lower story are smaller than those of the side walls and are deeply recessed, a visual indication of the thickness of the wall. The paired pilasters at each corner project boldly.
Above the main cornice, which unites the towers with the portico and the outer walls, the details are boldly scaled, in order to read well from the street below and from a distance. The towers rise above the cornice from a square block plinth which is plain apart from large oculi, that on the south being filled by the clock, while that on the north is void. The towers are composed of two complementary elements, a central cylinder rising through the tiers in a series of stacked drums, and paired Corinthian columns at the corners, with buttresses above them, which serve to unify the drum shape with the square plinth on which it stands. The entablature above the columns breaks forward over them to express both elements, tying them together in a single horizontal band. The cap, an ogee-shaped dome, supports a gilded finial in the form of a pineapple.
The transepts each have a semi-circular entrance portico. Wren was inspired in the design by studying engravings of Pietro da Cortona's Baroque facade of Santa Maria della Pace in Rome. These projecting arcs echo the shape of the apse at the eastern end of the building.
Walls
The building is of two storeys of ashlar masonry, above a basement, and surrounded by a balustrade above the upper cornice. The balustrade was added, against Wren's wishes, in 1718. The internal bays are marked externally by paired pilasters with Corinthian capitals at the lower level and Composite at the upper level. Where the building behind is of only one story (at the aisles of both nave and choir) the upper story of the exterior wall is sham. It serves a dual purpose of supporting the buttresses of the vault, and providing a satisfying appearance when viewed rising above buildings of the height of the 17th-century city. This appearance may still be seen from across the River Thames.
Between the pilasters on both levels are windows. Those of the lower storey have semi-circular heads and are surrounded by continuous mouldings of a Roman style, rising to decorative keystones. Beneath each window is a floral swag by Grinling Gibbons, constituting the finest stone carving on the building and some of the greatest architectural sculpture in England. A frieze with similar swags runs in a band below the cornice, tying the arches of the windows and the capitals. The upper windows are of a restrained Classical form, with pediments set on columns, but are blind and contain niches. Beneath these niches, and in the basement level, are small windows with segmental tops, the glazing of which catches the light and visually links them to the large windows of the aisles. The height from ground level to the top of the parapet is approximately 110 feet.
Fencing
The original fencing, designed by Wren, was dismantled in the 1870s. The surveyor for the government of Toronto had it shipped to Toronto, where it has since adorned High Park.
Interior
Internally, St Paul's has a nave and choir in each of its three bays. The entrance from the west portico is through a square domed narthex, flanked by chapels: the Chapel of St Dunstan to the north and the Chapel of the Order of St Michael and St George to the south. The nave is 91 feet (28 m) in height and is separated from the aisles by an arcade of piers with attached Corinthian pilasters rising to an entablature. The bays, and therefore the vault compartments, are rectangular, but Wren roofed these spaces with saucer-shaped domes and surrounded the clerestory windows with lunettes. The vaults of the choir are decorated with mosaics by Sir William Blake Richmond. The dome and the apse of the choir are all approached through wide arches with coffered vaults which contrast with the smooth surface of the domes and punctuate the division between the main spaces. The transepts extend to the north and south of the dome and are called (in this instance) the North Choir and the South Choir.
The choir holds the stalls for the clergy, cathedral officers and the choir, and the organ. These wooden fittings, including the pulpit and Bishop's throne, were designed in Wren's office and built by joiners. The carvings are the work of Grinling Gibbons whom Summerson describes as having "astonishing facility", suggesting that Gibbons aim was to reproduce popular Dutch flower painting in wood. Jean Tijou, a French metalworker, provided various wrought iron and gilt grilles, gates and balustrades of elaborate design, of which many pieces have now been combined into the gates near the sanctuary.
The cathedral is some 574 feet (175 m) in length (including the portico of the Great West Door), of which 223 feet (68 m) is the nave and 167 feet (51 m) is the choir. The width of the nave is 121 feet (37 m) and across the transepts is 246 feet (75 m). The cathedral is slightly shorter but somewhat wider than Old St Paul's.
Dome
The main internal space of the cathedral is that under the central dome which extends the full width of the nave and aisles. The dome is supported on pendentives rising between eight arches spanning the nave, choir, transepts, and aisles. The eight piers that carry them are not evenly spaced. Wren has maintained an appearance of eight equal spans by inserting segmental arches to carry galleries across the ends of the aisles, and has extended the mouldings of the upper arch to appear equal to the wider arches.
Above the keystones of the arches, at 99 feet (30 m) above the floor and 112 feet (34 m) wide, runs a cornice which supports the Whispering Gallery so called because of its acoustic properties: a whisper or low murmur against its wall at any point is audible to a listener with an ear held to the wall at any other point around the gallery. It is reached by 259 steps from ground level.
The dome is raised on a tall drum surrounded by pilasters and pierced with windows in groups of three, separated by eight gilded niches containing statues, and repeating the pattern of the peristyle on the exterior. The dome rises above a gilded cornice at 173 feet (53 m) to a height of 214 feet (65 m). Its painted decoration by Sir James Thornhill shows eight scenes from the life of St Paul set in illusionistic architecture which continues the forms of the eight niches of the drum. At the apex of the dome is an oculus inspired by that of the Pantheon in Rome. Through this hole can be seen the decorated inner surface of the cone which supports the lantern. This upper space is lit by the light wells in the outer dome and openings in the brick cone. Engravings of Thornhill's paintings were published in 1720.
Apse
The eastern apse extends the width of the choir and is the full height of the main arches across choir and nave. It is decorated with mosaics, in keeping with the choir vaults. The original reredos and high altar were destroyed by bombing in 1940. The present high altar and baldacchino are the work of W. Godfrey Allen and Stephen Dykes Bower. The apse was dedicated in 1958 as the American Memorial Chapel. It was paid for entirely by donations from British people. The Roll of Honour contains the names of more than 28,000 Americans who gave their lives while on their way to, or stationed in, the United Kingdom during the Second World War. It is in front of the chapel's altar. The three windows of the apse date from 1960 and depict themes of service and sacrifice, while the insignia around the edges represent the American states and the US armed forces. The limewood panelling incorporates a rocket—a tribute to America's achievements in space.
Artworks, tombs and memorials
St Paul's at the time of its completion, was adorned by sculpture in stone and wood, most notably that of Grinling Gibbons, by the paintings in the dome by Thornhill, and by Jean Tijou's elaborate metalwork. It has been further enhanced by Sir William Richmond's mosaics and the fittings by Dykes Bower and Godfrey Allen. Other artworks in the cathedral include, in the south aisle, William Holman Hunt's copy of his painting The Light of the World, the original of which hangs in Keble College, Oxford. The St. Paul's version was completed with a significant input from Edward Robert Hughes as Hunt was now suffering from glaucoma. In the north choir aisle is a limestone sculpture of the Madonna and Child by Henry Moore, carved in 1943. The crypt contains over 200 memorials and numerous burials. Christopher Wren was the first person to be interred, in 1723. On the wall above his tomb in the crypt is written in Latin: Lector, si monumentum requiris, circumspice ("Reader, if you seek his monument, look around you").
The largest monument in the cathedral is that to the Duke of Wellington by Alfred Stevens. It stands on the north side of the nave and has on top a statue of Wellington astride his horse "Copenhagen". Although the equestrian figure was planned at the outset, objections to the notion of having a horse in the church prevented its installation until 1912. The horse and rider are by John Tweed. The Duke is buried in the crypt. The tomb of Horatio, Lord Nelson is located in the crypt, next to that of Wellington. The marble sarcophagus which holds his remains was made for Cardinal Wolsey but not used as the cardinal had fallen from favour. At the eastern end of the crypt is the Chapel of the Order of the British Empire, instigated in 1917, and designed by John Seely, Lord Mottistone. There are many other memorials commemorating the British military, including several lists of servicemen who died in action, the most recent being the Gulf War.
Also remembered are Florence Nightingale, J. M. W. Turner, Arthur Sullivan, Hubert Parry, Samuel Johnson, Lawrence of Arabia, William Blake, William Jones and Sir Alexander Fleming as well as clergy and residents of the local parish. There are lists of the Bishops and cathedral Deans for the last thousand years. One of the most remarkable sculptures is that of the Dean and poet, John Donne. Before his death, Donne posed for his own memorial statue and was depicted by Nicholas Stone as wrapped in a burial shroud, and standing on a funeral urn. The sculpture, carved around 1630, is the only one to have survived the conflagration of 1666 intact. The treasury is also in the crypt but the cathedral has very few treasures as many have been lost, and on 22 December 1810 a major robbery took almost all of the remaining precious artefacts.
The funerals of many notable figures have been held in the cathedral, including those of Lord Nelson, the Duke of Wellington, Winston Churchill, George Mallory and Margaret Thatcher.
Clock and bells
A clock was installed in the south-west tower by Langley Bradley in 1709 but was worn out by the end of the 19th century. The present mechanism was built in 1893 by Smith of Derby incorporating a design of escapement by Edmund Denison Beckett similar to that used by Edward Dent on Big Ben's mechanism in 1895. The clock mechanism is 19 feet (5.8 m) long and is the most recent of the clocks introduced to St Paul's Cathedral over the centuries. Since 1969 the clock has been electrically wound with equipment designed and installed by Smith of Derby, relieving the clock custodian from the work of cranking up the heavy drive weights.
The south-west tower also contains four bells, of which Great Paul, cast in 1881 by J. W. Taylor of Taylor's bell foundry of Loughborough, at 16+1⁄2 long tons (16,800 kg) was the largest bell in the British Isles until the casting of the Olympic Bell for the 2012 London Olympics. Although the bell is traditionally sounded at 1 pm each day, Great Paul had not been rung for several years because of a broken chiming mechanism. In the 1970s the fastening mechanism that secured the clapper had fractured, sending both through the clock mechanism below and causing damage which cost £30,000 to repair. In about 1989 the clapper fractured completely, although less damage was sustained. On 31 July 2021, during the London Festival of the Bells, Great Paul rang for the first time in two decades, being hand swung by the bell ringers. The clock bells included Great Tom, which was moved from St Stephen's Chapel at the Palace of Westminster and has been recast several times, the last time by Richard Phelps. It chimes the hour and is traditionally tolled on occasions of a death in the royal family, the Bishop of London, or the Lord Mayor of London, although an exception was made at the death of the US president James Garfield. It was last tolled for the death of Queen Elizabeth II in 2022, ringing once every minute along with other bells across the country in honor of the 96 years of her life. In 1717, Richard Phelps cast two more bells that were added as "quarter jacks" that ring on the quarter hour. Still in use today, the first weighs 13 long cwt (1,500 lb; 660 kg), is 41 inches (100 cm) in diameter and is tuned to A♭; the second weighs 35 long cwt (3,900 lb; 1,800 kg), is 58 inches (150 cm) in diameter and is tuned to E♭.
The north-west tower contains a ring of 12 bells by John Taylor & Co of Loughborough hung for change ringing. In January 2018 the bells were removed for refurbishment and were rehung in September that year, being rung again for the first time on All Saints' Day. The original service or "Communion" bell dating from 1700 and known as "the Banger" is rung before 8 am services.
La découverte du buste sur la place de la gare de Lessines du sculpteur Brancusi guide mes pas.
La notion d'atelier ici « ouvert » est un laboratoire, un lieu de confrontation entre un ordre tracé par l'homme et le chaos. Entre discours et praxis, cet espace devient une expérience pour le regard sur la mise en relation entre les médiums.
Des agencements de matériaux hétérogènes (dé)construisent le temps donné de l'atelier.
Cet atelier parle du présent de Lessines, chaque élément de construction renvoie à un modèle utopique de la ville dans son rapport à l'histoire.
CAMPOS Brune
Rapid strata formation in soft sand (field evidence).
Photo of strata formation in soft sand on a beach, created by tidal action of the sea.
Formed in a single, high tidal event. Stunning evidence which displays multiple strata/layers.
Why this is so important ....
It has long been assumed, ever since the 17th century, that layers/strata observed in sedimentary rocks were built up gradually, layer upon layer, over many years. It certainly seemed logical at the time, from just looking at rocks, that lower layers would always be older than the layers above them, i.e. that lower layers were always laid down first followed, in time, by successive layers on top.
This was assumed to be true and became known as the superposition principle.
It was also assumed that a layer comprising a different material from a previous layer, represented a change in environmental conditions/factors.
These changes in composition of layers or strata were considered to represent different, geological eras on a global scale, spanning millions of years. This formed the basis for the Geologic Column, which is used to date rocks and also fossils. The evolutionary, 'fossil record' was based on the vast ages and assumed geological eras of the Geologic Column.
There was also circular reasoning applied with the assumed age of 'index' fossils (based on evolutionary beliefs & preconceptions) used to date strata in the Geologic Column. Dating strata from the assumed age of (index) fossils is known as Biostratigraphy.
We now know that, although these assumptions seemed logical, they are not supported by the evidence.
At the time, the mechanics of stratification were not properly known or studied.
An additional factor was that this assumed superposition and uniformitarian model became essential, with the wide acceptance of Darwinism, for the long ages required for progressive microbes-to-human evolution. There was no incentive to question or challenge the superposition, uniformitarian model, because the presumed, fossil 'record' had become dependant on it, and any change in the accepted model would present devastating implications for Darwinism.
This had the unfortunate effect of linking the study of geology so closely to Darwinism, that any study independent of Darwinian considerations was effectively stymied. This link of geology with Darwinian preconceptions is known as biostratigraphy.
Some other field evidence, in various situations, can be observed here: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
and also in the links to stunning, experimental evidence, carried out by sedimentologists, given later.
_______________________________________________
GEOLOGIC PRINCIPLES (established by Nicholas Steno in the 17th Century):
What Nicolas Steno believed about strata formation is the basis of the principle of Superposition and the principle of Original Horizontality.
dictionary.sensagent.com/Law_of_superposition/en-en/
“Assuming that all rocks and minerals had once been fluid, Nicolas Steno reasoned that rock strata were formed when particles in a fluid such as water fell to the bottom. This process would leave horizontal layers. Thus Steno's principle of original horizontality states that rock layers form in the horizontal position, and any deviations from this horizontal position are due to the rocks being disturbed later.”)
BEDDING PLANES.
'Bedding plane' describes the surface in between each stratum which are formed during sediment deposition.
science.jrank.org/pages/6533/Strata.html
“Strata form during sediment deposition, that is, the laying down of sediment. Meanwhile, if a change in current speed or sediment grain size occurs or perhaps the sediment supply is cut off, a bedding plane forms. Bedding planes are surfaces that separate one stratum from another. Bedding planes can also form when the upper part of a sediment layer is eroded away before the next episode of deposition. Strata separated by a bedding plane may have different grain sizes, grain compositions, or colours. Sometimes these other traits are better indicators of stratification as bedding planes may be very subtle.”
______________________________________________
Several catastrophic events, flash floods, volcanic eruptions etc. have forced Darwinian, influenced geologists to admit to rapid stratification in some instances. However they claim it is a rare phenomenon, which they have known about for many years, and which does nothing to invalidate the Geologic Column, the fossil record, evolutionary timescale, or any of the old assumptions regarding strata formation, sedimentation and the superposition principle. They fail to face up to the fact that rapid stratification is not an extraordinary phenonemon, but rather the prevailing and normal mechanism of sedimentary deposition whenever and wherever there is moving, sediment-laden water. The experimental evidence demonstrates the mechanism and a mass of field evidence in normal (non-catastrophic) conditions shows it is a normal everyday occurrence.
It is clear from the experimental evidence that the usual process of stratification is - that strata are not formed by horizontal layers being laid on top of each other in succession, as was assumed. But by sediment being sorted in the flowing water and laid down diagonally in the direction of flow. See diagram:
www.flickr.com/photos/truth-in-science/39821536092/in/dat...
The field evidence (in the image) presented here - of rapid, simultaneous stratification refutes the Superposition Principle and the Principle of Lateral Continuity.
We now know, the Superposition Principle only applies on a rare occasion where sedimentary deposits are laid down in still water.
Superposition is required for the long evolutionary timescale, but the evidence shows it is not the general rule, as was once believed. Most sediment is laid down in moving water, where particle segregation is the general rule, resulting in the simultaneous deposition of strata/layers as shown in the photo.
See many other examples of rapid stratification (with geological features): www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
Rapid, simultaneous formation of layers/strata, through particle segregation in moving water, is so easily created it has even been described by sedimentologists (working on flume experiments) as a law ...
"Upon filling the tank with water and pouring in sediments, we immediately saw what was to become the rule: The sediments sorted themselves out in very clear layers. This became so common that by the end of two weeks, we jokingly referred to Andrew's law as "It's difficult not to make layers," and Clark's law as "It's easy to make layers." Later on, I proposed the "law" that liquefaction destroys layers, as much to my surprise as that was." Ian Juby, www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/
The example in the photo is the result of normal, everyday tidal action in a single incident. Where the water current or movement is more turbulent, violent, or catastrophic, great depths (many metres) of stratified sediment can be laid down in a short time. Certainly not the many millions of years assumed by evolutionists.
The composition of strata formed in any deposition event. is related to whatever materials are in the sediment mix, not to any particular timescale. Whatever is in the mix will be automatically sorted into strata/layers. It could be sand, or other material added from mud slides, erosion of chalk deposits, coastal erosion, volcanic ash etc. Any organic material (potential fossils), alive or dead, engulfed by, or swept into, a turbulent sediment mix, will also be sorted and buried within the rapidly, forming layers.
See many other examples of rapid stratification with geological features: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
Stratified, soft sand deposit. demonstrates the rapid, stratification principle.
Important, field evidence which supports the work of the eminent, sedimentologist Dr Guy Berthault MIAS - Member of the International Association of Sedimentologists.
(Dr Berthault's experiments (www.sedimentology.fr/)
And also the experimental work of Dr M.E. Clark (Professor Emeritus, U of Illinois @ Urbana), Andrew Rodenbeck and Dr. Henry Voss, (www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/)
Location: Sandown, Isle of Wight. Formed 16/01/2018 This field evidence demonstrates that multiple strata in sedimentary deposits do not need millions of years to form and can be formed rapidly. This natural example confirms the principle demonstrated by the sedimentation experiments carried out by Dr Guy Berthault and other sedimentologists. It calls into question the standard, multi-million year dating of sedimentary rocks, and the dating of fossils by depth of burial or position in the strata.
Mulltiple strata/layers are evident in this example.
Dr Berthault's experiments (www.sedimentology.fr/) and other experiments (www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/) and field studies of floods and volcanic action show that, rather than being formed by gradual, slow deposition of sucessive layers superimposed upon previous layers, with the strata or layers representing a particular timescale, particle segregation in moving water or airborne particles can form strata or layers very quickly, frequently, in a single event.
And, most importantly, lower strata are not older than upper strata, they are the same age, having been created in the same sedimentary episode.
Such field studies confirm experiments which have shown that there is no longer any reason to conclude that strata/layers in sedimentary rocks relate to different geological eras and/or a multi-million year timescale. www.youtube.com/watch?v=5PVnBaqqQw8&feature=share&.... they also show that the relative position of fossils in rocks is not indicative of an order of evolutionary succession. Obviously, the uniformitarian principle, on which the geologic column is based, can no longer be considered valid. And the multi-million, year dating of sedimentary rocks and fossils needs to be reassessed. Rapid deposition of stratified sediments also explains the enigma of polystrate fossils, i.e. large fossils that intersect several strata. In some cases, tree trunk fossils are found which intersect the strata of sedimentary rock up to forty feet in depth. upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lycopsi... They must have been buried in stratified sediment in a short time (certainly not millions, thousands, or even hundreds of years), or they would have rotted away. youtu.be/vnzHU9VsliQ
In fact, the vast majority of fossils are found in good, intact condition, which is testament to their rapid burial. You don't get good fossils from gradual burial, because they would be damaged or destroyed by decay, predation or erosion. The existence of so many fossils in sedimentary rock on a global scale is stunning evidence for the rapid depostion of sedimentary rock as the general rule. It is obvious that all rock containing good intact fossils was formed from sediment laid down in a very short time, not millions, or even thousands of years.
See set of photos of other examples of rapid stratification: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
Carbon dating of coal should not be possible if it is millions of years old, yet significant amounts of Carbon 14 have been detected in coal and other fossil material, which indicates that it is less than 50,000 years old. www.ldolphin.org/sewell/c14dating.html
www.grisda.org/origins/51006.htm
Evolutionists confidently cite multi-million year ages for rocks and fossils, but what most people don't realise is that no one actually knows the age of sedimentary rocks or the fossils found within them. So how are evolutionists so sure of the ages they so confidently quote? The astonishing thing is they aren't. Sedimentary rocks cannot be dated by radiometric methods*, and fossils can only be dated to less than 50,000 years with Carbon 14 dating. The method evolutionists use is based entirely on assumptions. Unbelievably, fossils are dated by the assumed age of rocks, and rocks are dated by the assumed age of fossils, that's right ... it is known as circular reasoning.
* Regarding the radiometric dating of igneous rocks, which is claimed to be relevant to the dating of sedimentary rocks, in an occasional instance there is an igneous intrusion associated with a sedimentary deposit -
Prof. Aubouin says in his Précis de Géologie: "Each radioactive element disintegrates in a characteristic and constant manner, which depends neither on the physical state (no variation with pressure or temperature or any other external constraint) nor on the chemical state (identical for an oxide or a phosphate)."
"Rocks form when magma crystallizes. Crystallisation depends on pressure and temperature, from which radioactivity is independent. So, there is no relationship between radioactivity and crystallisation.
Consequently, radioactivity doesn't date the formation of rocks. Moreover, daughter elements contained in rocks result mainly from radioactivity in magma where gravity separates the heavier parent element, from the lighter daughter element. Thus radiometric dating has no chronological signification." Dr. Guy Berthault www.sciencevsevolution.org/Berthault.htm
Visit the fossil museum:
www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157641367196613/
Just how good are peer reviews of scientific papers?
www.sciencemag.org/content/342/6154/60.full
www.examiner.com/article/want-to-publish-science-paper-ju...
The neo-Darwinian idea that the human genome consists entirely of an accumulation of billions of mutations is, quite obviously, completely bonkers. Nevertheless, it is compulsorily taught in schools and universities as 'science'.
Materials & Tools:
* Tilda with Strawberries 963
* Strawberry Ice cream 123
* "Basic Grey" Lily Kate
* "Bazzill" cardstock
* "Faber Castell" - watercolor pencils
* Sewing machine
Black light Photography: Beo Beyond - www.beobeyond.com
Lighting: UV / Blacklight
This photo belongs to a series containing nearly abstract motives.
They are very dynamic and contrast compositions of colors, forms and light.
UV materials produced by Rolf Bender, www.depro.com.
file name: stiftablage.jpg
Avenue Six Trinidad Executive Office Chair with Espresso PVC Material - www.vistastores.com/office-chairs
All My Memories Tote-ally Cool Mini is a *MUST HAVE* item!
These totes are fantastic for storing and transporting all of your most useful art materials.
It's great for: scrapbooking supplies, crafting, knitting, makeup, painting, sewing, office supplies or just about anything :)
You won't belive how much items you can store in this tote!
I have the MINI mini size and it's so great for my desk at my studio.
I'm going to store there all my polymer clay tools - knives, sculpture tools, Stippling Tools, Slicers, Etch 'n Pearl, cutters, etc...
Todos los derechos reservados ©2010
Abstengase de utilizar este material sin previo consentimiento del autor.
Silvia está situada en el nororiente del Departamento del Cauca, al suroccidente de Colombia, entre los 2º47’37’’ y 2º31’24’’ de latitud norte y entre los 76º10’40’’ y 76º31’05” de longitud al occidente del meridiano de Greenwich, sobre el flanco occidental de la cordillera central. La cabecera municipal está ubicada entre el río Piendamó y la quebrada Manchay sobre los 02º36’50’’ norte y 76º22’58’’ al oeste, a 2.600 metros de altitud. Dista de Popayán 59 Km. Su área es de 662,4 Km2, según el Instituto Geográfico Agustín Codazzi (IGAC) y de 656,7 Km2 según el sistema de Información utilizado para la elaboración del Plan Básico de Ordenamiento Territorial, PBOT .
El rango altitudinal del Municipio varía entre 1.800 y 3.800 m.s.n.m, desde el río Ovejas en el límite con Caldono, hasta la cima del cerro Porayatún ubicado entre los Resguardos de Pitayó y Guambía.
Silvia limita por el norte con los Municipios de Caldono y Jambaló por el oriente con Páez e Inzá por el sur con Totoró, por el suroeste con Cajibío y por el occidente con Piendamó.
0610 Catedral Metropolitana de la Ciudad de México
La Catedral Metropolitana de la Ciudad de México es el gran templo católico ubicado en la Plaza de la Constitución, en el centro histórico de la Ciudad de México. Las medidas aproximadas de este templo son 59 metros de ancho por 110 de largo y una altura de 60 metros hasta la cúpula. Es también una de las principales obras del arte mexicano, y se considera entre las más sobresalientes de todo el arte hispanoamericano. Construida con cantera gris, cuenta con cinco naves y 16 capillas laterales. Está dedicada a la Asunción de la Virgen María y es la iglesia principal de la Arquidiócesis Primada de México.
Historia de una construcción [editar]
En el tiempo de la ciudad de Tenochtitlán el área en donde se encuentra la actual catedral estuvo ocupada por un pequeño templo dedicado a Xipe[1] o quizá por el templo de Quetzalcóatl, un templo dedicado al sol y otras edificaciones menores.[2]
Tres años después de concluida la conquista, Hernán Cortés mandó construir una iglesia en el lugar aprovechando material de los templos aztecas. Esta iglesia fue convertida en catedral por Carlos V y el papa Clemente VII según la bula del 9 de septiembre de 1530 y nombrada metropolitana por Paulo III en 1547.[3] Pronto quedó clara su insuficiencia y por mandato de Felipe II se derribó en 1552. Los trabajos de construcción de la nueva no comenzaron sino hasta 1571 cuando el virrey Martín Enríquez de Almansa y el arzobispo Pedro Moya de Contreras colocaron la primera piedra de su sucesora, la actual catedral...
La suma del costo de la obra hasta la dedicación de 1657 fue de 1.759.000 pesos. Dicho costo fue cubierto en buena parte por los reyes Felipe II, Felipe III, Felipe IV y Carlos II.[3]
Luego, hubo un concurso para designar al arquitecto que terminaría la fachada. El proyecto ganador de dicho concurso fue el neoclásico presentado por el veracruzano José Damián Ortiz de Castro, que se antepuso a los de José Joaquín de Torres (barroco) e Isidro Vicente de Balbás. Ortiz de Castro procedería a terminar las torres, parte de la cúpula y obras al interior. La muerte de Ortiz de Castro dejaría las obras en suspenso un breve tiempo. En 1793 el arquitecto valenciano Manuel Tolsá recibe el encargo de finalizar las obras de construcción de la Catedral, que no concluyen sino hasta 1813.[4]
Sucesos de la Catedral [editar]
A lo largo del tiempo la catedral ha perdido parte de su acervo artístico. Se tiene constancia de algunas de las obras perdidas: lámparas de plata de gran tamaño, candelabros, blandones y figuras del mismo metal, la custodia de Borda (88 marcos de peso en oro; con 10 perlas, cubierta al frente por 5872 diamantes y al dorso por 2653 esmeraldas, 544 rubíes y 28 zafiros), un pectoral de oro con reliquias, otro con topacios y brillantes y con anillos de accesorio, alfombras, cojines, colgaduras y muchos tesoros más de características similares.[5]
El edificio [editar]
La fachada [editar]
Fe, Esperanza y Caridad. Esculturas de Tolsá
Fe, Esperanza y Caridad. Esculturas de Tolsá
La fachada se observan tres relieves en mármol blanco. El central representa la Asunción de la Virgen María. El que se tiene del lado izquierdo muestra la entrega de las llaves del Cielo a San Pedro; el que se tiene a mano derecha, la Barca de la Iglesia. Sobre el reloj se encuentran tres figuras representativas de las virtudes teologales: la Fe, la Esperanza y la Caridad. La Fe sostiene una cruz, la Esperanza un ancla y la Caridad sujeta a dos niños. El reloj y las esculturas se deben a Tolsá, así como las balaustradas y florones que coronan todo el conjunto.
El altar del Perdón [editar]
Altar del Perdón
Altar del Perdón
El retablo es obra de Jerónimo de Balbás (1735). A principios de 1967 hubo un incendio en la catedral que dañó el altar. Gracias a la restauración practicada se puede admirar el día de hoy una gran obra de arte colonial. Se llama así porque ahí piden perdón los fieles.Esta es una de las obras más grandes del autor tiene un estilo churrigueresco el cual es muy detallado, todo el acabado de esta obra esta cubierto con hoja de oro.
El coro [editar]
La sillería del coro está fabricada en una excelente talla de tapincerán. Tiene dos niveles de sitiales: el alto para canónigos y el bajo para seíses y sochantres. En la parte superior, tiene figuras talladas en medio relieve, de obispos y santos.
La sillería del coro es fruto del arte de Juan de Rojas (1695). También fue dañada en el incendio de 1967.
Al centro del coro, entre la la reja y la sillería, está un fascistol de caoba, adornado con figuras de marfil, una de las cuales, es un crucifijo que corona toda la obra. Se usa para sostener los libros de canto, y está conformado por tres cuerpos.
La portada del coro y la crujía (el corredor cerrado que va desde es coro hasta presbiterio) fueron hechas con el diseño del pintor Nicolás Rodríguez Juárez bajo la supervisión del sangley Quiauló. La bella reja del coro es de tumbaga y calain, y fueron estrenadas en 1730. Se fabricó en la ciudad de Macao, China,[4] y sustituyó a una anterior esculpida en maderas.
Cúpula [editar]
Se terminó con adaptaciones al proyecto de Ortiz de Castro. En el interior también se representó la Asunción de la Virgen (Rafael Ximeno y Planes, 1810). La cúpula que existe hoy en día, es obra de Manuel Tolsá, y de tambor octogonal, levantada al centro del crucero, sobre cuatro columnas y rematada por una linternilla. Las actuales ventanas son de Matias Goeritz. En el incendio de 1967, ocasionado por un corto circuito en el Altar del Perdón la pintura de la Asunción se consumió.
Las capillas [editar]
Nave central de la Catedral Metropolitana, con vista del Altar de los Reyes al fondo.
Nave central de la Catedral Metropolitana, con vista del Altar de los Reyes al fondo.
Altar de los Reyes [editar]
Artículo principal: Altar de los Reyes
El Altar de los Reyes, se encuentra en el ábside del templo, detrás del Altar Mayor. Es obra del insigne Jerónimo de Balbás, autor del Altar del Perdón de esta misma catedral, y del Altar Mayor de la Catedral de Sevilla, entre otras.
Este bello altar, que se puede considerar un monumento dentro de otro monumento, es la obra cumbre del estilo churrigueresco mexicano o barroco estípite, y se considera la obra maestra de su destacado autor. Mide 25 metros de altura, 13 de ancho, y 7 metros de fondo; se eleva al fondo de Catedral ocupando el ábside.
Es una talla formada por tres calles verticales, dos laterales y una al centro, adornada con los cuadros La Asunción de la Vírgen, y La Adoración de los Reyes, del pintor Juan Rodríguez Juárez. Éste último, es el que da nombre al altar, además de una serie de esculturas de bulto de reyes y reinas canonizados (santificados), que posan a lo largo y ancho del altar.
Fue realizado en maderas preciosas policromados, en una exuberante composición de pilastras y columnas, follaje, guirnaldas y querubines. El conjunto está estofado, revestido con hoja o lámina de oro, lo cual le confiere majestuosidad a la obra. Está cerrado por una doble bóveda, y en lo más alto del conjunto, se haya una representación de Dios Padre, presidiendo el magno conjunto.
Las capillas laterales [editar]
Capilla de Nuestra Señora de las Angustias de Granada [editar]
Capilla de San Isidro [editar]
Capilla de la Inmaculada Concepción [editar]
Capilla de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe [editar]
Capilla de Nuestra Señora La Antigua [editar]
Está consagrada a la advocación mariana del mismo nombre, y en el retablo principal, neoclásico, obra de Juan de Rojas (1718), hay una copia de la imagen de la Virgen de la Antigua cuyo original se encuentra en la Catedral de Sevilla. Esta imagen de influencia bizantina era muy venerada por la población española de la ciudad de México durante el período colonial.
Bajo la imagen de la virgen hay una magnífica escultura sevillana del Niño Jesús, original de la primera mitad del siglo XVII y atribuida a Juan Martínez Montañés. Es conocida popularmente como El niño cautivo, debido a que permaneció en Argel junto a Francisco Sandoval de Zapata, racionero de la catedral, quien fue hecho prisionero por piratas del norte de África en 1622, cuando llevaba la escultura hacia México.
Capilla de San Pedro [editar]
La capilla de San Pedro custodia otros dos retablos. El primero y principal está dedicado a honrar la vida del santo apóstol y fue edificado hacia 1670. En él se observan ya los lineamientos del barroco temprano en los que aún se observan elementos manieristas como los relieves de lacería, las ménsulas y los pinjantes. El retablo está formado por tres cuerpos, el último de los cuales se integra al espacio arquitectónico dejando al centro el vano de la ventana. El retablo se merece una mención especial por su decoración general en la que sobresalen los variados motivos vegetales e inanimados propios del barroco. En cuanto a las pinturas de este retablo, no se ha podido saber a ciencia cierta quiénes fueron los autores, se trata de obras cuto tema es la vida de San Pedro, y en un pasaje se recuerda el martirio del apóstol que pidió ser crucificado de cabeza “por no ser digno de morir como su maestro”.
Capilla del Santo Cristo y de las Reliquias [editar]
Se contruyó entre 1610 y 1615 dedicada al Santo Cristo de los Conquistadores. También recibe el nombre de Capilla de reliquias por las reliquias insignes guardadas en los retablos barrocos. Según algunos historiadores la imagen de Cristo crucificado conocida como el "Santo Cristo de los Conquistadores" (S. XVI O XVII) fue un regalo de Carlos V, otros sostienen que se trata de una obra realizada en estas tierras, lo cierto es que ya en la primera catedral recibía gran veneración.
Las pinturas y esculturas escenifican momentos de la pasión de Cristo uniendo a este tema la pasión o tormento de los santos y santas màrtires. La escultura del "Santo Entierro" es utilizado todos los años en la procesión del Viernes Santo. El retablo de la derecha tiene al centro una Virgen de Guadalupe, de José de Ibarra, ante la que se juró a Santa María de Guadalupe como la Patrona General y Universal de todos los reinos de la Nueva España el 4 de diciembre de 1746, y que conserva una reliquia del ayate de Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin. Las reliquias de esta capilla se exponen anualmente el día de todos los santos y el día de los fieles difuntos (1 y 2 de noviembre). De acuerdo a la tradición, en esta capilla se custodian reliquias de, entre otros, San Vicente de Zaragoza, San Gelasio, San Vital de Milán y un pedazo de la Vera Cruz.
Capilla de San Felipe de Jesús [editar]
Aquí se encuentran los restos de Agustín de Iturbide. Asimismo, aquí se conserva el corazón de Anastasio Bustamante.
Capilla de Nuestra Señora de los Dolores [editar]
Capilla del Señor del Buen Despacho [editar]
Capilla de Nuestra Señora de la Soledad [editar]
La capilla dedicada a la Virgen de la Soledad fue abierta al culto en la segunda mitad del siglo XVII. Ella protege a los albañiles y obreros que participaron en la construcción de la catedral. El retablo principal está formado por dos cuerpos y un remate, en él se aprecian las columnas salomónicas de capitel corintio que separan las entrecalles. Es una virgen de la Soledad copia de una imagen española. El retablo puede ser ubicado en la década de 1670-1680 gracias a las pinturas con el tema de la Pasión de Cristo hechas por el pintor Pedro Ramírez.
Capilla de San José [editar]
Su retablo principal es barroco, procedente de la antigua Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de Montserrat y tiene en el centro la imagen de San José con el Niño, rodeado de santos, entre los que destaca Santa Brígida de Suecia. El retablo lateral es una composición de pinturas barrocas, que consiste en El triunfo de la Fe, La transfiguración, La circuncisión y La asunción.
Hay un antiguo Ecce homo sedente, llamado popularmente el Señor del cacao. Es una escultura mexicana de caña de maíz procedente de la primera catedral, y muy venerada por los indígenas durante la colonia, quienes a falta de monedas depositaban como ofrenda semillas de cacao, que en época prehispánica se consideraban valiosas piezas de cambio. En la actualidad es común que los niños depositen ofrendas en forma de caramelos.
Capilla de San Cosme y San Damián [editar]
Entre los retablos que decoran el interior de la Catedral Metropolitana, el principal está dedicado a honrar a los santos tutelares de la capilla, consta de dos cuerpos, el remate y tres entrecalles. Es uno de los retablos catedralicios del siglo XVII en los que se puede afirmar que tiene un acento manierista y como prueba de ellos están las columnas clasicistas estriadas. El retablo fue concebido para albergar pinturas, las cuales exaltan la vida de los santos médicos Cosme y Damián y se deben al pintor Sebastián López Dávalos. Este pintor también fue uno de los artistas que corroboraron el
Capilla de los Ángeles [editar]
Sirve de basamento a lo torre occidental, y fue concluida entre 1653 y 1660. Esta primera capilla fue destruida por un incendio en 1711, por lo que fue inmediatamente sustituida por la actual, finalizada en 1713. Cuenta con unos fastuosos retablos barrocos con esculturas estofadas y policromadas, obras de Manuel de Nava, que representan a los siete arcángeles.
Capilla de las Ánimas [editar]
La sacristía [editar]
En el interior de la sacristía se puede admirar enormes cuadros de los pintores novohispanos Cristóbal de Villalpando y Juan Correa. Los títulos de los cuadros son: El Triunfo De La Iglesia, La aparición de San Miguel (Villalpando), El Tránsito De La Virgen y La Entrada De Cristo A Jerusalén (Correa). Asimismo, hay una pintura atribuida al pintor español Bartolomé Esteban Murillo.
Las criptas [editar]
Cripta de los Arzobispos, con el monumento a Fray Juan de Zumárraga en primer plano. En la parte inferior del altar se aprecia una piedra prehispánica.
Cripta de los Arzobispos, con el monumento a Fray Juan de Zumárraga en primer plano. En la parte inferior del altar se aprecia una piedra prehispánica.
La catedral cuenta con criptas para los fieles que deseen adquirir, aunque actualmente se encuentra todavía en proceso de reparación y por lo tanto para ingresar, es necesario ser poseedor o visitante de un nicho en específico.
Debajo del Altar de los Reyes se encuentra la cripta principal que alberga los restos de los arzobispos que han sido titulares de la Arquidiócesis, desde Fray Juan de Zumárraga hasta el Cardenal Ernesto Corripio y Ahumada, cuyos restos fueron depositados en abril de 2008. En el centro de la cripta de los Arzobispos hay un cenotafio con la figura de Zumárraga y todos los demás arzobispos están colocados en nichos en las paredes. Debajo del monumento de Zumárraga hay una escultura azteca que representa una calavera. Otra escultura prehispánica geométrica fue incorporada en la parte inferior del altar.
Los campanarios [editar]
Las torres de la Catedral tienen una altura entre 64 y 67 metros. Cada una está rematada en forma de campana (Ortiz de Castro, 1788). La campana puede ser tomada como un símbolo de la comunicación entre Dios y el hombre. Entre las dos cuentan con espacio suficiente para albergar 56 campanas, aunque al día de hoy son treinta las que han sido colocadas. La mayor de ellas tiene el nombre de Santa María de Guadalupe y pesa alrededor de trece toneladas. La más antigua, Santa María de la Asunción (también conocida como Doña María), es de 1578. La más nueva es del año 2002 y fue colocada con motivo de la canonización de Juan Diego. Fue bendecida por el papa Juan Pablo II. Dentro de la parte superior de cada torre hay escaleras de madera de forma elipsoidal, de las cuales hay muy pocos ejemplos en el mundo. Estas escaleras helicoidales u ovaladas son, como se decia líneas arriba poco utilizadas pues el deterioro ocasionado por el tiempo y es evidente, por lo cual solo son usadas por los campaneros, entre los que destacan Rafael Parra Castañeda Campanero Mayor, o algunos voluntarios como Alejandro Campos Lamas, Decano de la Pastoral de Campaneros o Angel Miguel Donaciano Guía oficial del sitio. Empero, el enorme desgaste de escaleras y zonas del campanario se ha agudizado por la extensiva vista de turistas a un sitio no hecho para ello, por lo cual se recomienda no realizar la visita que se considera de alto riesgo.
El sagrario [editar]
De estilo barroco de estípite en su fachada y neoclásico al interior.
Su materia es de cantera gris y tezontle. Tiene dos portadas, una al sur y otra al oriente. Es de planta de cruz latina, y es la parroquia de la Catedral Metropolitana, anexa a ésta.
Sus portadas son de estilo barroco churrigueresco, con pilastras estípite y de forma triangular, obra singular de la arquitectura colonial.
mirit ben nun woman women feminine female composition artistic artwork strong language influence idea powerful center of art participate gallery exhibition vision work works muse leading art artist gallery museum paint painter painters painting paintings drawing draw drawings israel israeli media acrylic talented timeless dynamic emerging energetic exceptional expressive extreme figurative fresh imaginative abstract aesthetic authentic inspiring the beautiful classic colorful conceptual contemporary creative decorative detailed participates in an exhibition powerful leading model diferent special art world talented virtual gallery stunning symbolic reclyced material unexpected visual intuitive inventive layered like mature moving original personal pure refreshing remarkable looks good magical angle art sales drama positive red easy perfect minded eye fun funny natured someone special the gifted special diferent influent light happy colorful hardworking intellectual intelligent wish wonderful the drawings paintings draw colorful influence israeli reclycled material magnetic angelic accepting bright careful half main curious perfect work works picture pictures working shape leading model first representing the wonders independent woman african american leading talented muse solo exhibition leader subject group exhibition exhibit the subject look vision image outside country artist art sales sale acrylic canvas artworks modern contemporary original visual sculpture collection collector image images figurative exhibit exhibition abstract culture museum figurative decorative dealer
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Just Say Thanks
Chris
Material Circulante: CP 1558 + CP 1567 + 3 Sgs + 2 Rgs + 2 Sggmrss + 5 Sgmms + 4 Lgs
Hora: 16:47
Data: 15-07-2010
Local: Tancos (PK 113 - Linha da Beira Baixa)
Serviço: Comboio Distribuição n.º 75730 (Badajoz --» Terminal de Mercadorias da Bobadela)
Material de via e obras da SOMAFEL inserido no comboio 50366 CEREAIS para resguardar na estação da Amieira
Camera: Leica M Monochrom
Lens: SUMMILUX-M 1:1.4/35 ASPH. E46 4192457
Filter: 46S R1 Professional
Retouch: Lightroom 6.6
Black light Photography: Beo Beyond - www.beobeyond.com
Lighting: UV / Black light
This photo belongs to a series containing nearly abstract motives.
They are very dynamic and contrast compositions of colors, forms and light.
Black light materials produced by Rolf Bender, www.depro.com.
file name: schnuererotgelb.jpg
International Conference on Physical Protection of Nuclear Material and Nuclear Facilities. IAEA Vienna, Austria. 13 November 2017
Photo Credit: Dean Calma / IAEA
Organized by the International Atomic Energy Agency
In cooperation with:
World Institute for Nuclear Security (WINS)
World Nuclear Transport Institute (WNTI)
International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL)
Kathleen Heppell-Masys, Conference President, Director General, Directorate of Security and Safeguards of the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission.
Juan Carlos Lentijo, IAEA Deputy Director General and Head of the Department of Nuclear Safety and Security.
Raja Abdul Aziz Raja Adnan, Director, Division of Nuclear Security, Department of Nuclear Safety and Security.
Kenneth Stewart Brooks, Senior Nuclear Security Officer, Division of Nuclear Security, Department of Nuclear Safety and Security.
Muhammad Khaliq, Section Head, Division of Nuclear Security, Department of Nuclear Safety and Security.
Roger Howsley, World Institute for Nuclear Security (WINS)
Ben Whittard, World Nuclear Transport Institute (WNTI)
John Buchanen, INTERPOL
Wall light
REF: 01754
STYLE: Bauhaus Modernism
DESIGNER: ZEITLOS – BERLIN
COUNTRY: Germany
MANUFACTURER: ZEITLOS – BERLIN
MATERIAL: chrome plated metall, glass
YEAR: 2005
CONDITION: new
DIMENSIONS: diameter: 75 cm
Bird Lounge Chair and Ottoman
REF: 01766
STYLE: Mid Century
DESIGNER: Harry Bertoia
COUNTRY: U.S.A.
MANUFACTURER: Knoll International
MODEL: Bird Lounge Chair
MATERIAL: chrome-plated steel, fabric upholstery, hard rubber
YEAR: 1970
CONDITION: original
DIMENSIONS: h.: 102 cm x w.: 97 cm x d.: 90 cm
Diamond Chair
REF: 01768
STYLE: Mid Century
DESIGNER: Harry Bertoia
COUNTRY: USA
MANUFACTURER: Knoll International
MODEL: Diamond Chair
MATERIAL: chrome plated , fabric upholstery
YEAR: 1970
CONDITION: original
DIMENSIONS: h.: 75 cm x w.: 87 cm x d.: 75 cm
Pictures of my new decoupage materials. Details of boxes and decorative napkins. It's a new thing I'm going to be trying. :)
Locomotiva 1427, carruagem SRyf 2 e locomotiva 1413.
Marcha n.º 27534, Cascais – Alcântara-Mar.
20:20 CASCAIS
20:50 ALCÂNTARA-MAR
Reference material for the Hasegawa kit. I think this is the exact model, although the carrier on this one is fited with metal tracks and I think the kit depicts rubber tracks. There are also various "dash" versions in the catalogue, and I don't know which one this is or indeed Hasegawa's is.
Also of note is that the bucket attachment has an extra degree of freedom compared to the kit bucket - maybe this is an add-on?
Still, it's a nice example of weathering on a clean and new vehicle.
I've erred on the side of caution with processing the pictures and eliminating duplicates, although I did knock back the red saturation a couple of points as while Hitachi's orange is very bright, this might be too bright.
so what do you think? is this 457th material? constructive criticism welcome
UPDATE: arms are fixed, will use CW torsos til i get some phase II torsos
“Del material con el que se fabrican los sueños” (Humphrey Bogart , El halcón maltés, 1941)
Autor: Josefina Marín Sánchez
Blog: Finamarin.blogspot.com
Tienda: Wm tlahuac
plaza: Vdm
promotora: Hernandez fuentes reyna
rdv: Hernandez ramirez roberto
fecha: 07-02-2012
Limited edition
Dimensions: H 250 cm x Diam 190 cm
Materials: Metal structure, plastic, foam cushion
with coated fabric, ultraviolet Wood’s lamp
Consisting of a platform topped by a corolla, an umbrella-shaped structure, « Aequorea » was inspired by the majesty of the jellyfish, with the title of the work taken from its species name. Jellyfish and spineless are often mentioned in the same breath and it is true that the creature’s structure is very fluid. If we take away the water, we are left with just a gelatinous skin. Emulating the grace of this marine animal, matali crasset uses her materials parsimoniously and concentrates her work on the empty space, the site of the lovers’ encounter. « Aequorea » is more space than object. Contemporary architecture has decompartmentalized the home to allow more malleable pathways better adapted to the need for speed, but also respite, in modern life. And yet, for the same reason, we have lost many of our private places. matali embraces the challenge of recreating an environment conducive to intimacy while conceiving a structure that is modular enough to reap the benefits of openness in architectural spaces. « Aequorea » is therefore situated midway between design and architecture, on an intermediate plane. Her work necessarily brings to mind the improvised cubbyholes we built in our bedrooms, using sheets, chairs and any number of other objects, when we were children. We recall the excitement we felt when we snuggled into this space, away from the world of adults and their rules. We could exchange secrets, invent our own little games and – since, after all, the subject here is preliminaries, or foreplay – sometimes play doctor as well.
By enclosing the couple within a curtain of ropes, « Aequorea » has the same effect on adults, with elegance as an added bonus. It’s all about intimacy, the need to be cut off from the rest of the world and rediscover the other face-to-face and alone. To reinforce this severed link with everyday life, matali has placed an ultraviolet Wood’s lamp inside the corolla. Colour perception is thus transformed and the lovers drift into a dreamlike state, a new dimension. And to make matters even more interesting, matali draws inspiration from the parallel worlds of Barbarella, the comic book heroine imagined by Jean-Claude Forest, paying tribute to this lyrical and sensual universe. It is a space serving as a reference: a quasi-aquatic, entirely fluid, space that softens contours, an invitation to let go completely and get in touch with inner feelings. This nod to the first liberated female comic book character also carries a feminist message, not a protest but instead a paean to the liberation of the body.
If matali’s design could be seen as taking another stand it would certainly be a desire to break with routine and standardized behaviour. We need to upend our daily rituals. « Aequorea »’s rounded surface is in direct contrast to the trivial rectangle of the bed, and thus allows bodies to move more freely. The contoured edge that defines the borders of the platform creates a kind of circular pillow opening myriad possibilities for lovers in all 360 degrees. Although matali challenges our habits, she does not consider ritual as a bad thing in itself. On the contrary! Rituals are essential to provide rhythm for our lives. It is the rote, humdrum, here-we-go-again quality that snuffs out the spark kindled by our shared moments. We need to learn how to renew our rituals so that they continue to enrich our lives: In order to ensconce oneself within « Aequorea », the ropes need to be pulled gradually to the exterior of the corolla, and the same operation must be performed in reverse in order to open it again. In both cases, space is being modified, creating a ritual that marks the beginning and the end of an intimate moment. In sum, « Aequorea » works like an air lock that disconnects us from our everyday lives in order to awaken the sensuality within. Far from accessorizing foreplay, matali’s triumphant design gives it a new playing field.
Love,
Exquise crew
Slott | Exquise design
12 rue du Château Landon 75010 Paris
M° Château Landon-Gare de lʼEst-Louis Blanc