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The litany of Ra continues in the second corridor of the tomb, and in niches at the top of the walls, are depicted the seventy-four manifestations of the sun god. This is from the right side wall.
From the "turning point" (left to right) of the niche the manifestation names of the sun god are: 21 - The Brilliant One, 22 - The Hidden One, 23 - The Jubilating One, 24 - He Whose ways are correct, 25 - The Lightning One, 26 - The Shining Horn, 27 - He of the Exalted Forms, 28 - The Distant Ba, 29 - The High Ba, 30 - He of the Two Children, 31 - The Blazing One in the Earth, 32 - He of the Caldron and 33 - The Watchers.
The first part of the tomb was the work of Setnakht.
20th dynasty, tomb of Ramses III - KV11, Valley of the Kings
Masken, egal ob in physischer Form oder als Stereotypisierungen um die Wahrheit zu maskieren, wurden zum Synonym für Gefahr im 21. Jahrhundert. Eine unbestimmte Angst vor dem Unbekannten und Anderem geht durch unsere Gesellschaft. Seit über 15 Jahren wütet ein Krieg. Die angeborenen und triebbedingten Ängste und Reaktionen der Menschen sind zu einfach zu mobilisieren. Vielleicht würde das menschliche gewinnen, würden wir diese Angst verlieren. Ein neugeborenes hat noch nichts böses im Sinne.
Masks became synonym for threats in the 21st century. Be it physical masks or sterotypes used to mask the truth. A sublime fear about the different, the unknown, lingers over our society. War is on for almost 15 years know. The native inborn human fears too easy to control for the powerful. Maybe, if we loose this fear, the good inborn human would win. A newborn child doesn´t want to harm anything.
Fabian Zolar Contemporary Painting Street Art , Acrylics on Canvas app 100x100 cm
A visit to the National Trust property that is Penrhyn Castle
Penrhyn Castle is a country house in Llandygai, Bangor, Gwynedd, North Wales, in the form of a Norman castle. It was originally a medieval fortified manor house, founded by Ednyfed Fychan. In 1438, Ioan ap Gruffudd was granted a licence to crenellate and he founded the stone castle and added a tower house. Samuel Wyatt reconstructed the property in the 1780s.
The present building was created between about 1822 and 1837 to designs by Thomas Hopper, who expanded and transformed the building beyond recognition. However a spiral staircase from the original property can still be seen, and a vaulted basement and other masonry were incorporated into the new structure. Hopper's client was George Hay Dawkins-Pennant, who had inherited the Penrhyn estate on the death of his second cousin, Richard Pennant, who had made his fortune from slavery in Jamaica and local slate quarries. The eldest of George's two daughters, Juliana, married Grenadier Guard, Edward Gordon Douglas, who, on inheriting the estate on George's death in 1845, adopted the hyphenated surname of Douglas-Pennant. The cost of the construction of this vast 'castle' is disputed, and very difficult to work out accurately, as much of the timber came from the family's own forestry, and much of the labour was acquired from within their own workforce at the slate quarry. It cost the Pennant family an estimated £150,000. This is the current equivalent to about £49,500,000.
Penrhyn is one of the most admired of the numerous mock castles built in the United Kingdom in the 19th century; Christopher Hussey called it, "the outstanding instance of Norman revival." The castle is a picturesque composition that stretches over 600 feet from a tall donjon containing family rooms, through the main block built around the earlier house, to the service wing and the stables.
It is built in a sombre style which allows it to possess something of the medieval fortress air despite the ground-level drawing room windows. Hopper designed all the principal interiors in a rich but restrained Norman style, with much fine plasterwork and wood and stone carving. The castle also has some specially designed Norman-style furniture, including a one-ton slate bed made for Queen Victoria when she visited in 1859.
Hugh Napier Douglas-Pennant, 4th Lord Penrhyn, died in 1949, and the castle and estate passed to his niece, Lady Janet Pelham, who, on inheritance, adopted the surname of Douglas-Pennant. In 1951, the castle and 40,000 acres (160 km²) of land were accepted by the treasury in lieu of death duties from Lady Janet. It now belongs to the National Trust and is open to the public. The site received 109,395 visitors in 2017.
Grade I Listed Building
History
The present house, built in the form of a vast Norman castle, was constructed to the design of Thomas Hopper for George Hay Dawkins-Pennant between 1820 and 1837. It has been very little altered since.
The original house on the site was a medieval manor house of C14 origin, for which a licence to crenellate was given at an unknown date between 1410 and 1431. This house survived until c1782 when it was remodelled in castellated Gothick style, replete with yellow mathematical tiles, by Samuel Wyatt for Richard Pennant. This house, the great hall of which is incorporated in the present drawing room, was remodelled in c1800, but the vast profits from the Penrhyn slate quarries enabled all the rest to be completely swept away by Hopper's vast neo-Norman fantasy, sited and built so that it could be seen not only from the quarries, but most parts of the surrounding estate, thereby emphasizing the local dominance of the Dawkins-Pennant family. The total cost is unknown but it cannot have been less than the £123,000 claimed by Catherine Sinclair in 1839.
Since 1951 the house has belonged to the National Trust, together with over 40,000 acres of the family estates around Ysbyty Ifan and the Ogwen valley.
Exterior
Country house built in the style of a vast Norman castle with other later medieval influences, so huge (its 70 roofs cover an area of over an acre (0.4ha)) that it almost defies meaningful description. The main components of the house, which is built on a north-south axis with the main elevations to east and west, are the 124ft (37.8m) high keep, based on Castle Hedingham (Essex) containing the family quarters on the south, the central range, protected by a 'barbican' terrace on the east, housing the state apartments, and the rectangular-shaped staff/service buildings and stables to the north. The whole is constructed of local rubblestone with internal brick lining, but all elevations are faced in tooled Anglesey limestone ashlar of the finest quality jointing; flat lead roofs concealed by castellated parapets. Close to, the extreme length of the building (it is about 200 yards (182.88m) long) and the fact that the ground slopes away on all sides mean that almost no complete elevation can be seen. That the most frequent views of the exterior are oblique also offered Hopper the opportunity to deploy his towers for picturesque effect, the relationship between the keep and the other towers and turrets frequently obscuring the distances between them. Another significant external feature of the castle is that it actually looks defensible making it secure at least from Pugin's famous slur of 1841 on contemporary "castles" - "Who would hammer against nailed portals, when he could kick his way through the greenhouse?" Certainly, this could never be achieved at Penrhyn and it looks every inch the impregnable fortress both architect and patron intended it to be.
East elevation: to the left is the loosely attached 4-storey keep on battered plinth with 4 tiers of deeply splayed Norman windows, 2 to each face, with chevron decoration and nook-shafts, topped by 4 square corner turrets. The dining room (distinguished by the intersecting tracery above the windows) and breakfast room to the right of the entrance gallery are protected by the long sweep of the machicolated 'barbican' terrace (carriage forecourt), curved in front of the 2 rooms and then running northwards before returning at right-angles to the west to include the gatehouse, which formed the original main entrance to the castle, and ending in a tall rectangular tower with machicolated parapet. To the right of the gatehouse are the recessed buildings of the kitchen court and to the right again the long, largely unbroken outer wall of the stable court, terminated by the square footmen's tower to the left and the rather more exuberant projecting circular dung tower with its spectacularly cantilevered bartizan on the right. From here the wall runs at right-angles to the west incorporating the impressive gatehouse to the stable court.
West elevation: beginning at the left is the hexagonal smithy tower, followed by the long run of the stable court, well provided with windows on this side as the stables lie directly behind. At the end of this the wall turns at right-angles to the west, incorporating the narrow circular-turreted gatehouse to the outer court and terminating in the machicolated circular ice tower. From here the wall runs again at a lower height enclosing the remainder of the outer court. It is, of course, the state apartments which make up the chief architectural display on the central part of this elevation, beginning with a strongly articulated but essentially rectangular tower to the left, while both the drawing room and the library have Norman windows leading directly onto the lawns, the latter terminating in a slender machicolated circular corner tower. To the right is the keep, considerably set back on this side.
Interior
Only those parts of the castle generally accessible to visitors are recorded in this description. Although not described here much of the furniture and many of the paintings (including family portraits) are also original to the house. Similarly, it should be noted that in the interests of brevity and clarity, not all significant architectural features are itemised in the following description.
Entrance gallery: one of the last parts of the castle to be built, this narrow cloister-like passage was added to the main block to heighten the sensation of entering the vast Grand Hall, which is made only partly visible by the deliberate offsetting of the intervening doorways; bronze lamp standards with wolf-heads on stone bases. Grand Hall: entering the columned aisle of this huge space, the visitor stands at a cross-roads between the 3 principal areas of the castle's plan; to the left the passage leads up to the family's private apartments on the 4 floors of the keep, to the right the door at the end leads to the extensive service quarters while ahead lies the sequence of state rooms used for entertaining guests and displayed to the public ever since the castle was built. The hall itself resembles in form, style and scale the transept of a great Norman cathedral, the great clustered columns extending upwards to a "triforium" formed on 2 sides of extraordinary compound arches; stained glass with signs of the zodiac and months of the year as in a book of hours by Thomas Willement (completed 1835). Library: has very much the atmosphere of a gentlemen’s London club with walls, columned arches and ceilings covered in the most lavish ornamentation; superb architectural bookcases and panelled walls are of oak but the arches are plaster grained to match; ornamental bosses and other devices to the rich plaster ceiling refer to the ancestry of the Dawkins and Pennant families, as do the stained glass lunettes above the windows, possibly by David Evans of Shrewsbury; 4 chimneypieces of polished Anglesey "marble", one with a frieze of fantastical carved mummers in the capitals. Drawing room (great hall of the late C18 house and its medieval predecessor): again in a neo-Norman style but the decoration is lighter and the columns more slender, the spirit of the room reflected in the 2000 delicate Maltese gilt crosses to the vaulted ceiling. Ebony room: so called on account of its furniture and "ebonised" chimneypiece and plasterwork, has at its entrance a spiral staircase from the medieval house. Grand Staircase hall: in many ways the greatest architectural achievement at Penrhyn, taking 10 years to complete, the carving in 2 contrasting stones of the highest quality; repeating abstract decorative motifs contrast with the infinitely inventive figurative carving in the newels and capitals; to the top the intricate plaster panels of the domed lantern are formed in exceptionally high relief and display both Norse and Celtic influences. Next to the grand stair is the secondary stair, itself a magnificent structure in grey sandstone with lantern, built immediately next to the grand stair so that family or guests should not meet staff on the same staircase. Reached from the columned aisle of the grand hall are the 2 remaining principal ground-floor rooms, the dining room and the breakfast room, among the last parts of the castle to be completed and clearly intended to be picture galleries as much as dining areas, the stencilled treatment of the walls in the dining room allowing both the provision of an appropriately elaborate "Norman" scheme and a large flat surface for the hanging of paintings; black marble fireplace carved by Richard Westmacott and extremely ornate ceiling with leaf bosses encircled by bands of figurative mouldings derived from the Romanesque church of Kilpeck, Herefordshire. Breakfast room has cambered beam ceiling with oak-grained finish.
Grand hall gallery: at the top of the grand staircase is vaulted and continues around the grand hall below to link with the passage to the keep, which at this level (as on the other floors) contains a suite of rooms comprising a sitting room, dressing room, bedroom and small ante-chamber, the room containing the famous slate bed also with a red Mona marble chimneypiece, one of the most spectacular in the castle. Returning to the grand hall gallery and continuing straight on rather than returning to the grand staircase the Lower India room is reached to the right: this contains an Anglesey limestone chimneypiece painted to match the ground colour of the room's Chinese wallpaper. Coming out of this room, the chapel corridor leads to the chapel gallery (used by the family) and the chapel proper below (used by staff), the latter with encaustic tiles probably reused from the old medieval chapel; stained and painted glass by David Evans (c1833).
The domestic quarters of the castle are reached along the passage from the breakfast room, which turns at right-angles to the right at the foot of the secondary staircase, the most important areas being the butler's pantry, steward's office, servants' hall, housekeeper's room, still room, housekeeper's store and housemaids' tower, while the kitchen (with its cast-iron range flanked by large and hygienic vertical slabs of Penrhyn slate) is housed on the lower ground floor. From this kitchen court, which also includes a coal store, oil vaults, brushing room, lamp room, pastry room, larder, scullery and laundry are reached the outer court with its soup kitchen, brewhouse and 2-storey ice tower and the much larger stables court which, along with the stables themselves containing their extensive slate-partitioned stalls and loose boxes, incorporates the coach house, covered ride, smithy tower, dung tower with gardeners' messroom above and footmen's tower.
Reasons for Listing
Included at Grade I as one of the most important large country houses in Wales; a superb example of the relatively short-lived Norman Revival of the early C19 and generally regarded as the masterpiece of its architect, Thomas Hopper.
A look around the inside of the castle / house.
The Grand Hall
Stained glass windows
"maurice scheltens" "still life" "personal work" "Forms of Boredom" 1999
"maurice scheltens" "still life" "personal work" "Forms of Boredom" 1999
"maurice scheltens" "still life" "personal work" "Forms of Boredom" 1999
A series of conceptual digital works inspired by the female body painting and torso works of Yves Klein. This piece is also referential to classical Greek and Roman sculpture.
Café Riquet
Estaba en un costado de la plaza Aníbal Pinto
el Café Riquet, que fue
fundado en 1931 por don
Guillermo Spratz, de
nacionalidad alemana,
quien llegó a Chile en los
difíciles días de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, falleciendo en el año 2000.
El Café Riquet fue
por muchos años símbolo de europeísmo en el corazón de la
ciudad. Estaba muy bien alhajado por dentro, con buenos
cuadros y vitrinas para exhibir pasteles de crema, tortas de
merengue con lúcuma y selva negra.
Las onces siempre han sido tradicionales y muy servidas con
camareros vestidos de blanco que sirven el té en colador de
alpaca y dejan en la mesa la tetera para que el comensal se sirva
cuantas tazas deseara. Aquí venía el escritor Carlos León, que
tenía mesa fija en los años 50, siempre la misma, a tomar una
taza de té y a observar el movimiento del célebre café a donde
venían escritores, pintores, músicos y especialmente las familias
alemanas y británicas del cerro Alegre. Hoy da cuenta de un
edificio tradicional que se ha mantenido fiel a las formas de
vida del viejo Valparaíso.
Las puertas del café tienen rieles donde se ponían
antiguamente unos tablones para protegerse de los aluviones.
Hay una marca que señala el nivel donde llegó el nivel de una
famosa inundación.
La spiaggia è da sempre come una grande lavagna, una bacheca destinata a raccogliere messaggi di ogni genere e forma.
Il mare ci mette del suo e come un affabile postino consegna.
Messaggi che a volte rimangono per attimi, giorni o ... eternamente.
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English:
Welcome and thank you for being here! This image forms part of a collection of photographs of moments on Planet Earth.
If you enjoy this work and want to support me financially, I’m glad to receive your donation via Paypal: paypal.me/jankohoener
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Deutsch:
Willkommen und vielen Dank, dass Sie hier sind! Dieses Bild stellt Teil einer Sammlung von Fotografien von Augenblicken auf dem Planet Erde dar.
Wenn Ihnen diese Arbeit zusagt und Sie mich finanziell dabei unterstützen möchten, so freue ich mich über Ihre Spende via Paypal: paypal.me/jankohoener
Wenn Sie dieses Foto für eigene Zwecke nutzen möchten, geben Sie bitte Janko Hoener / CC-BY-SA-4.0 in der Bildunterschrift an. Dies ist per Lizenz gefordert. Über einen Link auf diese Seite und eine Benachrichtigung über die Nutzung via FlickrMail freue ich mich.
¡¡No mas agresiones y muertes inocentes!! ¡¡No al maltrato contra las mujeres!!
www.migualdad.es/ss/Satellite?blobcol=urldata&blobhea...
www.goear.com/listen/f118fde/malo-bebe
Madrid - 25/04/2012. Una vecina de toda la vida del barrio de Prosperidad (Chamartín), ha muerto degollada, supuestamente, por su marido, A. S. M. R., de 85 años. El presunto homicida se hizo heridas superficiales en los antebrazos en un tímido intento de suicidio.
Estepa (Sevilla) - 17/04/2012. Decenas de personas se han concentrado este martes de forma silenciosa ante el Ayuntamiento de Estepa en repulsa por el asesinato de una joven, que murió degollada supuestamente por su compañero, la mujer murió entre las 23 horas del pasado sábado y la 1.00 del domingo, por una sola herida en el cuello producida con un arma blanca, según los resultados de la autopsia practicada este martes. La agresión se produjo supuestamente a manos de su pareja, M.A.R.P., de 20 años, que luego intentó suicidarse.
Tuineje (Fuerteventura) - 15/04/2010. Sobre las 17.00, un familiar encontró a la mujer, de nacionalidad alemana, muerta en su casa. El cuerpo estaba tumbado en el suelo y rodeado de sangre, según informó la agencia Efe. Dos horas más tarde, la Guardia Civil detuvo como presunto agresor a la pareja de la víctima, un hombre de 38 años que, supuestamente, huyó tras matar a la mujer.
Sevilla - 15/04/2012. Una mujer ha muerto esta madrugada en su piso de Sevilla por heridas de arma blanca que, supuestamente, le causó su marido. Tras el crimen, el hombre salió de la casa, subió a la azotea del bloque y se arrojó al vacío. Los hechos ocurrieron alrededor de la 1.30 de este domingo en la calle Cisneo Alto de Sevilla, en el barrio Santa María de Ordás, una zona obrera pobladas de bloques de viviendas. El matrimonio tenía dos hijos ya mayores de edad.
Tolosa (Guipúzcoa) - 25/03/2012. Agentes de la Ertzaintza han detenido esta noche a un hombre en Tolosa (Guipúzcoa) acusado de matar a la mujer con la que mantenía una relación sentimental, según han informado fuentes de la Ertzaintza. La detención del hombre se produjo alrededor de las 23:00 horas de la noche de este domingo en el muncipio guipuzcoano de Tolosa, después de que su exmarido encontrara a la mujer muerta en su domicilio con signos de violencia.
Pinto (Madrid) - 29/02/2012. La mujer que fue hallada muerta el pasado lunes en una alcantarilla de Pinto (Madrid) en la que llevaba más de un mes muerta puede ser una peruana de unos 40 años cuya desaparición fue denunciada por sus familiares el pasado 8 de febrero en la comisaría de Usera-Villaverde, según han confirmado fuentes de la investigación. Desde ese día, la policía busca a su exnovio, de nacionalidad dominicana, del que se desconoce su paradero.
Valencia - 04/02/2012. Un hombre de 49 años se ha entregado esta mañana en el cuartel de la Guardia Civil de Carlet tras confesar que había matado a su pareja, de la misma edad, en el domicilio de esta, situado en la localidad valenciana de Guadassuar.
Granollers (Vallès Oriental) - 28/01/2012. Los Mossos d'Esquadra investigan la muerte de una mujer de unos 50 años de origen magrebí y madre de seis hijos cuyo cadáver fue hallado ayer al mediodía en un piso de Granollers (Vallès Oriental) con signos de violencia. La Guardia Civil ha detenido en Requena (Valencia) al compañero sentimental de la mujer.
Santa Coloma de Queralt (Tarragona) - 21/01/2012. El cuerpo sin vida de una mujer de 33 años fue hallado con heridas de arma blanca en su domicilio de Santa Coloma de Queralt (Tarragona). La policía detuvo el mismo día al presunto autor del homicidio, un hombre de 40 años y vecino de Sabadell (Vallès Occidental) que mantenía una relación sentimental con la víctima. La fallecida tenía dos hijos, de tres y siete años.
Alcaudete (Jaén) - 18/01/2012. Estrella A. M., de 45 años, salió de su casa poco antes de las diez de la noche a tirar la basura y en ese momento fue asaltada por su expareja, de la que se había separado hacía algo más de un año, en Noguerones, una pedanía de Alcaudete (Jaén). El presunto agresor le propinó varias puñaladas con un arma blanca causándole la muerte prácticamente en el acto.
Mollet del Vallès (Barcelona) - 13/01/2012. Una mujer de 57 años es apuñalada en su piso de Mollet del Vallès (Barcelona) por su compañero sentimental, de 21 años, detenido en el mismo lugar de los hechos.
Tarragona- 09/01/2012. Una mujer de 41 años es encontrada sin vida en la cama de su domicilio en Tarragona con dos cuchilladas en el pecho y cortes en las extremidades. Tenía dos hijas. Fue precisamente una de ellas quien dio la voz de alarma a los servicios de emergencia tras acercarse a la vivienda porque su madre no contestaba a sus llamadas y habían quedado para comer.
Zafra (Badajoz) - 07/01/2012. Un hombre de 81 años ha sido detenido y se encuentra hospitalizado después de que su mujer, de 80, fuera hallada muerta en un charco de sangre en su domicilio de Zafra (Badajoz). La investigación apunta a que se trata de un caso de violencia de género.
Puig-reig (Berguedà) (Barcelona) - 03/01/2012. La policía halla muerta a una mujer de 54 años en una masía aislada en la localidad de Puig-Reig, a unos 80 kilómetros al norte de Barcelona. La víctima fue asesinada a golpes con un objeto contundente por su marido, de 56 años.
Girona - 03/01/2012. Los Mossos d'Esquadra investigan la muerte de una pareja de nacionalidad ucraniana en Girona, el primer caso de violencia de género de 2012, como tal se condenó ayer en el Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad. Los cuerpos de ambos los encontró el domingo la hija en la vivienda de la pareja después de que esta intentara localizar a sus padres durante todo el día con continuas llamadas telefónicas. Fue ella quien llamó a los servicios de emergencia.
Sevilla - 29/12/2011. Un hombre mató supuestamente a puñaladas a su expareja la noche del martes en Marchena (Sevilla) e hirió asimismo a su novio. La mujer, de iniciales I. D. R. y 29 años, que sufría malos tratos desde 2004 y había denunciado tanto a su agresor este año como a una pareja anterior en el pasado. Su presunto asesino, F. F. G., de 35 años, con antecedentes penales y una orden de alejamiento en vigor, era familiar de la víctima y tenía con ella una hija de tres años. El hombre rompió la prohibición judicial de acercarse a su expareja y fue hasta su domicilio. Con una frialdad inusitada, antes de apuñalar a la mujer, sacó a su hija de la vivienda y la entregó a unos vecinos. Entonces agredió con el cuchillo a la pareja actual de la víctima, y posteriormente la mató de varias puñaladas, según fuentes de la investigación. Cuando los agentes de la Guardia Civil acudieron a la escena del crimen, el hombre les abrió la puerta y encontraron a la mujer en la cocina. Inmediatamente después detuvieron al agresor aún con manchas de sangre. El novio resultó herido leve.
Madrid - 09/12/2011. Una mujer ha sido asesinada por su marido en el piso en el que convivían en Madrid. La víctima, Fátima F., marroquí de 39 años, ha muerto apuñalada, ha informado Emergencias 112 y la Jefatura Superior de Policía. El crimen ha ocurrido en el domicilio de la pareja, situado en el número seis de la calle Alemania (barrio de la Ventilla del distrito de Tetuán), donde se encontraban los hijos de la víctima, un recién nacido y dos niñas de cinco y seis años. El cadáver lo ha descubierto una sobrina. El hombre, Alí D., también de 38 años y de la misma nacionalidad, se ha entregado a las ocho de la noche en la comisaría de Tetuán. No existían denuncias de malos tratos. Con este crimen, ascienden a 56 las víctimas mortales de la violencia machista en España en lo que va de año, nueve de ellas en la Comunidad de Madrid -cuatro más que en 2010 y 2009, y dos menos que en 2008-.
Barcelona - 28/11/2011. A las nueve de la mañana de ayer, Francisco V. B., de 41 años, salió de la casa donde vive con su mujer y su hijo y dio un paseo. Unos minutos más tarde, cogió su teléfono y marcó el número de emergencias. El hombre explicó a un agente de los Mossos d'Esquadra que acababa de mantener una fuerte discusión con su mujer. Francisco agregó que la pelea se le escapó de las manos y que acabó apuñalando a su esposa hasta matarla. El hombre expresó, por último, que tenía la intención de entregarse por lo que acababa de hacer.
Lleida - 03/11/2011. Los Mossos d'Esquadra han detenido esta mañana a un hombre como presunto autor de la muerte de su excompañera sentimental en Vielha (Lleida). La detención se ha producido a las 11.00 horas después de descubrirse el cadáver de la mujer en una vivienda de Vielha con signos evidentes de violencia. El homicida, que ya no compartía con ella el domicilio, ha sido localizado en el hospital de Vielha, donde había ingresado horas antes en estado grave tras sufrir un accidente de tráfico.
Zaragoza 02/11/2011. Un mujer de 29 años ha muerto degollada en Zaragoza en una vivienda situada en una zona del centro histórico de la ciudad juto al Ebro. La víctima tenía 29 años y era natural de Kazajistán. El presunto agresor es un hombre de 40 años , de nacionalidad española que ha llamado al 091 a las seis der la tarde para contar lo ocurrido. Cuando la policía llegó al domicilio , en la calle Pascual Albero, encontró a la víctima muerta. El hombre fue detenido y se encuentra en dependencias policiales. Los vecinos aseguraron que no conocían a la víctima y que tampoco sabían si eran pareja y vivían juntos. La policía confirmó que no existían denuncias precias por malos tratos.
Palma de Mallorca - 25/10/2011. El cadáver de Nuria Orol Sarabia fue hallado en la noche del lunes, con cuatro puñaladas en el tórax y el pecho, tendido en el suelo de su apartamento del Puerto de Andratx, en la isla Mallorca. Trabajadora -en paro- de establecimientos del sector turístico de la zona, tenía 24 años, era de nacionalidad española y madre de dos hijos, un niño y una niña de siete y dos años. Esta última estaba presente en la casa cuando aconteció el suceso.
Girona - 19/10/2011. La mujer nigeriana de 38 añostiroteada en la madrugada del lunes presuntamente por su pareja en una casa del barrio acomodado del Palau de Girona ha muerto esta tarde a las 15.20 horas en la UCI Hospital Josep Trueta de Girona, donde se encontraba ingresada en estado crítico. Su pareja, Bernard Andrighetto, empresario francés de 48 años, permanece detenido en una comisaría de Girona y los Mossos d?Esquadra le imputan un delito de homicidio.
Murcia - 18/10/2011. Un hombre de 57 años golpeó en la cabeza con un martillo a la mujer con la que convivía en compañía de sus tres hijos y después se suicidó en Espinardo (Murcia), ha informado un portavoz de la Policía Nacional.
Oviedo - 13/10/2011. Un hombre de 30 años ha sido detenido esta madrugada por matar a golpes durante una discusión a su novia, de 29, en el piso en el que convivían en Avilés (Asturias), según ha informado la Policía Nacional. El arrestado, de nacionalidad portuguesa, entró muy nervioso en un bar poco antes de las dos de la madrugada y confesó al camarero, al que conocía, que le parecía que había matado a su pareja, natural de Avilés. La víctima no había interpuesto ninguna denuncia por violencia machista contra su novio, si bien este ya había sido detenido por malos tratos a una pareja anterior.
Santa Cruz de Tenerife - 12/10/2011. Una mujer de nacionalidad italiana de 36 años ha fallecido esta madrugada en Puerto del Carmen, en el municipio de Tías (Lanzarote), tras ser asfixiada con un cable presuntamente por su pareja, un varón de origen senegalés. El presunto agresor, de 30 años y en situación irregular, acudió en torno a las 8.00, hora local, a la comandancia de la Guardia Civil en Puerto del Carmen para confesar los hechos, ocurridos en el domicilio conyugal.
Vigo - 11/10/2011. Un hombre de 41 años mató a su mujer, de 39, a cuchilladas en el domicilio familiar, en una parroquia de Vigo. Empleó un cuchillo de cocina. El presunto agresor, que acudió a la comisaría de Vigo para confesar su crimen, había abandonado recientemente el domicilio familiar, tras iniciar los trámites para su separación. La pareja tenía dos niños, de 13 y 8 años, ausentes en el momento del crimen.
Madrid - 22/09/2011. Una mujer de origen marroquí llamada Mina falleció anoche tras ser agredida con un arma blanca por su pareja en el interior de la peluquería que regentaba en Puçol (Valencia), según ha informado la Policía Local. La mujer había denunciado por maltrato en agosto pasado a su compañero sentimental, que ha sido detenido y sobre el que pesaba desde este mes una orden de alejamiento de la víctima de 200 metros.
Vinarós (Castellón) - 21/9/2011. Detienen a un hombre por la presunta implicación en la muerte de su mujer, cuyo cadáver fue localizado en una casa de la familia de la víctima en Amposta (Tarragona), según Efe. La mujer desapareció de Vinarós el jueves pasado en circunstancias extrañas, ya que salió a comprar y no volvió.
Santa Cruz de Tenerife - 18/09/2011. Clementina M.G, de 38 años, falleció ayer en Arona tras ser presuntamente apuñalada por su marido, Luis Domingo M.A., de 54 años, quien presentó heridas por arma blanca en tórax y abdomen al, supuestamente, intentar quitarse la vida, por lo que se encuentra custodiado en un centro hospitalario en el sur de Tenerife.
Sevilla - 18/09/2011. Lucía M. se disponía a coger un tren para Sevilla con sus amigas la noche del sábado, cuando vio a su expareja en la estación. Nunca cogió ese tren. Su antiguo compañero le asestó varias puñaladas con un cuchillo hasta matarla, muy cerca de la estación de Lora del Río, localidad donde ambos habían convivido.
Logroño - 31/08/2011. El cadáver de una niña de diez meses fue localizado anoche en el río Ebro a su paso por Logroño tras ser presuntamente ahogada por su padrastro, que después se entregó a la Policía Local. El desencadenante del suceso pudo ser una fuerte discusión entre el padrastro y la madre de la criatura -una joven de 17 años- junto a la Biblioteca Pública de la capital riojana, cerca del río, según ha informado hoy el concejal de Policía de Logroño, Miguel Sáinz, en una rueda de prensa.
Murcia 26/08/2011. Un hombre de 71 años se ha arrojando a las vías del tren a su paso por una pedanía de Murcia horas después de asesinar a su mujer de 75 que ha sido encontrada en su vivienda con heridas por arma blanca. La Policía encontraba el cadáver de Caridad E.P. en su domicilio del barrio murciano del Infante horas después del fallecimiento de su presunto asesino cuando intentaban notificárselo con una visita a la casa de ambos.
Bilbao - 23/08/2011. Un hombre sobre el que pesaba una orden de alejamiento mató ayer a su exmujer, de 36 años, en su domicilio en una céntrica calle de Bilbao. Ecuatorianos y padres de tres hijos -dos chicas y un chico, de entre 13 y 18 años-, se habían separado meses atrás tras una convivencia de dos décadas. Ayer por la tarde tuvieron una fuerte discusión. La escuchó un vecino que alertó a los servicios de emergencia. Cuando llegaron, Deisy Mendoza ya había sido apuñalada varias veces por su exmarido, Héctor, de 38 años.
Madrid - 09/08/2011. Semienterrada y con varias heridas por el cuerpo. Así fue hallada muerta junto al embalse de El Atazar la tarde del pasado sábado Giovanna Silva da Faria, una brasileña de 38 años. Horas antes había sido detenido su exmarido, el madrileño Manuel Antonio G. A. S., de 51 años, acusado de un delito de homicidio y otro de quebrantamiento de condena por desobedecer la orden de alejamiento de la mujer que le había impuesto un juez.
Barcelona - 06/08/2011. Los Mossos d'Esquadra encontraron ayer en una zona boscosa de Castellbisbal (Barcelona) un cadáver que, según todos los indicios, podría ser el de una mujer desaparecida el pasado 14 de mayo tras haber sido supuestamente asesinada por su marido, que se encuentra en prisión provisional.
Madrid - 03/08/2011. Fructuosa López y Julián Romero, un matrimonio de septuagenarios instalado hace medio siglo en un edificio gris del barrio de Vallecas, procedían de Castellar de Santiago, un pueblo de Ciudad Real. Una de sus dos hijas, que vive a un par de calles, intentó ayer abrir la puerta del piso donde vivían con unas llaves prestadas, pero algo al otro lado se lo impedía. Era el cadáver de su padre lo que bloqueaba la entrada. Más allá yacía muerta su madre.
Otura (Granada) - 20/07/2011. Una joven de 19 años llamada Mónica R.C. ha fallecido en Otura (Granada) tras ser golpeada presuntamente por su novio, un chico de 20 años. La agresión se produjo a última hora del martes en la calle Torreón, en el bario de El Hondillo, según ha informado la cadena SER. El joven golpeó presuntamente a su novia en reiteradas ocasiones y, al darse cuenta de la gravedad de las lesiones la llevó al hospital San Cecilio de Granada, donde falleció.
Valencia - 02/06/2011. Un hombre de 79 años presuntamente ha matado a su mujer, de 82 años, en la localidad valenciana de Museros y después se ha suicidado, según han informado fuentes de la Policía Local y de la Guardia Civil.
Mieres (Asturias) - 01/06/2011. Un hombre de 72 años ha matado esta mañana con un hacha a su mujer, de 64 años, en la localidad de Valdecuna, en el concejo asturiano de Mieres, según han informado fuentes de la Guardia Civil. El presunto agresor ha sido detenido.
Madrid - 31/05/2011. Una mujer española de 42 años, M. B. C., ha muerto sobre las dos y cuarto de la tarde en su domicilio de la localidad madrileña de Móstoles después de que su exmarido, V. P. M., también de 42 años y español, le asestara varias puñaladas en distintas partes de su cuerpo. Tras cometer el crimen, el hombre se ha intentado quitar la vida lesionándose con el mismo cuchillo, por lo que ha sido trasladado al hospital en calidad de detenido, acusado de homicidio.
Barcelona - 25/05/2011. Palmira C., de 80 años, estranguló presuntamente a su marido, Franciso G., de 81 y enfermo de alzheimer, ayer por la mañana en el piso en el que vivían, en el barrio de Poble Sec de Barcelona. Los vecinos del edificio aseguraron que las discusiones entre la pareja eran habituales y que en varias ocasiones se les había tenido que llamar la atención.
Oviedo - 23/05/2011. José Manuel Álvarez Fernández, un minero leonés de 42 años, ha matado esta madrugada con un machete de grandes dimensiones a tres familiares de su expareja, además de herir a esta y a su madre, en la localidad asturiana de Degaña. Los tres fallecidos son el padre, el hermano y el novio de la excompañera sentimental del presunto homicida, que sorprendió a las víctimas mientras dormían en el domicilio de la expareja tras destrozar la puerta con una maza. En la vivienda se encontraban los hijos que tuvo con la mujer, de 6 y 11 años, que no fueron agredidos ni presenciaron los hechos.
Madrid / Almería - 08/05/2011. La violencia de género continúa sumando víctimas. Las últimas en engrosar la lista negra de mujeres asesinadas a manos de sus compañeros sentimentales han sido una mujer de 30 años en Almería y otra de 40 años en Madrid.
La primera ha sido apuñalada sobre las 10.30 en la calle Vinaroz de la capital almeriense, horas. El sospechoso, V.F.C, un hombre de 42 años con el que estaba en trámites de separación, ha sido detenido después por la Policía Nacional. Ambos eran pareja de hecho, tenían dos hijos y no existía denuncia previa de la víctima por presuntos malos tratos.
Horas más tarde, una mujer de 40 años, de origen ecuatoriano, ha sido degollada presuntamente a manos de su marido en el domicilio que ambos compartían la en la Calle de Ascensión Bielsa, en el distrito madrileño de Puente de Vallecas.
Girona - 06/05/2011. Una mujer de 71 años ha sido asesinada esta mañana en su casa en Bescanó (Girona) en un presunto caso de violencia de género. Los Mossos d'Esquadra han detenido una hora y media después a su expareja, de 76 años, como presunto autor del crimen, que ha ocurrido en el centro de la localidad, cercana a Girona. La policía autonómica le acusa de un delito de homicidio.
Barcelona - 25/04/2011. Johnny B. A., de 32 años y de nacionalidad boliviana, fue detenido ayer en Santa Coloma de Gramenet (Barcelona) por los Mossos d'Esquadra por su presunta relación con la muerte de su pareja, cuyo cadáver apareció bajo el puente del Molinet de esa ciudad. La detención se produjo después de que la policía autonómica recibiera una llamada sobre la una de la madrugada de ayer advirtiendo de la presencia del cadáver. El caso se encuentra bajo secreto de sumario, y los Mossos d'Esquadra investigan las circunstancias que rodearon la muerte de la mujer, sin descartar, por ahora, ninguna hipótesis.
Alicante - 13/04/2011. La Guardia Civil y la subdelegada del Gobierno en Alicante, Encarna Llinares, han confirmado esta mañana que el fallecimiento de una mujer ayer en Mutxamel es un caso de violencia de género. La víctima, cuyo cadáver fue hallado por los bomberos al extinguir un incendio en su vivienda, presentaba nueve puñaladas. El supuesto agresor y marido de la fallecida está sedado e intubado en el hospital de San Juan, donde permanece custodiado por la Guardia Civil, según ha indicado la Comandancia de Alicante, que ha precisado que aún no ha sido detenido formalmente por su estado de salud.
Pamplona - 06/04/2011. El exnovio de Yanela Z. C., la joven de 22 años hallada muerta el lunes en una laguna de la localidad navarra de Beriáin, fue detenido ayer por la Policía Foral por su presunta vinculación con el caso. Según confirmó la directora del Instituto Navarro para la Igualdad (INAI), Sara Ibarrola, todo apunta a que se trata de un nuevo caso de violencia de género, que elevaría así a 18 el número de víctimas mortales del machismo en lo que va de año.
Madrid - 05/04/2011. Un joven de nacionalidad rumana estranguló ayer por la tarde a su pareja, de la misma nacionalidad y que estaba embarazada de cinco meses, en la localidad madrileña de Torrejón de Ardoz. Después de cometer el asesinato, se puso en contacto con el padre de él -y no de ella, como se había informado en un principio-, que vive en Rumanía, a través de una vídeoconferencia. Mediante una webcam, confesó los hechos y mostró al hombre el cadáver a la chica, de solo 19 años, y amenazó con matar también a la hermana pequeña de la víctima, que vivía con ellos.
Pamplona - 05/04/2011. La directora del Instituto Navarro para la Igualdad (INAI), Sara Ibarrola, ha afirmado que "todo parece indicar" que la muerte de Yanela Zaruma, la joven hallado muerta este lunes en la laguna de La Morea con signos de violencia, es un caso de violencia de género, si bien se ha remitido a la investigación policial.
Jaén - 22/03/2011. Una mujer de 44 años ha sido hallada muerta con una puñalada en el cuello en la localidad jienense de Torre del Campo. La Guardia Civil ha encontrado el cuerpo en la vivienda de su ex compañero sentimental, que ha sido el que ha llamado a emergencias y que ha sido detenido como presunto autor del crimen, según han informado fuentes de la Guardia Civil.
Granada - 22/03/2011. Una mujer de 62 años fue asesinada ayer, presuntamente, por su marido en Granada. El hombre, de la misma edad e iniciales C. M. C, confesó poco después a la Policía Local que había matado a su pareja con un cuchillo. Él está jubilado como agente del Cuerpo Nacional de Policía.
Madrid - 07/03/2011. La Guardia Civil ha detenido a Vicente S.M, español de 55 años, como presunto asesino de su Marylin Wilson, su expareja, de 52 años y de nacionalidad británica, que ha muerto apuñalada a primera hora de esta mañana en Fuente el Saz del Jarama, una pequeña localidad de 6.300 habitantes al norte de la Comunidad de Madrid.
Oviedo - 28/02/2011. La policía detuvo ayer en Avilés al marido de una mujer que falleció tras caer por la ventana de su casa, en un quinto piso. El hombre, de nacionalidad española y de 30 años, tenía una orden de alejamiento en vigor que le impedía acercarse a la fallecida, de 20 años y nacionalidad paraguaya. Sin embargo, parece que el matrimonio aún convivía, ya que en el momento en que la mujer se precipitó al vacío estaban en su domicilio su marido y los tres hijos de este.
Valencia - 23/02/2011. Una mujer de 32 años ha fallecido hoy de forma violenta en Valencia supuestamente a manos de su compañero sentimental, de 74, ha informado la Jefatura Superior de Policía.
Reus - 23/02/2011. En Tarragona, los Mossos d'Esquadra buscan a la pareja de una mujer de 44 años hallada muerta anoche en su vivienda de Reus con heridas de arma blanca, según fuentes próximas a la investigación.
Málaga - 15/02/2011. Una mujer de 37 años, Susana María Galeote, ha fallecido esta mañana en plena calle Villafuerte, en la barriada malagueña de El Palo, como consecuencia de un hachazo que le ha asestado su expareja, un hombre de 41, según fuentes policiales.
Almería - 06/02/2011 . Un hombre de 36 años, y de nacionalidad marroquí, mató el pasado jueves a su pareja sentimental y al hijo de esta -fruto de una relación anterior- en el piso que compartían los tres en la localidad de Roquetas de Mar (Almería).
Vitoria - 27/01/2011. España vivió otro día negro de violencia machista al aparecer una mujer muerta en Cartagena, por lo que se buscaba a su marido, y un matrimonio fallecido en Vitoria con claros indicios de que el hombre la mató y se suicidó. Con estos, en lo que va de enero hay que contar ya cinco casos de mujeres asesinadas por sus parejas.
Fuenlabrada - 19/01/2011. Un hombre estrangula a su pareja en el piso de Fuenlabrada en el que vivían.
Granada - 13/01/2011. Un ciudadano chino de 32 años de edad ha sido detenido este jueves en Granada como presunto autor de la muerte de una compatriota de entre 26 y 29 años.
Segovia - 13/01/2011. Un hombre mata a su mujer y a su hijo con disparos de escopeta y se suicida en Segovia.
Santa Maria de Palautordera (Vallès Oriental, Barcelona) - 17/12/2010. Francisco L. C., de 35 años asesinó a su esposa, Rosa María García Venteo, de 43 en su casa.
Badajoz - 16/12/2010. Un hombre ha matado hoy supuestamente a su ex pareja en Badajoz de uno o varios disparos y después se ha suicidado lanzándose al patio interior del bloque de viviendas en el que vivía la mujer.
Málaga - 08/12/2010. Una mujer de 27 años y nacionalidad china ha sido encontrada muerta con signos de violencia en un almacén de lencería del polígono del Guadalhorce, en Málaga, ha informado esta tarde el Cuerpo Nacional de Policía. La investigación apunta a que puede tratarse de un caso de violencia de género y está buscando a la pareja sentimental de la víctima, también de origen chino.
Barakaldo (Vizcaya) - 07/12/2010. Cristina Estébanez, de 25 años, ha sido asesinada presuntamente por su ex pareja en la localidad vizcaína de Barakaldo. El presunto asesino, de la misma edad y de origen cubano, ha herido también de gravedad al actual compañero de la víctima.
Alicante - 04/12/2010. Un joven de 23 años ha asesinado a navajazos esta tarde a su ex pareja, una mujer de la misma edad, según informa la Guardia Civil de Alicante.
Santa Cruz de Tenerife - 19/11/2010. Un hombre mata a su pareja e hiere a otras dos en su huida en coche.
Zafra - 10/11/2010. La joven degollada en Leganés sufría el acoso de su ex novio desde que dejaron la relación.
Sevilla - 03/11/2010. Muere en Sevilla una mujer degollada por su pareja.
Sevilla - 02/11/2010. Salud emite 17 partes diarios por casos de violencia machista.
Today, I went to Vancouver and a group of women where raising money for www.walk.com for world poverty and they where giving people henna for a small fee! So of course I got this beauty! I love it, I think it's so beautiful! the woman did a wonderful job. I'd love to learn how to do this!
ALSO!! guess who I saw at Whole Foods in Vancouver? Mark Harmon!!! from NCIS who plays Gibbs! I never see anyone famous so I got a little overly excited.
Blancpain Endurance Series - SOFREV ASP - Patrice Goueslard - Julien Jousse - Jérome Policand - Ferrari 458 Italia - GT3 Pro Cup
sabe felicidade é sabedoria, esperança, vontade de ir, de ficar, presente,, passado, futuro...
é confiança: fé e crença, trabalho e ação. Não se pode ter pressa de ser feliz, porque a felicidade vem devagarzinho, como quem não quer nada. FELICIDADE é desprendimento. Só é feliz quem sabe suportar, perder, sofrer e perdoar.e quem sabe sobretudo amar. e ela é um bem que se multiplica ao ser dividido.as vezes procuramos em grandes coisas e esquecemos que ela esta em enxergar as coisas mais simples da vida......
Not the greatest of shots but I was struck by how pale this Buzzard was.
Footnote: speaking to someone at work and mentioned this. He tells me that a 'white' Buzzard had been seen regularly about 10 miles north of here last winter and was frequently and wrongly reported as an Osprey. At least I didn't make that mistake but when I was checking ID I did notice how similar the markings were to that of an Osprey
Exam Piece (5 Hour Constraint) AS 3D design '07
(To answer the question "Distressed Forms")
Hand-Built Clay
approx: h13" w7" d8"
Like I said, the urban jungle is filled with interesting forms—especially through the reflective surfaces of skyscrapers whose windows were never perfectly flat.
# SML Data
+ Date: 2013-02-11 15:25:01 GMT+0800
+ Dimensions: 3354 x 5032
+ Exposure: 1/250 sec at f/5.6
+ Focal Length: 98 mm
+ ISO: 100
+ Flash: Did not fire
+ Camera: Canon EOS 7D
+ Lens: Canon EF 70-200mm f/4L USM Canon EF 1.4x Extender III
+ GPS: 22°16'49" N 114°10'31" E
+ Altitude: 61.5 m
+ Location: 中國香港灣仔告士打道132號樂高大廈 中国香港湾仔告士打道132号乐高大厦 Lok Go Building, 132 Gloucester Road, Wan Chai, Hong Kong,
+ Serial: SML.20130211.7D.22763.P1.L1
+ Workflow: Photoshop CS6, Lightroom 4
+ Series: 形 Forms, 抽象 Abstracts
“紅白藍 Red, White and Blue” / 城市建築抽象之形 Urban Architecture Abstract Forms / SML.20130211.7D.22763.P1.L1
/ #形 #Forms #SMLForms #抽象 #Abstracts #SMLAbstracts #CCBY #SMLPhotography #SMLUniverse #SMLProjects
/ #中國 #中国 #China #香港 #HongKong #灣仔 #WanChai #建築 #建筑 #城市 #Urban #攝影 #摄影 #photography
Materials we used at the cooking lesson, the first of the Art & Crafts in English seminars, that took place in the Penthouse.
“No permanence is ours; we are a wave
That flows to fit whatever form it finds:
Through night or day, cathedral or the cave
We pass forever, craving form that binds.”
― Hermann Hesse, The Glass Bead Game
Shiva (/ˈʃivə/; Sanskrit: Śiva, meaning "The Auspicious One"), also known as Mahadeva ("Great God"), is a popular Hindu deity. Shiva is regarded as one of the primary forms of God. He is the Supreme God within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism.[2][3] He is one of the five primary forms of God in the Smarta tradition,[2] and "the Destroyer" or "the Transformer"[4] among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine.
At the highest level, Shiva is regarded limitless, transcendent, unchanging and formless.[5][6][7][8][9] Shiva also has many benevolent and fearsome forms.[10] In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash,[4] as well as a householder with wife Parvati and his two children, Ganesha and Kartikeya and in fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also regarded as the patron god of yoga and arts.[11][12][13]
The main iconographical attributes of Shiva are the third eye on his forehead, the snake Vasuki around his neck, the crescent moon adorning, the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair, the trishula as his weapon and the damaru as his instrument. Shiva is usually worshiped in the aniconic form of Lingam
The Sanskrit word Shiva (Devanagari: शिव, śiva) comes from Shri Rudram Chamakam of Taittiriya Samhita (TS 4.5, 4.7) of Krishna Yajurveda. The root word is[17] means auspicious. In simple English transliteration it is written either as Shiva or Siva. The adjective śiva, is used as an attributive epithet not particularly of Rudra, but of several other Vedic deities.[18]
The other popular names associated with Shiva are Mahadev, Mahesh, Maheshwar, Shankar, Shambhu, Rudra, Har, Trilochan, Devendra (meaning Chief of the gods) and Trilokinath (meaning Lord of the three realms).[19][20][21]
The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect.[22] It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.[23]
The Tamil word Sivan, Tamil: சிவன் ("Fair Skinned") could have been derived from the word sivappu. The word 'sivappu' means "red" in Tamil language but while addressing a person's skin texture in Tamil the word 'Sivappu' is used for being Fair Skinned.[24][25]
Adi Sankara, in his interpretation of the name Shiva, the 27th and 600th name of Vishnu sahasranama, the thousand names of Vishnu interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", or "the One who is not affected by three Gunas of Prakrti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)" or "the One who purifies everyone by the very utterance of His name."[26] Swami Chinmayananda, in his translation of Vishnu sahasranama, further elaborates on that verse: Shiva means "the One who is eternally pure" or "the One who can never have any contamination of the imperfection of Rajas and Tamas".[27]
Shiva's role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("Great god"; mahā "Great" and deva "god"),[28][29] Maheśvara ("Great Lord"; mahā "great" and īśvara "lord"),[30][31] and Parameśvara ("Supreme Lord").[32]
There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva.[33] The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradition.[34] Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa. The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the Śatarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.[35][36]The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.[37][38]The figure of Shiva as we know him today was built up over time, with the ideas of many regional sects being amalgamated into a single figure.[38] How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented.[39] According to Vijay Nath:
Visnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara."[40]
Axel Michaels the Indologist suggests that Shaivism, like Vaishnavism, implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept separate.[41]
An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes.[42] The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri.[43] Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself,[44] in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam.[42][45] Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya[42] and Karttikeya.[46]Many Indus valley seals show animals but one seal that has attracted attention shows a figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic[47][48][49] figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position and surrounded by animals was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro Pashupati (lord of cattle), an epithet of the later Hindu gods Shiva and Rudra.[47][50][51][52] Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva and have described the figure as having three faces seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.
While some academics like Gavin Flood[53][54] and John Keay have expressed doubts. John Keay writes that "He may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu- pati", but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra.[55] Writing in 1997 Doris Srinivasan rejected Marshall's package of proto-Siva features, including that of three heads. She interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man.[56] According to Iravatham Mahadevan symbols 47 and 48 of his Indus script glossary The Indus Script: Texts, Concordance and Tables (1977), representing seated human-like figures, could describe Hindu deity Murugan, popularly known as Shiva and Parvati's son.[57]
Writing in 2002, Gregory L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, its association with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline.[58]Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities, including Purusha, Rudra, Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, and others.[59]Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra,[60] and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.
Hindu text Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700 and 1100 BC based on linguistic and philological evidence.[61] A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras", a group of storm gods.[62] Furthermore, the Rudram, one of the most sacred hymns of Hinduism found both in the Rig and the Yajur Vedas and addressed to Rudra, invokes him as Shiva in several instances, but the term Shiva is used as an epithet for the gods Indra, Mitra and Agni many times. Since Shiva means pure, the epithet is possibly used to describe a quality of these gods rather than to identify any of them with the God Shiva.
The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudhra is not universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:
Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: Śarva),[63] and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra.[64] This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages.[65]
The word is derived from the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means "to injure" or "to kill",[66] and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name Śarva as "One who can kill the forces of darkness".[65] The names Dhanvin ("Bowman")[67] and Bāṇahasta ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands")[67][68] also refer to archery.
Agni[edit]
Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.[69][70] The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva.[71] The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra."[72] The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:
The fire myth of Rudra-Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.[73]
In the Śatarudrīya, some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipañjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities.[74] Agni is said to be a bull,[75] and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.[76][77] In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.[78]
Indra[edit]
According to Wendy Doniger, the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra.[79] Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,[80] 6.45.17,[81][82] and 8.93.3.[83]) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull.[84][85] In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.[86]
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion,[87][88] and the Indo-Iranian religion.[89] According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran.[90] It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",[90] which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices"[89] from the Bactria–Margiana Culture.[89] At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.[91] According to Anthony,
Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.[92]
Later Vedic literature[edit]
Rudra's transformation from an ambiguously characterized deity to a supreme being began in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400-200 BC), which founded the tradition of Rudra-Shiva worship. Here they are identified as the creators of the cosmos and liberators of souls from the birth-rebirth cycle. The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva, with references to Shaiva ascetics in Patanjali's Mahabhasya and in the Mahabharata.[54][93]
Early historical paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, depict Shiva dancing, Shiva's trident, and his mount Nandi but no other Vedic gods.[94][95]
Puranic literature[edit]
The Shiva Puranas, particularly the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana, discuss the various forms of Shiva and the cosmology associated with him.[96]
Tantric literature[edit]
The Tantras, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, regard themselves as Sruti. Among these the Shaiva Agamas, are said to have been revealed by Shiva himself and are foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta.[97]Shaivism[edit]
Main articles: Shaivism and History of Shaivism
Shaivism (Sanskrit: शैव पंथ, śaiva paṁtha) (Kannada: ಶೈವ ಪಂಥ) (Tamil: சைவ சமயம்) is the oldest of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", and also "Saivas" or "Saivites", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. The tantric Shaiva tradition consists of the Kapalikas, Kashmir Shaivism and Shaiva Siddhanta. The Shiva MahaPurana is one of the purāṇas, a genre of Hindu religious texts, dedicated to Shiva. Shaivism is widespread throughout India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, mostly. Areas notable for the practice of Shaivism include parts of Southeast Asia, especially Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia.
Panchayatana puja[edit]
Main article: Panchayatana puja
Panchayatana puja is the system of worship ('puja') in the Smarta sampradaya of Hinduism. It is said to have been introduced by Adi Shankara, the 8th century AD Hindu philosopher. It consists of the worship of five deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Devi, Surya and Ganesha. Depending on the tradition followed by Smarta households, one of these deities is kept in the center and the other four surround it. Worship is offered to all the deities. The five are represented by small murtis, or by five kinds of stones, or by five marks drawn on the floor.[98]
Trimurti[edit]
Main article: Trimurti
The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahmā the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Śhiva the destroyer or transformer.[99][100] These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad"[101] or the "Great Trinity",[102] often addressed as "Brahma-Vishnu-Maheshwara."
Shiva's form: Shiva has a trident in the right lower arm, and a crescent moon on his head. He is said to be fair like camphor or like an ice clad mountain. He wears five serpents and a garland of skulls as ornaments. Shiva is usually depicted facing the south. His trident, like almost all other forms in Hinduism, can be understood as the symbolism of the unity of three worlds that a human faces - his inside world, his immediate world, and the broader overall world. At the base of the trident, all three forks unite. It is often not shown but Shiva has 6 heads, of which only five (Isana, Tatpurusha, Vamana, Aghora, Sadyojata) are visible while the 6th (Adhomukh) can only be seen by the enlightened.
Third eye: (Trilochana) Shiva is often depicted with a third eye, with which he burned Desire (Kāma) to ashes,[103] called "Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: त्र्यम्बकम् ), which occurs in many scriptural sources.[104] In classical Sanskrit, the word ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three eyes".[105] However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word ambā or ambikā means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "three mothers".[106][107] These three mother-goddesses who are collectively called the Ambikās.[108] Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambikā.[109] It has been mentioned that when Shiva loses his temper, his third eye opens which can reduce most things to ashes.
Crescent moon: (The epithets "Chandrasekhara/Chandramouli")- Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon.[110] The epithet Candraśekhara (Sanskrit: चन्द्रशेखर "Having the moon as his crest" - candra = "moon"; śekhara = "crest, crown")[111][112][113] refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva.[114] The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon.[115] The crescent moon is shown on the side of the Lord's head as an ornament. The waxing and waning phenomenon of the moon symbolizes the time cycle through which creation evolves from the beginning to the end.
Ashes: (The epithet "Bhasmaanga Raaga") - Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma). The ashes are said to represent the end of all material existence.[116] Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy.[117] These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism.[118] One epithet for Shiva is "inhabitant of the cremation ground" (Sanskrit: śmaśānavāsin, also spelled Shmashanavasin), referring to this connection.[119]
Matted hair: (The epithet "Jataajoota Dhari/Kapardina") - Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin, "the one with matted hair",[120] and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair"[121] or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion".[122] A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly.[123] His hair is said to be like molten gold in color or being yellowish-white.
Blue throat: The epithet Nīlakaṇtha (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ; nīla = "blue", kaṇtha = "throat").[124][125] Since Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthan to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked by his act, Goddess Parvati strangled his neck and hence managed to stop it in his neck itself and prevent it from spreading all over the universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue.[126][127] (See Maha Shivaratri.)Sacred Ganges: (The epithet "Gangadhara") Bearer of Ganga. Ganges river flows from the matted hair of Shiva.[128][129] The Gaṅgā (Ganges), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.[130] The flow of the Ganges also represents the nectar of immortality.
Tiger skin: (The epithet "Krittivasana").He is often shown seated upon a tiger skin,[116] an honour reserved for the most accomplished of Hindu ascetics, the Brahmarishis.[131]
Serpents: (The epithet "Nagendra Haara" or 'Vasoki"). Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.[132]
Deer: His holding deer on one hand indicates that He has removed the Chanchalata of the mind (i.e., attained maturity and firmness in thought process). A deer jumps from one place to another swiftly, similar to the mind moving from one thought to another.
Trident: (Trishula): Shiva's particular weapon is the trident.[116] His Trisul that is held in His right hand represents the three Gunas— Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. That is the emblem of sovereignty. He rules the world through these three Gunas. The Damaru in His left hand represents the Sabda Brahman. It represents OM from which all languages are formed. It is He who formed the Sanskrit language out of the Damaru sound.
Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru (ḍamaru).[133][134] This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation[135] known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "ḍamaru-hand") is used to hold the drum.[136] This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect.[137]
Axe: (Parashu):The parashu is the weapon of Lord Shiva who gave it to Parashurama, sixth Avatar of Vishnu, whose name means "Rama with the axe" and also taught him its mastery.
Nandī: (The epithet "Nandi Vaahana").Nandī, also known as Nandin, is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: vāhana).[138][139] Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name Paśupati, or Pashupati (Sanskrit: पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle"[140] and by Kramrisch as "lord of animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.[141] Rishabha or the bull represents Dharma Devata. Lord Siva rides on the bull. Bull is his vehicle. This denotes that Lord Siva is the protector of Dharma, is an embodiment of Dharma or righteousness.
Gaṇa: The Gaṇas (Devanagari: गण) are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee. Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title gaṇa-īśa or gaṇa-pati, "lord of the gaṇas".[142]
5 heads: Shiva is known as panchavactra means 5 heads which indicates 5 elements.
Arms: Shiva has 4 arms which resembles 4 vedas
Mount Kailāsa: Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode.[116] In Hindu mythology, Mount Kailāsa is conceived as resembling a Linga, representing the center of the universe.[143]
Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.[144]
LINGAM
Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a lingam, or linga, is also important.[145][146][147] These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column. Shiva means auspiciousness, and linga means a sign or a symbol. Hence, the Shivalinga is regarded as a "symbol of the great God of the universe who is all-auspiciousness".[148] Shiva also means "one in whom the whole creation sleeps after dissolution".[148] Linga also means the same thing—a place where created objects get dissolved during the disintegration of the created universe. Since, according to Hinduism, it is the same god that creates, sustains and withdraws the universe, the Shivalinga represents symbolically God Himself.[148] Some scholars, such as Monier Monier-Williams and Wendy Doniger, also view linga as a phallic symbol,[149][150] although this interpretation is disputed by others, including Christopher Isherwood,[151] Vivekananda,[152] Swami Sivananda,[153] and S.N. Balagangadhara.[154]
JYOTHIRLINGAM
The worship of the Shiva-Linga originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga.[155][156] In the text Linga Purana, the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.[156]
The sacred of all Shiva linga is worshipped as Jyotir linga. Jyoti means Radiance, apart from relating Shiva linga as a phallus symbol, there are also arguments that Shiva linga means 'mark' or a 'sign'. Jyotirlinga means "The Radiant sign of The Almighty". The Jyotirlingas are mentioned in Shiva Purana.[157]Shiva forms a Tantric couple with Shakti [Tamil : சக்தி ], the embodiment of energy, dynamism, and the motivating force behind all action and existence in the material universe. Shiva is her transcendent masculine aspect, providing the divine ground of all being. Shakti manifests in several female deities. Sati and Parvati are the main consorts of Shiva. She is also referred to as Uma, Durga (Parvata), Kali[158] and Chandika.[159] Kali is the manifestation of Shakti in her dreadful aspect. The name Kali comes from kāla, which means black, time, death, lord of death, Shiva. Since Shiva is called Kāla, the eternal time, Kālī, his consort, also means "Time" or "Death" (as in "time has come"). Various Shakta Hindu cosmologies, as well as Shākta Tantric beliefs, worship her as the ultimate reality or Brahman. She is also revered as Bhavatārini (literally "redeemer of the universe"). Kālī is represented as the consort of Lord Shiva, on whose body she is often seen standing or dancing. Shiva is the masculine force, the power of peace, while Shakti translates to power, and is considered as the feminine force. In the Vaishnava tradition, these realities are portrayed as Vishnu and Laxmi, or Radha and Krishna. These are differences in formulation rather than a fundamental difference in the principles. Both Shiva and Shakti have various forms. Shiva has forms like Yogi Raj (the common image of Himself meditating in the Himalayas), Rudra (a wrathful form) and Natarajar (Shiva's dance are the Lasya - the gentle form of dance, associated with the creation of the world, and the Tandava - the violent and dangerous dance, associated with the destruction of weary worldviews – weary perspectives and lifestyles).
The five mantras[edit]
Five is a sacred number for Shiva.[160] One of his most important mantras has five syllables (namaḥ śivāya).[161]
Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pañcabrahmans.[162] As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:[163]
Sadyojāta
Vāmadeva
Aghora
Tatpuruṣha
Īsāna
These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action.[164][165] Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes.[166] The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:
Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.[167]
According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad:
One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)[168]
Forms and roles[edit]
According to Gavin Flood, "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing themes.[169] The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.
NATARAJA
The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Sanskrit: naṭarāja, "Lord of Dance") is popular.[199][200] The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama.[201] His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period.[202] In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: nṛtyamūrti) are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular.[203] The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava, which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Lord Śiva does it by the tāṇḍavanṛtya.[204][205] and Lasya, which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati.[206][207] Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava.[207] The Tandava-Lasya dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.[208][209][210]
Dakshinamurthy[edit]
Main article: Dakshinamurthy
Dakshinamurthy, or Dakṣiṇāmūrti (Tamil:தட்சிணாமூர்த்தி, Telugu: దక్షిణామూర్తి, Sanskrit: दक्षिणामूर्ति),[211] literally describes a form (mūrti) of Shiva facing south (dakṣiṇa). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras.[212] This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu.[213] Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.[214]
ARDHANARISWARA:
An iconographic representation of Shiva called (Ardhanārīśvara) shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form (Ardhanārīśvara) is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", not as "half-man, half-woman".[215] According to legend, Lord Shiva is pleased by the difficult austerites performed by the goddess Parvati, grants her the left half of his body. This form of Shiva is quite similar to the Yin-Yang philosophy of Eastern Asia, though Ardhanārīśvara appears to be more ancient.Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, Tripura, of the Asuras.[216] Shiva's name Tripurantaka (Sanskrit: त्रिपुरान्तक, Tripurāntaka), "ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.[217] In this aspect, Shiva is depicted with four arms wielding a bow and arrow, but different from the Pinakapani murti. He holds an axe and a deer on the upper pair of his arms. In the lower pair of the arms, he holds a bow and an arrow respectively. After destroying Tripura, Tripurantaka Shiva smeared his forehead with three strokes of Ashes. This has become a prominent symbol of Shiva and is practiced even today by Shaivites.Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as Avatars. Although Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to "ansh" avatars of Shiva, the idea is not universally accepted in Saivism.[218] The Linga Purana speaks of twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars.[219] According to the Svetasvatara Upanishad, he has four avatars.[220]
In the Hanuman Chalisa, Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva and this belief is universal. Hanuman is popularly known as “Rudraavtaar” “Rudra” being a name of “Shiva”.[221] Rama– the Vishnu avatar is considered by some to be the eleventh avatar of Rudra (Shiva).[222][223]
Other traditions regard the sage Durvasa,[224][225][226][227] the sage Agastya, the philosopher Adi Shankara and Ashwatthama as avatars of Shiva. Other forms of Shiva include Virabhadra and Sharabha.Maha Shivratri is a festival celebrated every year on the 13th night or the 14th day of the new moon in the Shukla Paksha of the month of Maagha or Phalguna in the Hindu calendar. This festival is of utmost importance to the devotees of Lord Shiva. Mahashivaratri marks the night when Lord Shiva performed the 'Tandava' and it is the day that Lord Shiva was married to Parvati.[228] The holiday is often celebrated with special prayers and rituals offered up to Shiva, notably the Abhishek. This ritual, practiced throughout the night, is often performed every three hours with water, milk, yogurt, and honey. Bel (aegle marmelos) leaves are often offered up to the Hindu god, as it is considered necessary for a successful life. The offering of the leaves are considered so important that it is believed that someone who offers them without any intentions will be rewarded greatly.[229]
Buddhism[edit]
Shiva is mentioned in Buddhist Tantra. Shiva as Upaya and Shakti as Prajna.[230] In cosmologies of buddhist tantra, Shiva is depicted as active, skillful, and more passive.[231]
Sikhism[edit]
The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says, "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi."[232] In the same chapter, it also says, "Shiva speaks, the Siddhas speak."
In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh have mentioned two avtars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avtar and Parasnath Avtar.[233]
Others[edit]
The worship of Lord Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the Hephthalite (White Hun) Dynasty,[234] and Kushan Empire. Shaivism was also popular in Sogdiana and Eastern Turkestan as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan.[235] In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread ("Yajnopavita").[235] He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sodgian dress.[235] In Eastern Turkestan in the Taklamakan Desert.[235] There is a depiction of his four-legged seated cross-legged n a cushioned seat supported by two bulls.[235] Another panel form Dandan-Uilip shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with His Shakti kneeling on her right thigh.[235][236] It is also noted that Zoroastrian wind god Vayu-Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.[236]
Kirant people, a Mongol tribe from Nepal, worship a form of Shiva as one of their major deity, identifying him as the lord of animals. It is also said that the physical form of Shiva as a yogi is derived from Kirants as it is mentioned in Mundhum that Shiva took human form as a child of Kirant. He is also said to give Kirants visions in form of a male deer.
In Indonesia, Shiva is also worshiped as Batara Guru. In the ancient times, all kingdoms were located on top of mountains. When he was young, before receiving his authority of power, his name was Sang Hyang Manikmaya. He is first of the children who hatched from the eggs laid by Manuk Patiaraja, wife of god Mulajadi na Bolon. This avatar is also worshiped in Malaysia. Shiva's other form in Indonesian Hinduism is "Maharaja Dewa" (Mahadeva).[237]
Aríbalo en forma de erizo. FAyenza silicea. Baja época. Din. XXVI
Wild or domesticated animals had a vital role in ancient Egypt. The exhibition "Animals and Pharaohs" shows the role and importance of animals in Pharaonic civilization.
Consisting of more than four hundred pieces the exhibit reconstructs the relationship between animals and men religious beliefs , nature and culture, from admiration and fear in everyday life, war or in agriculture.
Los animales salvajes o domesticados tienen un papel fundamental en el antiguo Egipto. La exposición Animales y faraones muestra la función y la importancia de la figura animal en la civilización faraónica.
Formada por más de cuatrocientas piezas, reconstruye la relación que se estableció entre los hombres y los animales, la naturaleza y la cultura, desde la admiración y el temor en la vida cotidiana, en la agricultura, la guerra y las creencias religiosas.
"Contrapuntal Forms 1950-51" is carved from Irish blue limestone. It was commissioned for the Festival of Britain by the Arts Council and in 1953 was presented to the new town of Harlow where it still (normally) stands.
Durga
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In Hinduism, Durga one who can redeem in situations of utmost distress; is a form of Devi, the supremely radiant goddess, depicted as having ten arms, riding a lion or a tiger, carrying weapons and a lotus flower, maintaining a meditative smile, and practising mudras, or symbolic hand gestures.
An embodiment of creative feminine force (Shakti), Durga exists in a state of tantrya (independence from the universe and anything/anybody else, i.e., self-sufficiency) and fierce compassion. Kali is considered by Hindus to be an aspect of Durga. Durga is also the mother of Ganesha and Kartikeya. She is thus considered the fiercer, demon-fighting form of Shiva's wife, goddess Parvati. Durga manifests fearlessness and patience, and never loses her sense of humor, even during spiritual battles of epic proportion.
The word Shakti means divine feminine energy/force/power, and Durga is the warrior aspect of the Divine Mother. Other incarnations include Annapurna and Karunamayi. Durga's darker aspect Kali is represented as the consort of the god Shiva, on whose body she is often seen standing.
Durga Slays Mahishasura, Mahabalipuram sculpture.
As a goddess, Durga's feminine power contains the energies of the gods. Each of her weapons was given to her by various gods: Rudra's trident, Vishnu's discus, Indra's thunderbolt, Brahma's kamandalu, Kuber's Ratnahar, etc.
According to a narrative in the Devi Mahatmya story of the Markandeya Purana text, Durga was created as a warrior goddess to fight an asura (an inhuman force/demon) named Mahishasura. He had unleashed a reign of terror on earth, heaven and the nether worlds, and he could not be defeated by any man or god, anywhere. The gods went to Brahma, who had given Mahishasura the power not to be defeated by a man. Brahma could do nothing. They made Brahma their leader and went to Vaikuntha — the place where Vishnu lay on Ananta Naag. They found both Vishnu and Shiva, and Brahma eloquently related the reign of terror Mahishasur had unleashed on the three worlds. Hearing this Vishnu, Shiva and all of the gods became very angry and beams of fierce light emerged from their bodies. The blinding sea of light met at the Ashram of a priest named Katyan. The goddess Durga took the name Katyaayani from the priest and emerged from the sea of light. She introduced herself in the language of the Rig-Veda, saying she was the form of the supreme Brahman who had created all the gods. Now she had come to fight the demon to save the gods. They did not create her; it was her lila that she emerged from their combined energy. The gods were blessed with her compassion.
It is said that upon initially encountering Durga, Mahishasura underestimated her, thinking: "How can a woman kill me, Mahishasur — the one who has defeated the trinity of gods?" However, Durga roared with laughter, which caused an earthquake which made Mahishasur aware of her powers.
And the terrible Mahishasur rampaged against her, changing forms many times. First he was a buffalo demon, and she defeated him with her sword. Then he changed forms and became an elephant that tied up the goddess's lion and began to pull it towards him. The goddess cut off his trunk with her sword. The demon Mahishasur continued his terrorizing, taking the form of a lion, and then the form of a man, but both of them were gracefully slain by Durga.
Then Mahishasur began attacking once more, starting to take the form of a buffalo again. The patient goddess became very angry, and as she sipped divine wine from a cup she smiled and proclaimed to Mahishasur in a colorful tone — "Roar with delight while you still can, O illiterate demon, because when I will kill you after drinking this, the gods themselves will roar with delight".[cite this quote] When Mahashaur had half emerged into his buffalo form, he was paralyzed by the extreme light emitting from the goddess's body. The goddess then resounded with laughter before cutting Mahishasur's head down with her sword.
Thus Durga slew Mahishasur, thus is the power of the fierce compassion of Durga. Hence, Mata Durga is also known as Mahishasurmardhini — the slayer of Mahishasur. According to one legend, the goddess Durga created an army to fight against the forces of the demon-king Mahishasur, who was terrorizing Heaven and Earth. After ten days of fighting, Durga and her army defeated Mahishasur and killed him. As a reward for their service, Durga bestowed upon her army the knowledge of jewelry-making. Ever since, the Sonara community has been involved in the jewelry profession [3].
The goddess as Mahisasuramardhini appears quite early in Indian art. The Archaeological Museum in Matura has several statues on display including a 6-armed Kushana period Mahisasuramardhini that depicts her pressing down the buffalo with her lower hands [4]. A Nagar plaque from the first century BC - first century AD depicts a 4-armed Mahisamardhini accompanied by a lion. But it is in the Gupta period that we see the finest representations of Mahisasuramardhini (2-, 4-, 6-, and at Udayagiri, 12-armed). The spear and trident are her most common weapons. a Mamallapuram relief shows the goddess with 8 arms riding her lion subduing a bufalo-faced demon (as contrasted with a buffalo demon); a variation also seen at Ellora. In later sculptures (post-seventh Century), sculptures show the goddess having decapitated the buffalo demon
Durga Puja
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Durga puja is an annual Hindu festival in South Asia that celebrates worship of the Hindu goddess Durga. It refers to all the six days observed as Mahalaya, Shashthi , Maha Saptami, Maha Ashtami, Maha Navami and Bijoya Dashami. The dates of Durga Puja celebrations are set according to the traditional Hindu calendar and the fortnight corresponding to the festival is called Devi Paksha and is ended on Kojagori Lokkhi Puja
Durga Puja is widely celebrated in the Indian states of West Bengal, Assam, Jharkhand, Orissa and Tripura where it is a five-day annual holiday.In West Bengal and Tripura which has majority of Bengali Hindus it is the Biggest festival of the year. Not only is it the biggest Hindu festival celebrated throughout the State, but it is also the most significant socio-cultural event in Bengali society. Apart from eastern India, Durga Puja is also celebrated in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab, Kashmir, Karnataka and Kerala. Durga Puja is also celebrated as a major festival in Nepal and in Bangladesh where 10% population are Hindu. Nowadays, many diaspora Bengali cultural organizations arrange for Durgotsab in countries such as the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, Germany, France, The Netherlands, Singapore and Kuwait, among others. In 2006, a grand Durga Puja ceremony was held in the Great Court of the British Museum.
The prominence of Durga Puja increased gradually during the British Raj in Bengal. After the Hindu reformists identified Durga with India, she became an icon for the Indian independence movement. In the first quarter of the 20th century, the tradition of Baroyari or Community Puja was popularised due to this. After independence, Durga Puja became one of the largest celebrated festivals in the whole world.
Durga Puja also includes the worship of Shiva, Lakshmi, Ganesha, Saraswati and Kartikeya. Modern traditions have come to include the display of decorated pandals and artistically depicted idols (murti) of Durga, exchange of Bijoya Greetings and publication of Puja Annuals.
Drawing is a form of visual art in which a person uses various drawing instruments to mark paper or another two-dimensional medium. Instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoal, chalk, pastels, various kinds of erasers, markers, styluses, various metals (such as silverpoint) and electronic drawing.
A drawing instrument releases small amount of material onto a surface, leaving a visible mark. The most common support for drawing is paper, although other materials, such as cardboard, plastic, leather, canvas, and board, may be used. Temporary drawings may be made on a blackboard or whiteboard or indeed almost anything. The medium has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. It is one of the simplest and most efficient means of communicating visual ideas.[1] The wide availability of drawing instruments makes drawing one of the most common artistic activities.
In addition to its more artistic forms, drawing is frequently used in commercial illustration, animation, architecture, engineering and technical drawing. A quick, freehand drawing, usually not intended as a finished work, is sometimes called a sketch. An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter, draftsman or a draughtsman.[2]
Drawing is one of the major forms of expression within the visual arts. It is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper/other material, where the accurate representation of the visual world is expressed upon a plane surface.[3] Traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour,[4] while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting. In Western terminology, drawing is distinct from painting, even though similar media often are employed in both tasks. Dry media, normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel paintings. Drawing may be done with a liquid medium, applied with brushes or pens. Similar supports likewise can serve both: painting generally involves the application of liquid paint onto prepared canvas or panels, but sometimes an underdrawing is drawn first on that same support.
Madame Palmyre with Her Dog, 1897. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
Galileo Galilei. Phases of the Moon. 1616.
Drawing is often exploratory, with considerable emphasis on observation, problem-solving and composition. Drawing is also regularly used in preparation for a painting, further obfuscating their distinction. Drawings created for these purposes are called studies.
There are several categories of drawing, including figure drawing, cartooning, doodling, free hand and shading. There are also many drawing methods, such as line drawing, stippling, shading, the surrealist method of entopic graphomania (in which dots are made at the sites of impurities in a blank sheet of paper, and lines are then made between the dots), and tracing (drawing on a translucent paper, such as tracing paper, around the outline of preexisting shapes that show through the paper).
A quick, unrefined drawing may be called a sketch.
In fields outside art, technical drawings or plans of buildings, machinery, circuitry and other things are often called "drawings" even when they have been transferred to another medium by printing.
History[edit]
Drawing as a Form of Communication Drawing is one of the oldest forms of human expression, with evidence for its existence preceding that of written communication.[5] It is believed that drawing was used as a specialised form of communication before the invent of the written language,[5][6] demonstrated by the production of cave and rock paintings created by Homo sapiens sapiens around 30,000 years ago.[7] These drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts.[8] The sketches and paintings produced in prehistoric times were eventually stylised and simplified, leading to the development of the written language as we know it today.
Drawing in the Arts Drawing is used to express one's creativity, and therefore has been prominent in the world of art. Throughout much of history, drawing was regarded as the foundation for artistic practise.[9] Initially, artists used and reused wooden tablets for the production of their drawings.[10] Following the widespread availability of paper in the 14th century, the use of drawing in the arts increased. At this point, drawing was commonly used as a tool for thought and investigation, acting as a study medium whilst artists were preparing for their final pieces of work.[11][12] In a period of artistic flourish, the Renaissance brought about drawings exhibiting realistic representational qualities,[13] where there was a lot of influence from geometry and philosophy.[14]
The invention of the first widely available form of photography led to a shift in the use of drawing in the arts.[15] Photography took over from drawing as a more superior method for accurately representing visual phenomena, and artists began to abandon traditional drawing practises.[16] Modernism in the arts encouraged "imaginative originality"[17] and artists' approach to drawing became more abstract.
Drawing Outside the Arts Although the use of drawing is extensive in the arts, its practice is not confined purely to this field. Before the widespread availability of paper, 12th century monks in European monasteries used intricate drawings to prepare illustrated, illuminated manuscripts on vellum and parchment. Drawing has also been used extensively in the field of science, as a method of discovery, understanding and explanation. In 1616, astronomer Galileo Galilei explained the changing phases of the moon through his observational telescopic drawings.[16] Additionally, in 1924, geophysicist Alfred Wegener used illustrations to visually demonstrate the origin of the continents.The medium is the means by which ink, pigment or color are delivered onto the drawing surface. Most drawing media are either dry (e.g. graphite, charcoal, pastels, Conté, silverpoint), or use a fluid solvent or carrier (marker, pen and ink). Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencils, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely, artists have drawn with (usually decoded) invisible ink. Metalpoint drawing usually employs either of two metals: silver or lead.[20] More rarely used are gold, platinum, copper, brass, bronze, and tinpoint.
Paper comes in a variety of different sizes and qualities, ranging from newspaper grade up to high quality and relatively expensive paper sold as individual sheets.[21] Papers can vary in texture, hue, acidity, and strength when wet. Smooth paper is good for rendering fine detail, but a more "toothy" paper holds the drawing material better. Thus a coarser material is useful for producing deeper contrast.
Newsprint and typing paper may be useful for practice and rough sketches. Tracing paper is used to experiment over a half-finished drawing, and to transfer a design from one sheet to another. Cartridge paper is the basic type of drawing paper sold in pads. Bristol board and even heavier acid-free boards, frequently with smooth finishes, are used for drawing fine detail and do not distort when wet media (ink, washes) are applied. Vellum is extremely smooth and suitable for very fine detail. Coldpressed watercolor paper may be favored for ink drawing due to its texture.
Acid-free, archival quality paper keeps its color and texture far longer than wood pulp based paper such as newsprint, which turns yellow and become brittle much sooner.
The basic tools are a drawing board or table, pencil sharpener and eraser, and for ink drawing, blotting paper. Other tools used are circle compass, ruler, and set square. Fixative is used to prevent pencil and crayon marks from smudging. Drafting tape is used to secure paper to drawing surface, and also to mask an area to keep it free of accidental marks sprayed or spattered materials and washes. An easel or slanted table is used to keep the drawing surface in a suitable position, which is generally more horizontal than the position used in painting.
Technique[edit]
Raphael, study for what became the Alba Madonna, with other sketches
Almost all draftsmen use their hands and fingers to apply the media, with the exception of some handicapped individuals who draw with their mouth or feet.[22]
Prior to working on an image, the artist typically explores how various media work. They may try different drawing implements on practice sheets to determine value and texture, and how to apply the implement to produce various effects.
The artist's choice of drawing strokes affects the appearance of the image. Pen and ink drawings often use hatching—groups of parallel lines.[23] Cross-hatching uses hatching in two or more different directions to create a darker tone. Broken hatching, or lines with intermittent breaks, form lighter tones—and controlling the density of the breaks achieves a gradation of tone. Stippling, uses dots to produce tone, texture or shade. Different textures can be achieved depending on the method used to build tone.[24]
Drawings in dry media often use similar techniques, though pencils and drawing sticks can achieve continuous variations in tone. Typically a drawing is filled in based on which hand the artist favors. A right-handed artist draws from left to right to avoid smearing the image. Erasers can remove unwanted lines, lighten tones, and clean up stray marks. In a sketch or outline drawing, lines drawn often follow the contour of the subject, creating depth by looking like shadows cast from a light in the artist's position.
Sometimes the artist leaves a section of the image untouched while filling in the remainder. The shape of the area to preserve can be painted with masking fluid or cut out of a frisket and applied to the drawing surface, protecting the surface from stray marks until the mask is removed.
Another method to preserve a section of the image is to apply a spray-on fixative to the surface. This holds loose material more firmly to the sheet and prevents it from smearing. However the fixative spray typically uses chemicals that can harm the respiratory system, so it should be employed in a well-ventilated area such as outdoors.
Another technique is subtractive drawing in which the drawing surface is covered with graphite or charcoal and then erased to make the image.[25]
Tone[edit]
Line drawing in sanguine by Leonardo da Vinci
Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows. Careful attention to reflected light, shadows and highlights can result in a very realistic rendition of the image.
Blending uses an implement to soften or spread the original drawing strokes. Blending is most easily done with a medium that does not immediately fix itself, such as graphite, chalk, or charcoal, although freshly applied ink can be smudged, wet or dry, for some effects. For shading and blending, the artist can use a blending stump, tissue, a kneaded eraser, a fingertip, or any combination of them. A piece of chamois is useful for creating smooth textures, and for removing material to lighten the tone. Continuous tone can be achieved with graphite on a smooth surface without blending, but the technique is laborious, involving small circular or oval strokes with a somewhat blunt point.
Shading techniques that also introduce texture to the drawing include hatching and stippling. A number of other methods produce texture. In addition to the choice of paper, drawing material and technique affect texture. Texture can be made to appear more realistic when it is drawn next to a contrasting texture; a coarse texture is more obvious when placed next to a smoothly blended area. A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones close together. A light edge next to a dark background stands out to the eye, and almost appears to float above the surface.
Form and proportion[edit]
Pencil portrait by Ingres
Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of the subject. Tools such as a compass can be used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the drawing implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. A ruler can be used both as a straightedge and a device to compute proportions.
When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent the form with a set of primitive volumes. Almost any form can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic volumes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the primitive volumes are removed and replaced by the final likeness. Drawing the underlying construction is a fundamental skill for representational art, and is taught in many books and schools. Its correct application resolves most uncertainties about smaller details, and makes the final image look consistent.[26]
A more refined art of figure drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff. The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait.
Perspective[edit]
Linear perspective is a method of portraying objects on a flat surface so that the dimensions shrink with distance. Each set of parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building or a table, follows lines that eventually converge at a vanishing point. Typically this convergence point is somewhere along the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface. When multiple structures are aligned with each other, such as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and bottoms of the structures typically converge at a vanishing point.
Two-point perspective drawing
When both the fronts and sides of a building are drawn, then the parallel lines forming a side converge at a second point along the horizon (which may be off the drawing paper.) This is a two-point perspective.[27] Converging the vertical lines to a third point above or below the horizon then produces a three-point perspective.
Depth can also be portrayed by several techniques in addition to the perspective approach above. Objects of similar size should appear ever smaller the further they are from the viewer. Thus the back wheel of a cart appears slightly smaller than the front wheel. Depth can be portrayed through the use of texture. As the texture of an object gets further away it becomes more compressed and busy, taking on an entirely different character than if it was close. Depth can also be portrayed by reducing the contrast in more distant objects, and by making their colors less saturated. This reproduces the effect of atmospheric haze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in the foreground.
Artistry[edit]
Chiaroscuro study drawing by William-Adolphe Bouguereau
The composition of the image is an important element in producing an interesting work of artistic merit. The artist plans element placement in the art to communicate ideas and feelings with the viewer. The composition can determine the focus of the art, and result in a harmonious whole that is aesthetically appealing and stimulating.
The illumination of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox. The placement of the light sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented. Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any texture or interesting features.
When drawing an object or figure, the skilled artist pays attention to both the area within the silhouette and what lies outside. The exterior is termed the negative space, and can be as important in the representation as the figure. Objects placed in the background of the figure should appear properly placed wherever they can be viewed.
Drawing process in the Academic Study of a Male Torso by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1801, National Museum, Warsaw)
A study is a draft drawing that is made in preparation for a planned final image. Studies can be used to determine the appearances of specific parts of the completed image, or for experimenting with the best approach for accomplishing the end goal. However a well-crafted study can be a piece of art in its own right, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study.
Process[edit]
Individuals display differences in their ability to produce visually accurate drawings.[28] A visually accurate drawing is described as being "recognized as a particular object at a particular time and in a particular space, rendered with little addition of visual detail that can not be seen in the object represented or with little deletion of visual detail”.[29]
Investigative studies have aimed to explain the reasons why some individuals draw better than others. One study posited four key abilities in the drawing process: perception of objects being drawn, ability to make good representational decisions, motor skills required for mark-making and the drawer's own perception of their drawing.[29] Following this hypothesis, several studies have sought to conclude which of these processes are most significant in affecting the accuracy of drawings.
Motor function Motor function is an important physical component in the 'Production Phase' of the drawing process.[30] It has been suggested that motor function plays a role in drawing ability, though its effects are not significant.[29]
Perception It has been suggested that an individual's ability to perceive an object they are drawing is the most important stage in the drawing process.[29] This suggestion is supported by the discovery of a robust relationship between perception and drawing ability.[31]
This evidence acted as the basis of Betty Edwards' how-to drawing book, Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain.[32] Edwards aimed to teach her readers how to draw, based on the development of the reader's perceptual abilities.
Furthermore, the influential artist and art critic John Ruskin emphasised the importance of perception in the drawing process in his book The Elements of Drawing.[33] He stated that "For I am nearly convinced, that once we see keenly enough, there is very little difficult in drawing what we see".
Visual memory has also been shown to influence one's ability to create visually accurate drawings. Short-term memory plays an important part in drawing as one’s gaze shifts between the object they are drawing and the drawing itself.[34]
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Author: Andreas Nierhaus, Curator of Architecture/Wien Museum
Last updated January 2014
Architecture in Vienna
Vienna's 2,000-year history is present in a unique density in the cityscape. The layout of the center dates back to the Roman city and medieval road network. Romanesque and Gothic churches characterize the streets and squares as well as palaces and mansions of the baroque city of residence. The ring road is an expression of the modern city of the 19th century, in the 20th century extensive housing developments set accents in the outer districts. Currently, large-scale urban development measures are implemented; distinctive buildings of international star architects complement the silhouette of the city.
Due to its function as residence of the emperor and European power center, Vienna for centuries stood in the focus of international attention, but it was well aware of that too. As a result, developed an outstanding building culture, and still today on a worldwide scale only a few cities can come up with a comparable density of high-quality architecture. For several years now, Vienna has increased its efforts to connect with its historical highlights and is drawing attention to itself with some spectacular new buildings. The fastest growing city in the German-speaking world today most of all in residential construction is setting standards. Constants of the Viennese architecture are respect for existing structures, the palpability of historical layers and the dialogue between old and new.
Culmination of medieval architecture: the Stephansdom
The oldest architectural landmark of the city is St. Stephen's Cathedral. Under the rule of the Habsburgs, defining the face of the city from the late 13th century until 1918 in a decisive way, the cathedral was upgraded into the sacral monument of the political ambitions of the ruling house. The 1433 completed, 137 meters high southern tower, by the Viennese people affectionately named "Steffl", is a masterpiece of late Gothic architecture in Europe. For decades he was the tallest stone structure in Europe, until today he is the undisputed center of the city.
The baroque residence
Vienna's ascension into the ranks of the great European capitals began in Baroque. Among the most important architects are Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt. Outside the city walls arose a chain of summer palaces, including the garden Palais Schwarzenberg (1697-1704) as well as the Upper and Lower Belvedere of Prince Eugene of Savoy (1714-22). Among the most important city palaces are the Winter Palace of Prince Eugene (1695-1724, now a branch of the Belvedere) and the Palais Daun-Kinsky (auction house in Kinsky 1713-19). The emperor himself the Hofburg had complemented by buildings such as the Imperial Library (1722-26) and the Winter Riding School (1729-34). More important, however, for the Habsburgs was the foundation of churches and monasteries. Thus arose before the city walls Fischer von Erlach's Karlskirche (1714-39), which with its formal and thematic complex show façade belongs to the major works of European Baroque. In colored interior rooms like that of St. Peter's Church (1701-22), the contemporary efforts for the synthesis of architecture, painting and sculpture becomes visible.
Upgrading into metropolis: the ring road time (Ringstraßenzeit)
Since the Baroque, reflections on extension of the hopelessly overcrowed city were made, but only Emperor Franz Joseph ordered in 1857 the demolition of the fortifications and the connection of the inner city with the suburbs. 1865, the Ring Road was opened. It is as the most important boulevard of Europe an architectural and in terms of urban development achievement of the highest rank. The original building structure is almost completely preserved and thus conveys the authentic image of a metropolis of the 19th century. The public representational buildings speak, reflecting accurately the historicism, by their style: The Greek Antique forms of Theophil Hansen's Parliament (1871-83) stood for democracy, the Renaissance of the by Heinrich Ferstel built University (1873-84) for the flourishing of humanism, the Gothic of the Town Hall (1872-83) by Friedrich Schmidt for the medieval civic pride.
Dominating remained the buildings of the imperial family: Eduard van der Nüll's and August Sicardsburg's Opera House (1863-69), Gottfried Semper's and Carl Hasenauer's Burgtheater (1874-88), their Museum of Art History and Museum of Natural History (1871-91) and the Neue (New) Hofburg (1881-1918 ). At the same time the ring road was the preferred residential area of mostly Jewish haute bourgeoisie. With luxurious palaces the families Ephrussi, Epstein or Todesco made it clear that they had taken over the cultural leadership role in Viennese society. In the framework of the World Exhibition of 1873, the new Vienna presented itself an international audience. At the ring road many hotels were opened, among them the Hotel Imperial and today's Palais Hansen Kempinski.
Laboratory of modernity: Vienna around 1900
Otto Wagner's Postal Savings Bank (1903-06) was one of the last buildings in the Ring road area Otto Wagner's Postal Savings Bank (1903-06), which with it façade, liberated of ornament, and only decorated with "functional" aluminum buttons and the glass banking hall now is one of the icons of modern architecture. Like no other stood Otto Wagner for the dawn into the 20th century: His Metropolitan Railway buildings made the public transport of the city a topic of architecture, the church of the Psychiatric hospital at Steinhofgründe (1904-07) is considered the first modern church.
With his consistent focus on the function of a building ("Something impractical can not be beautiful"), Wagner marked a whole generation of architects and made Vienna the laboratory of modernity: in addition to Joseph Maria Olbrich, the builder of the Secession (1897-98) and Josef Hoffmann, the architect of the at the western outskirts located Purkersdorf Sanatorium (1904) and founder of the Vienna Workshop (Wiener Werkstätte, 1903) is mainly to mention Adolf Loos, with the Loos House at the square Michaelerplatz (1909-11) making architectural history. The extravagant marble cladding of the business zone stands in maximal contrast, derived from the building function, to the unadorned facade above, whereby its "nudity" became even more obvious - a provocation, as well as his culture-critical texts ("Ornament and Crime"), with which he had greatest impact on the architecture of the 20th century. Public contracts Loos remained denied. His major works therefore include villas, apartment facilities and premises as the still in original state preserved Tailor salon Knize at Graben (1910-13) and the restored Loos Bar (1908-09) near the Kärntner Straße (passageway Kärntner Durchgang).
Between the Wars: International Modern Age and social housing
After the collapse of the monarchy in 1918, Vienna became capital of the newly formed small country of Austria. In the heart of the city, the architects Theiss & Jaksch built 1931-32 the first skyscraper in Vienna as an exclusive residential address (Herrengasse - alley 6-8). To combat the housing shortage for the general population, the social democratic city government in a globally unique building program within a few years 60,000 apartments in hundreds of apartment buildings throughout the city area had built, including the famous Karl Marx-Hof by Karl Ehn (1925-30). An alternative to the multi-storey buildings with the 1932 opened International Werkbundsiedlung was presented, which was attended by 31 architects from Austria, Germany, France, Holland and the USA and showed models for affordable housing in greenfield areas. With buildings of Adolf Loos, André Lurçat, Richard Neutra, Gerrit Rietveld, the Werkbundsiedlung, which currently is being restored at great expense, is one of the most important documents of modern architecture in Austria.
Modernism was also expressed in significant Villa buildings: The House Beer (1929-31) by Josef Frank exemplifies the refined Wiener living culture of the interwar period, while the house Stonborough-Wittgenstein (1926-28, today Bulgarian Cultural Institute), built by the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein together with the architect Paul Engelmann for his sister Margarete, by its aesthetic radicalism and mathematical rigor represents a special case within contemporary architecture.
Expulsion, war and reconstruction
After the "Anschluss (Annexation)" to the German Reich in 1938, numerous Jewish builders, architects (female and male ones), who had been largely responsible for the high level of Viennese architecture, have been expelled from Austria. During the Nazi era, Vienna remained largely unaffected by structural transformations, apart from the six flak towers built for air defense of Friedrich Tamms (1942-45), made of solid reinforced concrete which today are present as memorials in the cityscape.
The years after the end of World War II were characterized by the reconstruction of the by bombs heavily damaged city. The architecture of those times was marked by aesthetic pragmatism, but also by the attempt to connect with the period before 1938 and pick up on current international trends. Among the most important buildings of the 1950s are Roland Rainer's City Hall (1952-58), the by Oswald Haerdtl erected Wien Museum at Karlsplatz (1954-59) and the 21er Haus of Karl Schwanzer (1958-62).
The youngsters come
Since the 1960s, a young generation was looking for alternatives to the moderate modernism of the reconstruction years. With visionary designs, conceptual, experimental and above all temporary architectures, interventions and installations, Raimund Abraham, Günther Domenig, Eilfried Huth, Hans Hollein, Walter Pichler and the groups Coop Himmelb(l)au, Haus-Rucker-Co and Missing Link rapidly got international attention. Although for the time being it was more designed than built, was the influence on the postmodern and deconstructivist trends of the 1970s and 1980s also outside Austria great. Hollein's futuristic "Retti" candle shop at Charcoal Market/Kohlmarkt (1964-65) and Domenig's biomorphic building of the Central Savings Bank in Favoriten (10th district of Vienna - 1975-79) are among the earliest examples, later Hollein's Haas-Haus (1985-90), the loft conversion Falkestraße (1987/88) by Coop Himmelb(l)au or Domenig's T Center (2002-04) were added. Especially Domenig, Hollein, Coop Himmelb(l)au and the architects Ortner & Ortner (ancient members of Haus-Rucker-Co) by orders from abroad the new Austrian and Viennese architecture made a fixed international concept.
MuseumQuarter and Gasometer
Since the 1980s, the focus of building in Vienna lies on the compaction of the historic urban fabric that now as urban habitat of high quality no longer is put in question. Among the internationally best known projects is the by Ortner & Ortner planned MuseumsQuartier in the former imperial stables (competition 1987, 1998-2001), which with institutions such as the MUMOK - Museum of Modern Art Foundation Ludwig, the Leopold Museum, the Kunsthalle Wien, the Architecture Center Vienna and the Zoom Children's Museum on a wordwide scale is under the largest cultural complexes. After controversies in the planning phase, here an architectural compromise between old and new has been achieved at the end, whose success as an urban stage with four million visitors (2012) is overwhelming.
The dialogue between old and new, which has to stand on the agenda of building culture of a city that is so strongly influenced by history, also features the reconstruction of the Gasometer in Simmering by Coop Himmelb(l)au, Wilhelm Holzbauer, Jean Nouvel and Manfred Wehdorn (1999-2001). Here was not only created new housing, but also a historical industrial monument reinterpreted into a signal in the urban development area.
New Neighborhood
In recent years, the major railway stations and their surroundings moved into the focus of planning. Here not only necessary infrastructural measures were taken, but at the same time opened up spacious inner-city residential areas and business districts. Among the prestigious projects are included the construction of the new Vienna Central Station, started in 2010 with the surrounding office towers of the Quartier Belvedere and the residential and school buildings of the Midsummer quarter (Sonnwendviertel). Europe's largest wooden tower invites here for a spectacular view to the construction site and the entire city. On the site of the former North Station are currently being built 10,000 homes and 20,000 jobs, on that of the Aspangbahn station is being built at Europe's greatest Passive House settlement "Euro Gate", the area of the North Western Railway Station is expected to be developed from 2020 for living and working. The largest currently under construction residential project but can be found in the north-eastern outskirts, where in Seaside Town Aspern till 2028 living and working space for 40,000 people will be created.
In one of the "green lungs" of Vienna, the Prater, 2013, the WU campus was opened for the largest University of Economics of Europe. Around the central square spectacular buildings of an international architect team from Great Britain, Japan, Spain and Austria are gathered that seem to lead a sometimes very loud conversation about the status quo of contemporary architecture (Hitoshi Abe, BUSarchitektur, Peter Cook, Zaha Hadid, NO MAD Arquitectos, Carme Pinós).
Flying high
International is also the number of architects who have inscribed themselves in the last few years with high-rise buildings in the skyline of Vienna and make St. Stephen's a not always unproblematic competition. Visible from afar is Massimiliano Fuksas' 138 and 127 meters high elegant Twin Tower at Wienerberg (1999-2001). The monolithic, 75-meter-high tower of the Hotel Sofitel at the Danube Canal by Jean Nouvel (2007-10), on the other hand, reacts to the particular urban situation and stages in its top floor new perspectives to the historical center on the other side.
Also at the water stands Dominique Perrault's DC Tower (2010-13) in the Danube City - those high-rise city, in which since the start of construction in 1996, the expansion of the city north of the Danube is condensed symbolically. Even in this environment, the slim and at the same time striking vertically folded tower of Perrault is beyond all known dimensions; from its Sky Bar, from spring 2014 on you are able to enjoy the highest view of Vienna. With 250 meters, the tower is the tallest building of Austria and almost twice as high as the St. Stephen's Cathedral. Vienna, thus, has acquired a new architectural landmark which cannot be overlooked - whether it also has the potential to become a landmark of the new Vienna, only time will tell. The architectural history of Vienna, where European history is presence and new buildings enter into an exciting and not always conflict-free dialogue with a great and outstanding architectural heritage, in any case has yet to offer exciting chapters.
Info: The folder "Architecture: From Art Nouveau to the Presence" is available at the Vienna Tourist Board and can be downloaded on www.wien.info/media/files/guide-architecture-in-wien.pdf.