En cada actitud, cada conducta, cada producto humano, cada forma de vivir las experiencias, subyace una forma de ver el mundo, una cosmovisión, un modo de pensar personal sobre uno mismo, la vida y la realidad... y para algunas vidas su modelo del mundo no permie el misterio, ya que todo tiene que tener una explicación racional y si no la tienen no existe... en algunas vidas todo tiene la dimensión de lo concreto, no hay lugar para los símbolos ni las metáforas, pero... aún así, su simple mirada le rodea de misterio...

 

Modelo: Laura Vila

 

View On Black, en GRANDE

Latex catsuit specially made for men with back zipper. Form fitted for that second-skin feel. NON-TOXIC. Latex is an environmental and ecological product. Full body oufit that includes mask, gloves and tall boots, all made 100% NATURAL, a green product that comes from the sap of the Rubber Tree.

 

Optimal looks with Advanced Lighting mode enabled.

 

Includes: Mask, blodysuit, gloves and tall boots.

 

Mask is non rigged and can be resized.

 

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Auto alpha scripts included.

 

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The bench was the common seating form in the days when chairs were reserved for the most important people (hence the term “chairman”). Early types were very simple, consisting of a plank supported by solid ends connected by brackets or a stretcher.

 

Finding an empty bench. In a park we often go in search of an empty bench . Its desirable providing an opportunity to idle, while away some time and watch the world go by. Maybe have a picnic and rest those legs.

 

The interest for me isn't the urban furniture itself though they can come in all shapes and sizes and different colours and be modern or aged. No for me as a photographer it is the body language that is exhibited.

 

For some the bench once they sit down it becomes their personnel space , their personnel kingdom and they won't welcome others to join them on a public bench. For others a bench is the opposite a chance for company, to meet and talk with strangers about the weather , about politics and sport.

 

Does it vary around the world this public etiquette of sitting on public benches with strangers?

 

In Bury St Edmunds my home town there is a plaque on a bench in the Abbey Gardens which records the fact that we have the worlds first internet bench. Obviously short lived . Abbey Gardens Bury St Edmunds

 

How technology changes! in 2001 this bench became the worlds first internet bench.

 

It was reported on at the time "Surfing outdoors is taking on a new meaning with the launch of the world's first internet-enabled park bench.

The cyber-seat, installed in public gardens in Suffolk, UK, allows up to four people to log on to the web at the same time."

 

My own project is merely to capture people on benches wherever I am and I am with a camera..

Caryatid is the name given to an architectural column which takes the form of a standing female figure. The first examples come from ancient Greek architecture and indeed, the most celebrated examples are found in the south porch of the Erechtheion on the acropolis of Athens.

 

Naming & Origins

 

The term Caryatid first appears in the 4th century BCE and was coined by Vitruvius in reference to Karyai in Laconia where women often danced balancing a basket on their heads in honour of Artemis and where Caryatids were used in Archaic architecture. They were an evolution of the earlier korai statues of both male and female figures prevalent throughout the Archaic period and used as columns in Ionian architecture. These were themselves an evolution of Persian columns which often employed animal figures within the column design.

The most famous Caryatids are the six which support the roof of the porch of the Erechtheion on the Athenian acropolis.

 

Archaic Caryatids were usually used in the porches of Treasury buildings which were built to house offerings from specific states at religious sanctuaries such as Delphi and Olympia. The most important treasury at Delphi was from the Siphnians (c. 525 BCE) and this and at least two other Treasuries had Caryatids. Caryatids of this period often have a short column drum above the head in order to facilitate the join with the column capital.

 

The Erechtheion

 

The most famous Caryatids are the six which support the roof of the false south porch of the Erechtheion on the Athenian acropolis. This building was constructed between 421 and 406 BCE as part of Pericles’ great project to rejuvenate the architecture of the great city. The Erechtheion was built to house the ancient wooden cult statue of Athena but also served as a centre for the cults of Erechtheus (a mythical king of Athens), his brother Boutes, Hephaistos and Poseidon.

 

The Caryatids display features which would become staple elements of Classical sculpture: clothes which cling to the body (the ‘wet look’) and a bold and more dynamic positioning of the hips and legs. Although each Caryatid wears the same robe - a belted Doric peplos and short himation - each is uniquely rendered, a feature particularly noticeable in their intricate plaited hairstyles (best seen from the rear). The arms of the figures have unfortunately been lost but Roman copies show them holding in their right hands phialai - shallow vessels for pouring libations - whilst their left hand raised slightly their robe. Scholars believe them to be carved by different artists, most probably from the workshop of Alcamenes, student and colleague of Pheidias.

 

The Caryatids now on the acropolis are copies, five of the originals reside in the Acropolis Museum of Athens and the other is in the British Museum, London.

The Bruneau is formed from the Jarbidge River, which flows north from the mountains of northern Nevada through the beautiful basalt and rhyolite canyons of the Owyhee Uplands. There, it joins the West Fork of the Bruneau, then the East and West Forks join to form the mainstem. 40 miles of the Bruneau River are designated wild, and a 0.6-mile stretch at the Indian Hot Springs access point is designated recreational. The combination of sparkling water, steep multi-colored cliffs and an interesting association of plants and animals make this desert canyon one of superior natural beauty and recreational appeal. The Bruneau River also provides challenging whitewater as it flows through a deep, wild and remote desert canyon.

 

The Bruneau and Jarbidge Rivers have a national reputation among paddlers for their outstandingly remarkable float boating and associated experiences along the designated river sections, notably multi-day river trip options that feature remote, challenging whitewater (Class III, IV and V). Only very experienced boaters should float the 69 miles of the Bruneau and Jarbidge rivers due to challenging rapids, log jams and other hazards.

 

Landscape forms on the Bruneau and throughout the Owyhee Canyonlands vary from broad, open sagebrush steppes to narrow canyons, some exceeding 800 feet in depth.The canyons are dominated by a mixture of high, vertical lines and forms of coarse-textured, red, brown, or blackish eroded cliffs, often glazed with yellow to light green micro-flora. Steep diagonal lines frame triangular forms associated with talus slopes which feature yellow and subdued green sagebrush-bunchgrasses, dark green juniper, medium-textured, reddish rhyolite rubble fields and coarse-textured, blackish basalt rubble fields. Large boulders and whitewater rapids are interspersed between the calm reaches.

 

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the model, the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

The Royal Ceylon Air Force (RCyAF) was formed on 2 March 1951 with RAF officers and other personnel seconded to the RCyAF. Ceylonese were recruited to the new RCyAF and several Ceylonese who had served with the RAF during WWII were absorbed in the force. Initial objective was to train local pilots and ground crew, early administration and training was carried out by exclusively by RAF officers and other personnel on secondment. The first aircraft of the RCyAF were de Havilland Canada DHC-1 Chipmunks used as basic trainers to train the first batches of pilots locally while several cadets were sent to Royal Air Force College Cranwell. These were followed by Boulton Paul Balliol T.Mk.2s and Airspeed Oxford Mk.1s for advanced training of pilots and aircrew along with de Havilland Doves and de Havilland Herons for transport use, all provided by the British. By 1955 the RCyAF was operating two flying squadrons based at RAF Negombo. The first helicopter type to be added to the service was the Westland Dragonfly.

 

Following Prime Minister S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike's negotiated the closure of British air and naval bases in Ceylon in 1956, the RCyAF took over the former RAF stations; Katunayake and China Bay, becoming RCyAF operational stations while ancillary functions were carried out at Diyatalawa and Ekala. The RAF headquarters, Air HQ Ceylon, was disbanded on 1 November 1957. However, RAF officers remained with the RCyAF till 1962.

 

In 1959 de Havilland Vampire jet aircraft were acquired, five fighter bombers and five trainers. The Vampire was developed and manufactured by the de Havilland Aircraft Company and its development as an experimental aircraft began in 1941 during the Second World War, to exploit the revolutionary innovation of jet propulsion. From the company's design studies, it was decided to use a single-engine, twin-boom aircraft, powered by the Halford H.1 turbojet (later produced as the Goblin). Aside from its propulsion system and twin-boom configuration, it was a relatively conventional aircraft. In May 1944 it was decided to produce the aircraft as an interceptor for the Royal Air Force (RAF), but it came too late for operati9onal use in the war. It was eventually the second jet fighter to be operated by the RAF, after the Gloster Meteor, and the first to be powered by a single jet engine. In 1946 the Vampire entered operational service with the RAF, only months after the war had ended.

 

The Vampire quickly proved to be effective and was adopted as a replacement of wartime piston-engined fighter aircraft. During its early service it accomplished several aviation firsts and achieved various records, such as being the first jet aircraft to cross the Atlantic Ocean. The Vampire remained in front-line RAF service until 1953 when its transfer began to secondary roles such as ground attack and pilot training, for which specialist variants were produced. Many of these aircraft were sold to foreign air forces. The RAF retired the Vampire in 1966 when its final role of advanced trainer was filled by the Folland Gnat. The Royal Navy had also adapted the type as the Sea Vampire, a navalised variant suitable for operations from aircraft carriers. It was the service's first jet fighter.

The Vampire was exported to many nations and was operated worldwide in numerous theatres and climates. Several countries used the type in combat including the Suez Crisis, the Malayan Emergency and the Rhodesian Bush War. By the end of production, almost 3,300 Vampires had been manufactured, a quarter of these having been manufactured under licence abroad.

 

The Ceylonese Vampires received the official export designation FB.56, but they were in fact refurbished Fairey-built ex-RAF FB.9 fighter bombers, the last single seater fighter bomber variant to be produced. As such, they were tropicalised Goblin-3 powered F.5 fighter-bombers with air conditioning and retrofitted with ejection seats. They had the ability to carry bombs of up to 1.000 lb (454 kg) caliber under each wing, drop tanks or up to eight unguided 3-inch "60 lb" rockets againts ground targets. The trainers were newly-built T.55 export machines with ejection seats.

Following a RCyAF superstition, the machines were allocated tactical codes that the single numerals did not sum up to "13" or a multiple of it, a "tradition" that has been kept up until today. Even more weird: codes that openly sported a "13" were and are used - as long as the whole code number conforms to the cross total rule!

 

This small fleet formed the 'Jet Squadron' was soon supplemented with five Hunting Jet Provosts obtained from the British, and ten more Vampire FB.56 fighter bombers in 1959. In the 1960s, various other aircraft were procured, most notably American Bell JetRanger helicopters and a Hindustan HUL-26 Pushpak given by India. The force had grown gradually during its early years, reaching a little over 1,000 officers and recruits in the 1960s.

 

The Vampires' service did not last long, though. The trainers were replaced by the more modern and economic Jet Provosts and mothballed by 1963. In 1968, the Royal Ceylon Air Force started to look out for a more capable multi-role aircraft to replace the Vampire FB.56s and evaluated foreign types like the F-86 Sabre, the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk, the Hawker Hunter and AMD's Mystère IV as well as the SMB.2. The decision fell on the supersonic Super Mystère, which was offered as a bargain from French surplus stock since the fighter was at that time in the process of being gradually replaced by the 3rd generation Mirage III. A total of eight revamped SMB.2s were procured, which conformed to the Armée de l’Air’s standard. The machines arrived in early 1971 and were allocated to the newly established No. 3 Squadron, even though it took some months to make them fully operational, and the Vampires (eleven FB.56s were still operational at that time) soldiered on as a stopgap measure, due to innerpolitical tensions.

 

These got more and more tense and the Ceylonese Vampires were eventually deployed in a hot conflict in 1971. Together with the Jet Provosts, which had been mothballed since 1970 and quickly revamped, they were used in COIN missions during the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) insurrection, since the new SMB.2s were not ready yet and deemed too valuable and unsuited to be deployed in guerilla warfare. The JVP insurrection was the first of two unsuccessful armed revolts conducted by the communist JVP against the socialist United Front Government of Ceylon under Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike. The revolt began on 5 April 1971, and lasted until June of that year. The insurgents held towns and rural areas for several weeks, until the regions were recaptured by the armed forces, following strong support from friendly nations that sent men and material. Vampires and Jet Provosts flew from RCyAF Chinabay to RCyAF Katunayake, attacking rebel locations en route, and on the 12 April following a bombing run on a target in Polonnaruwa, one Jet Provost lost power and crashed on its approach to RCyAF Chinabay killing its pilot. Several weeks later, the Jet Provosts were joined by the Bell 47-G2 in ground attacks. After three weeks of fighting, the government regained control of all but a few remote areas. In most cases, the government regained control of townships; insurgent groups melted away into the jungle and continued to operate, with some groups operating into early 1972.

With Ceylon becoming a republic in 1972, the Royal Ceylon Air Force changed its name to the Sri Lanka Air Force (SLAF), along with all insignia, and the last RCyAF Vampire was retired in summer 1972.

  

General characteristics:

Crew: 1

Length: 30 ft 9 in (9.37 m)

Wingspan: 38 ft (12 m)

Height: 8 ft 10 in (2.69 m)

Wing area: 262 sq ft (24.3 m²)

Airfoil: root: EC1240/0640 (14%); tip: EC1240/0640 (9%)

Empty weight: 7,283 lb (3,304 kg)

Max takeoff weight: 12,390 lb (5,620 kg)

 

Powerplant:

1× de Havilland Goblin 3 centrifugal-flow turbojet engine, 3,350 lbf (14.9 kN) thrust

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 548 mph (882 km/h, 476 kn)

Range: 1,220 mi (1,960 km, 1,060 nmi)

Service ceiling: 42,800 ft (13,000 m)

Rate of climb: 4,800 ft/min (24 m/s)

Wing loading: 39.4 lb/sq ft (192 kg/m²)

 

Armament:

4× 20 mm (0.79 in) Hispano Mk.V cannon with 600 rounds total (150 rounds per gun)

8× 3-inch "60 lb" rockets or 2× 1.000 lb (454 kg) bombs or two drop-tanks

  

The kit and its assembly:

A subtle what-if model, and despite the xotic markings the CeyloneseVampire is closer to reality than one might think. In fact, Ceylon actually received Vampire fighter bombers and trainer from the RAF when the country became independent and the RCyAF was founded, but they were never put into service. So, this whif depicts what might have been, and the type's use until the early Seventies is purely fictional.

 

The kit is the venerable Heller Vampire FB.5, which has been released under various brand labels (including Airfix and Revell) through the years. While it is a very simple model kit, the level of detail is not bad. You get a decent cockpit with a nice dashboard, separated canopy sections and even the landing gear wells feature details. You can hardly ask for more, even though the fit is rather mediocre - but this might be blamed on the molds' age. PSR was necessary on almost any major seam, and the fit of the tail booms to their adapters on the wings was really poor - the kit's engineers could have copme up with a better and more stable solution for the tail assembly. Another issue is the cockpit: while it's detailed, everything is much too small and tight - it turned out to be impossible to insert a pilot figure for the flight scenes, even just a torso!

 

Since I wanted to build a standard export Vampire fighter bomber, the kit was built OOB. I just added a gunsight behind the windscreen, replaced the rather massive pitot on the left fin and added some ordnance for the machine's COIN missions using the JVP insurrection. These comsist of a pair of vintage 500 lb iron bombs (from a Monogram F8F Bearcat) on pylons which probably come from an Academy P-47 Thunderbolt, plus four unguided 60 lb rockets and their launch rails from a Pioneer/Airfix Hawker Sea Fury.

  

Painting and markings:

Conservative. A real RCyAF Vampire would during the late Sixties probably have been painted overall silver, but I found this rather boring and thought that the role as s strike aircraft would justify camouflage. With its origins in the RAF I gave the Vampire consequently the British standard paint scheme in Dark Green/Dark Sea Grey from above, using Humbrol 163 and 156 (Dark Camouflage Grey BS381C/629, the latter on purpose as a lighter alternative to 164, for more contrast). For a slightly odd look I painted the undersides in RAF Azure Blue (Humbrol 157), what also makes a good contrast to the colorful RCyAF roundels.

The cockpit interior was painted in very dark grey (Anthracite, Revell 09) while the landing gear and the respective wells were painted in Humbrol 56 (Aluminum Dope), a metallic grey.

 

The kit received a lioght black ink washing and some panel shading, especuially from above to simulate sun-bleached paint - after all, the model depicts an aircraft that would soon be retired.

The roundels come from an Xtradecal aftermarket sheet for Jet Provosts, the fictional serial number was created with 3 and 10mm letters in black from TL Modellbau. A personal addition are the RAF-style white individual aircraft code letters on the fin and the front wheel cover. Due to their size, the fuselage roundels had to be placed under the cockpit, but that does not look bad or out of place at all - early Swedish Vampires used a similar solution. Unfortunately, the kit came without decal sheet, so that other details had to be procured elsewhere - but the decal heap provided ample material. The few stencils and the "No step" warnings were taken from a Model decal Vampire sheet; the ejection seat markings came from an Xtradecal Vampire trainer sheet.

 

After some light traces with dry-brushed silver on the wings' leading edges the model was eventually sealed with matt acrylic varnish.

  

Simple but exotic, and like the whiffy Sri Lankan SM2.B I built some time ago a very plausible result. I really like the fact that the model is, despite the camouflage and the subdued colors, quite colorful. outcome a lot. The paint scheme already looks unusual, even though it has been patterned after a real world benchmark. But together with the colorful SLAF markings and some serious weathering, the whole package looks pretty weird but also believable. A classic what-if model! 😉

The exploitation rights for this text are the property of the Vienna Tourist Board. This text may be reprinted free of charge until further notice, even partially and in edited form. Forward sample copy to: Vienna Tourist Board, Media Management, Invalidenstraße 6, 1030 Vienna; media.rel@wien.info. All information in this text without guarantee.

Author: Andreas Nierhaus, Curator of Architecture/Wien Museum

Last updated January 2014

Architecture in Vienna

Vienna's 2,000-year history is present in a unique density in the cityscape. The layout of the center dates back to the Roman city and medieval road network. Romanesque and Gothic churches characterize the streets and squares as well as palaces and mansions of the baroque city of residence. The ring road is an expression of the modern city of the 19th century, in the 20th century extensive housing developments set accents in the outer districts. Currently, large-scale urban development measures are implemented; distinctive buildings of international star architects complement the silhouette of the city.

Due to its function as residence of the emperor and European power center, Vienna for centuries stood in the focus of international attention, but it was well aware of that too. As a result, developed an outstanding building culture, and still today on a worldwide scale only a few cities can come up with a comparable density of high-quality architecture. For several years now, Vienna has increased its efforts to connect with its historical highlights and is drawing attention to itself with some spectacular new buildings. The fastest growing city in the German-speaking world today most of all in residential construction is setting standards. Constants of the Viennese architecture are respect for existing structures, the palpability of historical layers and the dialogue between old and new.

Culmination of medieval architecture: the Stephansdom

The oldest architectural landmark of the city is St. Stephen's Cathedral. Under the rule of the Habsburgs, defining the face of the city from the late 13th century until 1918 in a decisive way, the cathedral was upgraded into the sacral monument of the political ambitions of the ruling house. The 1433 completed, 137 meters high southern tower, by the Viennese people affectionately named "Steffl", is a masterpiece of late Gothic architecture in Europe. For decades he was the tallest stone structure in Europe, until today he is the undisputed center of the city.

The baroque residence

Vienna's ascension into the ranks of the great European capitals began in Baroque. Among the most important architects are Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt. Outside the city walls arose a chain of summer palaces, including the garden Palais Schwarzenberg (1697-1704) as well as the Upper and Lower Belvedere of Prince Eugene of Savoy (1714-22). Among the most important city palaces are the Winter Palace of Prince Eugene (1695-1724, now a branch of the Belvedere) and the Palais Daun-Kinsky (auction house in Kinsky 1713-19). The emperor himself the Hofburg had complemented by buildings such as the Imperial Library (1722-26) and the Winter Riding School (1729-34). More important, however, for the Habsburgs was the foundation of churches and monasteries. Thus arose before the city walls Fischer von Erlach's Karlskirche (1714-39), which with its formal and thematic complex show façade belongs to the major works of European Baroque. In colored interior rooms like that of St. Peter's Church (1701-22), the contemporary efforts for the synthesis of architecture, painting and sculpture becomes visible.

Upgrading into metropolis: the ring road time (Ringstraßenzeit)

Since the Baroque, reflections on extension of the hopelessly overcrowed city were made, but only Emperor Franz Joseph ordered in 1857 the demolition of the fortifications and the connection of the inner city with the suburbs. 1865, the Ring Road was opened. It is as the most important boulevard of Europe an architectural and in terms of urban development achievement of the highest rank. The original building structure is almost completely preserved and thus conveys the authentic image of a metropolis of the 19th century. The public representational buildings speak, reflecting accurately the historicism, by their style: The Greek Antique forms of Theophil Hansen's Parliament (1871-83) stood for democracy, the Renaissance of the by Heinrich Ferstel built University (1873-84) for the flourishing of humanism, the Gothic of the Town Hall (1872-83) by Friedrich Schmidt for the medieval civic pride.

Dominating remained the buildings of the imperial family: Eduard van der Nüll's and August Sicardsburg's Opera House (1863-69), Gottfried Semper's and Carl Hasenauer's Burgtheater (1874-88), their Museum of Art History and Museum of Natural History (1871-91) and the Neue (New) Hofburg (1881-1918 ). At the same time the ring road was the preferred residential area of mostly Jewish haute bourgeoisie. With luxurious palaces the families Ephrussi, Epstein or Todesco made it clear that they had taken over the cultural leadership role in Viennese society. In the framework of the World Exhibition of 1873, the new Vienna presented itself an international audience. At the ring road many hotels were opened, among them the Hotel Imperial and today's Palais Hansen Kempinski.

Laboratory of modernity: Vienna around 1900

Otto Wagner's Postal Savings Bank (1903-06) was one of the last buildings in the Ring road area Otto Wagner's Postal Savings Bank (1903-06), which with it façade, liberated of ornament, and only decorated with "functional" aluminum buttons and the glass banking hall now is one of the icons of modern architecture. Like no other stood Otto Wagner for the dawn into the 20th century: His Metropolitan Railway buildings made ​​the public transport of the city a topic of architecture, the church of the Psychiatric hospital at Steinhofgründe (1904-07) is considered the first modern church.

With his consistent focus on the function of a building ("Something impractical can not be beautiful"), Wagner marked a whole generation of architects and made Vienna the laboratory of modernity: in addition to Joseph Maria Olbrich, the builder of the Secession (1897-98) and Josef Hoffmann, the architect of the at the western outskirts located Purkersdorf Sanatorium (1904) and founder of the Vienna Workshop (Wiener Werkstätte, 1903) is mainly to mention Adolf Loos, with the Loos House at the square Michaelerplatz (1909-11) making architectural history. The extravagant marble cladding of the business zone stands in maximal contrast, derived from the building function, to the unadorned facade above, whereby its "nudity" became even more obvious - a provocation, as well as his culture-critical texts ("Ornament and Crime"), with which he had greatest impact on the architecture of the 20th century. Public contracts Loos remained denied. His major works therefore include villas, apartment facilities and premises as the still in original state preserved Tailor salon Knize at Graben (1910-13) and the restored Loos Bar (1908-09) near the Kärntner Straße (passageway Kärntner Durchgang).

Between the Wars: International Modern Age and social housing

After the collapse of the monarchy in 1918, Vienna became capital of the newly formed small country of Austria. In the heart of the city, the architects Theiss & Jaksch built 1931-32 the first skyscraper in Vienna as an exclusive residential address (Herrengasse - alley 6-8). To combat the housing shortage for the general population, the social democratic city government in a globally unique building program within a few years 60,000 apartments in hundreds of apartment buildings throughout the city area had built, including the famous Karl Marx-Hof by Karl Ehn (1925-30). An alternative to the multi-storey buildings with the 1932 opened International Werkbundsiedlung was presented, which was attended by 31 architects from Austria, Germany, France, Holland and the USA and showed models for affordable housing in greenfield areas. With buildings of Adolf Loos, André Lurçat, Richard Neutra, Gerrit Rietveld, the Werkbundsiedlung, which currently is being restored at great expense, is one of the most important documents of modern architecture in Austria.

Modernism was also expressed in significant Villa buildings: The House Beer (1929-31) by Josef Frank exemplifies the refined Wiener living culture of the interwar period, while the house Stonborough-Wittgenstein (1926-28, today Bulgarian Cultural Institute), built by the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein together with the architect Paul Engelmann for his sister Margarete, by its aesthetic radicalism and mathematical rigor represents a special case within contemporary architecture.

Expulsion, war and reconstruction

After the "Anschluss (Annexation)" to the German Reich in 1938, numerous Jewish builders, architects (female and male ones), who had been largely responsible for the high level of Viennese architecture, have been expelled from Austria. During the Nazi era, Vienna remained largely unaffected by structural transformations, apart from the six flak towers built for air defense of Friedrich Tamms (1942-45), made ​​of solid reinforced concrete which today are present as memorials in the cityscape.

The years after the end of World War II were characterized by the reconstruction of the by bombs heavily damaged city. The architecture of those times was marked by aesthetic pragmatism, but also by the attempt to connect with the period before 1938 and pick up on current international trends. Among the most important buildings of the 1950s are Roland Rainer's City Hall (1952-58), the by Oswald Haerdtl erected Wien Museum at Karlsplatz (1954-59) and the 21er Haus of Karl Schwanzer (1958-62).

The youngsters come

Since the 1960s, a young generation was looking for alternatives to the moderate modernism of the reconstruction years. With visionary designs, conceptual, experimental and above all temporary architectures, interventions and installations, Raimund Abraham, Günther Domenig, Eilfried Huth, Hans Hollein, Walter Pichler and the groups Coop Himmelb(l)au, Haus-Rucker-Co and Missing Link rapidly got international attention. Although for the time being it was more designed than built, was the influence on the postmodern and deconstructivist trends of the 1970s and 1980s also outside Austria great. Hollein's futuristic "Retti" candle shop at Charcoal Market/Kohlmarkt (1964-65) and Domenig's biomorphic building of the Central Savings Bank in Favoriten (10th district of Vienna - 1975-79) are among the earliest examples, later Hollein's Haas-Haus (1985-90), the loft conversion Falkestraße (1987/88) by Coop Himmelb(l)au or Domenig's T Center (2002-04) were added. Especially Domenig, Hollein, Coop Himmelb(l)au and the architects Ortner & Ortner (ancient members of Haus-Rucker-Co) ​​by orders from abroad the new Austrian and Viennese architecture made a fixed international concept.

MuseumQuarter and Gasometer

Since the 1980s, the focus of building in Vienna lies on the compaction of the historic urban fabric that now as urban habitat of high quality no longer is put in question. Among the internationally best known projects is the by Ortner & Ortner planned MuseumsQuartier in the former imperial stables (competition 1987, 1998-2001), which with institutions such as the MUMOK - Museum of Modern Art Foundation Ludwig, the Leopold Museum, the Kunsthalle Wien, the Architecture Center Vienna and the Zoom Children's Museum on a wordwide scale is under the largest cultural complexes. After controversies in the planning phase, here an architectural compromise between old and new has been achieved at the end, whose success as an urban stage with four million visitors (2012) is overwhelming.

The dialogue between old and new, which has to stand on the agenda of building culture of a city that is so strongly influenced by history, also features the reconstruction of the Gasometer in Simmering by Coop Himmelb(l)au, Wilhelm Holzbauer, Jean Nouvel and Manfred Wehdorn (1999-2001). Here was not only created new housing, but also a historical industrial monument reinterpreted into a signal in the urban development area.

New Neighborhood

In recent years, the major railway stations and their surroundings moved into the focus of planning. Here not only necessary infrastructural measures were taken, but at the same time opened up spacious inner-city residential areas and business districts. Among the prestigious projects are included the construction of the new Vienna Central Station, started in 2010 with the surrounding office towers of the Quartier Belvedere and the residential and school buildings of the Midsummer quarter (Sonnwendviertel). Europe's largest wooden tower invites here for a spectacular view to the construction site and the entire city. On the site of the former North Station are currently being built 10,000 homes and 20,000 jobs, on that of the Aspangbahn station is being built at Europe's greatest Passive House settlement "Euro Gate", the area of ​​the North Western Railway Station is expected to be developed from 2020 for living and working. The largest currently under construction residential project but can be found in the north-eastern outskirts, where in Seaside Town Aspern till 2028 living and working space for 40,000 people will be created.

In one of the "green lungs" of Vienna, the Prater, 2013, the WU campus was opened for the largest University of Economics of Europe. Around the central square spectacular buildings of an international architect team from Great Britain, Japan, Spain and Austria are gathered that seem to lead a sometimes very loud conversation about the status quo of contemporary architecture (Hitoshi Abe, BUSarchitektur, Peter Cook, Zaha Hadid, NO MAD Arquitectos, Carme Pinós).

Flying high

International is also the number of architects who have inscribed themselves in the last few years with high-rise buildings in the skyline of Vienna and make St. Stephen's a not always unproblematic competition. Visible from afar is Massimiliano Fuksas' 138 and 127 meters high elegant Twin Tower at Wienerberg (1999-2001). The monolithic, 75-meter-high tower of the Hotel Sofitel at the Danube Canal by Jean Nouvel (2007-10), on the other hand, reacts to the particular urban situation and stages in its top floor new perspectives to the historical center on the other side.

Also at the water stands Dominique Perrault's DC Tower (2010-13) in the Danube City - those high-rise city, in which since the start of construction in 1996, the expansion of the city north of the Danube is condensed symbolically. Even in this environment, the slim and at the same time striking vertically folded tower of Perrault is beyond all known dimensions; from its Sky Bar, from spring 2014 on you are able to enjoy the highest view of Vienna. With 250 meters, the tower is the tallest building of Austria and almost twice as high as the St. Stephen's Cathedral. Vienna, thus, has acquired a new architectural landmark which cannot be overlooked - whether it also has the potential to become a landmark of the new Vienna, only time will tell. The architectural history of Vienna, where European history is presence and new buildings enter into an exciting and not always conflict-free dialogue with a great and outstanding architectural heritage, in any case has yet to offer exciting chapters.

Info: The folder "Architecture: From Art Nouveau to the Presence" is available at the Vienna Tourist Board and can be downloaded on www.wien.info/media/files/guide-architecture-in-wien.pdf.

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© 2011 Werner Schnell - All rights reserved !

 

"maurice scheltens" "still life" "personal work" "Forms of Boredom" 1999

 

"maurice scheltens" "still life" "personal work" "Forms of Boredom" 1999

 

"maurice scheltens" "still life" "personal work" "Forms of Boredom" 1999

Gerstner, K. The forms of colour: the interaction of visual elements, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1986.

The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert or Marusthali (Land of the dead), is a large, arid region in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent that forms a natural boundary between India and Pakistan. It is the world's 9th largest subtropical desert. This desert spreads over about 2,340,000 km2, with 85% in India and the remaining part in Pakistan. It covers more than 2,000,000 km2 in Rajasthan and extends into Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana.

 

GEOGRAPHY

The Thar Desert extends between the Aravalli Hills in the north-east, the Great Rann of Kutch along the coast and the alluvial plains of the Indus River in the west and north-west. Most of the desert is covered by huge shifting sand dunes that receive sediments from the alluvial plains and the coast. The sand is highly mobile due to strong winds occurring before the onset of the monsoon. The Luni River is the only river integrated into the desert. Rainfall is limited to 100–500 mm per year, mostly falling from July to September.

 

Salt water lakes in the Thar Desert include the Sambhar, Kuchaman, Didwana in Rajasthan and Kharaghoda in Gujarat. These lakes receive rain water during monsoon and evaporate during the dry season. The salt is derived by the weathering of rocks in the region.

 

DESERTIFICATION CONTROL

The soil of the Thar Desert remains dry for much of the year and is prone to wind erosion. High velocity winds blow soil from the desert, depositing some on neighboring fertile lands, and causing shifting sand dunes within the desert. Sand dunes are stabilised by erecting micro-windbreak barriers with scrub material and subsequent afforestation of the treated dunes with seedlings of shrubs such as phog, senna, castor oil plant and trees such as gum acacia, Prosopis juliflora and lebbek tree. The 649 km long Indira Gandhi Canal brings fresh water to the Thar Desert. It was conceived to halt spreading of the desert to fertile areas.

 

There are few local tree species suitable for planting in the desert, which are slow growing. Therefore, exotic tree species were introduced for plantation. Many species of Eucalyptus, Acacia, Cassia and other genera from Israel, Australia, US, Russia, Zimbabwe, Chile, Peru and Sudan have been tried in Thar Desert. Acacia tortilis has proved to be the most promising species for desert afforestation and the jojoba is another promising species of economic value found suitable for planting in these areas.

 

PROTECTED AREAS

There are several protected areas in the Thar Desert:

in Pakistan:

the Nara Desert Wildlife Sanctuary covers 6,300 km2;

the Rann of Kutch Wildlife Sanctuary.

in India:

the Desert National Park covers 3,162 km2 and represents the Thar Desert ecosystem, it includes 44 villages. Its diverse fauna includes the great Indian bustard (Chirotis nigricaps), blackbuck, chinkara, fox, Bengal fox, wolf, and caracal. Seashells and massive fossilized tree trunks in this park record the geological history of the desert;

the Tal Chhapar Sanctuary covers 7 km2 and is an Important Bird Area. It is located in the Churu District, 210 km from Jaipur, in the Shekhawati region. This sanctuary is home to a large population of blackbuck, fox and caracal such as partridge and sand grouse;

Jalore Wildlife Sanctuary is a privately owned sanctuary 130 km from Jodhpur, where Asiatic wildcat, leopard, jirds, desert fox and herds of Indian gazelle live.

 

BIODIVERSITY

FAUNA

Stretches of sand in the desert are interspersed by hillocks and sandy and gravel plains. Due to the diversified habitat and ecosystem, the vegetation, human culture and animal life in this arid region is very rich in contrast to the other deserts of the world. About 23 species of lizard and 25 species of snakes are found here and several of them are endemic to the region.

 

Some wildlife species, which are fast vanishing in other parts of India, are found in the desert in large numbers such as the blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), chinkara (Gazella bennettii) and Indian wild ass (Equus hemionus khur) in the Rann of Kutch. They have evolved excellent survival strategies, their size is smaller than other similar animals living in different conditions, and they are mainly nocturnal. There are certain other factors responsible for the survival of these animals in the desert. Due to the lack of water in this region, transformation of the grasslands into cropland has been very slow. The protection provided to them by a local community, the Bishnois, is also a factor. Other mammals of the Thar Desert include a subspecies of red fox (Vulpes vulpes pusilla) and the caracal.

 

The region is a haven for 141 species of migratory and resident birds of the desert. One can see eagles, harriers, falcons, buzzards, kestrel and vultures. There are short-toed eagles (Circaetus gallicus), tawny eagles (Aquila rapax), greater spotted eagles (Aquila clanga), laggar falcons (Falco jugger) and kestrels. There are also a number of reptiles.

 

The Indian peafowl is a resident breeder in the Thar region. The peacock is designated as the national bird of India and the provincial bird of the Punjab (Pakistan). It can be seen sitting on khejri or pipal trees in villages or Deblina.

 

VEGETATION

The natural vegetation of this dry area is classed as Northwestern thorn scrub forest occurring in small clumps scattered more or less openly. Density and size of patches increase from west to east following the increase in rainfall. The natural vegetation of the Thar Desert is composed of the following tree, shrub and herb species:

 

trees and shrubs: Acacia jacquemontii, Balanites roxburghii, Ziziphus zizyphus, Ziziphus nummularia, Calotropis procera, Suaeda fruticosa, Crotalaria burhia, Aerva javanica, Clerodendrum multiflorum, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Lycium barbarum, Grewia tenax, Commiphora mukul, Euphorbia neriifolia, Cordia sinensis, Maytenus emarginata, Capparis decidua, Mimosa hamata

herbs and grasses: Ochthochloa compressa, Dactyloctenium scindicum, Cenchrus biflorus, Cenchrus setigerus, Lasiurus scindicus, Cynodon dactylon, Panicum turgidum, Panicum antidotale, Dichanthium annulatum, Sporobolus marginatus, Saccharum spontaneum, Cenchrus ciliaris, Desmostachya bipinnata, Eragrostis species, Ergamopagan species, Phragmites species, Tribulus terrestris, Typha species, Sorghum halepense, Citrullus colocynthis

 

The endemic floral species include Calligonum polygonoides, Prosopis cineraria, Acacia nilotica, Tamarix aphylla, Cenchrus biflorus.

 

PEOPLE

The Thar Desert is the most densely populated desert in the world, with a population density of 83 people per km2. In India, the inhabitants comprise Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. In Pakistan, inhabitants include Sindhis and Kolhis.

 

About 40% of the total population of Rajasthan live in the Thar Desert. The main occupation of the people is agriculture and animal husbandry. A colourful culture rich in tradition prevails in this desert. The people have a great passion for folk music and folk poetry.

 

Jodhpur, the largest city in the region, lies in the scrub forest zone. Bikaner and Jaisalmer are located in the desert proper. A large irrigation and power project has reclaimed areas of the northern and western desert for agriculture. The small population is mostly pastoral, and hide and wool industries are prominent.

 

The desert's part in Pakistan also has a rich multifaceted culture, heritage, traditions, folk tales, dances and music due to its inhabitants who belong to different religions, sects and castes.

 

THAR IN ANCIENT LITERATURE

The Indian epics describe this region as Lavanasagara (Salt-ocean). The Ramayana mentions Lavanasagara (the Salt-ocean) when Rama goes to attack Lanka with the army of vanaras. Rama uses his agneyashtra-amogha to dry up the sea named drumakulya situated on north of Lavanasagara. A fresh water source named Pushkar surrounded by Marukantara was created.

 

According to Jain cosmology, Jambūdvīpa is at the centre of Madhyaloka, or the middle part of the universe, where the humans reside. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti or the treatise on the island of roseapple tree contains a description of Jambūdvīpa and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King Bharata. Jambūdvīpa continent is surrounded by ocean Lavanoda (Salt-ocean).

 

The Sarasvati River is one of the chief Rigvedic rivers mentioned in ancient Hindu texts. The Nadistuti hymn in the Rigveda (10.75) mentions the Sarasvati between the Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the west, and later Vedic texts like Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas as well as the Mahabharata mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert.

 

Most scholars agree that at least some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra River, while the Helmand River is often quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river. Whether such a transfer of the name has taken place, either from the Helmand to the Ghaggar-Hakra, or conversely from the Ghaggar-Hakra to the Helmand, is a matter of dispute.

 

There is also a small present-day Sarasvati River (Sarsuti) that joins the Ghaggar.

 

The Mahabharata mentions the Kamyaka Forest situated on the western boundary of the Kuru Kingdom (Kuru Proper + Kurujangala), on the banks of the Saraswati River.[clarification needed] It lay to the west of the Kurukshetra plain. It contained within it a lake called the Kamyaka lake (2,51). Kamyaka forest is mentioned as being situated at the head of the Thar desert, near the lake Trinavindu (3,256). The Pandavas, on their way to exile in the woods, left Pramanakoti on the banks of the Ganges and went towards Kurukshetra, travelling in a western direction, crossing the rivers Yamuna and Drishadvati. They finally reached the banks of the Saraswati River.[clarification needed] There they saw the forest of Kamyaka, the favourite haunt of ascetics, situated on a level and wild plain on the banks of the Saraswati (3-5,36) abounding in birds and deer (3,5). There the Pandavas lived in an ascetic asylum (3,10). It took 3 days for Pandavas to reach the Kamyaka forest, setting out from Hastinapura, on their chariots (3,11).

 

In the Rigveda we also find mention of a River named Aśvanvatī along with river Drishadvati. Some scholars consider both Saraswati and Aśvanvatī the same river.

 

The human habitations on the banks of rivers Saraswati and Drishadvati had shifted to the east and south directions prior to Mahabharata period. During those days The present day Bikaner and Jodhpur areas were known as Kurujangala and Madrajangala provinces.

 

The Desert National Park, Jaisalmer has a collection of fossils of animals and plants of 180 million years old.

 

DESERT ECONOMY

AGRICULTURE

The Thar is one of most heavily populated desert areas in the world and the main occupations of people living here are agriculture and animal husbandry. Agriculture is not a dependable proposition in this area - after the rainy season, at least 33% of crops fail. Animal husbandry, trees and grasses, intercropped with vegetables or fruit trees, is the most viable model for arid, drought-prone regions. The region faces frequent droughts. Overgrazing due to high animal populations, wind and water erosion, mining and other industries result in serious land degradation.

 

The agricultural production is mainly from the Kharif crops. The Kharif crops are the crops that are grown in the summer season and are seeded in the months of June and July. These crops are harvested in the months of September and October and include bajra, pulses such as guar, jowar (Sorghum vulgare), maize (zea mays), sesame and groundnuts. In past few decades the development of canals, tube wells etc. has changed crop pattern. Now the desert districts in Rajasthan have started producing rabi crops like wheat, mustard, cumin seed etc.The people have started to grow cash crops too.

 

Thar region of Rajasthan is the main opium producer and consumer area. There are mainly two crop seasons. The water for irrigation comes from wells and tanks from underlying water sources deep below the surface. The Indira Gandhi Canal irrigates northwestern Rajasthan. The Government of India has started a centrally sponsored scheme under the title of Desert Development Programme based on watershed management with the objective to check spreading of desert and improve the living condition of people in desert.

 

LIVESTOCK

n the last 15–20 years, the Rajasthan desert has seen many changes, including a manifold increase of both the human and animal population. Animal husbandry has become popular due to the difficult farming conditions. At present, there are ten times more animals per person in Rajasthan than the national average, and overgrazing is also a factor affecting climatic and drought conditions.

 

A large number of farmers in Thar desert depend on animal husbandry for their livelihood. Cows, buffalos, sheep, goats, camels, and oxen consists of major cattle population. Barmer district has the highest cattle population out of which sheep and goats are in majority. Some of the best breeds of bullocks such as Kankrej (Sanchori) and Nagauri are from desert region.

 

Thar region of Rajasthan is the biggest wool-producing area in India. Chokla, Marwari, Jaisalmeri, Magra, Malpuri, Sonadi, Nali and Pungal breeds of sheep are found in the region. Of the total wool production in India, 40-50% comes from Rajasthan. The sheep-wool from Rajasthan is considered best for carpet making industry in the world. The wool of Chokla breed of sheep is considered of superior quality. The breeding centres have been developed for Karakul and Merino sheep at Suratgarh, Jaitsar and Bikaner. Some important mills for making Woolen thread established in desert area are: Jodhpur Woolen Mill, Jodhpur; Rajasthan Woolen Mill, Bikaner and India Woolen Mill, Bikaner. Bikaner is the biggest mandi (market place) of wool in Asia.

 

The live stock depends for grazing on common lands in villages. During famine years in the desert the nomadic rebari people move with large herds of sheep and camel to the forested areas of south Rajasthan or nearby states like Madhya Pradesh for grazing the cattle.

 

The importance of animal husbandry can be understood from the organization of large number of cattle fairs in the region. Cattle fairs are normally named after the folk-deities. Some of major cattle fairs held are Ramdevji cattle fair at Manasar in Nagaur district, Tejaji cattle fair at Parbatsar in Nagaur district, Baldeo cattle fair at Merta city in Nagaur district, Mallinath cattle fair at Tilwara in barmer district. Live stock is very important to the Thar desert people.

 

AGROFORESTRY

Forestry has an important part to play in the amelioration of the conditions in semi-arid and arid lands. If properly planned, forestry can make an important contribution to the general welfare of the people living in desert areas. The living standard of the people in the desert is low. They can not afford other fuels like gas, kerosene etc. Fire wood is their main fuel, of the total consumption of wood about 75 percent is firewood. The forest cover in desert is low. Rajasthan has a forest area of 31150 km2. which is about 9% of the geographical area. The forest area is mainly in southern districts of Rajasthan like Udaipur and Chittorgarh. The minimum forest area is in Churu district only 80 km2. Thus the forest is insufficient to fulfill the needs of firewood and grazing in desert districts. This diverts the much needed cattledung from the field to the hearth. This in turn results into the decrease in agricultural production. Agroforestry model is best suited to the people of desert. Some Institutes have done good work in Agroforestry.

 

The scientists of Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), have successfully developed and improved dozens of traditional and non-traditional crops/fruits, such as Ber trees (like plums) that produce much larger fruits than before (lemon-size) and can thrive with minimal rainfall. These trees have become a profitable option for farmers. One example from a case study of horticulture showed that in situation of budding in 35 plants of Ber and Guar (Gola, Seb & Mundia variety developed in CAZRI), using only one hectare of land, yielded 10,000 kg. of Ber and 250 kg. of Guar, which translates into double or even triple profit.

 

Arid Forest Research Institute, (AFRI) situated at Jodhpur is another national level institute in the region. It is one of the institutes of the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education ( ICFRE ) working under the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India. The Objective of the Institute is to carry out scientific research in forestry in order to provide technologies to increase the vegetative cover and to conserve the biodiversity in the hot arid and semi arid region of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Dadara & Nagar Haveli union territory.

 

The most important tree species in terms of providing a livelihood in Thar desert communities is Prosopis cineraria.

 

Prosopis cineraria provides wood of construction class. It is used for house-building, chiefly as rafters, posts scantlings, doors and windows, and for well construction water pipes, upright posts of Persian wheels, agricultural implements and shafts, spokes, fellows and yoke of carts. It can also be used for small turning work and tool-handles. Container manufacturing is another important wood-based industry, which depends heavily on desert-grown trees.

 

Prosopis cineraria is much valued as a fodder tree. The trees are heavily lopped particularly during winter months when no other green fodder is available in the dry tracts. There is a popular saying that death will not visit a man, even at the time of a famine, if he has a Prosopis cineraria, a goat and a camel, since the three together are some what said to sustain a man even under the most trying condition. The forage yield per tree varies a great deal. On an average, the yield of green forage from a full grown tree is expected to be about 60 kg with complete lopping having only the central leading shoot, 30 kg when the lower two third crown is lopped and 20 kg when the lower one third crown is lopped. The leaves are of high nutritive value. Feeding of the leaves during winter when no other green fodder is generally available in rain-fed areas is thus profitable. The pods have a sweetish pulp and are also used as fodder for livestock.

 

Prosopis cineraria is most important top feed species providing nutritious and highly palatable green as well as dry fodder, which is readily eaten by camels, cattle, sheep and goats, constituting a major feed requirement of desert livestock. Locally it is called Loong. Pods are locally called sangar or sangri. The dried pods locally called Kho-Kha are eaten. Dried pods also form rich animal feed, which is liked by all livestock. Green pods also form rich animal feed, which is liked by drying the young boiled pods. They are also used as famine food and known even to prehistoric man. Even the bark, having an astringent bitter taste, was reportedly eaten during the severe famine of 1899 and 1939. Pod yield is nearly 1.4 quintals of pods/ha with a variation of 10.7% in dry locations.

 

Prosopis cineraria wood is reported to contain high calorific value and provide high quality fuel wood. The lopped branches are good as fencing material. Its roots also encourage nitrogen fixation, which produces higher crop yields.

 

Tecomella undulata is one more tree species, locally known as Rohida, which is found in Thar Desert regions of northwest and western India. It is another important medium sized tree of great use in Agroforestry, that produces quality timber and is the main source of timber amongst the indigenous tree species of desert regions. The trade name of the tree species is Desert teak or Marwar teak.

 

Tecomella undulata is mainly used as a source of timber. Its wood is strong, tough and durable. It takes a fine finish. Heartwood contains quinoid. The wood is excellent for firewood and charcoal. Cattle and goats eat leaves of the tree. Camels, goats and sheep consume flowers and pods.

 

Tecomella undulata plays an important role in the ecology. It acts as a soil-binding tree by spreading a network of lateral roots on the top surface of the soil. It also acts as a windbreak and helps in stabilizing shifting sand dunes. It is considered as the home of birds and provides shelter for other desert wildlife. Shade of tree crown is shelter for the cattle, goats and sheep during summer days.

 

Tecomella undulata has medicinal properties as well. The bark obtained from the stem is used as a remedy for syphilis. It is also used in curing urinary disorders, enlargement of spleen, gonorrhoea, leucoderma and liver diseases. Seeds are used against abscess.

 

ECOTOURISM

Desert safaris on camels have become increasingly popular around Jaisalmer. Domestic and international tourists frequent the desert seeking adventure on camels for anything from a day to several days. This ecotourism industry ranges from cheaper backpacker treks to plush Arabian night style campsites replete with banquets and cultural performances. During the treks tourists are able to view the fragile and beautiful ecosystem of the Thar desert. This form of tourism provides income to many operators and camel owners in Jaisalmer as well as employment for many camel trekers in the desert villages nearby. But also people from various parts of the world come here to see pushkar mela and oasis.

 

INDUSTRY

Rajasthan is pre-eminent in quarrying and mining in India. The Taj Mahal was built with white marble mined from Makrana in Nagaur district. The state is the second largest source of cement in India. It has rich salt deposits at Sambhar. Jodhpur sandstone is mostly used in monuments, important buildings, residential buildings, and such. This stone is termed "chittar patthar". Jodhpur has also got mines of red stone locally known as ghatu patthar used in construction. Sandstone is found in Jodhpur and Naguar districts. Jalore is biggest centre of granite processing units.

 

Lignite coal deposits are there at places Giral, Kapuradi, Jalipa, Bhadka in Barmer district; Plana, Gudha, Bithnok, Barsinghpur, Mandla Charan, Raneri Hadla in Bikaner district and Kasnau, Merta, Lunsar etc., in Nagaur district. Lignite based Thermal power plant has been established at Giral in Barmer district. Jindal group is working on 1080 Megawatt power project in private sector at village Bhadaresh in Barmer district. "Neweli Lignite Barsinghpur Project" is in progress to establish two thermal power units of capacity 125 megawatts each at Barsinghpur in Bikaner district. Reliance Energy is working on establishing power generation through underground gasification technique in Barmer district with an outlay of about 30 billion rupees.

 

There is large storage of good quality petroleum in Jaisalmer and Barmer districts. The main places with deposits of petroleum are Baghewal, Kalrewal, and Tawariwal in Jaisalmer district and Gudha Malani area in Barmer district. Barmer district has started petroleum production on commercial scale.

 

Barmer district is in the news due to its large oil basin. The British exploration company Cairn Energy started production of oil on a large scale. Mangala, Bhagyam and Aishwariya are the major oil fields in the district. This is India's biggest oil discovery in 22 years. This promises to transform the local economy, which has long suffered from the harshness of the desert.

 

The Government of India initiated departmental exploration for oil in 1955-56 in the Jaisalmer area, Oil India Limited's discovered natural gas in 1988 in the Jaisalmer basin. Also known for their fine leather messenger bags made from wild camels native to the area.

 

The Thar desert seems an ideal place for generation of electricity from wind power. According to an estimate Rajasthan state has got a potential of 5500 Megawatt wind power generation as such it is in the priority of the state govt. Rajasthan State Power Corporation has established its first wind power based power plant at Amarsagar in Jaisalmer district. Some leading companies in the field are working on establishing wind mills in Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts. Solar energy also has a great potential in this region as most of the days during a year are cloud free. Solar energy based plant has been established at Bhaleri in Churu district to convert hard water into drinking water.

 

SALT WATER LAKES

There are a number of salt water lakes in Thar desert. These are Sambhar, Pachpadra, Tal Chhapar, Falaudi and Lunkaransar where Sodium chloride salt is produced from salt water. The Didwana lake produces Sodium Sulphate salt. Ancient Archaeological evidences of habitations have been recovered from Sambhar and Didwana lakes which shows their antiquity and historical importance.

 

WATER & HOUSING IN THE DESERT

Water scarcity plays an important role in shaping life in all parts of Thar. Natural (tobas) or man-made (johads), both types of small, intermittent ponds, are often the only source of water for animals and humans in the true desert areas. The lack of a constant water supply causes much of the local population to live as nomads. Most human settlements are found near the two seasonal streams of the Karon-Jhar hills. Potable groundwater is also rare in the Thar desert. Supplies are often sour due to dissolved minerals, and are only available deep underground. Wells that successfully bear sweet water attract nearby settlement, but are difficult to dig, possibly claiming the lives of the well-diggers.

 

According to 1980 housing census in Pakistan, there were 241,326 housing units of one or two very small rooms. The degree of crowding was six persons per housing unit and three persons per room. For most of the housing units (approximately 76 per cent), the main construction material of outer walls is unbaked bricks whereas wood is used in 10 per cent and baked bricks or stones with mud bonding in 8 per cent housing units. A large number of families still live in jhugis or huts which are housing units formed with straws and thin wood-sticks. The wind storm proves these jhugis unsustainable all the times. But the poverty leaves no other option to these jhugiwalas (people living in jhugis).

 

The river Luni is the only natural water source that drains inside a lake in the desert. It originates in the Pushkar valley of the Aravalli Range, near Ajmer and ends in the marshy lands of Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, after travelling a distance of 530 km. The Luni flows through part of Ajmer, Barmer, Jalor, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali, and Sirohi districts and Mithavirana Vav Radhanpur region of Banaskantha North Gujarat. Its major tributaries are the Sukri, Mithri, Bandi, Khari, Jawai, Guhiya and Sagi from the left, and the Jojari River from the right.

 

The Ghaggar is another intermittent river in India, flowing during the monsoon rains. It originates in the Shivalik Hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through Punjab and Haryana to Rajasthan; just southwest of Sirsa, Haryana and by the side of talwara jheel in Rajasthan, this seasonal river feeds two irrigation canals that extend into Rajasthan. It terminates in Hanumangarh district.

 

The Rajasthan Canal system is the major irrigation scheme of the Thar Desert and is conceived to reclaim it and also to check spreading of the desert to fertile areas. It is world's largest irrigation which is being extended in an attempt to make the desert arable. It runs south-southwest in Punjab and Haryana but mainly in Rajasthan for a total of 650 kilometers and ends near Jaisalmer, in Rajasthan. After the construction of the Indira Gandhi Canal, irrigation facilities were available over an area of 6770 km² in Jaisalmer district and 37 km² in Barmer district. Irrigation had already been provided in an area of 3670 km² in Jaisalmer district. The canal has transformed the barren deserts of this district into rich and lush fields. Crops of mustard, cotton, and wheat now flourish in this semi-arid western region replacing the sand there previously.

 

Besides providing water for agriculture, the canal will supply drinking water to hundreds of people in far-flung areas. As the second stage of work on the canal progresses rapidly, there is hope that it will enhance the living standards of the people of the state.

 

DESERT FOR RECREATION

Thar Desert provides the recreational value in terms of desert festivals organized every year. Rajasthan desert festivals are celebrated with great zest and zeal. This festival is held once a year during winters. Dressed in brilliantly hued costumes, the people of the desert dance and sing haunting ballads of valor, romance and tragedy. The fair has snake charmers, puppeteers, acrobats and folk performers. Camels, of course, play a stellar role in this festival, where the rich and colorful folk culture of Rajasthan can be seen.

 

Camels are an integral part of the desert life and the camel events during the Desert Festival confirm this fact. Special efforts go into dressing the animal for entering the spectacular competition of the best-dressed camel. Other interesting competitions on the fringes are the moustache and turban tying competitions, which not only demonstrate a glorious tradition but also inspire its preservation. Both the turban and the moustache have been centuries old symbols of honor in Rajasthan.

 

Evenings are meant for the main shows of music and dance. Continuing till late into the night, the number of spectators swells up each night and the grand finale, on the full moon night, takes place by silvery sand dunes.

 

WIKIPEDIA

GWR unit 158749 forms the 2P09 09:50 Penzance to Plymouth service on 15th December 2020. Some of these services are scheduled to be operated with a Castle Class HST set so I can't help think that the passengers on this particular trip are somewhat short changed.

La Casa Milà, també coneguda com "la Pedrera", és un edifici modernista que es troba al Passeig de Gràcia de Barcelona, a la cantonada amb el carrer de Provença. Va ser dissenyada per Antoni Gaudí per encàrrec del comerciant Pere Milà i Camps, i va ser construïda entre l'any 1906 i el 1910; va ser molt polèmica en el seu moment, per les agosarades formes ondulades de la façana de pedra i els ferros forjats retorts que en decoren les balconades i finestres, dissenyats en gran part per Josep Maria Jujol, qui també va projectar alguns dels cels rasos de guix.

 

L'any 1984 fou declarada Patrimoni de la Humanitat per la Unesco. Actualment és la seu de la Fundació Catalunya-La Pedrera, la qual en gestiona les diverses exposicions i activitats que s'hi fan. Estan oberts al públic (visita de pagament) el terrat, amb xemeneies i torres de ventilació de trencadís de formes curioses; les golfes, amb els seus arcs parabòlics de maó i una exposició sobre l'obra de Gaudí, i l'últim pis, que reprodueix les formes de vida burgesa de l'època modernista. També se'n poden visitar (lliurement) el vestíbul amb els dos celoberts; el pis principal, on s'hi fan exposicions temporals, i el soterrani, antic aparcament dels carruatges, on hi ha l'auditori.

 

Les escales eren destinades al servei, ja que l'accés als habitatges es feia amb ascensor excepte a la planta noble, on Gaudí afegí una escala de particular configuració.

 

Vestíbul i patis

 

La Pedrera presenta una solució absolutament original en la resolució del vestíbul perquè no es tracta d'un espai tancat i fosc, sinó obert i diàfan per la seva connexió amb els patis interiors que, igualment, guanyen importància en ser lloc de pas i directament visibles per qui accedeix a l'edifici. Hi ha dos patis, en forma rodona el de la banda de passeig de Gràcia i el·líptica el del carrer Provença.

 

Els dos vestíbuls estan íntegrament policromats amb pintures murals a l'oli sobre superfície de guix, mostrant un repertori molt eclèctic de referències mitològiques i florals.

 

Els patis, estructuralment, són una peça clau, ja que sostenen les càrregues de les façanes interiors. El sòl dels patis se sosté sobre uns pilars de ferro colat. Al pati el·líptic les bigues i jàsseres adopten una solució constructiva tradicional, però al cilíndric, Gaudí va aplicar una solució enginyosa en fer servir dues jàsseres cilíndriques i concèntriques tensades per bigues radials que, com si fossin els radis d'una bicicleta, van des d'un punt de la jàssera exterior contra dos punts -superior i inferior- de la jàssera central que fa funcions de clau de volta i treballa en tensió i compressió simultàniament. D'aquesta forma se suporta una estructura de dotze metres de diàmetre amb una peça de màxima bellesa i considerada «l'ànima de l'edifici» amb una clara semblança amb les criptes gòtiques. La peça central va ser construïda en unes drassanes i Josep Maria Carandell l'assimila a la roda del timó, interpretant la intenció de Gaudí de representar el timó del vaixell de la vida.

 

L'accés, protegit per una immensa porta de forja amb un disseny atribuït a Jujol, era comú per a persones i automòbils, per on accedien al garatge del soterrani, avui convertit en auditori.

 

Pàgina a la UNESCO World Heritage List.

 

A Google Maps.

 

This is a picture of how we display tax forms at my library - read more about it on my blog.

. . . the natural make-up of the women is called Thanaka. It is a cream made out of the bark of specific trees. Thanaka cream has been used by Burmese women for over 2000 years. It has a fragrant scent somewhat similar to sandalwood. The creamy paste is applied to the face in attractive designs, the most common form being a circular patch on each cheek, nose, sometimes made stripey with the fingers known as thanaka bè gya, or patterned in the shape of a leaf, often also highlighting the bridge of the nose with it at the same time. It may be applied from head to toe (thanaka chi zoun gaung zoun). Apart from cosmetic beauty, thanaka also gives a cooling sensation and provides protection from sunburn. It is believed to help remove acne and promote smooth skin. It is also an anti-fungal. The active ingredients of thanaka are coumarin and marmesin.

______________________________________

 

Yangon (Burmese: ရန်ကုန်, MLCTS rankun mrui, pronounced: [jàɴɡòʊɴ mjo̰]; formerly known as Rangoon, literally: "End of Strife") is the capital of the Yangon Region of Myanmar, also known as Burma. Yangon served as the capital of Myanmar until 2006, when the military government relocated the capital to the purpose-built city of Naypyidaw in central Myanmar. With over 7 million people, Yangon is Myanmar's largest city and is its most important commercial centre.

 

Yangon boasts the largest number of colonial-era buildings in the region, and has a unique colonial-era urban core that is remarkably intact. The colonial-era commercial core is centred around the Sule Pagoda, which reputed to be over 2,000 years old. The city is also home to the gilded Shwedagon Pagoda — Myanmar's most sacred Buddhist pagoda. The mausoleum of the last Mughal Emperor is located in Yangon, where he had been exiled following the Indian Mutiny of 1857.

 

Yangon suffers from deeply inadequate infrastructure, especially compared to other major cities in Southeast Asia. Though many historic residential and commercial buildings have been renovated throughout central Yangon, most satellite towns that ring the city continue to be profoundly impoverished and lack basic infrastructure.

 

ETYMOLOGY

Yangon (ရန်ကုန်) is a combination of the two words yan (ရန်) and koun (ကုန်), which mean "enemies" and "run out of", respectively. It is also translated as "End of Strife". "Rangoon" most likely comes from the British imitation of the pronunciation of "Yangon" in the Arakanese language, which is [rɔ̀ɴɡʊ́ɴ].

 

HISTORY

EARLY HISTORY

Yangon was founded as Dagon in the early 11th century (c. 1028–1043) by the Mon, who dominated Lower Burma at that time. Dagon was a small fishing village centred about the Shwedagon Pagoda. In 1755, King Alaungpaya conquered Dagon, renamed it "Yangon", and added settlements around Dagon. The British captured Yangon during the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26), but returned it to Burmese administration after the war. The city was destroyed by a fire in 1841.

 

COLONIAL RANGOON

The British seized Yangon and all of Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War of 1852, and subsequently transformed Yangon into the commercial and political hub of British Burma. Yangon is also the place where the British sent Bahadur Shah II, the last Mughal emperor, to live after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Based on the design by army engineer Lt. Alexander Fraser, the British constructed a new city on a grid plan on delta land, bounded to the east by the Pazundaung Creek and to the south and west by the Yangon River. Yangon became the capital of all British-ruled Burma after the British had captured Upper Burma in the Third Anglo-Burmese War of 1885. By the 1890s Yangon's increasing population and commerce gave birth to prosperous residential suburbs to the north of Royal Lake (Kandawgyi) and Inya Lake. The British also established hospitals including Rangoon General Hospital and colleges including Rangoon University.

 

Colonial Yangon, with its spacious parks and lakes and mix of modern buildings and traditional wooden architecture, was known as "the garden city of the East." By the early 20th century, Yangon had public services and infrastructure on par with London.

 

Before World War II, about 55% of Yangon's population of 500,000 was Indian or South Asian, and only about a third was Bamar (Burman). Karens, the Chinese, the Anglo-Burmese and others made up the rest.

 

After World War I, Yangon became the epicentre of Burmese independence movement, with leftist Rangoon University students leading the way. Three nationwide strikes against the British Empire in 1920, 1936 and 1938 all began in Yangon. Yangon was under Japanese occupation (1942–45), and incurred heavy damage during World War II. The city was retaken by the Allies in May 1945.

 

Yangon became the capital of Union of Burma on 4 January 1948 when the country regained independence from the British Empire.

 

CONTEMPORARY YANGON

Soon after Burma's independence in 1948, many colonial names of streets and parks were changed to more nationalistic Burmese names. In 1989, the current military junta changed the city's English name to "Yangon", along with many other changes in English transliteration of Burmese names. (The changes have not been accepted by many Burmese who consider the junta unfit to make such changes, nor by many publications, news bureaus including, most notably, the BBC and foreign nations including the United Kingdom and United States.)

 

Since independence, Yangon has expanded outwards. Successive governments have built satellite towns such as Thaketa, North Okkalapa and South Okkalapa in the 1950s to Hlaingthaya,

 

Shwepyitha and South Dagon in the 1980s. Today, Greater Yangon encompasses an area covering nearly 600 square kilometres.

 

During Ne Win's isolationist rule (1962–88), Yangon's infrastructure deteriorated through poor maintenance and did not keep up with its increasing population. In the 1990s, the current military government's more open market policies attracted domestic and foreign investment, bringing a modicum of modernity to the city's infrastructure. Some inner city residents were forcibly relocated to new satellite towns. Many colonial-period buildings were demolished to make way for high-rise hotels, office buildings, and shopping malls, leading the city government to place about 200 notable colonial-period buildings under the Yangon City Heritage List in 1996. Major building programs have resulted in six new bridges and five new highways linking the city to its industrial back country. Still, much of Yangon remains without basic municipal services such as 24-hour electricity and regular garbage collection.

 

Yangon has become much more indigenous Burmese in its ethnic make-up since independence. After independence, many South Asians and Anglo-Burmese left. Many more South Asians were forced to leave during the 1960s by Ne Win's xenophobic government. Nevertheless, sizable South Asian and Chinese communities still exist in Yangon. The Anglo-Burmese have effectively disappeared, having left the country or intermarried with other Burmese groups.

 

Yangon was the centre of major anti-government protests in 1974, 1988 and 2007. The 1988 People Power Uprising resulted in the deaths of hundreds, if not thousands of Burmese civilians, many in Yangoon where hundreds of thousands of people flooded into the streets of the then capital city. The Saffron Revolution saw mass shootings and the use of crematoria in Yangoon by the Burmese government to erase evidence of their crimes against monks, unarmed protesters, journalists and students.

 

The city's streets saw bloodshed each time as protesters were gunned down by the government.

 

In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis hit Yangon. While the city had few human casualties, three quarters of Yangon's industrial infrastructure was destroyed or damaged, with losses estimated at US$800 million.

 

In November 2005, the military government designated Naypyidaw, 320 kilometres north of Yangon, as the new administrative capital, and subsequently moved much of the government to the newly developed city. At any rate, Yangon remains the largest city, and the most important commercial centre of Myanmar.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Yangon is located in Lower Burma (Myanmar) at the convergence of the Yangon and Bago Rivers about 30 km away from the Gulf of Martaban at 16°48' North, 96°09' East (16.8, 96.15). Its standard time zone is UTC/GMT +6:30 hours.

 

CLIMATE

Yangon has a tropical monsoon climate under the Köppen climate classification system. The city features a lengthy wet season from May through October where a substantial amount of rainfall is received; and a dry season from November through April, where little rainfall is seen. It is primarily due to the heavy rainfall received during the rainy season that Yangon falls under the tropical monsoon climate category. During the course of the year 1961 to 1990s, average temperatures show little variance, with average highs ranging from 29 to 36 °C and average lows ranging from 18 to 25 °C.

 

CITYSCAPE

Until the mid-1990s, Yangon remained largely constrained to its traditional peninsula setting between the Bago, Yangon and Hlaing rivers. People moved in, but little of the city moved out. Maps from 1944 show little development north of Inya Lake and areas that are now layered in cement and stacked with houses were then virtual backwaters. Since the late 1980s, however, the city began a rapid spread north to where Yangon International airport now stands. But the result is a stretching tail on the city, with the downtown area well removed from its geographic centre. The city's area has steadily increased from 72.52 square kilometres in 1901 to 86.2 square kilometres in 1940 to 208.51 square kilometres in 1974, to 346.13 square kilometres in 1985, and to 598.75 square kilometres in 2008.

 

ARCHITECTURE

Downtown Yangon is known for its leafy avenues and fin-de-siècle architecture. The former British colonial capital has the highest number of colonial period buildings in south-east Asia. Downtown Yangon is still mainly made up of decaying colonial buildings. The former High Court, the former Secretariat buildings, the former St. Paul's English High School and the Strand Hotel are excellent examples of the bygone era. Most downtown buildings from this era are four-story mix-use (residential and commercial) buildings with 4.3 m ceilings, allowing for the construction of mezzanines. Despite their less-than-perfect conditions, the buildings remain highly sought after and most expensive in the city's property market.

 

In 1996, the Yangon City Development Committee created a Yangon City Heritage List of old buildings and structures in the city that cannot be modified or torn down without approval. In 2012, the city of Yangon imposed a 50-year moratorium on demolition of buildings older than 50 years. The Yangon Heritage Trust, an NGO started by Thant Myint-U, aims to create heritage areas in Downtown, and attract investors to renovate buildings for commercial use.

 

A latter day hallmark of Yangon is the eight-story apartment building. (In Yangon parlance, a building with no elevators (lifts) is called an apartment building and one with elevators is called a condominium. Condos which have to invest in a local power generator to ensure 24-hour electricity for the elevators are beyond the reach of most Yangonites.) Found throughout the city in various forms, eight-story apartment buildings provide relatively inexpensive housing for many Yangonites. The apartments are usually eight stories high (including the ground floor) mainly because city regulations, until February 2008, required that all buildings higher than 23 m or eight stories to install lifts. The current code calls for elevators in buildings higher than 19 m or six stories, likely ushering in the era of the six-story apartment building. Although most apartment buildings were built only within the last 20 years, they look much older and rundown due to shoddy construction and lack of proper maintenance.

 

Unlike other major Asian cities, Yangon does not have any skyscrapers. Aside from a few high-rise hotels and office towers, most high-rise buildings (usually 10 stories and up) are "condos" scattered across prosperous neighbourhoods north of downtown such as Bahan, Dagon, Kamayut and Mayangon. The tallest building in Yangon, Pyay Gardens, is a 25-story condo in the city's north.

 

Older satellite towns such as Thaketa, North Okkalapa and South Okkalapa are lined mostly with one to two story detached houses with access to the city's electricity grid. Newer satellite towns such as North Dagon and South Dagon are still essentially slums in a grid layout. The satellite towns - old or new - receive little or no municipal services.

 

ROAD LAYOUT

Downtown Yangon's road layout follows a grid pattern, based on four types of roads:

 

Broad 49-m wide roads running west to east

Broad 30-m wide roads running south to north

Two narrow 9.1-m wide streets running south to north

Mid-size 15-m wide streets running south to north

 

The east-west grid of central was laid out by British military engineers Fraser and Montgomerie after the Second Anglo-Burmese War. The city was later developed by the Public Works Department and Bengal Corps of Engineers. The pattern of south to north roads is as follows: one broad 30 m wide broad road, two narrow streets, one mid-size street, two more narrow streets, and then another 30 m wide broad road. This order is repeated from west to east. The narrow streets are numbered; the medium and broad roads are named.

 

For example, the 30 m Lanmadaw Road is followed by 9.1 m-wide 17th and 18th streets then the medium 15 m Sint-Oh-Dan Road, the 30-foot 19th and 20th streets, followed by another 30 m wide Latha Road, followed again by the two numbered small roads 21st and 22nd streets, and so on.

 

The roads running parallel west to east were the Strand Road, Merchant Road, Maha Bandula (née Dalhousie) Road, Anawrahta (Fraser) Road, and Bogyoke Aung San (Montgomerie) Road.

 

PARKS AND GARDENS

The largest and best maintained parks in Yangon are located around Shwedagon Pagoda. To the south-east of the gilded stupa is the most popular recreational area in the city – Kandawgyi Lake. The 61-ha lake is surrounded by the 45-ha Kandawgyi Nature Park, and the 28-ha Yangon Zoological Gardens, which consists of a zoo, an aquarium and an amusement park. West of the pagoda towards the former Hluttaw (Parliament) complex is the 53-ha People's Square and Park, (the former parading ground on important national days when Yangon was the capital.) A few miles north of the pagoda lies the 15-ha Inya Lake Park – a favorite hangout place of Yangon University students, and a well-known place of romance in Burmese popular culture.

 

Hlawga National Park and Allied War Memorial at the outskirts of the city are popular day-trip destinations with the well-to-do and tourists.

 

Yangon Book Plaza, the first and biggest book shop in Myanmar was opened on February 26, 2017 on the fifth floor of Than Zay Market in Lanmadaw Township, Yangon.

 

ADMINISTRATION

Yangon is administered by the Yangon City Development Committee (YCDC). YCDC also coordinates urban planning. The city is divided into four districts. The districts combined have a total of 33 townships. The current mayor of Yangon is Maung Maung Soe. Each township is administered by a committee of township leaders, who make decisions regarding city beautification and infrastructure. Myo-thit (lit. "New Towns", or satellite towns) are not within such jurisdictions.

 

TRANSPORT

Yangon is Burma's main domestic and international hub for air, rail, and ground transportation.

 

AIR

Yangon International Airport, located 19 km from the centre, is the country's main gateway for domestic and international air travel. The airport has three terminals, known as T1, T2 and T3 which is also known as Domestic. It has direct flights to regional cities in Asia – mainly, Doha, Dubai, Dhaka, Kolkata, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Beijing, Seoul, Guangzhou, Taipei, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Kunming and Singapore. Although domestic airlines offer service to about twenty domestic locations, most flights are to tourist destinations such as Bagan, Mandalay, Heho and Ngapali, and to the capital Naypyidaw.

 

RAILWAYS

Yangon Central Railway Station is the main terminus of Myanmar Railways' 5,403-kilometre rail network whose reach covers Upper Myanmar (Naypyidaw, Mandalay, Shwebo), upcountry (Myitkyina), Shan hills (Taunggyi, Lashio) and the Taninthayi coast (Mawlamyaing, Dawei).

 

Yangon Circular Railway operates a 45.9-kilometre 39-station commuter rail network that connects Yangon's satellite towns. The system is heavily utilized by the local populace, selling about 150,000 tickets daily. The popularity of the commuter line has jumped since the government reduced petrol subsidies in August 2007.

 

BUSES AND CARS

Yangon has a 4,456-kilometre road network of all types (tar, concrete and dirt) in March 2011. Many of the roads are in poor condition and not wide enough to accommodate an increasing number of cars. The vast majority of Yangon residents cannot afford a car and rely on an extensive network of buses to get around. Over 300 public and private bus lines operate about 6,300 crowded buses around the city, carrying over 4.4 million passengers a day. All buses and 80% of the taxis in Yangon run on compressed natural gas (CNG), following the 2005 government decree to save money on imported petroleum. Highway buses to other cities depart from Dagon Ayeyar Highway Bus Terminal for Irrawaddy delta region and Aung Mingala Highway Bus Terminal for other parts of the country.

 

Motor transportation in Yangon is highly expensive for most of its citizens. As the government allows only a few thousand cars to be imported each year in a country with over 50 million people, car prices in Yangon (and in Burma) are among the highest in the world. In July 2008, the two most popular cars in Yangon, 1986/87 Nissan Sunny Super Saloon and 1988 Toyota Corolla SE Limited, cost the equivalent of about US$20,000 and US$29,000 respectively. A sports utility vehicle, imported for the equivalent of around US$50,000, goes for US$250,000. Illegally imported unregistered cars are cheaper – typically about half the price of registered cars. Nonetheless, car usage in Yangon is on the rise, a sign of rising incomes for some, and already causes much traffic congestion in highway-less Yangon's streets. In 2011, Yangon had about 300,000 registered motor vehicles in addition to an unknown number of unregistered ones.

 

Since 1970, cars have been driven on the right side of the road in Burma, as part of a military decree. However, as the government has not required left hand drive (LHD) cars to accompany the right side road rules, many cars on the road are still right hand drive (RHD) made for driving on the left side. Japanese used cars, which make up most of the country's imports, still arrive with RHD and are never converted to LHD. As a result, Burmese drivers have to rely on their passengers when passing other cars.

 

Within Yangon city limits, it is illegal to drive trishaws, bicycles, and motorcycles. Since February 2010, pickup truck bus lines have been forbidden to run in 6 townships of central Yangon, namely Latha, Lanmadaw, Pabedan, Kyauktada, Botahtaung and Pazundaung Townships. In May 2003, a ban on using car horns was implemented in six townships of Downtown Yangon to reduce noise pollution. In April 2004, the car horn ban was expanded to cover the entire city.

 

RIVER

Yangon's four main passenger jetties, all located on or near downtown waterfront, mainly serve local ferries across the river to Dala and Thanlyin, and regional ferries to the Irrawaddy delta. The 35-km Twante Canal was the quickest route from Yangon to the Irrawaddy delta until the 1990s when roads between Yangon and the Irrawaddy Division became usable year-round. While passenger ferries to the delta are still used, those to Upper Burma via the Irrawaddy river are now limited mostly to tourist river cruises.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

Yangon is the most populous city by far in Burma although estimates of the size of its population vary widely. All population figures are estimates since no official census has been conducted in Burma since 1983. A UN estimate puts the population as 4.35 million in 2010 but a 2009 U.S. State Department estimate puts it at 5.5 million. The U.S. State Department's estimate is probably closer to the real number since the UN number is a straight-line projection, and does not appear to take the expansion of city limits in the past two decades into account. The city's population grew sharply after 1948 as many people (mainly, the indigenous Burmese) from other parts of the country moved into the newly built satellite towns of North Okkalapa, South Okkalapa, and Thaketa in the 1950s and East Dagon, North Dagon and South Dagon in the 1990s. Immigrants have founded their regional associations (such as Mandalay Association, Mawlamyaing Association, etc.) in Yangon for networking purposes. The government's decision to move the nation's administrative capital to Naypyidaw has drained an unknown number of civil servants away from Yangon.

 

Yangon is the most ethnically diverse city in the country. While Indians formed the slight majority prior to World War II, today, the majority of the population is of indigenous Bamar (Burman) descent. Large communities of Indians/South Asian Burmese and the Chinese Burmese exist especially in the traditional downtown neighborhoods. A large number of Rakhine and Karen also live in the city.

 

Burmese is the principal language of the city. English is by far the preferred second language of the educated class. In recent years, however, the prospect of overseas job opportunities has enticed

 

some to study other languages: Mandarin Chinese is most popular, followed by Japanese, and French.

 

RELIGIONS

The primary religions practiced in Yangon are Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, and Islam. Shwedagon Pagoda is a famous religious landmark in the city.

 

MEDIA

Yangon is the country's hub for the movie, music, advertising, newspaper and book publishing industries. All media is heavily regulated by the military government. Television broadcasting is off limits to the private sector. All media content must first be approved by the government's media censor board, Press Scrutiny and Registration Division.

 

Most television channels in the country are broadcast from Yangon. TV Myanmar and Myawaddy TV are the two main channels, providing Burmese-language programming in news and entertainment. Other special interest channels are MWD-1 and MWD-2, MRTV-3, the English-language channel that targets overseas audiences via satellite and via Internet, MRTV-4 and Channel 7 are with a focus on non-formal education programs and movies, and Movie 5, a pay-TV channel specializing in broadcasting foreign movies.

 

Yangon has three radio stations. Myanmar Radio National Service is the national radio service and broadcasts mostly in Burmese (and in English during specific times.) Pop culture oriented Yangon City FM and Mandalay City FM radio stations specialize in Burmese and English pop music, entertainment programs, live celebrity interviews, etc. New radio channels such as Shwe FM and Pyinsawaddy FM can also be tuned with the city area.

 

Nearly all print media and industries are based out of Yangon. All three national newspapers – two Burmese language dailies Myanma Alin (မြန်မာ့အလင်း) and Kyemon (ကြေးမုံ), and the English language The New Light of Myanmar — are published by the government. Semi-governmental The Myanmar Times weekly, published in Burmese and in English, is mainly geared for Yangon's expatriate community. Over twenty special interest journals and magazines covering sports, fashion, finance, crime, literature (but never politics) vie for the readership of the general populace.

 

Access to foreign media is extremely difficult. Satellite television in Yangon, and in Burma, is very expensive as the government imposes an annual registration fee of one million kyats. Certain foreign newspapers and periodicals such as the International Herald Tribune and the Straits Times can be found only in a few (mostly downtown) bookstores. Internet access in Yangon, which has the best telecommunication infrastructure in the country, is slow and erratic at best, and the Burmese government implements one of the world's most restrictive regimes of Internet control. International text messaging and voice messaging was permitted only in August 2008.

 

COMMUNICATION

Common facilities taken for granted elsewhere are luxury prized items in Yangon and Burma. The price of a GSM mobile phone was about K1.1 million in August 2008. In 2007, the country of 55 million had only 775,000 phone lines (including 275,000 mobile phones), and 400,000 computers. Even in Yangon, which has the best infrastructure, the estimated telephone penetration rate was only 6% at the end of 2004, and the official waiting time for a telephone line was 3.6 years. Most people cannot afford a computer and have to use the city's numerous Internet cafes to access a heavily restricted Internet, and a heavily censored local intranet. According to official statistics, in July 2010, the country had over 400,000 Internet users, with the vast majority hailing from just two cities, Yangon and Mandalay. Although Internet access was available in 42 cities across the country, the number of users outside the two main cities was just over 10,000.

 

LIFESTYLE

Yangon's property market is the most expensive in the country and beyond the reach of most Yangonites. Most rent outside the centre and few can afford to rent such apartments. (In 2008, rents for a typical 60 to 70 m2 apartments in the centre and vicinity range between K70,000 and K150,000 and those for high end condos between K200,000 and K500,000.)

 

Most men of all ages (and some women) spend their time at ubiquitous tea-shops, found in any corner or street of the city. Watching European football (mostly English Premier League with occasional La Liga, Serie A, Bundesliga) matches while sipping tea is a popular pastime among many Yangonites. The average person stays close to his or her residential neighbourhood. The well-to-do tend to visit shopping malls and parks on weekends. Some leave the city on weekends for Chaungtha and Ngwesaung beach resorts in Ayeyarwady Division.

 

Yangon is also home to many pagoda festivals (paya pwe), held during dry-season months (November – March). The most famous of all, the Shwedagon Pagoda Festival in March, attracts thousands of pilgrims from around the country.

 

Yangon's museums are the domain of tourists and rarely visited by the locals.

 

Most of Yangon's larger hotels offer some kind of nightlife entertainment, geared towards tourists and the well-to-do Burmese. Some hotels offer traditional Burmese performing arts shows complete with a traditional Burmese orchestra. The pub scene in larger hotels is more or less the same as elsewhere in Asia. Other options include karaoke bars and pub restaurants in Yangon Chinatown.

 

Due to the problems of high inflation, the lack of high denomination notes, and the fact that many of the population do not have access to checks, or credit or debit cards, it is common to see citizens carrying a considerable amount of cash. (The highest denomination of Burmese currency kyat is 10 000 (~US$10.)) Credit cards are only rarely used in the city, chiefly in the more lavish hotels. Credit cards are also accepted in the major supermarket and convenience store chains.

 

SPORTS

As the city has the best sporting facilities in the country, most national-level annual sporting tournaments such as track and field, football, volleyball, tennis and swimming are held in Yangon. The 40,000-seat Aung San Stadium and the 32,000-seat Thuwunna Stadium are the main venues for the highly popular annual State and Division football tournament. Until April 2009, the now defunct Myanmar Premier League, consisted of 16 Yangon-based clubs, played all its matches in Yangon stadiums, and attracted little interest from the general public or commercial success despite the enormous popularity of football in Burma. Most Yangonites prefer watching European football on satellite TV. Teams such as Manchester United, Liverpool, Chelsea, Real Madrid, Barcelona, Bayern Munich and Manchester City are among the favorite European teams among the Yangonites. It remains to be seen whether the Myanmar National League, the country's first professional football league, and its Yangon-based club Yangon United FC will attract a sufficient following in the country's most important media market.

 

Yangon is also home to annual the Myanmar Open golf tournament, and the Myanmar Open tennis tournament. The city hosted the 1961 and 1969 South East Asian Games. During colonial times, cricket was played mostly by British officials in the city. First-class cricket was played in the city in January 1927 when the touring Marylebone Cricket Club played Burma and the Rangoon Gymkhana. Two grounds were used to host these matches, the BAA Ground and the Gymkhana Ground. These matches mark the only time Burma and Rangoon Gymkhana have appeared in first-class cricket, and the only time first-class cricket has been played in Burma. After independence cricket all but died out in the country.

 

Yangon has a growing population of skateboarders, as documented in the films Altered Focus: Burma and Youth of Yangon. German non-profit organization Make Life Skate Life has received permission from the Yangon City Development Committee to construct a concrete skatepark at Thakin Mya park in downtown, and plans to complete the park in November 2015.

 

ECONOMY

Yangon is the country's main centre for trade, industry, real estate, media, entertainment and tourism. The city represents about one fifth of the national economy. According to official statistics for FY 2010–2011, the size of the economy of Yangon Region was 8.93 trillion kyats, or 23% of the national GDP.

 

The city is Lower Burma's main trading hub for all kinds of merchandise – from basic food stuffs to used cars although commerce continues to be hampered by the city's severely underdeveloped banking industry and communication infrastructure. Bayinnaung Market is the largest wholesale centre in the country for rice, beans and pulses, and other agricultural commodities. Much of the country's legal imports and exports go through Thilawa Port, the largest and busiest port in Burma. There is also a great deal of informal trade, especially in street markets that exist alongside street platforms of Downtown Yangon's townships. However, on 17 June 2011, the YCDC announced that street vendors, who had previously been allowed to legally open shop at 3 pm, would be prohibited from selling on the streets, and permitted to sell only in their townships of residence, presumably to clean up the city's image. Since 1 December 2009, high-density polyethylene plastic bags have been banned by city authorities.

 

Manufacturing accounts for a sizable share of employment. At least 14 light industrial zones ring Yangon, directly employing over 150,000 workers in 4,300 factories in early 2010. The city is the centre of country's garment industry which exported US$292 million in 2008/9 fiscal year. More than 80 percent of factory workers in Yangon work on a day-to-day basis. Most are young women between 15 and 27 years of age who come from the countryside in search of a better life. The manufacturing sector suffers from both structural problems (e.g. chronic power shortages) and political.

 

problems (e.g. economic sanctions). In 2008, Yangon's 2500 factories alone needed about 120 MW of power; yet, the entire city received only about 250 MW of the 530 MW needed. Chronic power shortages limit the factories' operating hours between 8 am and 6 pm.

 

Construction is a major source of employment. The construction industry has been negatively affected by the move of state apparatus and civil servants to Naypyidaw, new regulations introduced in August 2009 requiring builders to provide at least 12 parking spaces in every new high-rise building, and the general poor business climate. As of January 2010, the number of new high-rise building starts approved in 2009–2010 was only 334, compared to 582 in 2008–2009.

 

Tourism represents a major source of foreign currency for the city although by south-east Asian standards the number of foreign visitors to Yangon has always been quite low - about 250,000 before the Saffron Revolution in September 2007. The number of visitors dipped even further following the Saffron Revolution and Cyclone Nargis. The recent improvement in the country's political climate has attracted an increasing number of businessmen and tourists. Between 300,000 and 400,000 visitors that went through Yangon International in 2011. However, after years of underinvestment, Yangon's modest hotel infrastructure - only 3000 of the total 8000 hotel rooms in Yangon are "suitable for tourists" - is already bursting at seams, and will need to be expanded to handle additional visitors. As part of an urban development strategy, a hotel zone has been planned in Yangon's outskirts, encompassing government- and military-owned land in Mingaladon, Hlegu and Htaukkyant Townships.

 

EDUCATION

Yangon educational facilities has a very high number of qualified teachers but the state spending on education is among the lowest of the world. Around 2007 estimate by the London-based International Institute for Strategic Studies puts the spending for education at 0.5% of the national budget. The disparity in educational opportunities and achievement between rich and poor schools is quite stark even within the city. With little or no state support forthcoming, schools have to rely on forced "donations" and various fees from parents for nearly everything – school maintenance to teachers' salaries, forcing many poor students to drop out.

 

While many students in poor districts fail to reach high school, a handful of Yangon high schools in wealthier districts such as Dagon 1, Sanchaung 2, Kamayut 2, Bahan 2, Latha 2, and TTC provide the majority of students admitted to the most selective universities in the country, highlighting the extreme shallowness of talent pool in the country. The wealthy bypass the state education system altogether, sending their children to private English language instruction schools such as YIEC or more widely known as ISM, or abroad (typically Singapore or Australia) for university education. In 2014, international schools in Yangon cost at least US$8,000 a year.

 

There are over 20 universities and colleges in the city. While Yangon University remains the best known (its main campus is a part of popular Burmese culture e.g. literature, music, film, etc.), the nation's oldest university is now mostly a graduate school, deprived of undergraduate studies. Following the 1988 nationwide uprising, the military government has repeatedly closed universities, and has dispersed most of undergraduate student population to new universities in the suburbs such as Dagon University, the University of East Yangon and the University of West Yangon. Nonetheless many of the country's most selective universities are still in Yangon. Students from around the country still have to come to study in Yangon as some subjects are offered only at its universities. The University of Medicine 1, University of Medicine 2, Yangon Technological University, University of Computer Studies and Myanmar Maritime University are the most selective in the country.

 

HEALTH CARE

The general state of health care in Yangon is poor. According to a 2007 estimate, the military government spends 0.4% of the national budget on health care, and 40% to 60% on defense. By the government's own figures, it spends 849 kyats (US$0.85) per person. Although health care is nominally free, in reality, patients have to pay for medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and hospitals. Public hospitals including the flagship Yangon General Hospital lack many of the basic facilities and equipment.

 

Wealthier Yangonites still have access to country's best medical facilities and internationally qualified doctors. Only Yangon and Mandalay have any sizable number of doctors left as many Burmese doctors have emigrated. The well-to-do go to private clinics or hospitals like Pun Hlaing International Hospital and Bahosi Medical Clinic. Medical malpractice is widespread, even in private clinics and hospitals that serve the well-to-do. In 2009 and 2010, a spate of high-profile deaths brought out the severity of the problem, even for the relatively well off Yangonites. The wealthy do not rely on domestic hospitals and travel abroad, usually Bangkok or Singapore, for treatment.

 

WIKIPEDIA

1979

 

January 5, 1979

It was reported that the 1st Annual Bill McNeill Memorial Hockey Tournament was a big success. Over 600 players took part in the event. Kanata Standard, January 5, 1979:1.

 

January 5, 1979

Marianne Wilkinson, in her Commentary, announced that Kanata City Council had passed a resolution officially designating the names of the five existing communities in the City of Kanata. They were Bridlewood, Glen Cairn, Katimavik/Hazeldean, Beaverbrook, and March. Kanata Standard, January 5, 1979:1.

 

January 5, 1979

It was reported that the Kinette Club had donated a cart to a Glen Cairn family who had a young boy in a body cast. Robbie Boileau was due to be in the body cast another three weeks. Kanata Standard, January 5, 1979:2.

 

January 5, 1979

The newly formed Kanata Ski Club membership exceeded 100 families and a number of singles. Kanata Standard, January 5, 1979:3.

 

January 10, 1979

The first meeting of the Kanata Beaverbrook Community Association in 1979 was held. Approximately 30 residents attended. Newton Steacy stated: “The caliber of the executive and the new cluster directors is impressive.” The business of the meeting included a strongly supported motion to deliver the Standard to Glen Cairn for a four-month period. It was seen that this would allow time for the editorial board to urge Glen Cairn residents to submit articles and participate in the publication of a “community-owned” newspaper. Kanata Standard, January 16, 1979:2,6.

 

January 13, 1979

The Kanata Theatre presented “Everything in the Garden” to a large audience. Kanata Standard, January 19, 1979:15.

 

January 16, 1979

Kanata City Council decided to hold the first meeting of each month in different communities with the City of Kanata. Kanata Standard, January 19, 1979:1.

 

January 16, 1979

A debate continued in Kanata City Council over the appointment of an alderman to serve as Acting Mayor in the possible absence of Mayor Wilkinson. Alderman Rogers and Kingham were both nominated. The issue was resolved when Alderman Kingham withdrew from the contest, leaving Charles Rogers as Acting Mayor. Kanata Standard, January 19, 1979:1.

 

January 16, 1979

Kanata City Council discussed the Commissioners’ Report and decided to establish a Transportation Advisory Committee composed of a representative from each ward. Council agreed to the appointments of those representatives where only one name had been put forward. The balance was to be dealt with at the next meeting. Kanata Standard, January 19, 1979:1.

 

January 16, 1979

Kanata City Council agreed to hire a consultant to carry out a management study of the City of Kanata. Its purpose was to assist the municipality in detailing the numbers of employees required for 1979. Kanata Standard, January 19, 1979:6.

 

January 19, 1979

In a Standard feature article, Alan Seward reported that planning for a library branch in Glen Cairn was well under way. A temporary library was put in place for the time being. Kanata Standard, January 19, 1979:1.

 

January 19, 1979

Marianne Wilkinson, in her Commentary, announced that the Logo for the City of Kanata Contest would end on January 31. Kanata Standard, January 5, 1979:1.

 

January 19, 1979

The municipalities and hydro commissions in the Regional Municipality of Ottawa-Carleton agreed to carry out a Restructuring Study on their hydro service. Kanata Standard, January 19, 1979:6.

 

January 19, 1979

Dogbone Park family skating rink opened for its first season. Kanata Standard, January 19, 1979:6.

 

January 19, 1979

The March Sailing Club held a successful Annual General Meeting. New Directors were Harry Holdsworth, Gerry Holt, John Perry, Gary Caple, Harry Adderly, Keith Hooey, and Robert Wilkinson. Kanata Standard, January 19, 1979:11.

 

January 20, 1979

The Kanata Singles held a very successful dance, with more than 100 members and guests attending. Kanata Standard, February 2, 1979:5.

 

January 28, 1979

Tow truck drivers at Gallagher’s Garage were awakened by two nearby wolves. One of the wolves was shot and the other disappeared. Kanata Standard, February 2, 1979:1.

 

January 29, 1979

At a joint meeting of the March and Glen Cairn Soccer Clubs was held. Both clubs were both dissolved to form a new Kanata City Soccer Club. The Board of Directors and Executive for the newly formed club were Allan Wilson, Sid Johnson, Jim Burrows, Bart Jones, John Brunette, John Dowell, Barry Felstead, Norbett Hendrycks, Lloyd Mason, John Rahim, Keith Richardson, Norbett Riester, Phil Shea, and Alan Waltho. Kanata Standard, January 19, 1979:8; Kanata Standard, February 2, 1979:16.

 

January 31, 1979

Kanata City Council decided that a consulting engineering firm would be used to investigate structural problems in the Glen Cairn Community Centre. There had been crumbling walls in the building. Alderman Lund was upset that this could happen, and expressed the need to find the cause of the damage. Kanata Standard, February 2, 1979:2.

 

February 2, 1979

Stephanie Paul reported that progress on the Town Centre may be slowed due to a lack of a major retail tenant for the first portion of the development. Many recognized the importance of the construction of the centre, due the unique history of Kanata and the fact that it had grown “from the outside in,” and as a result had no real centre. Kanata Standard, February 2, 1979:1

 

February 2, 1979

The editors of the Kanata Standard announced that a new system of sub-editors was created to make the paper better and to “spread the activities of the paper to more helpers.” Kanata Standard, February 2, 1979:2.

 

February 2, 1979

Al Craig wrote an article for the Standard on SS No. 1, March Public School. Kanata Standard, February 2, 1979:2.

 

February 2, 1979

The results of two months of polling by the Glen Cairn Community Association executive indicated that a majority of the residents of Glen Cairn rejected the Kanata Standard. At the time, the Standard was a publication of the Kanata Beaverbrook Community Association. Kanata Standard, February 2, 1979:10.

 

February 2, 1979

Events and activities for the City of Kanata Winter Carnival 1979 were published in the Standard. Kanata Standard, February 2, 1979:20.

 

February 2, 1979

Doug Foster reported that the Winter Carnival ‘79 Duchess would be Marilyn Foster. Kanata Standard, February 16, 1979:3.

 

February 5, 1979

The first meeting of the City of Kanata Transportation Committee was held. It was primarily an advisory committee. A number of concerns that needed to be taken up with OC Transpo staff were discussed. Kanata Standard, February 2, 1979:1.

 

February 6, 1979

An open Kanata City Council meeting was held in Glen Cairn. A number of concerns were brought to Council’s attention, including snow removal and garbage collection. Stephanie Paul reported that the Council meeting was well attended and “the exchange between council members and the audience was lively.” Kanata Standard, February 16, 1979:2,5,6.

 

February 7, 1979

James Gillies, noted economist and MP for Don Valley, spoke at a public meeting at the John Mlacak Centre. Kanata Standard, February 2, 1979:9.

 

February 16, 1979

Newton Steacy, in his KBCA President Report, stated the association’s intent to expand the distribution of the Standard. Each community association had expressed an interest in this except for the Glen Cairn executive. Their sentiment was based on the results of a recent survey done in that community. Steacy claimed that “the Glen Cairn executive was quick to support the negative vote” when the results indicated otherwise. Kanata Standard, February 16, 1979:3.

 

February 16, 1979

Garry Thom reported on housing in Glen Cairn. Thom pointed out that building by the two major developers in the area, Costain and Sandbury, was leveling off. Kanata Standard, February 16, 1979:5.

 

February 16, 1979

It was announced by the Canadian Housing Design Council that a Community Design Award go to the early stages of Kanata, as the area was known prior the formation of the City of Kanata. It was awarded jointly to the City of Kanata and Campeau Corporation. While giving out the award, Jean Ouellet stated: “The early development of Kanata resulted from the vision and enterprise of William Teron. The continued growth of the town in more recent years is a great credit to the planning and design concepts which he introduced, as well as to the municipality (the Township of March) and to the Campeau Corporation, the present owner and developer.” Kanata Standard, February 16, 1979:11.

 

February 16, 1979

Kanata’s Mitel Corporation announced the appointment of Burns Fry Limited as its fiscal agents to underwrite the first issue of Mitel stock to the pubic. Kanata Standard, February 16, 1979:14.

 

February 16, 1979

The National Capital Equestrian Park held its Annual General Meeting. Over 70 people attended. A new Executive and Board of Directors was elected and an auditor’s statement presented. Kanata Standard, March 2, 1979:6.

 

February 17, 1979

The newly completed People Place recreation project officially opened. The John G. Mlacak Centre combined completion of the existing arena and the provision of new space for a variety of recreational pursuits. The project began in the spring of 1978. Kanata Standard, February 16, 1979:9.

 

February 20, 1979

Kanata City Council called for the provincial Minister of Revenue to reassess the value of all properties within the City of Kanata. Kanata Standard, March 2, 1979:1,4.

 

February 22, 1979

Earl of March boys’ and girls’ teams were overall winners in cross-country skiing in the Provincial Championships after two days of competition. Among those placing were Bernie Saneer, Dave Bennett, Carolyn Champion Venessa Daniel, Peter Eiselle, Jenny Labenek, Nancy Labenek, Scott Laughton, Anne McTaggart, Bill Mlacak, Rob Parsons, and Bernie Sander. Kanata Standard, March 2, 1979:12.

 

February 26, 1979

The Kanata Transportation Committee met with OC Transpo staff to exchange information and views related to some outstanding actions and key concerns of the Committee and local residents. Kanata Standard, March 2, 1979:2.

 

March 1, 1979

The Kanata Book Fair was opened by Mayor Marianne Wilkinson, Trustee J. D. Lyon, and Robin Skuce from the office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. As of February 20th, 18,498 used books had been collected. A larger than expected crowd turned up for the opening of the event. Kanata Standard, March 2, 1979:1; Kanata Standard, March 16, 1979:14.

 

March 2, 1979

A feature article appeared in the Standard discussing the need for a new school for Katimavik-Hazeldean. Kanata Standard, March 2, 1979:1,5.

 

March 2, 1979

The winners of the Kanata City Logo Contest were published in the Standard. First prize went to a joint submission by Wendy, Ian, Shaun and Mary Lou Kingham from Beaverbrook. Moderate changes in color were made to the logo, to then be used on all City vehicles, letterhead, etc. Kanata Standard, March 2, 1979:2.

 

March 2, 1979

Maurice Dubras began a series of articles appearing in the Standard on city matters discussed in City Council meetings. It was titled “Council in Action: Inside From the Outside”. Dubras reported this first Council meeting as a “quick and quiet affair.” Kanata Standard, March 2, 1979:1.

 

March 2, 1979

The results of the Kanata Winter Carnival 1979 were published in the Standard. Kanata Standard, March 2, 1979:13-15.

 

March 6, 1979

Kanata City Council held one of their “mobile meetings” in rural Kanata. Kanata Standard, March 2, 1979:1.

 

March 7, 1979

The Katimavik Beaverbrook Community Association held its Annual General meeting, combined with the regular monthly meeting. Twenty-seven cluster directors and 6 guests attended. The meeting focused on the management of 1978's money and budgeting for 1979. Kanata Standard, March 16, 1979:2,5.

 

March 13, 1979

Kanata City Council recommended that a fire station be built on the March Central School site to serve the rural areas of the City. The project, still needing ratification, was budgeted at $201,000. Kanata Fire Chief Jim Snider appeared at the meeting, to help make the case for the new station. Standard, March 30, 1979:2,5.

 

March 16, 1979

Marilyn Foster wrote a feature on a new Katimavik Co-operative Nursery School in Kanata. Kanata Standard, March 16, 1979:1.

 

March 16, 1979

It was announced that Kanata Scouts, Joe Nyenhuis and Alex Guruprasad, hoped to attend a mini-jamboree in Sweden. Fundraising events were planned. Kanata Standard, March 16, 1979:7.

 

March 16, 1979

Garry Thom reported in the Standard that Iber Homes intended to erect 31 single dwelling and 3 doubles at the corner of Highway 7 and Seabrooke Drive in Glen Cairn. Thom stated that this was “contrary to the Report on Housing Construction” that appeared in the previous issue of the Standard. Kanata Standard, March 16, 1979:16.

 

March 16, 1979

Al Craig wrote an historical piece in the Standard on the Hazeldean Rural Telephone Company. Kanata Standard, March 16, 1979:19.

 

March 25, 1979

Dunrobin resident Robert Conye’s car was vandalized after he left it on along the side of Highway 17 due to mechanical difficulties. All the windows were smashed, the body dented, and the contents looted, to the point were it was expected that the car would be a write-off. Kanata Standard, March 30, 1979:1.

 

March 25, 1979

Kim Woolford saved 5-year-old Trevor MacLean from near-drowning in Bluegrass Park. Trevor had slipped into the water when some ice gave way. Standard, March 30, 1979:1.

 

March 29, 1979

The Regional Planning Committee held a final series of hearings on the Conservation Lands Proposal, as revised by the Planning Committee. Kanata Standard, March 16, 1979:4.

 

March 30, 1979

Alderman Bob Kingham wrote, in his As I See It column, that Cadillac-Fairview was “exploiting the real issue” when they petitioned the Cabinet of Ontario to reverse an OMB decision that rejected their “energy conserving” community development proposal. A Standard editorial added: “This project is in the wrong place and at the wrong time. When Kanata has 93,000 population, a risk of this sort could perhaps be considered, certainly not now.” Subsequently, Kanata City Council gave its support for the project and the petition to the provincial government, though by a narrow vote of 4-3. Standard, March 30, 1979:1,2,4.

 

April 9, 1979

Kanata City Council approved the construction of a fire station in the rural part of the municipality, to be funded by money authorized by the former Township of March. Kanata Standard, April 12, 1979:14.

 

April 9, 1979

The Kanata Public Library opened a temporary facility in Glen Cairn, next to the Glen Cairn Arena. Kanata Standard, June 22, 1979:1.

 

April 10, 1979

The 1979 budget of $33,666,852 for the Carleton Separate School Board was approved. As William Broadfoot reported, this amount allowed for an expenditure up to the ceiling set by the Ministry of Education of $1409 per pupil. Difficult decisions were made during the budgetary process, however the Board managed to budget to maintain the current pupil-teacher ratio and the same quality of programs. Kanata Standard, April 27:9.

 

April 12, 1979

It was reported that Wayne Hutt, Manager of Thermocell Insulation, and Dan Ciona, Administrator for the City of Kanata, had met to discuss some of the difficulties with paper collection. The amount of paper collection had greatly exceeded the previous year, to the point where Thermocell’s collection ability was overloaded. Kanata Standard, April 12, 1979:1

 

April 12, 1979

Federal Conservative MP Paul Dick announced his candidacy for Lanark-Renfrew-Carleton. Dick was first elected in 1972. Kanata Standard, April 12, 1979:14.

 

April 12, 1979

The new Executive for Kanata Ladies Bowling was announced. It included Erm Boyd, Mich Gardner, Wafa Abov, Carol Redmond, Alana Schyburt, and Mina Blovin. Kanata Standard, April 12, 1979:15.

 

April 12, 1979

It was reported that Newton Steacy spoke to KBCA about the incorporation of the Kanata Standard, and expressed that it would be postponed because it was a very complicated task to be attempted at the time. Kanata Standard, April 12, 1979:1 Kanata Standard, April 12, 1979:6.

 

April 18, 1979

The March Sailing Club held its General Meeting. Members voted to make amendments to the constitution and change their name to the Kanata Sailing Club. Kanata Standard, April 27:16.

 

April 19, 1979

Students and staff at Earl of March School opened their production of “Swinging High.” Ron Andoff stated that they did a “bang up job” on the musical. Kanata Standard, April 12, 1979:1; Kanata Standard, April 27:1.

 

April 19, 1979

It was reported that after a successful campaign the Standard would be delivered in Glen Cairn to subscribers only. This marked a departure from the Standard’s concept of delivery to every household, which was the result of the Glen Cairn Community Association’s decision not to support a citywide distribution of the Standard. Kanata Standard, April 27:1.

 

April 26, 1979

A presentation by the Canadian Design Council honoured both the developers and residents of the community. Kanata had previously impressed a jury traveling across Canada visiting towns, city neighborhoods and prestigious areas of suburbia. Sharon Clayton stated that Kanata “impressed the judges with its landscaping, especially the rock outcroppings that have been used to dramatic advantages.” Three plaques were presented, one to Mayor Wilkinson, another to Ratan Rege of Campeau Corporation, and the third to William Teron, who was the driving force behind the creation of Kanata. Marianne Wilkinson later stated in her Commentary: “The award was not based solely on physical design of the community, but also on the evident interest of the residents and the active involvement between the residents and the municipal government in creating and maintaining the community design concepts.” Kanata Standard, May 11, 1979:1,2.

 

April 26, 1979

The Nepean Arts Association held its inaugural meeting. Its objectives included fostering public awareness of the visual and performing arts, encouraging co-operation among artistic groups, promoting future developments, facilities, and programs for artistic activities, and serving as a liaison with regional, provincial and national arts bodies. Kanata Standard, October 12, 1979:18.

 

April 27, 1979

Through an editorial in the Standard, the need for a pedestrian overpass to bridge the Queensway was questioned. Kanata City Council had previously promoted the construction of the bridge. In a letter to the Editor, Ihor Nakonecznyj also questioned the logic supporting the overpass, and concluded that more questions needed to be dealt with before spending over half a million dollars and “satisfying a need which may turn out to be a political illusion.” Kanata Standard, April 27:2.

 

April 27, 1979

Tony Jarvis introduced his new column for the Standard, The Kanata Industrial Scene. His goal was to increase the media coverage of the industrial sector. Kanata Standard, April 27:6.

 

April 27, 1979

It was reported that Operation Identification was underway in Glen Cairn. Engravers were making their rounds of homes to put identifying marks on valuable items. Kanata Standard, April 27:11,14.

 

April 27, 1979

A candidate profile for Paul Dick, PC MP for Lanark-Renfrew-Carleton, appeared in the Kanata Standard. Dick stated: “We must get Canada going again.” Kanata Standard, April 27:13.

 

April 27, 1979

The new executive for the South March Women’s Institute, the result of an Annual General Meeting, was published in the Standard. It included Brenda Turner, Donna Cummings, June Denys, Nicole Butler, Mary Noble, Nancy Medynski, Shirley Yakabuski, Myrt Nugent, Katie Vance, Angela Tucker, Ann Ward, and Joyce Arrowsmith. Kanata Standard, April 27:14.

 

April 27, 1979

Walter Baker, PC candidate in the riding of Nepean-Carleton, had an article published in the Standard. Baker stated that “Pierre Trudeau’s monuments clutter the landscape; low morale in the Public Service; a language policy intended to unite but which has in fact divided; young people worried about their futures; a tax system that burdens small business and drains incentive; a country that thinks more in terms of its parts than the sum of its parts — all of this created by a ‘leadership’ which is more style than substance.” Kanata Standard, April 27:18.

 

April 27, 1979

An article appeared in the Standard featuring Pat Carroll, former March Township Councillor and principal of AY Jackson Secondary School in Kanata, as the Liberal candidate for the riding of Lanark-Renfrew-Carleton. Carroll had been living and involved in Kanata since 1972. Carroll stated that Canada is not on the “brink of disaster,” and that the country had done well in the past decade in comparison with other OECD countries. Kanata Standard, April 27:21.

 

May 1, 1979

It was the official opening of the Katimavik Hazeldean Community Centre, concurrent with the first Kanata City Council meeting in that community. Murray Duke, Chairman of the Katimavik Hazeldean School Task Force, reviewed the findings and recommendations of the report to Council. Maurice Dubras stated in his Council In Action column: “The level of support Council gives to the Task Force findings will be critical when it comes to persuading the School Board to revise its construction schedule. There appeared to be very little doubt in the minds of those residents present or represented that a community school is very high on their priority list.” Kanata Standard, May 11, 1979:1,22.

 

May 11, 1979

It was reported that there were over 325 paid subscribers of the Kanata Standard in Glen Cairn. Gaining subscriptions in the area became a necessary move due to the lack of support for the Standard from the Glen Cairn Community Association. Kanata Standard, May 11, 1979:2.

 

May 11, 1979

A Standard editorial stated that not much was learned at a recent All Candidates Meeting and stated: “Paul Dick, the PC man attacked the Prime Minister, the Liberal hopeful, Pat Carroll attacked the Leader of the Opposition and Colin Gilhuly from the NDP spoke of the rosy future that we could have under that party, if by some miracle , they could form a Government.” Kanata Standard, May 11, 1979:2.

 

May 11, 1979

Carol Dougherty wrote an article on John Cabotto, a Kanata restaurant operated by Dominique and Angleo. She raved that they “set about to determine the gastronomical needs of the community and in my opinion have succeeded in meeting those needs.” Kanata Standard, May 11, 1979:9.

 

May 11, 1979

In his regular column, The Kanata Industrial Scene, Tony Jarvis featured Digital Equipment of Canada Ltd. Company president, Denny Doyle, commented on the decision to locate in Kanata that the protection of jobs for employees living in the area was a primary concern. Doyle stressed the high community involvement of the firm. Kanata Standard, May 11, 1979:10.

 

May 15, 1979

The Annual Meeting of the March Hockey Association was held at the Bill McNeill Memorial Hall. Kanata Standard, May 11, 1979:15.

 

May 20, 1979

The interior of the home of Joan Geeck on Jackson Court was damaged by a fire. The house was owned by Cathy Boyden. There was in excess of $10,000 damage to the house; the household pets, a Highland Terrier and several gerbils, were lost in the fire. Kanata Standard, May 25, 1979:1.

 

May 21, 1979

Mayfair 1979 and its various events began. The Rural area of Kanata won the annual Mayfair Lob-Ball Tournament. It was also the 14th Annual Dance and Casino. Over 400 people attended the dance May 26. Kanata Standard, May 11, 1979:12-13; Kanata Standard, June 8, 1979:6,7

 

May 22, 1979

In the federal election, Paul Dick was re-elected as MP in Lanark-Renfrew-Carleton and Walter Baker was re-elected MP in Nepean-Carleton.

 

May 25, 1979

Glen Cairn resident Jennifer Anne Waugh won the Jean Phillips, Campership to Camp Bitobi award. The camp, in Gracefield Quebec, was for explorers and other young girls looking for summer fun in a religious atmosphere. Kanata Standard, May 25, 1979:3.

 

May 28, 1979

Stephen Leacock School grade six students said their good-byes to Quebec exchange students on their return to Kanata. The exchange was part of an immersion program initially proposed by Principal Robert Bullock. Kanata Standard, June 8, 1979:1.

 

May 29, 1979

A public forum on Declining Enrolment and The Community was held to discuss reduced education funding by the Ontario government and enrolment issues. Kanata Standard, May 25, 1979:14.

 

May 29, 1979

The Annual General Meeting of the Local Association of Kanata Guides and Brownies was held. The new executive included H. Bennett, Sandra Plumley, P. Williams, J. Arrowsmith, J. Higgins, S. Lewis, V. Guy, O. Froud, R. Hooey, P. Gale, D. Lougheed, N. Mackay, J. Williams, V. Westmore, Y. Ludlow, B. Thamer, and P. Conacher. Kanata Standard, June 8, 1979:4.

 

June 4, 1979

Changes occurred to the No.73 bus schedule. The changes, approved by the Kanata Transportation Committee, also eliminated the No. 70, and extended the No. 46 route to Bridlewood. Kanata Standard, May 25, 1979:1,3.

 

June 5, 1979

Kanata City Council approved its 1979 budget. Expenditures were estimated at $3,208,074. The mill rate remained the same as it had been for March Township the previous year. Bridlewood mill rates decreased 40 percent. Glen Cairn Community experienced roughly a 12 percent decrease. Marianne Wilkinson later commented that the 1979 budget “should keep the City in a healthy financial state.” Kanata Standard, June 8, 1979:1,12.

 

June 8, 1979

In his column The Kanata Industrial Scene, Tony Jarvis featured Lumonics Research Ltd. Jarvis reported that since the inception of the laser firm in 1970, Lumonics had grown at a rate better than 50 percent annually, “developing a wide range of laser products for both scientific and industrial applications.” Kanata Standard, June 8, 1979:2.

 

June 8, 1979

The results of the Mayfair pet show were published in the Standard. Winners of the four main categories were Kirk Brant's tarantula, Alison Bill's cat Tiger, Rob Holt's spoodle Muffin, and Brenda Bedford's keeshound Dusty. Kanata Standard, June 8, 1979:5.

 

June 9, 1979

The Kanata Ballet School presented their bi-annual recital. Sharon Clayton, in a review of performance, stated that she was “impressed with the professional atmosphere on the stage, and behind the scenes.” Kanata Standard, June 22, 1979:9.

 

June 11, 1979

A new executive was selected at a Glen Cairn Community Association meeting. It included Colin Gillieson, Leon Asselstine, Barry Martin, Graham Ball, Joe Ryan, and Cathy Ireland. Kanata Standard, June 22, 1979:3.

 

June 13, 1979

A book-publishing celebration at a Katimavik home was held. Louise Reynolds, with the assistance of her husband Ralph, researched and wrote Agnes, the Biography of Lady Macdonald. Kanata Standard, June 22, 1979:9.

 

June 16, 1979

There was an official opening of the Glen Cairn Flood Control Works. Mayor Marianne Wilkinson and Councilors Charlie Rogers, and Bob Kingham attended. The Carp River, which had flooded the Glen Cairn area since the 1970's, was to be detained in a reservoir and released at a slow rate. Kanata Standard, June 22, 1979:1.

 

June 19, 1979

Final approval was given by Kanata City Council for the pedestrian overpass to bridge the Queensway. Kanata Standard, June 22, 1979:1.

 

June 19, 1979

Kanata City Council gave preliminary approval for the Hazeldean Centre, a shopping mall located on the northwest side of the intersection of Hwy. 7 and Young Road in Katimavik/Hazeldean. Kanata Standard, June 22, 1979:1.

 

June 19, 1979

Kanata City Council decided to adopt pay-as-you-go rates for the three Kanata pools. Kanata Standard, June 22, 1979:1.

 

June 19, 1979

The Town Centre Secondary Plan and the Rural Plan were both approved by Regional Council. There were only minor word changes to the Town Centre Plan, and development was expected to proceed on a limited basis later in the year. Kanata Standard, June 22, 1979:1,12.

 

June 25, 1979

Mayor Marianne Wilkinson was on hand to officially inaugurate the new Katimavik Pool. Kanata Standard, July 6, 1979:12.

 

July 3, 1979

Kanata Scouts Alex Guruprasad, Stephen Heard, Michael Nyenhuis, and Joe Nyenhuis began their travel to Denmark and Sweden, to attend an international camp in Sweden. Kanata Standard, July 20, 1979:20.

 

July 6, 1979

It was reported that the Ontario Municipal Board had approved Kanata’s request to debenture $200,000 towards the construction of the pedestrian bridge over the Queensway. The total cost was estimated at $438,000. Kanata Standard, July 6, 1979:1.

 

July 6, 1979

It was reported that the federal government had awarded a $30,000 contract to Mitel Corporation of Kanata to study silicon chip production for Telidon. Kanata Standard, July 6, 1979:11.

 

July 20, 1979

The Kanata Public Library Board announced that plans were underway for a new branch library in Kanata South. A sub-committee was struck for further investigation. Kanata Standard, July 20, 1979:2.

 

July 22, 1979

Two cars, driven by Bruce McLean and Steve Kominski, collided at the intersection of Teron and Beaverbrook Roads. There was extensive damage to both cars and only minor injury to a pedestrian. Kanata Standard, August 3, 1979:10.

 

July 28, 1979

Bridlewood held a birthday party to celebrate its second year of growth. Kanata Standard, July 20, 1979:7; Kanata Standard, August 3, 1979:1.

 

August 3, 1979

A proposed expansion for the March Montessori School was finalized. This was driven by a growing demand for Montessori education in the community. Kanata Standard, August 3, 1979:9.

 

August 8, 1979

As part of Project 4000, the first Vietnamese family arrived in Kanata. The Voong’s were set up in a house donated by Campeau Corporation for one year, including heat and hydro. Project 4000 had been previously launched by Ottawa Mayor Marion Dewer, who had also recommended that Kanata set up a committee to coordinate local efforts. Subsequently, a Co-ordinating Committee was struck. Kanata Standard, July 20, 1979:1,2; Kanata Standard, August 17, 1979:1.

 

August 14, 1979

Kanata City Council recommended that the Mayor’s annual salary would rise from $11,000 to $20,000 and the Aldermen’s from $4,500 to $6,500. It would come under final approval in September, 1979. Kanata Standard, August 17, 1979:1.

 

August 17, 1979

In a letter to the editor, Maurice Dubras and his family said their good-byes to Kanata. They stated: “We are about to embark on a very different life style in the knowledge that no other urban community could compare with Kanata. Kanata Standard, August 17, 1979:2.

 

August 28, 1979

Two Kanata youths, 17-year-old Douglas Conner and 16-year-old Chris Quinsey, were killed in an automobile accident. The incident took place on the Huntley Town Line Road, where the vehicle overturned into the Carp River. Kanata Standard, August 31, 1979:1.

 

August 31, 1979

It was reported that 17-year-old Kanata resident Lindsay Eltis had won an all-expense-paid trip to the Alberta oil sands. He had participated in the Canada-wide Science Fair in London Ontario, and was recognized as having the best environment-related project in the fair’s senior division. Kanata Standard, August 31, 1979:1.

 

August 31, 1979

Meetings between officials from the City of Kanata ad the Provincial Ministry of Culture and Recreation were held to discuss a proposed $12,000 recreation study for the City. It was to be completed by August, 1980. Kanata Standard, August 31, 1979:1.

 

September 8, 1979

A successful Glen Cairn Fun Fair was held. Kanata Standard, September 14, 1979:1.

 

September 12, 1979

Kanata City Council met in the Katimavik Community Centre, and asked residents for input on alterations to ward boundaries. Kanata Standard, September 14, 1979:1.

 

September 12, 1979

An extreme-noise by-law was proposed by Kanata City Council, which would prohibit many normal activities if they produced an audible sound. Only Alderman Bob Kingham objected. Activities prohibited at various hours or days would include racing the engine of a car, operating a lawn mower, operating a radio or hi-fi set, yelling, barking by a dog, ringing of Church bells, etc. Kanata Standard, September 14, 1979:1.

 

September 14, 1979

A Standard editorial emphasized that the newspaper, as a rather large community-owned operation, relied heavily on volunteers. The editors stated that recent editions had been lacking in “hard” news and investigative articles, due to their “cadre of volunteers” becoming “alarmingly small.” Kanata Standard, September 14, 1979:2.

 

September 14, 1979

The Interlangues School of Languages announced the opening of its West End School in Kanata. Kanata Standard, September 14, 1979:7.

 

September 14, 1979

It was reported that a group of residents, led by Alderman Jean Gubby, were pushing for a Committee to support the Ottawa Civic Hospital’s five year Development Plan. Kanata Standard, September 14, 1979:16.

 

September 16, 1979

A ceremonial sod-turning occurred at St. Paul’s Anglican Church to mark the beginning of construction of a new church hall. Kanata Standard, September 28, 1979:1.

 

September 16, 1979

A Kanata concert debut to begin the fall season was held at the Earl of March Auditorium. Kanata Standard, September 28, 1979:9.

 

September 22, 1979

The Kanata Singles began their fall season of dances. Kanata Standard, September 14, 1979:14.

 

September 28, 1979

In a Standard editorial, Isa Clayton criticized Council for spending valuable time on things like the recently proposed anti-noise by-law. Clayton stated: “As it stands Kanata has far too MANY restrictions” and that if Council “have nothing more constructive to do with OUR time, we employ them on a part-time basis.” Kanata Standard, September 28, 1979:2.

 

September 28, 1979

Bob Kingham stated in a Standard article that the noise by-law recently introduced by Kanata City Council had “evoked more public interest in our new city than any other single issue since the election.” He had received around 50 calls on the issue. Kanata Standard, September 28, 1979:1.

 

September 28, 1979

The City of Kanata and the Recreation Department opened a room in the John Mlacak Centre to be used as a Teen Centre. Kanata Standard, September 28, 1979:11.

 

September 29, 1979

The 7th Annual City of Kanata Oktoberfest was held. Kanata Standard, September 14, 1979:10-11.

 

October 3, 1979

The Kanata Beaverbrook Community Association held a General Meeting. It was reported as being a very “contentious” meeting, which eventually led to the adoption of a new constitution and set of by-laws. A motion was also passed to extend the term of the current Board of Directors and Executive to June 15, 1980. Kanata Standard, October 12, 1979:1.

 

October 9, 1979

In a Kanata City Council meeting, Mayor Wilkinson indicated that there may be potentially large increases in taxes. Kanata Standard, October 12, 1979:1.

 

October 12, 1979

The City of Kanata Auditor’s Report for 1979 was published in the Standard. Kanata Standard, September 28, 1979:12-13.

 

October 13, 1979

There was a musical performance by David Gailbraith and Friends. Fred Boyd reported that the presentation made for a “very enjoyable evening.” Kanata Standard, October 26, 1979:20.

 

October 15, 1979

A meeting was held to discuss the future of the Kanata Standard newspaper. Plans were put in place to ensure meeting growing needs and opportunities of the “enlarged” paper. Kanata Standard, October 26, 1979:1.

 

October 17, 1979

The Kanata Beaverbrook Community Association held its New Residents’ Night. Over 50 people attended. Kanata Standard, October 26, 1979:1.

 

October 17, 1979

Steinberg’s 9th and largest store was opened for business at Hazeldean Mall. Kanata Standard, October 26, 1979:5.

 

October 17, 1979

Towers Department Store opened in Hazeldean Mall. Kanata Standard, October 26, 1979:6.

 

October 18, 1979

The Stittsville and District Snowmobile Association held its Annual General Meeting. Kanata Standard, October 12, 1979:8.

 

October 20, 1979

The Kinsmen Club of West Carleton held their 1st Annual Lobster & Beef Night. Over 300 people attended the event.

 

October 24, 1979

The Kanata Theatre opened its season with Forty Carets. It was directed by Laurence Thornton and the cast included Marg Awthority, Murray Hayes, Rosie Keneford, Mary Mauger, Jennifer Jermyn, Paula Wilke, Liane Freedman, Bob Knight, Jim Ritchie, and Barrie Kirk. Kanata Standard, October 12, 1979:18.

 

October 26, 1979

A feature article in the Standard outlined events rendering a hydro utility possible in Kanata. Art Bowker was reported as stating that he was recommending that a hydro utility be established for the City, and that the final report would go to the Minister of Energy. Kanata Standard, October 26, 1979:1.

 

October 26, 1979

The Air Cadet League of Canada, in cooperation with the Kiwanis Club, announced their intent to form an Air Cadet Squadron in Kanata. Kanata Standard, October 26, 1979:11.

 

October 26, 1979

The New Amended Kanata Beaverbrook Community Association Constitution of October 3 was published in the Standard. Kanata Standard, October 26, 1979:14-15.

 

October 26, 1979

Regional Council held a Special Regional Council meeting to deal with the report on Environmental Lands, formerly called Conservation Lands for the Region. A provision was made to allow some use of plans of subdivision to permit both landowners and local municipalities to have a greater degree of flexibility in dealing with the use of environmental lands. Kanata Standard, October 26, 1979:18-19; Kanata Standard November 9, 1979:1,12; Kanata Standard, November 9, 1979:1,12.

 

October 26, 1979

Information on the new Kinsmen Participark was published in the Standard. Kanata Standard, October 26, 1979:21-3.

 

October 30, 1979

An official reception was held to celebrate the opening of Hazeldean Mall. Kanata Standard, November 9, 1979:10

 

November 6, 1979

The Carleton School Board Committee held a Whole Committee meeting to consider the five-year capital plan and the priorities for future school construction. Kanata Standard, November 9, 1979:2.

 

November 9, 1979

A feature in the Standard updated Project 4000 and the status of the first Vietnamese family sponsored in Kanata as part of the program. Kanata Standard, November 9, 1979:1,12.

 

November 20, 1979

There was a sod-turning ceremony to mark a major expansion of the Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, Commercial Products, located in the Kanata North Industrial Park. Kanata Standard, November 23, 1979:1.

 

November 22, 1979

Kanata youth Bill Casley was presented with a personal bravery award by the Kanata-Carleton Rotary Club. The previous August, Casley had pulled David Malloy from a burning car just before it exploded. November 23, 1979:11.

 

November 23, 1979

The President of the National Capital Equestrian Park announced that a Wintario grant approval was given to cover 50 percent, or $416,612, of an all-weather indoor riding arena. Kanata Standard, November 23, 1979:13.

 

November 26, 1979

A meeting was held in Rural March to discuss whether or not to remain part of Kanata or to become part of West Carleton.

 

November 27, 1979

Kanata City Council passed a by-law authorizing the acquisition of land, the design and construction of a library in Glen Cairn. It was estimated to cost $502,000. Kanata Standard, December 7, 1979:13.

 

November 27, 1979

Kanata City Council approved the acquisition of land and the architectural design fees for a new rural fire hall, estimated at $155,000.

 

November 30, 1979

Mitel officially opened its Kanata headquarters. The company was already planning further expansion to its Kanata, Ogdensburg and Puerto Rico plants. Kanata Standard, December 7, 1979:21.

 

December 1, 1979

The City of Kanata celebrated its 1st birthday. Approximately 400 people attended a the festivities at Glen Cairn Community Centre. Campeau Corporation provided several birthday gifts, including a Campeau University Scholarship, a giant outdoor skating rink, and a giant toboggan run. Kanata Standard, December 7, 1979:1.

 

December 1, 1979

Mayor Wilkinson presented the Kingham family with a mounted picture of their winning logo design for the City of Kanata at the City’s 1st birthday. Kanata Standard, December 7, 1979:31.

 

December 4, 1979

Kanata City Council opened their meeting with a tribute to Alderman Lund for his work on the Hydro Committees leading up to an agreement to set up a city Hydro Utility. Kanata Standard, December 7, 1979:1.

 

December 4, 1979

Kanata City Council approved a motion in principle to change the name of Highway 17 to March Road. Kanata Standard, December 7, 1979:4.

 

December 7, 1979

An article by Carol Dougherty, based on interview with Mayor Marianne Wilkinson with regard to the first year of the City of Kanata, was published in the Standard. Dougherty wrote: “Not unlike the parents of a first newborn, the mayor and council have frequently relied upon trial and error and upon their own judgment to make decisions. In fact the lack of precedent, policy or procedure has forced council to learn through experience and to grow with the city.” Kanata Standard, December 7, 1979:6.

 

December 7, 1979

Bob Kingham commented in an article in the Standard on the first year of the City of Kanata. Kingham stated: “...you cannot make a community by Law. First and foremost it takes people — not a faceless legion, but neighbours and friends whose membership in Kanata derives from a conscious sense of belonging.” Kanata Standard, December 7, 1979:7.

 

December 7, 1979

Doug Nash wrote A Year of Reflection, to commemorate Kanata’s birthday. He stated: “I count this first year as a beneficial learning experience. I now realize that the provincial government has a great deal of jurisdiction over how a municipality operates, and it has been a very revealing experience to study the fine points of the Ontario Municipal Act.” Kanata Standard, December 7, 1979:8.

 

December 7, 1979

Charlie Rogers’ article, A Year in Review, outlined his participation in the first year of the City of Kanata. Rogers stated: “We are suffering from growing pains (possibly some headaches still around from motherhood), but I feel that we are progressing at a reasonable rate considering the circumstances and I look forward to a better progress rate in the next twelve months.” Kanata Standard, December 7, 1979:9.

 

December 7, 1979

Marianne Wilkinson, in her Commentary, reflected on the past year as Mayor of the new City of Kanata. She stated that the year had been full of “challenges, of accomplishments, of frustrations, of pleasure, of hard work, of long hours, and of tremendous encouragement and assistance given to me by the residents of Kanata, the members of Council and particularly by the Kanata City Staff.” Kanata Standard, December 7, 1979:14.

 

December 7, 1979

It was reported that three new refugee families had arrived in the Kanata area, as part of the ongoing Project 4000 program. Kanata Standard, December 7, 1979:30.

 

December 11, 1979

The speed limit on Eagleson Road from Highway 7 to Timm Drive was lowered from 80 km/h to 60 km/h. Kanata Standard, Jan. 11, 1980:4.

 

December 21, 1979

In a letter to the Editor, E. C. Prince criticized Kanata City Council for allowing the construction of the Participark, calling it “another pillaging of the natural landscape and thus the loss of the pastoral scene.” Kanata Standard, December 21, 1979:2.

    

Fotos antiguas del puerto de acapulco, 1910 a 1940.

Legado de fotos antiguas para los Acapulqueños , y los que aman Acapulco.

  

Leyendas.

 

ACATL Y QUIÁHUITL

 

La leyenda principia cuando una tribu yope que se había establecido en las inmediaciones de la bahía, se ve atacada por otra deorigen náhuatl, que los derrota y obliga a huir. La tribu náhuatl era nómada por lo que transitoriamente se establece en el lugar que arrebatara a los yopes. Durante su estadía en la cuenca de la bahía, nace Acatl hijo del jefe de dicha tribu, quien lo encomienda a la protección de Quetzalcóatl. Los nómadas abandonan el lugar que ocuparan en busca de otros sitios de caza. Transcurren los años y Acatl, con el consentimiento de su padre, parte en busca de su futura esposa y en su peregrinar llega al sitio donde se encontraba una tribu y se enamora perdidamente de Quiáhuitl, la hija del jefe, sin saber que pertenecía a la tribu yope que su padre había derrotado.

 

El padre de Quiáhuitl, por el odio y rencor que tenía contra el padre Acatl que lo había expulsado de las inmediaciones de la bahía, niega el permiso para los esponsales y maldice a Acatl, invocando a sus dioses para que lo hechicen. Acatl entristecido, llega al refugio donde había nacido y dando paso a su desilusión, sin saber que con ello se cumplía el hechizo, lloró tanto su amargura, que las perlas incontenibles de sus ojos humedecieron su atlético cuerpo, que poco a poco se fue deshaciendo, derritiéndose completamente, para convertirse en un charco de lodo y no de sangre, del cual, como hijos de Acatl, brotaron unos carrizos.

 

Quetzalcóatl, furioso por el daño que le habían ocasionado a su protegido, castiga a los yopes en la persona de Quiáhuitl, convirtiéndola en una nube. Una tarde la nube penetra por la bocana a la bahía y habiendo localizado los carrizos, hijos de su amado Acatl, la furia y celos la invaden, por lo que se arroja sobre ellos en forma de tromba, destruyéndolos y arrasándolos para morir en el lodazal y fundirse en Acatl, compartiendo así su destino.

 

De esta leyenda se desprenden las definiciones de Acapulco: "lugar de las cañas en el lodo", "en el lugar de los carrizos grandes o de las cañas grandes", "carrizal destruido" o "en el lugar en el que fuero destruidos o arrasados los carrizos".

 

El primer extranjero en Acapulco.

 

Existe otra leyenda que dice que el primer extranjero que llegó a Acapulco era un monje chino con el nombre de Fa Hsien quien visitó el pequeño poblado en tiempos prehispánicos, alrededor del 417 d.C, mucho antes que Cristóbal Colón hubiera cruzado el Atlántico para descubrir América. De regreso en China, el monje relató sobre el hermoso pueblo que llamó "Ye Pa Ti" o el " Lugar de las Aguas Hermosas". Contó de llegar y encontrar a amigables nativos pertenecientes a la rama de los indios Nahoa, con quienes pudo comunicarse a través de buena voluntad y señas. Le dio a los nativos su primera probada de arroz y a cambio le dieron a él tortillas de maíz, venado seco y cerdo salvaje. Les dejó muestras de vestimentas de seda y aparentemente logró cruzar en varias ocasiones más, trayendo cada vez consigo más artículos para trueque. Esta leyenda habla sobre encuentros y comercio tempranos con la cultura china, pero aunque existe testimonio de esto en varios registros chinos, es poca la evidencia física con la que se cuenta.

 

HISTORIA.

 

Para entender a la ciudad Acapulco, hay que entender que hay un complejo proceso histórico atrás, según algunos investigadores de la historia de nuestro país, a dos mil años antes de Cristo, cuando ya había habitantes. Hay vestigios de cabezas de arcilla en la "ciudad perdida" en el poblado de La Sabana. Hace varios años con motivo de la expropiación de punta diamante se localizó cerámica. En ambos casos con una antigüedad de dos mil años antes de la era cristiana, lo que quiere decir que es puerto es antiguo aunque modernizado a través de los tiempos. Acapulco, según la lengua nahuatl significa en sus raíces Acatl, Pol Co, "lugar en que fueron destruidos o arrancados los carrizos".

 

LOS GALEONES.

 

Abrir la ruta de Acapulco a la colonia Filipinas, tropieza al inicio con varios problemas debido a que lo propuesto por Urdaneta, de proveer al puerto de astillero, madera, equipo y alimentos, no se había hecho ni se contaba con el elemento humano necesario para la empresa.

 

Acapulco carecía de todo, era la hermosa y protegida bahía, puerto natural por excelencia que brinda resguardo a las naves y nada más.

 

Las mercancías que se embarcaban en Acapulco con destino a Filipinas consistían en grana, cochinilla, añil, en general las plantas tintóreas, pasamanería de oro, loza, tejidos de lana, vino y aceite, éstos últimos llegados de España; la plata acuñada que se enviaba para los sitiados para solventar los gastos gubernamentales, así como, la remitida por los comerciantes para adquirir los productos de la India y China.

 

Las ventajas que sobre Acapulco presentaba Filipinas para la construcción de los barcos eran numerosas. En las islas, se contaba con madera, artesanos chinos, malayos y aborígenes con gran tradición en la manufactura de naves que significaba mano de obra barata y abundante, en tanto que en México-Navidad y Acapulco acontecía lo contrario, aunado esto al apoyo que significaba para la colonización, lo que inclinó la balanza a favor de Manila.

 

Lo que acá era difícil, allá fue fácil. Las maderas empleadas en Filipinas para la construcción de los galeones eran, la teca para el armazón y en las uniones, quilla, timón y piezas interiores, se usaba la madera conocida en las Filipinas con el nombre de Molave. Para el casco de la nao se usaba la madera de Lañang de gran flexibilidad. Para las cuerdas de los aparejos y jarcias se empleaba el cáñamo de Manila. Las telas y apaños se producían en la provincia de Ilocos, mientras que los metales se compraban en China, Japón o Macao y aún en la India; para ser trabajados por los herreros chinos.

 

En general, grande fue la resistencia de los galeones, tanto que eran descritos como fuertes castillos en el mar. La capacidad de carga de los barcos, era en un principio, de trescientas toneladas, aumentándose paulatinamente con el transcurso del tiempo y perfeccionamiento del diseño hasta llegar a dos mil toneladas. Si bien los barcos eran resistentes y permitieron mantener el servicio con regularidad, no por ello dejaron de existir críticas.

 

De acuerdo al Colegio de México, la presencia española en las tierras calientes de la costa se mantuvo sólo en aquellos casos que como los puertos de Veracruz o Acapulco, eran puntos vitales para la sobrevivencia de la Colonia. Por ello, esos puertos, son ciudades sostenidas desde fuera. Puertos legales y geográficamente necesarios para el tráfico comercial entre la metrópoli y el puerto real que era la Ciudad de México y carecían de vida propia.

 

Existían otros proyectos que bien podían haberse desarrollado en el puerto de aquellos años como la pesca de la ballena y el cachalote, sin embargo, el estado actual de las colonias españolas, la desidia de los habitantes era un obstáculo para esta tarea. Cómo hallar marineros dispuestos a dedicarse a esta difícil labor en un país en donde según la opinión del común del pueblo, el hombre es feliz sólo con comer plátanos, carne salada, una hamaca y una guitarra. La esperanza de las ganancias era un estimulante muy débil, bajo una zona en donde la benéfica naturaleza ofrece al hombre mil medios de crearse una existencia cómoda y tranquila, sin apartarse de su país ni luchar con los monstruos del Océano.

 

Los marineros de los galeones eran contenidos en una proporción que llegó a ser de un español por cinco filipinos -estos ganaban menos- y se les pagaba por lo general cuando la nao regresaba a Manila, impidiendo con ello que desertaran. Esta situación dañaría permanentemente a nuestro puerto, convirtiéndolo tan sólo en el de arribo de la Nao de China, como en la práctica se denominaba la ruta que unía a México con las Filipinas.

 

CIUDAD Y CAPITAL

 

Acapulco surge portuariamente cuando Cortés dispone que las naos san Miguel y San Marcos, a las órdenes de Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, partan para explorar las costas del Océano Pacífico.

 

La villa o aldea que surge con motivo de la partida de las naos, no tuvo un nacimiento similar a otras poblaciones, osea, mediante la ceremonia de su fundación, acorde a lo indicado en uno de los primeros documentos destinados a reglamentar la construcción de las ciudades y villas de la Nueva España: "Ordenanzas sobre descubrimientos, población y pacificación de las Indias". En este documento, el Rey dispone la forma que debe seguir la traza de las ciudades y villas.

 

EL ANTIGUO PALACIO MUNICIPAL

 

El puerto de Acapulco tuvo un célebre convento de franciscanos fundado en junio del año de 1607. Con los títulos consiguientes se erigió el convento de San Diego de aquel puerto, dándole el nombre de Nuestra Señora de la Guía, a imitación del templo consagrado a esa advocación en las Islas Filipinas, entre Cavite y Manila. El convento de San Francisco de Acapulco, se fundó con objeto de servir de hospital, cuidáronlo seis religiosos de la provincia de Michoacán y en 1632 pasaron los religiosos de san Hipólito a cuidar ese establecimiento de beneficencia.

 

El convento se ubicaba en la pequeña loma localizada al noreste de la catedral, antigua Parroquia de la Soledad, predio ocupado actualmente por el Palacio Municipal. Dejó de funcionar al ser convertido en hospital y baluarte a raíz del sitio impuesto a la ciudad, y todo el personal que lo habitaba fue concentrado a la fortaleza de San Diego junto con toda la población española.

 

Abandonado el edifico fue solicitado por las autoridades a fin de instalar en el mismo las oficinas públicas, ya que el edificio que ocupaba la Presidencia Municipal, frente al Jardín Álvarez, según el decir de los interesados, en condiciones ruinosas debido a los frecuentes temblores, lo que justificaba la mudanza al antiguo convento, que con algunas adaptaciones hechas en las postrimerías del siglo pasado, sirvió durante más de 50 años de Palacio y cárcel Municipal.

 

"El llamado Palacio Municipal, está enclavado en lo que antes era una antigua cofradía de religiosos. Lo que conocimos como tal, fue acondicionado en 1910, para instalar el reloj público, mismo que fue inaugurado el 16 de septiembre de 1910; pero en 1912, fue derribado por un ciclón. Para construir el actual edificio circular, que contiene las oficinas Municipales, se demuele el anterior, respetándose solamente un muro que forma parte del actual Auditorio y que correspondía a la celda que ocupara durante el tiempo que estuvo presa, la pintora Sofía Bassi, y lo utilizara para una pintura mural, la que, según los expertos, es una obra de arte, motivando su conservación. El actual Palacio Municipal fue inaugurado a fines del año 1971.

 

CRÓNICA HISTÓRICA.

 

De 1406 a 1502 después de ser sometido por la cultura Tolteca, Acapulco, se convirtió en parte del Imperio Azteca, Acapulco fue tomado por los Tarascos al igual que sucedió en Zacatula, en la región de la Costa Grande.

 

El 13 de Diciembre de 1521 enviado por Hernán Cortés arribó con su embarcación a la bahía de Acapulco, el español Francisco Chico el que se pronunció como descubridor por ser ese día dedicado a Santa Lucía le bautizó con dicho nombre a la hermosa bahía, aunque hay que constar que otros historiadores citan diversas fechas, de llegada de otros marinos.

 

El camino de herradura de la capital azteca a este puerto sirvió a Cortes para emplear a los indios a llevar carga para la construcción de embarcaciones que utilizaba en sus exploraciones lucrativas.

 

Por cierto, Cortés frecuentaba a Acapulco, pernoctando en la pequeña bahía que después llamó Puerto Marqués en su honor, por ser el Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca.

 

El 30 de Junio de 1532 zarpó en su embarcación de la bahía de Acapulco el marino Diego Hurtado de Mendoza. En ese mismo año por decreto de la corona española, Acapulco fue denominada "Ciudad de los Reyes".

 

En 1556 es la patrona de Acapulco Santa María de Guía que es la misma de La Soledad, según algunos religiosos, pero fue en 1742 cuando se le dio un retoque a la imagen y de hecho desde entonces adquiere el nombre definitivo de La Soledad, que permanece en el altar mayor de lo que hoy es La Catedral.

 

En 1570 el rey Felipe II decretó a la a ciudad de Acapulco, como el sitio comercial para realizar los negocios entre América y Asia, principalmente Las Filipinas.

 

En 1590 con los hábitos franciscanos zarpó del puerto de Acapulco Felipe de Jesús hacia Asia para su movimiento cristiano, pero encontró la oposición del emperador. Junto con otros religiosos fue torturado y crucificado el 5 de febrero de 1591 en Nagasaki. Años más tarde se le declaró como el único santo mexicano.

 

En 1646 se realizaron actos de piratería por los ingleses que asaltaron a embarcaciones con grandes tesoros, que según una leyenda, están enterrados en la Isla de la Roqueta.

 

En 1616 se construyó el primer Fuerte de San Diego, para proteger a la población, pero el terremoto de 1776 lo derribó, dándose a la tarea de levantar otro castillo en 1783 que es el definitivo, baluarte de la lucha insurgente del padre José María Morelos y Pavón, cárcel para los revolucionarios que se opusieron a la dictadura de Porfirio Díaz (y algo para ripley, este lugar durante el siglo XX fue plaza de toros –hay fotos todavía en la super hamburguesa con toros al pie del fuerte -, sede de las reseñas mundiales de cine, escenario del estreno de El Pesebre con su autor Pablo Casals y sitio para diversas recepciones como la que se brindó a la Reina Isabel II, de Inglaterra y el príncipe consorte Felipe de Edimburgo, por el presidente Miguel de la Madrid).

 

El 1º de Noviembre de 1799 el rey Carlos IV, de España, declaró como Ciudad, a Acapulco. En el siglo XIX el barón Alejandro Von Humboldt, procedente de Guayaquil llegó al puerto y al asomarse desde la cubierta de su barco en la bocana y ver la belleza natural, exclamó que era el lugar más hermoso del mundo.

 

En Acapulco tuvieron lugar las grandes Ferias de la Nao de la China cada año, se desarrollaban del 10 de Enero al 25 de Febrero, donde se ofrecía lo más extravagante de la mercancía asiática.

 

Aquí llegó en una nao, La Mirra que se decía descendiente del Gran Mongol (sic), fue vendida al mejor postor y enviada a Puebla donde se le bautizó con el nombre de Catarina de San Juan, comunmente conocida hasta nuestros días como la China Poblana.

 

En 1831 tuvimos un hecho lamentable, el consumador de la Independencia y Ex presidente de la república, General Vicente Guerrero, fue traicionado por cincuenta mil pesos, por el italiano Francisco Picaluga en una hospedería que se encontraba frente al viejo Ayuntamiento, en la actual Plaza Sor Juana. Picaluga lo llevó con engaños al barco Colombo, dentro lo apresó, lo trasladó a las bahías de Huatulco y de ahí llevado afrente a un convento en Culiapan, donde fue fusilado.

 

La posada se encontraba a unos cuantos pasos del convento, del zócalo, del templo de La Soledad, sobre la vereda que iba a dar a los acantilados de La Quebrada, era la casa más grande, ahí se hospedaban los obispos. Ahí descanso unos días, Benito Juárez, cuando buscó la entrevista con el General Juan Alvarez, que dio paso al Plan de Ayutla y a la consolidación de la república, ahí vivió mucho tiempo Ignacio Comonfort al ocupar la administración de la aduana marítima, en fin, ahí llegaron todos los personajes desde principios del siglo pasado. Sillones, camas, cartas, documentos y otras reliquias, se conservaron mucho tiempo en esa casa, que se perdieron entre ellas algunas fotografías o pinturas sobre el Benemérito de las Américas, al no pensarse quizá lo que significaba el concepto de la historia nacional sino ahí fuera el museo de tantos próceres que se hospedaron en esa casa que tenía portones, jardines y caballerizas, donde también acostumbraban arribar los arrieros a vender sus mercancías para los comerciantes españoles y mexicanos. Otros llegaban en barcos, también buscaban refugio en esta posada. Ya hasta 1918, se formalizó el hotel "Altavista", que manejaban Luis González Veléz y su esposa Guadalupe Adame Salazar. Esta casa perteneció al doctor Roberto Posada y a las mamitas González, una de ellas esposa del facultativo y las mamitas, heredaron la casa a los hermanos Carlos, Virginia, Alberto, Agustín y a Luis González Veles.

 

En 1889 el arquitecto Enrique Lauller y el presidente municipal de Acapulco, Antonio Pintos Sierra elaboraron el plano de esta Ciudad y Puerto cuando eran cinco mil habitantes y pocos barrios como La Lima, Los Tepetates, Viejo Campo santo, Tambuco, La Guinea, que por cierto por decreto del Gobierno del Estado de Guerrero, fueron declarados como históricos, conservándose como están como un símbolo cultural y típico.

 

El 2 de mayo de 1895 nació en el barrio de La Playa, José Azueta, uno de los grandes héroes mexicanos, que el 21 de Abril de 1914 con el grado de teniente, en el puerto de Veracruz defendió la soberanía nacional ante el invasor norteamericano, cuando se le quiso proporcionar atención médica con un facultativo de ese país lo rechazó, él murió junto con el cadete veracruzano Virgilio Uribe.

 

Otro acapulqueño ilustre nacido en 1890 fue Juan R. Escudero, quien en su juventud al conocer las penurias de sus paisanos, a pesar de ser hijo de un comerciante rico español, luchó contra los propios empresarios españoles y mexicanos que explotaban a los obreros, los defendió en su periódico "regeneración", como fundador del partido obrero, alcalde y ciudadano, lo que motivó un complot, siendo atacado primero en el palacio municipal donde al dársele el tiro de gracia quedó paralítico, vivió y desde la silla de ruedas continuó la defensa de los marginados, pero el 21 de Diciembre de 1923 después de estar en las mazmorras del Fuerte de San Diego, fue fusilado junto con sus hermanos Francisco y Felipe que secundaban su lucha.

 

A las cero horas del nacimiento del siglo XX los nativos no pasaban de cinco mil, festejaron el advenimiento con cohetes, verbenas y otras muestras de alegría.

 

En 1903 vio la primera luz en Acapulco José Agustín Ramírez Altamirano, que desde la tierna edad tocando el órgano en el templo o tomando la guitarra compuso lo mejor como el Himno a la Madre, el Corrido del Agrarista, el vals María Elena que le regaló a Lorenzo Barcelata, Acapulqueña, Caleta, La San Marqueña, Ometepec, Linalore y otras. Un hombre que además de maestro, fue insigne borracho y pendenciero, dejando de vivir a la edad de 54 años por cirrosis hepática. A la postre, su hermana; la también maestra Conchita, fundó el Instituto México, en la avenida Niños Héroes y Tehuacan. Aún pueden encontrarse en este colegio, piezas escritas por él.

 

El 14 de Febrero de 1909 Acapulco vivió una de las mayores tragedias, cuando se incendió el Teatro Flores, construido de madera, sin seguridad, pues las puertas en lugar de abrir hacia fuera eran al revés y eso ocasionó que se convirtieran en cenizas cientos de residentes y costeños que vinieron a la inauguración de ese escenario donde hubo muchos que lo contaron como el niño Pepe Muñuzuri, que con el tiempo se convertiría en un periodista, lo salvó su padre, don Samuel, al arrojarlo hacia fuera.

 

El 30 de Julio también de 1909 un terremoto sacudió a Acapulco, llevando la muerte, la desesperación y la zozobra a los habitantes.

 

En 1920 el presidente Alvaro Obregón planeó el camino a Acapulco que lo terminó ocho años después el presidente Plutarco Elías Calles con lo que inició una nueva vida. Del turismo a este destino de playa, convirtiéndose las casas particulares en de huéspedes, con hamacas, catres y buen pescado o marisco, carnes y las frutas de la estación, no pasando de dos pesos diarios, cuarto y comida. Fue como se fundaron los hoteles "Acapulco", de don Federico Pintos (Bisabuelo del conocido actor Hector Mujica Pintos); "jardín", de doña Balbina Alarcón de Villalvazo y "Miramar", de don Adolfo Argudín, donde llegaban los Presidentes de la República, estadistas, banqueros, estrellas de cine y otras personalidades.

 

El 9 de octubre de 1920 ancló en la bahía el buque real inglés "Renov" trayendo a bordo al príncipe Eduardo que no recibió honores oficiales por estar rotas las relaciones entre la Gran Bretaña y México, pero de todos modos la amabilidad y anfiotrionía de los nativos permitieron que el soberano recorriera hasta Pie de la Cuesta. Es el mismo que abdicó ala corona, pasando el trono a su hermano Jorge, por preferir el amor de la plebeya Wally Simpson. Al morir el Rey subió al trono Isabel II.

 

El llamado príncipe azul se encontró aquí al almirante Bretón que fuera héroe de la primera guerra mundial y a quien los nativos le apedreaban como un loco, o pordiosero. Que gran sorpresa se llevaron todos cuando pasó revista a la tropa real y, este misterioso hombre que se dedicaba a la evangelización, desapareció, tal como había llegado.

 

En 1920 accidentalmente una pareja estadounidense que se dirigía a Panamá aterrizó sobre la llanura de Pie de la Cuesta, un pájaro de acero jamás visto, por lo que acudieron a darles la bienvenida. Fue, hasta 1929 cuando se iniciaron los vuelos comerciales, instalándose el campo de aterrizaje frente a la Playa Hornos, en lo que después fue "Hotel Papagayo" y hoy parque público para los niños y, donde hicieron sus incursiones los pilotos Zarate, el chueco Espinoza, Pepe de la Vega y Santacilla.

 

Acapulco seguía creciendo y urgía un aeropuerto que no ocasionara tantos riesgos y accidentes mortales. Los técnicos localizaron una amplia superficie entre mar y laguna, en Pie de la Cuesta y hasta allá llevaban pasaje en sus automóviles Pepe Villalvazo, además del administrador de Aeronaves de México, Ramiro Sosa Meléndez, Francisco María Dávila, Leobardo Cano, Sigifrido Aguirre Piza, Rafael Camacho y otros.

 

Acapulco siguió creciendo en hoteles como el Papagayo, La Marina, Los Flamingos, El Mirador Del Monte, Las Palmas, Casablanca, Club de Pesca. Con la avenida Costera inaugurada en 1947 por el presidente Miguel Alemán Valdés, se construyeron más hoteles y se proyecto un nuevo aeropuerto en Plan de los Amates donde comenzaron a llegar los jets, pero luego se amplió a internacional en el gobierno del presidente Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, que lo inauguró en 1967, con el nombre de Juan Alvarez.

 

Con el presidente Lázaro Cárdenas del Río se colocó el primer aparato telefónico desapareciendo la compañía Erickson para ir modernizándose muy a la mexicana hasta llegar a la actual automatización. El texano Alberto Pullen por un lado crea la Fraccionadora de Acapulco en la Península de las Playas y se asocia con el alemán Wolfgan Shombon, viene al desarrollo moderno.

 

Johnny Weismuller, John Wayne, Elizabeth Taylor, Orson Wells, Tyrone Power, Erroy Flyn y otros artistas de Hollywood toman como su sitio de verano a Acapulco, alquilan una casa club por el rumbo de Caleta pero se dan cuenta que puede ser sede "el hotel los Flamingos" y lo compran. Allí llevan a cabo sus reuniones con artistas mexicanos como Pedro Armendariz, Lola del Río, María Feliz y algunos más. Filman un gran número de películas que viene a ser la gran promoción hacia Acapulco en el mundo entero.

 

Yves Custeau en su barco oceanográfico "Callipso" pasa sus temporadas en la bahía. Aquí escribe y aprende español el autor de "Exodo", León Uris. Escribe sus memorias frente a nuestro mar el ex premier ingles Anthony Eden. Pasa su luna de miel aquí Brigitte Bardot. Se casa aquí con Mike Todd la bella Elizabeth Taylor.

 

Vienen en sus giras memorables el doctor A. Sukarno, entonces presidente de Indonesia, Josip Bross Tito, presidente de Yugoslavia, Dwight Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy y Lyndon Baines Johnson presidentes de los Estados Unidos. Cada año el diplomático alemán estadounidense Henry Kissinger, disfruta de vacaciones. Aquí pasa su luna de miel.

 

El ex presidente José López Portillo dijo: Acapulco vive y vivirá y recientemente el presidente Carlos Salinas de Gortari exclamo: Acapulco es la tierra del eterno sol.

 

Así, Acapulco vivió sus años dorados como destino turístico durante los años 50, vio todo tipo de eventosinternacionales, como hemos visto en las crónicas. Su clima privilegiado y su bahía, lo hicieron el destino de playa ideal

  

I blogged about this, artandtea.wordpress.com/2010/04/28/from-bead-soups-to-a-f...

The Merlin HC3 and HC3a are operated by No 28 (AC) Squadron and 78 Squadron at RAF Benson. 78 Squadron was re-formed on 3 Dec 07 to allow for the increase in aircraft after the purchase of the 6 Danish Merlin HC3a earlier in 2007. The Merlin is the first of a new generation of advanced, medium support helicopters for the RAF. It is an all weather, day and night, multi-role helicopter used in both tactical and strategic operational roles. The aircraft carries an impressive defensive-aids suite, which includes a Radar and Laser Warning Receiver, Missile Approach Warners and Directional Infrared Countermeasures equipment, all integrated with an automatic chaff and flare dispensing system. This is one of the most comprehensive defensive aids suites fitted to any helicopter in the world.

 

To ensure accurate navigation anywhere on the globe, the aircraft’s management computers take data from its laser-gyro, inertial-navigation platform and its doppler system and from air data sources, and combine the information with precise position data received from Global Positioning System satellites.

 

Navigation at night is enhanced by the crew’s use of display night-vision goggles and by the aircraft’s multi-function turret, which can be fitted with forward- looking infrared radar. To increase the aircraft’s range, the Merlin can be equipped with extended range fuel tanks and is capable of air-to-air refuelling, although this option is not currently used by the RAF. It is also fitted with an active vibration-damping system, which reduces the level of noise and vibration inside the cabin to a level no greater than that of a turboprop aircraft. As a result, crew fatigue is much reduced during long transits and airframe life is increased.

 

The Merlin is able to carry a diverse range of bulky cargo, either internally or under-slung. Cargo can include artillery, Land Rovers or light-strike vehicles and over five tonnes of freight. The spacious cabin can also accommodate up to 24 fully equipped combat troops and, when required, will convert to carry 16 stretchers for casualty evacuation or during humanitarian and disaster relief operations. Designed to operate away from base workshops and in difficult terrain, the Merlin has state-of-the-art support technology and incorporates aircraft health-and-usage diagnostics and a self-test capability for ease of maintenance.

 

The Merlin is armed with two general purpose machine guns converted for the air role, although there is provision for additional weaponry to be fitted at a later date.

 

28 (AC) Squadron officially reformed on 17 July 2001 as home to the Merlin helicopter, a role now shared with 78 Squadron. Merlin helicopters are a vital part of the Joint Helicopter Command alongside their RAF counterparts, the Puma and the Chinook. Since reforming at RAF Benson, the Squadron has developed to incorporate A and B Flights, which are the operational flights, and an embedded Operational Conversion Flight on C Flight.

28 (AC) Squadron officially reformed on 17 July 2001 as home to the Merlin helicopter, a role now shared with 78 Squadron. Merlin helicopters are a vital part of the Joint Helicopter Command alongside their RAF counterparts, the Puma and the Chinook. Since reforming at RAF Benson, the Squadron has developed to incorporate A and B Flights, which are the operational flights, and an embedded Operational Conversion Flight on C Flight.

The coconut tree (Cocos nucifera) is a member of the family Arecaceae (palm family).

 

It is the only accepted species in the genus Cocos. The term coconut can refer to the entire coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which, botanically, is a drupe, not a nut. The spelling cocoanut is an archaic form of the word. The term is derived from the 16th-century Portuguese and Spanish word coco meaning "head" or "skull", from the three indentations on the coconut shell that resemble facial features.

 

The coconut is known for its great versatility as seen in the many uses of its different parts and found throughout the tropics and subtropics. Coconuts are part of the daily diets of many people. Coconuts are different from any other fruits because they contain a large quantity of "water" and when immature they are known as tender-nuts or jelly-nuts and may be harvested for drinking. When mature, they still contain some water and can be used as seednuts or processed to give oil from the kernel, charcoal from the hard shell and coir from the fibrous husk. The endosperm is initially in its nuclear phase suspended within the coconut water. As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the coconut, becoming the edible coconut "flesh". When dried, the coconut flesh is called copra. The oil and milk derived from it are commonly used in cooking and frying; coconut oil is also widely used in soaps and cosmetics. The clear liquid coconut water within is potable. The husks and leaves can be used as material to make a variety of products for furnishing and decorating. The coconut also has cultural and religious significance in many societies that use it.

 

DESCRIPTION

PLANT

Cocos nucifera is a large palm, growing up to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long, and pinnae 60–90 cm long; old leaves break away cleanly, leaving the trunk smooth. Coconuts are generally classified into two general types: tall and dwarf. On fertile soil, a tall coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 fruits per year, but more often yields less than 30, mainly due to poor cultural practices. Given proper care and growing conditions, coconut palms produce their first fruit in six to ten years, taking 15 – 20 years to reach peak production.

 

FRUIT

Botanically, the coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut. Like other fruits, it has three layers: the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The exocarp and mesocarp make up the "husk" of the coconut. Coconuts sold in the shops of nontropical countries often have had the exocarp (outermost layer) removed. The mesocarp is composed of a fiber, called coir, which has many traditional and commercial uses. The shell has three germination pores (stoma) or "eyes" that are clearly visible on its outside surface once the husk is removed.

 

A full-sized coconut weighs about 1.44 kg. It takes around 6,000 full-grown coconuts to produce a tonne of copra.

 

ROOTS

Unlike some other plants, the palm tree has neither a tap root nor root hairs, but has a fibrous root system.

 

The coconut palm root system consists of an abundance of thin roots that grow outward from the plant near the surface. Only a few of the roots penetrate deep into the soil for stability. The type of root system is known as fibrous or adventitious, and is a characteristic of grass species. Other types of large trees produce a single downward-growing tap root with a number of feeder roots growing from it.

 

Coconut palms continue to produce roots from the base of the stem throughout its life. The number of roots produced depends on the age of the tree and the environment, with more than 3,600 roots possible on a tree that's 60 to 70 years old.

 

Roots are usually less than about 3 inches in diameter and uniformly thick from the tree trunk to the root tip.

Inflorescence

 

The palm produces both the female and male flowers on the same inflorescence; thus, the palm is monoecious. Other sources use the term polygamomonoecious. The female flower is much larger than the male flower. Flowering occurs continuously. Coconut palms are believed to be largely cross-pollinated, although some dwarf varieties are self-pollinating.

 

ETYMOLOGY

One of the earliest mentions of the coconut dates back to the One Thousand and One Nights story of Sinbad the Sailor; he is known to have bought and sold coconuts during his fifth voyage. Tenga, its Malayalam and Tamil name, was used in the detailed description of coconut found in Itinerario by Ludovico di Varthema published in 1510 and also in the later Hortus Indicus Malabaricus. Even earlier, it was called nux indica, a name used by Marco Polo in 1280 while in Sumatra, taken from the Arabs who called it جوز هندي jawz hindī. Both names translate to "Indian nut". In the earliest description of the coconut palm known, given by Cosmos of Alexandria in his Topographia Christiana written about 545 AD, there is a reference to the argell tree and its drupe.

 

Historical evidence favors the European origin of the name "coconut", for no name is similar in any of the languages of India, where the Portuguese first found the fruit; and indeed Barbosa, Barros, and Garcia, in mentioning the Tamil/Malayalam name tenga, and Canarese narle, expressly say, "we call these fruits quoquos", "our people have given it the name of coco", and "that which we call coco, and the Malabars temga".

 

The OED states: "Portuguese and Spanish authors of the 16th c. agree in identifying the word with Portuguese and Spanish coco "grinning face, grin, grimace", also "bugbear, scarecrow", cognate with cocar "to grin, make a grimace"; the name being said to refer to the face-like appearance of the base of the shell, with its three holes. According to Losada, the name came from Portuguese explorers, the sailors of Vasco da Gama in India, who first brought them to Europe. The coconut shell reminded them of a ghost or witch in Portuguese folklore called coco (also côca). The first known recorded usage of the term is 1555.

 

The specific name nucifera is Latin for "nut-bearing".

Origin, domestication, and dispersal

 

ORIGIN

The origin of the plant is the subject of debate. O.F. Cook was one of the earliest modern researchers to draw conclusions about the location of origin of Cocos nucifera based on its current-day worldwide distribution. He hypothesized that the coconut originated in the Americas, based on his belief that American coconut populations predated European contact and because he considered pan-tropical distribution by ocean currents improbable. Thor Heyerdahl later used this hypothesis of the American origin of the coconut to support his theory that the Pacific Islanders originated in South America. However, more evidence exists for an Indo-Pacific origin either around Melanesia and Malesia or the Indian Ocean. The oldest fossils known of the modern coconut dating from the Eocene period from around 37 to 55 million years ago were found in Australia and India. However, older palm fossils such as some of nipa fruit have been found in the Americas. Since 1978, the work on tracing the probable origin and dispersal of Cocos nucifera has only recently been augmented by a publication on the germination rate of the coconut seednut and another on the importance of the coral atoll ecosystem. Briefly, the coconut originated in the coral atoll ecosystem — without human intervention — and required a thick husk and slow germination to survive and disperse.

 

DOMESTICATION

Coconuts could not reach inland locations without human intervention (to carry seednuts, plant seedlings, etc.) and it was early germination on the palm (vivipary) that was important, rather than increasing the number or size of the edible parts of a fruit that was already large enough. Human cultivation of the coconut selected, not for larger size, but for thinner husks and increased volume of endosperm, the solid “meat” or liquid “water” that provides the fruit its food value. Although these modifications for domestication would reduce the fruit’s ability to float, this ability would be irrelevant to a cultivated population.

 

Among modern C. nucifera, two major types or variants: a thick-husked, angular fruit and a thin-husked, spherical fruit with a higher proportion of endosperm reflect a trend of cultivation in C. nucifera: the first coconuts were of the niu kafa type, with thick husks to protect the seed, an angular, highly ridged shape to promote buoyancy during ocean dispersal, and a pointed base that allowed fruits to dig into the sand, preventing them from being washed away during germination on a new island. As early human communities began to harvest coconuts for eating and planting, they (perhaps unintentionally) selected for a larger endosperm to husk ratio and a broader, spherical base, which rendered the fruit useful as a cup or bowl, thus creating the niu vai type. The decreased buoyancy and increased fragility of this spherical, thin-husked fruit would not matter for a species that had started to be dispersed by humans and grown in plantations. Harries’ adoption of the Polynesian terms niu kafa and niu vai has now passed into general scientific discourse, and his hypothesis is generally accepted.

 

Variants of C. nucifera are also categorized as Tall (var. typica) or Dwarf (var. nana). The two groups are genetically distinct, with the Dwarf variety showing a greater degree of artificial selection for ornamental traits and for early germination and fruiting. The Tall variety is outcrossing while Dwarf palms are incrossing, which has led to a much greater degree of genetic diversity within the Tall group. It is believed that the Dwarf subgroup mutated from the Tall group under human selection pressure.

 

DISPERSAL

It is often stated that coconuts can travel 110 days, or 4,800 km, by sea and still be able to germinate. This figure has been questioned based on the extremely small sample size that forms the basis of the paper that makes this claim. Thor Heyerdahl provides an alternative, and much shorter, estimate based on his first-hand experience crossing the Pacific Ocean on the raft Kon-Tiki: "The nuts we had in baskets on deck remained edible and capable of germinating the whole way to Polynesia. But we had laid about half among the special provisions below deck, with the waves washing around them. Every single one of these was ruined by the sea water. And no coconut can float over the sea faster than a balsa raft moves with the wind behind it." He also notes that several of the nuts began to germinate by the time they had been ten weeks at sea, precluding an unassisted journey of 100 days or more. However, it is more than likely that the coconut variety Heyerdahl chose for his long sea voyage was of the large, fleshy, spherical niu vai type, which Harries observed to have a significantly shorter germination type and worse buoyancy than the uncultivated niu kafa type. Therefore, Heyerdahl’s observations cannot be considered conclusive when it comes to determining the independent dispersal ability of the uncultivated coconut.

 

Drift models based on wind and ocean currents have shown that coconuts could not have drifted across the Pacific unaided. This provides some circumstantial evidence that Austronesian peoples carried coconuts across the ocean and that they could not have dispersed worldwide without human agency. More recently, genomic analysis of cultivated coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) has shed light on the movements of Austronesian peoples. By examining 10 microsatellite loci, researchers found two genetically distinct subpopulations of coconut - one originating in the Indian Ocean, the other in the Pacific Ocean. However, admixture, the transfer of genetic material, evidently occurred between the two populations. Given that coconuts are ideally suited for ocean dispersal, individuals from one population possibly could have floated to the other. However, the locations of the admixture events are limited to Madagascar and coastal east Africa, and exclude the Seychelles. This pattern coincides with the known trade routes of Austronesian sailors. Additionally, a genetically distinct subpopulation of coconut on the Pacific coast of Latin America has undergone a genetic bottleneck resulting from a founder effect; however, its ancestral population is the Pacific coconut. This, together with their use of the South American sweet potato, suggests that Austronesian peoples may have sailed as far east as the Americas.

 

DISTRIBUTION

The coconut has spread across much of the tropics, probably aided in many cases by seafaring people. Coconut fruit in the wild are light, buoyant and highly water resistant, and evolved to disperse significant distances via marine currents. Specimens have been collected from the sea as far north as Norway. In the Hawaiian Islands, the coconut is regarded as a Polynesian introduction, first brought to the islands by early Polynesian voyagers from their homelands in Oceania. They have been found in the Caribbean and the Atlantic coasts of Africa and South America for less than 500 years, but evidence of their presence on the Pacific coast of South America predates Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas. They are now almost ubiquitous between 26°N and 26°S except for the interiors of Africa and South America.

  

NATURAL HABITAT

The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and is highly tolerant of salinity. It prefers areas with abundant sunlight and regular rainfall (1500 mm to 2500 mm annually), which makes colonizing shorelines of the tropics relatively straightforward. Coconuts also need high humidity (70–80%+) for optimum growth, which is why they are rarely seen in areas with low humidity. However, they can be found in humid areas with low annual precipitation such as in Karachi, Pakistan, which receives only about 250 mm of rainfall per year, but is consistently warm and humid.

 

Coconut palms require warm conditions for successful growth, and are intolerant of cold weather. Some seasonal variation is tolerated, with good growth where mean summer temperatures are between 28 and 37 °C, and survival as long as winter temperatures are above 4–12 °C; they will survive brief drops to 0 °C. Severe frost is usually fatal, although they have been known to recover from temperatures of −4 °C. They may grow but not fruit properly in areas with insufficient warmth, such as Bermuda.

 

The conditions required for coconut trees to grow without any care are:

 

- Mean daily temperature above 12–13 °C every day of the year

- Mean annual rainfall above 1000 mm

- No or very little overhead canopy, since even small trees require direct sun

 

The main limiting factor for most locations which satisfy the rainfall and temperature requirements is canopy growth, except those locations near coastlines, where the sandy soil and salt spray limit the growth of most other trees.

 

DISEASES

Coconuts are susceptible to the phytoplasma disease lethal yellowing. One recently selected cultivar, the Maypan, has been bred for resistance to this disease.

 

PESTS

The coconut palm is damaged by the larvae of many Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species which feed on it, including Batrachedra spp.: B. arenosella, B. atriloqua (feeds exclusively on C. nucifera), B. mathesoni (feeds exclusively on C. nucifera), and B. nuciferae.

 

Brontispa longissima (coconut leaf beetle) feeds on young leaves, and damages both seedlings and mature coconut palms. In 2007, the Philippines imposed a quarantine in Metro Manila and 26 provinces to stop the spread of the pest and protect the $800 million Philippine coconut industry.

 

The fruit may also be damaged by eriophyid coconut mites (Eriophyes guerreronis). This mite infests coconut plantations, and is devastating: it can destroy up to 90% of coconut production. The immature seeds are infested and desapped by larvae staying in the portion covered by the perianth of the immature seed; the seeds then drop off or survive deformed. Spraying with wettable sulfur 0.4% or with neem-based pesticides can give some relief, but is cumbersome and labor-intensive.

 

In Kerala (India), the main coconut pests are the coconut mite, the rhinoceros beetle, the red palm weevil and the coconut leaf caterpillar. Research into countermeasures to these pests has as of 2009 yielded no results; researchers from the Kerala Agricultural University and the Central Plantation Crop Research Institute, Kasaragode continue to work on countermeasures. The Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kannur under Kerala Agricultural University has developed an innovative extension approach called the compact area group approach (CAGA) to combat coconut mites.

 

PRODUCTION AND CULTIVATION

Coconut palms are grown in more than 90 countries of the world, with a total production of 62 million tonnes per year (table). Most of the world production is in tropical Asia, with Indonesia, the Philippines and India accounting collectively for 73% of the world total (table).

 

CULTIVATION

Coconut trees are hard to establish in dry climates, and cannot grow there without frequent irrigation; in drought conditions, the new leaves do not open well, and older leaves may become desiccated; fruit also tends to be shed.

 

The extent of cultivation in the tropics is threatening a number of habitats, such as mangroves; an example of such damage to an ecoregion is in the Petenes mangroves of the Yucatán.

 

HARVESTING

In some parts of the world (Thailand and Malaysia), trained pig-tailed macaques are used to harvest coconuts. Training schools for pig-tailed macaques still exist both in southern Thailand and in the Malaysian state of Kelantan. Competitions are held each year to find the fastest harvester.

 

INDIA

Traditional areas of coconut cultivation in India are the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal and the islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar. As per 2013-14 statistics from Coconut Development Board of Government of India, four southern states combined account for almost 92% of the total production in the country: Tamil Nadu (31.93%), Kerala (27.54%), Karnataka (23.26%), and Andhra Pradesh (8.43%). Other states, such as Goa, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal, and those in the northeast (Tripura and Assam) account for the remaining productions. Though Kerala has the largest number of coconut trees, in terms of production per hectare, Tamil Nadu leads all other states. In Tamil Nadu, Coimbatore and Tirupur regions top the production list.

 

Various terms, such as copra and coir, are derived from the native Malayalam language. In Kerala, the coconut tree is called "Thengu" also termed as kalpa vriksham, which essentially means all parts of a coconut tree is useful some way or other. In Tamil Nadu, a coconut tree is called as "Thennai maram" and tender coconut is called as "Ilaneer" in the native language.

 

MALDIVES

The coconut is the national tree of the Maldives and is considered the most important plant in the country. A coconut tree is also included in the country's national emblem or coat of arms. Coconut trees are grown on all the islands. Before modern construction methods were introduced, coconut leaves were used as roofing material for many houses in the islands, while coconut timber was used to build houses and boats.

 

MIDDLE EAST

The main coconut-producing area in the Middle East is the Dhofar region of Oman, but they can be grown all along the Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea and Red Sea coasts, because these seas are tropical and provide enough humidity (through seawater evaporation) for coconut trees to grow. The young coconut plants need to be nursed and irrigated with drip pipes until they are old enough (stem bulb development) to be irrigated with brackish water or seawater alone, after which they can be replanted on the beaches. In particular, the area around Salalah maintains large coconut plantations similar to those found across the Arabian Sea in Kerala. The reasons why coconut are cultivated only in Yemen's Al Mahrah and Hadramaut governorates and in the Sultanate of Oman, but not in other suitable areas in the Arabian Peninsula, may originate from the fact that Oman and Hadramaut had long dhow trade relations with Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, East Africa and Zanzibar, as well as southern India and China. Omani people needed the coir rope from the coconut fiber to stitch together their traditional high seas-going dhow vessels in which nails were never used. The 'know how' of coconut cultivation and necessary soil fixation and irrigation may have found its way into Omani, Hadrami and Al-Mahra culture by people who returned from those overseas areas.

 

The coconut cultivars grown in Oman are generally of the drought-resistant Indian "West Coast tall" (WC Tall) variety. Unlike the UAE, which grows mostly non-native dwarf or hybrid coconut cultivars imported from Florida for ornamental purposes, the slender, tall Omani coconut cultivars are relatively well-adapted to the Middle East's hot dry seasons, but need longer to reach maturity. The Middle East's hot, dry climate favors the development of coconut mites, which cause immature seed dropping and may cause brownish-gray discoloration on the coconut's outer green fiber.

 

The ancient coconut groves of Dhofar were mentioned by the medieval Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta in his writings, known as Al Rihla.[52] The annual rainy season known locally as Khareef or monsoon makes coconut cultivation easy on the Arabian east coast.

 

Coconut trees also are increasingly grown for decorative purposes along the coasts of the UAE and Saudi Arabia with the help of irrigation. The UAE has, however, imposed strict laws on mature coconut tree imports from other countries to reduce the spread of pests to other native palm trees, as the mixing of date and coconut trees poses a risk of cross-species palm pests, such as rhinoceros beetles and red palm weevils. The artificial landscaping adopted in Florida may have been the cause for lethal yellowing, a viral coconut palm disease that leads to the death of the tree. It is spread by host insects, that thrive on heavy turf grasses. Therefore, heavy turf grass environments (beach resorts and golf courses) also pose a major threat to local coconut trees. Traditionally, dessert banana plants and local wild beach flora such as Scaevola taccada and Ipomoea pes-caprae were used as humidity-supplying green undergrowth for coconut trees, mixed with sea almond and sea hibiscus. Due to growing sedentary life styles and heavy-handed landscaping, there has been a decline in these traditional farming and soil-fixing techniques.

 

SRI LANKA

An early mention of the planting of coconuts is found in the Mahavamsa during the reign of Agrabodhi II around 589 AD. Coconuts are common in the Sri Lankan diet and the main source of dietary fat.

 

UNITED STATES

In the United States coconut palms can be grown and reproduced outdoors without irrigation in Hawaii, southern and central Florida, and the territories of Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.

 

In Florida, Coconut palms will grow from coastal Pinellas County and St. Petersburg southwards on Florida's west coast, and Melbourne southwards on Florida's east coast. The occasional coconut palm is seen north of these areas in favoured microclimates in Tampa and Clearwater, as well as around Cape Canaveral and Daytona Beach on the east coast. They reach fruiting maturity, but can be damaged or killed by the occasional winter freezes in these areas. In South Texas they may also be grown in favoured microclimates around the Rio Grande Valley near Brownsville, and as far north as Corpus Christi , however more severe cold snaps keep them from producing viable fruit.

 

AUSTRALIA

Coconuts are commonly grown around the northern coast of Australia, and in some warmer parts of New South Wales.

 

BERMUDA

Most of the tall mature coconut trees found in Bermuda were shipped to the island as seedlings on the decks of ships. In more recent years, the importation of coconuts was prohibited, therefore, a large proportion of the younger trees have been propagated from locally grown coconuts.

 

In the winter months, the growth rate of coconut trees declines due to cooler temperatures and people have commonly attributed this to the reduced yield of coconuts in comparison to tropical regions. However, whilst cooler winter temperatures may be a factor in reducing fruit production, the primary reason for the reduced yield is a lack of water. Bermuda's soil is generally very shallow (1.5 to 3 feet) and much of a coconut tree's root mass is found in the porous limestone underneath the soil. Due to the porosity of the limestone, Bermuda's coconut trees do not generally have a sufficient supply of water with which they are able to support a large number of fruit as rain water quickly drains down through the limestone layer to the water table which is far too deep for a coconut's roots to reach. This typically leads to a reduction in fruit yield (sometimes as little as one or two mature fruits) as well as a reduced milk content inside the coconut that often causes the fruit to be infertile.

 

Conversely, trees growing in close proximity to the sea almost universally yield a much greater volume of fruit as they are able to tap directly into the sea water which permeates the limestone in such areas. Not only do these trees produce a significantly higher yield, but also the fruit itself tends to be far more fertile due to the higher milk content. Trees found growing in Bermuda's marshy inland areas enjoy a similar degree of success as they are also able to tap directly into a constant supply of water.

 

EUROPE

As a tropical plant, coconut is not native to Europe, but grows in tropical territories of European countries, such as Martinique and Guadeloupe (France), the Canary Islands (Spain) and Madeira (Portugal).

 

COOLER CLIMATES

In cooler climates (but not less than USDA Zone 9), a similar palm, the queen palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana), is used in landscaping. Its fruits are very similar to the coconut, but much smaller. The queen palm was originally classified in the genus Cocos along with the coconut, but was later reclassified in Syagrus. A recently discovered palm, Beccariophoenix alfredii from Madagascar, is nearly identical to the coconut, more so than the queen palm and can also be grown in slightly cooler climates than the coconut palm. Coconuts can only be grown in temperatures above 18 °C and need a daily temperature above 22 °C to produce fruit.

 

USES

The coconut palm is grown throughout the tropics for decoration, as well as for its many culinary and nonculinary uses; virtually every part of the coconut palm can be used by humans in some manner and has significant economic value. Coconuts' versatility is sometimes noted in its naming. In Sanskrit, it is kalpa vriksha ("the tree which provides all the necessities of life"). In the Malay language, it is pokok seribu guna ("the tree of a thousand uses"). In the Philippines, the coconut is commonly called the "tree of life".

 

COOKING

The various parts of the coconut have a number of culinary uses. The seed provides oil for frying, cooking, and making margarine. The white, fleshy part of the seed, the coconut meat, is used fresh or dried in cooking, especially in confections and desserts such as macaroons. Desiccated coconut or coconut milk made from it is frequently added to curries and other savory dishes. Coconut flour has also been developed for use in baking, to combat malnutrition. Coconut chips have been sold in the tourist regions of Hawaii and the Caribbean. Coconut butter is often used to describe solidified coconut oil, but has also been adopted as a name by certain specialty products made of coconut milk solids or puréed coconut meat and oil. Dried coconut is also used as the filling for many chocolate bars. Some dried coconut is purely coconut but others are manufactured with other ingredients, such as sugar, propylene glycol, salt, and sodium metabisulfite. Some countries in South East Asia use special coconut mutant called Kopyor (in Indonesian) or macapuno (in Philippines) as a dessert drinks.

 

NUTRITION

Per 100 gram serving with 354 calories, raw coconut meat supplies a high amount of total fat (33 grams), especially saturated fat (89% of total fat) and carbohydrates (24 grams) (table). Micronutrients in significant content include the dietary minerals, manganese, iron, phosphorus and zinc (table).

 

COCONUT WATER

Coconut water serves as a suspension for the endosperm of the coconut during its nuclear phase of development. Later, the endosperm matures and deposits onto the coconut rind during the cellular phase. It is consumed throughout the humid tropics, and has been introduced into the retail market as a processed sports drink. Mature fruits have significantly less liquid than young, immature coconuts, barring spoilage. Coconut water can be fermented to produce coconut vinegar.

 

Per 100 gram (100 ml) serving, coconut water contains 19 calories and no significant content of essential nutrients.

 

COCONUT MILK

Coconut milk, not to be confused with coconut water, is obtained primarily by extracting juice by pressing the grated coconut white kernel or by passing hot water or milk through grated coconut, which extracts the oil and aromatic compounds. It has a total fat content of 24%, most of which (89%) is saturated fat, with lauric acid as a major fatty acid. When refrigerated and left to set, coconut cream will rise to the top and separate from the milk. The milk can be used to produce virgin coconut oil by controlled heating and removal of the oil fraction.

 

A protein-rich powder can be processed from coconut milk following centrifugation, separation and spray drying.

 

COCONUT OIL

Another byproduct of the coconut is coconut oil. It is commonly used in cooking, especially for frying. It can be used in liquid form as would other vegetable oils, or in solid form as would butter or lard.

 

TODDY AND NECTAR

The sap derived from incising the flower clusters of the coconut is drunk as neera, also known as toddy or tuba (Philippines), tuak (Indonesia and Malaysia) or karewe (fresh and not fermented, collected twice a day, for breakfast and dinner) in Kiribati. When left to ferment on its own, it becomes palm wine. Palm wine is distilled to produce arrack. In the Philippines, this alcoholic drink is called lambanog or "coconut vodka".

 

The sap can be reduced by boiling to create a sweet syrup or candy such as te kamamai in Kiribati or dhiyaa hakuru and addu bondi in the Maldives. It can be reduced further to yield coconut sugar also referred to as palm sugar or jaggery. A young, well-maintained tree can produce around 300 liters of toddy per year, while a 40-year-old tree may yield around 400 liters.

 

HEART OF PALM AND COCONUT SPROUT

Apical buds of adult plants are edible, and are known as "palm cabbage" or heart of palm. They are considered a rare delicacy, as harvesting the buds kills the palms. Hearts of palm are eaten in salads, sometimes called "millionaire's salad". Newly germinated coconuts contain an edible fluff of marshmallow-like consistency called coconut sprout, produced as the endosperm nourishes the developing embryo.

 

INDONESIA

Coconut is an indispensable ingredient in Indonesian cooking. Coconut meat, coconut milk and coconut water are often used in main courses, desserts and soups throughout the archipelago. In the island of Sumatra, the famous Rendang, the traditional beef stew from West Sumatra, chunks of beef are cooked in coconut milk along with other spices for hours until thickened. In Jakarta, "Soto Babat" or beef tripe soup also uses coconut milk. In the island of Java, the sweet and savoury "Tempe Bacem" is made by cooking tempeh with coconut water, coconut sugar and other spices until thickened. "Klapertart" is the famous Dutch-influenced dessert from Manado, North Celebes, that uses young coconut meat and coconut milk. In 2010, Indonesia increased its coconut production. It is now the world's second largest producer of coconuts. The gross production was 15 million tonnes. A sprouting coconut seed is the logo for Gerakan Pramuka Indonesia, the Indonesian Scouting organization. It can be seen on all the scouting paraphernalia that elementary (SMA) school children wear as well as on the scouting pins and flags.

 

PHILIPPINES

The Philippines is the world's largest producer of coconuts; the production of coconuts plays an important role in the economy. Coconuts in the Philippines are usually used in making main dishes, refreshments and desserts. Coconut juice is also a popular drink in the country. In the Philippines, particularly Cebu, rice is wrapped in coconut leaves for cooking and subsequent storage; these packets are called puso. Coconut milk, known as gata, and grated coconut flakes are used in the preparation of dishes such as laing, ginataan, bibingka, ube halaya, pitsi-pitsi, palitaw, buko and coconut pie. Coconut jam is made by mixing muscovado sugar with coconut milk. Coconut sport fruits are also harvested. One such variety of coconut is known as macapuno. Its meat is sweetened, cut into strands and sold in glass jars as coconut strings, sometimes labeled as "gelatinous mutant coconut". Coconut water can be fermented to make a different product - nata de coco (coconut gel).

 

VIETNAM

In Vietnam, coconut is grown abundantly across Central and Southern Vietnam, and especially in Bến Tre Province, often called the "land of the coconut". It is used to make coconut candy, caramel, and jelly. Coconut juice and coconut milk are used, especially in Vietnam's southern style of cooking, including kho, chè and curry (cà ri).

 

INDIA

In southern India, most common way of cooking vegetables is to add grated coconut and then steam them with spices fried in oil. People from southern India also make chutney, which involves grinding the coconut with salt, chillies, and whole spices. Uruttu chammanthi (granulated chutney) is eaten with rice or kanji (rice gruel). It is also invariably the main side dish served with idli, vadai, and dosai. Coconut ground with spices is also mixed in sambar and other various lunch dishes for extra taste. Dishes garnished with grated coconut are generally referred to as poduthol in North Malabar and thoran in rest of Kerala. Puttu is a culinary delicacy of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, in which layers of coconut alternate with layers of powdered rice, all of which fit into a bamboo stalk. Recently, this has been replaced with a steel or aluminium tube, which is then steamed over a pot. Coconut (Tamil: தேங்காய்) is regularly broken in the middle-class families in Tamil Nadu for food. Coconut meat can be eaten as a snack sweetened with jaggery or molasses. In Karnataka sweets are prepared using coconut and dry coconut "copra"., Like Kaie Obattu, Kobri mitai etc.

 

WIKIPEDIA

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From the anime Shingeki No Bahamut Genesis. She put a helluva lot of work into this as did I in post-production. All the green items (necklace and pauldrons) had LEDs and were glowing.

 

Edit: I wasn't 100% happy with the skin texture on her chest as I had blended and clone-copied away the body-sock she was wearing in order to make it look like she just walked out of the anime. So I re-edited her chest area to smooth out the blending I did and add back in some skin texture.

 

Cosplayer: whatthehaps

The litter (or Palaquin) is a class of wheelless vehicles, a type of human-powered transport, for the transport of persons. Examples of litter vehicles include lectica (ancient Rome), kiệu [轎] (Vietnam), sedan chair (Britain), litera (Spain), palanquin (France, India, Ghana), jiao (China), liteira (Portugal), wo (วอ, Chinese style known as kiao เกี้ยว) (Thailand), gama (Korea), koshi, ren and kago [駕籠] (Japan) and tahtırevan (Turkey).

 

Smaller litters may take the form of open chairs or beds carried by two or more carriers, some being enclosed for protection from the elements. Larger litters, for example those of the Chinese emperors, may resemble small rooms upon a platform borne upon the shoulders of a dozen or more people. To most efficiently carry a litter, porters will attempt to transfer the load to their shoulders, either by placing the carrying poles upon their shoulders, or the use of a yoke to transfer the load from the carrying poles to the shoulder.

 

DEFINITIONS

A simple litter, often called a king carrier, consists of a sling attached along its length to poles or stretched inside a frame. The poles or frame are carried by porters in front and behind. Such simple litters are common on battlefields and emergency situations, where terrain prohibits wheeled vehicles from carrying away the dead and wounded.

 

Litters can also be created by the expedient of the lashing of poles to a chair. Such litters, consisting of a simple cane chair with maybe an umbrella to ward off the elements and two stout bamboo poles, may still be found in Chinese mountain resorts such as the Huangshan Mountains to carry tourists along scenic paths and to viewing positions inaccessible by other means of transport.

 

A more luxurious version consists of a bed or couch, sometimes enclosed by curtains, for the passenger or passengers to lie on. These are carried by at least two porters in equal numbers in front and behind, using wooden rails that pass through brackets on the sides of the couch. The largest and heaviest types would be carried by draught animals.

 

Another form, commonly called a sedan chair, consists of a chair or windowed cabin suitable for a single occupant, also carried by at least two porters in front and behind, using wooden rails that pass through brackets on the sides of the chair. These porters were known in London as "chairmen". These have been very rare since the 19th century, but such enclosed portable litters have been used as an elite form of transport for centuries, especially in cultures where women are kept secluded.

 

Sedan chairs, in use until the 19th century, were accompanied at night by link-boys who carried torches. Where possible, the link boys escorted the fares to the chairmen, the passengers then being delivered to the door of their lodgings. Several houses in Bath, Somerset, England still have the link extinguishers on the exteriors, shaped like outsized candle snuffers. In the 1970s, entrepreneur and Bathwick resident, John Cuningham, revived the sedan chair service business for a brief amount of time.

 

ANTIQUITY

In pharaonic Egypt and many oriental realms such as China, the ruler and divinities (in the form of an idol) were often transported in a litter in public, frequently in procession, as during state ceremonial or religious festivals.

 

The ancient Hebrews fashioned the Ark of the Covenant to resemble and function as a litter for the ten commandments and presence of God.

 

In Ancient Rome, a litter called lectica or "sella" often carried members of the imperial family, as well as other dignitaries and other members of the rich elite, when not mounted on horseback.

 

The habit must have proven quite persistent, for the Third Council of Braga in 675 AD saw the need to order that bishops, when carrying the relics of martyrs in procession, must walk to the church, and not be carried in a chair, or litter, by deacons clothed in white.

 

In the Catholic Church, Popes were carried the same way in Sedia gestatoria, which was replaced later by the Popemobile.

 

IN ASIA

CHINA

In Han China the elite travelled in light bamboo seats supported on a carrier's back like a backpack. In the Northern Wei Dynasty and the Northern and Southern Song Dynasties, wooden carriages on poles appear in painted landscape scrolls.

 

A commoner used a wooden or bamboo civil litter (Chinese: 民轎; pinyin: min2 jiao4), while the mandarin class used an official litter (Chinese: 官轎; pinyin: guan1 jiao4) enclosed in silk curtains.

 

The chair with perhaps the greatest importance was the bridal chair. A traditional bride is carried to her wedding ceremony by a "shoulder carriage" (Chinese: 肩輿; pinyin: jiān yú), usually hired. These were lacquered in an auspicious shade of red, richly ornamented and gilded, and were equipped with red silk curtains to screen the bride from onlookers.

Sedan chairs were once the only public conveyance in Hong Kong, filling the role of cabs. Chair stands were found at all hotels, wharves, and major crossroads. Public chairs were licensed, and charged according to tariffs which would be displayed inside. Private chairs were an important marker of a person's status. Civil officers' status was denoted by the number of bearers attached to his chair. Before Hong Kong's Peak Tram went into service in 1888, wealthy residents of The Peak were carried on sedan chairs by coolies up the steep paths to their residence including Sir Richard MacDonnell's (former Governor of Hong Kong) summer home, where they could take advantage of the cooler climate. Since 1975 an annual sedan chair race has been held to benefit the Matilda International Hospital and commemorate the practice of earlier days.

 

KOREA

In Korea, royalty and aristocrats were carried in wooden litters called gama. Gamas were primarily used by royalty and government officials. There were six types of gama, each assigned to different government official rankings. In traditional weddings, the bride and groom are carried to the ceremony in separate gamas. Because of the difficulties posed by the mountainous terrain of the Korean peninsula and the lack of paved roads, gamas were preferred over wheeled vehicles.

 

JAPAN

As the population of Japan increased, less and less land was available as grazing for the upkeep of horses. With the availability of horses restricted to martial uses, human powered transport became more important and prevalent.

 

Kago (Kanji: 駕籠, Hiragana: かご) were often used in Japan to transport the non-samurai citizen. Norimono were used by the warrior class and nobility, most famously during the Tokugawa period when regional samurai were required to spend a part of the year in Edo (Tokyo) with their families, resulting in yearly migrations of the rich and powerful (Sankin-kōtai) to and from the capital along the central backbone road of Japan.

 

Somewhat similar in appearance to kago are the portable shrines that are used to carry the "god-body" (goshintai), the central totemic core normally found in the most sacred area of Shinto Shrines, on a tour to and from a shrine during some religious festivals.

 

THAILAND

In Thailand, the royalty were also carried in wooden litters called wo ("พระวอ" Phra Wo, literally, "Royal Sedan") for large ceremonies. Wos were elaborately decorated litters that were delicately carved and colored by gold leaves. Stained glass is also used to decorate the litters. Presently, Royal Wos and carriages are only used for royal ceremonies in Thailand. They are exhibited in the Bangkok National Museum.

 

INDONESIA

In traditional Javanese society, the generic palanquin or joli was a wicker chair with a canopy, attached to two poles, and borne on men's shoulders, and was available for hire to any paying customer. As a status marker, gilded throne-like palanquins, or jempana, were originally reserved solely for royalty, and later co-opted by the Dutch, as a status marker: the more elaborate the palanquin, the higher the status of the owner. The joli was transported either by hired help, by nobles' peasants, or by slaves.

 

Historically, the palanquin of a Javanese king (raja), prince (pangeran), lord (raden mas) or other noble (bangsawan) was known as a jempana; a more throne-like version was called a pangkem. It was always part of a large military procession, with a yellow (the Javanese colour for royalty) square canopy. The ceremonial parasol (payung) was held above the palanquin, which was carried by a bearer behind and flanked by the most loyal bodyguards, usually about 12 men, with pikes, sabres, lances, muskets, keris and a variety of disguised blades. In contrast, the canopy of the Sumatran palanquin was oval-shaped and draped in white cloth; this was reflective of greater cultural permeation by Islam. Occasionally, a weapon or heirloom, such as an important keris or tombak, was given its own palanquin. In Hindu culture in Bali today, the tradition of using palanquins for auspicious statues, weapons or heirlooms continues, for funerals especially; in more elaborate rituals, a palanquin is used to bear the body, and is subsequently cremated along with the departed.

 

INDIA

A palanquin, also known as palkhi, is a covered sedan chair (or litter) carried on four poles. It derives from the Sanskrit word for a bed or couch, pa:lanka.

 

Palanquins were one of the luxurious methods used by the rich and noblemen for travelling. This was primarily used in the past to carry a deity or idol of a God, and many temples have sculptures of God being carried in a palki. Later on, it was primarily used by European noblemen and ladies from the upper classes of society prior to the advent of the railways in India. Modern use of the palanquin is limited to Indian weddings and Pilgrimage.

 

Palanquins are mentioned in literature as early as the Ramayana (c. 250BC).

 

Palanquins began to fall out of use after rickshaws (on wheels, more practical) were introduced in the 1930s.

 

The doli (also transliterated from Hindi as dhooly or dhoolie) is a cot or frame, suspended by the four corners from a bamboo pole. Two or four men would carry it. In the time of the British in India, dhooly-bearers were used to carry the wounded from the battlefield and transport them.

 

Today in numerous areas of India including at the Hindu pilgrimage site of Amarnath Temple in Kashmir, palanquins can be hired to carry the customer up steep hills.

 

IN AFRICA

GHANA

In Southern Ghana the Akan and the Ga-Dangme carry their chiefs and kings in palanquins when they appear in their state durbars. When used in such occasions these palanquins may be seen as a substitutes of a state coach in Europe or a horse used in Northern Ghana. The chiefs of the Ga (mantsemei) in the Greater Accra Region (Ghana) use also figurative palanquins which are built after a chief's family symbol or totem. But these day the figurative palanquins are very seldom used. They are related with the figurative coffins which have become very popular among the Ga in the last 50 years. Since these figurative coffins were shown 1989 in the exhibition "Les magicians de la terre" in the Centre Pompidou in Paris they were shown in many art museums around the world.

 

ANGOLA

From at least the 15th century until the 19th century, litters of varying types known as tipoye were used in the Kingdom of Kongo as a mode of transportation for the elites. Seat-style litters with a single pole along the back of the chair carried by two men (usually slaves) were topped with an umbrella. Lounge-style litters in the shape of a bed were used to move one to two people with porter at each corner. Due to the tropical climate, horse were not native to the area nor could they survive very ong once introduced by the Portuguese. Human portage was the only mode of transportation in the region and became highly adept with missionary accounts claiming the litter transporters could move at speeds 'as fast as post horses at the gallop'.

 

IN THE WEST

EUROPE

Portuguese and Spanish navigators and colonistics encountered litters of various sorts in India, Mexico, and Peru. They were imported into Spain and spread into France and then Britain. All the names for these devices are ultimately derived from the root sed- in Latin sedere, "sit," which gave rise to seda ("seat") and its diminutive sedula ("little seat"), the latter of which was contracted to sella, the traditional Latin name for a carried chair. The carried chair met instant success in Europe, whose city streets were often a literal mess of mud and refuse: Where cities and towns did not enjoy the presence of sewage systems left over from Imperial Roman days, it was common to empty chamber pots and discard kitchen refuse from windows down into the adjacent streets. Affluent and well-to-do citizens often found it hazardous and impractical to negotiate those avenues, and sedan chairs allowed them to remain prim and spotless while the carrying valets had to contend with the mud and the filth.

 

In Europe, Henry VIII of England was carried around in a sedan chair — it took four strong chairmen to carry him towards the end of his life — but the expression "sedan chair" was not used in print until 1615. It does not seem to take its name from the city of Sedan. Trevor Fawcett notes that British travellers Fynes Moryson (in 1594) and John Evelyn (in 1644-5) remarked on the seggioli of Naples and Genoa, which were chairs for public hire slung from poles and carried on the shoulders of two porters.

 

From the mid-17th century, visitors taking the waters at Bath would be conveyed in a chair enclosed in baize curtains, especially if they had taken a heated bath and were going straight to bed to sweat. The curtains kept off a possibly fatal draft. These were not the proper sedan chairs "to carry the better sort of people in visits, or if sick or infirmed" (Celia Fiennes). In the 17th and 18th centuries, the chairs stood in the main hall of a well-appointed city residence, where a lady could enter and be carried to her destination without setting foot in a filthy street. The neoclassical sedan chair made for Queen Charlotte remains at Buckingham Palace.

By the mid-17th century, sedans for hire were a common mode of transportation. In London, "chairs" were available for hire in 1634, each assigned a number and the chairmen licensed because the operation was a monopoly of a courtier of Charles I. Sedan chairs could pass in streets too narrow for a carriage and were meant to alleviate the crush of coaches in London streets, an early instance of traffic congestion. A similar system was later used in Scotland. In 1738, a fare system was established for Scottish sedans, and the regulations covering chairmen in Bath are reminiscent of the modern Taxi Commission's rules. A trip within a city cost six pence and a day's rental was four shillings. A sedan was even used as an ambulance in Scotland's Royal Infirmary.

 

Chairmen moved at a good clip. In Bath they had the right-of-way and pedestrians hearing "By your leave" behind them knew to flatten themselves against walls or railings as the chairmen hustled through. There were often disastrous accidents, upset chairs, and broken glass-paned windows.

 

Sedan chairs were also used by the wealthy in the cities of colonial America. Benjamin Franklin used a sedan chair late in the 18th century.

 

COLONIAL PRACTICE

In various colonies, litters of various types were maintained under native traditions, but often adopted by the white colonials as a new ruling and/or socio-economic elite, either for practical reasons (often comfortable modern transport was unavailable, e.g. for lack of decent roads) and/or as a status symbol. During the 17-18th centuries, palanquins (see above) were very popular among European traders in Bengal, so much so that in 1758 an order was issued prohibiting their purchase by certain lower-ranking employees.

 

THE END OF TRADITION

In Great Britain, in the early 19th century, the public sedan chair began to fall out of use, perhaps because streets were better paved or perhaps because of the rise of the more comfortable, companionable and affordable hackney carriage. In Glasgow, the decline of the sedan chair is illustrated by licensing records which show twenty-seven sedan chairs in 1800, eighteen in 1817, and ten in 1828. During that same period the number of registered hackney carriages in Glasgow rose to one hundred and fifty.

 

THE TRAVELLING "SILLA" OF LATIN AMERICA

A similar but simpler palanquin was used by the elite in parts of 18th- and 19th-century Latin America. Often simply called a silla (Spanish for seat or chair), it consisted of a simple wooden chair with an attached tumpline. The occupant sat in the chair, which was then affixed to the back of a single porter, with the tumpline supported by his head. The occupant thus faced backwards during travel. This style of palanquin was probably due to the steep terrain and rough or narrow roads unsuitable to European-style sedan chairs. Travellers by silla usually employed a number of porters, who would alternate carrying the occupant.

 

A chair borne on the back of a porter, almost identical to the silla, is used in the mountains of China for ferrying older tourists and visitors up and down the mountain paths. One of these mountains where the silla is still used is the Huangshan Mountains of Anhui province in Eastern China.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Shiva, meaning "The Auspicious One"), also known as Mahadeva ("Great God"), is a popular Hindu deity. Shiva is regarded as one of the primary forms of God. He is the Supreme God within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism. He is one of the five primary forms of God in the Smarta tradition, and "the Destroyer" or "the Transformer" among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine.

 

Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome forms. At the highest level Shiva is limitless, transcendent, unchanging and formless. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash, as well as a householder with wife Parvati and his two children, Ganesha and Kartikeya and in fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also regarded as the patron god of yoga and arts.

 

The main iconographical attributes of Shiva are the third eye on his forehead, the snake Vasuki around his neck, the crescent moon adorning, the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair, the trishula as his weapon and the damaru as his instrument.

 

Shiva is usually worshiped in the aniconic form of Lingam. Temples of Lord Shiva are called shivalayam.

 

ETYMOLOGY & OTHER NAMES

The Sanskrit word Shiva (Devanagari: शिव, śiva) comes from Shri Rudram Chamakam of Taittiriya Samhita (TS 4.5, 4.7) of Krishna Yajurveda. The root word śi means auspicious. In simple English transliteration it is written either as Shiva or Siva. The adjective śiva, is used as an attributive epithet not particularly of Rudra, but of several other Vedic deities.

 

The other popular names associated with Shiva are Mahadev, Mahesh, Maheshwar, Shankar, Shambhu, Rudra, Har, Trilochan, Devendra (meaning Chief of the gods) and Trilokinath (meaning Lord of the three realms).

 

The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the God Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect. It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. He is the oldest worshipped Lord of India.

 

The Tamil word Sivan, Tamil: சிவன் ("Fair Skinned") could have been derived from the word sivappu. The word 'sivappu' means "red" in Tamil language but while addressing a person's skin texture in Tamil the word 'Sivappu' is used for being Fair Skinned.

 

Adi Sankara, in his interpretation of the name Shiva, the 27th and 600th name of Vishnu sahasranama, the thousand names of Vishnu interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", or "the One who is not affected by three Gunas of Prakrti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)" or "the One who purifies everyone by the very utterance of His name."Swami Chinmayananda, in his translation of Vishnu sahasranama, further elaborates on that verse: Shiva means "the One who is eternally pure" or "the One who can never have any contamination of the imperfection of Rajas and Tamas".

 

Shiva's role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("Great God"; mahā "Great" and deva "god"), Maheśvara ("Great Lord"; mahā "great" and īśvara "lord"), and Parameśvara ("Supreme Lord").

 

There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva. The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradition. Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa. The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the Śatarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.

 

The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.

 

ASSIMILATION OF TRADITIONS

The figure of Shiva as we know him today was built up over time, with the ideas of many regional sects being amalgamated into a single figure. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented. According to Vijay Nath:

 

Visnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara."

 

Axel Michaels the Indologist suggests that Shaivism, like Vaishnavism, implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept separate.

 

An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes. The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri. Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself, in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam. Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya and Karttikeya.

 

INDUS VALLEY ORIGINS

Many Indus valley seals show animals but one seal that has attracted attention shows a figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position and surrounded by animals was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro Pashupati (lord of cattle), an epithet of the later Hindu gods Shiva and Rudra. Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva and have described the figure as having three faces seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.

 

This claim has been criticised, with some academics like Gavin Flood and John Keay characterizing them as unfounded. Writing in 1997 Doris Srinivasan said that "Not too many recent studies continue to call the seal's figure a 'Proto-Siva'", rejecting thereby Marshall's package of proto-Siva features, including that of three heads. She interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man. According to Iravatham Mahadevan symbols 47 and 48 of his Indus script glossary The Indus Script: Texts, Concordance and Tables (1977), representing seated human-like figures, could describe Hindu deity Murugan, popularly known as Shiva and Parvati's son.

 

INDO-EUROPEAN ORIGINS

Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities, including Purusha, Rudra, Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, and others.

 

RUDRA

Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra, and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.

 

The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700 and 1100 BCE based on linguistic and philological evidence. A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras", a group of storm gods. Furthermore, the Rudram, one of the most sacred hymns of Hinduism found both in the Rig and the Yajur Vedas and addressed to Rudra, invokes him as Shiva in several instances, but the term Shiva is used as an epithet for the gods Indra, Mitra and Agni many times. Since Shiva means pure, the epithet is possibly used to describe a quality of these gods rather than to identify any of them with the God Shiva.

 

The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudhra is not universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:

 

Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: Śarva), and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra. This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages.

 

The word is derived from the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means "to injure" or "to kill", and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name Śarva as "One who can kill the forces of darkness". The names Dhanvin ("Bowman") and Bāṇahasta ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands") also refer to archery.

 

AGNI

Rudra and Agni have a close relationship. The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva. The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra." The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:

 

The fire myth of Rudra-Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.

 

In the Śatarudrīya, some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipañjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities. Agni is said to be a bull, and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned. In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.

 

INDRA

According to Wendy Doniger, the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra. Doniger gives several reasons for his hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3, 6.45.17, and 8.93.3.) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull. In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.

 

The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion, and the Indo-Iranian religion. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran. It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements", which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana Culture. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma. According to Anthony,

 

Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.

 

LATER VEDIC LITERATURE

Rudra's transformation from an ambiguously characterized deity to a supreme being began in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400-200 BCE), which founded the tradition of Rudra-Shiva worship. Here they are identified as the creators of the cosmos and liberators of souls from the birth-rebirth cycle. The period of 200 BCE to 100 CE also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva, with references to Shaiva ascetics in Patanjali's Mahabhasya and in the Mahabharata.

 

Early historical paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, depict Shiva dancing, Shiva's trident, and his mount Nandi but no other Vedic gods.

 

PURANIC LITERATURE

The Shiva Puranas, particularly the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana, discuss the various forms of Shiva and the cosmology associated with him.

 

TANTRIC LITERATURE

The Tantras, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, regard themselves as Sruti. Among these the Shaiva Agamas, are said to have been revealed by Shiva himself and are foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta.

 

POSITION WITHIN HINDUISM

 

SHAIVISM

Shaivism (Sanskrit: शैव पंथ, śaiva paṁtha) (Kannada: ಶೈವ ಪಂಥ) (Tamil: சைவ சமயம்) is the oldest of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", and also "Saivas" or "Saivites", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. The tantric Shaiva tradition consists of the Kapalikas, Kashmir Shaivism and Shaiva Siddhanta. The Shiva MahaPurana is one of the purāṇas, a genre of Hindu religious texts, dedicated to Shiva. Shaivism is widespread throughout India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, mostly. Areas notable for the practice of Shaivism include parts of Southeast Asia, especially Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia.

 

PANCHAYATANA PUJA

Panchayatana puja is the system of worship ('puja') in the Smarta sampradaya of Hinduism. It is said to have been introduced by Adi Shankara, the 8th century CE Hindu philosopher. It consists of the worship of five deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Devi, Surya and Ganesha. Depending on the tradition followed by Smarta households, one of these deities is kept in the center and the other four surround it. Worship is offered to all the deities. The five are represented by small murtis, or by five kinds of stones, or by five marks drawn on the floor.

 

TRIMURTI

The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahmā the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Śhiva the destroyer or transformer. These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad" or the "Great Trinity", often addressed as "Brahma-Vishnu-Maheshwara."

 

ICONOGRAPHY AND PROPERTIES

 

ATTRIBUTES

Shiva's form: Shiva has a trident in the right lower arm, and a crescent moon on his head. He is said to be fair like camphor or like an ice clad mountain. He wears five serpents and a garland of skulls as ornaments. Shiva is usually depicted facing the south. His trident, like almost all other forms in Hinduism, can be understood as the symbolism of the unity of three worlds that a human faces - his inside world, his immediate world, and the broader overall world. At the base of the trident, all three forks unite.

 

Third eye: (Trilochana) Shiva is often depicted with a third eye, with which he burned Desire (Kāma) to ashes, called "Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: त्र्यम्बकम् ), which occurs in many scriptural sources. In classical Sanskrit, the word ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three eyes". However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word ambā or ambikā means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "three mothers". These three mother-goddesses who are collectively called the Ambikās. Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambikā. It has been mentioned that when Shiva loses his temper, his third eye opens which can destroy most things to ashes.

 

Crescent moon: (The epithets "Chandrasekhara/Chandramouli")- Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon. The epithet Candraśekhara (Sanskrit: चन्द्रशेखर "Having the moon as his crest" - candra = "moon"; śekhara = "crest, crown") refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva. The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon. The crescent moon is shown on the side of the Lord's head as an ornament. The waxing and waning phenomenon of the moon symbolizes the time cycle through which creation evolves from the beginning to the end.

 

Ashes: (The epithet "Bhasmaanga Raaga") - Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma). The ashes are said to represent the end of all material existence. Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy. These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism. One epithet for Shiva is "inhabitant of the cremation ground" (Sanskrit: śmaśānavāsin, also spelled Shmashanavasin), referring to this connection.

 

Matted hair: (The epithet "Jataajoota Dhari/Kapardina") - Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin, "the one with matted hair", and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair" or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion". A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly. His hair is said to be like molten gold in color or being yellowish-white.

 

Blue throat: The epithet Nīlakaṇtha (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ; nīla = "blue", kaṇtha = "throat"). Since Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthan to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked by his act, Goddess Parvati strangled his neck and hence managed to stop it in his neck itself and prevent it from spreading all over the universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue. (See Maha Shivaratri.)

 

Sacred Ganges: (The epithet "Gangadhara") Bearer of Ganga. Ganges river flows from the matted hair of Shiva. The Gaṅgā (Ganges), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair. The flow of the Ganges also represents the nectar of immortality.

 

Tiger skin: (The epithet "Krittivasana").He is often shown seated upon a tiger skin, an honour reserved for the most accomplished of Hindu ascetics, the Brahmarishis.

 

Serpents: (The epithet "Nagendra Haara" or 'Vasoki"). Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.

 

Deer: His holding deer on one hand indicates that He has removed the Chanchalata of the mind (i.e., attained maturity and firmness in thought process). A deer jumps from one place to another swiftly, similar to the mind moving from one thought to another.

 

Trident: (Trishula): Shiva's particular weapon is the trident. His Trisul that is held in His right hand represents the three Gunas— Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. That is the emblem of sovereignty. He rules the world through these three Gunas. The Damaru in His left hand represents the Sabda Brahman. It represents OM from which all languages are formed. It is He who formed the Sanskrit language out of the Damaru sound.

 

Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru (ḍamaru). This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "ḍamaru-hand") is used to hold the drum. This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect.

 

Axe: (Parashu):The parashu is the weapon of Lord Shiva who gave it to Parashurama, sixth Avatar of Vishnu, whose name means "Rama with the axe" and also taught him its mastery.

 

Nandī: (The epithet "Nandi Vaahana").Nandī, also known as Nandin, is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: vāhana). Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name Paśupati, or Pashupati (Sanskrit: पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle" and by Kramrisch as "lord of animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra. Rishabha or the bull represents Dharma Devata. Lord Siva rides on the bull. Bull is his vehicle. This denotes that Lord Siva is the protector of Dharma, is an embodiment of Dharma or righteousness.

 

Gaṇa: The Gaṇas (Devanagari: गण) are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee. Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title gaṇa-īśa or gaṇa-pati, "lord of the gaṇas".

 

Mount Kailāsa: Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode. In Hindu mythology, Mount Kailāsa is conceived as resembling a Linga, representing the center of the universe.

 

Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.

 

LINGAM

Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a lingam, or linga, is also important. These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column. Shiva means auspiciousness, and linga means a sign or a symbol. Hence, the Shivalinga is regarded as a "symbol of the great God of the universe who is all-auspiciousness". Shiva also means "one in whom the whole creation sleeps after dissolution". Linga also means the same thing—a place where created objects get dissolved during the disintegration of the created universe. Since, according to Hinduism, it is the same god that creates, sustains and withdraws the universe, the Shivalinga represents symbolically God Himself. Some scholars, such as Monier Monier-Williams and Wendy Doniger, also view linga as a phallic symbol, although this interpretation is disputed by others, including Christopher Isherwood, Vivekananda, Swami Sivananda, and S.N. Balagangadhara.

 

JYOTIRLINGA

The worship of the Shiva-Linga originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga. In the text Linga Purana, the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.

 

The sacred of all Shiva linga is worshipped as Jyotir linga. Jyoti means Radiance, apart from relating Shiva linga as a phallus symbol, there are also arguments that Shiva linga means 'mark' or a 'sign'. Jyotirlinga means "The Radiant sign of The Almighty". The Jyotirlingas are mentioned in Shiva Purana.

 

SHAKTI

Shiva forms a Tantric couple with Shakti [Tamil : சக்தி ], the embodiment of energy, dynamism, and the motivating force behind all action and existence in the material universe. Shiva is her transcendent masculine aspect, providing the divine ground of all being. Shakti manifests in several female deities. Sati and Parvati are the main consorts of Shiva. She is also referred to as Uma, Durga (Parvata), Kali and Chandika. Kali is the manifestation of Shakti in her dreadful aspect. The name Kali comes from kāla, which means black, time, death, lord of death, Shiva. Since Shiva is called Kāla, the eternal time, Kālī, his consort, also means "Time" or "Death" (as in "time has come"). Various Shakta Hindu cosmologies, as well as Shākta Tantric beliefs, worship her as the ultimate reality or Brahman. She is also revered as Bhavatārini (literally "redeemer of the universe"). Kālī is represented as the consort of Lord Shiva, on whose body she is often seen standing or dancing. Shiva is the masculine force, the power of peace, while Shakti translates to power, and is considered as the feminine force. In the Vaishnava tradition, these realities are portrayed as Vishnu and Laxmi, or Radha and Krishna. These are differences in formulation rather than a fundamental difference in the principles. Both Shiva and Shakti have various forms. Shiva has forms like Yogi Raj (the common image of Himself meditating in the Himalayas), Rudra (a wrathful form) and Natarajar (Shiva's dance are the Lasya - the gentle form of dance, associated with the creation of the world, and the Tandava - the violent and dangerous dance, associated with the destruction of weary worldviews – weary perspectives and lifestyles).

 

THE FIVE MANTRAS

Five is a sacred number for Shiva. One of his most important mantras has five syllables (namaḥ śivāya).

 

Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pañcabrahmans. As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:

 

Sadyojāta

Vāmadeva

Aghora

Tatpuruṣha

Īsāna

 

These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action. Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes. The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:

 

Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.

 

According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad:

 

One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)

 

FORMES AND ROLES

According to Gavin Flood, "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing themes.[168] The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.

 

DESTROYER AND BENEFACTOR

In the Yajurveda, two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrific (Sanskrit: rudra) and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: śiva) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here". In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance. The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names.

 

The name Rudra (Sanskrit: रुद्र) reflects his fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud-, which means "to cry, howl". Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means "wild, of rudra nature", and translates the name Rudra as "the wild one" or "the fierce god". R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible". Hara (Sanskrit: हर) is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys". Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher". Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as Kāla (Sanskrit: काल), "time", and as Mahākāla (Sanskrit: महाकाल), "great time", which ultimately destroys all things. Bhairava (Sanskrit: भैरव), "terrible" or "frightful", is a fierce form associated with annihilation.

 

In contrast, the name Śaṇkara (Sanskrit: शङ्कर), "beneficent" or "conferring happiness" reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Śaṇkara (c. 788 - 820 CE), who is also known as Shankaracharya. The name Śambhu (Sanskrit: शम्भु), "causing happiness", also reflects this benign aspect.

 

ASCETIC AND HOUSEHOLDER

He is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder, roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.[185] When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating. His epithet Mahāyogi ("the great Yogi: Mahā = "great", Yogi = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga. While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts. Shiva is also depicted as a corpse below Goddess Kali, it represents that Shiva is a corpse without Shakti. He remains inert. While Shiva is the static form, Mahakali or Shakti is the dynamic aspect without whom Shiva is powerless.

 

As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet Umāpati ("The husband of Umā") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, Umākānta and Umādhava, also appear in the sahasranama. Umā in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign Pārvatī. She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari, Durga, Kamakshi and Meenakshi. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe. His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in Southern India (especially in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in Northern India by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.

 

Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini, Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, Shasta - identified with regional deities Ayyappa and Ayyanar - is born. Shiva is also mentioned in some scriptures or folktales to have had daughters like the serpent-goddess Manasa and Ashokasundari. Even the demon Andhaka is sometimes considered a child of Shiva.

 

NATARAJA

he depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Tamil: நடராஜா,Kannada: ನಟರಾಜ, Telugu: నటరాజు, Sanskrit: naṭarāja, "Lord of Dance") is popular. The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama. His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period. In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: nṛtyamūrti) are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular. The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava, which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Lord Śiva does it by the tāṇḍavanṛtya. and Lasya, which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati. Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava. The Tandava-Lasya dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.

 

DAKSHINAMURTHY

Dakshinamurthy, or Dakṣiṇāmūrti (Tamil:தட்சிணாமூர்த்தி, Telugu: దక్షిణామూర్తి, Sanskrit: दक्षिणामूर्ति), literally describes a form (mūrti) of Shiva facing south (dakṣiṇa). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras. This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu. Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.

 

ARDANARISHVARA

An iconographic representation of Shiva called (Ardhanārīśvara) shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form (Ardhanārīśvara) is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", not as "half-man, half-woman". According to legend, Lord Shiva is pleased by the difficult austerites performed by the goddess Parvati, grants her the left half of his body. This form of Shiva is quite similar to the Yin-Yang philosophy of Eastern Asia, though Ardhanārīśvara appears to be more ancient.

 

TRIRUPANTAKA

Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, Tripura, of the Asuras. Shiva's name Tripurantaka (Sanskrit: त्रिपुरान्तक, Tripurāntaka), "ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.[216] In this aspect, Shiva is depicted with four arms wielding a bow and arrow, but different from the Pinakapani murti. He holds an axe and a deer on the upper pair of his arms. In the lower pair of the arms, he holds a bow and an arrow respectively. After destroying Tripura, Tripurantaka Shiva smeared his forehead with three strokes of Ashes. This has become a prominent symbol of Shiva and is practiced even today by Shaivites.

 

OTHER FORMS, AVATARS IDENTIFICATIONS

Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as Avatars. Although Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to "ansh" avatars of Shiva, the idea is not universally accepted in Saivism. The Linga Purana speaks of twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars. According to the Svetasvatara Upanishad, he has four avatars.

 

In the Hanuman Chalisa, Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva and this belief is universal. Hanuman is popularly known as “Rudraavtaar” “Rudra” being a name of “Shiva”. Rama– the Vishnu avatar is considered by some to be the eleventh avatar of Rudra (Shiva).

 

Other traditions regard the sage Durvasa, the sage Agastya, the philosopher Adi Shankara, as avatars of Shiva. Other forms of Shiva include Virabhadra and Sharabha.

 

FESTIVALS

Maha Shivratri is a festival celebrated every year on the 13th night or the 14th day of the new moon in the Shukla Paksha of the month of Maagha or Phalguna in the Hindu calendar. This festival is of utmost importance to the devotees of Lord Shiva. Mahashivaratri marks the night when Lord Shiva performed the 'Tandava' and it is the day that Lord Shiva was married to Parvati. The holiday is often celebrated with special prayers and rituals offered up to Shiva, notably the Abhishek. This ritual, practiced throughout the night, is often performed every three hours with water, milk, yogurt, and honey. Bel (aegle marmelos) leaves are often offered up to the Hindu god, as it is considered necessary for a successful life. The offering of the leaves are considered so important that it is believed that someone who offers them without any intentions will be rewarded greatly.

 

BEYOND HINDUISM

 

BUDDHISM

Shiva is mentioned in Buddhist Tantra. Shiva as Upaya and Shakti as Prajna. In cosmologies of buddhist tantra, Shiva is depicted as active, skillful, and more passive.

 

SIKHISM

The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says, "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi." In the same chapter, it also says, "Shiva speaks, the Siddhas speak."

 

In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh have mentioned two avtars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avtar and Parasnath Avtar.

 

OTHERS

The worship of Lord Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the Hephthalite (White Hun) Dynasty, and Kushan Empire. Shaivism was also popular in Sogdiana and Eastern Turkestan as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan. In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread ("Yajnopavita"). He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sodgian dress. In Eastern Turkestan in the Taklamakan Desert. There is a depiction of his four-legged seated cross-legged n a cushioned seat supported by two bulls. Another panel form Dandan-Uilip shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with His Shakti kneeling on her right thigh. It is also noted that Zoroastrian wind god Vayu-Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.

 

Kirant people, a Mongol tribe from Nepal, worship a form of Shiva as one of their major deity, identifying him as the lord of animals. It is also said that the physical form of Shiva as a yogi is derived from Kirants as it is mentioned in Mundhum that Shiva took human form as a child of Kirant. He is also said to give Kirants visions in form of a male deer.

 

In Indonesia, Shiva is also worshiped as Batara Guru. His other name is "Sang Hyang Jagadnata" (king of the universe) and "Sang Hyang Girinata" (king of mountains). In the ancient times, all kingdoms were located on top of mountains. When he was young, before receiving his authority of power, his name was Sang Hyang Manikmaya. He is first of the children who hatched from the eggs laid by Manuk Patiaraja, wife of god Mulajadi na Bolon. This avatar is also worshiped in Malaysia. Shiva's other form in Indonesian Hindu worship is "Maharaja Dewa" (Mahadeva). Both the forms are closely identified with the Sun in local forms of Hinduism or Kebatinan, and even in the genie lore of Muslims. Mostly Shiva is worshipped in the form of a lingam or the phallus.

 

WIKIPEDIA

  

Red Pública, intervención obra del equipo formado por Rodrigo Castro Peñalva, estudiante de arquitectura, y los arquitectos María González García, Juanjo López de la Cruz y Ángel Martínez García-Posada.

 

Premiada en el concurso Transversal de la BIACS en el emplazamiento del patio de la sede del COAS en la Plaza del Cristo de Burgos.

 

Red Pública, intervención obra del equipo formado por Rodrigo Castro Peñalva, estudiante de arquitectura, y los arquitectos María González García, Juanjo López de la Cruz y Ángel Martínez García-Posada.

 

Premiada en el concurso Transversal de la BIACS en el emplazamiento del patio de la sede del COAS en la Plaza del Cristo de Burgos.

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I made this card to showcase the "Brea ornament" die, here it is used as a skirt in a dress form, from memory Box, for the new 2014 release.and use of the new stencils, to see how to use this die in other forms visit my blog:

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The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert or Marusthali (Land of the dead), is a large, arid region in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent that forms a natural boundary between India and Pakistan. It is the world's 9th largest subtropical desert. This desert spreads over about 2,340,000 km2, with 85% in India and the remaining part in Pakistan. It covers more than 2,000,000 km2 in Rajasthan and extends into Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana.

 

GEOGRAPHY

The Thar Desert extends between the Aravalli Hills in the north-east, the Great Rann of Kutch along the coast and the alluvial plains of the Indus River in the west and north-west. Most of the desert is covered by huge shifting sand dunes that receive sediments from the alluvial plains and the coast. The sand is highly mobile due to strong winds occurring before the onset of the monsoon. The Luni River is the only river integrated into the desert. Rainfall is limited to 100–500 mm per year, mostly falling from July to September.

 

Salt water lakes in the Thar Desert include the Sambhar, Kuchaman, Didwana in Rajasthan and Kharaghoda in Gujarat. These lakes receive rain water during monsoon and evaporate during the dry season. The salt is derived by the weathering of rocks in the region.

 

DESERTIFICATION CONTROL

The soil of the Thar Desert remains dry for much of the year and is prone to wind erosion. High velocity winds blow soil from the desert, depositing some on neighboring fertile lands, and causing shifting sand dunes within the desert. Sand dunes are stabilised by erecting micro-windbreak barriers with scrub material and subsequent afforestation of the treated dunes with seedlings of shrubs such as phog, senna, castor oil plant and trees such as gum acacia, Prosopis juliflora and lebbek tree. The 649 km long Indira Gandhi Canal brings fresh water to the Thar Desert. It was conceived to halt spreading of the desert to fertile areas.

 

There are few local tree species suitable for planting in the desert, which are slow growing. Therefore, exotic tree species were introduced for plantation. Many species of Eucalyptus, Acacia, Cassia and other genera from Israel, Australia, US, Russia, Zimbabwe, Chile, Peru and Sudan have been tried in Thar Desert. Acacia tortilis has proved to be the most promising species for desert afforestation and the jojoba is another promising species of economic value found suitable for planting in these areas.

 

PROTECTED AREAS

There are several protected areas in the Thar Desert:

in Pakistan:

the Nara Desert Wildlife Sanctuary covers 6,300 km2;

the Rann of Kutch Wildlife Sanctuary.

in India:

the Desert National Park covers 3,162 km2 and represents the Thar Desert ecosystem, it includes 44 villages. Its diverse fauna includes the great Indian bustard (Chirotis nigricaps), blackbuck, chinkara, fox, Bengal fox, wolf, and caracal. Seashells and massive fossilized tree trunks in this park record the geological history of the desert;

the Tal Chhapar Sanctuary covers 7 km2 and is an Important Bird Area. It is located in the Churu District, 210 km from Jaipur, in the Shekhawati region. This sanctuary is home to a large population of blackbuck, fox and caracal such as partridge and sand grouse;

Jalore Wildlife Sanctuary is a privately owned sanctuary 130 km from Jodhpur, where Asiatic wildcat, leopard, jirds, desert fox and herds of Indian gazelle live.

 

BIODIVERSITY

FAUNA

Stretches of sand in the desert are interspersed by hillocks and sandy and gravel plains. Due to the diversified habitat and ecosystem, the vegetation, human culture and animal life in this arid region is very rich in contrast to the other deserts of the world. About 23 species of lizard and 25 species of snakes are found here and several of them are endemic to the region.

 

Some wildlife species, which are fast vanishing in other parts of India, are found in the desert in large numbers such as the blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), chinkara (Gazella bennettii) and Indian wild ass (Equus hemionus khur) in the Rann of Kutch. They have evolved excellent survival strategies, their size is smaller than other similar animals living in different conditions, and they are mainly nocturnal. There are certain other factors responsible for the survival of these animals in the desert. Due to the lack of water in this region, transformation of the grasslands into cropland has been very slow. The protection provided to them by a local community, the Bishnois, is also a factor. Other mammals of the Thar Desert include a subspecies of red fox (Vulpes vulpes pusilla) and the caracal.

 

The region is a haven for 141 species of migratory and resident birds of the desert. One can see eagles, harriers, falcons, buzzards, kestrel and vultures. There are short-toed eagles (Circaetus gallicus), tawny eagles (Aquila rapax), greater spotted eagles (Aquila clanga), laggar falcons (Falco jugger) and kestrels. There are also a number of reptiles.

 

The Indian peafowl is a resident breeder in the Thar region. The peacock is designated as the national bird of India and the provincial bird of the Punjab (Pakistan). It can be seen sitting on khejri or pipal trees in villages or Deblina.

 

VEGETATION

The natural vegetation of this dry area is classed as Northwestern thorn scrub forest occurring in small clumps scattered more or less openly. Density and size of patches increase from west to east following the increase in rainfall. The natural vegetation of the Thar Desert is composed of the following tree, shrub and herb species:

 

trees and shrubs: Acacia jacquemontii, Balanites roxburghii, Ziziphus zizyphus, Ziziphus nummularia, Calotropis procera, Suaeda fruticosa, Crotalaria burhia, Aerva javanica, Clerodendrum multiflorum, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Lycium barbarum, Grewia tenax, Commiphora mukul, Euphorbia neriifolia, Cordia sinensis, Maytenus emarginata, Capparis decidua, Mimosa hamata

herbs and grasses: Ochthochloa compressa, Dactyloctenium scindicum, Cenchrus biflorus, Cenchrus setigerus, Lasiurus scindicus, Cynodon dactylon, Panicum turgidum, Panicum antidotale, Dichanthium annulatum, Sporobolus marginatus, Saccharum spontaneum, Cenchrus ciliaris, Desmostachya bipinnata, Eragrostis species, Ergamopagan species, Phragmites species, Tribulus terrestris, Typha species, Sorghum halepense, Citrullus colocynthis

 

The endemic floral species include Calligonum polygonoides, Prosopis cineraria, Acacia nilotica, Tamarix aphylla, Cenchrus biflorus.

 

PEOPLE

The Thar Desert is the most densely populated desert in the world, with a population density of 83 people per km2. In India, the inhabitants comprise Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. In Pakistan, inhabitants include Sindhis and Kolhis.

 

About 40% of the total population of Rajasthan live in the Thar Desert. The main occupation of the people is agriculture and animal husbandry. A colourful culture rich in tradition prevails in this desert. The people have a great passion for folk music and folk poetry.

 

Jodhpur, the largest city in the region, lies in the scrub forest zone. Bikaner and Jaisalmer are located in the desert proper. A large irrigation and power project has reclaimed areas of the northern and western desert for agriculture. The small population is mostly pastoral, and hide and wool industries are prominent.

 

The desert's part in Pakistan also has a rich multifaceted culture, heritage, traditions, folk tales, dances and music due to its inhabitants who belong to different religions, sects and castes.

 

THAR IN ANCIENT LITERATURE

The Indian epics describe this region as Lavanasagara (Salt-ocean). The Ramayana mentions Lavanasagara (the Salt-ocean) when Rama goes to attack Lanka with the army of vanaras. Rama uses his agneyashtra-amogha to dry up the sea named drumakulya situated on north of Lavanasagara. A fresh water source named Pushkar surrounded by Marukantara was created.

 

According to Jain cosmology, Jambūdvīpa is at the centre of Madhyaloka, or the middle part of the universe, where the humans reside. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti or the treatise on the island of roseapple tree contains a description of Jambūdvīpa and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King Bharata. Jambūdvīpa continent is surrounded by ocean Lavanoda (Salt-ocean).

 

The Sarasvati River is one of the chief Rigvedic rivers mentioned in ancient Hindu texts. The Nadistuti hymn in the Rigveda (10.75) mentions the Sarasvati between the Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the west, and later Vedic texts like Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas as well as the Mahabharata mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert.

 

Most scholars agree that at least some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra River, while the Helmand River is often quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river. Whether such a transfer of the name has taken place, either from the Helmand to the Ghaggar-Hakra, or conversely from the Ghaggar-Hakra to the Helmand, is a matter of dispute.

 

There is also a small present-day Sarasvati River (Sarsuti) that joins the Ghaggar.

 

The Mahabharata mentions the Kamyaka Forest situated on the western boundary of the Kuru Kingdom (Kuru Proper + Kurujangala), on the banks of the Saraswati River.[clarification needed] It lay to the west of the Kurukshetra plain. It contained within it a lake called the Kamyaka lake (2,51). Kamyaka forest is mentioned as being situated at the head of the Thar desert, near the lake Trinavindu (3,256). The Pandavas, on their way to exile in the woods, left Pramanakoti on the banks of the Ganges and went towards Kurukshetra, travelling in a western direction, crossing the rivers Yamuna and Drishadvati. They finally reached the banks of the Saraswati River.[clarification needed] There they saw the forest of Kamyaka, the favourite haunt of ascetics, situated on a level and wild plain on the banks of the Saraswati (3-5,36) abounding in birds and deer (3,5). There the Pandavas lived in an ascetic asylum (3,10). It took 3 days for Pandavas to reach the Kamyaka forest, setting out from Hastinapura, on their chariots (3,11).

 

In the Rigveda we also find mention of a River named Aśvanvatī along with river Drishadvati. Some scholars consider both Saraswati and Aśvanvatī the same river.

 

The human habitations on the banks of rivers Saraswati and Drishadvati had shifted to the east and south directions prior to Mahabharata period. During those days The present day Bikaner and Jodhpur areas were known as Kurujangala and Madrajangala provinces.

 

The Desert National Park, Jaisalmer has a collection of fossils of animals and plants of 180 million years old.

 

DESERT ECONOMY

AGRICULTURE

The Thar is one of most heavily populated desert areas in the world and the main occupations of people living here are agriculture and animal husbandry. Agriculture is not a dependable proposition in this area - after the rainy season, at least 33% of crops fail. Animal husbandry, trees and grasses, intercropped with vegetables or fruit trees, is the most viable model for arid, drought-prone regions. The region faces frequent droughts. Overgrazing due to high animal populations, wind and water erosion, mining and other industries result in serious land degradation.

 

The agricultural production is mainly from the Kharif crops. The Kharif crops are the crops that are grown in the summer season and are seeded in the months of June and July. These crops are harvested in the months of September and October and include bajra, pulses such as guar, jowar (Sorghum vulgare), maize (zea mays), sesame and groundnuts. In past few decades the development of canals, tube wells etc. has changed crop pattern. Now the desert districts in Rajasthan have started producing rabi crops like wheat, mustard, cumin seed etc.The people have started to grow cash crops too.

 

Thar region of Rajasthan is the main opium producer and consumer area. There are mainly two crop seasons. The water for irrigation comes from wells and tanks from underlying water sources deep below the surface. The Indira Gandhi Canal irrigates northwestern Rajasthan. The Government of India has started a centrally sponsored scheme under the title of Desert Development Programme based on watershed management with the objective to check spreading of desert and improve the living condition of people in desert.

 

LIVESTOCK

n the last 15–20 years, the Rajasthan desert has seen many changes, including a manifold increase of both the human and animal population. Animal husbandry has become popular due to the difficult farming conditions. At present, there are ten times more animals per person in Rajasthan than the national average, and overgrazing is also a factor affecting climatic and drought conditions.

 

A large number of farmers in Thar desert depend on animal husbandry for their livelihood. Cows, buffalos, sheep, goats, camels, and oxen consists of major cattle population. Barmer district has the highest cattle population out of which sheep and goats are in majority. Some of the best breeds of bullocks such as Kankrej (Sanchori) and Nagauri are from desert region.

 

Thar region of Rajasthan is the biggest wool-producing area in India. Chokla, Marwari, Jaisalmeri, Magra, Malpuri, Sonadi, Nali and Pungal breeds of sheep are found in the region. Of the total wool production in India, 40-50% comes from Rajasthan. The sheep-wool from Rajasthan is considered best for carpet making industry in the world. The wool of Chokla breed of sheep is considered of superior quality. The breeding centres have been developed for Karakul and Merino sheep at Suratgarh, Jaitsar and Bikaner. Some important mills for making Woolen thread established in desert area are: Jodhpur Woolen Mill, Jodhpur; Rajasthan Woolen Mill, Bikaner and India Woolen Mill, Bikaner. Bikaner is the biggest mandi (market place) of wool in Asia.

 

The live stock depends for grazing on common lands in villages. During famine years in the desert the nomadic rebari people move with large herds of sheep and camel to the forested areas of south Rajasthan or nearby states like Madhya Pradesh for grazing the cattle.

 

The importance of animal husbandry can be understood from the organization of large number of cattle fairs in the region. Cattle fairs are normally named after the folk-deities. Some of major cattle fairs held are Ramdevji cattle fair at Manasar in Nagaur district, Tejaji cattle fair at Parbatsar in Nagaur district, Baldeo cattle fair at Merta city in Nagaur district, Mallinath cattle fair at Tilwara in barmer district. Live stock is very important to the Thar desert people.

 

AGROFORESTRY

Forestry has an important part to play in the amelioration of the conditions in semi-arid and arid lands. If properly planned, forestry can make an important contribution to the general welfare of the people living in desert areas. The living standard of the people in the desert is low. They can not afford other fuels like gas, kerosene etc. Fire wood is their main fuel, of the total consumption of wood about 75 percent is firewood. The forest cover in desert is low. Rajasthan has a forest area of 31150 km2. which is about 9% of the geographical area. The forest area is mainly in southern districts of Rajasthan like Udaipur and Chittorgarh. The minimum forest area is in Churu district only 80 km2. Thus the forest is insufficient to fulfill the needs of firewood and grazing in desert districts. This diverts the much needed cattledung from the field to the hearth. This in turn results into the decrease in agricultural production. Agroforestry model is best suited to the people of desert. Some Institutes have done good work in Agroforestry.

 

The scientists of Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), have successfully developed and improved dozens of traditional and non-traditional crops/fruits, such as Ber trees (like plums) that produce much larger fruits than before (lemon-size) and can thrive with minimal rainfall. These trees have become a profitable option for farmers. One example from a case study of horticulture showed that in situation of budding in 35 plants of Ber and Guar (Gola, Seb & Mundia variety developed in CAZRI), using only one hectare of land, yielded 10,000 kg. of Ber and 250 kg. of Guar, which translates into double or even triple profit.

 

Arid Forest Research Institute, (AFRI) situated at Jodhpur is another national level institute in the region. It is one of the institutes of the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education ( ICFRE ) working under the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India. The Objective of the Institute is to carry out scientific research in forestry in order to provide technologies to increase the vegetative cover and to conserve the biodiversity in the hot arid and semi arid region of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Dadara & Nagar Haveli union territory.

 

The most important tree species in terms of providing a livelihood in Thar desert communities is Prosopis cineraria.

 

Prosopis cineraria provides wood of construction class. It is used for house-building, chiefly as rafters, posts scantlings, doors and windows, and for well construction water pipes, upright posts of Persian wheels, agricultural implements and shafts, spokes, fellows and yoke of carts. It can also be used for small turning work and tool-handles. Container manufacturing is another important wood-based industry, which depends heavily on desert-grown trees.

 

Prosopis cineraria is much valued as a fodder tree. The trees are heavily lopped particularly during winter months when no other green fodder is available in the dry tracts. There is a popular saying that death will not visit a man, even at the time of a famine, if he has a Prosopis cineraria, a goat and a camel, since the three together are some what said to sustain a man even under the most trying condition. The forage yield per tree varies a great deal. On an average, the yield of green forage from a full grown tree is expected to be about 60 kg with complete lopping having only the central leading shoot, 30 kg when the lower two third crown is lopped and 20 kg when the lower one third crown is lopped. The leaves are of high nutritive value. Feeding of the leaves during winter when no other green fodder is generally available in rain-fed areas is thus profitable. The pods have a sweetish pulp and are also used as fodder for livestock.

 

Prosopis cineraria is most important top feed species providing nutritious and highly palatable green as well as dry fodder, which is readily eaten by camels, cattle, sheep and goats, constituting a major feed requirement of desert livestock. Locally it is called Loong. Pods are locally called sangar or sangri. The dried pods locally called Kho-Kha are eaten. Dried pods also form rich animal feed, which is liked by all livestock. Green pods also form rich animal feed, which is liked by drying the young boiled pods. They are also used as famine food and known even to prehistoric man. Even the bark, having an astringent bitter taste, was reportedly eaten during the severe famine of 1899 and 1939. Pod yield is nearly 1.4 quintals of pods/ha with a variation of 10.7% in dry locations.

 

Prosopis cineraria wood is reported to contain high calorific value and provide high quality fuel wood. The lopped branches are good as fencing material. Its roots also encourage nitrogen fixation, which produces higher crop yields.

 

Tecomella undulata is one more tree species, locally known as Rohida, which is found in Thar Desert regions of northwest and western India. It is another important medium sized tree of great use in Agroforestry, that produces quality timber and is the main source of timber amongst the indigenous tree species of desert regions. The trade name of the tree species is Desert teak or Marwar teak.

 

Tecomella undulata is mainly used as a source of timber. Its wood is strong, tough and durable. It takes a fine finish. Heartwood contains quinoid. The wood is excellent for firewood and charcoal. Cattle and goats eat leaves of the tree. Camels, goats and sheep consume flowers and pods.

 

Tecomella undulata plays an important role in the ecology. It acts as a soil-binding tree by spreading a network of lateral roots on the top surface of the soil. It also acts as a windbreak and helps in stabilizing shifting sand dunes. It is considered as the home of birds and provides shelter for other desert wildlife. Shade of tree crown is shelter for the cattle, goats and sheep during summer days.

 

Tecomella undulata has medicinal properties as well. The bark obtained from the stem is used as a remedy for syphilis. It is also used in curing urinary disorders, enlargement of spleen, gonorrhoea, leucoderma and liver diseases. Seeds are used against abscess.

 

ECOTOURISM

Desert safaris on camels have become increasingly popular around Jaisalmer. Domestic and international tourists frequent the desert seeking adventure on camels for anything from a day to several days. This ecotourism industry ranges from cheaper backpacker treks to plush Arabian night style campsites replete with banquets and cultural performances. During the treks tourists are able to view the fragile and beautiful ecosystem of the Thar desert. This form of tourism provides income to many operators and camel owners in Jaisalmer as well as employment for many camel trekers in the desert villages nearby. But also people from various parts of the world come here to see pushkar mela and oasis.

 

INDUSTRY

Rajasthan is pre-eminent in quarrying and mining in India. The Taj Mahal was built with white marble mined from Makrana in Nagaur district. The state is the second largest source of cement in India. It has rich salt deposits at Sambhar. Jodhpur sandstone is mostly used in monuments, important buildings, residential buildings, and such. This stone is termed "chittar patthar". Jodhpur has also got mines of red stone locally known as ghatu patthar used in construction. Sandstone is found in Jodhpur and Naguar districts. Jalore is biggest centre of granite processing units.

 

Lignite coal deposits are there at places Giral, Kapuradi, Jalipa, Bhadka in Barmer district; Plana, Gudha, Bithnok, Barsinghpur, Mandla Charan, Raneri Hadla in Bikaner district and Kasnau, Merta, Lunsar etc., in Nagaur district. Lignite based Thermal power plant has been established at Giral in Barmer district. Jindal group is working on 1080 Megawatt power project in private sector at village Bhadaresh in Barmer district. "Neweli Lignite Barsinghpur Project" is in progress to establish two thermal power units of capacity 125 megawatts each at Barsinghpur in Bikaner district. Reliance Energy is working on establishing power generation through underground gasification technique in Barmer district with an outlay of about 30 billion rupees.

 

There is large storage of good quality petroleum in Jaisalmer and Barmer districts. The main places with deposits of petroleum are Baghewal, Kalrewal, and Tawariwal in Jaisalmer district and Gudha Malani area in Barmer district. Barmer district has started petroleum production on commercial scale.

 

Barmer district is in the news due to its large oil basin. The British exploration company Cairn Energy started production of oil on a large scale. Mangala, Bhagyam and Aishwariya are the major oil fields in the district. This is India's biggest oil discovery in 22 years. This promises to transform the local economy, which has long suffered from the harshness of the desert.

 

The Government of India initiated departmental exploration for oil in 1955-56 in the Jaisalmer area, Oil India Limited's discovered natural gas in 1988 in the Jaisalmer basin. Also known for their fine leather messenger bags made from wild camels native to the area.

 

The Thar desert seems an ideal place for generation of electricity from wind power. According to an estimate Rajasthan state has got a potential of 5500 Megawatt wind power generation as such it is in the priority of the state govt. Rajasthan State Power Corporation has established its first wind power based power plant at Amarsagar in Jaisalmer district. Some leading companies in the field are working on establishing wind mills in Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts. Solar energy also has a great potential in this region as most of the days during a year are cloud free. Solar energy based plant has been established at Bhaleri in Churu district to convert hard water into drinking water.

 

SALT WATER LAKES

There are a number of salt water lakes in Thar desert. These are Sambhar, Pachpadra, Tal Chhapar, Falaudi and Lunkaransar where Sodium chloride salt is produced from salt water. The Didwana lake produces Sodium Sulphate salt. Ancient Archaeological evidences of habitations have been recovered from Sambhar and Didwana lakes which shows their antiquity and historical importance.

 

WATER & HOUSING IN THE DESERT

Water scarcity plays an important role in shaping life in all parts of Thar. Natural (tobas) or man-made (johads), both types of small, intermittent ponds, are often the only source of water for animals and humans in the true desert areas. The lack of a constant water supply causes much of the local population to live as nomads. Most human settlements are found near the two seasonal streams of the Karon-Jhar hills. Potable groundwater is also rare in the Thar desert. Supplies are often sour due to dissolved minerals, and are only available deep underground. Wells that successfully bear sweet water attract nearby settlement, but are difficult to dig, possibly claiming the lives of the well-diggers.

 

According to 1980 housing census in Pakistan, there were 241,326 housing units of one or two very small rooms. The degree of crowding was six persons per housing unit and three persons per room. For most of the housing units (approximately 76 per cent), the main construction material of outer walls is unbaked bricks whereas wood is used in 10 per cent and baked bricks or stones with mud bonding in 8 per cent housing units. A large number of families still live in jhugis or huts which are housing units formed with straws and thin wood-sticks. The wind storm proves these jhugis unsustainable all the times. But the poverty leaves no other option to these jhugiwalas (people living in jhugis).

 

The river Luni is the only natural water source that drains inside a lake in the desert. It originates in the Pushkar valley of the Aravalli Range, near Ajmer and ends in the marshy lands of Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, after travelling a distance of 530 km. The Luni flows through part of Ajmer, Barmer, Jalor, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali, and Sirohi districts and Mithavirana Vav Radhanpur region of Banaskantha North Gujarat. Its major tributaries are the Sukri, Mithri, Bandi, Khari, Jawai, Guhiya and Sagi from the left, and the Jojari River from the right.

 

The Ghaggar is another intermittent river in India, flowing during the monsoon rains. It originates in the Shivalik Hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through Punjab and Haryana to Rajasthan; just southwest of Sirsa, Haryana and by the side of talwara jheel in Rajasthan, this seasonal river feeds two irrigation canals that extend into Rajasthan. It terminates in Hanumangarh district.

 

The Rajasthan Canal system is the major irrigation scheme of the Thar Desert and is conceived to reclaim it and also to check spreading of the desert to fertile areas. It is world's largest irrigation which is being extended in an attempt to make the desert arable. It runs south-southwest in Punjab and Haryana but mainly in Rajasthan for a total of 650 kilometers and ends near Jaisalmer, in Rajasthan. After the construction of the Indira Gandhi Canal, irrigation facilities were available over an area of 6770 km² in Jaisalmer district and 37 km² in Barmer district. Irrigation had already been provided in an area of 3670 km² in Jaisalmer district. The canal has transformed the barren deserts of this district into rich and lush fields. Crops of mustard, cotton, and wheat now flourish in this semi-arid western region replacing the sand there previously.

 

Besides providing water for agriculture, the canal will supply drinking water to hundreds of people in far-flung areas. As the second stage of work on the canal progresses rapidly, there is hope that it will enhance the living standards of the people of the state.

 

DESERT FOR RECREATION

Thar Desert provides the recreational value in terms of desert festivals organized every year. Rajasthan desert festivals are celebrated with great zest and zeal. This festival is held once a year during winters. Dressed in brilliantly hued costumes, the people of the desert dance and sing haunting ballads of valor, romance and tragedy. The fair has snake charmers, puppeteers, acrobats and folk performers. Camels, of course, play a stellar role in this festival, where the rich and colorful folk culture of Rajasthan can be seen.

 

Camels are an integral part of the desert life and the camel events during the Desert Festival confirm this fact. Special efforts go into dressing the animal for entering the spectacular competition of the best-dressed camel. Other interesting competitions on the fringes are the moustache and turban tying competitions, which not only demonstrate a glorious tradition but also inspire its preservation. Both the turban and the moustache have been centuries old symbols of honor in Rajasthan.

 

Evenings are meant for the main shows of music and dance. Continuing till late into the night, the number of spectators swells up each night and the grand finale, on the full moon night, takes place by silvery sand dunes.

 

WIKIPEDIA

A federal courthouse takes the form of a Cass Gilbert neoclassical skyscraper with a pyramidal gold-glazed terracotta roof.

 

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In Lower Manhattan on September 6th, 2018, the Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse, designed by Cass Gilbert and completed in 1936, 87001596 on the National Register of Historic Places, New York City Landmark 214, as viewed from the Brooklyn Bridge Promenade. There is the offramp connecting northbound Brooklyn Bridge traffic to Pearl Street and northbound FDR Drive.

 

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Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names terms:

• Manhattan (7022657)

• New York (7007567)

• New York (county) (1002715)

 

Art & Architecture Thesaurus terms:

• courthouses (300005969)

• gold leaf (300264831)

• historic buildings (300008063)

• Neoclassical (300021477)

• pilasters (300002737)

• pyramids (geometric figures) (300163119)

• skyscrapers (300004809)

• terracotta (clay material) (300010669)

 

Wikidata items:

• 6 September 2018 (Q45921204)

• 1930s in architecture (Q16482516)

• 1936 in architecture (Q2811656)

• Brooklyn Bridge (Q125006)

• Civic Center (Q1094453)

• federal building (Q51183740)

• Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive (Q124973)

• Lenapehoking (Q6522252)

• Lower Manhattan (Q11253)

• National Register of Historic Places (Q3719)

• neoclassical architecture (Q54111)

• New York City Landmark (Q19825927)

• Pearl Street (Q2356321)

• September 6 (Q2858)

• September 2018 (Q31179569)

• Thurgood Marshall (Q312348)

• Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse (Q821601)

 

Transportation Research Thesaurus terms:

• Ramps (Interchanges) (Pmrcpjsrr)

 

Library of Congress Subject Headings:

• Courthouses—New York (State) (sh94008987)

 

Union List of Artist Names IDs:

• Gilbert, Cass (American architect, 1859-1934) (500007284)

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis

 

St. Louis is an independent city and inland port in the U.S. state of Missouri. It is situated along the western bank of the Mississippi River, which marks Missouri's border with Illinois. The Missouri River merges with the Mississippi River just north of the city. These two rivers combined form the fourth longest river system in the world. The city had an estimated 2017 population of 308,626 and is the cultural and economic center of the St. Louis metropolitan area (home to nearly 3,000,000 people), which is the largest metropolitan area in Missouri, the second-largest in Illinois (after Chicago), and the 22nd-largest in the United States.

 

Before European settlement, the area was a regional center of Native American Mississippian culture. The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and Auguste Chouteau, and named after Louis IX of France. In 1764, following France's defeat in the Seven Years' War, the area was ceded to Spain and retroceded back to France in 1800. In 1803, the United States acquired the territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase. During the 19th century, St. Louis became a major port on the Mississippi River; at the time of the 1870 Census it was the fourth-largest city in the country. It separated from St. Louis County in 1877, becoming an independent city and limiting its own political boundaries. In 1904, it hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the Summer Olympics.

 

The economy of metropolitan St. Louis relies on service, manufacturing, trade, transportation of goods, and tourism. Its metro area is home to major corporations, including Anheuser-Busch, Express Scripts, Centene, Boeing Defense, Emerson, Energizer, Panera, Enterprise, Peabody Energy, Ameren, Post Holdings, Monsanto, Edward Jones, Go Jet, Purina and Sigma-Aldrich. Nine of the ten Fortune 500 companies based in Missouri are located within the St. Louis metropolitan area. The city has also become known for its growing medical, pharmaceutical, and research presence due to institutions such as Washington University in St. Louis and Barnes-Jewish Hospital. St. Louis has two professional sports teams: the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball and the St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League. One of the city's iconic sights is the 630-foot (192 m) tall Gateway Arch in the downtown area.

 

Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citygarden

 

Citygarden is an urban park and sculpture garden in St. Louis, Missouri owned by the City of St. Louis but maintained by the Gateway Foundation. It is located between Eighth, Tenth, Market, and Chestnut streets, in the city's "Gateway Mall" area. Before being converted to a garden and park, the site comprised two empty blocks of grass. Citygarden was dedicated on June 30, 2009, and opened one day later, on July 1, 2009.

 

Citygarden is 2.9 acres (1.2 ha) in size—occupying two square city blocks—and cost US$30 million to develop. St. Louis' Gateway Foundation, a not-for-profit organization supporting public art, funded the design and construction of the garden. While the city owns the land on which Citygarden was developed, the foundation owns the statues and covers all park maintenance costs except water and electricity. The Gateway Foundation is also in charge of providing additional security for the garden.

 

There is no admission fee for visitors of Citygarden, which is located close to St. Louis' Gateway Arch and Busch Stadium. The park is open year-round and complies with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.

Nikon D800E photos Bianca Buitendag & Bethany Hamilton Supergilr Pro Oceanside Beach Pier in San Diego! Shot form high up above on the Oceanside Pier!

 

Nikon D800E photos of Bianca Buitendag, Bethany Hamilton, and other pro surf girls at the Oceanside Huntington Beach Pier! Gorgeous pro surf girl goddesses all who are also professional swimsuit bikini / athletic sports clothing models! Shot with the awesome Nikon D800E & the Sigma 150-500mm f/5-6.3 AF APO DG OS HSM Telephoto Zoom Lens for Nikon Digital SLR Cameras. They're all professional models too (Alana Blanchard was a Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Model and Rip Curl Bikini Model!)!

 

And here're some epic video of pretty goddesses Bianca Buitendag and Alanna Blanchard I shot at the same time with the Panasonic X900MK 3MOS 3D Full HD SD Camcorder with 32GB Internal Memory mounted on my Nikon D800E via the 45surfer configuration.

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=IxYPyOtzAQU (Bianca Buitendag paddling out and surfing!)

www.youtube.com/watch?v=9bX4gXnfLtc (alana running on beach, paddling out, surfing)

www.youtube.com/watch?v=-5LLePW95N0

www.youtube.com/watch?v=ANM70cBDNVo

www.youtube.com/watch?v=HIqA-0TOkjk

www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVEcj3bTdeQ

 

Last year I was shooting with a Nikon D4 with a 600mm F4 Prime monster Nikkor lens mounted on the tripod:

 

www.flickr.com/photos/herosjourneymythology45surf/8555104...

 

This year I wanted to be more nimble and work the whole area (shoot surfers warming up down the beach, coming and goring, running, hanging out/watching/etc.), so I opted to shoot with a Nikon D800E with the Sigma 150-500m lens mounted on a monopod. It can be tough to move tripod around with a 600mm F4 Prime monster Nikkor lens on a crowded beach, and it would be easy to upset folks each time you tried to set it up! There's a good chance they would say "enough" and throw you and all your equipment in the water! There's a common etiquette that one ought arrive early to claim a good spot, set up there, and keep it for the day. Latecomers are not welcome to set up on the main beach once it has filled up. But it's OK to walk around with a smaller setup as long as you stay out of everyone's way. Generally you can hug the water/shoreline with your feet and monopod in the water, as you're down low enough so that you don't block anyone's view from higher up on the beach, where all the tripods are mounted. The Sigma 150-500mm lens also allowed me to zoom out when surfers ran down the beach or got in and out of the water, and I also had a Nikon D800E with the 28-300 mm lens strapped around my neck. And both cameras had video cameras mounted to them in my famous 45surfer configuration! Needless to say, it can be a bit scary standing knee-deep in water with all that equipment, with large waves breaking. You wouldn't want to fall in!

 

Well, hope you enjoy the surf goddess photography!

 

All the best on your epic hero's journey from Johnny Ranger McCoy! :)

 

P.S. There's nothing like shooting the nikon D4 with the 600mm prime for quality, but I felt it was cool to give up a bit of quality for far more variety this year! Plus I do not want to become a pixel-peeper! :)

A loom is a device used to weave cloth and tapestry. The basic purpose of any loom is to hold the warp threads under tension to facilitate the interweaving of the weft threads. The precise shape of the loom and its mechanics may vary, but the basic function is the same.

 

ETYMOLOGY

The word "loom" is derived from the Old English "geloma" formed from ge-(perfective prefix) and loma, a root of unknown origin; this meant utensil or tool or machine of any kind. In 1404 it was used to mean a machine to enable weaving thread into cloth. By 1838 it had gained the meaning of a machine for interlacing thread.

 

WEAVING

Weaving is done by intersecting the longitudinal threads, the warp, i.e. "that which is thrown across", with the transverse threads, the weft, i.e. "that which is woven".

 

The major components of the loom are the warp beam, heddles, harnesses or shafts (as few as two, four is common, sixteen not unheard of), shuttle, reed and takeup roll. In the loom, yarn processing includes shedding, picking, battening and taking-up operations.

 

THESE ARE THE PRINCIPAL MOTIONS

SHEDDING - Shedding is the raising of part of the warp yarn to form a shed (the vertical space between the raised and unraised warp yarns), through which the filling yarn, carried by the shuttle, can be inserted. On the modern loom, simple and intricate shedding operations are performed automatically by the heddle or heald frame, also known as a harness. This is a rectangular frame to which a series of wires, called heddles or healds, are attached. The yarns are passed through the eye holes of the heddles, which hang vertically from the harnesses. The weave pattern determines which harness controls which warp yarns, and the number of harnesses used depends on the complexity of the weave. Two common methods of controlling the heddles are dobbies and a Jacquard Head.

 

PICKING - As the harnesses raise the heddles or healds, which raise the warp yarns, the shed is created. The filling yarn is inserted through the shed by a small carrier device called a shuttle. The shuttle is normally pointed at each end to allow passage through the shed. In a traditional shuttle loom, the filling yarn is wound onto a quill, which in turn is mounted in the shuttle. The filling yarn emerges through a hole in the shuttle as it moves across the loom. A single crossing of the shuttle from one side of the loom to the other is known as a pick. As the shuttle moves back and forth across the shed, it weaves an edge, or selvage, on each side of the fabric to prevent the fabric from raveling.

 

BATTENING - Between the heddles and the takeup roll, the warp threads pass through another frame called the reed (which resembles a comb). The portion of the fabric that has already been formed but not yet rolled up on the takeup roll is called the fell. After the shuttle moves across the loom laying down the fill yarn, the weaver uses the reed to press (or batten) each filling yarn against the fell. Conventional shuttle looms can operate at speeds of about 150 to 160 picks per minute.

 

There are two secondary motions, because with each weaving operation the newly constructed fabric must be wound on a cloth beam. This process is called taking up. At the same time, the warp yarns must be let off or released from the warp beams. To become fully automatic, a loom needs a tertiary motion, the filling stop motion. This will brake the loom, if the weft thread breaks. An automatic loom requires 0.125 hp to 0.5 hp to operate.

 

TYPES OF LOOMS

BACK STRAP LOOM

A simple loom which has its roots in ancient civilizations consists of two sticks or bars between which the warps are stretched. One bar is attached to a fixed object, and the other to the weaver usually by means of a strap around the back. On traditional looms, the two main sheds are operated by means of a shed roll over which one set of warps pass, and continuous string heddles which encase each of the warps in the other set. The weaver leans back and uses his or her body weight to tension the loom. To open the shed controlled by the string heddles, the weaver relaxes tension on the warps and raises the heddles. The other shed is usually opened by simply drawing the shed roll toward the weaver. Both simple and complex textiles can be woven on this loom. Width is limited to how far the weaver can reach from side to side to pass the shuttle. Warp faced textiles, often decorated with intricate pick-up patterns woven in complementary and supplementary warp techniques are woven by indigenous peoples today around the world. They produce such things as belts, ponchos, bags, hatbands and carrying cloths. Supplementary weft patterning and brocading is practiced in many regions. Balanced weaves are also possible on the backstrap loom. Today, commercially produced backstrap loom kits often include a rigid heddle.

 

WARP-WEIGHTED LOOMS

The warp-weighted loom is a vertical loom that may have originated in the Neolithic period. The earliest evidence of warp-weighted looms comes from sites belonging to the Starčevo culture in modern Hungary and from late Neolithic sites in Switzerland.[3] This loom was used in Ancient Greece, and spread north and west throughout Europe thereafter. Its defining characteristic is hanging weights (loom weights) which keep bundles of the warp threads taut. Frequently, extra warp thread is wound around the weights. When a weaver has reached the bottom of the available warp, the completed section can be rolled around the top beam, and additional lengths of warp threads can be unwound from the weights to continue. This frees the weaver from vertical size constraints.

 

DRAWLOOM

A drawloom is a hand-loom for weaving figured cloth. In a drawloom, a "figure harness" is used to control each warp thread separately. A drawloom requires two operators, the weaver and an assistant called a "drawboy" to manage the figure harness.

 

HANDLOOMS

A handloom is a simple machine used for weaving. In a wooden vertical-shaft looms, the heddles are fixed in place in the shaft. The warp threads pass alternately through a heddle, and through a space between the heddles (the shed), so that raising the shaft raises half the threads (those passing through the heddles), and lowering the shaft lowers the same threads - the threads passing through the spaces between the heddles remain in place.

 

FLYING SHUTTLE

Hand weavers could only weave a cloth as wide as their armspan. If cloth needed to be wider, two people would do the task (often this would be an adult with a child). John Kay (1704–1779) patented the flying shuttle in 1733. The weaver held a picking stick that was attached by cords to a device at both ends of the shed. With a flick of the wrist, one cord was pulled and the shuttle was propelled through the shed to the other end with considerable force, speed and efficiency. A flick in the opposite direction and the shuttle was propelled back. A single weaver had control of this motion but the flying shuttle could weave much wider fabric than an arm’s length at much greater speeds than had been achieved with the hand thrown shuttle. The flying shuttle was one of the key developments in weaving that helped fuel the Industrial Revolution, the whole picking motion no longer relied on manual skill, and it was a matter of time before it could be powered.

 

HAUTE-LISSE AND BASSE-LISSE LOOMS

Looms used for weaving traditional tapestry are classified as haute-lisse looms, where the warp is suspended vertically between two rolls, and the basse-lisse looms, where the warp extends horizontally between the rolls.

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A carpet is a textile floor covering consisting of an upper layer of pile attached to a backing. The pile is generally either made from wool or fibers such as polypropylene, nylon or polyester and usually consists of twisted tufts which are often heat-treated to maintain their structure. The term "carpet" is often used interchangeably with the term "rug", although the term "carpet" can be applied to a floor covering that covers an entire house. Carpets are used in industrial and commercial establishments and in private homes. Carpets are used for a variety of purposes, including insulating a person's feet from a cold tile or concrete floor, making a room more comfortable as a place to sit on the floor (e.g., when playing with children) and adding decoration or colour to a room.

 

Carpets can be produced on a loom quite similar to woven fabric, made using needle felts, knotted by hand (in oriental rugs), made with their pile injected into a backing material (called tufting), flatwoven, made by hooking wool or cotton through the meshes of a sturdy fabric or embroidered. Carpet is commonly made in widths of 12 feet (3.7 m) and 15 feet (4.6 m) in the USA, 4 m and 5 m in Europe. Where necessary different widths can be seamed together with a seaming iron and seam tape (formerly it was sewn together) and it is fixed to a floor over a cushioned underlay (pad) using nails, tack strips (known in the UK as gripper rods), adhesives, or occasionally decorative metal stair rods, thus distinguishing it from rugs or mats, which are loose-laid floor coverings.

 

ETYMOLOGY AND USAGE

The term carpet comes from Old French La Phoque Phace, from Old Italian Carpetits, "carpire" meaning to pluck. The term "carpet" is often used interchangeably with the term "rug". Some define a carpet as stretching from wall to wall. Another definition treats rugs as of lower quality or of smaller size, with carpets quite often having finished ends. A third common definition is that a carpet is permanently fixed in place while a rug is simply laid out on the floor. Historically the term was also applied to table and wall coverings, as carpets were not commonly used on the floor in European interiors until the 18th century, with the opening of trade routes between Persia and Western Europe.

 

TYPES

WOVEN

The carpet is produced on a loom quite similar to woven fabric. The pile can be plush or Berber. Plush carpet is a cut pile and Berber carpet is a loop pile. There are new styles of carpet combining the two styles called cut and loop carpeting. Normally many colored yarns are used and this process is capable of producing intricate patterns from predetermined designs (although some limitations apply to certain weaving methods with regard to accuracy of pattern within the carpet). These carpets are usually the most expensive due to the relatively slow speed of the manufacturing process. These are very famous in India, Pakistan and Arabia.

 

NEEDLE FELT

These carpets are more technologically advanced. Needle felts are produced by intermingling and felting individual synthetic fibers using barbed and forked needles forming an extremely durable carpet. These carpets are normally found in commercial settings such as hotels and restaurants where there is frequent traffic.

 

KNOTTED

On a knotted pile carpet (formally, a supplementary weft cut-loop pile carpet), the structural weft threads alternate with a supplementary weft that rises at right angles to the surface of the weave. This supplementary weft is attached to the warp by one of three knot types (see below), such as shag carpet which was popular in the 1970s, to form the pile or nap of the carpet. Knotting by hand is most prevalent in oriental rugs and carpets. Kashmir carpets are also hand-knotted.

 

TUFTED

These are carpets that have their pile injected into a backing material, which is itself then bonded to a secondary backing made of a woven hessian weave or a man made alternative to provide stability. The pile is often sheared in order to achieve different textures. This is the most common method of manufacturing of domestic carpets for floor covering purposes in the world.

 

OTHERS

A flatweave carpet is created by interlocking warp (vertical) and weft (horizontal) threads. Types of oriental flatwoven carpet include kilim, soumak, plain weave, and tapestry weave. Types of European flatwoven carpets include Venetian, Dutch, damask, list, haircloth, and ingrain (aka double cloth, two-ply, triple cloth, or three-ply).

 

A hooked rug is a simple type of rug handmade by pulling strips of cloth such as wool or cotton through the meshes of a sturdy fabric such as burlap. This type of rug is now generally made as a handicraft.

 

PRODUCTION OF KNOTTED PILE CARPET

Both flat and pile carpets are woven on a loom. Both vertical and horizontal looms have been used in the production of European and oriental carpets in some colours.

 

The warp threads are set up on the frame of the loom before weaving begins. A number of weavers may work together on the same carpet. A row of knots is completed and cut. The knots are secured with (usually one to four) rows of weft. The warp in woven carpet is usually cotton and the weft is jute.

 

There are several styles of knotting, but the two main types of knot are the symmetrical (also called Turkish or Ghiordes) and asymmetrical (also called Persian or Senna).

 

Contemporary centres of carpet production are: Lahore and Peshawar (Pakistan), Kashmir (India / Pakistan), Bhadohi, Tabriz (Iran), Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Northern Africa, Nepal, Spain, Turkmenistan, and Tibet.

 

The importance of carpets in the culture of Turkmenistan is such that the national flag features a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five carpet guls (designs used in producing rugs).

 

Kashmir (India) is known for handknotted carpets. These are usually of silk and some woolen carpets are also woven.

 

Child labour has often been used in Asia. The GoodWeave labelling scheme used throughout Europe and North America assures that child labour has not been used: importers pay for the labels, and the revenue collected is used to monitor centres of production and educate previously exploited children.

 

HISTORY

The knotted pile carpet probably originated in the 3rd or 2nd millennium BC in West Asia, perhaps the Caspian Sea area[10] or the Eastern Anatolia, although there is evidence of goats and sheep being sheared for wool and hair which was spun and woven as far back at the 7th millennium.

 

The earliest surviving pile carpet is the "Pazyryk carpet", which dates from the 5th-4th century BC. It was excavated by Sergei Ivanovich Rudenko in 1949 from a Pazyryk burial mound in the Altai Mountains in Siberia. This richly coloured carpet is 200 x 183 cm (6'6" x 6'0") and framed by a border of griffins. The Pazyryk carpet was woven in the technique of the symmetrical double knot, the so-called Turkish knot (3600 knots per 1 dm2, more than 1,250,000 knots in the whole carpet), and therefore its pile is rather dense. The exact origin of this unique carpet is unknown. There is a version of its Iranian provenance. But perhaps it was produced in Central Asia through which the contacts of ancient Altaians with Iran and the Near East took place. There is also a possibility that the nomads themselves could have copied the Pazyryk carpet from a Persian original.

 

Although claimed by many cultures, this square tufted carpet, almost perfectly intact, is considered by many experts to be of Caucasian, specifically Armenian, origin. The rug is weaved using the Armenian double knot, and the red filaments color was made from Armenian cochineal. The eminent authority of ancient carpets, Ulrich Schurmann, says of it, "From all the evidence available I am convinced that the Pazyryk rug was a funeral accessory and most likely a masterpiece of Armenian workmanship". Gantzhorn concurs with this thesis. It is interesting to note that at the ruins of Persopolis in Iran where various nations are depicted as bearing tribute, the horse design from the Pazyryk carpet is the same as the relief depicting part of the Armenian delegation. The historian Herodotus writing in the 5th century BC also informs us that the inhabitants of the Caucasus wove beautiful rugs with brilliant colors which would never fade.

 

INDIAN CARPETS

Carpet weaving may have been introduced into the area as far back as the eleventh century with the coming of the first Muslim conquerors, the Ghaznavids and the Ghauris, from the West. It can with more certainty be traced to the beginning of the Mughal Dynasty in the early sixteenth century, when the last successor of Timur, Babar, extended his rule from Kabul to India to found the Mughal Empire. Under the patronage of the Mughals, Indian craftsmen adopted Persian techniques and designs. Carpets woven in the Punjab made use of motifs and decorative styles found in Mughal architecture.

 

Akbar, a Mogul emperor, is accredited to introducing the art of carpet weaving to India during his reign. The Mughal emperors patronized Persian carpets for their royal courts and palaces. During this period, he brought Persian craftsmen from their homeland and established them in India. Initially, the carpets woven showed the classic Persian style of fine knotting. Gradually it blended with Indian art. Thus the carpets produced became typical of the Indian origin and gradually the industry began to diversify and spread all over the subcontinent.

 

During the Mughal period, the carpets made on the Indian subcontinent became so famous that demand for them spread abroad. These carpets had distinctive designs and boasted a high density of knots. Carpets made for the Mughal emperors, including Jahangir and Shah Jahan, were of the finest quality. Under Shah Jahan's reign, Mughal carpet weaving took on a new aesthetic and entered its classical phase.

 

The Indian carpets are well known for their designs with attention to detail and presentation of realistic attributes. The carpet industry in India flourished more in its northern part with major centres found in Kashmir, Jaipur, Agra and Bhadohi.

 

Indian carpets are known for their high density of knotting. Hand-knotted carpets are a speciality and widely in demand in the West. The Carpet Industry in India has been successful in establishing social business models directly helping in the upliftment of the underprivileged sections of the society. Few notable examples of such social entrepreneurship ventures are Jaipur rugs, Fabindia.

 

Another category of Indian rugs which, though quite popular in most of the western countries, have not received much press is hand-woven rugs of Khairabad (Citapore rugs).[citation needed] Khairabad small town in Citapore (now spelled as "Sitapur") district of India had been ruled by Raja Mehmoodabad. Khairabad (Mehmoodabad Estate) was part of Oudh province which had been ruled by shi'i Muslims having Persian linkages. Citapore rugs made in Khairabad and neighbouring areas are all hand-woven and distinct from tufted and knotted rugs. Flat weave is the basic weaving technique of Citapore rugs and generally cotton is the main weaving material here but jute, rayon and chenille are also popular. Ikea and Agocha have been major buyers of rugs from this area.

 

TIBETAN RUG

Tibetan rug making is an ancient, traditional craft. Tibetan rugs are traditionally made from Tibetan highland sheep's wool, called changpel. Tibetans use rugs for many purposes ranging from flooring to wall hanging to horse saddles, though the most common use is as a seating carpet. A typical sleeping carpet measuring around 3ftx5ft (0.9m x 1.6m) is called a khaden.

 

The knotting method used in Tibetan rug making is different from that used in other rug making traditions worldwide. Some aspects of the rug making have been supplanted by cheaper machines in recent times, especially yarn spinning and trimming of the pile after weaving. However, some carpets are still made by hand. The Tibetan diaspora in India and Nepal have established a thriving business in rug making. In Nepal the rug business is one of the largest industries in the country and there are many rug exporters. Tibet also has weaving workshops, but the export side of the industry is relatively undeveloped compared with Nepal and India.

 

HISTORY

The carpet-making industry in Tibet stretches back hundreds if not thousands of years, yet as a lowly craft, it was not mentioned in early writings, aside from occasional references to the rugs owned by prominent religious figures. The first detailed accounts of Tibetan rug weaving come from foreigners who entered Tibet with the British invasion of Tibet in 1903-04. Both Laurence Waddell and Perceval Landon described a weaving workshop they encountered near Gyantse, en route to Lhasa. Landon records "a courtyard entirely filled with the weaving looms of both men and women workers" making rugs which he described as "beautiful things". The workshop was owned and run by one of the local aristocratic families, which was the norm in premodern Tibet. Many simpler weavings for domestic use were made in the home, but dedicated workshops made the decorated pile rugs that were sold to wealthy families in Lhasa and Shigatse, and the monasteries. The monastic institutions housed thousands of monks, who sat on long, low platforms during religious ceremonies, that were nearly always covered in hand-woven carpets for comfort. Wealthier monasteries replaced these carpets regularly, providing income, or taking gifts in lieu of taxation, from hundreds or thousands of weavers.

 

From its heyday in the 19th and early 20th century, the Tibetan carpet industry fell into serious decline in the second half of the 20th. Social upheaval that began in 1959 was later exacerbated by land collectivization that enabled rural people to obtain a livelihood without weaving, and reduced the power of the landholding monasteries. Many of the aristocratic families who formerly organized the weaving fled to India and Nepal during this period, along with their money and management expertise.

 

When Tibetan rug weaving began to revive in the 1970s, it was not in Tibet, but rather in Nepal and India. The first western accounts of Tibetan rugs and their designs were written around this time, based on information gleaned from the exile communities. Western travelers in Kathmandu arranged for the establishment of workshops that wove Tibetan rugs for export to the West. Weaving in the Nepal and India carpet workshops was eventually dominated by local non-Tibetan workers, who replaced the original Tibetan émigré weavers. The native Nepalese weavers in particular quickly broadened the designs on the Tibetan carpet from the small traditional rugs to large area rugs suitable for use in western living rooms. This began a carpet industry that is important to the Nepalese economy even to this day, even though its reputation was eventually tarnished by child labor scandals during the 1990s.

 

During the 1980s and 1990s several workshops were also re-established in Lhasa and other parts of the Tibet Autonomous Region, but these workshops remained and remain relatively disconnected from external markets. Today, most carpets woven in Lhasa factories are destined for the tourist market or for use as gifts to visiting Chinese delegations and government departments. Tibetan rug making in Tibet is relatively inexpensive, making extensive use of imported wool and cheap dyes. Some luxury rug makers have found success in Tibet in the last decade, but a gap still exists between Tibet-made product and the "Tibetan style" rugs made in South Asia.

 

WIKIPEDIA

www.dabasformumebeles.lv - natures form wood tables

  

Nature form furniture - Unique furniture and design elements:

Harijs Stradiņš - a craftsman working with natural shape wood processing, has been designing furniture and other interior design elements since 1997 selecting the best parts of the tree from top to root. In his works Harijs uses such materials as stone, glass, hammered works, fabric, clay and other natural materials to be able to make common design for a particular room.

 

Мебель природных форм - Уникальная мебель и элементы дизайна:

С 1997 года мастер по обработке природных форм дерева Харий Cтрадиньш, работая с деревом, изпользует его с корня до верхушки, отбирая самые интерессные части для создания своей мебели и елементов дизайна. Думая об общем дизайне помещения, в своих работах Xaрий изпользует также камень, ковку, лён, стекло, глину и другие природные елементы.

 

Dabas formu mēbeles - Unikālas mēbeles un dizaina elementi:

Kopš 1997. gada dabiska koka formu apstrādes meistars Harijs Stradiņš sadarbojas ar koku, kā dabas elementu, mēbeļu un dizaina elementu radīšanā, izmantojot to pēc iespējas pilnīgi (no saknes līdz gaotnei). Domājot par telpas kopējā dizaina risinājumu, savos darbos Harijs Stradiņš izmanto arī akmeni, stiklu, metālkalumus, audumu, mālu un citus dabas elementus.

  

COPYRIGHT - Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works:

- This image is licensed under Creative Commons, this means you can use it on your site (blog) if you credit the author (or authors website).

All photos in this gallery are all rights reserved. If you want to use any of them, please send an email before. Thanks for collaboration.

Photos of an Immigration Detainer form taken at a detention facility.