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This is my small British freight train, consisting of my
Black Saddle tank loco and two brand new pieces of rolling stock. I'll discuss each component from front to back.
The Locomotive is the Little Black Saddle Tank, which I made some minor edits to this afternoon. The two differences are that she now has an engineer (not visible in these photos), and I gave her some spiffy gold number plates.
The green box van and the blue coal cart are products of about 2 hours' work. Basically, I felt like building some train stuff today, and I figured some more rolling stock was a good idea. So, I pulled out my LEGO bins and went to work. Both of these cars were built totally ad lib, using pieces I had sitting around. Unfortunately, I didn't have enough wheels and couplers, so the mini hopper and auto transport wagon are going unused. Oh well. Anyway, about the box van. She is, as you may have gathered, a British-style small box van, sporting a lovely green coat of paint (ha ha!). This car is actually two firsts for me. She is my first Box Car of any type, and she's my first train thing to be built in green, though I do intend to design at least ONE green loco (perhaps my 0F model). One thing I should mention, getting the pieces for this van was a challenge. I don't have much in the way of green pieces, so I had to really dig to get all the bits I needed.
The blue coal cart is just something I wanted to make. Until now my only blue rolling stock was the Auto Transport Wagon, and that only had blue accents. I wanted something fuller, more brick-ful (as of this moment, that is a valid word). So, I scraped together all my blue 45 degree slopes and a few bricks and voila! instant coal cart. She's unique in my collection in that she is only 10 studs long, making her basically the smallest acceptable size for a piece of L-gauge
rolling stock.
A full gallery with break down component pictures of how this was built will be up in my Brickshelf folder in the next few days. www.brickshelf.com/cgi-bin/gallery.cgi?f=432359
Red vinyl has been used to replicate current parts that I did not have and also extremely old rare parts that were just too expensive too purchase ( such as the old style macaroni bricks www.bricklink.com/catalogItem.asp?P=x1042a at $7.00 each!) These would give the smooth clean lines of the sloped boiler that is seen here. The gap between the sloped sections is generally covered by the hand rail, but me being me covered it all in vinyl as I dislike even the smallest gaps ;)
I have often seen comments that the HE should be dark red, this is incorrect, the engine (Olton Hall) that was used for the film is red. The carriages are crimson. The dark red vinyl I have is too dark for the carriages, thus these got built in red as the window shape was important to me. LEGO dark red would be the perfect colour for these carriages, but the windows are not made in this colour :| Hello TLG ;)
motorcycle component mould,Motorcycle Side Cover mould,motorcycle accessories mould,electric motorcycle mould,battery truck mould,electropile mould,electromobile mould,custom motorcycle parts mould, Motorcycle parts Mould, electrombile mould, electrocar parts mould
Dayton-Dick Co. was a leader in adapting automotive components to their tractors
6500 lbs
25-40 hp
$1795
Heidrick Ag History Center, Woodland, California, USA
For the video; youtu.be/ScyIVd4DCtA
Midtown Manhattan, New York City, New York, United States
An integral component of the highly-acclaimed International Style Seagram Building designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (a designated New York City Landmark), the Four Seasons Restaurant Ground Floor and First Floor Interiors have been praised by architectural critics as among the finest International Style interior spaces in the United States. Designed in 1958 by celebrated architect Philip Johnson and built in 1958-59 as an innovative first-class restaurant for Restaurant Associates, it opened amid much fanfare and was at that time the costliest restaurant ever constructed. The
interiors produced by Johnson and a stellar team of consultants are considered to be among Johnson's last projects to mirror the architectural theories of his mentor Mies van der Rohe. The designers used rich materials, installed with expert craftsmanship to accentuate their inherent beauty, innovative technology, and distinctive architectonic elements to shape the understated and elegantly proportioned interiors, which reflect the modular system employed in the design of the Seagram Building. The operations of the award-winning Four Seasons Restaurant were taken over in 1972 by Tom Margittai and Paul Kovi, who have kept the interior spaces in virtually intact condition and have been faithful to their original, influential design. Among the creative features of the restaurant is its seasonal' theme, which inspires the meals served as well as plantings and color-coded ' appointments. A cultural magnet for tourists and the city's elite, it is one of New York's premier dining spaces due to the architectural preeminence of its design, the richness of its exquisite interiors, its location in the the Seagram Building, and the restaurant's exceptional culinary reputation.
History of the Seagram Buildinq
The Seagram Building, erected in 1956-58, is the only building in New York City designed by architectural master Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Carefully related to the tranquil granite and marble plaza on its Park Avenue site, the elegant curtain wall of bronze and tinted glass enfolds the first fully modular modem office tower. Constructed at a time when Park Avenue was changing from an exclusive residential thoroughfare to a prestigious business address, the Seagram Building embodies the quest of a successful corporation to establish further its public image through architectural patronage. The president of Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Samuel Bronfman, with the aid of his daughter Phyllis Lambert, carefully selected Mies, assisted by Philip Johnson, to design an office building later regarded by many, including Mies himself, as his crowning work and the apotheosis of International Style towers. The innovative, modular design of the building was a feat furthered by a coalition of talented consultants, a successful collaboration rarely realized in twentieth-century architecture, and by pioneering efforts of research and fabrication. Still virtually intact due to the foresighted maintenance plan of the Seagram Company, the building and plaza have inspired the work of many subsequent designers, affected New York's zoning regulations and real estate tax assessment, and provided a favorable environment for work and repose.
As one of the amenities of the building, the Seagram management from the beginning had the intent to provide large, elegant interior spaces with public access from the lobby. In discussions as early as 1956, several options were considered: a museum of crafts, a stylish automobile showroom (along the lines of Frank Lloyd Wright's Mercedes-Benz showroom further north on Park Avenue), and a first-class restaurant. Mies and Johnson began preliminary work on the overall design of the interior spaces prior to the selection of Restaurant Associates as the tenant.
Restaurant Associates
The Seagram Company decided that a first-class restaurant should occupy the space adjacent to the lobby of its new building, and in 1957 Seagram's leasing agent, Cushman & Wakefield, made arrangements with the firm of Restaurant Associates. Restaurant Associates, Inc. was founded in 1947 by A.F. Wechsler, leader of one of the world's largest companies which roasted coffee for commercial use. Holding a substantial interest in the restaurant chain that owned Rikers restaurants, Wechsler selected his son-in-law Jerome Brody (bom c.1924) as the president of R.A. Mr. Brody expanded the company's activities to include the operation of snack bars and cafeterias for outside interests? he also negotiated contracts to operate the food services at Newark Airport and the Lexington Hotel in New York, and purchased the tourist-enticing leone's. After their successful expansion into the first-class restaurant business with the Forum of the Twelve Caesars, Brody and vice-president Joseph Baum (bom c.1921), a prominent American restaurateur, dedicated themselves to establishing the Four Seasons Restaurant in the Seagram Building as a first-class restaurant with a seasonal theme.
Philip C. Johnson
When approached by Lambert regarding who should design of the restaurant interiors, Mies recommended Johnson. Critic, historian, and architect Philip Johnson (b. 1906) was graduated from Harvard University and became associated with the Museum of Modem Art soon after its founding in 1929, directing its innovative department of architecture and later designing its sculpture garden (1953) and two additions (1950, 1964). With the critic and historian Henry-Russell Hitchcock, he organized the momentous exhibition, "Modem Architecture" (1932), and coauthored The International Style (1932), a manifesto for the vanguard architecture of Walter Gropius, Le Corbusier, and Mies van der Rohe.
Johnson was responsible for inviting Le Corbusier and Mies to the United States. Completing his professional degree in architecture at Harvard in 1943, he subsequently designed several influential residences, including his own Glass House (1949). His association with Mies on the Seagram Building, particularly his design for the Four Seasons Restaurant Interiors (1958-59), was recognized by architectural critics as a highlight in Johnson's career. His later work includes many New York projects: Asia House (now the Russell Sage Foundation/Robert Sterling Foundation Building), 112 East 64th Street (1958- 60), located in the Upper East Side Historic District; New York State Theater at Lincoln Center (1964); New York State Pavilion (1964, with Richard Foster) for the World's Fair in Flushing; Elmer Holmes Bobst Library and Tisch Hall, New York University (1972, both with Richard Foster) ; and the American Telephone and Telegraph Building, 550 Madison Avenue (1980-84, with John Burgee). In 1978 the American Institute of Architects awarded him its highest honor, the Gold Medal.
Design Consultants
Johnson selected a stellar team of design consultants to work with him on the Four Seasons Interiors; in addition, he was aided by William Pahlmann, who was the principal designer for Restaurant Associates.
A graduate of the Parsons School of Design in New York and the Parsons School in Paris, leading interior designer William C. Pahlmann, F.A.I.D., (1900-87) worked as a stage designer and in 1931 established a New York office as a private interior consultant. He became head of the decorating department at Lord & Taylor in 1936; his designs there earned him the reputation as "the best known department store decorator in the U.S."
Praised for his colorful designs, he then became a military camoufleur as a captain in the Army Air Corps. Noted for both his eclecticism and innovativeness, Pahlmann "exercised a pervasive influence on American taste" and helped turn interior designing and decorating into an important component of the multi-billion-dollar home-furnishings industry. At the Four Seasons, he is credited with proposing the marble pool for the north dining room, its placement in the room with four trees at its comers, and the floral festoons at the windows. The New York chapter of the American Institute of Interior Designers granted him the Elsie de Wolfe Award in 1964.
Architect and lighting consultant Richard Kelly (c.1911-1977) designed the lighting for the Seagram Building and the Four Seasons Restaurant Interiors. While studying at Columbia College, Kelly supported himself by designing and selling light fixtures; after graduating in 1932, he opened his own office as a lighting consultant. During his career, Kelly, the "most outstanding lighting consultant in the country," collaborated with such prominent architects as Louis I. Kahn and Eero Saarinen, as well as Mies and Johnson.
He produced many exceptional lighting designs, including those for: the Seagram Building; Lincoln Center (except for the Metropolitan Opera), New York (1962-64); Dulles Airport, Chantilly, Va. (1958-62); General Motors Technical Center, Warren, Mich. (1945-56); Sculpture garden at the Museum of Modem Art, New York (1953) ; Jefferson National Expansion Memorial, or St. Louis Arch (1948-64); Philip Johnson Glass House, New Canaan, Conn. (1949); Eric Boissonnas House, New Canaan, Conn. (1956); Kneses Tiferith Israel Temple, Port Chester, N.Y. (1956); Toronto City Hall (1961-65); Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Conn. (1951-53); Mellon Center for British Art and Studies at Yale University, New Haven, Conn. (1969-74) ; Coming Glass Center, Coming, N.Y. (1950-51, 1955-56) ; Lake Shore Drive Apartments, Chicago (1948-51) ; and the Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Tex. (1966-72). Kelly also published extensively on illumination.
Other consultants were Karl Linn, the landscape architect and a professor at the University of Pennsylvania; Everett Lawson Conklin, the horticulturist and award-winning floral designer; and Marie Nichols, a weaver who designed the aluminum chain draperies for the Four Seasons Interiors and had collaborated with Richard Kelly on several projects. Artist Richard Lippold designed the suspended gold-dipped brass sculptures in the Bar/Grill Room.
Still others were selected for their designs of movable features which, although significant to the history of the Four Seasons, are not included in this designation. The chairs were designed by Mies much earlier in his career and originally shown in Czechoslovakia in 1927. Additional chairs were designed by Charles Eames (1907-78), pull-up hassocks and small tabouret tables by Eero Saarinen (1910-61), two prominent architects and designers who collaborated on furniture designs for Knoll Associates as well as on architectural projects. Ada Louise and L. Garth Huxtable produced over sixty special designs for the silver holloware, glassware, and silver services—which are still in use at the Four Seasons.
Design and Construction
Having provided the Seagram Building with a unity between indoor and outdoor spaces, Mies carried the modular design, clearly evident on the building's exterior, into the interiors of the grand public rooms. Johnson used the structural system and generously proportioned volumes as his point of departure for the design of the restaurant interiors, substantially completed in 1958. His design took advantage of the space to create dramatic effects and elegant proportions achieved through varied ceiling heights, a controlled system of circulation through the rooms, and architectonic elements, such as the pool and the bar, which further define distinct volumes within the larger spaces.
The interplay of solid and void is artfully exemplified by the sturdy bar with its delicate sculpture above. These large public spaces were conceived to have elegant interiors to complement the Seagram Building itself: walls of the spacious rooms covered with expensive wood paneling washed in light from invisible sources and floor-to-ceiling windows screened by metallic chain curtains which ripple when the ventilation system is operating. The restrained ceiling, elegant staircases, ingenious lighting scheme, sculpture, and furnishings were carefully designed to create the sophisticated simplicity associated with the International Style. Johnson's early works were noticeably indebted to Mies's architectural theories, and this design is generally regarded as Johnson's last such project.
The Four Seasons Restaurant
Five dining rooms accommodate 400 persons. Its two wine "cellars" permit the Four Seasons to boast one of the largest wine collections in the country. Upon the opening of the restaurant in July of 1959, first-class service was assured by daily indoctrination for waiters by James Beard, the famous wine and food authority.
The seasonal theme inspired the Four Seasons to maintain its own herb garden, an innovative venture in American restaurants. Eclectic menus combine American bounty with international culinary concepts and techniques, making the Four Seasons a pioneer of what would later be called the "New American Cuisine." These concepts are reflected visually in the restaurant's decor. Rotated seasonally, the four trees at the comers of the marble pool complement the restaurant's logo, which determines the color scheme for each season. Thus auxiliary planting as well as appointments such as uniforms,
menus, and even ash trays were originally rotated every three months: pink for spring, green for summer, burnt orange for autumn, and brown for winter. Establishing an optimum micro-climate for plant survival allowed the designers to integrate interior planting from the beginning of the project.
The total cost of approximately $4.5 million for the Four Seasons, making it at that time the costliest restaurant ever built, included architectural alterations and furnishings, linens, uniforms, art, kitchen equipment, silver, service carts, china, glassware, menus and other printed matter, plants and flowers, and design and consultation fees. The Seagram Company underwrote part of the cost, including the installation of the air conditioning system, the walls, and the partitions.
The Seagram Company enhanced the International Style interiors by lending the restaurant several masterpieces of modem art. These features, while long associated with the restaurant spaces, are not part of this designation. Pablo Picasso's "The Three-Cornered Hat," a painted curtain completed in 1919 for Diaghilev's ballet "Le Tricorne" hangs in the restaurant lobby.
This dedication to modem art, continued over the years, includes works by Frank Stella and Jackson Pollock. In 1984 the current restaurant owners commissioned James Rosenquist for a painting later titled "Fish, Flowers, and Females for the Four Seasons," now displayed in the mezzanine dining room overlooking the Pool Room.
The Four Seasons opened to the public in July, 1959, and was followed, in the subsequent year, by a neighboring restaurant, The Brasserie, also designed by Johnson and Pahlmann (not included in this designation).
Description
located on portions of the first floor and the ground floor at the eastern end of the Seagram Building, the Four Seasons Restaurant Interiors are composed of several interior spaces, each with a distinct character and spatial quality but united by certain design elements. The Interiors of the Fours Seasons Restaurant include two major dining rooms, the Pool Room at the north side of the building and the Bar/Grill Room at the south side, linked by an Entrance Corridor/Lobby which adjoins the Lobby of the Seagram Building.
The East 52nd Street Entrance lobby located at the ground floor provides access to the Bar/Grill Room by means of a broad staircase. Two small, adjoining private dining rooms are situated behind a balcony that overlooks the Bar/Grill Room. Another dining room is located at the mezzanine level of the Pool Room. The restaurant is furnished with movable custom furniture, fixtures, and accessories which still adhere to the original designs.
The Entrance Corridor/Lobby:
The entrance to the Four Seasons Restaurant Interiors from the Seagram Building Lobby (a designated New York City Interior Landmark) is reached by broad travertine steps. A glass wall provides visual continuity between the two spaces, which share certain design features: walls and floors lined in travertine, ceilings composed of gray glass mosaic set in black cement, and engaged bronze piers of the building's structural system. The bronze-framed tripartite glass wall is bisected by a central meeting rail and contains paired glass doors. A flat bronze band intersects the lower portion of the wall. Bronze piers are located near the eastern wall of the corridor, flanking Picasso's painted curtain, "The Three-Cornered Hat" (not subject to this designation).
Designed to be illuminated from below, a row of raised alabaster panels, framed in bronze and protected by posts with suspended chain, is located along the floor beneath the curtain. Recessed light fixtures illuminate the space and incandescent recessed troffer lighting fixtures wash the eastern wall with light. Metal-framed glass doors at each end of the corridor lead to vestibules serving the major dining rooms. The vestibules have dropped ceilings formed by brass-colored egg-crate grids illuminated from above. The glazed eastern wall of the Pool Room vestibule reveals a wine "cellar," and the eastern wall of the Bar/Grill Room vestibule is lined in French walnut with openings to accommodate a coat- check area.
The Pool Room:
A lofty, square space with a twenty-foot high ceiling, the Pool Room is dominated at the center by a table-height twenty-foot square pool of white Carrara marble filled with continuously bubbling water. Cylindrical bronze planters holding trees sit on the floor at each of the four comers of the pool; the trees, which change seasonally, are illuminated from below with bucket lights set into the planters.
The western and northern walls are composed of continuous windows which rise above low travertine ledges. The windows are divided into vertical panels by bronze mullions; metal draperies of thin anodized aluminum chains are fitted into vertical channels in the mullions. The chains, in shades of brass, bronze, and copper, subtly ripple with the movement of air from diffusers set into the ledges below. Bronze bowl planters are suspended in front of the windows from nearly invisible wires. The southern wall, pierced by openings for the entrance and the kitchen, is lined with rectangular rawhide panels set on walnut. The bottom row of panels is gray, and those above are natural. Each wall in the room is punctuated by engaged bronze piers.
At the eastern end of the Pool Room is a rectangular mezzanine-level room reached by a broad central staircase. The base of the mezzanine is paneled in gray rawhide. The stairs and the edge of the mezzanine are lined with bronze railings composed of thin staggered rods, which, when viewed as one passes them, create the effect of movement. Panels of French walnut, designed and crafted to emphasize the prominent grain of the wood, are set behind the railings; they also pivot so that the mezzanine-level room may be either closed off or function as an extension of the Pool Room. The glazed northern wall is continued in the upper room, while the eastern wall, dominated by a large painting by James Rosenquist (not subject to this designation), and the southern wall of that room are covered in beige carpet panels.
The specially-designed ceiling is composed of square off-white panels of perforated aluminum layered over a recessed grid; the intersections of the grid are fitted with "darklites," a recessed incandescent fixture from which light is directed by bronze-finished reflectors. Recessed troffers wash the southern wall with light. The wall-to-wall carpeting has a grid pattern which echoes the overall geometry of the room. (Although not original, it was designed under the direction of Philip Johnson).
The Bar/Grill Room:
The Bar/Grill Room is divided into several different areas. A small lounge area located at the northwest comer of the room is separated from a bar area at the southwest comer of the room by a large, broad stairwell linking the space with the East 52nd Street Entrance Lobby. A dining area occupies the center of the room and a narrow balcony-level dining area, reached by stairs at each end, spans the eastern side of the room.
The Bar/Grill Room has some of the many architectural elements as the Pool Room, including the twenty-foot high specially-designed ceiling, window walls with metal draperies rising from travertine ledges at the west and south, French walnut paneling lining the northern and eastern walls, wall- to-wall carpet, and the balcony. The face of the balcony is now washed with light from below by a bay of incandescent lamps covered by a grid. Engaged bronze piers punctuate the walls. The carpeting is a darker version of the same design used in the Pool Room.
The stairwell between the bar and lounge areas is lined in bronze railings of thin, staggered rods. The bar area is dominated by a square walnut bar fitted with leather panels and surrounded by an ebonized oak floor. Two sculptures by Richard Lippold, composed of delicate groups of gold-dipped brass rods of varying lengths, are suspended from the ceiling by nearly invisible wires. Following his usual procedure, Lippold designed the sculptures specifically for their present locations to enhance the organization of the Bar/Grill Room. The larger sculpture contrasts dramatically with the solid walnut bar directly beneath it, creating an intimate space within the larger limits of the room. This juxtaposition is balanced by the smaller sculpture over the balcony.
The bar is separated from the dining area by a partition of laminated, cracked glass; this was installed in 1983 under the direction of Philip Johnson and replaced a trellis of climbing ivy. A French walnut service desk to the east of the entrance from the Corridor/Lobby and round planters (which replace the original wood planters) between the service desk and the partition also serve to define the dining area.
Two adjoining rooms are situated behind walnut-paneled doors at the northern and southern ends of the balcony; these doors have an ebonized surface on the side of the rooms. The rooms are smaller and more intimate than the large rooms. A vestibule behind the northern end of the balcony leads to the larger of the two rooms, which is rectangular, and joins the smaller, square room to the south by a wide doorway with a sliding ebonized door. Except for the outer wall of the southern room which has continuous windows and metal draperies, the walls are lined with rectangular panels of highly-polished hardwood set onto a dark wood surface. The ceiling is of the same grid-and-panel design used in the larger rooms, except that the surface is black and the panels are pierced with holes roughly one-inch wide and spaced apart in a random pattern, which are illuminated from above. The floors are carpeted. The vestibule at the northern end is similarly finished.
The East 52nd Street Entrance Lobby:
The lower Entrance Lobby is reached at its southeastern end from East 52nd Street through two sets of glass doors separated by a vestibule with a brass-colored egg-crate grid ceiling. The outer doors are etched with vertical stripes. The floor and walls are travertine and pierced with openings along the eastern, southern, and northern walls for restrooms, an office, and a coat-check area. The space is illuminated by recessed fixtures set into a low white ceiling. Engaged bronze piers and a ceiling beam bisect the room on a north-south axis. At the western side of the lobby is a broad staircase with one landing; this links the Lobby and the Bar/Grill area. It is lined with bronze railings. The two round planters replace the original wood planters.
Subsequent History
Immediately after its opening the Four Seasons received enthusiastic reviews, both architectural and culinary; critics said that the "spectacular, modem and audacious" restaurant design "combines its exceptional sumptuousness with exquisite refinement." When it opened, the restaurant had no peer "in conception, in scale, in the wealth of talent behind it."
In the early 1970s, Transylvanian-born Tom Margittai, then vice- president of Restaurant Associates, was given the responsibility of selling off the business of a foundering Four Seasons Restaurant. Instead, he and the director of the Four Seasons, Hungarian-born Paul Kovi, jointly purchased it from R.A. in 1972 with the goal of reviving the restaurant. They hired chef Joseph Renggli, a Swiss native, and soon the restaurant became, as "one of America's leading symbols of good taste," extremely popular with New York's elite. A recipient of twenty-two major awards, the Four Seasons has hosted many memorable parties for national celebrities, international gourmet societies, and wine inaugurals.
Experts Ada Louise and L. Garth Huxtable, involved with the restaurant from its planning stages, have noted that the new owners "have been faithful to the [original] concept." The design of these famous International Style interiors has been caringly maintained. Among the handful of physical changes was the removal of an ivy-covered screen and its replacement in 1983 by a laminated, cracked glass partition designed by Johnson.
- From the 1989 NYCLPC Landmark Designation Report
PictionID:44025874 - Title:Atlas Component - Catalog:14_009129 - Filename:14_009129.TIF - - - - - Image from the Convair/General Dynamics Astronautics Atlas Negative Collection---Please Tag these images so that the information can be permanently stored with the digital file.---Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum
Reference: DS.GP.1919/5255
This photograph shows the major components of the Satellite Tiros III, built by Grubb Parsons in Newcastle upon Tyne at some point in the mid 20th century.
This photograph is taken from the Grubb Parsons Ltd collection at Tyne & Wear Archives. The records of Grubb Parsons Ltd, Newcastle upon Tyne, England, consist of 65 linear metres (213 linear feet) of files, plans, photographs and glass plate negatives relating to this internationally renowned firm's manufacture of precision telescopic instruments.
The original Business was founded in the early nineteenth century by Thomas Grubb, in 1925 the company was acquired by Sir Charles Parsons and continued to manufacture Telescopic and Astronomical instruments until 1985.
This Glass Lantern Slide is taken from a large collection that documents the work of Grubb Parsons Ltd at their workshop in Walkergate, Newcastle upon Tyne. It was here that Grubb Parsons Ltd manufactured Telescopic and Astronomical equipment for companies and observatories world wide. Their equipment was designed and built for use and research across the Globe, to name only a few of these locations Grubb Parsons Ltd supplied to the UK, Switzerland, Denmark, Egypt, South Africa, Greece, Australia, Japan, India, Hawaii, Poland, Chile, Canada, France and Spain.
(Copyright) We're happy for you to share these digital images within the spirit of The Commons. Please cite 'Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums' when reusing. Certain restrictions on high quality reproductions and commercial use of the original physical version apply though; if you're unsure please email archives@twmuseums.org.uk
One of the biggest and best Veterans Day parades this area has ever seen. More than 100 units with multiple components signed up to march or perform during this year's annual parade, hosted by the Hampton Roads Council of Veterans Organizations (HRCVO). The parade started at 9 a.m. at 16th Street and Atlantic Avenue, and ended at the Tidewater Veterans Memorial at 19th Street, across from the Virginia Beach Convention Center.
This year's Grand Marshal is CPL Johnny Johnson, USMC (Ret.) and MR1 William T. Jones, Jr., USN (Ret.) is this year's Co-Marshal. The parade will include, among others: Marching bands from the U. S. Army Training & Doctrine Command at Fort Eustis, Bayside, Green Run, Kellam, Landstown, Ocean Lakes, Salem and Tallwood High Schools, Honor Guards and/or Motorcycle and Mounted Units from Chesapeake, Portsmouth and Virginia Beach Police Departments and the Virginia Beach Sheriff's Office.
This year's parade is co-sponsored by the La Societe des Quarante Hommes et Huit Chevaux (40 & 8) Voiture Locale 86). It will include military units from the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force that represent military installations across the region. Veterans from World War II, Korea, Vietnam, Desert Storm, Desert Shield, Operations Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom will participate, as well as several Tidewater municipal and veterans support organizations, including Naval Junior ROTC Units and Boy Scout and Girl Scout Troops.
The Veterans Day Parade is sanctioned by the Department of Veterans Affairs National Veterans Day Committee and the Mayors of Chesapeake, Norfolk, Portsmouth, Suffolk and Virginia Beach who signed the Veterans Day Proclamation resolving that "citizens, businesses and organizations demonstrate due appreciation, admiration and respect for all veterans who have served our great nation."
Immediately following the parade, a formal ceremony was held at the Tidewater Veterans Memorial. This service included military and civilian honors to the Veterans. Afterwards, there was a luncheon at the DoubleTree Hotel.
Photography - Craig McClure
17076
© 2016
ALL Rights reserved by City of Virginia Beach.
Contact photo[at]vbgov.com for permission to use. Commercial use not allowed.
Here is a completed set of wine charms. Dig the "licorice allsorts" style capacitor on the lower right!
This is part of a DIY "solder your own wine charms" project; read more about it here.
A Ilha Fiscal localiza-se no interior da baía de Guanabara, fronteira ao centro histórico da cidade do Rio de Janeiro, no Brasil.
Primitivamente denominada pelos europeus como ilha dos Ratos, o seu atual nome provém do fato de ali ter funcionado o posto da Guarda Fiscal, que atendia o porto da então capital do Império, no século XIX.
A ilha celebrizou-se por ter abrigado o famoso baile da Ilha Fiscal, a última grande festa do Império antes da proclamação da República, em Novembro de 1889.
Atualmente abriga um museu histórico-cultural, mantido pela Marinha do Brasil.
No século XIX, o Conselheiro José Antônio Saraiva do Ministério da Fazenda, solicitou construir-se um posto alfandegário para o controle das mercadorias a serem importadas e exportadas pelo porto do Rio de Janeiro, então Capital do Império. A posição daquela ilha era bastante cômoda para os inspetores da Alfândega, devido à proximidade dos pontos de fundeio, sendo que o translado de mercadorias poderia ser executado em embarcações miúdas, sem grandes dificuldades.
A decisão da construção, assim como a do seu estilo arquitetônico, foram do Imperador D. Pedro II, tendo em conta não conflitar com a paisagem da Serra do Mar. À época, o Imperador teria afirmado: "A ilha é um delicado estojo, digno de uma brilhante joia".
Optou-se assim por um pequeno "château" em estilo gótico-provençal, inspirado nas concepções do Arquiteto francês Violet-le-Duc, com projeto de autoria de Adolpho José Del Vecchio - então Engenheiro-Diretor de Obras do Ministério da Fazenda -, onde se destacavam as agulhas e as ameias medievais a adornar a silhueta da edificação.
O projeto de Del Vecchio foi contemplado com a Medalha de Ouro na exposição da Academia Imperial de Belas Artes, tendo apresentado a seguinte argumentação:
"A construção planejada, tendo de ser levantada isoladamente em uma ilha, projetando-se sobre um fundo formado pela caprichosa Serra dos Órgãos, encimada por vasto horizonte, e de frente para a entrada da baía, devia causar impressão agradável aos que penetrassem no porto, suficientemente elevada para que pudesse facilmente ser vista de qualquer ponto entre a mastreação dos navios, e prestar-se ao mesmo tempo à fiscalização do ancoradouro."
Del Vecchio preocupou-se ainda com a ornamentação paisagística, tendo declarado em reunião no Ministério da Fazenda:
"Arrematei, por pouco tempo, na Praça do Mercado, certa quantidade de cocos da Bahia, já com os brotos, e fí-los transportar para a ilha e plantar em torno; os coqueiros vieram dentro de breve prazo e não tardaram a dar frutos."
Após a decisão do imperador na escolha do projeto para acolher a aduana, os recursos necessários destinados a execução foram liberados em partes e, em 16 de novembro de 1881, foi assente a primeira pedra dando início à sua construção. Após uma série de aterros de modo a aumentar a área de 4 400 m² para 7 000 m², e aplainar as elevações existentes ao preço de 40:5$500 (quarenta contos, cinco mil e quinhentos réis), foi iniciado o castelo.
A 27 de abril de 1889 foi inaugurado o edifício com a presença do Imperador, acompanhado de Gastão de Orleans, Conde d'Eu e brilhante comitiva; o translado do cais Pharoux foi realizado utilizando-se a famosa galeota de D. João VI.
Numa certa manhã, já na República, uma lancha passava em frente à Ilha Fiscal tendo a bordo Rui Barbosa, Aristides Lobo, Quintino Bocaiúva, Del Vecchio e outros personagens do regime republicano. Ao observarem o brasão imperial talhado em gnaisse, com absoluto respeito à heráldica e com os dois dragões a apoiá-lo, um dos passageiros da lancha declarou: "Como? Pois o Brasil republicano ainda conserva em um próprio nacional as armas da monarquia! Que se o derrube!" Nesse momento o Engenheiro Del Vecchio interveio e dirigiu-se aos componentes da comitiva argumentando: "Não, senhores. Por Deus! Se mereço alguma coisa da República à qual pretendo servir com a mesma lealdade e o mesmo espírito de sacrifício com que servi ao Império, peço que não toquem naquele emblema. É uma obra prima de cantaria. Fê-la um velho auxiliar do Conde Santa Marinha, um preto septuagenário que é um verdadeiro artista. Hoje, cego e desamparado, acredito que ele sofreria bastante se soubesse que o seu trabalho de tão penosos dias fora cruelmente destruído. Por isso, meus senhores, por favor, imploro a conservação do escudo." Da ocasião que ocorreu esse fato, data a consagração do edifício da Ilha Fiscal como imperecível obra de arte e patrimônio de uma era, devido a ostentar decoração inspirada na monarquia.
Em 1890 prosseguiram as obras de pavimentação em paralelepípedos, e no extremo leste foi construído outro edifício no estilo do principal a fim de abrigar as máquinas elétricas e os serviços auxiliares. Dois anos depois, estavam totalmente concluídas as obras, ao custo total de 1051:322$584, hum mil e cinquenta e um contos, trezentos e vinte e dois mil, quinhentos e oitenta e quatro réis.
Em 6 de setembro de 1893, irrompeu no Rio de Janeiro a chamada Revolta da Armada, na qual substancial parcela da esquadra brasileira, comandada pelo Almirante Custódio de Mello, rebelou-se contra o governo do Marechal Floriano Peixoto. Durante mais de seis meses, ficou a Ilha Fiscal em meio ao duelo de artilharia travado entre as Fortalezas leais ao governo, e os navios e fortalezas da Ilha das Cobras e da ilha de Villegagnon na posse dos revoltosos. Múltiplos foram os danos sofridos pela edificação da Ilha Fiscal com as paredes atingidas por projetis, agulhas de ferro derrubadas, avarias sérias nos telhados, fiação, móveis partidos além de estragos nos belíssimos vitrais. Como as despesas de restauração seriam vultosas, esse foi o motivo para que o engenheiro do Ministério da Fazenda Miguel R. Galvão sugerisse a entrega da Ilha Fiscal ao Ministério da Marinha, em troca de algum edifício que melhor se prestasse ao serviço da alfândega. A troca só se efetuaria em 1913, quase vinte anos depois, não por um edifício, mas pelo Vapor Andrada, proposta do Almirante Alexandrino Faria de Alencar, Ministro da Marinha, ao seu colega da Fazenda Dr. Rivadávia Correia. A partir de 1914, a Marinha fez funcionar nesse local, sucessivamente, a Repartição de Faróis, Repartição Hidrográfica, Repartição Central de Meteorologia, Repartição da Carta Marítima, Superintendência de Navegação, Diretoria de Navegação e finalmente a Diretoria de Hidrografia e Navegação.
Em 1930, a Ilha Fiscal foi ligada à das Cobras por meio de um molhe de concreto transformando-as em duas ilhas geminadas ou, geograficamente, em uma só ilha. Em 1983, a DHN foi transferida para a ponta da Armação, em Niterói. A última organização militar que permaneceu na Ilha Fiscal foi o Grupamento de Navios Hidroceanográficos, até março de 1998. A partir dessa data a Marinha adotou como parte da política de valorização da memória naval abrir ao público esse notável conjunto, e simultaneamente mostrar aos visitantes, a contribuição da Marinha do Brasil no desenvolvimento de áreas fundamentais do país como o social, o científico e o tecnológico.
O edifício encontra-se tombado pela Prefeitura do Rio de Janeiro desde 1990, tendo passado por diversos trabalhos de restauração desde 2001, coordenados pelo Instituto do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional (IPHAN), quando foram restauradas as pinturas do teto, das paredes e do mosaico do piso de parque do torreão.
Em 2006, a Marinha organizou um projeto com o propósito de montar uma iluminação de verão para a Ilha Fiscal, e graças à parceria com a BR Distribuidora, a Marinha presenteou a Cidade do Rio de Janeiro com a beleza da construção do engenheiro Del Vecchio em sofisticada iluminação.
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Die Ilha Fiscal ist eine kleine Insel in der Bucht von Guanabara. Sie zählt zum historischen Teil der Stadt Rio de Janeiro.
Der heutige Name der ursprünglich von den Europäern als Mäuseinsel bezeichneten Insel leitet sich von der seit dem 19. Jahrhundert durchgeführten Nutzung als Steuer/Zollstation ab. Heute beherbergt die unmittelbar neben dem Marinearsenal Rio de Janeiro gelegene Insel ein Marinemuseum
Bekanntheit erlangte die Insel auch durch letzte große Feier des Kaiserreich Brasilien vor der Absetzung des Kaisers Peter II. von Brasilien und der Ausrufung der ersten brasilianischen Republik. Die Feier im November 1889 wurde als Baile da Ilha Fiscal (deutsch etwa: Tanz auf der Ilha Fiscal) bekannt
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The Ilha Fiscal is a small island in the Bay of Guanabara. It is one of the historic part of the city of Rio de Janeiro.
The current name of the originally designated as the Europeans mice derived from island to island since the 19th Century carried out using a tax / duty station from. Today the houses located adjacent to the Naval Arsenal Island Rio de Janeiro, a naval museum
The island gained notoriety by last great celebration of the Empire of Brazil prior to the deposition of the Emperor Pedro II of Brazil and the first proclamation of the Brazilian Republic. The celebration in November 1889 as Baile da Ilha Fiscal (German about: Dance on the Ilha Fiscal) known
Felicidades! a todos los componentes del Regimiento de Guerra Electrónica 31 #rew31, pasados y presentes.
Hoy celebra su XXV aniversario. Sus militares han desplegado en distintos escenarios y zonas de operaciones donde han demostrado su elevada formación técnica acorde con la sofisticación tecnológica de sus medios. #SomostuEjército 🇪🇸 ejercito.defensa.gob.es/unidades/Madrid/rew31/
Erklärung in deutscher Sprache weiter unten
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Baobab is the common name for each of the nine species of tree in the genus Adansonia. The generic name honours Michel Adanson, the French naturalist and explorer who described Adansonia digitata.
Of the nine species, six are native to Madagascar, two are native to mainland Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, and one is native to Australia. One of the mainland African species also occurs on Madagascar, but it is not a native of that island. It was introduced in ancient times to south Asia and during the colonial era to the Caribbean. It is also present in the island of Cape Verde. The ninth species was described in 2012, and is found in upland populations of southern and eastern Africa.
Adansonias reach heights of 5 to 30 m and have trunk diameters of 7 to 11 m. The Glencoe baobab, a specimen of A. digitata in Limpopo Province, South Africa, was considered to be the largest living individual, with a maximum circumference of 47 m and a diameter of about 15.9 m. The tree has since split into two parts, so the widest individual trunk may now be that of the Sunland baobab, or Platland tree, also in South Africa. The diameter of this tree at ground level is 9.3 m and its circumference at breast height is 34 m.
Adansonia trees produce faint growth rings, probably annually, but they are not reliable for aging specimens, because they are difficult to count and may fade away as the wood ages. Radiocarbon dating has provided data on a few individuals. A specimen of A. digitata known as Grootboom was dated and found to be at least 1275 years old, making it among the oldest known angiosperm trees.
HABITAT
The Malagasy species are important components of the Madagascar dry deciduous forests. Within that biome, Adansonia madagascariensis and A. rubrostipa occur specifically in the Anjajavy Forest, sometimes growing out of the tsingy limestone itself. A. digitata has been called "a defining icon of African bushland".
WATER STORAGE
Baobabs store water in the trunk (up to 100,000 litres) to endure the harsh drought conditions particular to each region. All occur in seasonally arid areas, and are deciduous, shedding their leaves during the dry season.
USES
Since 2008, interest has been increasing for developing baobab seeds or dried fruit powder for consumer products. As of 2010, the potential international market was estimated at $1 billion per year.
Some species are also sources of fiber, dye, and fuel. Indigenous Australians used the native species A. gregorii for several products, making string from the root fibers and decorative crafts from the fruits. The fresh fruit is said to taste like sherbet. A large, hollow baobab south of Derby, Western Australia, was used in the 1890s as a prison for convicts on their way to Derby for sentencing. The Boab Prison Tree, Derby, still stands and is now a tourist attraction.
The leaves of A. digitata are eaten as a leaf vegetable. The seeds of some species are a source of vegetable oil.
The fruit has a velvety shell and is about the size of a coconut, weighing about 1.5 kilograms. It has an acidic, tart flavor, described as "somewhere between grapefruit, pear, and vanilla".
The dried fruit powder of A. digitata contains about 12% water and modest levels of various nutrients, including carbohydrates, riboflavin, calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, and phytosterols, with low levels of protein and fats. Its contents of dietary fiber (around 50% by weight), ascorbic acid (vitamin C), and thiamin were assessed to be especially high.
In Zimbabwe, the fruit is used in traditional food preparations which include "eating the fruit fresh or crushed crumbly pulp to stir into porridge and drinks". Malawi women have set up commercial ventures harvesting the baobab to earn their children's school fees.
In the European Union (EU) prior to commercial approval, baobab fruit powder was not available for ingredient uses, as legislation from 1997 dictated that foods not commonly consumed in the EU would have to be formally approved first. In 2008, baobab dried fruit pulp was authorized in the EU as a safe food ingredient, and it was later granted GRAS status in the United States.
FOOD USES
The powdery white interior may be used as a "thickener in jams and gravies, a sweetener for fruit drinks, or a tangy flavor addition to hot sauces". The fruit pulp and seeds of A. grandidieri and A. za are eaten fresh. In Tanzania, the dry pulp of A. digitata is added to sugar cane to aid fermentation in beermaking. The flavor of limited-release Japanese soda Pepsi Baobab was described as "liberating" by PepsiCo.
In Angola, the dry fruit is usually boiled and the broth is used for juices or as the base for a type of ice cream known as gelado de múcua.
ECOLOGY
Baobabs are important as nest sites for birds, in particular the mottled spinetail and four species of weaver.
WIKIPEDIA
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AFRIKANISCHER AFFENBROTBAUM
Der Afrikanische Affenbrotbaum (Adansonia digitata), auch Afrikanischer Baobab (von arabisch bu-hubub) genannt, zählt zur Unterfamilie der Bombacoideae in der Familie der Malvengewächse (Malvaceae). Er gehört zu den bekanntesten und charakteristischsten Bäumen des tropischen Afrika.
Der wissenschaftliche Gattungsname ehrt den europäischen Entdecker des Baums, den französischen Naturforscher Michel Adanson, der im 18. Jahrhundert in Saint-Louis den ersten Botanischen Garten Senegals anlegte. Das Artepitheton digitata spielt auf die Form der Blätter an, die sich aus fünf bis neun Einzelblättchen zusammensetzen, welche entfernt an die Finger einer menschlichen Hand erinnern.
BESCHREIBUNG
VEGETATIVE MERKMALE
Der Affenbrotbaum zeichnet sich durch einen relativ kurzen, extrem dicken Stamm aus. So steht in Südafrika im Letaba-Distrikt ein Affenbrotbaum, der bei einer Höhe von 19 Metern einen Stammdurchmesser von 10,64 Metern aufweist. In Ostafrika treten sehr häufig flaschenförmige Stammformen auf, bei denen sich der Stamm abrupt in wenigen Metern Höhe stark verjüngt.
Die Baumkrone besteht aus kräftigen, oft unförmig erscheinenden Ästen, die eine weit ausladende Krone bilden. Im unbelaubten Zustand erinnert die Astkrone an ein Wurzelsystem, was zu der Legende beigetragen hat, der Affenbrotbaum sei ein vom Teufel verkehrt herum gepflanzter Baum.
Der Stamm ist häufig tief gefurcht oder weist kehlige Vertiefungen auf. Die graubraune bis graue Rinde ist zwischen fünf und zehn Zentimeter dick. Deshalb kann der Baum kleinere Buschbrände relativ unversehrt überstehen. Sie ist außen hart und innen faserig. Junge Bäume haben zuerst eine Pfahlwurzel. Mit zunehmendem Alter des Baumes entwickelt sich ein Lateralwurzelsystem, das bis in 1,8 Meter Tiefe reicht. In horizontaler Richtung erstreckt sich das Wurzelsystem weiter als die Baumhöhe.
Bei Baobabs werden entsprechend der Stammform vier Entwicklungsphasen unterschieden: schmale Schösslinge, Kegelförmige, Flaschenförmige und Alte. Schösslinge (bis 10–15 Jahre) wachsen zunächst ohne ausgeprägtes Dickenwachstum zu einer Höhe von vier bis sechs Metern heran, die Äste ragen spitzwinklig nach oben. Auf geeigneten Standorten wachsen die jungen Baobabs anfangs jährlich zwischen 80 und 100 Zentimetern. Dann schwillt der Stamm zu einer Kegelform an (bis 60 bis 70 Jahre), der Baum wird 5 bis 15 Meter hoch und bis zu 7 Meter dick, und der Baum blüht erstmals. In einem Alter von 30 bis 40 Jahren beginnen die Äste rechtwinklig vom Stamm weg zu wachsen und nehmen ab diesem Zeitpunkt in ihrem Längenwachstum deutlich zu. Danach ist der Baum mit 10 bis 20 Metern in der Höhe ausgewachsen, der Stamm nimmt in der Dicke nur langsam zu und entwickelt eine Flaschenform (200–300 Jahre). Ein Baum kann im Alter von einhundert Jahren bereits einen Stammdurchmesser von vier bis fünf Metern erreicht haben. Schließlich entwickelt der Baum eine ausladende Krone und wächst nur noch sehr langsam in die Breite; hohle und mehrfache Stämme sind häufig zu finden (Alter: bis zu 800 Jahre).
BLÄTTER
Der Affenbrotbaum ist ein periodisch laubabwerfender Baum. Die einfachen oder handförmigen, langstieligen und wechselständigen Laubblätter erscheinen an den Zweigenden im Frühsommer kurz vor dem Beginn der Regenzeit und entwickeln sich vollständig innerhalb von vier Wochen. Bleibt der Regen aus oder ist die Regenmenge sehr gering, verzögert sich die Blattentwicklung.
Affenbrotbäume treiben zuerst Blätter von einfacher elliptischer Form aus, die jedoch sehr frühzeitig wieder abgeworfen werden; auch an jungen Pflanzen sind die Blätter einfach. Ihnen folgen glänzend grüne Laubblätter, die fünf- bis neunteilig sind. Sie haben einen Durchmesser von etwa 20 Zentimetern; die Blätter oder Blättchen sind jeweils ganzrandig und bespitzt bis zugespitzt. Der Blattstiel ist bis 16 Zentimeter lang.
BLÜTEN
Das Alter, in dem der Baum das erste Mal Blüten ansetzt, ist abhängig von seinem Verbreitungsgebiet. In Westafrika blüht der Affenbrotbaum erstmals im Alter von acht bis zehn Jahren, in Ost- und Südafrika frühestens mit 16 Jahren.
Der Blütenansatz erfolgt vier Wochen nach der Blattentwicklung. Die Hauptblütezeit beträgt vier Wochen, die einzelne Blüte blüht dagegen nur 24 Stunden. In dieser Zeit ist sie für etwa 16 bis 20 Stunden bestäubungsfähig.
Die zwittrigen Blüten mit doppelter Blütenhülle erscheinen meist einzeln oder paarig. Die sehr großen Blüten sind von wachsig-weißer Farbe und hängen an langen Stielen von den Blattachseln herab. Sie bestehen aus fünf Kronblättern, die sich ein wenig überlappen und 4,5 bis 5 Zentimeter breit und 12 Zentimeter lang sind. Sowie einem drei- bis fünflappigen, leicht haarigen Kelch. Jede Blüte beinhaltet 720 bis 1.600 rasierpinselförmig angeordnete Staubblätter, die an ihrer Basis zu einer 1,5 bis 4,5 Zentimeter langen, schmalen Röhre (Androphor) zusammengewachsen sind. Der mehrkammerige Fruchtknoten ist oberständig, mit einem langen und vorstehenden Griffel mit einer mehrlappigen Narbe. Auch hier zeigen sich geografische Unterschiede. In Ost- und Südafrika ist der Blütenstiel lediglich 20 Zentimeter lang, in Westafrika dagegen bis zu 90 Zentimeter.
Die für Menschen auf Grund ihres süßlichen Aasgeruches unangenehm riechenden Blüten öffnen sich ab dem späten Nachmittag und sind am nächsten Morgen ganz offen. Während der Nacht werden sie durch Flughunde wie den Palmen- und den Nilflughund bestäubt. Auch der Großohr-Riesengalago, der Senegal-Galago und verschiedene Nachtfalter besuchen die Blüten und tragen in kleinerem Umfang zur Bestäubung bei.
FRÜCHTE UND SAMEN
Nach der Bestäubung entwickeln sich an den langen Stielen innerhalb von acht Monaten holzige und samtig behaarte, nicht öffnende, vielsamige Kapseln, die je nach Verbreitungsgebiet unterschiedlich geformt sind. Bei in Angola verbreiteten Affenbrotbäumen ist die Frucht von länglicher Form, in den anderen natürlichen Verbreitungsgebieten eher ei- bis kugelförmig. Die an Stielen herabhängenden Früchte werden 25 bis 50 Zentimeter lang. Sie verfärben sich während des Reifungsprozesses von Grün über Gelb in ein Graubraun.
Das auch für den Menschen essbare Fruchtfleisch ist weiß und trocken-mehlig, schmeckt durch den Vitamin-C-Gehalt säuerlich und ist von einer Konsistenz, die in etwa an feste, brüchige Watte erinnert. Darin eingebettet sind die dunkelbraunen Samen der Früchte, die man herausbrechen und gleichfalls essen kann. Sie sind relativ glatt, haselnussgroß, nierenförmig und sehr fettreich.
Vor allem Elefanten und Paviane, aber auch Antilopen und Kleinsäuger fressen die Früchte und nehmen dabei auch die Samen auf, die aber den Verdauungstrakt unaufgeschlossen passieren und von Vögeln aus dem ausgeschiedenen Kot herausgepickt werden. Die Samen bleiben mehrere Jahre keimfähig. Ihre lange Keimruhe endet in der Natur vermutlich durch Buschfeuer, langanhaltende Regenfälle oder die Verdauung durch Elefanten (Endochorie).
Unbehandelt beträgt die Keimfähigkeit der Samen unter 20 %. Man kann sie künstlich keimfähig machen, indem sie mit kochend heißem Wasser übergossen und etwa einen Tag in der Flüssigkeit stehen gelassen werden. Je nach Witterungsbedingungen können solcherart vorbehandelte Samen dann nach drei Wochen bis sechs Monaten zur Keimung kommen. Auch Säurebehandlung und Anschleifen der dicken Samenschale können die Keimfähigkeit steigern.
ALTER
Die Mächtigkeit der Bäume und ihre unregelmäßige Wuchsform hat immer wieder dazu geführt, dass ihr Alter überschätzt wurde. So war David Livingstone der Überzeugung, dass ein Baum, den er am Sambesi entdeckte, ein Alter von mindestens 4000 Jahren aufweise. Umfangreiche Untersuchungen in Kenia, Mali, Sudan, Tansania und Sambia haben jedoch gezeigt, dass nur sehr wenige Affenbrotbäume älter als 400 Jahre sind.
2018 berichteten Forscher von einem teilweisen bzw. vollständigen Absterben von 9 der 13 ältesten Baobabs innerhalb der vergangenen zwölf Jahre. Die Ursache hierfür sei unbekannt; womöglich hätten Klimaveränderungen einen Einfluss. Der Studie zufolge sei der weltweit älteste Baobab, Panke in Simbabwe, nach über 2.500 Jahren (2.429 [±14] Jahre mit Radiokohlenstoffmethode gemessen) in den Jahren 2010–2011 abgestorben. Der älteste weitgehend intakte Baobab sei nun Humani Bedford Old baobab in Simbabwe mit einem geschätzten Alter von 1.800 Jahren.
CHROMOSOMENZAHL
Die Chromosomenzahl beträgt 2n = 160.
VERBREITUNG UND SYSTEMATIK
Der Affenbrotbaum ist die charakteristische Baumart der trockenen Baumsavanne des afrikanischen Tieflands südlich der Sahara. Er fehlt dagegen in den zentralafrikanischen Regenwäldern. Das natürliche Verbreitungsgebiet reicht von der Sahelzone bis in den Transvaal. Der Baum ist frostempfindlich, die südliche Verbreitungslinie also durch die Frostgrenze entlang des 15. Breitengrades bedingt.
Über sein Verbreitungsgebiet zeigt er deutliche Unterschiede im Erscheinungsbild. Bis jetzt fehlt jedoch eine systematische Untersuchung, ob die Unterschiede in der Stammform sowie in Form und Größe der Blüten und Früchte auf die Zugehörigkeit der Einzelbäume zu unterschiedlichen Unterarten zurückzuführen sind. Häufige Begleitbäume sind Akazien, Schirmakazien und Tamarindenbäume.
An den semiariden Lebensraum in einer Höhenlage von 450 bis 600 Metern mit jährlichen Niederschlagshöhen zwischen 300 und 500 Millimetern ist der sonnenliebende Baum durch seine besondere Fähigkeit zur Wasserspeicherung angepasst. Er ist deshalb in diesen Gebieten am häufigsten zu finden. Während der Regenzeit, die in seinem Verbreitungsgebiet zwischen sechs Wochen und fünf Monaten andauert, saugt ein Baum, der ein Volumen von bis zu 200 Kubikmetern einnehmen kann, mit seinen schwammigen Fasern bis zu 140.000 Liter Wasser auf, die er für die Trockenzeit speichert. Der Stamm kann sich aufgrund der Wasserspeicherung während der Regenzeit um mehrere Zentimeter verdicken.
Affenbrotbäume sind sowohl in Küstennähe als auch in Höhenlagen bis zu 1500 m ü. NN zu finden. Das Vorkommen in den Küstenwäldern ist vermutlich auf Anpflanzungen zurückzuführen. Diese Verbreitungsgebiete zeichnen sich durch deutlich andere Niederschlagshöhen aus. Die Art kann über längere Zeit bei jährlichen Niederschlägen unter 100 Millimetern überdauern, Verhältnisse, wie sie zum Beispiel in Mauretanien herrschen. Andererseits kommt der Affenbrotbaum auch mit vergleichsweise hohen jährlichen Niederschlägen von 1400 Millimetern und mehr zurecht, insbesondere, wenn er auf gut wasserdurchlässigem Grund steht. Staunässe, schwere Lehmböden sowie temporäre Überschwemmungen toleriert der Baobab nicht. Beste Wachstumsvoraussetzungen findet er auf kalkhaltigen und tiefgründigen Böden.
Durch den Menschen wurde der Baobab in anderen Regionen eingeführt (sogenannte Hemerochorie). So ist sein Vorkommen in Arabien und in Indien vermutlich auf arabische Händler zurückzuführen, die den Baum in der Volksmedizin nutzten und ihn in Indien und Arabien bereits im 13. Jahrhundert einführten. Der Baum ist außerdem auf den Kapverdischen Inseln, auf Madagaskar und Sri Lanka sowie in Australien zu finden. Als Ziergehölz wird er gelegentlich in Florida, auf Haiti, den Philippinen und Java angepflanzt.
TIERE SEINES LEBENSRAUMES
Elefanten nutzen die Fähigkeit des Affenbrotbaumes zur Wasserspeicherung. Mit den Stoßzähnen brechen sie die Rinde des Affenbrotbaums auf, entfernen mit dem Rüssel die feuchten Fasern im Bauminnern und kauen diese, um so Feuchtigkeit zu gewinnen. Dabei entstehen große Hohlräume in den Bäumen, die dazu führen können, dass die Bäume kollabieren. Es sollen schon Elefanten durch plötzlich umstürzende Affenbrotbäume erschlagen worden sein.
Große Elefantenpopulationsdichten in verschiedenen Nationalparks führten und führen zu einer Gefährdung der Bestände des Baobab, da dessen natürliche Sukzession nicht ausreicht, die Bestandsdichte zu erhalten. Besonders in den Nationalparks Simbabwes gibt es mittlerweile so viele Elefanten, dass sie das langfristige Überleben der Affenbrotbaumbestände gefährden. In anderen Regionen, in denen aufgrund des Bevölkerungsdrucks die landwirtschaftliche Nutzung intensiviert wurde, fehlen dagegen Wildtiere, die die Samen der Affenbrotbäume verbreiten. Auch wenn man die Bäume, die nur sehr schwer zu roden sind, in der Regel stehen lässt, wenn Land einer landwirtschaftlichen Nutzung zugeführt wird, ist damit die natürliche Verjüngung der Bestände unterbunden.
Der Affenbrotbaum ist Wirtspflanze für eine Reihe von Insekten, die als landwirtschaftliche Schädlinge betrachtet werden, und Nebenwirt einiger, besonders für Kakao- und Baumwollpflanzungen problematischer Schadinsekten. Rodungen von Affenbrotbäumen haben jedoch gezeigt, dass diese Schädlinge auf andere Wirtspflanzen ausweichen, wenn Affenbrotbäume fehlen.
Der Affenbrotbaum bietet außerdem zahlreichen weiteren Tierarten Schutz und Nahrung. So nisten in der Krone der Affenbrotbäume beispielsweise Webervögel und Sperlingspapageien; Galagos suchen dort Schutz. Höhlen im Stamm und in den Ästen werden von Blauracken, Eisvögeln, Schleiereulen, Nashornvögeln und einer Reihe von Arten der Langflügelpapageien und Unzertrennlichen zum Brüten genutzt. In einzelnen Regionen brütete der Graukopfpapagei ausschließlich in Höhlen des Affenbrotbaums. Die Früchte des Baums werden außer von Vögeln auch von Elefanten und Pavianen sowie Antilopen und einer Reihe von Kleinsäugern gefressen.
VERWENDUNG
Die San, Bewohner der Kalahari-Wüste, zapfen direkt den Wasservorrat der Bäume an, um ihren Flüssigkeitsbedarf zu decken. Auch Fruchtfleisch, Samen, Rinde, Blätter und Sprösslinge des Affenbrotbaums sind vielseitig einsetzbar; die Höhlungen des Baumes werden außerdem als Speicher für Getreide und Wasser verwendet.
Ähnlich der Rolle, die früher Linden und Eichen im mitteleuropäischen Dorfleben innehatten, spielt der Affenbrotbaum außerdem im afrikanischen Leben eine große Rolle. An zentral gelegenen Bäumen finden in vielen Dörfern Märkte, Verhandlungen und sonstige soziale Ereignisse statt.
AFRKANISCHE VOLKSMEDIZIN
In der afrikanischen Volksmedizin findet nahezu jeder Teil des Affenbrotbaums Verwendung. So werden die Früchte beispielsweise gegen Infektionen und Krankheiten wie Pocken und Masern eingesetzt. Die Blätter werden bei Erkrankungen wie Ruhr, Diarrhöe, Koliken und Magen-Darm-Entzündungen eingenommen. Die Samen werden als Herzmittel, bei Zahnschmerzen, Leberinfektionen und Malaria-Erkrankungen genutzt.
Biochemisch nachgewiesen wurde das Vorkommen von Proanthocyanidinen im Perikarp der Früchte. Allerdings stehen placebokontrollierte klinische Studien zur Bewertung der phytopharmakologischen Wirkstoffe aus.
NAHRUNGSMITTEL
Das Fruchtfleisch und die Samen sind reich an Proteinen, Kohlenhydraten und Öl und enthalten besonders die Mineralien Calcium, Kalium und Magnesium. Nach Entfernung der Samen und Fasern wird das Fruchtfleisch getrocknet und entweder unverarbeitet gegessen oder in Milch oder Breie gemischt. Aus den fettreichen Samen gewinnt man durch Pressen ein Öl, welches reich an Palmitinsäure ist und eine hohe oxidative Stabilität aufweist; in Pulverform dient es zum Andicken von Suppen. Die Samen werden auch geröstet gegessen oder fermentiert als Gewürz verwendet.
Die Blätter des Affenbrotbaums werden außerdem als Gemüse genutzt, indem sie wie Spinat zubereitet entweder frisch gegessen oder getrocknet und pulverisiert werden. 100 Gramm haben einen Energiewert von durchschnittlich 289 kJ (69 kcal) und enthalten unter anderem 3,8 Gramm Eiweiß sowie 50 Milligramm Ascorbinsäure. In Nigeria werden die Blätter als kuka bezeichnet. Kuka-Suppe ist eine für dieses Land typische Spezialität.
Auch zur Getränkeherstellung sind die Früchte geeignet: Das Fruchtfleisch kann bierartig vergoren werden. Im Sudan wird aus Fruchtfleisch mit Wasser ein Getränk unter dem Namen Tabaldi hergestellt.
WEITERE VERWENDUNG
Der Baum liefert darüber hinaus Material für Kleidung, zum Dachdecken, Halsschmuck, Schnüre und Seile, Netze, Matten, Hüte, Tabletts, Kisten, Körbe und Papier. Verwendet werden dafür die Fasern des inneren Bastes, die sehr dauerhaft und kräftig sind. Sie werden gewonnen, indem die Rinde der Bäume abgeschält wird. Ähnlich wie bei Korkeichen regeneriert sich die Rinde wieder, so dass die Bäume wiederholt als Bastlieferanten genutzt werden können. Aus den Wurzeln wird ein roter Farbstoff gewonnen; der Pollen ergibt, vermischt mit Wasser, einen Klebstoff. Aufgrund des hohen Pottascheanteils wird aus der Asche verschiedener Baumteile außerdem Seife hergestellt.
Affenbrotbäume, die einen hohlen Stamm haben, sollen gelegentlich als Gefängnis oder Toilette verwendet werden; aus Westafrika wird berichtet, dass hohle Affenbrotbäume auch als Begräbnisstätte fungieren.
Forstwirtschaftlich wird der Affenbrotbaum dagegen nicht genutzt. Aufgrund seiner Elastizität ist das leichte Holz nur schwer mit der Axt zu bearbeiten, und es verrottet sehr schnell.
MYTHOLOGIE UND LITERATUR
Aufgrund seines Aussehens ranken sich mehrere Legenden um den Affenbrotbaum.
Nach einer in Afrika weit verbreiteten Vorstellung riss der Teufel den Baum aus und steckte ihn anschließend mit den Zweigen zuerst in den Boden, so dass die Wurzeln nun in die Luft ragen. Einer anderen Erzählung zufolge wollte der Baum bei seiner Entstehung schöner als alle anderen Bäume werden. Als ihm dies jedoch nicht gelang, steckte er seinen Kopf in die Erde und das Wurzelwerk ragte gegen den Himmel. Aus dem Reich der Schöpfungsmythologie erschließt sich uns eine weitere Erklärung: Als am Anbeginn der Welt die Hyäne beim ersten Blick ins spiegelnde Wasser ihre eigene Hässlichkeit erkannte, war sie darüber sehr erzürnt. Sie riss einen Baobab aus und schleuderte ihn gen Himmel, um ihren Schöpfer zu treffen, der ihr dies angetan hatte. Der Baum jedoch verfehlte sein Ziel, stürzte zurück zur Erde, blieb dort umgekehrt im Boden stecken und wächst seither mit den Wurzeln nach oben.
Als Sitz von Göttern und Geistern spielt der Baobab außerdem in einer Reihe weiterer afrikanischer Legenden und Sagen eine Rolle.
In der modernen westafrikanischen Literatur steht der Baobab häufig als ein Symbol des traditionellen afrikanischen Lebens und der unberührten, ewigen Natur. Orte mit "heiligen" Baobabs werden oftmals als Sinnbild des Garten Eden verwendet.
Auch in die europäische Kinderliteratur hat der Baum Eingang gefunden. In Antoine de Saint-Exupérys Geschichte Der Kleine Prinz sorgt sich dieser, dass Baobabs seinen kleinen Asteroiden überwuchern und mit ihrem Wurzelwerk sprengen könnten: „Die Affenbrotbäume beginnen damit klein zu sein, bevor sie groß werden.“
Auch in der modernen deutschsprachigen Lyrik ist der Affenbrotbaum gelegentlich als Sujet anzutreffen (so z. B. bei Paul Celan). Hans Magnus Enzensberger benutzt den Affenbrotbaum als Bild für das Neuronale Netz.
WIKIPEDIA
Fisher Investments MarketMinder Image: Key US GDP Components (Q1 2003 = 100)
Source: US Bureau of Economic Analysis
Cover Story: www.marketminder.com/s/fisher-investments-us-gdp-growth-a...
Classic Kitchens of Virginia
Services
Classic Kitchens of Virginia specializes in the design and installation of complete kitchens, baths, bars, casework and architectural millwork for all areas of the home. Our designers work in partnership with our clients to create areas specifically suited to their tastes and needs. By providing all of the necessary components for a complete project, and by giving our clients a single point of accountability, we eliminate the frustration many expect when considering a renovation project. Our systematic approach to installation makes the construction process easier to manage and more comfortable for the homeowner.
Our portfolio of work can be seen here:
An example of subway signaling components that were damaged as a result of flooding during Hurricane Sandy.
Photo taken at the 207th Street Yard in Upper Manhattan. Please credit: Metropolitan Transportation Authority / Deirdre Parker.
This is a simple SOIC->DIP adapter, made by tediously soldering wires to the pins of the chip (although it looks like they're shorting out, they are actually separated by a fraction of a mm) and then soldering to a DIP socket. I tried both regular and machine pin sockets while making this, and I found the machine pin type works the best, because you can easily fill the holes with solder. (The standard kind is more difficult.)
Vrijdag namiddag besteld, zelfde dag pakje aangekomen in Memphis om 12:03AM lokale tijd en maandag om 10h36 afgeleverd. Rapper moet dat niet gaan!
Handig is vooral de SMD box met 1400 capaciteiten 0805. Zo kan ik eenvoudiger optimaliseren, je moet nu eenmaal naar SMD overschakelen omdat bepaalde componenten niet meer beschikbaar zijn in DIL. Ook de afmetingen moeten kleiner.
Nu nog de SMD pcb tekenen. Doel is een nog betere IR detector te bouwen die heel gevoelig is, ook voor kleine donkere beestjes in volle vlucht, en dit overdag waarbij er ook nog veel zonlicht aanwezig is. Of het echt beter zal worden moeten we afwachten. Zodra er resultaten zijn komen er wel nieuwe beelden.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
The Air Corps is the air component of the Defence Forces of Ireland. With the establishment of the Defence Forces in 1924, the Air Service became the new Army's Air Corps and remained part of the Army until the 1990s. After the 2nd World War, the Irish Air Corps started to modernize its modest fleet: the Hurricanes were replaced by Supermarine Seafires and a few two-seat Spitfire trainers. Avro Anson light transports were operated as communications aircraft between 1946 and their retirement in 1962. The Percival Provost was introduced in the mid 1950s as the Air Corps initial training aircraft. The de Havilland Dove became the Corps' transport aircraft.
The jet age arrived on 30 June 1956 when the Corps took delivery of de Havilland Vampire T.55 trainers. The jet fleet was augmented in November 1963, when the Air Corps took delivery of twelve BAC Jet Provost trainers. Furthermore, the first helicopters, SA.316B Alouette IIIs, arrived, of which seven remained in service until 2007.
Even though the Jet Provosts were ab initio jet aircraft trainers, it was clear that the aircraft were also intended for light ground attack and COIN duties – the rising tensions in Northern Ireland fueled the desire for an armed air arm. This was reflected by the procured Jet Provost variant: the T.51. This was an armed export version of the RAF's T.3 trainers. It could be outfitted with a pair of 0.303" machine guns in compartments under the air intakes, and underwing hardpoints allowed a wide range of ordnance to be carried, including bombs, drop tanks, machine gun and missile pods as well as unguided missiles. appropriate aiming equipment in the cockpit ensured the proper deployment of the weapons.
The Jet Provosts became the founding equipment of the Irish Air Corps's Light Strike Squadron, even though they were more frequently used for advanced and armed training sorties. However, unlike the Vampire, which were operated purely in an educational role and thus were left in bare metal finish with high visibility markings, the Irish Jet Provosts received a tactical paint scheme.
In 1975 several Fouga Magister CM-170 jet aircraft were purchased secondhand from France. They were used for training, partly replaced and augmented the Jet Provost fleet in the light attack role and were allocated to the Silver Swallows display team. They were withdrawn from service in 1998 and not replaced, leaving the Irish Air Corps without any jet combat aircraft.
In 1977 ten SIAI-Marchetti SF.260WE Warriors were delivered for light training and ground attack roles, and thsi type gradually replaced the Jet Provosts, which were retired together with the Fouga Magister.
General characteristics:
Crew: Two
Length: 34 ft 0 in (10.36 m)
Wingspan: 35 ft 4 in (10.77 m)
Height: 10 ft 2 in (3.10 m)
Wing area: 213.7 sqft (19.80 m²)
Empty weight: 4,888 lb (2,222 kg)
Loaded weight: 6,989 lb (3,170 kg)
Max. takeoff weight: 9,200 lb (4,173 kg)
Powerplant:
1× Armstrong Siddeley Viper (ASV.8) Mk-102 turbojet, rated at 1,750 lbf (7.78 kN
Performance:
Maximum speed: 440 mph (382 knots, 708 km/h) at 25,000 ft (7,620 m)
Range: 603 mi (524 NM, 970 km)
Service ceiling: 36,750 ft (11,200 m)
Rate of climb: 4,000 ft/min (20.3 m/s)
Wing loading: 32.7 lb/ft² (160 kg/m²)
Armament:
2× 0.303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns with 600 RPG
Underwing hardpoints for a total ordnance load of 2.160 lb (980 kg), incl.
6× 60 lb (27 kg) or 12× 25 lb (11 kg) rockets or 28x 68 mm SNEB rockets in four pods,
or 4× 540 lb (245 kg) bombs
The kit and its assembly:
This fictional Jet Provost is, after a long search for a proper aircraft model, finally the result of the attempt to build an Irish what-if aircraft. Inspiration struck when I recently read a book about the Jet Provost’s and Strikemaster’s development and service (which also spawned the BAC Bushmaster single seater) – I thought that an armed Jet Provost would have been a highly probable aircraft for the Irish Air Corps, and from the start I wanted to add a tactical touch to the model, not just a pure trainer.
The armed export variants appeared the most suitable option, and thankfully Airfix recently released a new T.3 kit, which is virtually identical to its armed T.51 brethren. The kit itself is excellent. The molds are crisp, you get recessed panel lines and minute detail where it’s needed – but it is still a very simple kit. Other selling points are two very good pilot figures and seats, two optional canopies (for closed or open display) as well as a superb overall fit of everything. A really pleasant affair!
The kit was built OOB, with just a few minor mods: under the air intakes, machine gun ports were added as well as casing ejector fairings. I also added a pair of underwing pylons (for a pair of 250 lb training bombs) and a pair of R80 SURA missile packs (from a Matchbox Strikemaster). Some antennae were also added, as well as gunsights on the cockpit dashboard.
Painting and markings:
Even though I wanted the Provost to be a trainer, I did not want a flashy livery - instead I adopted a tactical camouflage that would be suited to the greenish environment of Eire. The only "official" Irish camouflage is a uniform dark green, though, and I wanted something more flashy.
Another factor was a tin of "RAF Lichen Green" (Xtracolor) that I found in my collection - a tone whioch I wanted to incorporate. I eventually settled upon a three-tone scheme, somewhat inspired by the SEA scheme that Strikemasters from New Zealand and Singapore carried. I recycled the pattern, but changed the colors so that the green hues became more prominent:
- FS 30219 (Tan) became Lichen Green (Xtracolor X024)
- FS 34102 (Medium Green) was replaced with FS 34079 (Modelmaster 1710)*
- FS 34079 (Forest Green) became RAL 8027 Lederbraun (Revell 84)
- FS 36622 underneath was replaced with Fs 36375 (Humbrol 127), a tone that comes close to RAL 7040 "Fenstergrau", another color that has been in use on Irish Air Corps vehicles
*This was used to simulate the dark green tone "Akzo Nobel 042002" that some real Irish aircraft carried allover; FS 34079 is virtually identical
The cockpit interior was painted in Revell 9 (Anthrazit), the landing gear wells was painted in RAF Light Aircraft Grey (Humbrol 166).
The roundels and some other markings came from a Max Decals sheet (#7220) for Irish aircraft and tanks, the tactical code was created with single white digit decals in various sizes from a Begemot sheet for modern Russian aircraft and the fin flash (without it the tail looked somewhat bleak) was improvised with decal and paint. The stencils were taken from the OOB sheet.
Only light post-shading was done, and the engraved panel lines were emphasized through a thinned black ink wash. As a final step the model received a coat of matt acrylic varnish (Italeri).
After a long search for a project, finally an Irish whif aircraft in the collection! While I was painting the model the three-tone camouflage appeared a little odd, but with the decals everything fell into place, and the result even looks quite natural? It’s certainly an eye-catcher, since the many colored markings, stencils and the ordnance break up the murky military look – even though this Jet Provost still looks purposeful with its training ordnance. And: the Airfix kit turned out to be a highly pleasant build, it’s been a long time that I experienced so few problems during a kit’s assembly.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
The Jagdtiger was until 1945 the heaviest armored vehicle to see service in World War Two. The design process started out with a demand for a heavy assault gun back in 1942 when the war was still in Germany’s favor and the army needed a heavily armored and armed vehicle to smash enemy fortifications. However, by the time the Jagdtiger, based on the Tiger II tank, came along two years later, the original need for the vehicle had vanished and it was put to work as a heavy long-range tank destroyer instead.
On 12th April 1943, Henschel presented two designs for the vehicle which was being referred to as the “Tigerjäger”, one with a conventional hull layout (with the engine in the rear) and the other with a mid-engine layout. Having considered both the Panther and Tiger hulls for the mount for the 12.8 cm gun, the vehicle selected for use was the Tiger II which was, at the time, still on the drawing board at Henschel. To fit the massive weapon onto the Tiger II base, the chassis had to be lengthened by 260 mm and on top of this hull was placed a large flat-sided casemate for housing the main gun and four of the crew. The engine remained at the back and the transmission at the front, as on the Tiger II, so that many components could be carried over.
The Jagdtiger had a crew of six men. The crew in the hull retained their role and positions from the Tiger II, with the driver located in the front left and the radio operator in the front right. This radio operator also had control over the secondary armament, a machine gun located in a mount in the glacis to his front. In the casemate were the remaining 4 crew. This crew consisted of a commander (front right), the gunner (front left), and two loaders located in the rear of the casemate.
Just as with Henschel, where the bodies of the Tiger and Tiger II were made by Krupp and then shipped to them for finishing and fitting into battle tanks, the Jagdtiger’s assembly followed a similar modular pattern: The Nibelungen works did the construction, fitting, and assembly of components including the gun, but the basic armored hull was made at a different site, namely the Eisenwerke Oberdonau (Oberdonau Iron Works) in Linz, modern-day Austria.
The original order for 150 Jagdtiger was increased on 3rd January 1945, even though the production of the 12.8 cm gun barrels was a significant bottleneck in production. By the end of 1944, just 49 Jagdtiger plus the two prototypes had been finished, well behind the original schedule. Production was therefore re-scheduled to run through April 1945 with another 100 Jagdtiger planned, after which production would switch to the Tiger II instead and then, gradually and in parallel, to the E-50 and E-75 tanks from the upcoming Einheitspanzer vehicle family.
The Jagdtiger was not to be terminated, however, because it was a highly specialized vehicle that was expected to see a relatively long useful career against heavy Soviet tanks and potentially against anything heavier than the medium M4 Sherman that Allied forces might field at the Western front, too. Production would simply switch to the firm of Jung in Jungenthal instead, with the first five Jagdtiger planned to be ready in May 1945, 15 in June, and then 25 per month through to the end of the year.
Things did not evolve this way, though. Resources became scarce and battle tanks received higher production priority. On 25th February 1945, ‘extreme measures’ were ordered to increase production of the Jagdtiger, which included the temporary expedient of fitting an 8.8 cm gun (the 8.8 cm L/71 KwK. Pak. 43/3) in lieu of the 12.8 cm piece, so that the semi-finished hulls that waited in Austria for completion could be completed somehow and fielded. This vehicle was designated Sd.Kfz.185, but it was only a stopgap solution and only produced in very limited numbers. Due to the lack of guns, Jagdtiger hull production chronically outran the upper hull completion lines so that plans were made in mid-1945 to find another way to bring the uncompleted lower hulls to use and outfit them with different superstructures, weapons, and engines, what led to the “Jagdtiger Ausf. M”.
This vehicle was designed to carry the newly developed 8.8 cm L/100 KwK. Pak. 45/1 which just had entered production. At its core this weapon was the proven and highly effective KwK 43/3, but it was combined with a longer barrel to improve muzzle velocity, range, and penetration – it was extended by 2.55 m (1000 in). The existing 88 mm projectiles were still used by this weapon, but they received bigger charges in elongated cartridges; shell length increased from 882 mm to 945 mm. The longer rounds called for an extended and reinforced breech section to cope with the higher gas pressures inside of the firing chamber. With all these modifications, the gun’s overall was 17175 m (38 ft 6 in).
The long-barreled 8.8 cm L/100 KwK. Pak. 45/1’s performance was stunning and virtually on par with the much heavier 12,8 cm PaK 44 L/55. With a modified Pzgr. 40/43 APCR (Armour-piercing, Composite Rigid construction) with a projectile weight of 7.3 kg (16 lbs), muzzle velocity achieved 1.200 m/s (3.930 ft/s) and more. Despite its relatively low weight the projectile penetrated 280 mm armor sloped at 30° at 100 m, 240 mm at 500 m and still 150 mm at 2.000 m range. Even at 3.000 m, 80 mm RHA could be penetrated — enough to take out almost any contemporary Allied medium battle tank from any angle. Maximum indirect fire range was 24,410 m (26,700 yd).
During the 8.8 cm L/100 KwK. Pak. 45/1’s design process, fitting it into a turret for a classic battle tank had turned out to be problematic, due to the gun’s sheer overall length, its heavy recoil forces, as well as the necessary space the crew needed to handle the large rounds properly. Even though mounting it into a Henschel-production Tiger II turret was tested, the barrel’s length severely hampered the carrier tank’s mobility and stability when firing sideways, so that this plan was soon shelved. The next best option was to mount the KwK. Pak. 45/1 directly onto a long and heavy carrier chassis, creating a self-propelled gun in the style of the rather unsuccessful Ferdinand/Elefant SPG. The Jagdtiger chassis was the only available option at the time, but well-suited for this task. The planned 150-ton class E-100 tank was still on the drawing boards, but from the start any 88 mm gun was deemed to be “too light” for it. However, despite its mount at the rear of the long chassis, the 8.8 cm L/100 KwK. Pak. 45/1 still had a considerable overhang - but it was less than the massive barrel of the original Jagdtiger's 12.8 cm PaK 44 L/55, which protruded almost 1 m (3 ft) further forward. This markedly improved the vehicle's handling in tight spaces and made it less "head-heavy" in demanding terrain.
Adapting the existing Jagdtiger chassis turned out to be relatively easy, the unfinished hulls could be modified without major problems. Due to the long barrel and the lower weight of the KwK. Pak. 45/1, the mid-engine layout (hence the “M” suffix) was revived, and the casemate, which retained its rather boxy shape, was moved to the back of the hull. The engine, fitted into a compartment that separated the casemate from the hull crew, was a brand new 16-cylinder X engine made by Simmering-Pauker. Delivering up to 800 horsepower, this 36.5 litre engine provided a significant performance boost for the Jagdtiger, and for that matter, potentially for the Tiger II and Panther as well. The engine had the added advantage that it was more compact than the former Maybach HL230 V12 and well suited to the tight confines of a tank’s engine bay. Outwardly the change of powerplant was hardly visible. A further benefit of the mid-engine layout was that the driving shaft to the gearbox in the Jagdtiger’s front hull was shorter, saving material, weight, and internal space in the casemate behind the engine bay. As a drawback the access to the engine compartment was limited through the low and long barrel – it had to be removed before the engine could be changed.
Beyond its different internal layout, another characteristic feature of the Jagdtiger Ausf. M was a different running gear. It used elements of Porsche’s original Tiger I running that was rejected for the heavy battle tank but adopted for the heavy Ferdinand/Elefant SPG that was based on Porsche’s Tiger I design. Consisting of four wheel-units per side made from pairs of 700 mm diameter steel road wheels and a longitudinal torsion bar suspension that remained outside of the hull. While its off-road performance was not as good as the original interleaved running gear with torsion bars inside of the hull, the Porsche system offered a production advantage over the Henschel running gear that it took a third less time to produce than Henschel’s system, reduced the hull construction time as well as machining time, required less maintenance, and could actually be completely replaced in the field without (theoretically) removing other parts and without the use of a jack. The Porsche system also saved about 1,200 kg in weight, 450 man-hours of work time, gained 100 mm more ground clearance, and saved RM 404,000 (Reichsmarks) in cost per vehicle. Much more importantly though, the use of this suspension freed up space inside the vehicle, an entire cubic meter extra! A few standard Jagdtiger were finished with this running gear, too, but the Jagdtiger Ausf. M received it as a standard. With all these modifications, plus a reduced armor strength of the casemate (the front plate was reduced from 250 to “only” 180 mm), the vehicle’s overall weight was, compared with the original Jagdtiger, reduced by about 5 tons.
In service the Jagdtiger Ausf. M received the official designation of Sd.Kfz. 187. The first vehicles were created from existing unfinished hulls in late 1945 and immediately delivered to units in Southern and Western Germany. Late production vehicles were from the start built for the different engine position and the simplified running gear.
They Sd.Kfz. 187s were concentrated in independent commando units that exclusively operated this type, with four tanks per group and a command unit. Their transport to the front lines was already adventurous, and in the winter 1945/46 the heavy vehicles could hardly show their operative worth due to the harsh conditions. The heavy vehicles’ mobility was very limited, and even though the overall lower weight and the more powerful Simmering-Pauker engine theoretically improved performance, the complicated and capricious powerplant was a frequent cause for a generally low operational status, breakdowns and as a consequence abandoned vehicles. These were most often destroyed by the crews because the sheer bulk and weight made the recovery of a Jagdtiger very difficult, esp. in a combat zone.
Due to the gun’s size and position at the hull’s end, elevation was only between -4° to +15°, traverse between 10° right and 10° left. In service the gun’s long barrel turned out to be a source of constant and manifold trouble, though. Not only did it markedly react to ambient temperature and climate changes and warped easily, its inherent weight and length caused additional bending problems. Both effects reinforced each other, resulting in reduced accuracy and increased wear and tear, to a point that the barrel’s material became weakened. Esp. in wintertime, with frequent temperature shocks from firing, cracks appeared, sometimes only after a few shots, that led to burst barrels and even fatal accidents. The special rounds’ enriched charge loads were another reason for accidents. Exploding breaches occurred and the shock waves in the closed casemate as well as metal shrapnel killed several complete gun crews (while the front hull crew, in their separate compartment, survived unscathed).
Modifications were hastily devised to counter these dangers, and a field modification kit was quickly developed and rolled-out in April 1946. It introduced a barrel cage with stiffening steel ribs that was directly fitted to production vehicles or could be retrofitted around the original gun, but this measure was not enough. Already in May 1946 a second kit was issued that added a suspended steel cable construction between the gun’s barrel and its large mantlet. While this mostly solved the alignment problem and reduced the barrel’s inherent tendency to bend to an acceptable limit, the material problems through the high gas pressures as well as the hazardous breech persisted and made the Sd.Kfz. 187 very unpopular among the crews.
But this was not the only problem with the vehicle. Despite being a huge vehicle, the Jagdtiger Ausf. M’s total ammunition load was quite limited. Only fifty 88 mm rounds were held in storage bins located along the casemate sides, and two loaders were necessary to handle them properly within the casemate’s tight confines. However, the crews would often use any available spare space to add additional rounds, sometimes just stored loosely on the casemate floor, reaching a total load of 70 rounds and even more.
When firing at longer ranges, the crews used the Sfl Zielfernrohr 1, a telescopic sight. When engaging targets with direct fire, a Rundblickfernrohr 36 periscope sight was used. While the Jagdtiger Ausf. M could be used as mobile artillery thanks to its armament’s range, sufficient elevation, and firepower, it was rarely used in this manner. The main problem would be the small ammunition load that was insufficient for prolonged artillery fire and the lack of high explosive rounds for long-range fire support. Therefore, the Jagdtiger Ausf. M’s main task remained hunting and destroying tanks and other armored vehicles at long range from prepared positions. Especially in a defensive role the Jagdtiger turned out to be very effective. It lacked, however, the necessary mobility and speed for “hit and run” tactics or flank attacks on moving targets. Its operational range was also very limited, what meant that it constantly needed a staff of support vehicles for frequent refueling and rearming.
A total of 95 standard Jagdtiger and less than 50 Jagdtiger Ausf. M (their definite number remains uncertain due to the fact that most early Sd.Kfz. 187s were built from unfinished standard Jagdtiger hulls) were eventually produced and delivered before more effective tank hunter designs, based on the Einheitspanzer vehicle family and armed with more reliable weapons, were introduced. These quickly replaced the heavy Tiger-based interim designs.
Specifications:
Crew: 6 (Driver, Radio operator/hull machine gunner, Commander, Gunner, 2 Loaders)
Weight: 68.5 tons (150.881 lb)
Length: 9,94 m (32 ft 6 3/4 in) overall
7,80 m (25 ft 6 1/2 in) hull only
Width: 3.625 metres (11 ft 10½ in)
Height: 2,87 metres (9 ft 4 ¾ in)
3,22 metres (10 ft 6 ¾ in) with retrofitted gun barrel suspension
Ground clearance: 56,5 cm (22¼ in)
Suspension: Longitudinal torsion bars
Fuel capacity: 860 Liter (190 imp gal, 230 US gal)
Armor:
20–180 mm (0.79 – 7 in)
Performance:
Maximum road speed: 38 km/h (24 mph)
Operational range: 120 km (75 mi) on road
80 km (50 mi) off road
Power/weight: 11,68 PS/ton
Engine:
Simmering-Pauker X-16-80 16 cylinder 36.5 liter gasoline engine with 800 hp (575 kW)
Transmission:
Maybach eight-speed OLVAR OG40-1216B gearbox
Armament:
1× 88 mm 8.8 cm L/100 KwK. Pak. 45/1 with 50 rounds
1× 7.92 mm MG 34 or 42 machine gun in the hull with 800 rounds
The kit and its assembly:
This fictional tank was inspired by Trumpeter’s 1:72 models of the (real yet rare) Jagdtiger with the lighter 88 mm gun and the Porsche running gear. I thought about combining both into a late but fictional production model, but then also considered a more powerful variant of the main gun with a longer barrel – something that had been on the real-world drawing board, and ModelCollect offers one or two fictional Heer ’46 tanks with such a long weapon. An indirect inspiration for the gun and its eventual design on the model was the United States Department of Defense and Canada's Department of National Defence’s mutual HARP (High Altitude Research Project) project, in which light loads were literally fired into space/lower orbit with the help of guns instead of rockets. The ever bigger guns frequently featured lengthened and stiffened barrels to achieve and resist the massive firing pressures needed to reach altitudes with an apogee of up to 110 miles (180) km. Or even more than 300 miles (500 km) with a 40-lbs payload and rocket assistance!
To mount such a long barrel on a tank chassis, a gun position at the rear would make most sense to avoid a massive overhang and a wacky weight distribution. Therefore, the Jagdtiger’s casemate was moved accordingly, creating a more obvious (and challenging) what-if project.
Even though the Trumpeter Jagdtiger kit was used as base, my build is actually a kitbashing of two of them: the combination of the Porsche suspension and the respective hull from one kit with the 88 mm gun and its differing mantlet from another. Since the casemate and the engine cover were integral parts of the upper hull, both had to be cut off, switched and PSRed into their new places. Before the parts were cut off, though, internal stiffeners (simple sprue material) were added between the sloped rear side walls to ensure the upper hull’s stability and alignment. The change of the sections was quite easy; the engine deck cover was easy to re-mount, the casemate called for some PSR to hide the seam at the intersection with the hull. Anything else almost fell into place, just the gun mantlet had to be modified to create enough space for it over the armored fan casings of the engine bay cover.
The 88 mm gun barrel was taken OOB but lengthened with styrene tube plug by 35 mm (1.4 in) to achieve the intended L/100 length on the model instead of the original L/71. Reinforcement ribs along the barrel, made from thin styrene profiles, changed the look and underlined the science fiction aspect of this build. Finally, as a weird extra, I furthermore added a cable suspension construction that was used to stabilize the ultra-long barrels of the experimental HARP guns, too. This was also constructed with styrene bits and steel towing cable plastic dummies from an Revell 1:72 Panzer IV kit. Looks odd, but definitively different and whiffy!
The only other changes/additions are an antenna mast with a long-range “Sternantenne”, and I added mudguards (0.5 mm styrene strips) along the hull, which were dented for a more natiral look.
Painting and markings:
This was not easy to settle upon. Jagdtiger generally left the factories only with an overall primer coat with Oxidrot (RAL 3009), which was frequently stretched due to material shortages, so that the color could range from a deep reddish brown to a dull pink. Camouflage was added later, most of the time in field shops at the operating units.
To stick with this practice I initially gave the model and the still separate major components an overall coat with RAL 3009 (from above) and 8017 (from below) with rattle cans. Once thoroughly dried, Panzergrau (RAL 7021, Humbrol 67) was added in shaggy vertical streaks with a flat brush, so that a lot of the primer would still show through, esp. on vertical surfaces. The rationale behind this outdated color on a 1946 vehicle: the Jagdtiger would be primarily operated in a defensive role from prepared positions, the dark color would conceal it in the shadows, e. g. under trees, between or even inside of buildings. In real life, this concept had been revised through the much lighter Hinterhalt standard camouflage, but for the Jagdtiger and its special role it would IMHO still make sense?
When the dark grey had been applied and dry, I found the overall look of this massive vehicle a bit too murky, so I decided to add some more camouflage to break up the outlines and make the Jagdtiger look a bit more interesting. The choice fell on irregular vertical stripes, and as a personal twist I used RAL 7003 (Moosgrau; Revell 45) – a light olive-green grey tone, very close to the Luftwaffe’s RLM 02, that I have already used on other Heer ’46 builds together with RAL 7021 and 7028 (Dunkelgelb).
The running gear remained all-dark grey, though, and the main wheels' steel rims were painted with Revell 91. The black vinyl tracks received a treatment with grey and burnt umbra acrylic artist paint, and later some dry-brushing with grey and silver, too.
The camouflage stripes were applied with thinned acrylic paint over the dark grey base and around the decals that had been applied in the meantime and protected with clear varnish, as if the camouflage had been painted around the existing markings. Then the Moosgrau was wet-sanded vertically to create the impression of wear wand weathering. This also let a bit more of the red primer underneath shine through.
The model received an overall washing with highly thinned dark red-brown acrylic paint, dry-brushing with a dark earth tone, a treatment with water colors (mud and rust traces), and was finally sealed with matt acrylic varnish before assembly. As a final step, mineral artist pigments were dusted into the running gear, the tracks and the lower hull areas to simulate dust and more mud.
A succesful conversion, and I have earmarked the engine/casemate switch for another whiffy tank project on my agenda - after all, there's still a complete Jagdtiger kit left. However, the resulting "new" vehicle looks like a modernized Elefant SPG, with sloped armor and somewhat "streamlined". The modified gun was IMHO a good move, and the barrel suspension system adds weirdness to the whole thing - and despite the VERY long gun barrel, my Sd.Kfz. 187 looks quite plausible, also in the grey/grey livery which turned out more subtle than expected.
Bronze Persian horse statuette
About 2" high and long--rumored to be a portrait of Alexander the Great's horse Bucephalus.
Faux bronze with gilt highlights. all hand sculpted.
Ever seen this before...:?
Angkor Wat or "Capital Temple" is a temple complex in Cambodia and the largest religious monument in the world. It was first a Hindu and later a Buddhist temple. It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura, present-day Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum.
Breaking from the Shiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a significant religious center since its foundation. The temple is at the top of the high classical style of Khmer architecture. It has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the country's prime attraction for visitors. Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the later galleried temple, based on early Dravidian architecture, with key features such as the Jagati. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a moat and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs, and for the numerous devatas adorning its walls.
The modern name, Angkor Wat, means "Temple City" or "City of Temples" in Khmer; Angkor, meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular form of the word nokor (នគរ), which comes from the Sanskrit word nagara (नगर). Wat is the Khmer word for "temple grounds" (Sanskrit: वाट vāṭa ""enclosure").
HISTORY
Angkor Wat lies 5.5 kilometres north of the modern town of Siem Reap, and a short distance south and slightly east of the previous capital, which was centred at Baphuon. It is in an area of Cambodia where there is an important group of ancient structures. It is the southernmost of Angkor's main sites.
According to one legend, the construction of Angkor Wat was ordered by Indra to act as a palace for his son Precha Ket Mealea.
According to the 13th century Chinese traveler Daguan Zhou, it was believed by some that the temple was constructed in a single night by a divine architect. The initial design and construction of the temple took place in the first half of the 12th century, during the reign of Suryavarman II (ruled 1113-C. 1150). Dedicated to Vishnu, it was built as the king's state temple and capital city. As neither the foundation stela nor any contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple have been found, its original name is unknown, but it may have been known as "Varah Vishnu-lok" after the presiding deity. Work seems to have ended shortly after the king's death, leaving some of the bas-relief decoration unfinished.
In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor was sacked by the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer. Thereafter the empire was restored by a new king, Jayavarman VII, who established a new capital and state temple (Angkor Thom and the Bayon respectively) a few kilometers to the north.
In the late 13th century, Angkor Wat gradually moved from Hindu to Theravada Buddhist use, which continues to the present day. Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was somewhat neglected after the 16th century it was never completely abandoned, its preservation being due in part to the fact that its moat also provided some protection from encroachment by the jungle.
One of the first Western visitors to the temple was António da Madalena, a Portuguese monk who visited in 1586 and said that it "is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of."
In the mid-19th century, the temple was visited by the French naturalist and explorer, Henri Mouhot, who popularised the site in the West through the publication of travel notes, in which he wrote:
"One of these temples - a rival to that of Solomon, and erected by some ancient Michelangelo - might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome, and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged."
Mouhot, like other early Western visitors, found it difficult to believe that the Khmers could have built the temple, and mistakenly dated it to around the same era as Rome. The true history of Angkor Wat was pieced together only from stylistic and epigraphic evidence accumulated during the subsequent clearing and restoration work carried out across the whole Angkor site. There were no ordinary dwellings or houses or other signs of settlement including cooking utensils, weapons, or items of clothing usually found at ancient sites. Instead there is the evidence of the monuments themselves.
Angkor Wat required considerable restoration in the 20th century, mainly the removal of accumulated earth and vegetation. Work was interrupted by the civil war and Khmer Rouge control of the country during the 1970s and 1980s, but relatively little damage was done during this period other than the theft and destruction of mostly post-Angkorian statues.The temple is a powerful symbol of Cambodia, and is a source of great national pride that has factored into Cambodia's diplomatic relations with France, the United States and its neighbor Thailand. A depiction of Angkor Wat has been a part of Cambodian national flags since the introduction of the first version circa 1863. From a larger historical and even transcultural perspective, however, the temple of Angkor Wat did not become a symbol of national pride sui generis but had been inscribed into a larger politico-cultural process of French-colonial heritage production in which the original temple site was presented in French colonial and universal exhibitions in Paris and Marseille between 1889 and 1937. Angkor Wat's aesthetics were also on display in the plaster cast museum of Louis Delaporte called musée Indo-chinois which existed in the Parisian Trocadero Palace from C. 1880 to the mid-1920s. The splendid artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region led directly to France adopting Cambodia as a protectorate on 11 August 1863 and invading Siam to take control of the ruins. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern corner of the country that had been under Siamese (Thai) control since 1351 AD (Manich Jumsai 2001), or by some accounts, 1431 AD. Cambodia gained independence from France on 9 November 1953 and has controlled Angkor Wat since that time.
ARCHITECTURE
SITE AND PLAN
Angkor Wat, located at 13°24′45″N 103°52′0″E, is a unique combination of the temple mountain, the standard design for the empire's state temples and the later plan of concentric galleries. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods: the central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level. Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the east. This has led many (including Maurice Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to serve as his funerary temple.Further evidence for this view is provided by the bas-reliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction - prasavya in Hindu terminology - as this is the reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services. The archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have been a funerary jar which was recovered from the central tower. It has been nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on the disposal of a corpse. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west.
A further interpretation of Angkor Wat has been proposed by Eleanor Mannikka. Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the bas-reliefs, she argues that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honor and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above." Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles. She distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the constellation Draco.
STYLE
Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of Khmer architecture - the Angkor Wat style - to which it has given its name. By the 12th century Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use of sandstone (rather than brick or laterite) as the main building material. Most of the visible areas are of sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for the outer wall and for hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to join the blocks is yet to be identified, although natural resins or slaked lime has been suggested. The temple has drawn praise above all for the harmony of its design. According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity and style." Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work. Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time, including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors.
FEATURES
OUTER ENCLOSURE
The outer wall, 1024 by 802 m and 4.5 m high, is surrounded by a 30 m apron of open ground and a moat 190 m wide. Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge. There are gopuras at each of the cardinal points; the western is by far the largest and has three ruined towers. Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple proper. Under the southern tower is a statue of Vishnu, known as Ta Reach, which may originally have occupied the temple's central shrine.Galleries run between the towers and as far as two further entrances on either side of the gopura often referred to as "elephant gates", as they are large enough to admit those animals. These galleries have square pillars on the outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side. The ceiling between the pillars is decorated with lotus rosettes; the west face of the wall with dancing figures; and the east face of the wall with balustered windows, dancing male figures on prancing animals, and devatas, including (south of the entrance) the only one in the temple to be showing her teeth. The outer wall encloses a space of 820,000 square metres, which besides the temple proper was originally occupied by the city and, to the north of the temple, the royal palace. Like all secular buildings of Angkor, these were built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing remains of them except the outlines of some of the streets. Most of the area is now covered by forest. A 350 m causeway connects the western gopura to the temple proper, with naga balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the city on either side. Each side also features a library with entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance, and a pond between the library and the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to the central structure.
CENTRAL STRUCTURE
The temple stands on a terrace raised higher than the city. It is made of three rectangular galleries rising to a central tower, each level higher than the last. Mannikka interprets these galleries as being dedicated to the king, Brahma, the moon, and Vishnu.
Each gallery has a gopura at each of the points, and the two inner galleries each have towers at their corners, forming a quincunx with the central tower. Because the temple faces west, the features are all set back towards the east, leaving more space to be filled in each enclosure and gallery on the west side; for the same reason the west-facing steps are shallower than those on the other sides.
The outer gallery measures 187 by 215 m, with pavilions rather than towers at the corners. The gallery is open to the outside of the temple, with columned half-galleries extending and buttressing the structure. Connecting the outer gallery to the second enclosure on the west side is a cruciform cloister called Preah Poan (the "Hall of a Thousand Gods"). Buddha images were left in the cloister by pilgrims over the centuries, although most have now been removed. This area has many inscriptions relating the good deeds of pilgrims, most written in Khmer but others in Burmese and Japanese. The four small courtyards marked out by the cloister may originally have been filled with water.
North and south of the cloister are libraries.
Beyond, the second and inner galleries are connected to each other and to two flanking libraries by another cruciform terrace, again a later addition. From the second level upwards, devatas abound on the walls, singly or in groups of up to four. The second-level enclosure is 100 by 115 m, and may originally have been flooded to represent the ocean around Mount Meru.
Three sets of steps on each side lead up to the corner towers and gopuras of the inner gallery. The very steep stairways represent the difficulty of ascending to the kingdom of the gods. This inner gallery, called the Bakan, is a 60 m square with axial galleries connecting each gopura with the central shrine, and subsidiary shrines located below the corner towers. The roofings of the galleries are decorated with the motif of the body of a snake ending in the heads of lions or garudas. Carved lintels and pediments decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the shrines. The tower above the central shrine rises 43 m to a height of 65 m above the ground; unlike those of previous temple mountains, the central tower is raised above the surrounding four. The shrine itself, originally occupied by a statue of Vishnu and open on each side, was walled in when the temple was converted to Theravada Buddhism, the new walls featuring standing Buddhas. In 1934, the conservator George Trouvé excavated the pit beneath the central shrine: filled with sand and water it had already been robbed of its treasure, but he did find a sacred foundation deposit of gold leaf two metres above ground level.
DECORATION
Integrated with the architecture of the building, and one of the causes for its fame is Angkor Wat's extensive decoration, which predominantly takes the form of bas-relief friezes. The inner walls of the outer gallery bear a series of large-scale scenes mainly depicting episodes from the Hindu epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Higham has called these, "the greatest known linear arrangement of stone carving".
From the north-west corner anti-clockwise, the western gallery shows the Battle of Lanka (from the Ramayana, in which Rama defeats Ravana) and the Battle of Kurukshetra (from the Mahabharata, showing the mutual annihilation of the Kaurava and Pandava clans). On the southern gallery follow the only historical scene, a procession of Suryavarman II, then the 32 hells and 37 heavens of Hindu mythology.
On the eastern gallery is one of the most celebrated scenes, the Churning of the Sea of Milk, showing 92 asuras and 88 devas using the serpent Vasuki to churn the sea under Vishnu's direction (Mannikka counts only 91 asuras, and explains the asymmetrical numbers as representing the number of days from the winter solstice to the spring equinox, and from the equinox to the summer solstice). It is followed by Vishnu defeating asuras (a 16th-century addition). The northern gallery shows Krishna's victory over Bana (where according to Glaize, "The workmanship is at its worst"). and a battle between the Hindu gods and asuras. The north-west and south-west corner pavilions both feature much smaller-scale scenes, some unidentified but most from the Ramayana or the life of Krishna. Angkor Wat is decorated with depictions of apsaras and devata; there are more than 1,796 depictions of devata in the present research inventory. Angkor Wat architects employed small apsara images (30–40 cm) as decorative motifs on pillars and walls. They incorporated larger devata images (all full-body portraits measuring approximately 95–110 cm) more prominently at every level of the temple from the entry pavilion to the tops of the high towers. In 1927, Sappho Marchal published a study cataloging the remarkable diversity of their hair, headdresses, garments, stance, jewelry and decorative flowers, which Marchal concluded were based on actual practices of the Angkor period.
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
The stones, as smooth as polished marble, were laid without mortar with very tight joints that are sometimes hard to find. The blocks were held together by mortise and tenon joints in some cases, while in others they used dovetails and gravity. The blocks were presumably put in place by a combination of elephants, coir ropes, pulleys and bamboo scaffolding. Henri Mouhot noted that most of the blocks had holes 2.5 cm in diameter and 3 cm deep, with more holes on the larger blocks. Some scholars have suggested that these were used to join them together with iron rods, but others claim they were used to hold temporary pegs to help manoeuvre them into place. The monument was made out of millions of tonnes of sandstone and it has a greater volume as well as mass than the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt. The Angkor Wat Temple consumes about 6 million to 10 million blocks of sandstone with an average weight of 1.5 tons each. In fact, the entire city of Angkor used up far greater amounts of stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined, and occupied an area significantly greater than modern-day Paris. Moreover, unlike the Egyptian pyramids which use limestone quarried barely half a km away all the time, the entire city of Angkor was built with sandstone quarried 40 km (or more) away. This sandstone had to be transported from Mount Kulen, a quarry approximately 40 km to the northeast. The route has been suggested to span 35 kilometres along a canal towards Tonlé Sap lake, another 35 kilometres crossing the lake, and finally 15 kilometres upstream and against the current along Siem Reap River, making a total journey of 90 kilometres. However, Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan have discovered in 2012 a shorter 35-kilometre canal connecting Mount Kulen and Angkor Wat using satellite imagery. The two believe that the Khmer used this route instead.
Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels even roofs are carved. There are miles of reliefs illustrating scenes from Indian literature including unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots as well as warriors following an elephant-mounted leader and celestial dancing girls with elaborate hair styles. The gallery wall alone is decorated with almost 1000 square metres of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze sheets. These were highly prized in ancient times and were a prime target for robbers. While excavating Khajuraho, Alex Evans, a stonemason and sculptor, recreated a stone sculpture under 1.2 m, this took about 60 days to carve. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone. The labor force to quarry, transport, carve and install so much sandstone must have run into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans. The skills required to carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of years earlier, as demonstrated by some artifacts that have been dated to the seventh century, before the Khmer came to power.
ANGKOR WAT TODAY
The Archaeological Survey of India carried out restoration work on the temple between 1986 and 1992. Since the 1990s, Angkor Wat has seen continued conservation efforts and a massive increase in tourism. The temple is part of the Angkor World Heritage Site, established in 1992, which has provided some funding and has encouraged the Cambodian government to protect the site. The German Apsara Conservation Project (GACP) is working to protect the devatas and other bas-reliefs which decorate the temple from damage. The organisation's survey found that around 20% of the devatas were in very poor condition, mainly because of natural erosion and deterioration of the stone but in part also due to earlier restoration efforts. Other work involves the repair of collapsed sections of the structure, and prevention of further collapse: the west facade of the upper level, for example, has been buttressed by scaffolding since 2002, while a Japanese team completed restoration of the north library of the outer enclosure in 2005. World Monuments Fund began conservation work on the Churning of the Sea of Milk Gallery in 2008 after several years of conditions studies. The project restored the traditional Khmer roofing system and removed cement used in earlier restoration attempts that had resulted in salts entering the structure behind the bas-relief, discoloring and damaging the sculpted surfaces. The main phase of work ended in 2012, and the final component will be the installation of finials on the roof of the gallery in 2013. Microbial biofilms have been found degrading sandstone at Angkor Wat, Preah Khan, and the Bayon and West Prasat in Angkor. The dehydration and radiation resistant filamentous cyanobacteria can produce organic acids that degrade the stone. A dark filamentous fungus was found in internal and external Preah Khan samples, while the alga Trentepohlia was found only in samples taken from external, pink-stained stone at Preah Khan. Angkor Wat has become a major tourist destination. In 2004 and 2005, government figures suggest that, respectively, 561.000 and 677.000 foreign visitors arrived in Siem Reap province, approximately 50% of all foreign tourists in Cambodia for both years. The site has been managed by the private SOKIMEX group since 1990, which rented it from the Cambodian government. The influx of tourists has so far caused relatively little damage, other than some graffiti; ropes and wooden steps have been introduced to protect the bas-reliefs and floors, respectively. Tourism has also provided some additional funds for maintenance - as of 2000 approximately 28% of ticket revenues across the whole Angkor site was spent on the temples - although most work is carried out by foreign government-sponsored teams rather than by the Cambodian authorities. Since Angkor Wat has seen significant growth in tourism throughout the years UNESCO and its International Co-ordinating Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC), in association with representatives from the Royal Government and APSARA, organized seminars to discuss the concept of "cultural tourism". Wanting to avoid commercial and mass tourism, the seminars emphasized the importance of providing high quality accommodation and services in order for the Cambodian government to benefit economically, while also incorporating the richness of Cambodian culture. In 2001, this incentive resulted in the concept of the "Angkor Tourist City" which would be developed with regard to traditional Khmer architecture, contain leisure and tourist facilities, and provide luxurious hotels capable of accommodating large amounts of tourists. The prospect of developing such large tourist accommodations has encountered concerns from both APSARA and the ICC, claiming that previous tourism developments in the area have neglected construction regulations and more of these projects have the potential to damage landscape features. Also, the large scale of these projects have begun to threaten the quality of the nearby town's water, sewage, and electricity systems. It has been noted that such high frequency of tourism and growing demand for quality accommodations in the area, such as the development of a large highway, has had a direct effect on the underground water table, subsequently straining the structural stability of the temples at Angkor Wat. Locals of Siem Reap have also voiced concern over the charming nature and atmosphere of their town being compromised in order to entertain tourism. Since this charming local atmosphere is the key component to projects like Angkor Tourist City, local officials continue to discuss how to successfully incorporate future tourism without sacrificing local values and culture. At the ASEAN Tourism Forum 2012, both parties have agreed Borobudur and Angkor Wat to become sister sites and the provinces will become sister provinces. Two Indonesian airlines are considering the opportunity to open a direct flight from Yogyakarta, Indonesia to Siem Reap.
WIKIPEDIA
An example of subway signaling components that were damaged as a result of flooding during Hurricane Sandy.
Photo taken at the 207th Street Yard in Upper Manhattan. Please credit: Metropolitan Transportation Authority / Deirdre Parker.
My Main instrument Panel components; I designed using CAD and just received the results from the machine shop. Took a lot of help from David Allen to get this far.
3D Design
www.flickr.com/photos/24409839@N07/6849951075/in/datepost...
North Toraja (or Toraja Utara) is a regency (kabupaten) of South Sulawesi Province of Indonesia, and the home of the Toraja ethnic group. The local government seat is in Rantepao which is also the center of Toraja culture. Formerly this regency was part of Tana Toraja Regency.
The Tana Toraja boundary was determined by the Dutch East Indies government in 1909. In 1926, Tana Toraja was under the administration of Bugis state, Luwu. The regentschap (or regency) status was given on October 8, 1946, the last regency given by the Dutch. Since 1984, Tana Toraja has been named as the second tourist destination after Bali by the Ministry of Tourism, Indonesia. Since then, hundreds of thousands of foreign visitors have visited this regency. In addition, numerous Western anthropologists have come to Tana Toraja to study the indigenous culture and people of Toraja.
GEOGRAPHY
Tana Toraja is located on the Sulawesi island, 300 km north of Makassar, the provincial capital of South Sulawesi. Its geographical location is between latitude of 2°-3° South and longitude 119°-120° East (center: 3°S 120°ECoordinates: 3°S 120°E). The area of the new North Toraja Regency is 1,151.47 km², about 2.5% of the total area of South Sulawesi province. The topography of Tana Toraja is mountainous; its minimum elevation is 150 m, while the maximum is 3,083 above the sea level.
Tana Toraja Regency (Indonesian for Torajaland or Land of the Toraja, abbreviated Tator) is a regency (kabupaten) of South Sulawesi Province of Indonesia, and home to the Toraja ethnic group. The local government seat is in Makale, while the center of Toraja culture is in Rantepao. But now, Tana Toraja has been divided to two regencies that consist of Tana Toraja with its capital at Makale and North toraja with its capital at Rantepao.
The Tana Toraja boundary was determined by the Dutch East Indies government in 1909. In 1926, Tana Toraja was under the administration of Bugis state, Luwu. The regentschap (or regency) status was given on 8 October 1946, the last regency given by the Dutch. Since 1984, Tana Toraja has been named as the second tourist destination after Bali by the Ministry of Tourism, Indonesia. Since then, hundreds of thousands of foreign visitors have visited this regency. In addition, numerous Western anthropologists have come to Tana Toraja to study the indigenous culture and people of Toraja.
GEOGRAPHY
Tana Toraja is centrally placed in the island of Sulawesi, 300 km north of Makassar, the provincial capital of South Sulawesi. It lies between latitude of 2°-3° South and longitude 119°-120° East (center: 3°S 120°ECoordinates: 3°S 120°E). The total area (since the separation of the new regency of North Toraja) is 2,054.30 km², about 4.4% of the total area of South Sulawesi province. The topography of Tana Toraja is mountainous; its minimum elevation is 150 m, while the maximum is 3,083 above the sea level.
ADMINISTRATION
Tana Toraja Regency in 2010 comprised nineteen administrative Districts (Kecamatan), tabulated below with their 2010 Census population.
The Torajans are an ethnic group indigenous to a mountainous region of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Their population is approximately 1,100,000, of whom 450,000 live in the regency of Tana Toraja ("Land of Toraja").[1] Most of the population is Christian, and others are Muslim or have local animist beliefs known as aluk ("the way"). The Indonesian government has recognised this animistic belief as Aluk To Dolo ("Way of the Ancestors").
The word Toraja comes from the Buginese language term to riaja, meaning "people of the uplands". The Dutch colonial government named the people Toraja in 1909. Torajans are renowned for their elaborate funeral rites, burial sites carved into rocky cliffs, massive peaked-roof traditional houses known as tongkonan, and colourful wood carvings. Toraja funeral rites are important social events, usually attended by hundreds of people and lasting for several days.
Before the 20th century, Torajans lived in autonomous villages, where they practised animism and were relatively untouched by the outside world. In the early 1900s, Dutch missionaries first worked to convert Torajan highlanders to Christianity. When the Tana Toraja regency was further opened to the outside world in the 1970s, it became an icon of tourism in Indonesia: it was exploited by tourism development and studied by anthropologists. By the 1990s, when tourism peaked, Toraja society had changed significantly, from an agrarian model—in which social life and customs were outgrowths of the Aluk To Dolo—to a largely Christian society. Today, tourism and remittances from migrant Torajans have made for major changes in the Toraja highland, giving the Toraja a celebrity status within Indonesia and enhancing Toraja ethnic group pride.
ETHNIC IDENTITY
The Torajan people had little notion of themselves as a distinct ethnic group before the 20th century. Before Dutch colonisation and Christianisation, Torajans, who lived in highland areas, identified with their villages and did not share a broad sense of identity. Although complexes of rituals created linkages between highland villages, there were variations in dialects, differences in social hierarchies, and an array of ritual practices in the Sulawesi highland region. "Toraja" (from the coastal languages' to, meaning people; and riaja, uplands) was first used as a lowlander expression for highlanders. As a result, "Toraja" initially had more currency with outsiders—such as the Bugis and Makassarese, who constitute a majority of the lowland of Sulawesi—than with insiders. The Dutch missionaries' presence in the highlands gave rise to the Toraja ethnic consciousness in the Sa'dan Toraja region, and this shared identity grew with the rise of tourism in the Tana Toraja Regency. Since then, South Sulawesi has four main ethnic groups—the Bugis (the majority, including shipbuilders and seafarers), the Makassarese (lowland traders and seafarers), the Mandarese (traders and fishermen), and the Toraja (highland rice cultivators).
HISTORY
From the 17th century, the Dutch established trade and political control on Sulawesi through the Dutch East Indies Company. Over two centuries, they ignored the mountainous area in the central Sulawesi, where Torajans lived, because access was difficult and it had little productive agricultural land. In the late 19th century, the Dutch became increasingly concerned about the spread of Islam in the south of Sulawesi, especially among the Makassarese and Bugis peoples. The Dutch saw the animist highlanders as potential Christians. In the 1920s, the Reformed Missionary Alliance of the Dutch Reformed Church began missionary work aided by the Dutch colonial government. In addition to introducing Christianity, the Dutch abolished slavery and imposed local taxes. A line was drawn around the Sa'dan area and called Tana Toraja ("the land of Toraja"). Tana Toraja was first a subdivision of the Luwu kingdom that had claimed the area. In 1946, the Dutch granted Tana Toraja a regentschap, and it was recognised in 1957 as one of the regencies of Indonesia.
Early Dutch missionaries faced strong opposition among Torajans, especially among the elite, because the abolition of their profitable slave trade had angered them. Some Torajans were forcibly relocated to the lowlands by the Dutch, where they could be more easily controlled. Taxes were kept high, undermining the wealth of the elites. Ultimately, the Dutch influence did not subdue Torajan culture, and only a few Torajans were converted. In 1950, only 10% of the population had converted to Christianity.
In the 1930s, Muslim lowlanders attacked the Torajans, resulting in widespread Christian conversion among those who sought to align themselves with the Dutch for political protection and to form a movement against the Bugis and Makassarese Muslims. Between 1951 and 1965 (following Indonesian independence), southern Sulawesi faced a turbulent period as the Darul Islam separatist movement fought for an Islamic state in Sulawesi. The 15 years of guerrilla warfare led to massive conversions to Christianity.
Alignment with the Indonesian government, however, did not guarantee safety for the Torajans. In 1965, a presidential decree required every Indonesian citizen to belong to one of five officially recognised religions: Islam, Christianity (Protestantism and Catholicism), Hinduism, or Buddhism. The Torajan religious belief (aluk) was not legally recognised, and the Torajans raised their voices against the law. To make aluk accord with the law, it had to be accepted as part of one of the official religions. In 1969, Aluk To Dolo ("the way of ancestors") was legalised as a sect of Agama Hindu Dharma, the official name of Hinduism in Indonesia.
SOCIETY
There are three main types of affiliation in Toraja society: family, class and religion.
FAMILY AFFILIATION
Family is the primary social and political grouping in Torajan society. Each village is one extended family, the seat of which is the tongkonan, a traditional Torajan house. Each tongkonan has a name, which becomes the name of the village. The familial dons maintain village unity. Marriage between distant cousins (fourth cousins and beyond) is a common practice that strengthens kinship. Toraja society prohibits marriage between close cousins (up to and including the third cousin)—except for nobles, to prevent the dispersal of property. Kinship is actively reciprocal, meaning that the extended family helps each other farm, share buffalo rituals, and pay off debts.
Each person belongs to both the mother's and the father's families, the only bilateral family line in Indonesia. Children, therefore, inherit household affiliation from both mother and father, including land and even family debts. Children's names are given on the basis of kinship, and are usually chosen after dead relatives. Names of aunts, uncles and cousins are commonly referred to in the names of mothers, fathers and siblings.
Before the start of the formal administration of Toraja villages by the Tana Toraja Regency, each Toraja village was autonomous. In a more complex situation, in which one Toraja family could not handle their problems alone, several villages formed a group; sometimes, villages would unite against other villages. Relationship between families was expressed through blood, marriage, and shared ancestral houses (tongkonan), practically signed by the exchange of water buffalo and pigs on ritual occasions. Such exchanges not only built political and cultural ties between families but defined each person's place in a social hierarchy: who poured palm wine, who wrapped a corpse and prepared offerings, where each person could or could not sit, what dishes should be used or avoided, and even what piece of meat constituted one's share.
CLASS AFFILIATION
In early Toraja society, family relationships were tied closely to social class. There were three strata: nobles, commoners, and slaves (slavery was abolished in 1909 by the Dutch East Indies government). Class was inherited through the mother. It was taboo, therefore, to marry "down" with a woman of lower class. On the other hand, marrying a woman of higher class could improve the status of the next generation. The nobility's condescending attitude toward the commoners is still maintained today for reasons of family prestige.
Nobles, who were believed to be direct descendants of the descended person from heaven, lived in tongkonans, while commoners lived in less lavish houses (bamboo shacks called banua). Slaves lived in small huts, which had to be built around their owner's tongkonan. Commoners might marry anyone, but nobles preferred to marry in-family to maintain their status. Sometimes nobles married Bugis or Makassarese nobles. Commoners and slaves were prohibited from having death feasts. Despite close kinship and status inheritance, there was some social mobility, as marriage or change in wealth could affect an individuals status. Wealth was counted by the ownership of water buffaloes.
Slaves in Toraja society were family property. Sometimes Torajans decided to become slaves when they incurred a debt, pledging to work as payment. Slaves could be taken during wars, and slave trading was common. Slaves could buy their freedom, but their children still inherited slave status. Slaves were prohibited from wearing bronze or gold, carving their houses, eating from the same dishes as their owners, or having sex with free women—a crime punishable by death.
RELIGIOUS AFFILATION
Toraja's indigenous belief system is polytheistic animism, called aluk, or "the way" (sometimes translated as "the law"). In the Toraja myth, the ancestors of Torajan people came down from heaven using stairs, which were then used by the Torajans as a communication medium with Puang Matua, the Creator. The cosmos, according to aluk, is divided into the upper world (heaven), the world of man (earth), and the underworld. At first, heaven and earth were married, then there was a darkness, a separation, and finally the light. Animals live in the underworld, which is represented by rectangular space enclosed by pillars, the earth is for mankind, and the heaven world is located above, covered with a saddle-shaped roof. Other Toraja gods include Pong Banggai di Rante (god of Earth), Indo' Ongon-Ongon (a goddess who can cause earthquakes), Pong Lalondong (god of death), and Indo' Belo Tumbang (goddess of medicine); there are many more.
The earthly authority, whose words and actions should be cleaved to both in life (agriculture) and death (funerals), is called to minaa (an aluk priest). Aluk is not just a belief system; it is a combination of law, religion, and habit. Aluk governs social life, agricultural practices, and ancestral rituals. The details of aluk may vary from one village to another. One common law is the requirement that death and life rituals be separated. Torajans believe that performing death rituals might ruin their corpses if combined with life rituals. The two rituals are equally important. During the time of the Dutch missionaries, Christian Torajans were prohibited from attending or performing life rituals, but were allowed to perform death rituals. Consequently, Toraja's death rituals are still practised today, while life rituals have diminished.
CULTURE
TONGKONAN
Tongkonan are the traditional Torajan ancestral houses. They stand high on wooden piles, topped with a layered split-bamboo roof shaped in a sweeping curved arc, and they are incised with red, black, and yellow detailed wood carvings on the exterior walls. The word "tongkonan" comes from the Torajan tongkon ("to sit").
Tongkonan are the center of Torajan social life. The rituals associated with the tongkonan are important expressions of Torajan spiritual life, and therefore all family members are impelled to participate, because symbolically the tongkonan represents links to their ancestors and to living and future kin. According to Torajan myth, the first tongkonan was built in heaven on four poles, with a roof made of Indian cloth. When the first Torajan ancestor descended to earth, he imitated the house and held a large ceremony.
The construction of a tongkonan is laborious work and is usually done with the help of the extended family. There are three types of tongkonan. The tongkonan layuk is the house of the highest authority, used as the "center of government". The tongkonan pekamberan belongs to the family members who have some authority in local traditions. Ordinary family members reside in the tongkonan batu. The exclusivity to the nobility of the tongkonan is diminishing as many Torajan commoners find lucrative employment in other parts of Indonesia. As they send back money to their families, they enable the construction of larger tongkonan.
Architecture in the style of a tongkonan is still very common. Various administration buildings were built in this style in recent years, e.g. the Kecamatan building in Rantepao.
WOOD CARVINGS
To express social and religious concepts, Torajans carve wood, calling it Pa'ssura (or "the writing"). Wood carvings are therefore Toraja's cultural manifestation.
Each carving receives a special name, and common motifs are animals and plants that symbolise some virtue. For example, water plants and animals, such as crabs, tadpoles and water weeds, are commonly found to symbolise fertility. In some areas noble elders claim these symbols refer to strength of noble family, but not everyone agrees. The overall meaning of groups of carved motifs on houses remains debated and tourism has further complicated these debates because some feel a uniform explanation must be presented to tourists. Torajan wood carvings are composed of numerous square panels, each of which can represent various things, for example buffaloes as a wish of wealth for the family; a knot and a box, symbolizing the hope that all of the family's offspring will be happy and live in harmony; aquatic animals, indicating the need for fast and hard work, just like moving on the surface of water.
Regularity and order are common features in Toraja wood carving (see table below), as well as abstracts and geometrical designs. Nature is frequently used as the basis of Toraja's ornaments, because nature is full of abstractions and geometries with regularities and ordering. Toraja's ornaments have been studied in ethnomathematics to reveal their mathematical structure, but Torajans base this art only on approximations. To create an ornament, bamboo sticks are used as a geometrical tool.
FUNERAL RITES
In Toraja society, the funeral ritual is the most elaborate and expensive event. The richer and more powerful the individual, the more expensive is the funeral. In the aluk religion, only nobles have the right to have an extensive death feast. The death feast of a nobleman is usually attended by thousands and lasts for several days. A ceremonial site, called rante, is usually prepared in a large, grassy field where shelters for audiences, rice barns, and other ceremonial funeral structures are specially made by the deceased's family. Flute music, funeral chants, songs and poems, and crying and wailing are traditional Toraja expressions of grief with the exceptions of funerals for young children, and poor, low-status adults.
The ceremony is often held weeks, months, or years after the death so that the deceased's family can raise the significant funds needed to cover funeral expenses. Torajans traditionally believe that death is not a sudden, abrupt event, but a gradual process toward Puya (the land of souls, or afterlife). During the waiting period, the body of the deceased is wrapped in several layers of cloth and kept under the tongkonan. The soul of the deceased is thought to linger around the village until the funeral ceremony is completed, after which it begins its journey to Puya.
Another component of the ritual is the slaughter of water buffalo. The more powerful the person who died, the more buffalo are slaughtered at the death feast. Buffalo carcasses, including their heads, are usually lined up on a field waiting for their owner, who is in the "sleeping stage". Torajans believe that the deceased will need the buffalo to make the journey and that they will be quicker to arrive at Puya if they have many buffalo. Slaughtering tens of water buffalo and hundreds of pigs using a machete is the climax of the elaborate death feast, with dancing and music and young boys who catch spurting blood in long bamboo tubes. Some of the slaughtered animals are given by guests as "gifts", which are carefully noted because they will be considered debts of the deceased's family. However, a cockfight, known as bulangan londong, is an integral part of the ceremony. As with the sacrifice of the buffalo and the pigs, the cockfight is considered sacred because it involves the spilling of blood on the earth. In particular, the tradition requires the sacrifice of at least three chickens. However, it is common for at least 25 pairs of chickens to be set against each other in the context of the ceremony.
There are three methods of burial: the coffin may be laid in a cave or in a carved stone grave, or hung on a cliff. It contains any possessions that the deceased will need in the afterlife. The wealthy are often buried in a stone grave carved out of a rocky cliff. The grave is usually expensive and takes a few months to complete. In some areas, a stone cave may be found that is large enough to accommodate a whole family. A wood-carved effigy, called Tau tau, is usually placed in the cave looking out over the land. The coffin of a baby or child may be hung from ropes on a cliff face or from a tree. This hanging grave usually lasts for years, until the ropes rot and the coffin falls to the ground.
In the ritual called Ma'Nene, that takes place each year in August, the bodies of the deceased are exhumed to be washed, groomed and dressed in new clothes. The mummies are then walked around the village.
DANNCE AND MUSIC
Torajans perform dances on several occasions, most often during their elaborate funeral ceremonies. They dance to express their grief, and to honour and even cheer the deceased person because he is going to have a long journey in the afterlife. First, a group of men form a circle and sing a monotonous chant throughout the night to honour the deceased (a ritual called Ma'badong). This is considered by many Torajans to be the most important component of the funeral ceremony. On the second funeral day, the Ma'randing warrior dance is performed to praise the courage of the deceased during life. Several men perform the dance with a sword, a large shield made from buffalo skin, a helmet with a buffalo horn, and other ornamentation. The Ma'randing dance precedes a procession in which the deceased is carried from a rice barn to the rante, the site of the funeral ceremony. During the funeral, elder women perform the Ma'katia dance while singing a poetic song and wearing a long feathered costume. The Ma'akatia dance is performed to remind the audience of the generosity and loyalty of the deceased person. After the bloody ceremony of buffalo and pig slaughter, a group of boys and girls clap their hands while performing a cheerful dance called Ma'dondan.
As in other agricultural societies, Torajans dance and sing during harvest time. The Ma'bugi dance celebrates the thanksgiving event, and the Ma'gandangi dance is performed while Torajans are pounding rice. There are several war dances, such as the Manimbong dance performed by men, followed by the Ma'dandan dance performed by women. The aluk religion governs when and how Torajans dance. A dance called Ma'bua can be performed only once every 12 years. Ma'bua is a major Toraja ceremony in which priests wear a buffalo head and dance around a sacred tree.
A traditional musical instrument of the Toraja is a bamboo flute called a Pa'suling (suling is an Indonesian word for flute). This six-holed flute (not unique to the Toraja) is played at many dances, such as the thanksgiving dance Ma'bondensan, where the flute accompanies a group of shirtless, dancing men with long fingernails. The Toraja have indigenous musical instruments, such as the Pa'pelle (made from palm leaves) and the Pa'karombi (the Torajan version of a jaw harp). The Pa'pelle is played during harvest time and at house inauguration ceremonies.
COGENDER VIEWS
Among the Saʼadan (eastern Toraja) in the island of Sulawesi (Celebes), Indonesia, there are homosexual male toburake tambolang shamans; although among their neighbors the Mamasa (western Toraja) there are instead only heterosexual female toburake shamanesses.
LANGUAGE
The ethnic Toraja language is dominant in Tana Toraja with the main language as the Sa'dan Toraja. Although the national Indonesian language is the official language and is spoken in the community, all elementary schools in Tana Toraja teach Toraja language.
Language varieties of Toraja, including Kalumpang, Mamasa, Tae, Talondo, Toala, and Toraja-Sa'dan, belong to the Malayo-Polynesian language from the Austronesian family. At the outset, the isolated geographical nature of Tana Toraja formed many dialects between the Toraja languages themselves. After the formal administration of Tana Toraja, some Toraja dialects have been influenced by other languages through the transmigration program, introduced since the colonialism period, and it has been a major factor in the linguistic variety of Toraja languages.
A prominent attribute of Toraja language is the notion of grief. The importance of death ceremony in Toraja culture has characterised their languages to express intricate degrees of grief and mourning. The Toraja language contains many terms referring to sadness, longing, depression, and mental pain. Giving a clear expression of the psychological and physical effect of loss is a catharsis and sometimes lessens the pain of grief itself.
ECONOMY
Prior to Suharto's "New Order" administration, the Torajan economy was based on agriculture, with cultivated wet rice in terraced fields on mountain slopes, and supplemental cassava and maize crops. Much time and energy were devoted to raising water buffalo, pigs, and chickens, primarily for ceremonial sacrifices and consumption. Coffee was the first significant cash crop produced in Toraja, and was introduced in the mid 19th century, changing the local economy towards commodity production for external markets and gaining an excellent reputation for quality in the international market.
With the commencement of the New Order in 1965, Indonesia's economy developed and opened to foreign investment. In Toraja, a coffee plantation and factory was established by Key Coffee of Japan, and Torajan coffee regained a reputation for quality within the growing international specialty coffee sector Multinational oil and mining companies opened new operations in Indonesia during the 1970s and 1980s. Torajans, particularly younger ones, relocated to work for the foreign companies—to Kalimantan for timber and oil, to Papua for mining, to the cities of Sulawesi and Java, and many went to Malaysia. The out-migration of Torajans was steady until 1985. and has continued since, with remittances sent back by emigre Torajans performing an important role within the contemporary economy.
Tourism commenced in Toraja in the 1970s, and accelerated in the 1980s and 1990s. Between 1984 and 1997, a significant number of Torajans obtained their incomes from tourism, working in and owning hotels, as tour guides, drivers, or selling souvenirs. With the rise of political and economic instability in Indonesia in the late 1990s—including religious conflicts elsewhere on Sulawesi—tourism in Tana Toraja has declined dramatically. Toraja continues to be a well known origin for Indonesian coffee, grown by both smallholders and plantation estates, although migration, remittances and off-farm income is considered far more important to most households, even those in rural areas.
TOURISM AND CULTURAL CHANGE
Before the 1970s, Toraja was almost unknown to Western tourism. In 1971, about 50 Europeans visited Tana Toraja. In 1972, at least 400 visitors attended the funeral ritual of Puang of Sangalla, the highest-ranking nobleman in Tana Toraja and the so-called "last pure-blooded Toraja noble." The event was documented by National Geographic and broadcast in several European countries. In 1976, about 12,000 tourists visited the regency and in 1981, Torajan sculpture was exhibited in major North American museums. "The land of the heavenly kings of Tana Toraja", as written in the exhibition brochure, embraced the outside world.
In 1984, the Indonesian Ministry of Tourism declared Tana Toraja Regency the prima donna of South Sulawesi. Tana Toraja was heralded as "the second stop after Bali". Tourism was increasing dramatically: by 1985, a total number of 150,000 foreigners had visited the Regency (in addition to 80,000 domestic tourists), and the annual number of foreign visitors was recorded at 40,000 in 1989. Souvenir stands appeared in Rantepao, the cultural center of Toraja, roads were sealed at the most-visited tourist sites, new hotels and tourist-oriented restaurants were opened, and an airstrip was opened in the Regency in 1981.
Tourism developers have marketed Tana Toraja as an exotic adventure—an area rich in culture and off the beaten track. Western tourists expected to see stone-age villages and pagan funerals. Toraja is for tourists who have gone as far as Bali and are willing to see more of the wild, "untouched" islands. However, they were more likely to see a Torajan wearing a hat and denim, living in a Christian society. Tourists felt that the tongkonan and other Torajan rituals had been preconceived to make profits, and complained that the destination was too commercialised. This has resulted in several clashes between Torajans and tourism developers, whom Torajans see as outsiders.
A clash between local Torajan leaders and the South Sulawesi provincial government (as a tourist developer) broke out in 1985. The government designated 18 Toraja villages and burial sites as traditional tourist attractions. Consequently, zoning restrictions were applied to these areas, such that Torajans themselves were barred from changing their tongkonans and burial sites. The plan was opposed by some Torajan leaders, as they felt that their rituals and traditions were being determined by outsiders. As a result, in 1987, the Torajan village of Kété Kesú and several other designated tourist attractions closed their doors to tourists. This closure lasted only a few days, as the villagers found it too difficult to survive without the income from selling souvenirs.
Tourism has also transformed Toraja society. Originally, there was a ritual which allowed commoners to marry nobles (puang) and thereby gain nobility for their children. However, the image of Torajan society created for the tourists, often by "lower-ranking" guides, has eroded its traditional strict hierarchy. High status is not as esteemed in Tana Toraja as it once was. Many low-ranking men can declare themselves and their children nobles by gaining enough wealth through work outside the region and then marrying a noble woman.
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