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nrhp # 76000599- The Koreshan Unity was a communal utopia formed by Cyrus Teed, who took the name "Koresh", the original Persian form of his name Cyrus. The Koreshans followed Teed's beliefs, called Koreshanity.
The Koreshan Unity started in the 1870s in New York, where Teed started preaching his beliefs. He formed short-lived groups in New York City and Moravia. He later moved to Chicago. Teed's followers formed a commune in Chicago in 1888 called Beth-Ophra. Some followers also formed a short-lived community in San Francisco (1891-2). Small church groups existed in other towns.
Eventually, Teed took his followers to Estero, Florida, to form his "New Jerusalem" in 1894. The community was at its peak 1903–1908, when it had over 250 residents. There were apparently another 4,000 believers around the country. Teed had a vision in which he was to establish a utopian city of 10,000,000 with streets up to 400 feet (120 m) wide. Membership declined following his death in 1908.
The group built extensively, establishing a bakery, printing house (publishing their newspaper and other publications), the "World College of Life", a general store, concrete works, power plant (supplying power to the surrounding area years before it was available elsewhere in the region) and more. The colony was extensively landscaped. There has been work to document and preserve the grounds in Estero (a Florida State Park.)
In 1906, the community formed the Progressive Liberal Party to run several candidates for county government against the local Democratic Party but were never successful. This Progressive Liberal Party consisted of Koreshans, socialists, Republicans, and dissatisfied Democrats. The Koreshans had already incorporated Estero and were seeking further political power in Lee County. After Teed died in 1908 the group went into decline. Several groups split off from the Unity. One such group was the Order of Theocracy that left in 1910 and moved to nearby Ft. Myers. This group lasted until 1931. The fact the Unity was celibate did not help, although celibacy was not the real problem since there was a married status within the Unity. Celibates were the highest order. Without new members joining, the group slowly dwindled. It continued to publish the Flaming Sword until the printing press burned down in 1949. It also published the American Eagle, which began in 1906 and later became a horticultural newspaper.
The last remaining follower, Hedwig Michel, joined in 1940. She had learned of the Koreshans in Germany, and fled Nazi persecution. She ceded the main portion of the commune grounds to Florida to form a state park in 1961. The Koreshan State Park (now known as the Koreshan State Historic Site) was opened in 1967. Hedwig Michel continued to live in the building known as the "Planetary Court". She died in 1981. She is the only Koreshan buried within the park. Two other Koreshan cemeteries are nearby, one of which lies within a gated community and the other on land owned by the Audubon Society. Partly due to the Koreshan belief in a form of reincarnation, little, if anything, was done to care for these cemeteries. The only permanent grave stones were put in by family members.
from Wikipedia
Recent wall work in slate, glass and found materials including bone and lead. Had some great tips on fb for a title....looking at something spacey/lunar/arc-ish. Still working on an overall view.
After purchasing the fine book by Paul Jackson "Folding techniques for designers," I decided to fold the tessellations by Ron Resch. Not that they are in the book but the figure of Ron Resch has always intrigued me. Apart from folding paper, which is always a good thing, Ron Resch was an architect, that perhaps is also nice ... I do not know, I'm an architect and sometimes I like it and sometimes I don't ... but in general I feel akin to other architects, not all architects. However Ron Resch was an architect here he is in beautiful pictures uploaded by Eric Gjierde. Look at that face: the face of an architect; my father was an engineer and when I was a child, all his architects friends, tremendously resembled Ron Resch ... the beard had to be some kind of uniform... unfortunatly I cannot wear it. But Ron Resch is not only famous for his paper tessellations, Ron Resch did other jobs, first of all he was a teacher and a researcher at the university and... consultant for the geometry of the spaceships of Star Trek. This is stuff that has always intrigued me and also I've always envied. I do not know what I would give to do that job. I have no idea about how one becomes a consultant for the design of the geometry of the spaceships, and end up working with Isaac Asimov: well! Is there a degree? Do you send your curriculum to a certain emailing? No, because I am an architect and I have some experience in the field of geometry ... not to mention my experience in Star Trek! That, of the three subjects is certainly the one that I know better.
In his spare time Ron Resch was also an artist and is known for having built a work of art known as "the world's largest Easter egg ... and who knows me by name and surname will well understand that at this point my respect for Ron Resch is now skyrocketing. Unfortunately on Ron Resch are very few reports. There is something on Wikipedia in the "origami" entry, and there is also an interestingarticle on their site, by Erik and Martin Demaine, unfortunately the links to the website of Ron Resch have been disabled and substituted with something else I must advice to NOT try to connect to, unless you are adult (very adult... actually... at first sight I did not even understand so well what it was)... unuseful to say that I would love to have back the real Ron Resch's site. The tessellations are a real fun to fold, according to GeneratorX Ron Resch patented these tessellations. I do not know whether it is true that you can patent such a simple fold, I think that rather than patent the fold he patented the structures based on this tessellation, any way thanks (many thanks!) to Eric Gjerde we can link to the patent (I haven't read it yet... so I'm not sure about what I'm saying) .... in any case the pattern is quite easy and as wrote here others arrived independently at the same result ... with all the other regular tessellating polygons... as it was probably not easy but obvious. Finally I love the tactom's and Daniel Piker's video and I love the research developed by responsive kinematics ... I wish I did it myself.
I now want to fold a really big tess ... I have the paper, but not the time ... in any case will be a job to do with the warm season :-))) while waitng I'll continue my experiments on the A4 ... there will be time for A0 or better A0s. I wish all of you to be polyhedric :-))
4/9/2017 - Curso “A Importância da Formação Humanística do Magistrado – Uma comparação filosófica Europa/América Latina” - Emagis TRF4 - Foto: Sylvio Sirangelo/TRF4
Rocky planets may be able to form in harsher environments than we thought. Webb detected key building blocks of planets, including water and carbon dioxide, in a rocky planet-forming zone being hit by extreme amounts of ultraviolet radiation.
Planets are formed from disks of gas, dust and rock surrounding stars. The specific disk Webb observed, XUE 1, is near several massive stars. These stars emit high levels of ultraviolet radiation, which scientists expected would disperse gas and break apart chemical molecules.
To the team’s surprise, Webb found partially crystalline silicate dust, plus various molecules (water, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen cyanide, acetylene) that can form rocky planets. It’s the first time such molecules have been detected under these extreme conditions.
Learn more: www.nasa.gov/missions/webb/webb-study-reveals-rocky-plane...
This image: This spectrum shows data from the protoplanetary disk termed XUE 1, which is located in the star cluster Pismis 24. The inner disk around XUE 1 revealed signatures of water (highlighted here in blue), as well as acetylene (C2H2, green), hydrogen cyanide (HCN, brown), and carbon dioxide (CO2, red). As indicated, some of the emission detected was weaker than some of the predicted models, which might imply a small outer disk radius.
Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, M. Ramírez-Tannus (Max Planck Institute for Astronomy), J. Olmsted (STScI)
[Image description: Graphic titled “XUE 1 Irradiated Protoplanetary Disk, MIRI Medium -Resolution Spectroscopy” shows a graph of brightness on the y-axis versus wavelength of light in microns on the x-axis. An arrow pointing down along the y-axis reads “dimmer;” arrow pointing up reads “brighter.” (There are no values or tick marks on the y-axis.) The x-axis ranges from 13.3 microns on the left to 15.5 microns on the right, labeled in even increments of 0.5 microns, starting at 13.5. A key in the upper right corner shows that model data are plotted in purple and Webb data are plotted in white. Both the model and data form jagged lines with numerous peaks and valleys. The model and data do not match perfectly, but the general trends align. Four sets of peaks are highlighted and labeled. (1) Acetylene, C 2 H 2—highlighted in green; centered around 13.7 microns. (2) Hydrogen Cyanide, H C N—brown; 14.0 microns. (3) Water, H 2 O—blue; 14.2 microns. (4) Carbon Dioxide, C O 2—bright red; 14.95 microns.]
I must be getting old as I've gone for function over form by fitting mudguards to my Pompino. Maybe I'll actually get some road miles in this winter, I normally head off-road if the roads are damp.
All Saints, Hitcham, Suffolk
If you don't know mid-Suffolk, you may well be surprised by the hills which roll across the space between Stowmarket and Hadleigh, as if this was not East Anglia at all. In this remotest part of the county, miles from the nearest town, villages take on a self-sufficient air, and Hitcham is the largest of them. Its church, All Saints, sits high in a wide open churchyard on the outskirts of the village. The house opposite the entrance to the graveyard was the medieval guild hall. This is a big church, and was once the centre of one of the county's largest parishes. It was the Priory of Ely's most valuable living in the whole of the county, worth twice as much as any other, and was therefore bestowed on favoured clerics.
This situation continued when the patronage was taken over by the state after the Reformation, and to be made rector of Hitcham remained a desirable appointment well into the 20th Century. As the excellent guidebook notes, some rectors of this parish achieved fame and influence. Take Adam Easton, for instance. In the 14th Century, he was made a cardinal while still rector here. However, as he was also Archdeacon of Shetland, Orkney and Dorset, as well as Prior of Saint Agnes at Ferrara in Italy and the personal secretary to Pope Urban VI, one assumes that he didn't spend a lot of his time on parish business. His successor John Bremore was the personal secretary to the antipope John XXIII at Avignon, so presumably he didn't live in the parish either.
John Whytewell, Rector throughout the Reformation, was chaplain to Thomas Cranmer, although, unlike that stubborn character, he received a royal pardon from Mary. Coming forward to the 17th Century, Laurence Bretton was a solid Laudian, ensuring his inevitable removal by the Puritans as a scandalous minister (for which, read 'liberal intellectual'). His successor, Miles Burket, had also been a Laudian, but in a Vicar of Bray fashion he became the Puritan preacher here, and died in poverty after the Restoration.
Mostly, the Rectors here seem to have been a jolly lot. John Matters, in the first decades of the 19th century, was famous for his befriending of, and care for, the poor of the parish, matched only by his neglect of his ecclesiastical duty. He is quoted in the guide as having a favourite saying: He that drinks strong beer, and goes to bed quite mellow, lives as he ought, and dies a hearty fellow. And his successor was Hitcham's most famous rector of all, but we'll come back to him in a minute.
Hitcham was not home to a great landed family, so it was the power and wealth of Ely priory that built this church. It is a grand affair, entirely rebuilt in the 14th and 15th centuries. One look tells you that this was not a piecemeal building. Mortlock observes that the grand flushwork porch is very like the one at neighbouring Bildeston, but it does not seem so imposing here against this big building. There is a very odd stop on the 15th century doorway. The one on the left is a lion, but on the right there appears to be a wild man and a tree surrounded by a picket fence.
At first sight, the interior is slightly disappointing. Large and plain, it is as if it had been scraped clean by Miles Burket's cronies, perhaps in reaction to the incumbency of Laurence Bretton. The brick floors are attractive, and the fine 14th century aches of the arcades reach right up into the clerestory, but the heavy Victorian woodwork gives it all a sombre feel.
The hammerbeam roof was rebuilt after the Reformation, and includes lots of unfamiliar secular imagery, the heraldry of the State. However, there is some dispute about exactly when this happened, why, and how much was renewed. The arms of both James I and Charles I are here, giving a date in the first third of the 17th century, but the pineapple pendants appear more recent. At the west end, however, there are a couple of secretive green men on the hammer beam ends, which must be from an earlier age. One theory suggests that the roof was repaired in a hurry after a fire, and then beautified later.
The chancel is a 19th century rebuilding (a photograph of this event, which used to be at the west end, is rather alarming, like a gap-toothed Madonna) and it is evidence of the Anglo-catholic enthusiasm of Alexander Grant, Rector for the last 40 years of the 19th Century. At nearby Kettlebaston, this enthusiasm was realised by the Vicar there in the form of a gorgeous little shrine, but here, something more grandiloquent was intended. Hence the five steps up to the chancel, and two more up to the sanctuary, representative of the seven sacraments of the Catholic Church, and familiar from 19th century London Anglo-catholic churches. There is no evidence that Anglo-catholicism ever took such a firm foothold here, though.
The chancel is so grand, some visitors must easily overlook the remains of the rood screen. Only the dado survives, but it is worth a look because instead of saints the panels depict angels holding the instruments of the Passion. Something similar can be seen at Blundeston in the north of the county, and there are also angels on the screen at Southwold of course. Not surprisingly, they were vandalised by the 16th century reformers. What is more surprising is that they have survived at all. Presumably they were moved to their present position at the time of the 19th century reordering, but when Arthur Mee came here in the 1930s, he could barely discern them as figures, and thought them saints. So they've been restored, probably under the influence of Munro Cautley when he was diocesan architect.
In such a wealthy parish, perhaps it is not surprising that little else medieval survives. The converse of this, of course, that the restoration of this church has generally provided work of quality. Although the benches are heavy, they do carry several bench ends which are probably the work of the great Ipswich woodcarver Henry Ringham. The best are the four evangelistic symbols towards the front. In fact, the guidebook suggests that the benches were removed from the church towards the end of the 19th century and replaced with chairs as at Rattlesden and Kettlebaston, only to be returned at the behest of the eccentric and splendidly-named Maxwell Maxwell-Gumbleton, who was jointly Bishop of Dunwich and Rector of Hitcham in the 1930s and 1940s. Maxwell-Gumbleton had a Bishop's throne built, which he installed in the chancel. It must have given his parishioners something to think about. It is still there today, and is replicated in slightly more modest form by the churchwardens' seats at the west end. Maxwell-Gumbleton's also are the George VI coat of arms, dated 1937, and a lovely modern font cover, given as a memorial.
From an earlier age are the very elaborate brass inlay in front of the sanctuary, and the mid-17th century memorial to a Waldegrave in the north aisle, more austere than it would have been twenty years before or after. In the south aisle there is a copy of the Adoration of the Magi by Rubens, which is in Kings College Chapel. At first, I couldn't work out why it looks a little odd, and then it hit me - it is in reverse.
Many years ago, I chatted with a churchwarden here, and she told me tha, although 42 men in this parish lost their lives in the first world war, only 28 of them are remembered on the war memorial here. She suggested that this was perhaps because the others were from chapel families, or perhaps the families had moved away before the memorial was installed. Whatever, it gave me pause for thought, for if a similar situation exists in other parishes, then we may assume that many hundreds of people who gave their lives have, in fact, been forgotten.
But one name stands out in this parish as forever being associated with it. You might overlook the simple memorial in the chancel by Thomas Woolner, and you'll certainly miss the little memorial plaque above the door as you came in, but both are worth a look because they both remember the same person, the great John Stevens Henslow.
Henslow was a remarkable man by anyone's standards. He was Regius Professor of Botany at Cambridge University in the 1830s, and was looked on with enough favour to secure the lucrative Hitcham rectorship. However, rather than send a poorly-paid curate to do his work for him, which would have been the usual early 19th century Trollopeian way, he followed in John Manner's footsteps, and came to Hitcham himself.
It is hard now to imagine what a contrast this remote place must have been with cosmopolitan Cambridge, barely 40 miles away. Henslow wrote in his diary that he had come to "a woefully neglected parish, where the inhabitants, with regard to food and clothing and the means of observing the decencies of life, were far below the average scale of the peasant class in England." It is recorded that his first congregation here in this vast space was insufficient to fill one pew.
Over the course of the next 25 years, he turned his parish upside down, applying his scientific knowledge to the antiquated and conservative farming methods of the local farmers. He increased their prosperity, and that of the poor farm labourers. He started a school, and an institute of adult education. He led outings through the local countryside, and would sometimes take the whole parish on the train to London, including one trip to the great Exhibition of 1851 in Hyde Park. It was said that the entire village emptied on these occasions, travelling by cart and on foot to Stowmarket railway station, and then on to London.
"Everyone is to be in good humour", he told his parishioners, "accommodating to all, and especially attentive to the ladies of the party. If the weather should prove unpropitious, every one is to make the best of it, and not to complain more than he can possibly help."
It is said that, on holiday at Felixstowe, he realised the fertilizing properties of the coprolite nodules in the cliffs there, and interested two local farming brothers so much that they set up a fertiliser processing factory at Ipswich docks. Their name was Fison.
But an even more famous name associated with Henslow is Charles Darwin, one of Henslow's students at Cambridge. Henslow encouraged Darwin to investigate the development of species, finding him a place aboard HMS Beagle, the scientific survey ship. Darwin sent his notes and samples back to Henslow, who circulated them in the scientific community. Darwin came back to England to find himself a celebrity. The basis of The Origin of Species was put together at Hitcham Rectory, although Henslow would later repudiate its conclusions.
Most importantly, however, as far as my children were concerned when they were younger, Henslow was the guiding light behind the opening of Ipswich Museum, which still retains one of the finest 19th century natural history collections in the country. A portrait of him hangs in the entrance hall, and the name of a road in the east of the town remembers him.
He died at the relatively young age of 65. His predecessor had been the jolly John Matters. His successor was the Anglo-catholic enthusiast Alexander Grant, who, as well as rebuilding the chancel, is still remembered in the village for taking the side of the workers during the lock-out strike of 1874, when he allowed them to use the church building for their meetings.
These three extraordinary men between them spanned the entire 19th century here. Trollope himself could not have written a better novel.
Catedral
De estilo gótico, se inicio su construcción en 1433 por los arquitectos Ysambret y Carlín sobre la antigua mezquita mayor almohade, durando su construcción 65 años siendo terminada en 1507.
Templo de planta rectangular formado por cinco naves compartidas en 8 tramos de capillas y crucero. 28 pilares adosados, más 32 exentos, soportan las 68 bóvedas ojivales que se escalonan desde el tramo central mas alto (37 m) hasta el tramo más bajo situado en las capillas (12.80 m).
La nave central está formada por la capilla mayor y el coro. Se accede a la capilla mayor a través de tres rejas de hierro dorado realizadas en el siglo XVI. En su interior se ubica el retablo mayor.
Entre el coro y la capilla mayor se encuentra la capilla de San Fernando, el crucero y el trascoro. Entre el periodo comprendido entre 1528 y 1593 se construyeron una serie de dependencias en estilo plateresco y manierista anexas al templo en el lado sureste de la Catedral.
El periodo barroco de la Catedral corresponde a la construcción de la parroquia del Sagrario (1618-1663) decorada en su interior con relieves vegetales y grupo escultórico en las tribunas.
El Pabellón de Oficinas situado desde el crucero hacia los pies del templo comenzó siendo un granero en el siglo XVIII pero fue transformado en oficinas en 1930. Actualmente es el Pabellón de Recepción de visita turística.
Inicia su construcción en 1.401 en el solar de la mezquita mayor almohade.
Su financiación corre a cargo de donaciones privadas de canónicos, prelados y de algunos laicos, estableciéndose también un impuesto sobre el comercio de la carne cuyo importe se destina a la citada obra.
La catedral tiene planta de salón con cinco naves y capillas entre los contrafuertes. Mide 116 metros de largo por 76 de ancho y 93 vidrieras.
En 1.660 se fundó en el edificio la primera Academia de Bellas Artes Sevillana.
www.sevillaguia.com/sevillaguia/monumentos/catedral.htm
Puertas:
Del Bautismo. Aparece el bautismo de Cristo con varias estatuas de Santos, todos ellos obra de Lorenzo Mercadante de Bretaña, más una serie de ángeles y profetas, obra de Pedro Millán.
Del Nacimiento. Figura el nacimiento de Jesús con obras de Lorenzo Mercadante y Pedro Millán.
De la Asunción. Fue realizada en el siglo XIX en dos etapas, una de 1.829 al 1831, y otra de 1.877 al 1.898. En esta última Ricardo Ballver hizo el relieve del tímpano y las figuras de los apóstoles.
Del Príncipe o de San Cristóbal. Construida entre 1.887 y 1.895.
De la Concepción. Construida entre 1.895 a 1.927.
De los Palos. Representa la Adoración de los Reyes (siglo XVI).
De las Campanillas. Representa la entrada en Jerusalén (siglo XVI).
Capillas Principales:
Capilla Real. Su estilo es renacentista y fue proyectada e iniciada por Martín de Gainza en 1.541 y posteriormente por Hernán Ruiz. Por ser panteón de Fernando III, Alfonso X y Beatriz de Suabia se conservan en él una serie de obras de arte y recuerdos históricos relacionados con la familia real. La Virgen de los Reyes, proclamada patrona de la ciudad de Sevilla y de sus Archidiócesis en 1946 por el Papa Pío XII, también se encuentra situada en esta capilla por su especial vinculación con el Rey Fernando, el Santo.
Capilla Mayor. La ampliación de esta capilla se hizo en 1.518. Su estilo arquitectónico es renacentista. Las rejas de hierro dorado que cierran la capilla fueron realizadas por fray Francisco de Salamanca en 1.529 (sólo el frente principal). Las laterales son obra de Sancho Muñoz, Diego de Huidobro y Juan de Couillana. En ella se encuentra el retablo mayor.
En 1.528 Diego de Riaño Comienza la Sacristía Mayor.
La Capilla de la Virgen de la antigua. Está situada en el lugar que ocupaba el mihrab de la mezquita. La capilla es de planta rectangular, cubierta con bóveda de nervaduras.
El Retablo Mayor:
Es un retablo que resume las tendencias que conviven en la transición del gótico al renacimiento. Nombraremos algunos maestros que intervinieron en su construcción: Pieter Dancart (1.481 a 1.488), Marco (1.497 a 1.506), Pedro Millán ( 1.507 a 1.508), Alejo y Jorge Fernández. Tiene 230 metros cuadrados de superficie
Realizado en varias etapas iniciándose en 1482 y completándose en 1564. Fueron varios los escultores que trabajaron en él. Consta de cuatro cuerpos de altura y cuatro calles en vertical, rematada con crestería y enmarcado por pilares con relieves de los Reyes de Israel y Judá.
Forman el retablo un conjunto de cuarenta y cuatro relieves y más de doscientas figuras de santos que se disponen en las pilastras que articulan el retablo. Dosel con figura de la “Piedad” flanqueada por un apostolado y sobre ellos “Calvario” gótico del siglo XIV.
En el banco, figura gótica de la “Virgen de la Sede” realizada en el siglo XIII, acompañada por relieves de tres escenas de martirios de santos, las” Santas Justa y Rufina” y “San Isidoro y San Leandro”.
En el primer cuerpo: “ El Nacimiento de la Virgen”, “El abrazo de San Joaquín y Santa Ana”, “La Anunciación”, “ El Nacimiento de Cristo”, “ La matanza de los inocentes”, “La Circuncisión y "La Adoración a los Reyes”.
En el segundo cuerpo: “La Presentación del Niño en el Templo”, “ El Bautismo de Cristo”, “La Resurrección de Lázaro”, “La Asunción de la Virgen”, “La entrada de Cristo en Jerusalén”, “La Sagrada Cena” y “La Oración en el Huerto”.
En el tercer cuerpo: “Camino del Calvario”, “La Flagelación”, ”La Coronación de Espinas”, “La Resurrección”, “Ecce Homo”, “El Expolio” y “El Prendimiento de Cristo”.
En el cuarto cuerpo, “El Entierro de Cristo”, “Las Marías en el Sepulcro”, ”La Magdalena a los pies de Cristo Resucitado”, “La Ascensión", "Bajada de Cristo al Limbo”, “La Cena de Emaus" y “La Venida del Espíritu Santo”.
En los laterales del retablo representaciones de “La Creación de Eva”, “La Huida a Egipto”, “Cristo entre los Doctores”, “La Transfiguración” y “La Magdalena ungiendo los pies a Cristo”. A la derecha figuran “El Pecado original”,”El Juicio Final”, “La Multiplicación de los panes y de los peces”, “La Expulsión de los mercaderes del templo” y “La Conversión de San Pablo”.
Sala Capitular:
Es de planta elíptica, proyectada por Hernán Ruiz y completada, a su muerte, por Asensio de Maeda. Posee una decoración a base de relieves realizados por Juan Bautista Vázquez, Diego de Pesquera y Diego de Velasco. Está dedicada a reuniones del Cabildo.
La Catedral tiene cuatro patios: de los Naranjos, del Mariscal, de los Óleos, y de los Limones.
Patio de los Naranjos:
Al Claustro de la Catedral, conocido como Patio de los Naranjos, se realiza el acceso a través de la llamada puerta del Perdón, formada por arco de herradura apuntado y decorada con yeserías realizadas en 1522 por Bartolomé López, grupo escultórico en los laterales, formado por "San Pedro y San Pablo", y sobre estos, "la Virgen y el Arcángel San Gabriel" y relieve de la "Expulsión de los Mercaderes" situado sobre el arco de la puerta. Se iniciaron las obras de este patio en 1172 C. y se concluyeron en el año 1196 C. Posteriormente ha sido reformado aunque a mantenido parte de su estructura original.
Entre las obras escultóricas de interés mencionaremos; "Virgen de los Reyes" (siglo XIII, obra anónima de estilo gótico), "Virgen de la Sede" (siglo XIII, anónima de estilo gótico), "Sepulcro del Cardenal Cervantes" (siglo XV, obra gótica de Lorenzo Mercadante), "Cristo de la Clemencia" (siglo XVII, de Martínez Montañés obra barroca), "San Fernando" (siglo XVII, de Pedro Roldán), "Santas Justa y Rufina" (siglo XVIII, obra de Duque Cornejo de estilo barroco).
De las obras pictóricas destacaremos; "Virgen de la Antigua" (siglo XVI, obra anónima de estilo renacentista), "San Cristóbal" (siglo XVI, de Pérez de Alesio), "Inmaculada Concepción" (siglo XVII, obra de Zurbarán de estilo barroco) y "Visión de San Antonio " (siglo XVII, de Murillo).
La imagen pertenece al monumento fúnebre que recoge los supuestos restos de Cristóbal Colón. Sobre un podio, cuatro reyes portan el féretro sobre sus hombros. Estos personajes representan los reinos de Navarra, Valencia, León, Castilla y Granada.
Sevilla Catedral
Dirección:Avda. de la Constitución, 13
Teléfono:954 21 49 71
Horario:Invierno: De lunes a sábado: de 11:00 a 17:30. Domingos: de 14:30 a 18:30
Verano: De lunes a sábado: de 9:30 a 16:30. Domingos: de 14:30 a 18:30
BUS:C5 - Metro Centro
Acceso:Entrada general 8€. Estudiantes menores de 25 años y pensionistas 3€ con acreditación. Entrada gratuita(acreditación): menores de 15 años acompañados por un adulto, discapacitados y un acompañante, desempleados y naturales y residentes en la diocesis de Sevilla
© copyrighted image; all rights reserved.
The Karlstad sofa, an Ikea sofa inspired by the Florence Knoll sofa.
I wanted to get back to the set I started earlier, Form @ Home, where I try to capture the mood and feeling of some things we’ve got at home. This time I tried to use a cooler, blueish toned color instead of the sepia. Again, I'm trying to find form and details, capturing the mood and feeling of the object. For this I used the 5D with the 100mm L IS macro lens. All shot handheld with available light.
De forme rectangulaire, cette porte construite en 1420 fait écho à la celle de la Floraison ou Gloire occidentale (Xihuamen). Avec sa plate-forme rouge, elle repose sur un socle en marbre blanc selon un style bouddhiste, bâtiment dans lequel sont percées les trois passages voutés. La tour carrée et son double toit, avec 5 arches de large et 3 m de profondeur est entourée de colonnes de marbre blanc. Au début de la dynastie Qing, seuls les fonctionnaires du Cabinet étaient autorisés à passer par cette porte, alors qu'au milieu du règne de Qianlong, les ministres âgés du premier degré et du second degré avaient ce privilège. Les cercueils des empereurs Qing, les impératrices et les régents avaient aussi l'autorisation d'y passer, d'où le nom de Guimen : porte de fantôme). Celle-ci dispose de 8 clous, et non 9 comme les autres, du fait que le 9 est le chiffre de l'empereur et 8 celui des choses fantomatiques (cf.wikipedia).
Snowdonia, or Eryri is a mountainous region and national park in North Wales. It contains all 15 mountains in Wales over 3000 feet high, including the country's highest, Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), which is 1,085 metres (3,560 ft) tall. These peaks are all part of the Snowdon, Glyderau, and Carneddau ranges in the north of the region. The shorter Moelwynion and Moel Hebog ranges lie immediately to the south.
The national park has an area of 823 square miles (2,130 km2) (the fourth-largest in the UK), and covers most of central and southern Gwynedd and the western part of Conwy County Borough. This is much larger than the area traditionally considered Snowdonia, and in addition to the five ranges above includes the Rhinogydd, Cadair Idris, and Aran ranges and the Dyfi Hills. It also includes most of the coast between Porthmadog and Aberdyfi. The park was the first of the three national parks of Wales to be designated, in October 1951, and the third in the UK after the Peak District and Lake District, which were established in April and May 1951 respectively. The park received 3.89 million visitors in 2015.
The name Snowdon means 'snow hill' and is derived from the Old English elements snāw and dūn, the latter meaning 'hill'. Snowdonia is simply taken from the name of the mountain.
The origins of Eryri are less clear. Two popular interpretations are that the name is related to eryr, 'eagle', and that it means 'highlands' and is related to the Latin oriri ('to rise'). Although eryri is not any direct form of the word eryr in the meaning 'eagle', it is a plural form of eryr in the meaning 'upland'.
Before the boundaries of the national park were designated, "Snowdonia" was generally used to refer to a smaller upland area of northern Gwynedd centred on the Snowdon massif. The national park covers an area more than twice that size, extending south into the Meirionnydd area.
This difference is apparent in books published before 1951. In George Borrow's 1907 Wild Wales he states that "Snowdon or Eryri is no single hill, but a mountainous region, the loftiest part of which is called Y Wyddfa", making a distinction between the summit of the mountain and the surrounding massif. The Mountains of Snowdonia by H. Carr & G. Lister (1925) defines "Eryri" as "composed of the two cantrefs of Arfon and Arllechwedd, and the two commotes of Nant Conwy and Eifionydd", which corresponds to Caernarfonshire with the exception of southwest Llŷn and the Creuddyn Peninsula. In Snowdonia: The National Park of North Wales (1949), F. J. North states that "When the Committee delineated provisional boundaries, they included areas some distance beyond Snowdonia proper".
Snowdonia National Park, also known as Eryri National Park in English and Parc Cenedlaethol Eryri in Welsh, was established in October 1951. It was the third national park in the United Kingdom, following the Peak District and Lake District in April and May of the same year. It covers 827 square miles (2,140 km2) in the counties of Gwynedd and Conwy, and has 37 miles (60 km) of coastline.
The park is governed by the Snowdonia National Park Authority, which has 18 members: 9 appointed by Gwynedd, 3 by Conwy, and 6 by the Welsh Government to represent the national interest. The authority's main offices are at Penrhyndeudraeth.
The park authority used Snowdonia and Snowdon when referring to the national park and mountain in English until February 2023, when it resolved to primarily use the Welsh names, Eryri and Yr Wyddfa. There will be a transitional period of approximately two years in which the authority will continue to use the English names in parentheses — for example "Yr Wyddfa (Snowdon)" — where the context requires.
Unlike national parks in other countries, national parks in the UK are made up of both public and private lands under a central planning authority. The makeup of land ownership in the national park is as follows:
More than 26,000 people live within the park, of whom 58.6% could speak Welsh in 2011. While most of the land is either open or mountainous land, there is a significant amount of agricultural activity within the park.
The national park does not include the town of Blaenau Ffestiniog, which forms a unique non-designated enclave within the park boundaries. The town was deliberately excluded from the park when it was established because of its slate quarrying industry. The boundaries of the Peak District National Park exclude the town of Buxton and its adjacent limestone quarries for a similar reason.
The geology of Snowdonia is key to the area's character. Glaciation during a succession of ice ages, has carved from a heavily faulted and folded succession of sedimentary and igneous rocks, a distinctive rocky landscape. The last ice age ended only just over 11,500 years ago, leaving a legacy of features attractive to visitors but which have also played a part in the development of geological science and continue to provide a focus for educational visits. Visiting Cwm Idwal in 1841 Charles Darwin realised that the landscape was the product of glaciation. The bedrock dates largely from the Cambrian and Ordovician periods with intrusions of Ordovician and Silurian age associated with the Caledonian Orogeny. There are smaller areas of Silurian age sedimentary rocks in the south and northeast and of Cenozoic era strata on the Cardigan Bay coast though the latter are concealed by more recent deposits. Low grade metamorphism of Cambrian and Ordovician mudstones has resulted in the slates, the extraction of which once formed the mainstay of the area's economy.
The principal ranges of the traditional Snowdonia are the Snowdon massif itself, the Glyderau, the Carneddau, the Moelwynion and the Moel Hebog range. All of Wales' 3000ft mountains are to be found within the first three of these massifs and are most popular with visitors. To their south within the wider national park are the Rhinogydd and the Cadair Idris and Aran Fawddwy ranges. Besides these well-defined areas are a host of mountains which are less readily grouped though various guidebook writers have assigned them into groups such as the 'Arenigs', the 'Tarrens' and the 'Dyfi hills'.
Snowdon's summit at 1085 metres (3560 feet) is the highest in Wales and the highest in Britain south of the Scottish Highlands. At 905 metres (2970 feet) Aran Fawddwy is the highest in Wales outside of northern Snowdonia; Cadair Idris, at 893 metres (2930 feet), is next in line.
Rivers draining the area empty directly into Cardigan Bay are typically short and steep. From north to south they include the Glaslyn and Dwyryd which share a common estuary, the Mawddach and its tributaries the Wnion and the Eden, the smaller Dysynni and on the park's southern margin the Dyfi. A series of rivers drain to the north coast. Largest of these is the Conwy on the park's eastern margin which along with the Ogwen drains into Conwy Bay. Further west the Seiont and Gwyrfai empty into the western end of the Menai Strait. A part of the east of the national park is within the upper Dee (Dyfrydwy) catchment and includes Bala Lake, the largest natural waterbody in Wales. A fuller list of the rivers and tributaries within the area is found at List of rivers of Wales.
There are few natural waterbodies of any size in Wales; Snowdonia is home to most. Besides Bala Lake, a few lakes occupy glacial troughs including Llyn Padarn and Llyn Peris at Llanberis and Tal-y-llyn Lake south of Cadair Idris. Llyn Dinas, Llyn Gwynant, and Llyn Cwellyn to the south and west of Snowdon feature in this category as do Llyn Cowlyd and Llyn Ogwen on the margins of the Carneddau. There are numerous small lakes occupying glacial cirques owing to the former intensity of glacial action in Snowdonia. Known generically as tarns, examples include Llyn Llydaw, Glaslyn and Llyn Du'r Arddu on Snowdon, Llyn Idwal within the Glyderau and Llyn Cau on Cadair Idris.
There are two large wholly man-made bodies of water in the area, Llyn Celyn and Llyn Trawsfynydd whilst numerous of the natural lakes have had their levels artificially raised to different degrees. Marchlyn Mawr reservoir and Ffestiniog Power Station's Llyn Stwlan are two cases where natural tarns have been dammed as part of pumped storage hydro-electric schemes. A fuller list of the lakes within the area is found at List of lakes of Wales. In 2023, the park standardised its Welsh language lake names, to be also used in English.
The national park meets the Irish Sea coast within Cardigan Bay between the Dovey estuary in the south and the Dwyryd estuary. The larger part of that frontage is characterised by dune systems, the largest of which are Morfa Dyffryn and Morfa Harlech. These two locations have two of the largest sand/shingle spits in Wales. The major indentations of the Dovey, the Mawddach and Dwyryd estuaries, have large expanses of intertidal sands and coastal marsh which are especially important for wildlife: see #Natural history. The northern tip of the national park extends to the north coast of Wales at Penmaen-bach Point, west of Conwy, where precipitous cliffs have led to the road and railway negotiating the spot in tunnels.
There are only three towns within the park boundary, though there are several more immediately beyond it. Dolgellau is the most populous followed by Bala on the eastern boundary and then Harlech overlooking Tremadog Bay. More populous than these is the town of Blaenau Ffestiniog, which is within an exclave, that is to say it is surrounded by the national park but excluded from it, whilst the towns of Tywyn and Barmouth on the Cardigan Bay coast are within coastal exclaves. Llanrwst in the east, Machynlleth in the south and Porthmadog and Penrhyndeudraeth in the west are immediately beyond the boundary but still identified with the park; indeed the last of these hosts the headquarters of the Snowdonia National Park Authority. Similarly the local economies of the towns of Conwy, Bethesda, and Llanberis in the north are inseparably linked to the national park as they provide multiple visitor services. The lower terminus of the Snowdon Mountain Railway is at Llanberis. Though adjacent to it, Llanfairfechan and Penmaenmawr are less obviously linked to the park.
There are numerous smaller settlements within the national park: prominent amongst these are the eastern 'gateway' village of Betws-y-Coed, Aberdyfi on the Dovey (Dyfi) estuary and the small village of Beddgelert each of which attract large numbers of visitors. Other sizeable villages are Llanuwchllyn at the southwest end of Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid), Dyffryn Ardudwy, Corris, Trawsfynydd, Llanbedr, Trefriw and Dolwyddelan.
Six primary routes serve Snowdonia, the busiest of which is the A55, a dual carriageway which runs along the north coast and provides strategic road access to the northern part of the national park. The most important north–south route within the park is the A470 running from the A55 south past Betws-y-Coed to Blaenau Ffestiniog to Dolgellau. It exits the park a few miles to the southeast near Mallwyd. From Dolgellau, the A494 runs to Bala whilst the A487 connects with Machynlleth. The A487 loops around the northwest of the park from Bangor via Caernarfon to Porthmadog before turning in land to meet the A470 east of Maentwrog. The A5 was built as a mail coach road by Thomas Telford between London and Holyhead; it enters the park near Pentrefoelas and leaves it near Bethesda. Other A class roads provide more local links; the A493 down the Dovey valley from Machynlleth and up the coast to Tywyn then back up the Mawddach valley to Dolgellau, the A496 from Dolgellau down the north side of the Mawddach to Barmouth then north up the coast via Harlech to Maentwrog. The A4212 connecting Bala with Trawsfynydd is relatively modern having been laid out in the 1960s in connection with the construction of Llyn Celyn. Three further roads thread their often twisting and narrow way through the northern mountains; A4085 links Penrhyndeudraeth with Caernarfon, the A4086 links Capel Curig with Caernarfon via Llanberis and the A498 links Tremadog with the A4086 at Pen-y-Gwryd. Other roads of note include that from Llanuwchllyn up Cwm Cynllwyd to Dinas Mawddwy via the 545 metre (1788') high pass of Bwlch y Groes, the second highest tarmacked public road in Wales and the minor road running northwest and west from Llanuwchllyn towards Bronaber via the 531 metre (1742') high pass of Bwlch Pen-feidiog.
The double track North Wales Coast Line passes along the northern boundary of the park between Conwy and Bangor briefly entering it at Penmaen-bach Point where it is in tunnel. Stations serve the communities of Conwy, Penmaenmawr, Llanfairfechan and Bangor. The single-track Conwy Valley Line runs south from Llandudno Junction, entering the park north of Betws-y-coed which is served by a station then west up the Lledr valley by way of further stations at Pont-y-pant, Dolwyddelan and Roman Bridge. After passing through a tunnel the passenger line now terminates at Blaenau Ffestiniog railway station. Prior to 1961 the route continued as the Bala and Ffestiniog Railway via Trawsfynydd to Bala joining another former route along the Dee valley which ran southwest via Dolgellau to join the still extant coastal Cambrian Line south of Barmouth. The Pwllheli branch of the Cambrian Line splits from the Aberystwyth branch at Dovey Junction and continues via stations at Aberdovey, Tywyn, Tonfanau, Llwyngwril, Fairbourne and Morfa Mawddach to Barmouth where it crosses the Mawddach estuary by the Grade II* listed wooden Barmouth Bridge, a structure which also provides for walkers and cyclists. Further stations serve Llanaber, Tal-y-bont, Dyffryn Ardudwy, Llanbedr, Pensarn and Llandanwg before reaching Harlech. Tygwyn, Talsarnau and Llandecwyn stations are the last before the line exits the park as it crosses the Dwyryd estuary via Pont Briwet and turns westwards bound for Pwllheli via Penrhyndeudraeth, Porthmadog and Criccieth.
Many sections of dismantled railway are now used by walking and cycling routes and are described elsewhere. The Bala Lake Railway is a heritage railway which has been established along a section of the former mainline route between Bala and Llanuwchllyn. Other heritage railways occupy sections of former mineral lines, often narrow gauge and are described in a separate section.
The national park is served by a growing bus network, branded Sherpa'r Wyddfa (formerly Snowdon Sherpa). Together with the TrawsCymru network of buses this provides a car-free option to tourists and locals wishing to travel across the National Park.
The network was relaunched in July 2022 with a new brand, Sherpa'r Wyddfa, to reflect the National Park's new push for the promotion of Welsh place names. As such the publicity and websites for the newly branded service only use these Welsh names, even for English language users.
Snowdonia is one of the wettest parts of the United Kingdom; Crib Goch in Snowdonia is the wettest spot in the United Kingdom, with an average rainfall of 4,473 millimetres (176.1 in) a year over the 30-year period prior to the mid-2000s. (There is a rainfall gauge at 713 metres, 2340' on the slopes below Crib Goch.)
The earliest evidence for human occupation of the area dates from around 4000–3000 BCE with extensive traces of prehistoric field systems evident in the landscape. Within these are traces of irregular enclosures and hut circles. There are burial chambers of Neolithic and Bronze Age such as Bryn Cader Faner and Iron Age hillforts such as Bryn y Castell near Ffestiniog.
The region was finally conquered by the Romans by AD 77–78. Remains of Roman marching camps and practice camps are evident. There was a Roman fort and amphitheatre at Tomen y Mur. Roads are known to have connected with Segontium (Caernarfon) and Deva Victrix (Chester) and include the northern reaches of Sarn Helen.
There are numerous memorial stones of Early Christian affinity dating from the post-Roman period. The post-Roman hillfort of Dinas Emrys also dates to this time. Churches were introduced to the region in the 5th and 6th centuries. Llywelyn the Great and Llywelyn ap Gruffudd had various stone castles constructed to protect their borders and trade routes. Edward I built several castles around the margins including those at Harlech and Conwy for military and administrative reasons. Most are now protected within a World Heritage Site. Some of Snowdonia's many stone walls date back to this period too. In the Middle Ages, the title Prince of Wales and Lord of Snowdonia (Tywysog Cymru ac Arglwydd Eryri) was used by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd; his grandfather Llywelyn Fawr used the title Prince of north Wales and Lord of Snowdonia.
The 18th century saw the start of industrial exploitation of the area's resources, assisted by the appearance in the late part of the century of turnpike trusts making it more accessible. The engineer Thomas Telford left a legacy of road and railway construction in and around Snowdonia. A new harbour at Porthmadog linked to slate quarries at Ffestiniog via a narrow gauge railway. At its peak in the 19th century the slate industry employed around 12,000 men. A further 1000 were employed in stone quarrying at Graiglwyd and Penmaenmawr. Mining for copper, iron and gold was undertaken during the 18th and 19th centuries, leaving a legacy of mine and mill ruins today. Ruins of the gold industry are found at Cefn Coch on the Dolmelynllyn estate.
The Snowdonia Society is a registered charity formed in 1967; it is a voluntary group of people with an interest in the area and its protection.
Amory Lovins led the successful 1970s opposition to stop Rio Tinto digging up the area for a massive mine.
The park's entire coastline is a Special Area of Conservation, which runs from the Llŷn Peninsula down the mid-Wales coast, the latter containing valuable sand dune systems.
The park's natural forests are of the mixed deciduous type, the commonest tree being the Welsh oak. Birch, ash, mountain-ash and hazel are also common. The park also contains some large (planted) coniferous forested areas such as Gwydir Forest near Betws-y-Coed, although some areas, once harvested, are now increasingly being allowed to regrow naturally.
Northern Snowdonia is the only place in Britain where the Snowdon lily (Gagea serotina), an arctic–alpine plant, is found and the only place in the world where the Snowdonia hawkweed Hieracium snowdoniense grows.
One of the major problems facing the park in recent years has been the growth of Rhododendron ponticum. This fast-growing invasive species has a tendency to take over and stifle native species. It can form massive towering growths and has a companion fungus that grows on its roots producing toxins that are poisonous to any local flora and fauna for a seven-year period after the Rhododendron infestations have been eradicated. As a result, there are a number of desolate landscapes.
Mammals in the park include otters, polecats, feral goats, and pine martens. Birds include raven, red-billed chough, peregrine, osprey, merlin and the red kite. The rainbow-coloured Snowdon beetle (Chrysolina cerealis) is only found in northern Snowdonia.
Snowdonia has a particularly high number of protected sites in respect of its diverse ecology; nearly 20% of its total area is protected by UK and European law. Half of that area was set aside by the government under the European Habitats Directive as a Special Area of Conservation. There are a large number of Sites of special scientific interest (or 'SSSIs'), designated both for fauna and flora but also in some cases for geology. Nineteen of these sites are managed as national nature reserves by Natural Resources Wales. The park also contains twelve Special Areas of Conservation (or 'SACs'), three Special Protection Areas (or 'SPAs') and three Ramsar sites. Some are wholly within the park boundaries, others straddle it to various degrees.
There are numerous SSSIs within the park, the most extensive of which are Snowdonia, Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt, Morfa Harlech, Rhinog, Berwyn, Cadair Idris, Llyn Tegid, Aber Mawddach / Mawddach Estuary, Dyfi, Morfa Dyffryn, Moel Hebog, Coedydd Dyffryn Ffestiniog and Coedydd Nanmor.
The following NNRs are either wholly or partly within the park: Allt y Benglog, Y Berwyn (in multiple parts), Cader Idris, Ceunant Llennyrch, Coed Camlyn, Coed Cymerau, Coed Dolgarrog, Coed Ganllwyd, Coed Gorswen, Coed Tremadog, Coedydd Aber, Coedydd Maentwrog (in 2 parts), Coed y Rhygen, Cwm Glas Crafnant, Cwm Idwal, Hafod Garregog, Morfa Harlech, Rhinog and Snowdon.
The twelve SACs are as follows: Snowdonia SAC which covers much of the Carneddau, Glyderau, and the Snowdon massif, Afon Gwyrfai a Llyn Cwellyn, Corsydd Eifionydd / Eifionydd Fens (north of Garndolbenmaen), the Coedydd Derw a Safleoedd Ystlumod Meirion / Meirionydd Oakwoods and Bat Sites - a series of sites between Tremadog, Trawsfynydd, and Ffestiniog and Beddgelert and extending up the Gwynant. It also includes many of the oakwoods of the Mawddach and its tributaries. Afon Eden – Cors Goch Trawsfynydd, Rhinog, Cadair Idris (in 2 parts), Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt, River Dee and Afon Dyfrdwy a Llyn Tegid (Wales), Mwyngloddiau Fforest Gwydir / Gwydyr Forest Mines (north of Betws-y-Coed) and a part of the Berwyn a Mynyddoedd De Clwyd / Berwyn and South Clwyd Mountains SAC. The Pen Llyn a'r Sarnau / Lleyn Peninsula and the Sarnau SAC covers the entire Cardigan Bay coastline of the park and the sea area and extends above the high water mark at Morfa Harlech, Mochras and around the Dovey and Mawddach estuaries.
The three SPAs are Dovey Estuary / Aber Dyfi (of which a part is within the park), Berwyn (of which a part is within the park) and Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt.
The three designated Ramsar sites are the Dyfi Biosphere (Cors Fochno and Dyfi), Cwm Idwal and Llyn Tegid (Bala Lake).
The area's economy was traditionally centred upon farming and from the early 19th century increasingly on mining and quarrying. Tourism has become an increasingly significant part of Snowdonia's economy during the 20th and 21st centuries.
The extensive farming of sheep remains central to Snowdonia's farming economy.
Significant sections of the park were afforested during the 20th century for timber production. Major conifer plantations include Dyfi Forest, Coed y Brenin Forest between Dolgellau and Trawsfynydd, Penllyn Forest south of Bala, Beddgelert Forest and Gwydyr (or Gwydir) Forest near Betws-y-Coed which is managed as a forest park by Natural Resources Wales.
The region was once the most important producer of slate in the world. Some production continues but at a much reduced level from its peak. The park boundaries are drawn such that much of the landscape affected by slate quarrying and mining lies immediately outside of the designated area.
Construction of a nuclear power station beside Llyn Trawsfynydd began in 1959 with the first power produced in 1965. The site was operational until 1991 though it continues as an employer during its decommissioning phase. Pumped storage hydroelectric schemes are in operation at Llanberis and Ffestiniog.
Research indicates that there were 3.67 million visitors to Snowdonia National Park in 2013, with approximately 9.74 million tourist days spent in the park during that year. Total tourist expenditure was £433.6 million in 2013.
Many of the hikers in the area concentrate on Snowdon itself. It is regarded as a fine mountain, but at times gets very crowded; in addition the Snowdon Mountain Railway runs to the summit.
The other high mountains with their boulder-strewn summits as well as Tryfan, one of the few mountains in the UK south of Scotland whose ascent needs hands as well as feet are also very popular. However, there are also some spectacular walks in Snowdonia on the lower mountains, and they tend to be relatively unfrequented. Among hikers' favourites are Y Garn (east of Llanberis) along the ridge to Elidir Fawr; Mynydd Tal-y-Mignedd (west of Snowdon) along the Nantlle Ridge to Mynydd Drws-y-Coed; Moelwyn Mawr (west of Blaenau Ffestiniog); and Pen Llithrig y Wrach north of Capel Curig. Further south are Y Llethr in the Rhinogydd, and Cadair Idris near Dolgellau.
The park has 1,479 miles (2,380 km) of public footpaths, 164 miles (264 km) of public bridleways, and 46 miles (74 km) of other public rights of way. A large part of the park is also covered by right to roam laws.
The Wales Coast Path runs within the park between Machynlleth and Penrhyndeudraeth, save for short sections of coast in the vicinity of Tywyn and Barmouth which are excluded from the park. It touches the park boundary again at Penmaen-bach Point on the north coast. An inland alternative exists between Llanfairfechan and Conwy, wholly within the park. The North Wales Path, which predates the WCP, enters the park north of Bethesda and follows a route broadly parallel to the north coast visiting Aber Falls and the Sychnant Pass before exiting the park on the descent from Conwy Mountain. The Cambrian Way is a long-distance trail between Cardiff and Conwy that stays almost entirely within the national park from Mallwyd northwards. It was officially recognised in 2019, and is now depicted on Ordnance Survey maps.
The use of the English names for the area has been divisive, with an increase in protests against their use since 2020; these led to the national park authority deciding to use Welsh names as far as legally possible in November 2022. An early example of pressure to deprecate Snowdon and Snowdonia was a 2003 campaign by Cymuned, inspired by campaigns to refer to Ayers Rock as Uluru and Mount Everest as Qomolangma.
In 2020 an e-petition calling for the removal of the English names was put forward to the Senedd, but rejected as responsibility lies with the national park authority. In 2021 an e-petition on the same topic attracted more than 5,300 signatures and was presented to the national park authority.
On 28 April 2021 Gwynedd councillor John Pughe Roberts put forward a motion to use the Welsh names exclusively, calling this a "question of respect for the Welsh language". The motion was not considered and delayed, as the national park authority already appointed a "Welsh Place Names Task and Finish Group" to investigate the issue. The park authority however cannot compel other bodies and/or individuals to stop using the English names, with the proposals facing some criticism.
In May 2021, following the dismissal of the motion, YouGov conducted a poll on Snowdon's name. 60% of Welsh adults supported the English name Snowdon, compared to 30% wanting the Welsh name Yr Wyddfa. Separating by language, 59% of Welsh speakers preferred the Welsh name, but 37% of these still wanted Snowdon to be used as well. 69% of non-Welsh speakers firmly supported Snowdon as the Mountain's name. The proposals to rename Snowdon are usually accompanied with proposals to rename Snowdonia.
On 16 November 2022, Members of the Snowdonia National Park Authority committee voted to use the Welsh names Yr Wyddfa and Eryri to refer to the mountain and the national park, rather than the English names, in materials produced by the authority. The national park authority described the decision as "decisive action" and the authority's head of culture heritage stated that Welsh place names were part of the area's "special qualities" and that other public bodies, English-language press and filming companies have used the Welsh-language names. Before the decision the park had already prioritised the Welsh names by using them first and giving the English names in parentheses. The name "Snowdonia" cannot be abandoned entirely, as it is set in law and so must be used in statutory documents. The authority announced a review of the authority's branding in 2023 to adapt to the new approach to Welsh place names.
Gwynedd is a county in the north-west of Wales. It borders Anglesey across the Menai Strait to the north, Conwy, Denbighshire, and Powys to the east, Ceredigion over the Dyfi estuary to the south, and the Irish Sea to the west. The city of Bangor is the largest settlement, and the administrative centre is Caernarfon. The preserved county of Gwynedd, which is used for ceremonial purposes, includes the Isle of Anglesey.
Gwynedd is the second largest county in Wales but sparsely populated, with an area of 979 square miles (2,540 km2) and a population of 117,400. After Bangor (18,322), the largest settlements are Caernarfon (9,852), Bethesda (4,735), and Pwllheli (4,076). The county has the highest percentage of Welsh speakers in Wales, at 64.4%, and is considered a heartland of the language.
The geography of Gwynedd is mountainous, with a long coastline to the west. Much of the county is covered by Snowdonia National Park (Eryri), which contains Wales's highest mountain, Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa; 3,560 feet, 1,090 m). To the west, the Llŷn Peninsula is flatter and renowned for its scenic coastline, part of which is protected by the Llŷn AONB. Gwynedd also contains several of Wales's largest lakes and reservoirs, including the largest, Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid).
The area which is now the county has played a prominent part in the history of Wales. It formed part of the core of the Kingdom of Gwynedd and the native Principality of Wales, which under the House of Aberffraw remained independent from the Kingdom of England until Edward I's conquest between 1277 and 1283. Edward built the castles at Caernarfon and Harlech, which form part of the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd World Heritage Site. During the Industrial Revolution the slate industry rapidly developed; in the late nineteenth century the neighbouring Penrhyn and Dinorwic quarries were the largest in the world, and the Slate Landscape of Northwest Wales is now a World Heritage Site. Gwynedd covers the majority of the historic counties of Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire.
In the past, historians such as J. E. Lloyd assumed that the Celtic source of the word Gwynedd meant 'collection of tribes' – the same root as the Irish fine, meaning 'tribe'. Further, a connection is recognised between the name and the Irish Féni, an early ethnonym for the Irish themselves, related to fían, 'company of hunting and fighting men, company of warriors under a leader'. Perhaps *u̯en-, u̯enə ('strive, hope, wish') is the Indo-European stem. The Irish settled in NW Wales, and in Dyfed, at the end of the Roman era. Venedotia was the Latin form, and in Penmachno there is a memorial stone from c. AD 500 which reads: Cantiori Hic Iacit Venedotis ('Here lies Cantiorix, citizen of Gwynedd'). The name was retained by the Brythons when the kingdom of Gwynedd was formed in the 5th century, and it remained until the invasion of Edward I. This historical name was revived when the new county was formed in 1974.
Gwynedd was an independent kingdom from the end of the Roman period until the 13th century, when it was conquered by England. The modern Gwynedd was one of eight Welsh counties created on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. It covered the entirety of the historic counties of Anglesey and Caernarfonshire, and all of Merionethshire apart from Edeirnion Rural District (which went to Clwyd); and also a few parishes of Denbighshire: Llanrwst, Llansanffraid Glan Conwy, Eglwysbach, Llanddoged, Llanrwst and Tir Ifan.
The county was divided into five districts: Aberconwy, Arfon, Dwyfor, Meirionnydd and Anglesey.
The Local Government (Wales) Act 1994 abolished the 1974 county (and the five districts) on 1 April 1996, and its area was divided: the Isle of Anglesey became an independent unitary authority, and Aberconwy (which included the former Denbighshire parishes) passed to the new Conwy County Borough. The remainder of the county was constituted as a principal area, with the name Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire, as it covers most of the areas of those two historic counties. As one of its first actions, the Council renamed itself Gwynedd on 2 April 1996. The present Gwynedd local government area is governed by Gwynedd Council. As a unitary authority, the modern entity no longer has any districts, but Arfon, Dwyfor and Meirionnydd remain as area committees.
The pre-1996 boundaries were retained as a preserved county for a few purposes such as the Lieutenancy. In 2003, the boundary with Clwyd was adjusted to match the modern local government boundary, so that the preserved county now covers the two local government areas of Gwynedd and Anglesey. Conwy county borough is now entirely within Clwyd.
A Gwynedd Constabulary was formed in 1950 by the merger of the Anglesey, Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire forces. A further amalgamation took place in the 1960s when Gwynedd Constabulary was merged with the Flintshire and Denbighshire county forces, retaining the name Gwynedd. In one proposal for local government reform in Wales, Gwynedd had been proposed as a name for a local authority covering all of north Wales, but the scheme as enacted divided this area between Gwynedd and Clwyd. To prevent confusion, the Gwynedd Constabulary was therefore renamed the North Wales Police.
The Snowdonia National Park was formed in 1951. After the 1974 local authority reorganisation, the park fell entirely within the boundaries of Gwynedd, and was run as a department of Gwynedd County Council. After the 1996 local government reorganisation, part of the park fell under Conwy County Borough, and the park's administration separated from the Gwynedd council. Gwynedd Council still appoints nine of the eighteen members of the Snowdonia National Park Authority; Conwy County Borough Council appoints three; and the Welsh Government appoints the remaining six.
There has been considerable inwards migration to Gwynedd, particularly from England. According to the 2021 census, 66.6% of residents had been born in Wales whilst 27.1% were born in England.
The county has a mixed economy. An important part of the economy is based on tourism: many visitors are attracted by the many beaches and the mountains. A significant part of the county lies within the Snowdonia National Park, which extends from the north coast down to the district of Meirionnydd in the south. But tourism provides seasonal employment and thus there is a shortage of jobs in the winter.
Agriculture is less important than in the past, especially in terms of the number of people who earn their living on the land, but it remains an important element of the economy.
The most important of the traditional industries is the slate industry, but these days only a small percentage of workers earn their living in the slate quarries.
Industries which have developed more recently include TV and sound studios: the record company Sain has its HQ in the county.
The education sector is also very important for the local economy, including Bangor University and Further Education colleges, Coleg Meirion-Dwyfor and Coleg Menai, both now part of Grŵp Llandrillo Menai.
The proportion of respondents in the 2011 census who said they could speak Welsh.
Gwynedd has the highest proportion of people in Wales who can speak Welsh. According to the 2021 census, 64.4% of the population aged three and over stated that they could speak Welsh,[7] while 64.4% noted that they could speak Welsh in the 2011 census.
It is estimated that 83% of the county's Welsh-speakers are fluent, the highest percentage of all counties in Wales.[9] The age group with the highest proportion of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd were those between ages 5–15, of whom 92.3% stated that they could speak Welsh in 2011.
The proportion of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd declined between 1991 and 2001,[10] from 72.1% to 68.7%, even though the proportion of Welsh speakers in Wales as a whole increased during that decade to 20.5%.
The Annual Population Survey estimated that as of March 2023, 77.0% of those in Gwynedd aged three years and above could speak Welsh.
Notable people
Leslie Bonnet (1902–1985), RAF officer, writer; originated the Welsh Harlequin duck in Criccieth
Sir Dave Brailsford (born 1964), cycling coach; grew up in Deiniolen, near Caernarfon
Duffy (born 1984), singer, songwriter and actress; born in Bangor, Gwynedd
Edward II of England (1284–1327), born in Caernarfon Castle
Elin Fflur (born 1984), singer-songwriter, TV and radio presenter; went to Bangor University
Bryn Fôn (born 1954), actor and singer-songwriter; born in Llanllyfni, Caernarfonshire.
Wayne Hennessey (born 1987), football goalkeeper with 108 caps for Wales; born in Bangor, Gwynedd
John Jones (c. 1530 – 1598), a Franciscan friar, Roman Catholic priest and martyr; born at Clynnog
Sir Love Jones-Parry, 1st Baronet (1832–1891), landowner and politician, co-founder of the Y Wladfa settlement in Patagonia
T. E. Lawrence (1888–1935), archaeologist, army officer and inspiration for Lawrence of Arabia, born in Tremadog
David Lloyd George (1863–1945), statesman and Prime Minister; lived in Llanystumdwy from infancy
Sasha (born 1969), disc jockey, born in Bangor, Gwynedd
Sir Bryn Terfel (born 1965), bass-baritone opera and concert singer from Pant Glas
Sir Clough Williams-Ellis (1883–1978), architect of Portmeirion
Owain Fôn Williams, (born 1987), footballer with 443 club caps; born and raised in Penygroes, Gwynedd.
Hedd Wyn (1887–1917), poet from the village of Trawsfynydd; killed in WWI
Living in Canada, one of the places I generally avoid for things like Figmas and Figuarts is Amazon Canada. It's usually just North American MSRP, months late, or worse, filled with third party sellers that just inflate the price to infinity and beyond.
But, occasionally you do get a surprise in the form of Amazon clearing out their own stock. Such was the case with the Figma of D.Va, ace Korean Exo-Suit pilot in the Overwatch universe. Snagged her for around $37 CAD plus taxes, which is dirt cheap for a Figma that has some sort of street recognition. To put things in perspective, she was released in 2019 for around 6,300 Yen, or about $80 CAD, in Japan.
This still seems to be the price at the time of this writing, and I suspect it has to do with them clearing out the stock to make space for that Academy skin version of her.
I've seen D.Va around for quite some time now - more so than Tracer, due to the fact that cosplaying as D.Va generally is easier due to a variety of purchasable components for her look. Of course, I did a bit of digging and learned the tale of how a former E-sport professional ended up piloting robots for the Korean army, while still being active on social media for her adoring fans.
Understandably, there has been no Figma scaled MEKA suit to go along with D.Va, as based on media I've looked at the suit would be gigantic.
So what do you get in the box?
Considering its MSRP, I'd dare so she's a bit light on the contents, (Fate figures are around the same price, but often have more pieces and more complex outfits). but I suspect licensing added a few bucks to the price.
You get the figure, three total face plates (neutral smile, her trademark "one eye" look, and gum chewing), two total heads (one with her trademark headset giving her that bunny look, one with a baseball cap), her pistol, 13 total additional hands including dedicate "Peace" hand, "Selfie" hand, a pair of Heart hands, and Cola gripping hand, bubble gum effect, and of course a Figma stand.
Overall, D.Va looks pretty good. Proportions are within acceptable parameters, though to my eyes her torso is a bit scrawny (but her bust appears to be accurate). Her head is also a bit on the small side. Her face plates are done quite well, though compared to the other ladies I own (Tracer, Pharah, Widowmaker) definitely shows more of that stylized anime look that the Hasbro collectors keep talking about, but given the nature of the character this inaccuracy kind of works in her favour.
D.Va. effectively wears a body suit, one that has an interesting colour scheme that I would associate with anime racing than the Korean army, but it works so.... carry on . In the event you're unfamiliar with it, the suit is a lovely mix of blue, white, pink, and.. I kid you not... sponsor decals which I'm guessing are a mix of made up and real world companies.
Due to the lack of costume bulk, D.Va's range of motion is generally unhindered. She has toes, ankles, single jointed knees, hips with thigh swivel, mid torso, shoulders with chest compress and bicep swivel, single jointed elbows, wrists, and double jointed neck.
The double jointed neck is kind of a new thing, which has the standard Figma peg in the body and another ball joint in the back of the head, which overall allows for greater range of head motion. In fact, D.Va. can look down at her toes and can look up fairly well.
I admittedly didn't pay that much attention to the other head (Baseball cap) but I'm guessing this joint arrangement is there as well.
Additional features from an articulation perspective are the inclusion of a hinge in the hair of the standard head which allows for greater range of head motion (by moving hair out of the way). The Baseball cap head doesn't have this as D.Va's hair is done up in a bun.
They also gave her hips that drop down. This drop down doesn't really affect the range of motion of the legs to the front and back of D.Va., but it does allow her to pop her hip out in one direction and accomplish to curve emphasizing supermodel poses.
Paint work was.. surprisingly messy, if I'm being honest. The base paint work was solid, as always, but the highlight/masking work is actually not that great. There are basically paint bleeds on every possible location, an don mine it seems like they missed a coat of pink on the lines for her abdomen, as those are significantly darker than the rest of her body. The paint on her gun is almost Marvel Legends level of medicore. The face plates came out nicely though, and the great decals do help to distract from the above mentioned issues.
Regarding the matter of build quality, nothing to really report about there as all is as expected. Proper fit, no unsightly seams or gaps, joints hold their positions, limbs are properly sized. There are a few unsightly lumps in the hair, but again, within the usual level of quality expected of a Figma.
In conclusion, D.Va. looks great from the usual 6 ft. distance but up close, shes one of those statistical anomalies where the paint work easily detectable to be kind of poor. I know I've seen some shoddy paint work on KOS-MOS and Saber Bride, but those were the result of complex costumes or were only with one particular colour. Here, its pretty much every single colour that is used for detailing.
The decals, great face plates, and general ability to pose like superstar do overshadow the paint work, but if you're a stickler like me, it's something to note.
So by my math, I'm now one short of completing the Overwatch Figma ladies club.
Here's hoping for a Mercy to go on sale.
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El monasterio de Santa María de Montserrat es un monasterio benedictino situado en España. Se encuentra en la montaña de Montserrat, perteneciente a la comarca catalana del Bages, provincia de Barcelona, a una altura de 720 metros sobre el nivel del mar. Es un símbolo para Cataluña y se ha convertido en un punto de peregrinaje para creyentes y de visita obligada para los turistas.
Dentro de las diferentes acciones que se desarrollan en Montserrat destaca la escolanía que es uno de los coros de niños cantores más antiguos de Europa.
El origen del monasterio es incierto. Se sabe que sobre el 1011 un monje procedente del monasterio de Santa María de Ripoll llegó a la montaña para encargarse del monasterio de Santa Cecília, quedando así el cenobio bajo las órdenes del abad Oliva de Ripoll. Santa Cecilia no aceptó esta nueva situación por lo que Oliva decidió fundar el monasterio de Santa María en el lugar en el que se encontraba una antigua ermita del mismo nombre. A partir del 1082, Santa María pasó a tener abad propio y dejó de depender del abad de Ripoll.
Esta ermita se había convertido en la más importante de todas las que existían en la montaña gracias a la imagen de la Virgen que en ella se veneraba desde el 880. El monasterio pronto se convirtió en santuario lo que le benefició, ya que los donativos y las limosnas recibidas le permitieron ir creciendo de forma constante. A finales del siglo XII, el abad regente solicitó que se permitiera ampliar la comunidad de monjes a 12, mínimo requerido para que se considerara abadía . El siguiente siglo fue el del inicio de la lucha de Montserrat para conseguir su independencia del monasterio de Ripoll. Esta independencia no llegó hasta el 10 de marzo de 1410 y fue concedida por el Papa Benedicto XIII.
En 1493, Montserrat perdió de nuevo su independencia. El rey Fernando el Católico envió al monasterio 14 monjes procedentes de Valladolid y Montserrat pasó a depender de la congregación de esta ciudad castellana. Durante los siglos siguientes se sucedieron los abades catalanes y castellanos. Ese mismo año de 1493, el fraile mínimo Bernat Boil, antes ermitaño de Montserrat, acompañó a Cristóbal Colón en uno de sus viajes a América lo que propició la expansión del culto a la virgen de Montserrat en ese continente.
El siglo XIX fue especialmente trágico para Montserrat: fue incendiado dos veces por las tropas napoleónicas, en 1811 y en 1812; y en 1835 sufrió la exclaustración debido a la desamortización de Mendizábal. El monasterio fue saqueado e incendiado y se perdieron muchos de sus tesoros.
La exclaustración duró poco y en 1844 se restableció la vida en el monasterio. La congregación de Valladolid había desaparecido por lo que Montserrat se convirtió de nuevo en independiente. El monasterio entero se tuvo que restaurar ya que no habían quedado más que las paredes. Desde entonces el monasterio de Santa María de Montserrat no ha dejado de crecer, contiene una de las mejores bibliotecas de España. La congregación actual está formada por unos 80 de monjes. Además, en el monasterio residen los niños que componen la Escolanía de Montserrat, considerada la escuela de canto de más antigüedad en Occidente ya que fue fundada en el siglo XIII.
El monasterio
El conjunto del monasterio está formado por dos bloques de edificios con funciones distintas: por un lado la basílica con las dependencias monacales; y por otro los edificios destinados a atender a peregrinos y visitantes. Estos últimos incluyen diversos restaurantes, tiendas y una zona de alojamiento.
Vida monástica
Claustro de la Santa Cueva.
El monasterio de Santa María de Montserrat, como cualquier otro conjunto religioso, consta de dos partes diferenciadas que se complementan. La parte arquitectónica y artística y la parte espiritual y religiosa. En Montserrat esta última parte está definida por la Orden de monjes que rige el monasterio, la Orden Benedictina, con una comunidad de unos 80 monjes que se mantiene al frente del monasterio por más de 1.000 años, que se basa su práctica en la Regla de San Benito y en la oración litúrgica, su lema es :"Ora et Labora". Para San Benito, como bien lo define en prólogo de su Regla, un monasterio es una escuela al servicio del Señor. Esto hace que "el monasterio" sea la base fundamental de la existencia de la comunidad cuyos vínculos deben llegar a ser afectivos al grado de familiares. El monasterio debe hacer fácil, natural y flexible la relación con Dios.
Los benedictinos practican la vida contemplativa, que es la que da prioridad y preferencia al ejercicio de la oración y se establece como un ideal puro de vida cristiana. La relación del hombre con Cristo, la que busca el monje de Montserrat, viene señalada en tres ocasiones en la Regla de San Benito;
Nada anteponer al amor de Cristo (Reg. cap. IV).
Los que nada estiman tanto como Cristo (cap. V).
Nada absolutamente prefiera a Cristo (cap. LXXII).
La relación debe ser muy personal, muy directa llegando a la intimidad. Los monjes benedictinos han de ser hombres de fe, disfrutando del gozo de la misma y hombres de oración, que se opongan al activismo y a la agitación, haciendo de la oración el más alto valor religioso. Se cultiva la caridad entendida como el amor a Dios y la convivencia fraternal.
Los monasterios benedictinos solo mantienen lo principal;
* Estabilidad, contra el peregrinar de los monjes andariegos.
* Vida en común, contra el egoísmo del aislamiento.
* Un Abad, como principio activo de autoridad.
* Un orden en la vida.
Junto a la caridad, la disciplina es una de las directrices importantes. La caridad, propiciada por la vida en común, es el amor al prójimo y lucha contra el egoísmo. La disciplina se eleva contra el protagonismo y la originalidad, concretándose en la obediencia y el cumplimiento de la Regla. De estas directrices nacen los tres votos que procesan los monjes benedictinos:
* Estabilidad: Permanencia y perseverancia en un monasterio.
* Conversión de costumbres: Que la entrega a Dios sea real y no una pura fantasía.
* Obediencia según la Regla: Sometiéndose a la autoridad de un jefe.
El voto de Obediencia según la Regla solo puede llevarse a cabo con la figura del abad. El abad debe ser la representación de Cristo en el monasterio. Gobierna el mismo en sus tres vertientes, la espiritual, la docente y la de gestión.
Para que estos objetivos que se persiguen en la vida monástica puedan llevarse a cabo es imprescindible el silencio. El silencio es el que permite, en la oración, oír a Dios.
La oración culmina con el Oficio Divino y la Sagrada Liturgia, donde el Sacrificio Eucarístico es el centro. La oración es el centro de la vida benedictina.
La vida de un monje está basada en la caridad fraterna, sin caridad no se pude mantener la relación fraternal de la vida monástica ni la entrega a Dios. La Regla dice:
Este es el celo que con ferventísimo amor ejercitarán los monjes, es decir: que se prevengan unos a otros con honores; súfranse pacientísimamente los defectos del alma y cuerpo; préstense a porfía obediencia mutua; ninguno busque su propia utilidad, sino más bien la del otro; tribútense una casta caridad fraterna.
La búsqueda de Dios por medio de Cristo pasa por la Pasión, por la mortificación que el monje debe seguir. Mortificación espiritual que significa la renuncia de voluntaria a la propia voluntad.
El rechazo de la riqueza, de los bienes materiales que estorban el camino de hacia Dios da como resultado la pobreza. La consecuencia de esta pobreza es el trabajo necesario para el mantenimiento de la vida. El trabajo es el elemento más contribuyente al equilibrio de la vida benedictina.
La dirección espiritual y la instrucción litúrgica son las formas de apostolado que una comunidad benedictina ejerce. Esto se concreta en la apertura de la iglesia monástica a quien quiera integrase en la oración colectiva y el monasterio a quien busque un ambiente de paz y serenidad.
La basílica de Montserrat
Fachada principal de la basílica.
La basilica de Montserrat es de una sola nave. Se comenzó a construir en el siglo XVI y fue reconstruida por completo en el siglo XIX (año 1811) después de la destrucción en la guerra de la Independencia. La fachada se realizó en 1901.
Alrededor de la única nave se sitúan diversas capillas. La nave está sostenida por unas columnas centrales, con tallas realizadas en madera por Josep Llimona. En la cabecera está situado el altar mayor y la zona del coro. En 1881 el papa León XIII le otorgó la condición de "basílica".
Justo encima del altar mayor se sitúa el camarín de la Virgen al que se accede después de atravesar una portalada de alabastro en la que aparecen representadas diversas escenas bíblicas.
El órgano
El órgano de la iglesia de Montserrat data de 1896 y en 1957 se trasladó al presbiterio. Este órgano esta muy deteriorado. El órgano nuevo que esta previsto inaugurar en el año 2007 es una obra importante que busca situar a Montserrat a un nivel musical internacional.
este órgano esta proyectado por Albert Blancafort, construido por Blancafort, orgueners de Montserrat y financiado por subcripción popular y la obra social de la Caixa de Penedes.
El órgano va ubicado en el lateral de la nave, como es tradicional en Cataluña, ofreciendo una muy buena sonoridad en todo el templo.
Las características del instrumento son:
* 63 registros.
* 4.230 tubos.
* 4 teclados manuales de 58 notas.
* 1 teclado de pedal de 32 notas.
* Transmisión mecánica.
* 12,5 m. de altura, 5,5 de anchura y 4 de fondo.
* 12.000 kg de peso.
El claustro
El claustro del monasterio es obra del arquitecto Josep Puig i Cadafalch. Es de dos pisos sostenidos por columnas de piedra. El piso inferior se comunica con el jardín y dispone de una fuente en su zona central. En las paredes del claustro se pueden ver piezas antiguas, algunas del siglo X.
El refectorio
El refectorio es del siglo XVII y fue reformado en 1925 por Puig i Cadafalch. La parte central cuenta con un mosaico que representa a Cristo mientras que en la zona opuesta se puede ver un tríptico con escenas de la vida de San Benedicto.
El museo
Artículo principal: Museo de Montserrat
El monasterio dispone de un importante museo dividido en tres secciones distintas:
* Pintura moderna, con obras de artistas de Cataluña como Rusiñol, Casas, Nonell, Mir, Picasso y Dalí; así como una representación del impresionismo] francés con autores como Renoir, Monet, Sisley y Degas.
* Arqueológia del oriente bíblico, donde se muestran objetos de Egipto, Chipre, Mesopotamia y Tierra Santa.
* Pintura antigua, donde se muestran obras de autores como el Greco, Caravaggio (de esta autor se exhibe un importante "San Jerónimo") y Berruguete.
Además se pueden ver otras colecciones como iconografía de Montserrat, orfrebrería religiosa, etc.
Espacio audiovisual
Espacio audiovisual con el título de Montserrat portes endins se expone mediante una serie de audiovisuales las actividades diarias de los monjes así como un paseo virtual por los espacios más representativos del complejo monacal.
El exterior
Plaza de Santa María.
En la parte exterior se distribuyen diversas plazas que sirven para ordenar el conjunto de edificios en la orografía escarpada de la montaña. Este espacio exterior, al que se han añadido diversas obras escultóricas, conforma un "museo al aire libre". Destaca especialmente el Rosario Monumental de Montserrat.
La plaza de Santa María es la plaza principal y la que da acceso al monasterio y es obra también de Puig i Cadafalch. Desde la plaza se puede observar la nueva fachada del monasterio, construida por Francesc Folguera con piedra de la propia montaña. A la izquierda se pueden ver los restos del antiguo claustro gótico.
En la plaza del abad Oliva se encuentran los edificios que dan albergue a los peregrinos. La plaza está presidida por una estatua dedicada al fundador del monasterio, realizada en 1933 en bronce por el escultor Manuel Xuclà.
La última de las plazas de Montserrat es la de la Santa Cruz, dedicada a San Miguel. La plaza recibe su nombre de la cruz que la preside, obra del escultor Josep Maria Subirachs.
La Santa Cueva de Montserrat es el lugar en el que apareció la Virgen. Para acceder a él, y al vía crucis que existe cerca se puede usar un funicular. También hay servicio de funicular para subir hasta Sant Joan desde donde se puede obtener una de las mejores vistas de lugar.
La Virgen de Montserrat
La moreneta
Según la leyenda, la primera imagen de la Virgen de Montserrat la encontraron unos niños pastores en el 880. Tras ver una luz en la montaña, los niños encontraron la imagen de la Virgen en el interior de una cueva. Al enterarse de la noticia el obispo, intentó trasladar la imagen hasta la ciudad de Manresa pero el traslado fue imposible ya que la estatua pesaba demasiado. El obispo lo interpretó como el deseo de la Virgen de permanecer en el lugar en el que se la había encontrado y ordenó la construcción de la ermita de Santa María, origen del actual monasterio.
La imagen que en la actualidad se venera es una talla románica del siglo XII realizada en madera de álamo. Representa a la Virgen con el niño sentado en su regazo y mide unos 95 centímetros de altura. En su mano derecha sostiene una esfera que simboliza el universo; el niño tiene la mano derecha levantada en señal de bendición mientras que en la mano izquierda sostiene una piña.
Con excepción de la cara y de las manos de María y el niño, la imagen es dorada. La Virgen, sin embargo, es de color negro, lo que le ha dado el apelativo popular de La Moreneta (la morenita). Aunque se ha afirmado en ocasiones que el origen de este ennegrecimiento está en el humo de las velas que durante siglos se han colocado a sus pies para venerarla, lo cierto es que en toda Europa se veneran vírgenes negras (p.e. la Virgen de Guadalupe, o la Virgen de la Peña de Francia, en Salamanca), que habría derivado de la cristianización del culto a las antiguas diosas de la tierra (Isis, Cibeles, Artemisa...)
El 11 de septiembre de 1884, el Papa León XIII declaró oficialmente a la Virgen de Montserrat como patrona de Cataluña. Se le concedió también el privilegio de tener misa y oficios propios. Su festividad se celebra el 27 de abril.
Cerveza Presidente y Cosmopolitan se unieron y rompieron el Record Guinesse realizando la sección de fotos más grande del mundo formando la palabra Cosmo y el logo de Presidente con más de mil chicas en bikinis en la arenosa playa de Juan Dolio de República Dominicana.
L'intérieur de la mosquée Juma Masjid, construite au 18ème siècle.
De nombreuses colonnes en bois sculpté soutiennent le plafond de la "mosquée du vendredi" Juma Masjid.
Certains piliers sont très anciens, leur style décoratif est caractéristique de Khiva.
Sur la partie inférieure de ce pilier consacré aux religions, on décèle la forme du Bouddha.
PGB Photographer & Creative - © Philip Romeyn - Phillostar Gone Ballistic 2020 - Photos may not be edited from their original form - Commercial use is prohibited without contacting me
The Postcard
A postally unused postcard published by the Bodleian Library and printed at the Oxford University Press.
Percy Bysshe Shelley
Percy Bysshe Shelley, who was born on the 4th. August 1792, was one of the major English Romantic poets.
A radical in his poetry as well as in his political and social views, Shelley did not achieve fame during his lifetime, but recognition of his achievements in poetry grew steadily following his death, and he became an important influence on subsequent generations of poets, including Robert Browning, Algernon Charles Swinburne, Thomas Hardy, and W. B. Yeats.
American literary critic Harold Bloom describes Shelley as:
"A superb craftsman, a lyric poet without
rival, and surely one of the most advanced
sceptical intellects ever to write a poem."
Shelly's reputation fluctuated during the 20th. century, but in recent decades he has achieved increasing critical acclaim for the sweeping momentum of his poetic imagery, his mastery of genres and verse forms, and the complex interplay of sceptical, idealist, and materialist ideas in his work.
Among his best-known works are "Ozymandias" (1818), "Ode to the West Wind" (1819), "To a Skylark" (1820), the philosophical essay "The Necessity of Atheism" written alongside his friend T. J. Hogg (1811), and the political ballad "The Mask of Anarchy" (1819).
Shelley's other major works include the verse drama The Cenci (1819) and long poems such as Alastor, or The Spirit of Solitude (1815), Julian and Maddalo (1819), Adonais (1821), Prometheus Unbound (1820) - widely considered his masterpiece - Hellas (1822), and his final, unfinished work, The Triumph of Life (1822).
Shelley also wrote prose fiction and a quantity of essays on political, social, and philosophical issues.
Much of his poetry and prose was not published in his lifetime, or only published in expurgated form, due to the risk of prosecution for political and religious libel.
From the 1820's, his poems and political and ethical writings became popular in Owenist, Chartist, and radical political circles, and later drew admirers as diverse as Karl Marx, Mahatma Gandhi, and George Bernard Shaw.
Shelley's life was marked by family crises, ill health, and a backlash against his atheism, political views and defiance of social conventions. He went into permanent self-exile in Italy in 1818, and over the next four years produced what Leader and O'Neill call:
"Some of the finest poetry
of the Romantic period".
His second wife, Mary Shelley, was the author of Frankenstein.
Shelley died in a boating accident in 1822 at the age of 29.
Percy Bysshe Shelley - The Early Years
Shelley was born at Field Place, Warnham, West Sussex. He was the eldest son of Sir Timothy Shelley (1753–1844), a Whig Member of Parliament for Horsham from 1790 to 1792 and for Shoreham between 1806 and 1812, and his wife, Elizabeth Pilfold (1763–1846), the daughter of a successful butcher.
Percy had four younger sisters and one much younger brother. Shelley's early childhood was sheltered and mostly happy. He was particularly close to his sisters and his mother, who encouraged him to hunt, fish and ride.
At the age of six, he was sent to a day school run by the vicar of Warnham church, where he displayed an impressive memory and gift for languages.
In 1802 he entered the Syon House Academy in Brentford. Shelley was bullied and unhappy at the school, and sometimes responded with violent rage. He also began suffering from the nightmares, hallucinations and sleep walking that were periodically to afflict him throughout his life.
Shelley developed an interest in science which supplemented his voracious reading of tales of mystery, romance and the supernatural. During his holidays at Field Place, his sisters were often terrified by being subjected to his experiments with gunpowder, acids and electricity. Back at school he blew up a fence with gunpowder.
In 1804, Shelley entered Eton College, a period which he later recalled with loathing. He was subjected to particularly severe mob bullying which the perpetrators called "Shelley-baits".
A number of biographers and contemporaries have attributed the bullying to Shelley's aloofness, nonconformity and refusal to take part in fagging. His peculiarities and violent rages earned him the nickname "Mad Shelley".
His interest in the occult and science continued, and contemporaries describe him giving an electric shock to a master, blowing up a tree stump with gunpowder and attempting to raise spirits with occult rituals.
In his senior years, Shelley came under the influence of a part-time teacher, Dr James Lind, who encouraged his interest in the occult, and introduced him to liberal and radical authors.
Shelley also developed an interest in Plato and idealist philosophy which he pursued in later years through self-study. According to Richard Holmes, Shelley, by his leaving year, had gained a reputation as a classical scholar and a tolerated eccentric.
In his last term at Eton, his first novel Zastrozzi appeared and he had established a following among his fellow students. Prior to enrolling at University College, Oxford in October 1810, Shelley completed Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire (written with his sister Elizabeth), the verse melodrama The Wandering Jew and the Gothic novel St. Irvine; or, The Rosicrucian: A Romance (published 1811).
At Oxford Shelley attended few lectures, instead spending long hours reading and conducting scientific experiments in the laboratory he set up in his room. He met a fellow student, Thomas Jefferson Hogg, who became his closest friend.
Shelley became increasingly politicised under Hogg's influence, developing strong radical and anti-Christian views. Such views were dangerous in the reactionary political climate prevailing during Britain's war with Napoleonic France, and Shelley's father warned him against Hogg's influence.
In the winter of 1810–1811, Shelley published a series of anonymous political poems and tracts: Posthumous Fragments of Margaret Nicholson, The Necessity of Atheism (written in collaboration with Hogg) and A Poetical Essay on the Existing State of Things.
Shelley mailed The Necessity of Atheism to all the bishops and heads of colleges at Oxford, and he was called to appear before the college's fellows, including the Dean, George Rowley. His refusal to answer questions put by college authorities regarding whether or not he authored the pamphlet resulted in his expulsion from Oxford on the 25th. March 1811, along with Hogg.
Hearing of his son's expulsion, Shelley's father threatened to cut all contact with Shelley unless he agreed to return home and study under tutors appointed by him. Shelley's refusal to do so led to a falling-out with his father.
Shelley's Marriage to Harriet Westbrook
In late December 1810, Shelley had met Harriet Westbrook, a pupil at the same boarding school as Shelley's sisters. They corresponded frequently that winter, and also after Shelley had been expelled from Oxford.
Shelley expounded his radical ideas on politics, religion and marriage to Harriet, and they gradually convinced each other that she was oppressed by her father and at school.
Shelley's infatuation with Harriet developed in the months following his expulsion, when he was under severe emotional strain due to the conflict with his family, his bitterness over the breakdown of his romance with his cousin Harriet Grove, and his unfounded belief that he might be suffering from a fatal illness.
At the same time, Harriet Westbrook's elder sister Eliza, to whom Harriet was very close, encouraged the young girl's romance with Shelley. Shelley's correspondence with Harriet intensified in July, while he was holidaying in Wales, and in response to her urgent pleas for his protection, he returned to London in early August.
Putting aside his philosophical objections to matrimony, he left with the sixteen-year-old Harriet for Edinburgh on the 25th. August 1811, and they were married there on the 28th.
Hearing of the elopement, Harriet's father, John Westbrook, and Shelley's father cut off the allowances of the bride and groom. Shelley's father believed that his son had married beneath him, as Harriet's father had earned his fortune in trade, and was the owner of a tavern and coffee house.
Surviving on borrowed money, Shelley and Harriet stayed in Edinburgh for a month, with Hogg living under the same roof. The trio left for York in October, and Shelley went on to Sussex to settle matters with his father, leaving Harriet behind with Hogg.
Shelley returned from his unsuccessful excursion to find that Harriet's sister Eliza had moved in with Harriet and Hogg. Harriet confessed that Hogg had tried to seduce her while Shelley had been away. Accordingly Shelley, Harriet and Eliza soon left for Keswick in the Lake District, leaving Hogg in York.
At this time Shelley was involved in an intense platonic relationship with Elizabeth Hitchener, a 28-year-old unmarried schoolteacher of advanced views, with whom he had been corresponding. Hitchener, whom Shelley called the "sister of my soul" and "my second self", became his confidante and intellectual companion as he developed his views on politics, religion, ethics and personal relationships.
Shelley proposed that Elizabeth join him, Harriet and Eliza in a communal household where all property would be shared.
The Shelleys and Eliza spent December and January in Keswick where Shelley visited Robert Southey whose poetry he admired. Southey was taken with Shelley, even though there was a wide gulf between them politically, and predicted great things for him as a poet.
Southey also informed Shelley that William Godwin, author of Political Justice, which had greatly influenced him in his youth, and which Shelley also admired, was still alive. Shelley wrote to Godwin, offering himself as his devoted disciple. Godwin, who had modified many of his earlier radical views, advised Shelley to reconcile with his father, become a scholar before he published anything else, and give up his avowed plans for political agitation in Ireland.
Meanwhile, Shelley had met his father's patron, Charles Howard, 11th. Duke of Norfolk, who helped secure the reinstatement of Shelley's allowance.
With Harriet's allowance also restored, Shelley now had the funds for his Irish venture. Their departure for Ireland was precipitated by increasing hostility towards the Shelley household from their landlord and neighbours who were alarmed by Shelley's scientific experiments, pistol shooting and radical political views.
As tension mounted, Shelley claimed he had been attacked in his home by ruffians, an event which might have been real, or a delusional episode triggered by stress. This was the first of a series of episodes in subsequent years where Shelley claimed to have been attacked by strangers during periods of personal crisis.
Early in 1812, Shelley wrote, published and personally distributed in Dublin three political tracts: An Address, to the Irish People; Proposals for an Association of Philanthropists; and Declaration of Rights. He also delivered a speech at a meeting of O'Connell's Catholic Committee in which he called for Catholic emancipation, repeal of the Acts of Union and an end to the oppression of the Irish poor. Reports of Shelley's subversive activities were sent to the Home Secretary.
Returning from Ireland, the Shelley household travelled to Wales, then Devon, where they again came under government surveillance for distributing subversive literature. Elizabeth Hitchener joined the household in Devon, but several months later had a falling out with the Shelleys and left.
The Shelley household settled in Tremadog, Wales in September 1812, where Shelley worked on Queen Mab, a utopian allegory with extensive notes preaching atheism, free love, republicanism and vegetarianism. The poem was published the following year in a private edition of 250 copies, although few were initially distributed, because of the risk of prosecution for seditious and religious libel.
In February 1813, Shelley claimed he was attacked in his home at night. The incident might have been real, a hallucination brought on by stress, or a hoax staged by Shelley in order to escape government surveillance, creditors and his entanglements in local politics. The Shelleys and Eliza fled to Ireland, then London.
Back in England, Shelley's debts mounted as he tried unsuccessfully to reach a financial settlement with his father. On the 23rd. June 1813, Harriet gave birth to a girl, Eliza Ianthe Shelley, but in the following months the relationship between Shelley and his wife deteriorated.
Shelley resented the influence that Harriet's sister had over her, while Harriet was alienated by Shelley's close friendship with an attractive widow, Harriet Boinville, and her daughter Cornelia Turner.
Following Ianthe's birth, the Shelleys moved frequently across London, Wales, the Lake District, Scotland and Berkshire to escape creditors and to search for a home.
In March 1814, Shelley remarried Harriet in London to settle any doubts about the legality of their Edinburgh wedding and to secure the rights of their child. Nevertheless, the Shelleys lived apart for most of the following months, and Shelley reflected bitterly on:
"My rash & heartless union with Harriet".
Shelley's Elopement with Mary Godwin
In May 1814, Shelley began visiting his mentor William Godwin almost daily, and soon fell in love with Mary, the sixteen-year-old daughter of Godwin and the late feminist author Mary Wollstonecraft.
Shelley and Mary declared their love for each other during a visit to her mother's grave in the churchyard of St. Pancras Old Church on the 26th. June 1814. When Shelley told William Godwin that he intended to leave Harriet and live with Godwin's daughter, his mentor banished him from the house, and forbade Mary from seeing him.
Shelley and Mary however eloped to Europe on the 28th. July 1814, taking Mary's step-sister Claire Clairmont with them. Before leaving, Shelley had secured a loan of £3,000, but had left most of the funds at the disposal of Godwin and Harriet, who was now pregnant. The financial arrangement with Godwin led to rumours that he had sold his daughters to Shelley.
Shelley, Mary Godwin and Claire made their way across war-ravaged France where Shelley wrote to Harriet, asking her to meet them in Switzerland with the money he had left for her.
However, hearing nothing from Harriet in Switzerland, and being unable to secure sufficient funds or suitable accommodation, the three travelled to Germany and Holland before returning to England on the 13th. September 1814.
Shelley spent the next few months trying to raise loans and avoid bailiffs. Mary was pregnant, lonely, depressed and ill. Her mood was not improved when she heard that, on the 30th. November 1814, Harriet had given birth to Charles Bysshe Shelley, heir to the Shelley fortune and baronetcy.
This was followed, in early January 1815, by news that Shelley's grandfather, Sir Bysshe, had died leaving an estate worth £220,000. The settlement of the estate, and a financial settlement between Shelley and his father (now Sir Timothy), however, was not concluded until April the following year.
In February 1815, Mary gave premature birth to a baby girl who died ten days later, deepening her depression. In the following weeks, Mary became close to Hogg who temporarily moved into the household.
Shelley was almost certainly having a sexual relationship with Claire at this time, and it is possible that Mary, with Shelley's encouragement, was also having a sexual relationship with Hogg. In May Claire left the household, at Mary's insistence, to reside in Lynmouth.
In August 1815 Shelley and Mary moved to Bishopsgate where Shelley worked on Alastor, a long poem in blank verse based on the myth of Narcissus and Echo. Alastor was published in an edition of 250 in early 1816 to poor sales and largely unfavourable reviews from the conservative press.
On the 24th. January 1816, Mary gave birth to William Shelley. Percy was delighted to have another son, but was suffering from the strain of prolonged financial negotiations with his father, Harriet and William Godwin. Shelley showed signs of delusional behaviour, and was contemplating an escape to the continent.
Lord Byron
Claire initiated a sexual relationship with Lord Byron in April 1816, just before his self-exile on the continent, and then arranged for Byron to meet Shelley, Mary and her in Geneva.
Shelley admired Byron's poetry, and had sent him Queen Mab and other poems. Shelley's party arrived in Geneva in May and rented a house close to Villa Diodati, on the shores of Lake Geneva, where Byron was staying. There Shelley, Byron and the others engaged in discussions about literature, science and "various philosophical doctrines".
One night, while Byron was reciting Coleridge's Christabel, Shelley suffered a severe panic attack with hallucinations. The previous night Mary had had a more productive vision or nightmare which inspired her novel Frankenstein.
Shelley and Byron then took a boating tour around Lake Geneva, which inspired Shelley to write his "Hymn to Intellectual Beauty", his first substantial poem since Alastor.
A tour of Chamonix in the French Alps inspired "Mont Blanc", which has been described as an atheistic response to Coleridge's "Hymn before Sunrise in the Vale of Chamoni". During this tour, Shelley often signed guest books with a declaration that he was an atheist. These declarations were seen by other British tourists, including Southey, which hardened attitudes against Shelley back home.
Relations between Byron and Shelley's party became strained when Byron was told that Claire was pregnant with his child. Shelley, Mary, and Claire left Switzerland in late August, with arrangements for the expected baby still unclear, although Shelley made provision for Claire and the baby in his will.
In January 1817 Claire gave birth to a daughter by Byron who she named Alba, but later renamed Allegra in accordance with Byron's wishes.
Shelley's Marriage to Mary Godwin
Shelley and Mary returned to England in September 1816, and in early October they heard that Mary's half-sister Fanny Imlay had killed herself. Mary believed that Fanny had been in love with Shelley, and Shelley himself suffered depression and guilt over her death, writing:
"Friend had I known thy secret grief
Should we have parted so."
Further tragedy followed in December 1816 when Shelley's estranged wife Harriet drowned herself in the Serpentine in Hyde Park. Harriet, pregnant and living alone at the time, believed that she had been abandoned by her new lover. In her suicide letter she asked Shelley to take custody of their son Charles but to leave their daughter in her sister Eliza's care.
Shelley married Mary Godwin on the 30 December 1816, despite his philosophical objections to the institution. The marriage was intended to help secure Shelley's custody of his children by Harriet and to placate Godwin who had refused to see Shelley and Mary because of their previous adulterous relationship.
After a prolonged legal battle, the Court of Chancery eventually awarded custody of Shelley and Harriet's children to foster parents, on the grounds that Shelley had abandoned his first wife for Mary without cause, and was an atheist.
In March 1817 the Shelleys moved to the village of Marlow, Buckinghamshire, where Shelley's friend Thomas Love Peacock lived. The Shelley household included Claire and her baby Allegra, both of whose presence was resented by Mary. Shelley's generosity with money and increasing debts also led to financial and marital stress, as did Godwin's frequent requests for financial help.
On the 2nd. September 1817 Mary gave birth to a daughter, Clara Everina Shelley. Soon after, Shelley left for London with Claire, which increased Mary's resentment towards her step-sister. Shelley was arrested for two days in London over money he owed, and attorneys visited Mary in Marlowe over Shelley's debts.
Shelley was part of the literary and political circle that surrounded Leigh Hunt, and during this period he met William Hazlitt and John Keats. Shelley's major work during this time was Laon and Cythna, a long narrative poem featuring incest and attacks on religion.
It was hastily withdrawn after publication due to fears of prosecution for religious libel, and was re-edited and reissued as The Revolt of Islam in January 1818. Shelley also published two political tracts under a pseudonym: A Proposal for putting Reform to the Vote throughout the Kingdom (March 1817) and An Address to the People on the Death of Princess Charlotte (November 1817).
In December he wrote "Ozymandias", which is considered to be one of his finest sonnets, as part of a competition with friend and fellow poet Horace Smith.
Shelley in Italy
On the 12th. March 1818 the Shelleys and Claire left England:
"To escape its tyranny civil and religious".
A doctor had also recommended that Shelley go to Italy for his chronic lung complaint, and Shelley had arranged to take Claire's daughter, Allegra, to her father Byron who was now in Venice.
After travelling some months through France and Italy, Shelley left Mary and baby Clara at Bagni di Lucca (in today's Tuscany) while he travelled with Claire to Venice to see Byron and make arrangements for visiting Allegra.
Byron invited the Shelleys to stay at his summer residence at Este, and Shelley urged Mary to meet him there. Clara became seriously ill on the journey, and died on the 24th. September 1818 in Venice.
Following Clara's death, Mary fell into a long period of depression and emotional estrangement from Shelley.
The Shelleys moved to Naples on the 1st. December 1818, where they stayed for three months. During this period Shelley was ill, depressed and almost suicidal: a state of mind reflected in his poem "Stanzas written in Dejection – December 1818, Near Naples".
While in Naples, Shelley registered the birth and baptism of a baby girl, Elena Adelaide Shelley (born on the 27th. December 1818), naming himself as the father and falsely naming Mary as the mother.
The parentage of Elena has never been conclusively established. Biographers have variously speculated that she was adopted by Shelley to console Mary for the loss of Clara, that she was Shelley's child to Claire, that she was his child to his servant Elise Foggi, or that she was the child of a "mysterious lady" who had followed Shelley to the continent.
Shelley registered the birth and baptism on the 27th. February 1819, and the household left Naples for Rome the following day, leaving Elena with carers. Elena died in a poor suburb of Naples on the 9th. June 1820.
In Rome, Shelley was in poor health, probably suffering from nephritis and tuberculosis which later was in remission. Nevertheless, he made significant progress on three major works: Julian and Maddalo, Prometheus Unbound, and The Cenci.
Julian and Maddalo is an autobiographical poem which explores the relationship between Shelley and Byron, and analyses Shelley's personal crises of 1818 and 1819. The poem was completed in the summer of 1819, but was not published in Shelley's lifetime.
Prometheus Unbound is a long dramatic poem inspired by Aeschylus's retelling of the Prometheus myth. It was completed in late 1819 and published in 1820.
The Cenci is a verse drama of rape, murder and incest based on the story of the Renaissance Count Cenci of Rome and his daughter Beatrice. Shelley completed the play in September, and the first edition was published that year. It was to become one of his most popular works, and the only one to have two authorised editions during his lifetime.
Shelley's three-year-old son William died in June, probably of malaria. The new tragedy caused a further decline in Shelley's health, and deepened Mary's depression. On the 4th. August she wrote:
"We have now lived five years together;
and if all the events of the five years
were blotted out, I might be happy".
The Shelleys were now living in Livorno where, in September, Shelley heard of the Peterloo Massacre of peaceful protesters in Manchester. Within two weeks he had completed one of his most famous political poems, The Mask of Anarchy, and despatched it to Leigh Hunt for publication. Hunt, however, decided not to publish it for fear of prosecution for seditious libel. The poem was only officially published in 1832.
The Shelleys moved to Florence in October, where Shelley read a scathing review of the Revolt of Islam (and its earlier version Laon and Cythna) in the conservative Quarterly Review. Shelley was angered by the personal attack on him in the article which he erroneously believed had been written by Southey. His bitterness over the review lasted for the rest of his life.
On the 12th. November, Mary gave birth to a boy, Percy Florence Shelley. Around the time of Percy's birth, the Shelleys met Sophia Stacey, who was a ward of one of Shelley's uncles, and who was staying at the same pension as the Shelleys.
Sophia, a talented harpist and singer, formed a friendship with Shelley while Mary was preoccupied with her newborn son. Shelley wrote at least five love poems and fragments for Sophia including "Song Written for an Indian Air".
The Shelleys moved to Pisa in January 1820, ostensibly to consult a doctor who had been recommended to them. There they became friends with the Irish republican Margaret Mason (Lady Margaret Mountcashell) and her common-law husband George William Tighe. Mrs Mason became the inspiration for Shelley's poem "The Sensitive Plant", and Shelley's discussions with Mason and Tighe influenced his political thought and his critical interest in the population theories of Thomas Malthus.
In March Shelley wrote to friends that Mary was depressed, suicidal and hostile towards him. Shelley was also beset by financial worries, as creditors from England pressed him for payment and he was obliged to make secret payments in connection with his "Neapolitan charge" Elena.
Meanwhile, Shelley was writing A Philosophical View of Reform, a political essay which he had begun in Rome. The unfinished essay, which remained unpublished in Shelley's lifetime, has been called:
"One of the most advanced and
sophisticated documents of political
philosophy in the nineteenth century".
Another crisis erupted in June when Shelley claimed that he had been assaulted in the Pisan post office by a man accusing him of foul crimes. Shelley's biographer James Bieri suggests that this incident was possibly a delusional episode brought on by extreme stress, as Shelley was being blackmailed by a former servant, Paolo Foggi, over baby Elena.
It is likely that the blackmail was connected with a story spread by another former servant, Elise Foggi, that Shelley had fathered a child to Claire in Naples and had sent it to a foundling home. Shelley, Claire and Mary denied this story, and Elise later recanted.
In July, hearing that John Keats was seriously ill in England, Shelley wrote to the poet inviting him to stay with him at Pisa. Keats replied with hopes of seeing him, but instead, arrangements were made for Keats to travel to Rome.
In early July 1820, Shelley heard that baby Elena had died on 9 June. In the months following the post office incident and Elena's death, relations between Mary and Claire deteriorated, and Claire spent most of the next two years living separately from the Shelleys, mainly in Florence.
That December Shelley met Teresa (Emilia) Viviani, who was the 19-year-old daughter of the Governor of Pisa and who was living in a convent awaiting a suitable marriage. Shelley visited her several times over the next few months, and they started a passionate correspondence which dwindled after her marriage the following September. Emilia was the inspiration for Shelley's major poem Epipsychidion.
In March 1821 Shelley completed "A Defence of Poetry", a response to Peacock's article "The Four Ages of Poetry". Shelley's essay, with its famous conclusion "Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world", remained unpublished in his lifetime.
Following the death of Keats in 1821, Shelley wrote Adonais, which is considered to be one of the major pastoral elegies. The poem was published in Pisa in July 1821, but sold few copies.
Shelley went alone to Ravenna in early August to see Byron, making a detour to Livorno for a rendezvous with Claire. Shelley stayed with Byron for two weeks and invited the older poet to spend the winter in Pisa. After Shelley heard Byron read his newly completed fifth canto of Don Juan he wrote to Mary:
"I despair of rivalling Byron."
In November Byron moved into Villa Lanfranchi in Pisa, just across the river from the Shelleys. Byron became the centre of the "Pisan circle" which was to include Shelley, Thomas Medwin, Edward Williams and Edward Trelawny.
In the early months of 1822, Shelley became increasingly close to Jane Williams, who was living with her partner Edward Williams in the same building as the Shelleys.
Shelley wrote a number of love poems for Jane, including "The Serpent is Shut out of Paradise" and "With a Guitar, to Jane". Shelley's obvious affection for Jane was to cause increasing tension between Shelley, Edward Williams and Mary.
Claire arrived in Pisa in April at Shelley's invitation, and soon after they heard that her daughter Allegra had died of typhus in Ravenna. The Shelleys and Claire then moved to Villa Magni, near Lerici on the shores of the Gulf of La Spezia.
Shelley acted as mediator between Claire and Byron over arrangements for the burial of their daughter, and the added strain led to Shelley having a series of hallucinations.
Mary almost died from a miscarriage on the 16th, June, her life only being saved by Shelley's effective first aid. Two days later Shelley wrote to a friend that there was no sympathy between Mary and him, and if the past and future could be obliterated he would be content in his boat with Jane and her guitar.
That same day he also wrote to Trelawny asking for prussic acid. The following week, Shelley woke the household with his screaming over a nightmare or hallucination in which he saw Edward and Jane Williams as walking corpses, and himself strangling Mary.
During this time, Shelley was writing his final major poem, the unfinished The Triumph of Life, which Harold Bloom has called:
"The most despairing poem he wrote".
The Death of Shelley
On the 1st. July 1822, Shelley and Edward Williams sailed in Shelley's new boat the Don Juan to Livorno where Shelley met Leigh Hunt and Byron in order to make arrangements for a new journal, The Liberal.
After the meeting, on the 8th. July, Shelley, Williams and their boat boy sailed out of Livorno for Lerici. A few hours later, the Don Juan and its inexperienced crew were lost in a storm. The vessel, an open boat, had been custom-built in Genoa for Shelley.
Mary Shelley declared in her "Note on Poems of 1822" that the design had a defect, and that the boat was never seaworthy. In fact, however, the Don Juan was overmasted; the sinking was due to a severe storm and poor seamanship of the three men on board.
Shelley's badly decomposed body washed ashore at Viareggio ten days later, and was identified by Trelawny from the clothing and a copy of Keats's Lamia in a jacket pocket. On the 16th. August, his body was cremated on a beach near Viareggio, and the ashes were buried in the Protestant Cemetery of Rome.
When news of Shelley's death reached England, the Tory London newspaper The Courier printed:
"Shelley, the writer of some infidel poetry,
has been drowned; now he knows whether
there is God or no."
Shelley's ashes were reburied in a different plot at the cemetery in 1823. His grave bears the Latin inscription Cor Cordium (Heart of Hearts), and a few lines of "Ariel's Song" from Shakespeare's The Tempest:
'Nothing of him that doth fade
But doth suffer a sea change
Into something rich and strange'.
When Shelley's body was cremated on the beach, his presumed heart resisted burning, and was retrieved by Trelawny. The heart was possibly calcified from an earlier tubercular infection, or was perhaps his liver.
Trelawny gave the scorched organ to Hunt, who preserved it in spirits of wine and refused to hand it over to Mary. He finally relented, and the heart was eventually buried either at St Peter's Church, Bournemouth or in Christchurch Priory. Hunt also retrieved a piece of Shelley's jawbone which, in 1913, was given to the Shelley-Keats Memorial in Rome.
Shelley's Political, Religious and Ethical views
-- Politics
Shelley was a political radical who was influenced by thinkers such as Rousseau, Paine, Godwin, Wollstonecraft, and Leigh Hunt. He advocated Catholic Emancipation, republicanism, parliamentary reform, the extension of the franchise, freedom of speech and peaceful assembly, an end to aristocratic and clerical privilege, and a more equal distribution of income and wealth.
The views he expressed in his published works were often more moderate than those he advocated privately, because of the risk of prosecution for seditious libel and his desire not to alienate more moderate friends and political allies. Nevertheless, his political writings and activism brought him to the attention of the Home Office, and he came under government surveillance at various periods.
Shelley's most influential political work in the years immediately following his death was the poem Queen Mab, which included extensive notes on political themes. The work went through 14 official and pirated editions by 1845, and became popular in Owenist and Chartist circles. His longest political essay, A Philosophical View of Reform, was written in 1820, but not published until 1920.
-- Nonviolence
Shelley's advocacy of nonviolent resistance was largely based on his reflections on the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon, and his belief that violent protest would increase the prospect of a military despotism.
Although Shelley sympathised with supporters of Irish independence, he did not support violent rebellion. In his early pamphlet An Address, to the Irish People (1812) he wrote:
"I do not wish to see things changed now,
because it cannot be done without violence,
and we may assure ourselves that none of
us are fit for any change, however good, if
we condescend to employ force in a cause
we think right."
In his later essay A Philosophical View of Reform, Shelley did concede that there were political circumstances in which force might be justified:
"The last resort of resistance is undoubtably [sic] insurrection. The right of insurrection is derived
from the employment of armed force to counteract
the will of the nation."
Shelley supported the 1820 armed rebellion against absolute monarchy in Spain, and the 1821 armed Greek uprising against Ottoman rule.
Shelley's poem "The Mask of Anarchy" (written in 1819, but first published in 1832) has been called:
"Perhaps the first modern statement of
the principle of nonviolent resistance".
Gandhi was familiar with the poem, and it is possible that Shelley had an indirect influence on Gandhi through Henry David Thoreau's Civil Disobedience.
-- Religion
Shelley was an avowed atheist, who was influenced by the materialist arguments in Holbach's Le Système de la Nature. His atheism was an important element of his political radicalism, as he saw organised religion as inextricably linked to social oppression.
The overt and implied atheism in many of his works raised a serious risk of prosecution for religious libel. His early pamphlet The Necessity of Atheism was withdrawn from sale soon after publication following a complaint from a priest. His poem Queen Mab, which includes sustained attacks on the priesthood, Christianity and religion in general, was twice prosecuted by the Society for the Suppression of Vice in 1821. A number of his other works were edited before publication to reduce the risk of prosecution.
-- Free Love
Shelley's advocacy of free love drew heavily on the work of Mary Wollstonecraft and the early work of William Godwin. In his notes to Queen Mab, he wrote:
"A system could not well have been
devised more studiously hostile to
human happiness than marriage."
He argued that:
"The children of unhappy marriages
are nursed in a systematic school of
ill-humour, violence and falsehood".
Shelley believed that the ideal of chastity outside marriage was "a monkish and evangelical superstition" which led to the hypocrisy of prostitution and promiscuity.
Shelley believed that "sexual connection" should be free among those who loved each other, and last only as long as their mutual love. Love should also be free, and not subject to obedience, jealousy and fear.
He denied that free love would lead to promiscuity and the disruption of stable human relationships, arguing that relationships based on love would generally be of long duration and marked by generosity and self-devotion.
When Shelley's friend T. J. Hogg made an unwanted sexual advance to Shelley's first wife Harriet, Shelley forgave him of his "horrible error" and assured him that he was not jealous. It is very likely that Shelley encouraged Hogg and Shelley's second wife Mary to have a sexual relationship.
-- Vegetarianism
Shelley converted to a vegetable diet in early March 1812 and sustained it, with occasional lapses, for the remainder of his life. Shelley's vegetarianism was influenced by ancient authors such as Hesiod, Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Ovid and Plutarch, but more directly by John Frank Newton, author of The Return to Nature, or, A Defence of the Vegetable Regimen (1811).
Shelley wrote two essays on vegetarianism: A Vindication of Natural Diet (1813) and "On the Vegetable System of Diet" (written circa 1813–1815, but first published in 1929).
William Owen Jones argues that Shelley's advocacy of vegetarianism was strikingly modern, emphasising its health benefits, the alleviation of animal suffering, the inefficient use of agricultural land involved in animal husbandry, and the economic inequality resulting from the commercialisation of animal food production. Shelley's life and works inspired the founding of the Vegetarian Society in England (1847) and directly influenced the vegetarianism of George Bernard Shaw and perhaps Gandhi.
Reception and Influence of Shelley's Work
Shelley's work was not widely read in his lifetime outside a small circle of friends, poets and critics. Most of his poetry, drama and fiction was published in editions of only 250 copies which generally sold poorly. Only The Cenci went to an authorised second edition while Shelley was alive – in contrast, Byron's The Corsair (1814) sold out its first edition of 10,000 copies in one day.
The initial reception of Shelley's work in mainstream periodicals (with the exception of the liberal Examiner) was generally unfavourable. Reviewers often launched personal attacks on Shelley's private life and political, social and religious views, even when conceding that his poetry contained beautiful imagery and poetic expression.
There was also criticism of Shelley's intelligibility and style, Hazlitt describing it as:
"A passionate dream, a straining
after impossibilities, a record of fond
conjectures, a confused embodying
of vague abstraction".
Shelley's poetry soon however gained a wider audience in radical and reformist circles. Queen Mab became popular with Owenists and Chartists, and Revolt of Islam influenced poets sympathetic to the workers' movement such as Thomas Hood, Thomas Cooper and William Morris.
However, Shelley's mainstream following did not develop until a generation after his death. Bieri argues that editions of Shelley's poems published in 1824 and 1839 were edited by Mary Shelley to highlight her late husband's lyrical gifts and downplay his radical ideas. Matthew Arnold famously described Shelley as a "beautiful and ineffectual angel".
Shelley was a major influence on a number of important poets in the following decades, including Robert Browning, Swinburne, Hardy and Yeats. Shelley-like characters frequently appeared in nineteenth-century literature, such as Scythrop in Peacock's Nightmare Abbey, Ladislaw in George Eliot's Middlemarch, and Angel Clare in Hardy's Tess of the d'Urbervilles.
Twentieth-century critics such as Eliot, Leavis, Allen Tate and Auden variously criticised Shelley's poetry for deficiencies in style, "repellent" ideas, and immaturity of intellect and sensibility.
However, Shelley's critical reputation rose from the 1960's as a new generation of critics highlighted Shelley's debt to Spenser and Milton, his mastery of genres and verse forms, and the complex interplay of sceptical, idealist and materialist ideas in his work.
American literary critic Harold Bloom describes him as:
"A superb craftsman, a lyric poet
without rival, and surely one of the
most advanced sceptical intellects
ever to write a poem".
According to Donald H. Reiman:
"Shelley belongs to the great tradition
of Western writers that includes Dante,
Shakespeare and Milton".
John Lauritsen and Charles E. Robinson have argued that Shelley's contribution to Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein was extensive, and that he should be considered a collaborator or co-author.
However Professor Charlotte Gordon and others have disputed this contention. Fiona Sampson has said:
"In recent years Percy's corrections, visible
in the Frankenstein notebooks held at the
Bodleian Library in Oxford, have been
seized on as evidence that he must have
at least co-authored the novel. In fact, when
I examined the notebooks myself, I realised
that Percy did rather less than any line editor
working in publishing today."
Thoughts From Percy Shelley
"The soul's joy lies in doing."
"I have drunken deep of joy, And
I will taste no other wine tonight."
"A poet is a nightingale, who sits in
darkness and sings to cheer its own
solitude with sweet sounds."
"War is the statesman's game, the
priest's delight, the lawyer's jest,
the hired assassin's trade."
"Soul meets soul on lovers' lips."
"Fear not for the future,
weep not for the past."
"Our sincerest laughter with some
pain is fraught; Our sweetest songs
are those that tell of saddest thought."
"O, wind, if winter comes, can
can spring be far behind?"
Exposition
Du 14/06/2017 au 10/09/2017
L’exposition Le Rêve des formes, présentée à l’occasion du vingtième anniversaire du Fresnoy – Studio national des arts contemporains, est conçue comme un paysage imaginaire, un jardin monstrueux où se cultivent des formes périssables et des surfaces en germination, des organismes protubérants et de plates silhouettes.
Les artistes et chercheurs rassemblés dans Le Rêve des formes témoignent de leur rencontre avec de nouvelles possibilités de représentation, issues de découvertes scientifiques et techniques récentes, qui bouleversent notre façon de voir et de montrer. En renouvelant grâce à cela le champ du perceptible – nanotechnologies, imagerie de synthèse, scan 3D, stéréolithographie… –, ces nouvelles visualisations nous laissent présumer de géométries encore inconnues.
Des images, des transcriptions, des modélisations, des formes spéculatives produites par les inventeurs et savants des sciences prospectives, issues des mathématiques, de la physique, de la biologie, de l’optique ou de la chimie par exemple, rejoignent ou inspirent des œuvres qui résultent des greffes opérées entre art et science, entre spéculation et invention, par une vingtaine d’artistes contemporains.
Avec : Francis Alÿs, Hicham Berrada & Sylvain Courrech du Pont & Simon de Dreuille, Michel Blazy, Juliette Bonneviot, Dora Budor, Damien Cadio, Julian Charrière, Sylvie Chartrand, Clément Cogitore, Hugo Deverchère, Bertrand Dezoteux, Mimosa Echard, Alain Fleischer, Fabien Giraud & Raphaël Siboni, Bruno Gironcoli, Spiros Hadjidjanos, Patrick Jouin, Ryoichi Kurokawa, Annick Lesne & Julien Mozziconacci, Adrien Missika, Jean-Luc Moulène, Marie-Jeanne Musiol, Katja Novitskova, Jonathan Pêpe & Thibaut Rostagnat & David Chavalarias, Olivier Perriquet & Jean-Paul Delahaye, Arnaud Petit, Jean-François Peyret & Alain Prochiantz, Gaëtan Robillard, Gwendal Sartre, SMITH & Antonin-Tri Hoang, Anicka Yi
Henry Moore - Form and Material - Museum Beelden aan Zee - The Hague
In collaboration with the Henry Moore Foundation, Museum Beelden aan Zee has made a selection of works from the artist's substantial oeuvre. Around 70 objects and sculptures portray the artistic vision and creative process of one of the most important innovators of modern sculpture. The exhibition in Beelden aan Zee focuses on the influence of nature on his work and his growth and development as a sculptor. From promoting direct carving – carving without using preparatory sketches and studies – to experimenting with casting in lead and bronze. Henry Moore (1898-1986) is one of the most important British artists of the twentieth century. His sculptures balance on the boundary between figurative and abstract art and continue to be a source of inspiration to artists. His work has a recognisable and characteristic formal language. Important themes in his oeuvre are ‘mother and child’ and his reclining figures, which he explored extensively.
From the 1920s, Moore participated in countless British and international exhibitions, with solo as well as group exhibitions, he sold work on a regular basis, and so made a name for himself as an important modernist sculptor. However, the Second World War called a halt to these positive developments. Henry Moore left his teaching post and took up a commission as a war artist. It was in this capacity that he produced his deeply moving Shelter Drawings of Londoners crowding the city's underground stations sheltering from the Blitz. In the 1950s he created larger groups of figures. The prices for his works increased considerably and his fame as an international artist continued to grow. In later years he served as a trustee at both the Tate Gallery and the National Gallery and he was the recipient of a large number of prizes and honours.
Curso de “Corte e Costura” ABECAO
As beneficiárias da Oficina de Corte e Costura da ABECAO estão colocando em prática as técnicas adquiridas nas aulas, confeccionando vários modelos de vestuários. O objetivo do curso visa resgatar este projeto de qualificação tradicional, ensinando as técnicas para confecção de vestuários de maneira clara, objetiva e completa de como cortar e costurar, promovendo a profissionalização da mão de obra prioritariamente às pessoas em risco social, formando profissionais atendendo a necessidade do mercado de trabalho, estimulando o desenvolvimento da criatividade com qualidade as alunas, Natalia Aparecida Silva Santos, Alessandra Carla da Silva, Aparecida Castanha Vieira, Elaine Pereira Gomes, Graziela Pereira Celestino, Lindalva Leite Melo Barboza, Maria Aparecida Olmedo, Rose Mara Domelas de Castro,Tassiana de Menezes da Silva, demonstra grande aptidão profissional como mostra as fotos, parabéns as alunas e a monitora Marlene Canhada.
Terracotta, Early Classical, ca. 460-450 B.C.E., Attributed to the Manner of the Sotades Painter
Remains of two figures on the cuff.
The predilection for vases in figural form continued throughout the fifth century B.C.E. During the middle of the century, the workshop of the Sotades Painter was the most active and creative source. Whereas head vases, occasionally with two heads conjoined, were popular in the 490s and 480s, the next generation of artists introduced the conceit of combining the heads of different animals, in this case, a donkey and a ram. Th painter scene probably showed a satyr and a maenad.
(06.1099)
Text from the Metropolitan Museum card.
Un complesso formato da due quaterne parte dalla stazione di Milano Bovisa diretto a Varese.
Foto Cafagna
When the resin was about 90% cured, I wrapped it around a piece of steel pipe to get the correct diameter
Written by Mag. Michael Fritz
Coat of arms of Kufstein districts: Endach, Kufstein, Kufstein-Kaisertal, Kufstein -Stadtberg, Mitterndorf, Morsbach, Thierberg, Weissach, Zell
In the Tischoferhöhle (cavern) in the Kaisertal in 1906 several arrowheads from around 30,000 BC were found. This represents the oldest find of human traces in Tyrol. From the early Bronze Age can be partially derived traces of settlement, in this cave probably being a bronze workshop, as evidenced by various archaeological finds.
Under Roman rule Kufstein was divided into the provinces of Noricum and Rhaetia, the border being formed by the river Inn. In addition to the Roman road from Veldidena to Rosenheim, investigations also revealed two Roman settlement centers in Zell and Langkampfen.
788 Kufstein was first mentioned in the Indiculus Arnonis next cell. This indicates that Zell had survived the turmoil of the Migration Period as a settlement. About the place the Bavarian land acquisition in Tyrol was initiated and also the mission efforts from Salzburg began in Kufstein.
Kufstein belonged to the Duchy of Bavaria and later, in addition to Kitzbühel and Rattenberg, represented a "district court." Was the place in the 11th century still referred to as a village, so Kufstein got in the 13th century the status as a market. For the first time in 1205 also the "castrum" (Castle) was mentioned in a document. The raising to the status of a market and the construction of the castle make the importance of this settlement clear: Through Kufstein, both the waterway over the Inn and the road to Rosenheim led. Was at this time in addition to the Duke of Bavaria also the diocese of Regensburg owner of the castle, so the dukes were able to prevail until 1213 as the sole ruler.
Due to the marriage between the last Görzer Countess of Tyrol, Margarethe Maultasch, with Ludwig von Brandenburg, Kufstein 1342 came as a bridal gift for the first time to Tyrol, but had to be ceded 1369 in the peace of Schärding again to Bavaria. As a result, the development of the settlement and the castle was greatly encouraged by the Bavarians, so that Stephan III. from Bavaria Kufstein in 1393 raised to the city. In addition to the freedoms, the biggest advantage for the population was above all the staple and the selling right. 1415 further reinforcements were made at the castle and from 1480 a trench tax introduced, which was intended for the expansion of the city fortifications. The Ensemble Castle Town was from this time considered impregnable.
1503 broke out the Bavarian War of Succession, which offered for the House of Habsburg the opportunity to bring Kufstein to Tyrol. Emperor Maximilian stood on the side of Albrecht of Upper Bavaria, who promised him for his help against Duke Ruprecht of the Palatinate the district courts of Kufstein, Kitzbühel and Upper Bavaria and already handed over as a pledge. But Hans von Piezenau gave the castle and town of Kufstein to the advancing Palatine troops. Emperor Maximilian responded to this challenge and arrived on October 1, 1504 in front of the city with sufficient artillery. 3 days later, the shelling began, which did not have any effect on the castle, but severely damaged the city. Then Kufstein was handed over to the Habsburgs on October 12th. Only the use of the two big culverins from the Innsbruck armory, "Purlepaus" and "Weckauf", which had been brought on rafts to Kufstein, shot within three days the complex ready for the storm. When Piezenau now wanted to hand over the fortress, the emperor did not accept this offer and on 17 October stormed the castle. The captain and 17 defenders were executed in the episode. In the peace of Cologne, the handover of the 3 courts was confirmed.
Immediately, the fortress and the city were repaired. Instead of the existing keep, a round tower was built to meet the needs of the time, which was equipped with cannons and was able to spread the entire valley. After the peasant wars on Kufstein had passed without conflict, the city was very popular with the Anabaptists, who were severely persecuted by church and secular authorities. By 1580, 22 Kufstein people were executed for their religious beliefs and many others had to emigrate.
In a fire disaster in 1546 a large part of the city was destroyed, which was triggered by a carelessness of passing through papal troops.
In 1555 King Ferdinand I ordered the fortress to be rebuilt. In particular, the city walls were fortified by innumerable bastions and towers.
In the run-up to the Thirty Years' War, a hill was built between Zahmen Kaiser and Kufstein, but was never needed during the war.
In the meantime, with the weekly market and the two fairs a lively economic life had developed in Kufstein: On the one hand, trade flourished, which was strongly promoted by the Staple right, on the other hand, more and more craft enterprises were brought to life. So at that time there were 4 breweries in Kufstein alone.
In the War of Spanish Succession in 1703 the city and fortress Kufstein was threatened by the Bavarians. Under the command of Field Marshal Gschwindt the suburb was lit. The fire overcame the city walls, destroying the city and finally reaching the big tower of the fortress. There were stored large quantities of gunpowder, which exploded and devastated the entire complex. Part of the 500-man crew fled with the population over the Inn, the advancing Bavarians could take the fortress and only by the Ilbesheimer contract Kufstein came back to Tyrol.
In 1782, under the direction of the court architect Gumpp the fortress was again expanded. Above all, the Josefsburg was richly equipped with casemates.
In the 3rd Coalition War, the fortress was taken by the French under General Deroy and came in the peace of Bratislava 1805 to Bavaria. During the Tyrolean freedom fight, the Tyrolean shooters tried several times unsuccessfully to take the fortress. Unlike the fortress, however, they had taken the city by storm and the population suffered from the reprisals of both warring parties. After Napoleon's defeat, Kufstein returned to Tyrol on July 7, 1814.
This war had greatly changed Kufstein: the economic power had almost come to a standstill and the construction took a long time. The fort itself had lost much of its military importance and served from then on only as a garrison and the Emperor's Tower as a state prison. In 1865 the prison was closed and in 1888 the last garrison left.
From 1849 onwards, the city once again enjoyed a boom by the Kink family, which at that time set up a cement plant, donated a hospital and had the former moat filled up, which allowed the city to expand and connect the suburbs with the city.
1858 the railway line Rosenheim Kufstein Innsbruck was opened, 1867 the Brenner railway. As a result, while the inland navigation lost its right to exist, but Kufstein developed into an extremely important customs station.
The first kindergarten in Tyrol was founded in 1870, with the first Kindergärtnerinnenbildungsanstalt (Nursery School Teacher Educational Establishment) in Austria also starting here.
Geschrieben von Mag. Michael Fritz
Wappen von Kufstein Ortsteile: Endach, Kufstein, Kufstein-Kaisertal, Kufstein -Stadtberg, Mitterndorf, Morsbach, Thierberg, Weissach, Zell
In der Tischoferhöhle im Kaisertal wurden 1906 mehrere Pfeilspitzen aus der Zeit um 30.000 vor Christus gefunden. Dies stellt den ältesten Fund menschlicher Spuren in Tirol dar. Aus der frühen Bronzezeit lassen sich schon teilweise Besiedelungsspuren ableiten, wobei sich in dieser Höhle wahrscheinlich eine Bronzewerkstatt befand, wie verschiedenste archäologische Funde belegen.
Unter römischer Herrschaft war Kufstein auf die Provinzen Noricum und Rätien aufgeteilt, wobei der Inn die Grenze bildete. Neben der Römerstrasse von Veldidena nach Rosenheim, ergaben Untersuchungen auch zwei römische Siedlungskerne in Zell und Langkampfen .
788 wurde erstmals Kufstein im Indiculus Arnonis neben Zell genannt. Dies deutet daraufhin, dass Zell die Wirren der Völkerwanderungszeit als Siedlung überstanden hatte. Über den Ort wurde die bayrische Landnahme in Tirol eingeleitet und auch die Missionsbestrebungen von Salzburg aus, nahmen ihren Anfang in Kufstein.
Kufstein gehörte zum Herzogtum Bayern und stellte später neben Kitzbühel und Rattenberg ein „Landgericht" dar. Wurde der Ort im 11. Jahrhundert noch als Dorf bezeichnet, so erhielt Kufstein im 13. Jahrhundert den Status als Markt. Erstmals wurde auch 1205 das „castrum" (Burg) urkundlich erwähnt. Die Markterhebung und auch die Errichtung der Burg machen die Bedeutung dieser Siedlung deutlich: Durch Kufstein führte sowohl der Wasserweg über den Inn als auch die Strasse nach Rosenheim. War zu dieser Zeit neben dem Herzog von Bayern auch das Bistum Regensburg Besitzer der Burganlage, so konnten sich die Herzöge bis 1213 als alleinige Herrscher durchsetzen.
Durch die Ehe zwischen der letzten Görzer Gräfin von Tirol, Margarethe Maultasch, mit Ludwig von Brandenburg, kam Kufstein 1342 als Brautgeschenk erstmals zu Tirol, musste aber 1369 im Frieden von Schärding wiederum an Bayern abgetreten werden. In der Folge wurde der Ausbau der Siedlung und der Burg von den Bayern stark gefördert, sodass Stephan III. von Bayern Kufstein im Jahre 1393 zur Stadt erhob. Der größte Vorteil für die Bevölkerung war neben den Freiheiten vor allem das Stapel und Niederlagsrecht. 1415 wurden weitere Verstärkungen an der Burg vorgenommen und ab 1480 eine Grabensteuer eingeführt, welche für den Ausbau der Stadtbefestigung vorgesehen war. Das Ensemble Burg Stadt galt ab dieser Zeit als uneinnehmbar.
1503 brach der bayrische Erbfolgekrieg aus, der für das Haus Habsburg die Möglichkeit bot, Kufstein an Tirol zu bringen. Kaiser Maximilian stellte sich auf Seiten Albrecht von Oberbayern, der ihm für seine Hilfe gegen Herzog Ruprecht von der Pfalz die Landgerichte Kufstein, Kitzbühel und Oberbayern versprach und bereits als Pfand übergab. Hans von Piezenau übergab aber Burg und Stadt Kufstein den anrückenden pfälzischen Truppen. Kaiser Maximilian reagierte auf diese Herausforderung und traf am 1. Oktober 1504 vor der Stadt mit ausreichender Artillerie ein. 3 Tage später begann der Beschuss, der zwar gegen die Burg keine Wirkung zeigte, die Stadt aber stark beschädigte. Daraufhin wurde Kufstein am 12. Oktober an den Habsburger übergeben. Erst der Einsatz der zwei großen Feldschlagen aus dem Innsbrucker Zeughaus, „Purlepaus" und „Weckauf", welche auf Flößen nach Kufstein gebracht worden waren, schossen binnen drei Tagen die Anlage sturmreif. Als Piezenau nun die Festung übergeben wollte, akzeptierte der Kaiser dieses Angebot nicht und ließ am 17. Oktober die Burg stürmen. Der Burghauptmann und 17 Verteidiger wurden in der Folge hingerichtet. Im Friedensschluss von Köln wurde die Übergabe der 3 Gerichte bestätigt.
Sofort wurden die Festung und die Stadt wieder Instand gesetzt. Anstelle des bisherigen Bergfriedes wurde nun ein den Erfordernissen der Zeit entsprechender Rundturm errichtet, der mit Kanonen bestückt wurde und das gesamte Tal bestreichen konnte. Nachdem die Bauerkriege an Kufstein ohne Konflikte vorübergegangen waren, machte sich in der Stadt ein starker Zulauf zu den Wiedertäufern breit, die von kirchlichen als auch von weltlichen Behörden stark verfolgt wurden. Bis 1580 wurden 22 Kufsteiner wegen ihrer religiösen Überzeugung hingerichtet und viele andere mussten auswandern.
Bei einer Brandkatastrophe wurde 1546 ein großer Teil der Stadt zerstört, welche durch eine Unachtsamkeit durchziehender päpstlicher Truppen ausgelöst wurde.
1555 wurde durch einen Befehl König Ferdinands I. die Festungsanlage wiederum ausgebaut: So wurde vor allem die Stadtmauer durch unzählige Bastionen und Türmen verstärkt.
Im Vorfeld des 30 jährigen Krieges wurden eine Schanze zwischen Zahmen Kaiser und Kufstein errichtet, die aber im Kriegsverlauf niemals benötigt wurde.
In der Zwischenzeit hatte sich in Kufstein mit dem Wochenmarkt und den 2 Jahrmärkten ein reges wirtschaftliches Leben entwickelt: Einerseits florierte der Handel, der durch das Stappelrecht stark gefördert wurde, andererseits wurden immer mehr Handwerksbetriebe ins Leben gerufen. So befanden sich zu dieser Zeit allein 4 Bierbrauereien in Kufstein.
Im Spanischen Erbfolgekrieg wurde 1703 die Stadt und Festung Kufstein von den Bayern bedroht. Unter dem Kommando von Feldmarschall Gschwindt wurde die Vorstadt angezündet, wobei das Feuer die Stadtmauer überwand, die Stadt zerstörte und schließlich bis in den großen Turm der Festung kam. Dort wurden große Mengen Schießpulver gelagert, welche explodierte und die gesamte Anlage verwüstete. Ein Teil der 500 Mann zählenden Besatzung floh mit der Bevölkerung über den Inn, die nachrückenden Baiern konnten die Festung einnehmen und erst durch den Ilbesheimer Vertrag kam Kufstein zurück an Tirol.
1782 wurde unter der Leitung des Hofbaumeisters Gumpp die Festung wiederum ausgebaut. Vor allem wurde die Josefsburg mit Kasematten reich ausgestattet.
Im 3. Koalitionskrieg wurde die Festung durch die Franzosen unter General Deroy eingenommen und kam im Frieden von Pressburg 1805 zu Bayern. Während des Tiroler Freiheitskampfes versuchten die Tiroler Schützen mehrmals erfolglos die Festung einzunehmen. Im Gegensatz zur Festung hatten sie aber die Stadt im Sturm erobert und die Bevölkerung litt unter den Repressalien beider Kriegsparteien. Nach der Niederlage Napoleons kam am 7. Juli 1814 Kufstein wieder zu Tirol.
Dieser Krieg hatte Kufstein stark verändert: die wirtschaftliche Kraft war beinahe zum Erliegen gekommen und der Aufbau dauerte lange. Die Festung selbst hatte ihre militärische Bedeutung stark verloren und diente fortan nur mehr als Garnison und der Kaiserturm als Staatsgefängnis. 1865 wurde das Gefängnis geschlossen und 1888 zog die letzte Garnison aus.
Ab 1849 nahm die Stadt wiederum einen Aufschwung durch die Familie Kink, welche zu dieser Zeit ein Zementwerk errichtete, ein Krankenhaus stiftete und den ehemaligen Stadtgraben auffüllen ließ, wodurch sich die Stadt ausdehnen konnte, bzw. eine Verbindung zwischen Vorstadt und Stadt hergestellt wurde.
1858 wurde die Bahnlinie Rosenheim Kufstein Innsbruck eröffnet, 1867 die Brennerbahn. Dadurch verlor zwar die Innschiffahrt ihre Daseinsberechtigung, aber Kufstein entwickelte sich zu einer extrem wichtigen Zollstation.
1870 wurde der erste Kindergarten Tirols gegründet, wobei auch die erste Kindergärtnerinnenbildungsanstalt Österreichs hier ihren Anfang nahm.
www.geschichte-tirol.com/orte/nordtirol/bezirk-kufstein/1...
Don Stephen Senanayake (October 20, 1884–22 March 1952) was an independence activist who formed the Sri Lankan United National Party, which demanded independence from Britain. He became the first Prime Minister of what was then Ceylon (later called Sri Lanka) from 1947 to 1952.
Brought up in a devout Buddhist family, he entered a Christian school on his father's orders, and converted to Christianity. An intelligent student, he quickly found work in the Surveyor General's office before working as a supervisor on his father's plantation.
He entered politics at the age of thirty-eight, and in 1931 became Minister of Agriculture and Lands. He combatted Sri Lanka's agricultural problems effectively, and established the LDO, an agricultural policy that countered Sri Lanka's rice problems. This policy earned him respect, and he continued to be a minister for fifteen years. He also enforced "Agricultural Modernisation", which increased production output. However, he resigned in 1946 and fought for Sri Lanka's independence. In only a year he succeeded, and was elected as Sri Lanka's first Prime Minister. He refused a knighthood, but maintained good relations with Britain. He boldly made plans to spread out the population, and his Gal Oya scheme relocated over 250,000 people. His other plans included the increase of hydroelectric power, but he was killed in an unexpected horse-riding accident at the age of sixty-eight.
His son, Dudley Shelton Senanayake (1911–1973), succeeded him as Prime Minister in 1952, followed by another relative, Sir John Kotelawala (1897–1980) in 1953, but this nine-year family dynasty was ended by a landslide victory for Solomon West Ridgeway Dias Bandaranaike in 1956, campaigning under the "Sinhala Only" slogan. Dudley Senanayake regained the Prime Ministership in 1960, and again from 1965 to 1970).
D.S Senanayake is respected by Sinhalese and some muslims. However, Tamils were not happy with his citizenship laws that disenfanchised virtually all Tamils of recent Indian origin living in the central highlands. His bold agricultural plans and pro-Western policies, however, attracted criticism for their modern and untraditional nature. Under his family's leadership, Sri Lanka's economy flourished, and D.S Senanayake holds is still known as "The Father of Sri Lanka". He was however later linked to the Church of Scienttology, and theories exist suggesting that his death was far more sinister than first thought.
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