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What forms lurk in the mists of the Carina Nebula? The dark ominous figures are actually molecular clouds, knots of molecular gas and dust so thick they have become opaque. In comparison, however, these clouds are typically much less dense than Earth's atmosphere. Featured here is a detailed image of the core of the Carina Nebula, a part where both dark and colorful clouds of gas and dust are particularly prominent. The image was captured last month from Siding Spring Observatory in Australia. Although the nebula is predominantly composed of hydrogen gas -- here colored green, the image was assigned colors so that light emitted by trace amounts of sulfur and oxygen appear red and blue, respectively. The entire Carina Nebula, cataloged as NGC 3372, spans over 300 light years and lies about 7,500 light-years away in the constellation of Carina. Eta Carinae, the most energetic star in the nebula, was one of the brightest stars in the sky in the 1830s, but then faded dramatically. via NASA ift.tt/1ThxMNQ
Canon AE-1
FCS C-41 BW film (400)
Old picture that I recently rediscovered. Am planning on getting back some of my cameras because I may have access to a dark room/lab. So watch out!
Currently I am fascinated by light, artificial light. I am working on the set light . color . form
This picture has all three elements.
Belgian actor, artist and glass blower, Luk D'Heu uses a tool to form a piece of molten glass at the Art in Glass studio in Brugge.
museumPASSmusees 2021 - BAM - Fernando Botero - Au dela des formes
BAM (Beaux-Arts Mons)
Pour la premiere fois en Belgique, dans le cadre de la Biennale d'Art et de Culture de la Federation Wallonie-Bruxelles a Mons, le BAM consacre au peintre et sculpteur colombien Fernando Botero une vaste retrospective du 9 octobre 2021 au 30 janvier 2022.
Depuis ses recherches de jeunesse, peu connues du grand public, jusqu'aux oeuvres iconiques de la maturite, dont des toiles recentes presentees pour la premiere fois, cette exposition d'envergure brassera l'ensemble de la carriere de l'artiste.
Reputee pour ses personnages aux formes rondes et voluptueuses, l'oeuvre de Botero est le resultat d'une recherche exigeante et determinee, dans lequel l'artiste s'est engage il y a plus de 70 ans.
A l'heure ou, plus que jamais, le sens commun est en peril, l'exposition interroge la maniere dont une oeuvre, bien que personnelle et situee, parvient a developper un langage universel et accessible. Le parcours emportera les visiteurs dans l'univers foisonnant de Botero, inspire tant par l'art precolombien et l'iconographie populaire que par les muralistes mexicains ou l'art de la Renaissance italienne.
L'exposition Fernando Botero. Au-dela des formes rassemblera des oeuvres importantes empruntees a de prestigieux musees, comme le Gunggenheim de New-York, dont des peintures historiques rarement montrees au public europeen. Des toiles, dessins et sculptures appartenant a des collections privees internationales, notamment de Colombie, seront egalement presents.
Au centre du parcours d'exposition, une quinzaine d'oeuvres issues des collections meconnues du BAM illustreront les inspirations majeures de l'artiste colombien autour de differentes thematiques : natures mortes, nus, scenes de genre...
( 200 musees
Des maintenant, vous pouvez visiter tous les musees participants pendant un an. Pas une fois, mais aussi souvent que vous le souhaitez !
297 expositions
Vous pouvez egalement visiter les expositions temporaires des musees participants gratuitement ou a un tarif fortement reduit.
1 pass musees
Tout ceci avec seulement 1 pass.
•••POPUP COLLECTION•••
The brand new collection launched this week in london - coming to a shop near you soon...
Short formed, the Manwag set leaves Rhyl on 19 March 2018 with 67018 on the rear of 1H89 Holyhead-Manchester Piccadilly.
Behind is Rhyl no1 'box, standing since the LNWR quadrupled the line in the late 1890's. As far as I can work out, it's last train will be 1W98 Cardiff Central-Holyhead late on Friday 23 March.
Being grade 2 listed, it's unlikely to end up a pile of rubble just yet. But then again, Rhyl no2, disused since 1990, is grade 2 listed also. And I've mentioned the plight of that 'box more than once...
Rochester Cathedral has been transformed by ‘Peace Doves’ an artwork by Peter Walker Sculptor
Bringing a message of peace and hope, the Peace Doves artwork has been created from around fifteen thousand individually hand made paper doves, together they collectively form this beautiful artwork which as a whole reflects joining together in unity, peace and hope moving forward.
Peace Doves is an artwork that has been re-curated for different spaces as it tours the UK, adaptations have been seen in Liverpool, Lichfield, Derby, Sheffield and now at Rochester.
The Peace Doves project has incorporated educational engagement with many schools and community groups in the local area and each person has written individual messages of peace and hope onto each dove.
Throughout history the dove has been viewed as a symbol of peace in many different cultures. For example in Greek mythology the dove is a symbol of the renewal of life, and liturgically within the Bible the dove appears at the Baptism of Jesus in the river Jordan and in the teachings of Noah and the Ark as a symbol of the Holy Spirit.
www.rochestercathedral.org/peacedoves
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The church is the cathedral of the Diocese of Rochester in the Church of England and the seat (cathedra) of the Bishop of Rochester, the second oldest bishopric in England after that of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The edifice is a Grade I listed building (number 1086423)
The Rochester diocese was founded by Justus, one of the missionaries who accompanied Augustine of Canterbury to convert the pagan southern English to Christianity in the early 7th century. As the first Bishop of Rochester, Justus was granted permission by King Æthelberht of Kent to establish a church dedicated to Andrew the Apostle (like the monastery at Rome where Augustine and Justus had set out for England) on the site of the present cathedral, which was made the seat of a bishopric. The cathedral was to be served by a college of secular priests and was endowed with land near the city called Priestfields.[3][a][b]
Under the Roman system, a bishop was required to establish a school for the training of priests.[4] To provide the upper parts for music in the services a choir school was required.[5] Together these formed the genesis of the cathedral school which today is represented by the King's School, Rochester. The quality of chorister training was praised by Bede.
The original cathedral was 42 feet (13 m) high and 28 feet (8.5 m) wide. The apse is marked in the current cathedral on the floor and setts outside show the line of the walls. Credit for the construction of the building goes to King Æthelberht rather than St Justus. Bede describes St Paulinus' burial as "in the sanctuary of the Blessed Apostle Andrew which Æthelberht founded likewise he built the city of Rochester."[c][7]
Æthelberht died in 617 and his successor, Eadbald of Kent, was not a Christian. Justus fled to Francia and remained there for a year before he was recalled by the king.[8]
In 644 Ithamar, the first English-born bishop, was consecrated at the cathedral.[d] Ithamar consecrated Deusdedit as the first Saxon Archbishop of Canterbury on 26 March 655.[9]
The cathedral suffered much from the ravaging of Kent by King Æthelred of Mercia in 676. So great was the damage that Putta retired from the diocese and his appointed successor, Cwichelm, gave up the see "because of its poverty".[10]
In 762, the local overlord, Sigerd, granted land to the bishop, as did his successor Egbert.[e][11] The charter is notable as it is confirmed by Offa of Mercia as overlord of the local kingdom.
Following the invasion of 1066, William the Conqueror granted the cathedral and its estates to his half-brother, Odo of Bayeux. Odo misappropriated the resources and reduced the cathedral to near-destitution. The building itself was ancient and decayed. During the episcopate of Siward (1058–1075) it was served by four or five canons "living in squalor and poverty".[12] One of the canons became vicar of Chatham and raised sufficient money to make a gift to the cathedral for the soul and burial of his
Gundulf's church
Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, amongst others, brought Odo to account at the trial of Penenden Heath c. 1072. Following Odo's final fall, Gundulf was appointed as the first Norman bishop of Rochester in 1077. The cathedral and its lands were restored to the bishop.
Gundulf's first undertaking in the construction of the new cathedral seems to have been the construction of the tower which today bears his name. In about 1080 he began construction of a new cathedral to replace Justus' church. He was a talented architect who probably played a major part in the design or the works he commissioned. The original cathedral had a presbytery of six bays with aisles of the same length. The four easternmost bays stood over an undercroft which forms part of the present crypt. To the east was a small projection, probably for the silver shrine of Paulinus which was translated there from the old cathedral.[f] The transepts were 120 feet long, but only 14 feet wide. With such narrow transepts it is thought that the eastern arches of the nave abuted the quire arch.[14] To the south another tower (of which nothing visible remains) was built. There was no crossing tower.[15] The nave was not completed at first. Apparently designed to be nine bays long, most of the south side but only five bays to the north were completed by Gundulf. The quire was required by the priory and the south wall formed part of its buildings. It has been speculated that Gundulf simply left the citizens to complete the parochial part of the building.[16] Gundulf did not stop with the fabric, he also replaced the secular chaplains with Benedictine monks, obtained several royal grants of land and proved a great benefactor to his cathedral city.
In 1078 Gudulf founded St Bartholomew's Hospital just outside the city of Rochester. The Priory of St Andrew contributed daily and weekly provisions to the hospital which also received the offerings from the two altars of St James and of St Giles.[17]
During the episcopates of Ernulf (1115–1124) and John (I) (1125–1137) the cathedral was completed. The quire was rearranged, the nave partly rebuilt, Gundulf's nave piers were cased and the west end built. Ernulf is also credited with building the refectory, dormitory and chapter house, only portions of which remain. Finally John translated the body of Ithamar from the old Saxon cathedral to the new Norman one, the whole being dedicated in 1130 (or possibly 1133) by the Archbishop of Canterbury, assisted by 13 bishops in the presence of Henry I, but the occasion was marred by a great fire which nearly destroyed the whole city and damaged the new cathedral. It was badly damaged by fires again in 1137 and 1179. One or other of these fires was sufficiently severe to badly damage or destroy the eastern arm and the transepts. Ernulf's monastic buildings were also damaged.
Probably from about 1190, Gilbert de Glanville (bishop 1185–1214) commenced the rebuilding of the east end and the replacement on the monastic buildings. The north quire transept may have been sufficiently advanced to allow the burial of St William of Perth in 1201, alternatively the coffin may have lain in the north quire aisle until the transept was ready. It was then looted in 1215 by the forces of King John during siege of Rochester Castle. Edmund de Hadenham recounts that there was not a pyx left "in which the body of the Lord might rest upon the altar".[14] However, by 1227, the quire was again in use when the monks made their solemn entry into it. The cathedral was rededicated in 1240 by Richard Wendene (also known as Richard de Wendover) who had been translated from Bangor.[14][18]
The shrines of Ss Paulinus and William of Perth, along with the relics of St Ithamar, drew pilgrims to the cathedral. Their offerings were so great that both the work mentioned above and the ensuing work could be funded.
Unlike the abbeys of the period (which were led by an abbot) the monastic cathedrals were priories ruled over by a prior with further support from the bishop.[19] Rochester and Carlisle (the other impoverished see) were unusual in securing the promotion of a number of monks to be bishop. Seven bishops of Rochester were originally regular monks between 1215 and the Dissolution.[20] A consequence of the monastic attachment was a lack of patronage at the bishop's disposal. By the early 16th century only 4% of the bishop's patronage came from non-parochial sources.[21] The bishop was therefore chronically limited in funds to spend on the non-monastic part of the cathedral.
The next phase of the development was begun by Richard de Eastgate, the sacrist. The two eastern bays of the nave were cleared and the four large piers to support the tower were built. The north nave transept was then constructed. The work was nearly completed by Thomas de Mepeham who became sacrist in 1255. Not long after the south transept was completed and the two bays of the nave nearest the crossing rebuilt to their current form. The intention seems to have been to rebuild the whole nave, but probably lack of funds saved the late Norman work.
The cathedral was desecrated in 1264 by the troops of Simon de Montfort, during sieges of the city and castle. It is recorded that armed knights rode into the church and dragged away some refugees. Gold and silver were stolen and documents destroyed. Some of the monastic buildings were turned into stables.[22] Just over a year later De Montfort fell at the Battle of Evesham to the forces of Edward I. Later, in 1300, Edward passed through Rochester on his way to Canterbury and is recorded as having given seven shillings (35p) at the shrine of St William, and the same again the following day. During his return he again visited the cathedral and gave a further seven shillings at each of the shrines of Ss Paulinus and Ithamar.
The new century saw the completion of the new Decorated work with the original Norman architecture. The rebuilding of the nave being finally abandoned. Around 1320 the south transept was altered to accommodate the altar of the Virgin Mary.
There appears to have been a rood screen thrown between the two western piers of the crossing. A rood loft may have surmounted it.[23] Against this screen was placed the altar of St Nicholas, the parochial altar of the city. The citizens demanded the right of entrance by day or night to what was after all their altar. There were also crowds of strangers passing through the city. The friction broke out as a riot in 1327 after which the strong stone screens and doors which wall off the eastern end of the church from the nave were built.[24] The priory itself was walled off from the town at this period. An oratory was established in angulo navis ("in the corner of the nave") for the reserved sacrament; it is not clear which corner was being referred to, but Dr Palmer[25] argues that the buttress against the north-west tower pier is the most likely setting. He notes the arch filled in with rubble on the aisle side; and on nave side there is a scar line with lower quality stonework below. The buttress is about 4 feet (1.2 m) thick, enough for an oratory. Palmer notes that provision for reservation of consecrated hosts was often made to the north of the altar which would be the case here.
The central tower was at last raised by Hamo de Hythe in 1343, thus essentially completing the cathedral. Bells were placed in the central tower (see Bells section below). The chapter room doorway was constructed at around this time. The Black Death struck England in 1347–49. From then on there were probably considerably more than twenty monks in the priory.
The modern paintwork of the quire walls is modelled on artwork from the Middle Ages. Gilbert Scott found remains of painting behind the wooden stalls during his restoration work in the 1870s. The painting is therefore part original and part authentic. The alternate lions and fleurs-de-lis reflect Edward III's victories, and assumed sovereignty over the French. In 1356 the Black Prince had defeated John II of France at Poitiers and took him prisoner. On 2 July 1360 John passed through Rochester on his way home and made an offering of 60 crowns (£15) at the Church of St Andrew.[27]
The Oratory provided for the citizens of Rochester did not settle the differences between the monks and the city. The eventual solution was the construction of St Nicholas' Church by the north side of the cathedral. A doorway was knocked through the western end of the north aisle (since walled up) to allow processions to pass along the north aisle of the cathedral before leaving by the west door.[27][28]
In the mid-15th century the clerestory and vaulting of the north quire aisle was completed and new Perpendicular Period windows inserted into the nave aisles. Possible preparatory work for this is indicated in 1410–11 by the Bridge Wardens of Rochester who recorded a gift of lead from the Lord Prior. The lead was sold on for 41 shillings.[g][29] In 1470 the great west window at the cathedral was completed and finally, in around 1490, what is now the Lady Chapel was built.[27] Rochester Cathedral, although one of England's smaller cathedrals, thus demonstrates all styles of Romanesque and Gothic architecture.[30]
In 1504 John Fisher was appointed Bishop of Rochester. Although Rochester was by then an impoverished see, Fisher elected to remain as bishop for the remainder of his life. He had been tutor to the young Prince Henry and on the prince's accession as Henry VIII, Fisher remained his staunch supporter and mentor. He figured in the anti-Lutheran policies of Henry right up until the divorce issue and split from Rome in the early 1530s. Fisher remained true to Rome and for his defence of the Pope was elevated as a cardinal in May 1535. Henry was angered by these moves and, on 22 June 1535, Cardinal Fisher was beheaded on Tower Green.
Henry VIII visited Rochester on 1 January 1540 when he met Ann of Cleves for the first time and was "greatly disappointed".[31] Whether connected or not, the old Priory of St Andrew was dissolved by royal command later in the year, one of the last monasteries to be dissolved.
The west front is dominated by the central perpendicular great west window. Above the window the dripstone terminates in a small carved head at each side. The line of the nave roof is delineated by a string course above which rises the crenelated parapet. Below the window is a blind arcade interrupted by the top of the Great West Door. Some of the niches in the arcade are filled with statuary. Below the arcade the door is flanked with Norman recesses. The door itself is of Norman work with concentric patterned arches. The semicircular tympanum depicts Christ sitting in glory in the centre, with Saints Justus and Ethelbert flanking him on either side of the doorway. Supporting the saints are angels and surrounding them are the symbols of the Four Evangelists: Ss Matthew (a winged man), Mark (a lion), Luke (an ox) and John (an eagle).[52] On the lintel below are the Twelve Apostles and on the shafts supporting it King Soloman and the Queen of Sheba.[53] Within the Great West Door there is a glass porch which allows the doors themselves to be kept open throughout the day.
Either side of the nave end rises a tower which forms the junction of the front and the nave walls. The towers are decorated with blind arcading and are carried up a further two stories above the roof and surmounted with pyramidal spires. The aisle ends are Norman. Each has a large round headed arch containing a window and in the northern recess is a small door. Above each arch is plain wall surmounted by a blind arcade, string course at the roof line and plain parapet. The flanking towers are Norman in the lower part with the style being maintained in the later work. Above the plain bases there are four stories of blind arcading topped with an octagonal spire.[54]
The outside of the nave and its aisles is undistinguished, apart from the walled up north-west door which allowed access from the cathedral to the adjacent St Nicholas' Church.[28] The north transept is reached from the High Street via Black Boy Alley, a medieval pilgrimage route. The decoration is Early English, but reworked by Gilbert Scott. Scott rebuilt the gable ends to the original high pitch from the lower one adopted at the start of the 19th century. The gable itself is set back from the main wall behind a parapet with walkway. He also restored the pilgrim entrance and opened up the blind arcade in the northern end of the west wall.[55]
To the east of the north transept is the Sextry Gate. It dates from Edward III's reign and has wooden domestic premises above. The area beyond was originally enclosed, but is now open to the High Street through the memorial garden and gates. Beyond the Sextry Gate is the entrance to Gundulf's Tower, used as a private back door to the cathedral.
The north quire transept and east end are all executed in Early English style, the lower windows light the crypt which is earlier. Adjoining the east end of the cathedral is the east end of the Chapter Room which is in the same style. The exact form of the east end is more modern than it appears, being largely due to the work of Scott in the 19th century. Scott raised the gable ends to the original high pitch, but for lack of funds the roofs have not been raised; writing in 1897 Palmer noted: "they still require roofs of corresponding pitch, a need both great and conspicuous".[56]
On the south side of the cathedral the nave reaches the main transept and beyond a modern porch. The aisle between the transepts is itself a buttress to the older wall behind and supported by a flying buttress. The unusual position of this wall is best explained when considering the interior, below. The southern wall of the presbytery is hidden by the chapter room, an 18th-century structure.
he western part of the nave is substantially as Gundulf designed it. According to George H. Palmer (who substantially follows St John Hope) "Rochester and Peterborough possess probably the best examples of the Norman nave in the country".[60] The main arcade is topped by a string course below a triforium. The triforium is Norman with a further string course above. The clerestory above is of perpendicular style. From the capitals pilasters rise to the first string course but appear to have been removed from the triforium stage. Originally they might have supported the roof timbers, or even been the springing of a vault.[61]
The easternmost bay of the triforium appears to be Norman, but is the work of 14th-century masons. The final bay of the nave is Decorated in style and leads to the tower piers. Of note is the north pier which possibly contains the Oratory Chapel mentioned above.[62]
The aisles are plain with flat pilasters. The eastern two bays are Decorated with springing for vaulting. Whether the vault was ever constructed is unknown, the present wooden roof extends the full length of the aisles.
The crossing is bounded to the east by the quire screen with the organ above. This is of 19th-century work and shows figures associated with the early cathedral. Above the crossing is the central tower, housing the bells and above that the spire. The ceiling of the crossing is notable for the four Green Men carved on the bosses. Visible from the ground is the outline of the trapdoor through which bells can be raised and lowered when required. The floor is stepped up to the pulpitum and gives access to the quire through the organ screen.
The north transept is from 1235 in Early English style. The Victorian insertion of windows has been mentioned above in the external description. Dominating the transept is the baptistery fresco. The fresco by Russian artist Sergei Fyodorov is displayed on the eastern wall. It is located within an arched recess. The recess may have been a former site of the altar of St Nicholas from the time of its construction in 1235 until it was moved to the screen before the pulpitum in 1322. A will suggests that "an altar of Jesu" also stood here at some point, an altar of some sort must have existed as evidenced by the piscina to the right of the recess.[64] The vaulting is unusual in being octpartite, a development of the more common sexpartite. The Pilgrim Door is now the main visitor entrance and is level for disabled access.
he original Lady Chapel was formed in the south transept by screening it off from the crossing. The altar of the Blessed Virgin Mary was housed in the eastern arch of the transept. There are traces of painting both on the east wall and under the arch. The painting delineates the location of the mediaeval north screen of the Lady Chapel. Around 1490 this chapel was extended westwards by piercing the western wall with a large arch and building the chapel's nave against the existing south aisle of cathedral. From within the Lady Chapel the upper parts of two smaller clerestory windows may be seen above the chapel's chancel arch. Subsequently, a screen was placed under the arch and the modern Lady Chapel formed in the 1490 extension.
The south transept is of early Decorated style. The eastern wall of it is a single wide arch at the arcade level. There are two doorways in the arch, neither of which is used, the northern one being hidden by the memorial to Dr William Franklin. The south wall starts plain but part way up is a notable monument to Richard Watts, a "coloured bust, with long gray beard".[65] According to Palmer there used to be a brass plaque to Charles Dickens below this but only the outline exists, the plaque having been moved to the east wall of the quire transept.[66] The west wall is filled by the large arch mentioned above with the screen below dividing it from the present Lady Chapel.
The Lady Chapel as it now exists is of Decorated style with three lights along southern wall and two in the west wall. The style is a light and airy counterpart to the stolid Norman work of the nave. The altar has been placed against the southern wall resulting in a chapel where the congregation wraps around the altar. The window stained glass is modern and tells the gospel story.
The first, easternmost, window has the Annunciation in the upper light: Gabriel speaking to Mary (both crowned) with the Holy Spirit as a dove descending. The lower light shows the Nativity with the Holy Family, three angels and shepherds. The next window shows St Elizabeth in the upper light surrounded by stars and the sun in splendour device. The lower light shows the Adoration of the Magi with Mary enthroned with the Infant. The final window of the south wall has St Mary Magdelene with her ointment surrounded by Tudor roses and fleurs-de-lis in the upper light with the lower light showing the Presentation in the Temple. The west wall continues with St. Margaret of Scotland in the upper light surrounded by fouled anchor and thistle roundels. The reference is to the original dedication of the cathedral as the Priory of St Andrew. The lower light shows the Crucifixion with Mary and St Peter. The final window is unusual, the upper light is divided in three and shows King Arthur with the royal arms flanked by St George on the left and St Michael on the right. The lower light shows the Ascension: two disciples to the left, three women with unguents to the right and three bare crosses top right.
The chrysanthemums flowers occur in various forms. This is example here i from our garden.
Yu-Fen I found it very interesting but I guess you know this already that the chrysanthemums were cultivated in China as a flowering herb as far back as the 15th century BC! An ancient Chinese city was named Ju-Xian, meaning "chrysanthemum city".
The flower was brought to Europe in the 17th century. Linnaeus named it from the Greek prefix chrys-, which means golden (the colour of the original flowers), and -anthemon, meaning flower.
Canon PowerShot S5 IS
Aufnahmedatum/-zeit: 23.09.2007 10:43
Aufnahmemodus: Av (Zeitautomatik)
Tv (Verschlusszeit): 1/80
Av (Blendenzahl): 2.7
Filmempfindlichkeit (ISO): 100
Objektiv: 6.0 - 72.0mm
Brennweite: 6.0mm
La iglesia y convento de las Salesas es un conjunto formado por la iglesia y el antiguo convento de las monjas salesas de la Orden de la Visitación.
Considerada su obra más importante, fue proyectada por el arquitecto Joan Martorell i Montells, quien fue uno de los maestros y mentores de Antoni Gaudí, al que recomendó para la construcción de la Sagrada Família.
El maestro de obras de la iglesia fue Pere Bassegoda i Mateu, con colaboraciones de Pau Boronay en la carpintería, Lluís Ferreri en la talla de piedra, Joan Oñós en cerrajería, Fills de Ramon Amigó en las vidrieras, Joan Flotats y Josep Puiggener en las esculturas, Luigi Pallarin en los mosaicos.
Según el arquitecto Joan Bassegoda, en ciertas fases de la obra se contó con la participación de Antoni Gaudí, el cual en aquella época era discípulo y ayudante de Joan Martorell, se dice que el artesonado central del techo de la iglesia podría ser obra de Gaudí.
Las obras del convento se iniciaron en 1877 y la iglesia fue edificada entre 1882 y 1885, correspondiendo a la actual parroquia de San Francisco de Sales.
El antiguo convento, de piedra y ladrillo visto, se desarrolla siguiendo el perímetro del solar dejando en su interior un patio y un claustro porticado que se cierra con respecto al exterior, en donde hay ladrillo visto combinado con cerámica y piedra.
El conjunto está remarcado por la larga y esbelta aguja del campanario poligonal. A banda y banda de la puerta principal hay dos agujas que reproducen a menor escala la torre central, a la cual flanquean.
La iglesia está situada en el eje del conjunto, presidiéndolo, siendo uno de los más bellos ejemplares neogóticos de Barcelona, con influencia violletiana y neomudéjar.
En 1874 se estableció por primera vez en Barcelona una fundación salesiana, posteriormente en 1876 las monjas salesas compraron el terreno donde el 28 de marzo de 1877 se colocó la primera piedra del futuro convento.
Ya en 1878 las salesas ya ocupaban el convento.
La construcción de la iglesia comenzó en 1882, con la primera piedra colocada por el obispo Urquinaona, fue consagrado en 1885.
En 1909, durante la Semana Trágica y posteriormente durante la guerra civil, la iglesia y el convento fueron muy dañados, en julio de 1936 la iglesia y el convento fueron incendiados, y se desenterraron los cuerpos momificados de algunas monjas, que fueron sacrílegamente expuestos en la puerta.
En 1942 el conjunto fue adquirido por los Hermanos Maristas, convirtiéndolo el convento en un colegio en 1943.
De 1943 a 1960 se hicieron obras importantes en la iglesia, abriendo los muros entre las capillas laterales para convertirla en una iglesia de tres naves y haciendo un nuevo altar mayor.
El 9 de octubre de 1945 el obispo Gregorio Modrego erigió canónicamente una nueva parroquia bajo la advocación de Francisco de Sales, que comenzó a funcionar el 16 de enero de 1949.
En el convento, convertido en escuela, se añadió un segundo piso alrededor del claustro y el jardín se convirtió en patio de juegos.
En 1960 se construyó una piscina y un gimnasio, proyectados por el arquitecto M. Brullet i Monmany, a partir de 1967 el arquitecto Miquel Ponsetí Vives realizó los locales administrativos, el salón de actos, la biblioteca, el laboratorio y la sala de música.
En los años 80 la iglesia sufrió incendio que ennegreció paredes y arcadas, a partir del año 1991 se restauró parte del interior y más tarde se emprendió la restauración del exterior, con el fin de devolver el templo a su esplendor inicial.
En el año 2010 se celebraron los 125 años de la consagración del templo.
Barcelona, España.
Fuente: wikipedia.org
A former communal playground in Belgium now deserted and ransacked.
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Ancienne plaine de jeu communale en Belgique, aujourd'hui désertée et saccagée.
mémoire2cité - Sols absorbants, formes arrondies et couleurs vives, les aires de jeux standardisées font désormais partie du paysage urbain. Toujours les mêmes toboggans sécurisés, châteaux forts en bois et animaux à ressort. Ces non-lieux qu’on finit par ne plus voir ont une histoire, parallèle à celle des différentes visions portées sur l’enfant et l’éducation. En retournant jouer au xixe siècle, sur les premiers playgrounds des États-Unis, on assiste à la construction d’une nation – et à des jeux de société qui changent notre vision sur les balançoires du capitalisme. Ce texte est paru dans le numéro 4 de la revue Jef Klak « Ch’val de Course », printemps-été 2017. La version ici publiée en ligne est une version légèrement remaniée à l’occasion de sa republication dans le magazine Palais no 27 1, paru en juin 2018. la video içi www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uwj1wh5k5PY The concept for adventure playgrounds originated in postwar Europe, after a playground designer found that children had more fun with the trash and rubble left behind by bombings -inventing their own toys and playing with them- than on the conventional equipment of swings and slides. Narrator John Snagge was a well-known voice talent in the UK, working as a newsreader for BBC Radio - jefklak.org/le-gouvernement-des-playgrounds/ - www.collectorsweekly.com/articles/chasing-the-vanishing-p... or children, playgrounds are where magic happens. And if you count yourself among Baby Boomers or Gen Xers, you probably have fond memories of high steel jungle gyms and even higher metal slides that squeaked and groaned as you slid down them. The cheerful variety of animals and vehicles on springs gave you plenty of rides to choose from, while a spiral slide, often made of striped panels, was a repeated thrill. When you dismounted from a teeter-totter, you had to be careful not to send your partner crashing to the ground or get hit in the head by your own seat. The tougher, faster kids always pushed the brightly colored merry-go-round, trying to make riders as dizzy as possible. In the same way, you’d dare your sibling or best friend to push you even higher on the swing so your toes could touch the sky. The most exciting playgrounds would take the form of a pirate ship, a giant robot, or a space rocket.
“My husband would look at these big metal things and go, ‘Oh my God, those are the Slides of Death!'” - insh.world/history/playground-equipment-of-yesterday-that...
Today, these objects of happy summers past have nearly disappeared, replaced by newer equipment that’s lower to the ground and made of plastic, painted metal, and sometimes rot-resistant woods like cedar or redwood. The transformation began in 1973, when the U.S. Congress established the Consumer Product Safety Commission, which began tracking playground injuries at hospital emergency rooms. The study led to the publication of the first Handbook for Public Playground Safety in 1981, which signaled the beginning of the end for much of the playground equipment in use. (See the latest PPS handbook here.) Then, the American Society for Testing and Materials created a subcommittee of designers and playground-equipment manufacturers to set safety standards for the whole industry. When they published their guidelines in 1993, they suggested most existing playground surfaces, which were usually asphalt, dirt, or grass, needed to be replaced with pits of wood or rubber mulch or sand, prompting many schools and parks to rip their old playgrounds out entirely.
Top: A Space Age rocket-themed playground set by Miracle Playground Equipment, introduced circa 1968, photographed in Burlington, Colorado, in 2009. Above: Two seesaws and a snail-shaped climber, circa 1970s, photographed in Vandergrift, Pennsylvania, in 2007. (Photos by Brenda Biondo)
Top: A Space Age rocket-themed playground set by Miracle Playground Equipment, introduced circa 1968, photographed in Burlington, Colorado, in 2009. Above: Two seesaws and a snail-shaped climber, circa 1970s, photographed in Vandergrift, Pennsylvania, in 2007. (Photos by Brenda Biondo)
That said, removing and replacing playground equipment takes money, so a certain amount of vintage playground equipment survived into the next millennium—but it’s vanishing fast. Fortunately, Brenda Biondo, a freelance journalist turned photographer, felt inspired to document these playscapes before they’ve all been melted down. Her photographs capture the sculptural beauty and creativity of the vintage apparatuses, as well as that feeling of nostalgia you get when you see a piece of your childhood. After a decade of hunting down old playgrounds, Biondo published a coffee-table book, 2014’s Once Upon a Playground: A Celebration of Classic American Playgrounds, 1920-1975, which includes both her photographs of vintage equipment and pages of old playground catalogs that sold it.
Starting this November, Biondo’s playground photos will hit the road as part of a four-year ExhibitsUSA traveling show, which will also include vintage playground postcards and catalog pages from Biondo’s collection. The show will make stops in smaller museums and history centers around the United States, passing through Temple, Texas; Lincoln, Nebraska; Kansas City, Missouri; and Greenville, South Carolina. Biondo talked to us on the phone from her home in small-town Colorado, where she lives with her husband and children.
This 1975 Miracle catalog page reads, "This famous Lifetime Whirl has delighted three generations of children and still is a safe, playground favorite. Although it has gone through many improvements many of the original models are still spinning on playgrounds from coast to coast." (Courtesy of Brenda Biondo)This 1975 Miracle catalog page reads, “This famous Lifetime Whirl has delighted three generations of children and still is a safe, playground favorite. Although it has gone through many improvements many of the original models are still spinning on playgrounds from coast to coast.” (Courtesy of Brenda Biondo)Collectors Weekly: What inspired you to photograph playgrounds?Biondo: In 2004, I happened to be at my local park with my 1-year-old daughter, who was playing in the sandbox. I had just switched careers, from freelance journalism to photography, and I was looking for a starter project. I looked around the playground and thought, “Where is all the equipment that I remember growing up on?” They had new plastic contraptions, but nothing like the big metal slides I grew up with. After that, I started driving around to other playgrounds to see if any of this old equipment still existed. I found very little of it and realized it was disappearing quickly. That got to me.I felt like somebody should be documenting this equipment, because it was such a big part—and a very good part—of so many people’s childhoods. I couldn’t find anybody else who was documenting it, and I didn’t see any evidence that the Smithsonian was collecting it. As far as I could tell, it was just getting ripped up and sent to the scrap heap. At first, I started traveling around Colorado where I live, visiting playgrounds. Eventually, I took longer trips around the Southwest, and then I started looking for playgrounds whenever I was in any other parts of the country, like around California and the East Coast. It was a long-term project—shot over the course of a decade. And every year that I was shooting, it got harder and harder to find those pieces of old equipment.
This merry-go-round, photographed in Cañon City, Colorado, in 2006, is very similar to the Lifetime Whirl above. In the background are a rideable jalopy and animals, including four attached to a teeter-totter. (Photo by Brenda Biondo)
This merry-go-round, photographed in Cañon City, Colorado, in 2006, is very similar to the Lifetime Whirl above. In the background are a rideable jalopy and animals, including four attached to a teeter-totter. (Photo by Brenda Biondo)
Collectors Weekly: How did you find them?
Biondo: I would just drive around. I started hunting down local elementary schools and main-street playgrounds as well as neighborhood playgrounds. If I had a weekend, I would say, “OK, I’m going to drive from my home three hours east to the Kansas border, stay overnight and drive back.” Along the way, I would stop at every little town that I’d pass. They usually had one tiny main-street playground and one elementary school. I never knew what I was going to find. In a poorer area, a town often doesn’t have much money to replace playground equipment, whereas more affluent areas usually have updated their playgrounds by now. It was a bit of a crap shoot. Sometimes, I’d drive for hours and not really find anything—or I’d find one old playground after the other, because I happened to be in an area where equipment hadn’t been replaced.
I couldn’t get to every state, so I had to shoot where I was. I think there certainly are still old playgrounds out there, especially in small towns. But there’s fewer and fewer of them every year. My book has something like 170 photographs. I would guess that half the equipment pictured is already gone. Sometimes, I’d go back to a playground with a nice piece of equipment a year later to reshoot it, maybe in different lighting or a different season, and so often it had been removed. That pressured me to get out as often as I could because if I waited a few weeks, that piece might not be there anymore.
A 1911 postcard shows girls playing on an outdoor gymnasium at Mayo Park in Rochester, Minnesota.
a 1911 postcard shows girls playing on an outdoor gymnasium at Mayo Park in Rochester, Minnesota.
Collectors Weekly: What did you learn about playground history?
Biondo: I didn’t know American playgrounds started as part of the social reform or progressive movement of the early 1900s. Reformers hoped to keep poor inner-city immigrant kids safe and out of trouble. Back then, city children were playing in the streets with nothing to do, and when cars became more popular, kids started to get hit by motorists. Child activists started building playgrounds in big cities like Boston, Chicago, and New York as a way to help and protect these kids. These reformers felt they could build model citizens by teaching cooperation and manners through playgrounds. These early main-street parks would also have playground leaders who orchestrated activities such as games and songs.
“I started driving to playgrounds to see if any old equipment still existed. I found very little of it and realized it was disappearing quickly.”
In the late 1800s, Germans developed what they called “sand gardens,” which are just piles of sand where kids can come dig and build things. There were few of those in the United States as well. But by the early 1900s, the emphasis of playgrounds was on the apparatuses, things kids could climb on or swing on.
Soon after I started researching playground history, I happened to stumble on an eBay auction for a 1926 catalog that the playground manufacturers used to send to schools. At that point, I wasn’t thinking of doing a book, but I thought I could do something with it. I won the catalog; I paid, like, $12 for it. And it was so interesting because I could see this vintage equipment when it was brand new and considered modern and advanced. The manufacturers boasted about how safe it was and how it was good for building both muscles and imaginations.
After that, I would always search on eBay for playground catalogs, and I ended up with about three dozen catalogs from different manufacturers. My oldest is 1916, and my newest is from 1975. So I would take a photograph of some type of merry-go-round, and then I might find that same merry-go-round in a 1930 catalog. Often in the book, I pair my picture with the page from the catalog showing when it was first manufactured. I discovered a couple dozen manufacturers, which tended to be located in the bigger industrial areas with steel manufacturing, like Trenton, New Jersey, and Kokomo and Litchfield, Indiana. Pueblo, Colorado, even had a playground manufacturer. Burke and GameTime were big 20th century companies, and actually are among few still in existence.
The cover of a 1926 catalog for EverWear Manufacturing Company. (Courtesy of Brenda Biondo)
The cover of a 1926 catalog for EverWear Manufacturing Company. (Courtesy of Brenda Biondo)
Collectors Weekly: I recently came across an old metal slide whose steps had the name of the manufacturer, American, forged in openwork letters.
Biondo: I love those. One of the last pages in the book shows treads from six different slides, and they each had the name of their manufacturer in them, including Porter, American, and Burke. One time when I was traveling, I did a quick side trip to a small town with an elementary school. In the parking lot was this old metal slide with the American step treads, lying on its side. You could tell it had just been ripped off out of the concrete, which was still attached to the bottom, and was waiting for the steel recyclers to come and take it away.
I thought, “Oh my gosh, just put it on eBay! Somebody is going to want that. Don’t melt it down.” But nobody thinks about this stuff getting thrown away when it should be preserved. If you go on eBay, you can find a lot of those small animals on springs that little kids ride, because they’re small enough to be shipped. Once I saw someone selling one of those huge rocket ships, which had been dismantled, on eBay, but I don’t know if anybody ever bid on it. It’s rare to see the big stuff, because it is so expensive to ship. It’s like, “What kind of truck do you need to haul this thing away?” I don’t know of anyone who’s collecting those pieces, but I hope somebody is.
A metal slide in Victor, Colorado, had step treads with the name "American" in them. Photographed in 2008. (Photo by Brenda Biondo)
A metal slide in Victor, Colorado, had step treads with the name “American” in them. Photographed in 2008. (Photo by Brenda Biondo)
Collectors Weekly: It seems like an opportunity for both starting a collection or repurposing the material.
Biondo: I photographed many of the apparatuses as if they were sculptures because they have really cool designs and colors. Even when they’re worn down, the exposed layers of paint can be beautiful. Hardly anybody stops to look at it that way. People drive by and think, “Oh, there’s an old, rusty, rundown playground.” But if you take the time to look closely at this stuff, it’s really interesting. Just by looking at these pieces, you can picture all the kids who played on them.
Collectors Weekly: Aren’t people nostalgic for their childhood playgrounds?
Biondo: While I was taking the pictures, I visited Boulder, Colorado, which is a very affluent community. I was sure there would be no old playground equipment there. When I was driving around, all of a sudden, I looked over and saw this huge rocket ship. It turns out that one of the original NASA astronauts, Scott Carpenter, grew up in Boulder, and this playground was built in the ’60s to honor their hometown boy. Because of that, the citizens of Boulder never wanted to take down the rocket ship. One of the first exhibitions of this photography project happened in Boulder, and at the opening, I sold four prints of that rocket ship. People would come up to me at the exhibition, and they’d go, “Oh my gosh, I grew up playing on this when I was a little kid! Now, my kids are playing on it, and I’m so excited that I can get a picture of it and hang it in their bedroom.” So people have a strong nostalgic attachment to this equipment. It’s sad that most of it’s not going to be around for much longer.
A 1968 Miracle Playground Equipment catalog features the huge rocket-ship play set seen at the top of this story. (Courtesy of Brenda Biondo)
A 1968 Miracle Playground Equipment catalog features the huge rocket-ship playset seen at the top of this story. (Courtesy of Brenda Biondo)
Collectors Weekly: Besides slides and animals on springs, what were some other pieces that were common in older playgrounds?
Biondo: I didn’t come across as many old swings as I expected. I thought they would be all over the place, but I guess they’re gone now because they were so easy to replace. I tended to find merry-go-rounds more frequently—you know, the one where you’d run around pushing them and then jump on. When my kids were younger, they’d go out playground hunting with me, and the merry-go-rounds were their favorite things. They’re just so fun. The other thing you don’t find often is the seesaw or teeter-totter, and that was my favorite.The Karymor Stationary Jingle Ring Outfit appeared in the 1931 playground catalog put out by Pueblo, Colorado's R.F. Lamar and Co. (Photo by Brenda Biondo)
The Karymor Stationary Jingle Ring Outfit appeared in the 1931 playground catalog put out by Pueblo, Colorado’s R.F. Lamar and Co. (Photo by Brenda Biondo)
Before I started this project, I didn’t know there was such a variety of equipment. I figured I’d see seesaws, swings, slides, and merry-go-rounds. But I had no idea there were such things as revolving swings, which would be attached to a spinning pole via outstretched metal arms. Many mid-century pieces had themes from pop culture like “The Wizard of Oz,” “Cinderella,” “Denis the Menace,” cowboys and Indians, and Saturday-morning cartoons. During the Space Age, you started to see pieces of equipment shaped like rocket ships and satellites, because in the ’60s, Americans were so excited about space exploration. What was going on in the broader culture often got reflected in playground equipment.
Pursuing the catalogs was eye-opening. I live about an hour and a half south of Denver, so I often looked for playgrounds around the city. There, I’d find these contraptions where were shaped like umbrella skeletons, but then they had these rings hanging off the spindles. I’ve never seen them outside of Colorado. Then I bought a 1930s catalog from the manufacturer in Pueblo, Colorado, which is only 45 minutes from me, and it featured this apparatus. Later, I met people in Denver who’d say, “Oh, yeah, I remember that thing as a kid. It’s kind of like monkey bars where you had to try and get from ring to ring swinging and hanging by your arms.” There was so much variety, and even so many variations on the basics.I have a cool catalog from 1926 from the manufacturer Mitchell, which doesn’t exist anymore. I looked at one of the contraptions they advertised and I was like, “Oh my God, this looks like a torture device!” It was their own proprietary apparatus and maybe it didn’t prove to be very popular. I had never seen something like that on a playground. There probably weren’t very many of them installed.
This strange Climbing Swing from the 1926 Mitchell Manufacturing Company catalog looks a bit like a torture device. Brenda Biondo says she's never found one in the wild. (Courtesy of Brenda Biondo)
This Climbing Swing from the 1926 Mitchell Manufacturing Company catalog looks a bit like a torture device. Biondo’s never found one in the wild. (Courtesy of Brenda Biondo)
Collectors Weekly: After a while, were you able to date pieces just by looking at them?
Biondo: From looking at the catalogs, I certainly got a better idea of when things were built. But there were a handful things I couldn’t find in the catalogs. You can guess the age by knowing the design, as well as by looking at the amount of wear and the height of the piece. Usually, the taller it was, the older it was. One of the oldest slides I photographed was probably from the ’30s. I climbed to the top to shoot it as if the viewer were going to go down the slide. Up there, the place where you’d sit before sliding had been used for so many years by so many kids that I could see an outline of all the butts worn into the metal. You can imagine all the children who must have gone down that slide to wear the metal down like that.
This 1930s-era slide, found in Sargents, Colorado, in 2007, developed a butt-shaped imprint. (Photo by Brenda Biondo)
This 1930s-era slide, found in Sargents, Colorado, in 2007, developed a butt-shaped imprint. (Photo by Brenda Biondo)
Collectors Weekly: How did Modernism influence playground design?
Biondo: In 1953, the Museum of Modern Art in New York held a competition for playground design. Modern Art was just getting popular, and the idea of incorporating the theories of Modernist design into utilitarian objects was in the air, and was translated into playgrounds for several years. I have a 1967 catalog that features very abstract playground equipment made from sinuous blobs of poured concrete. And you’ve probably seen some of it, but there’s not too much of that around. That’s another example of how broader cultural trends were reflected in playgrounds.
When most people think of playgrounds, they say, “Oh, that’s a kiddie subject. There’s not much to it.” But when you start looking into them, you realize playgrounds are a fascinating piece of American culture—they go back a hundred years and played a part in most Americans’ lives. These playground pieces are icons of our childhood.
Collectors Weekly:What was the impact of the Consumer Product Safety Commission, which launched in 1973?
Biondo: Things started to change after that, which is why I limited to book to apparatuses made before 1975. New playgrounds were starting to be build out of plastic and fiberglass. I looked up the statistics, and according to the little research I’ve done—contrary to what you’d expect—there’s not much difference in the number of injuries on older equipment versus injuries on equipment today. A “New York Times” article from 2011 called “Can a Playground Be Too Safe?” explains that studies show when playground equipment was really high and just had asphalt underneath it and not seven layers of mulch, thekids knew they had to be careful because they didn’t want to fall. Nowadays, when everything is lower and there’s so much mulch, kids are just used to jumping down and falling and catching themselves. So kids learned to assess risk by playing on the older equipment. They also learned to challenge themselves because it is a little scary to go up to the top of the thing.
This old postcard of Shawnee Park in Kansas City, Kansas, circa 1912, shows how tall slides could get.
This old postcard of Shawnee Park in Kansas City, Kansas, circa 1912, shows how tall slides could get.
At my local park where you have new equipment, the monkey bars aren’t that high and there’s mulch below it, but a child fell and broke their arm last year. When I was talking to the principal at the school where they had just torn out that old American slide, I asked her, “Why did you replace the equipment?” She said, “We felt the parents in the community were expecting to have a little bit newer and nicer equipment. And this stuff had been here for so long.” And I said, “Have you seen a difference in injury rates since you put up your newer equipment?” She replied, “I’ve been a principal here several years, and we never had a serious broken-bone injury on the playground until four months ago on the new equipment.”
There were some nasty accidents in the ‘60s and ’70s, where kids got their arms or their heads caught in the contraptions. Those issues definitely needed to be assessed. What’s interesting is the Consumer Product Safety Commission never issued requirements, just suggested guidelines. But manufacturers felt that if their equipment didn’t meet those guidelines, they’d be vulnerable to liability. Everybody went to the extreme, making everything super safe so they wouldn’t risk getting sued.A 1970s-era climbing-bar apparatus, photographed in Rocky Ford, Colorado, in 2006. (Photo by Brenda Biondo)
A 1970s-era climbing-bar apparatus, photographed in Rocky Ford, Colorado, in 2006. (Photo by Brenda Biondo)
In the last decade, people have been looking at playground-equipment design and trying to make it more challenging and more encouraging of imaginative play, but without making it more likely someone’s going to get injured. And adults, I think, are realizing kids are spending more time indoors on devices so they want to do everything they can to encourage kids to still get outside, run around, and climb on things.
Collectors Weekly: You don’t need a playground to hurt yourself. When I was a kid, I fell off a farm post and broke my arm.Biondo: Oh, yeah, kids have been falling out trees forever—they always want to climb stuff. Playground politics are always evolving. Even in the 1920s, the catalogs talked about how safe their equipment was, and they were selling these 30-foot slides. Sometimes, I’d be out with my family on a vacation, and we’d make a little side tour to look for an old playground to shoot. My husband would look at these big metal things and go, “Oh my God, those are the Slides of Death!” because they were so huge and rickety. But back then, these were very safe pieces of equipment compared to what kids had been playing on before.
A page from the 1971 GameTime catalog offering rideable Saddle Mates. (Courtesy of Brenda Biondo)
A page from the 1971 GameTime catalog offering rideable Saddle Mates. (Courtesy of Brenda Biondo)
Collectors Weekly: Growing up in the 1980s, I always hated the new fiberglass slides because I’d end up with all these tiny glass shards in my butt.
Biondo: Yeah, I remember that, too. It’s always something. It is fun to talk to people about playgrounds because it reminds them of all the fun stuff they did as kids. When people see pictures of these metal slides, they tell me, “Oh my gosh, I remember getting such a bad burn from a metal slide one summer!” The metal would get so hot in the sun, and kids would take pieces of wax paper with them to sit on so they’d go flying down the slide. I have some old postcards that show playgrounds from the early ’20s. The wood seesaws not only were huge, but they had no handles so you had hold on to the sides of the board where you sat. I’m looking at that like, “Oh my God!” It’s all relative.
playground_postcard_milwaukee
Kids ride the rocking-boat seesaw at a Milwaukee, Wisconsin, park in this postcard postmarked 1910.
(To see more of Brenda Biondo’s playground photos and vintage catalog pages, pick up a copy of her book, “Once Upon a Playground: A Celebration of Classic American Playground, 1920-1975.” To find an exhibition of Biondo’s playground project, or to bring it to your town, visit the ExhibitsUSA page. To learn more about creative mid-century playgrounds around the globe, also pick up, “The Playground Project” by Xavier Salle and Vincent Romagny.) insh.world/history/playground-equipment-of-yesterday-that...
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Kazimierz – the district south of the Old Town between the Wisła River and ul. Dietla (where a tributary of the Wisła once flowed) was the centre of Jewish life in Kraków for over 500 years, before it was systematically destroyed during World War II. In the communist era it became one of Kraków’s dodgiest districts while gradually falling into disrepair. Rediscovered in the 1990s, thanks to the fall of the regime and worldwide exposure through the lens of Steven Spielberg, Kazimierz has rebounded and is today Kraków’s most exciting district – a bustling, bohemian neighbourhood packed with historical sites, atmospheric cafes and art galleries. Well-known for its associations with Schindler and Spielberg, traces of Kazimierz’s Jewish history have not only survived, but literally abound in the form of the district’s numerous synagogues and Jewish cemeteries. In fact, no other place in Europe conveys a sense of pre-war Jewish culture on the continent better than Kazimierz. As a result, the district has become a major tourist draw and pilgrimage site for Jews, which has led to the return of contemporary Jewish culture in the area.
I have always liked this crusty old industrial building, especially when the ivy that covers the corner turns red in the fall. By contrast, the sign seen here represents a high tech company that centers around machining for an aerospace and defense group.
The long facade on Sterling Avenue has a lot of these caged windows which make it possible to open the windows though the screens would not keep bugs out. They might be more to prevent people from getting in or out!
HINDU GODDESS KALI
Kālī, also known as Kālikā (Sanskrit: कालिका), is the Hindu goddess associated with empowerment, shakti. She is the fierce aspect of the goddess Durga (Parvati). The name Kali comes from kāla, which means black, time, death, lord of death: Shiva. Since Shiva is called Kāla— the eternal time — the name of Kālī, his consort, also means "Time" or "Death" (as in "time has come"). Hence, Kāli is the Goddess of Time and Change. Although sometimes presented as dark and violent, her earliest incarnation as a figure of annihilation of evil forces still has some influence. Various Shakta Hindu cosmologies, as well as Shākta Tantric beliefs, worship her as the ultimate reality or Brahman. Comparatively recent devotional movements largely conceive Kāli as a benevolent mother goddess. Kālī is represented as the consort of Lord Shiva, on whose body she is often seen standing. Shiva lies in the path of Kali, whose foot on Shiva subdues her anger.
ETYMOLOGY
Kālī is the feminine form of kālam ("black, dark coloured"). Kāla primarily means "time" but also means "black" in honor of being the first creation before light itself. Kālī means "the black one" and refers to her being the entity of "time" or "beyond time." Kāli is strongly associated with Shiva, and Shaivas derive the masculine Kāla (an epithet of Shiva) to come from her feminine name. A nineteenth-century Sanskrit dictionary, the Shabdakalpadrum, states: कालः शिवः। तस्य पत्नीति - काली। kālaḥ śivaḥ। tasya patnīti kālī - "Shiva is Kāla, thus, his consort is Kāli" referring to Devi Parvathi being a manifestation of Devi MahaKali.
Other names include Kālarātri ("black night"), as described above, and Kālikā ("relating to time"). Coburn notes that the name Kālī can be used as a proper name, or as a description of color.
Kāli's association with darkness stands in contrast to her consort, Shiva, who manifested after her in creation, and who symbolises the rest of creation after Time is created. In his supreme awareness of Maya, his body is covered by the white ashes of the cremation ground (Sanskrit: śmaśāna) where he meditates, and with which Kāli is also associated, as śmaśāna-kālī.
ORIGINS
Hugh Urban notes that although the word Kālī appears as early as the Atharva Veda, the first use of it as a proper name is in the Kathaka Grhya Sutra (19.7). Kali is the name of one of the seven tongues of Agni, the [Rigvedic] God of Fire, in the Mundaka Upanishad (2:4), but it is unlikely that this refers to the goddess. The first appearance of Kāli in her present form is in the Sauptika Parvan of the Mahabharata (10.8.64). She is called Kālarātri (literally, "black night") and appears to the Pandava soldiers in dreams, until finally she appears amidst the fighting during an attack by Drona's son Ashwatthama. She most famously appears in the sixth century Devi Mahatmyam as one of the shaktis of Mahadevi, and defeats the demon Raktabija ("Bloodseed"). The tenth-century Kalika Purana venerates Kāli as the ultimate reality.
According to David Kinsley, Kāli is first mentioned in Hinduism as a distinct goddess around 600 CE, and these texts "usually place her on the periphery of Hindu society or on the battlefield." She is often regarded as the Shakti of Shiva, and is closely associated with him in various Puranas. The Kalika Purana depicts her as the "Adi Shakti" (Fundamental Power) and "Para Prakriti" or beyond nature.
WORSHIP & MANTRA
Kali could be considered a general concept, like Durga, and is mostly worshiped in the Kali Kula sect of worship. The closest way of direct worship is Maha Kali or Bhadra Kali (Bhadra in Sanskrit means 'gentle'). Kali is worshiped as one of the 10 Mahavidya forms of Adi Parashakti (Goddess Durga) or Bhagavathy according to the region. The mantra for worship is called Devi Argala Stotram.
Sanskrit: सर्वमङ्गलमाङ्गल्ये शिवे सर्वार्थसाधिके । शरण्ये त्र्यम्बके गौरि नारायणि नमोऽस्तु ते ॥
ॐ जयंती मंगल काली भद्रकाली कपालिनी । दुर्गा क्षमा शिवा धात्री स्वाहा स्वधा नमोऽस्तुते ॥
(Sarvamaṅgalamāṅgalyē śivē sarvārthasādhikē . śaraṇyē tryambakē gauri nārāyaṇi namō'stu tē.
Oṃ jayantī mangala kālī bhadrakālī kapālinī . durgā kṣamā śivā dhātrī svāhā svadhā namō'stutē.)
TANTRA
Goddesses play an important role in the study and practice of Tantra Yoga, and are affirmed to be as central to discerning the nature of reality as are the male deities. Although Parvati is often said to be the recipient and student of Shiva's wisdom in the form of Tantras, it is Kāli who seems to dominate much of the Tantric iconography, texts, and rituals. In many sources Kāli is praised as the highest reality or greatest of all deities. The Nirvana-tantra says the gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva all arise from her like bubbles in the sea, ceaselessly arising and passing away, leaving their original source unchanged. The Niruttara-tantra and the Picchila-tantra declare all of Kāli's mantras to be the greatest and the Yogini-tantra, Kamakhya-tantra and the Niruttara-tantra all proclaim Kāli vidyas (manifestations of Mahadevi, or "divinity itself"). They declare her to be an essence of her own form (svarupa) of the Mahadevi.
In the Mahanirvana-tantra, Kāli is one of the epithets for the primordial sakti, and in one passage Shiva praises her:
At the dissolution of things, it is Kāla [Time] Who will devour all, and by reason of this He is called Mahākāla [an epithet of Lord Shiva], and since Thou devourest Mahākāla Himself, it is Thou who art the Supreme Primordial Kālika. Because Thou devourest Kāla, Thou art Kāli, the original form of all things, and because Thou art the Origin of and devourest all things Thou art called the Adya [the Primordial One]. Re-assuming after Dissolution Thine own form, dark and formless, Thou alone remainest as One ineffable and inconceivable. Though having a form, yet art Thou formless; though Thyself without beginning, multiform by the power of Maya, Thou art the Beginning of all, Creatrix, Protectress, and Destructress that Thou art.
The figure of Kāli conveys death, destruction, and the consuming aspects of reality. As such, she is also a "forbidden thing", or even death itself. In the Pancatattva ritual, the sadhaka boldly seeks to confront Kali, and thereby assimilates and transforms her into a vehicle of salvation. This is clear in the work of the Karpuradi-stotra, a short praise of Kāli describing the Pancatattva ritual unto her, performed on cremation grounds. (Samahana-sadhana)
He, O Mahākāli who in the cremation-ground, naked, and with dishevelled hair, intently meditates upon Thee and recites Thy mantra, and with each recitation makes offering to Thee of a thousand Akanda flowers with seed, becomes without any effort a Lord of the earth. Oh Kāli, whoever on Tuesday at midnight, having uttered Thy mantra, makes offering even but once with devotion to Thee of a hair of his Shakti [his energy/female companion] in the cremation-ground, becomes a great poet, a Lord of the earth, and ever goes mounted upon an elephant.
The Karpuradi-stotra clearly indicates that Kāli is more than a terrible, vicious, slayer of demons who serves Durga or Shiva. Here, she is identified as the supreme mistress of the universe, associated with the five elements. In union with Lord Shiva, she creates and destroys worlds. Her appearance also takes a different turn, befitting her role as ruler of the world and object of meditation. In contrast to her terrible aspects, she takes on hints of a more benign dimension. She is described as young and beautiful, has a gentle smile, and makes gestures with her two right hands to dispel any fear and offer boons. The more positive features exposed offer the distillation of divine wrath into a goddess of salvation, who rids the sadhaka of fear. Here, Kali appears as a symbol of triumph over death.
BENGALI TRADITION
Kali is also a central figure in late medieval Bengali devotional literature, with such devotees as Ramprasad Sen (1718–75). With the exception of being associated with Parvati as Shiva's consort, Kāli is rarely pictured in Hindu legends and iconography as a motherly figure until Bengali devotions beginning in the early eighteenth century. Even in Bengāli tradition her appearance and habits change little, if at all.
The Tantric approach to Kāli is to display courage by confronting her on cremation grounds in the dead of night, despite her terrible appearance. In contrast, the Bengali devotee appropriates Kāli's teachings adopting the attitude of a child, coming to love her unreservedly. In both cases, the goal of the devotee is to become reconciled with death and to learn acceptance of the way that things are. These themes are well addressed in Rāmprasād's work. Rāmprasād comments in many of his other songs that Kāli is indifferent to his wellbeing, causes him to suffer, brings his worldly desires to nothing and his worldly goods to ruin.
To be a child of Kāli, Rāmprasād asserts, is to be denied of earthly delights and pleasures. Kāli is said to refrain from giving that which is expected. To the devotee, it is perhaps her very refusal to do so that enables her devotees to reflect on dimensions of themselves and of reality that go beyond the material world.
A significant portion of Bengali devotional music features Kāli as its central theme and is known as Shyama Sangeet ("Music of the Night"). Mostly sung by male vocalists, today even women have taken to this form of music. One of the finest singers of Shyāma Sāngeet is Pannalal Bhattacharya.
In Bengal, Kāli is venerated in the festival Kali Puja, the new moon day of Ashwin month which coincides with Diwali festival.
In a unique form of Kāli worship, Shantipur worships Kāli in the form of a hand painted image of the deity known as Poteshwari (meaning the deity drawn on a piece of cloth).
LEGENDS
SLAYER OF RAKTABIJA
In Kāli's most famous legend, Devi Durga (Adi Parashakti) and her assistants, the Matrikas, wound the demon Raktabija, in various ways and with a variety of weapons in an attempt to destroy him. They soon find that they have worsened the situation for with every drop of blood that is dripped from Raktabija he reproduces a clone of himself. The battlefield becomes increasingly filled with his duplicates. Durga, in need of help, summons Kāli to combat the demons. It is said, in some versions, that Goddess Durga actually assumes the form of Goddess Kāli at this time. The Devi Mahatmyam describes:
Out of the surface of her (Durga's) forehead, fierce with frown, issued suddenly Kali of terrible countenance, armed with a sword and noose. Bearing the strange khatvanga (skull-topped staff ), decorated with a garland of skulls, clad in a tiger's skin, very appalling owing to her emaciated flesh, with gaping mouth, fearful with her tongue lolling out, having deep reddish eyes, filling the regions of the sky with her roars, falling upon impetuously and slaughtering the great asuras in that army, she devoured those hordes of the foes of the devas.
Kali destroys Raktabija by sucking the blood from his body and putting the many Raktabija duplicates in her gaping mouth. Pleased with her victory, Kali then dances on the field of battle, stepping on the corpses of the slain. In the Devi Mahatmya version of this story, Kali is also described as a Matrika and as a Shakti or power of Devi. She is given the epithet Cāṃuṇḍā (Chamunda), i.e. the slayer of the demons Chanda and Munda. Chamunda is very often identified with Kali and is very much like her in appearance and habit.
DAKSHINA KALI
In her most famous pose as Daksinakali, popular legends say that Kali, becoming drunk on the blood of her victims on the battlefield, dances with destructive frenzy. She is about to destroy the whole universe when, urged by all the gods, Shiva lies in her way to stop her. In her fury, she fails to see the body of Shiva lying amongst the corpses on the battlefield and steps upon his chest. Realizing Shiva lies beneath her feet, her anger is pacified and she calms her fury. Though not included in any of the puranas, popular legends state that Kali was ashamed at the prospect of keeping her husband beneath her feet and thus stuck her tongue out in shame. The Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which goes into great depths about the goddess Kali, reveals the tongue's actual symbolism.
The characteristic icons that depict Kali are the following; unbridled matted hair, open blood shot eyes, open mouth and a drooping tongue; in her hands, she holds a Khadga (bent sword or scimitar) and a human head; she has a girdle of human hands across her waist and an enchanted Shiva lies beneath her feet. Each of these icons represent a deep philosophical epithet. The drooping out-stuck tongue represents her blood-thirst. Lord Shiva beneath her feet represents matter, as Kali is undoubtedly the primeval energy. The depiction of Kali on Shiva shows that without energy, matter lies "dead". This concept has been simplified to a folk-tale depicting a wife placing her foot on her husband and sticking her tongue out in shame. In tantric contexts, the tongue is seen to denote the element (guna) of rajas (energy and action) controlled by sattva.
If Kali steps on Shiva with her right foot and holds the sword in her left hand, she is considered to be Dakshina Kali. The Dakshina Kali Temple has important religious associations with the Jagannath Temple and it is believed that Daksinakali is the guardian of the kitchen of the Lord Jagannath Temple. Puranic tradition says that in Puri, Lord Jagannath is regarded as Daksinakalika. Goddess Dakshinakali plays an important role in the 'Niti' of Saptapuri Amavasya.
One South Indian tradition tells of a dance contest between Shiva and Kali. After defeating the two demons Sumbha and Nisumbha, Kali takes up residence in the forest of Thiruvalankadu or Thiruvalangadu. She terrorizes the surrounding area with her fierce, disruptive nature. One of Shiva's devotees becomes distracted while performing austerities, and asks Shiva to rid the forest of the destructive goddess. When Shiva arrives, Kali threatens him, claiming the territory as her own. Shiva challenges Kali to a dance contest; both of them dance and Kali matches Shiva in every step that he takes until Shiva takes the "Urdhvatandava" step, by vertically raising his right leg. Kali refuses to perform this step, which would not befit her as a woman, and became pacified.
SMASHAN KALI
If the Kali steps out with the left foot and holds the sword in her right hand, she is the terrible form of Mother, the Smashan Kali of the cremation ground. She is worshiped by tantrics, the followers of Tantra, who believe that one's spiritual discipline practiced in a smashan (cremation ground) brings success quickly. Sarda Devi, the consort of Ramakrishna Paramhansa, worshipped Smashan Kali at Dakshineshwar.
MATERNAL KALI
Another legend depicts the infant Shiva calming Kali. In this similar story, Kali has defeated her enemies on the battlefield and begun to dance out of control, drunk on the blood of the slain. To calm her down and to protect the stability of the world, Shiva is sent to the battlefield, as an infant, crying aloud. Seeing the child's distress, Kali ceases dancing to care for the helpless infant. She picks him up, kisses his head, and proceeds to breast feed the infant Shiva. This legend is notable because it shows Kali in her benevolent, maternal aspect, with which she is not usually identified.
MAHAKALI
Mahakali (Sanskrit: Mahākālī, Devanagari: महाकाली), literally translated as Great Kali, is sometimes considered as a greater form of Kali, identified with the Ultimate reality of Brahman. It can also be used as an honorific of the Goddess Kali, signifying her greatness by the prefix "Mahā-". Mahakali, in Sanskrit, is etymologically the feminized variant of Mahakala or Great Time (which is interpreted also as Death), an epithet of the God Shiva in Hinduism. Mahakali is the presiding Goddess of the first episode of the Devi Mahatmya. Here she is depicted as Devi in her universal form as Shakti. Here Devi serves as the agent who allows the cosmic order to be restored.
Kali is depicted in the Mahakali form as having ten heads, ten arms, and ten legs. Each of her ten hands is carrying a various implement which vary in different accounts, but each of these represent the power of one of the Devas or Hindu Gods and are often the identifying weapon or ritual item of a given Deva. The implication is that Mahakali subsumes and is responsible for the powers that these deities possess and this is in line with the interpretation that Mahakali is identical with Brahman. While not displaying ten heads, an "ekamukhi" or one headed image may be displayed with ten arms, signifying the same concept: the powers of the various Gods come only through Her grace.
ICONOGRAPHY
Kali is portrayed mostly in two forms: the popular four-armed form and the ten-armed Mahakali form. In both of her forms, she is described as being black in color but is most often depicted as blue in popular Indian art. Her eyes are described as red with intoxication, and in absolute rage, her hair is shown disheveled, small fangs sometimes protrude out of her mouth, and her tongue is lolling. She is often shown naked or just wearing a skirt made of human arms and a garland of human heads. She is also accompanied by serpents and a jackal while standing on a seemingly dead Shiva, usually right foot forward to symbolize the more popular Dakshinamarga or right-handed path, as opposed to the more infamous and transgressive Vamamarga or left-handed path.
In the ten-armed form of Mahakali she is depicted as shining like a blue stone. She has ten faces and ten feet and three eyes. She has ornaments decked on all her limbs. There is no association with Shiva.
The Kalika Purana describes Kali as possessing a soothing dark complexion, as perfectly beautiful, riding a lion, four-armed, holding a sword and blue lotuses, her hair unrestrained, body firm and youthful.
In spite of her seemingly terrible form, Kali Ma is often considered the kindest and most loving of all the Hindu goddesses, as she is regarded by her devotees as the Mother of the whole Universe. And because of her terrible form, she is also often seen as a great protector. When the Bengali saint Ramakrishna once asked a devotee why one would prefer to worship Mother over him, this devotee rhetorically replied, "Maharaj, when they are in trouble your devotees come running to you. But, where do you run when you are in trouble?"
According to Ramakrishna, darkness is the Ultimate Mother, or Kali:
My Mother is the principle of consciousness. She is Akhanda Satchidananda; indivisible Reality, Awareness, and Bliss. The night sky between the stars is perfectly black. The waters of the ocean depths are the same; The infinite is always mysteriously dark. This inebriating darkness is my beloved Kali.
SRI RAMAKRISHNA
This is clear in the works of such contemporary artists as Charles Wish, and Tyeb Mehta, who sometimes take great liberties with the traditional, accepted symbolism, but still demonstrate a true reverence for the Shakta sect.
POPULAR FORM
Classic depictions of Kali share several features, as follows:
Kali's most common four armed iconographic image shows each hand carrying variously a sword, a trishul (trident), a severed head and a bowl or skull-cup (kapala) catching the blood of the severed head.
Two of these hands (usually the left) are holding a sword and a severed head. The Sword signifies Divine Knowledge and the Human Head signifies human Ego which must be slain by Divine Knowledge in order to attain Moksha. The other two hands (usually the right) are in the abhaya (fearlessness) and varada (blessing) mudras, which means her initiated devotees (or anyone worshipping her with a true heart) will be saved as she will guide them here and in the hereafter.
She has a garland consisting of human heads, variously enumerated at 108 (an auspicious number in Hinduism and the number of countable beads on a Japa Mala or rosary for repetition of Mantras) or 51, which represents Varnamala or the Garland of letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, Devanagari. Hindus believe Sanskrit is a language of dynamism, and each of these letters represents a form of energy, or a form of Kali. Therefore she is generally seen as the mother of language, and all mantras.
She is often depicted naked which symbolizes her being beyond the covering of Maya since she is pure (nirguna) being-consciousness-bliss and far above prakriti. She is shown as very dark as she is brahman in its supreme unmanifest state. She has no permanent qualities - she will continue to exist even when the universe ends. It is therefore believed that the concepts of color, light, good, bad do not apply to her - she is the pure, un-manifested energy, the Adi-shakti.
SHIVA IN KALI ICONOGRAPHY
In both these images she is shown standing on the prone, inert or dead body of Shiva. There is a legend for the reason behind her standing on what appears to be Shiva's corpse, which translates as follows:
Once Kali had destroyed all the demons in battle, she began a terrific dance out of the sheer joy of victory. All the worlds or lokas began to tremble and sway under the impact of her dance. So, at the request of all the Gods, Shiva himself asked her to desist from this behavior. However, she was too intoxicated to listen. Hence, Shiva lay like a corpse among the slain demons in order to absorb the shock of the dance into himself. When Kali eventually stepped upon Shiva, she realized she was trampling and hurting her husband and bit her tongue in shame.
The story described here is a popular folk tale and not described or hinted in any of the puranas. The puranic interpretation is as follows:
Once, Parvati asks Shiva to chose the one form among her 10 forms which he likes most. To her surprise, Shiva reveals that he is most comfortable with her Kali form, in which she is bereft of her jewellery, her human-form, her clothes, her emotions and where she is only raw, chaotic energy, where she is as terrible as time itself and even greater than time. As Parvati takes the form of Kali, Shiva lies at her feet and requests her to place her foot on his chest, upon his heart. Once in this form, Shiva requests her to have this place, below her feet in her iconic image which would be worshiped throughout.
This idea has been explored in the Devi-Bhagavata Purana and is most popular in the Shyama Sangeet, devotional songs to Kali from the 12th to 15th centuries.
The Tantric interpretation of Kali standing on top of her husband is as follows:
The Shiv tattava (Divine Consciousness as Shiva) is inactive, while the Shakti tattava (Divine Energy as Kali) is active. Shiva and Kali represent Brahman, the Absolute pure consciousness which is beyond all names, forms and activities. Kali, on the other hand, represents the potential (and manifested) energy responsible for all names, forms and activities. She is his Shakti, or creative power, and is seen as the substance behind the entire content of all consciousness. She can never exist apart from Shiva or act independently of him, just as Shiva remains a mere corpse without Kali i.e., Shakti, all the matter/energy of the universe, is not distinct from Shiva, or Brahman, but is rather the dynamic power of Brahman. Hence, Kali is Para Brahman in the feminine and dynamic aspect while Shiva is the male aspect and static. She stands as the absolute basis for all life, energy and beneath her feet lies, Shiva, a metaphor for mass, which cannot retain its form without energy.
While this is an advanced concept in monistic Shaktism, it also agrees with the Nondual Trika philosophy of Kashmir, popularly known as Kashmir Shaivism and associated most famously with Abhinavagupta. There is a colloquial saying that "Shiva without Shakti is Shava" which means that without the power of action (Shakti) that is Mahakali (represented as the short "i" in Devanagari) Shiva (or consciousness itself) is inactive; Shava means corpse in Sanskrit and the play on words is that all Sanskrit consonants are assumed to be followed by a short letter "a" unless otherwise noted. The short letter "i" represents the female power or Shakti that activates Creation. This is often the explanation for why She is standing on Shiva, who is either Her husband and complement in Shaktism or the Supreme Godhead in Shaivism.
To properly understand this complex Tantric symbolism it is important to remember that the meaning behind Shiva and Kali does not stray from the non-dualistic parlance of Shankara or the Upanisads. According to both the Mahanirvana and Kularnava Tantras, there are two distinct ways of perceiving the same absolute reality. The first is a transcendental plane which is often described as static, yet infinite. It is here that there is no matter, there is no universe and only consciousness exists. This form of reality is known as Shiva, the absolute Sat-Chit-Ananda - existence, knowledge and bliss. The second is an active plane, an immanent plane, the plane of matter, of Maya, i.e., where the illusion of space-time and the appearance of an actual universe does exist. This form of reality is known as Kali or Shakti, and (in its entirety) is still specified as the same Absolute Sat-Chit-Ananda. It is here in this second plane that the universe (as we commonly know it) is experienced and is described by the Tantric seer as the play of Shakti, or God as Mother Kali.
From a Tantric perspective, when one meditates on reality at rest, as absolute pure consciousness (without the activities of creation, preservation or dissolution) one refers to this as Shiva or Brahman. When one meditates on reality as dynamic and creative, as the Absolute content of pure consciousness (with all the activities of creation, preservation or dissolution) one refers to it as Kali or Shakti. However, in either case the yogini or yogi is interested in one and the same reality - the only difference being in name and fluctuating aspects of appearance. It is this which is generally accepted as the meaning of Kali standing on the chest of Shiva.
Although there is often controversy surrounding the images of divine copulation, the general consensus is benign and free from any carnal impurities in its substance. In Tantra the human body is a symbol for the microcosm of the universe; therefore sexual process is responsible for the creation of the world. Although theoretically Shiva and Kali (or Shakti) are inseparable, like fire and its power to burn, in the case of creation they are often seen as having separate roles. With Shiva as male and Kali as female it is only by their union that creation may transpire. This reminds us of the prakrti and purusa doctrine of Samkhya wherein prakāśa- vimarśa has no practical value, just as without prakrti, purusa is quite inactive. This (once again) stresses the interdependencies of Shiva and Shakti and the vitality of their union.
Gopi Krishna proposed that Kali standing on the dead Shiva or Shava (Sanskrit for dead body) symbolised the helplessness of a person undergoing the changing process (psychologically and physiologically) in the body conducted by the Kundalini Shakti.
DEVELOPMENT
In the later traditions, Kali has become inextricably linked with Shiva. The unleashed form of Kali often becomes wild and uncontrollable, and only Shiva is able to tame her just as only Kali can tame Shiva. This is both because she is often a transformed version of one of his consorts and because he is able to match her wildness.
The ancient text of Kali Kautuvam describes her competition with Shiva in dance, from which the sacred 108 Karanas appeared. Shiva won the competition by acting the urdva tandava, one of the Karanas, by raising his feet to his head. Other texts describe Shiva appearing as a crying infant and appealing to her maternal instincts. While Shiva is said to be able to tame her, the iconography often presents her dancing on his fallen body, and there are accounts of the two of them dancing together, and driving each other to such wildness that the world comes close to unravelling.
Shiva's involvement with Tantra and Kali's dark nature have led to her becoming an important Tantric figure. To the Tantric worshippers, it was essential to face her Curse, the terror of death, as willingly as they accepted Blessings from her beautiful, nurturing, maternal aspect. For them, wisdom meant learning that no coin has only one side: as death cannot exist without life, so life cannot exist without death. Kali's role sometimes grew beyond that of a chaos - which could be confronted - to that of one who could bring wisdom, and she is given great metaphysical significance by some Tantric texts. The Nirvāna-tantra clearly presents her uncontrolled nature as the Ultimate Reality, claiming that the trimurti of Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra arise and disappear from her like bubbles from the sea. Although this is an extreme case, the Yogini-tantra, Kamakhya-tantra and the Niruttara-tantra declare her the svarupa (own-being) of the Mahadevi (the great Goddess, who is in this case seen as the combination of all devis).
The final stage of development is the worshipping of Kali as the Great Mother, devoid of her usual violence. This practice is a break from the more traditional depictions. The pioneers of this tradition are the 18th century Shakta poets such as Ramprasad Sen, who show an awareness of Kali's ambivalent nature. Ramakrishna, the 19th century Bengali saint, was also a great devotee of Kali; the western popularity of whom may have contributed to the more modern, equivocal interpretations of this Goddess. Rachel McDermott's work, however, suggests that for the common, modern worshipper, Kali is not seen as fearful, and only those educated in old traditions see her as having a wrathful component. Some credit to the development of Devi must also be given to Samkhya. Commonly referred to as the Devi of delusion, Mahamaya or Durga, acting in the confines of (but not being bound by) the nature of the three gunas, takes three forms: Maha-Kali, Maha-Lakshmi and Maha-Saraswati, being her tamas-ika, rajas-ika and sattva-ika forms. In this sense, Kali is simply part of a larger whole.
Like Sir John Woodroffe and Georg Feuerstein, many Tantric scholars (as well as sincere practitioners) agree that, no matter how propitious or appalling you describe them, Shiva and Devi are simply recognizable symbols for everyday, abstract (yet tangible) concepts such as perception, knowledge, space-time, causation and the process of liberating oneself from the confines of such things. Shiva, symbolizing pure, absolute consciousness, and Devi, symbolizing the entire content of that consciousness, are ultimately one and the same - totality incarnate, a micro-macro-cosmic amalgamation of all subjects, all objects and all phenomenal relations between the "two." Like man and woman who both share many common, human traits yet at the same time they are still different and, therefore, may also be seen as complementary.
Worshippers prescribe various benign and horrific qualities to Devi simply out of practicality. They do this so they may have a variety of symbols to choose from, symbols which they can identify and relate with from the perspective of their own, ever-changing time, place and personal level of unfolding. Just like modern chemists or physicists use a variety of molecular and atomic models to describe what is unperceivable through rudimentary, sensory input, the scientists of ontology and epistemology must do the same. One of the underlying distinctions of Tantra, in comparison to other religions, is that it allows the devotee the liberty to choose from a vast array of complementary symbols and rhetoric which suit one's evolving needs and tastes. From an aesthetic standpoint, nothing is interdict and nothing is orthodox. In this sense, the projection of some of Devi's more gentle qualities onto Kali is not sacrilege and the development of Kali really lies in the practitioner, not the murthi.
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HINDU GODDESS DURGA
Durga, meaning "the inaccessible" or "the invincible", is the most popular incarnation of Devi and one of the main forms of the Goddess Shakti in the Hindu pantheon. Durga is the original manifested form of Mother Parvati or Adi-Parashakti. Durga is Adi-Parashakti herself. The Devi Gita, declares her to be the greatest Goddess. Thus, she is considered the supreme goddess and primary deity in Shaktism, occupying a place similar to Lord Krishna in Vaishnavism. According to Skanda Purana, the goddess Parvati accounted the name "Durga" after she killed the demon Durgamaasura. Goddess Parvati is considered to be the complete incarnation of Adi Parashakti or Goddess Durga, with all other goddesses being her incarnations or manifestations. Adi Parashakti or Mahadevi, the supreme power, is called Durga Shakti as per Devi-Mahatmya. Adi Parashakti or Devi Durga is a Hindu concept of the Ultimate Shakti or Mahashakti, the ultimate power inherent in all Creation. This is especially prevalent in the Shakta denomination within Hinduism, which worships the Goddess Devi in all her manifestations. She is Goddess Lakshmi and Goddess Saraswati in her mild form; Goddess Kali and Goddess Chandi in her wrathful form. Durga is also called Padmanabha-Sahodari and Narayani, the sister of Lord Vishnu. According to Shaivism and Shaktism She is supreme, but to bring back lord Shiva in Sansar, she was reborn in human form (Sati and Parvati) to marry Shiva. Durga gave birth to his first child Kartikeya.
ORIGINS & DEVELOPMENT
Ramprasad Chanda writes the following about the development of Durga from primitive goddess to her current form:
"...it is possible to distinguish two different strata – one primitive and the other advanced. The primitive form of Durga is the result of syncretism of a mountain-goddess worshiped by the dwellers of the Himalaya and the Vindhyas, a goddess worshiped by the nomadic Abhira shepherd, the vegetation spirit conceived as a female, and a war-goddess. As her votaries advanced in civilization the primitive war-goddess was transformed into the personification of the all-destroying time (Kali), the vegetation spirit into the primordial energy (Adya Sakti) and the saviouress from “samsara” (cycle of rebirths) , and gradually brought into line with the Brahmanic mythology and philosophy."
It is not possible to date her The delusion of the supreme soul is otherwise called Shakti (power). From this power, generates all forms of knowledge of the world and it is accepted as vital cause of creation, existence and destruction. According to 'Shree Durga Shaptshati- Rahasyam', the original power is Mahalaxmi that created three pairs of Supreme Powers. They are Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva as male and Saraswati, Laxmi and Parvati as female, and they married respectively. Maha Saraswati is well known as Brahmani, Mahalaxmi as Vaishnavi and Mahakali as Maheswari. Durga Shakti is the original cause of all the present or past worldly occurrences. Durga Shakti is called as Adhyashakti, Paramatma Shakti or Ati Prakrutika Shakti. She is creating and controlling other two powers: Natural and General. Natural Power is called as Atma Shakti, Prakrutika Shakti, Pancha Mahabhuta Shakti etc. This Shakti creates and controls the General Energy. General Energies are called Jada Shakti or Tamashakti. By the blessings of Durga Shakti, the mother of the Universe, man is able to get his emancipation or salvation and indulge in enjoyments in performance of his daily activities. So Vyasadev, the eminent poet of "Devi Bhagwat", has aptly described "Rudrahinam Vishnuhinam na vadanti janastatha Shaktihinam Yathasarbe probodhanti Naradhamam". The powerless persons are despised as mean persons. So, by being devoted to the Supreme, we should be strong and powerful by her grace.
STORIES
Shiva Purana gives an account of the origin of Durga. At the beginning of time, Lord Shiva invoked Durga, the primordial energy from his left half to create. Together they created their eternal abode, Shivaloka, also known as Kashi. Thereafter, they created Vishnu and Brahma.
As per Shiva Purana and Devi Mahatmyah, Mahishasura, the son of demon Rambha, unleashed reign of terror on earth. When gods intervened, Mahishasura defeated gods and banished them from heaven. Vanquished gods went to Trideva- Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. As they narrated their woeful tale, immense mass of light manifested from Lord Vishnu's mouth, which was joined by similar rays that emerged from the enraged faces of gods. This mass of light transformed into a woman. Then all the Gods gave their devine weapon to that supreme power. Adishakti re-manifested as Durga to slay Mahishasura. Armed with celestial weapons of all deities and decked with divine ornaments, Durga rode into the battle field and challenged demons for battle. Mahishasura's entire army, led by demons like Chikshur, Chamar, Asiloma, Vidalaksha, Durdhara, Durmukha, Mahahanu and many more attacked Durga at once. But Durga slew all of them with unparalleled cruelty. An enraged Mahishasura attacked Durga in guise of a buffalo. But Durga bound it with ropes. The buffalo morphed into a lion and lept on Durga, but she beheaded it with her sword. At this, Mahishasura began to fight in form of a swordsman. Durga pinned him down with a torrent of arrows. Mahishasura now assumed form of a giant elephant and tugged at Durga's lion. Durga lopped off its trunk with her sword and freed her lion. The elephent turned into a buffalo and charged at Durga. Sipping from her wine cup, Durga flung her trident and beheaded Mahishasura, finally killing him.
WIKIPEDIA
Windsor (/ˈwɪnzər/) is a town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is widely known as the site of Windsor Castle, one of the official residences of the British Royal Family.
The town is situated 23 miles (37 km) west of Charing Cross, London. It is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with Eton. The village of Old Windsor, just over 2 miles (3 km) to the south, predates what is now called Windsor by around 300 years; in the past Windsor was formally referred to as New Windsor to distinguish the two.
The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.
Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.
Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.
The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.
The early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conquerorhad a timber motte and bailey castle constructed.[2] The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, but a small riverside settlement about 3 miles (5 km) downstream, possibly established from the 7th century.
Windsor, or Windlesora as it was called in the 11th century, is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The name originates from old English Windles-ore, or 'winch by the riverside'. The settlement had used an earlier name, but this is unknown. From about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the site's link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, but again, information about his use of the place is scant. After the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. By the late 12th century, and the relocation of the royal household to an enlarged castle in 1110, the site was renamed Old Windsor.
Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Bookunder the entry for Clewer, the neighbouring manor to Windsor. Although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century. By 1110, meetings of the Great Council, which had previously taken place at Windlesora, were noted as taking place at the Castle – referred to as New Windsor, probably to indicate that it was a two ward castle/borough complex, similar to other early castle designs, such as Denbigh. Henry I – according to one chronicle – had rebuilt it, and this followed the Norman kings' actions at other royal sites, such as Westminster, where larger and more magnificent accommodation was thought necessary for the new dynasty. King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century, although substantial planning and setting out of the new town (including the parish church, marketplace, bridge, hermitage and leper hospital) did not take place until c. 1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephen's reign. At about the same time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. Windsor Bridge is the earliest bridge on the Thames between Staines and Reading, built at a time when bridge building was rare; it was first documented in 1191, but had probably been built, according to the Pipe rolls, in 1173. It played an important part in the national road system, linking London with Reading and Winchester, but also, by diverting traffic into the new town, it underpinned the success of its fledgling economy.
The town of New Windsor, as an ancient demesne of the Crown, was a privileged settlement from the start, apparently having the rights of a 'free borough', for which other towns had to pay substantial fees to the king. It had a merchant guild (known by the 14th century as the Fraternity or brotherhood of the Holy Trinity) from the early 13th century and, under royal patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277, as part of its grant of royal borough status by Edward I's charter. Somewhat unusually, this charter gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor but probably codified the rights which it had enjoyed for many years. Windsor's position as chief town of Berkshire was short-lived, however, as people found it difficult to reach. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century. As a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership (or 'freedom') and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century.
The Last Supper by Franz de Cleyn in the West Gallery of Windsor parish church of St John The Baptist.[3]
New Windsor was a nationally significant town in the Middle Ages, certainly one of the fifty wealthiest towns in the country by 1332. Its prosperity came from its close association with the royal household. The repeated investment in the castle brought London merchants (goldsmiths, vintners, spicers and mercers) to the town in the late 13th century and provided much employment for townsmen. The development of the castle under Edward III, between 1350–68, was the largest secular building project in England of the Middle Ages, and many Windsor people worked on this project, again bringing great wealth to the town. Although the Black Death in 1348 had reduced some towns' populations by up to 50%, in Windsor the building projects of Edward III brought money to the town, and possibly its population doubled: this was a 'boom' time for the local economy. People came to the town from every part of the country, and from continental Europe. The poet Geoffrey Chaucerheld the honorific post of 'Clerk of the Works' at Windsor Castle in 1391.
The development of the castle continued in the late 15th century with the rebuilding of St George's Chapel. With this Windsor became a major pilgrimage destination, particularly for Londoners. Pilgrims came to touch the royal shrine of the murdered Henry VI, the fragment of the True Cross and other important relics. Visits to the chapel were probably combined with a visit to the important nearby Marian shrine and college at Eton, founded by Henry VI in 1440, and dedicated to the Assumption; which is now better known as Eton College. Pilgrims came with substantial sums to spend. From perhaps two or three named inns in the late 15th century, some 30 can be identified a century later. The town again grew in wealth. For London pilgrims, Windsor was probably – but briefly – of greater importance than Canterbury and the shrine of the City's patron Saint Thomas Becket. With the closures of the Reformation, however, Windsor's pilgrim traffic died out. Henry VIII was buried in St George's Chapel in 1547, next to Jane Seymour, the mother of his only legitimate son, Edward (Edward VI). Henry, the founder of the Church of England, may have wanted to benefit from the stream of Catholic pilgrims coming to the town. His will gives that impression.
The town began to stagnate about ten years after the Reformation. The castle was considered old-fashioned and shrines to the dead were thought to be superstitious. The early modern period formed a stark contrast to the medieval history of the town. Most accounts of Windsor in the 16th and 17th centuries talk of its poverty, badly made streets and poor housing. Shakespeare's play The Merry Wives of Windsor is set in Windsor and contains many references to parts of the town and the surrounding countryside. Shakespeare must have walked the town's streets, near the castle and river, much as people still do. The play may have been written in the Garter Inn, opposite the Castle, but this was destroyed by fire in the late 17th century. The long-standing – and famous – courtesan of king Charles II, Nell Gwyn, was given a house on St Albans Street: Burford House (now part of the Royal Mews). Her residence in this house, as far as it is possible to tell, was brief. Only one of her letters addressed from Burford House survives: it was probably intended as a legacy for her illegitimate son, the Earl of Burford, later the Duke of St Albans.
Windsor was garrisoned by Colonel Venn during the English Civil War. Later it became the home of the New Model Army when Venn had left the castle in 1645. Despite its royal dependence, like many commercial centres, Windsor was a Parliamentarian town. Charles Iwas buried without ceremony in St George's Chapel after his execution at Whitehall in 1649. The present Guildhall, built in 1680–91, replaced an earlier market house that had been built on the same site around 1580, as well as the old guildhall, which faced the castle and had been built around 1350. The contraction in the number of old public buildings speaks of a town 'clearing the decks', ready for a renewed period of prosperity with Charles II's return to the Castle. But his successors did not use the place, and as the town was short of money, the planned new civic buildings did not appear. The town continued in poverty until the mid 19th century.
In 1652 the largest house in Windsor Great Park was built on land which Oliver Cromwell had appropriated from the Crown. Now known as Cumberland Lodge after the Duke of Cumberland's residence there in the mid 18th century, the house was variously known as Byfield House, New Lodge, Ranger's Lodge, Windsor Lodge and Great Lodge.
In 1778, there was a resumption of the royal presence, with George III at the Queen's Lodge and, from 1804, at the castle. This started a period of new development in Windsor, with the building of two army barracks. However the associated large numbers of soldiers led to a major prostitution problem by 1830, in a town where the number of streets had little changed since 1530. In the 18th c. the town traded with London selling the Windsor Chair which was actually made in Buckinghamshire.
A number of fine houses were built in this period, including Hadleigh House on Sheet Street, which was built in 1793 by the then Mayor of Windsor, William Thomas. In 1811 it was the home of John O'Reilly, the apothecary-surgeon to George III.
Windsor Castle was the westernmost sighting-point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), which measured the precise distance between the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Paris Observatory by trigonometry. Windsor was used because of its relative proximity to the base-line of the survey at Hounslow Heath.
The substantial redevelopment of the castle in the subsequent decade and Queen Victoria's residence from 1840, as well as the coming of two railways in 1849, signalled the most dramatic changes in the town's history. These events catapulted the town from a sleepy medieval has-been to the centre of empire – many European crowned heads of state came to Windsor to visit the Queen throughout the rest of the 19th century. Unfortunately, excessive redevelopment and 'refurbishment' of Windsor's medieval fabric at this time resulted in widespread destruction of the old town, including the demolition of the old parish church of St John the Baptist in 1820. The original had been built around 1135.
Most of the current town's streets date from the mid to late 19th century.[5] However the main street, Peascod Street (pronunciation: /ˈpɛskɒd/) is very ancient, predating the castle by many years, and probably of Saxon origin. It formed part of the 10th-century parish structure in east Berkshire[citation needed] and is first referred to as Peascroftstret in c. 1170. The 1000-year-old royal Castle, although the largest and longest-occupied in Europe, is a recent development in comparison. "New Windsor" was officially renamed "Windsor" in 1974.
is accessible from Junction 6 of the M4 and from Slough via a 3 mile long dual carriageway. Bus services in the town are mostly provided by First Berkshire & The Thames Valley, although a park-and-rideservice and one local route are operated by Courtney Coaches.
Windsor has two railway stations. Windsor & Eton Central railway station has a shuttle service to Slough. Windsor & Eton Riverside station provides a service to London Waterloo. Both stations were time in the 19th century, as the two train companies which owned the lines both wanted to carry Queen Victoria to Windsor, with the first line opened gaining the privilege.[8] From 1883 to 1885, the London Underground's District line's westbound service ran as far as Windsor.
Windsor has frequent bus services to/from London Heathrow Airport, Victoria Coach Station in central London and Legoland Windsor Resort.
A handle for a bronze patera takes the form of Lasa, a generic Etruscan deity or spirit with the power of prophecy. Lasas often appear on engraved mirrors in the company of other gods or as companions of Turan (Aphrodite). This winged female stands on a low triangular base, the edges of which are decorated with a tongue design between beaded moldings. Her left leg is relaxed in an easy contrapposto pose, causing her right hip to project and creating a sinuous S-curve within her body. She is nude except for a pair of tongued slippers and elaborate jewelry: a necklace made up of cylindrical beads, with three large bulla-shaped pendants that frame her breasts, a bracelet with three pendants on her upper left arm, and a flat rectangular object above, the nature of which is uncertain. A pair of large outspread wings are attached to her back with a bronze pin. The feathers on the wings are detailed with modeling and incision on the front only. The girl rests her right hand on her head and holds a large alabastron in the left. From her head rises a curving attachment plate to which a bowl-shaped patera was originally joined. The support for the bowl of the patera ends in two simple rosettes in front. On the back, its curved form is decorated with a pair of facing ribbed elements.
Etruscan, made in Etruria, ca. 350-300 BCE. Bronze.
Getty Villa Museum (96.AC.34)
Split light with 2 softboxes, one to camera left, the other to camera right.
More at www.robwerlinger.com
Piotr Ilich Chaikovski (en ruso: Пётр Ильич Чайковский) (Vótkinsk, 25 de abriljul./ 7 de mayo de 1840greg.-San Petersburgo, 25 de octubrejul./ 6 de noviembre de 1893greg.) fue un compositor ruso del período del Romanticismo. Es autor de algunas de las obras de música clásica más famosas del repertorio actual, como los ballets El lago de los cisnes, La bella durmiente y El cascanueces, la Obertura 1812, la obertura-fantasía Romeo y Julieta, el Primer concierto para piano, el Concierto para violín, sus sinfonías Cuarta, Quinta y Sexta y la ópera Eugenio Oneguin.
Nacido en una familia de clase media, la educación que recibió Chaikovski estaba dirigida a prepararle como funcionario, a pesar del interés musical que mostró. En contra de los deseos de su familia, decidió seguir una carrera musical y en 1862 accedió al Conservatorio de San Petersburgo, graduándose en 1865. La formación que recibió, formal y orientada al estilo musical occidental, lo apartó del movimiento contemporáneo nacionalista conocido como el «Grupo de los Cinco» conformado por un grupo de jóvenes compositores rusos, con los cuales Chaikovski mantuvo una relación profesional y de amistad a lo largo de su carrera.
Mientras desarrollaba su estilo, Chaikovski escribió música en varios géneros y formas, incluyendo la sinfonía, ópera, ballet, música instrumental, de cámara y la canción. A pesar de contar con varios éxitos, nunca tuvo mucha confianza o seguridad en sí mismo y su vida estuvo salpicada por crisis personales y periodos de depresión. Como factores que quizá contribuyeron a esto, pueden mencionarse su homosexualidad reprimida y el miedo a que se revelara su condición, su desastroso matrimonio y el repentino colapso de la única relación duradera que mantuvo en su vida adulta: su asociación de trece años con la rica viuda Nadezhda von Meck. En medio de esta agitada vida personal, la reputación de Chaikovski aumentó; recibió honores por parte del zar, obtuvo una pensión vitalicia y fue alabado en las salas de conciertos de todo el mundo. Su repentina muerte a los cincuenta y tres años suele atribuirse generalmente al cólera, pero algunos lo atribuyen a un suicidio.
A pesar de ser popular en todo el mundo, Chaikovski recibió a veces duras críticas por parte de críticos y compositores. Sin embargo, su reputación como compositor es hoy en día segura,2 y ha desaparecido por completo el desdén con el que los críticos occidentales a principios y mediados del siglo XX catalogaban su música como vulgar y falta de pensamiento.
De hecho, Chaikovski está considerado actualmente como el más destacado músico de Rusia y una de las figuras más importantes de la cultura de ese país a lo largo de su historia.
Piotr Chaikovski nació en Vótkinsk, un pequeño pueblo en la actual Udmurtia, que anteriormente fue parte de la provincia de Vyatka del Imperio ruso. Su padre, Iliá Petróvich Chaikovski, era el hijo de Piotr Fiódorovich Chaika (conocido posteriormente como Piotr Fiódorovich Chaikovski quien obtuviera un título nobiliario por sus servicios como médico militar para la zarina Catalina II de Rusia). Su padre fue un ingeniero de minas del Estado, de ascendencia ucraniana. Chaika (ucr. Чайка, significa gaviota) es un apellido tradicional de Ucrania. Nació en 1745 en Nikoláevka, cerca de Poltava, Ucrania, fue el segundo hijo de Fiódor Chaika (ca. 1695-1767) y su mujer Anna (1717-?), y estudió en un seminario en Kiev, pero más tarde recibió enseñanzas de medicina en San Petersburgo.5 La madre de Piotr, Aleksandra Andréyevna, de soltera d'Assier, provenía de raíces parcialmente francesas y fue la segunda de las tres esposas de Iliá. El dramaturgo, libretista y traductor Modest Ilich Chaikovski6 fue uno de los hermanos menores de Piotr.
En 1843, los padres de Chaikovski contrataron los servicios de una institutriz francesa llamada Fanny Dürbach. Su pasión y afecto por el cargo contrarrestaban la actitud de Aleksandra, descrita por un biógrafo como una madre fría, infeliz y distante, no dada a mostrar afecto físico.7 Sin embargo, otros autores afirman que Aleksandra adoraba a su hijo.
Piotr Chaikovski empezó las lecciones de piano a los cinco años. Fue un alumno precoz, en tres años fue capaz de leer música tan bien como su profesor. Sin embargo, la pasión de sus padres sobre su talento musical pronto se enfrió. En 1850, la familia decidió enviarlo a la Escuela Imperial de Jurisprudencia de San Petersburgo. Esta institución atendía principalmente a la pequeña nobleza y prepararía a Chaikovski como funcionario. Dado que la edad mínima para acceder era de doce años, Chaikovski tuvo que pasar dos años en un internado de la escuela preparatoria de la Escuela Imperial de Jurisprudencia, a unos 1300 km de su familia. Una vez que estos dos años pasaron, Chaikovski fue trasladado a la Escuela Imperial de Jurisprudencia para empezar un curso de estudios que duraría siete años.
El 25 de junio de 1854, Chaikovski se vio profundamente afectado por la muerte de su madre Aleksandra a causa del cólera. Lo afectó tanto que se sintió incapaz de darle la noticia a Fanny Dürbach hasta transcurridos dos años. Sin embargo, unos meses después de la muerte de su madre, realizó el primer intento serio de composición, un vals en su memoria. Varios autores afirman que la pérdida de su madre contribuyó al desarrollo sexual de Chaikovski, así como su experiencia con las supuestamente extendidas prácticas homosexuales entre estudiantes de la Escuela Imperial de Jurisprudencia. Sea cual fuere la verdad de esto, algunas amistades con sus compañeros, como Alekséi Apujtin y Vladímir Gerard, fueron suficientemente intensas para durar el resto de su vida.
La música no era una prioridad alta en la Escuela, pero Chaikovski asistía regularmente al teatro y a la ópera con otros estudiantes. Se aficionó a las obras de Rossini, Bellini, Verdi y Mozart. El fabricante de pianos Franz Becker realizaba visitas de vez en cuando a la Escuela como profesor de música simbólico. Esta fue la única instrucción formal sobre música que recibió allí. Desde 1855, su padre, Iliá Chaikovski, le financió lecciones privadas con Rudolph Kündinger, un reconocido profesor de piano de Núremberg. Iliá además le preguntó a Kündinger sobre la posibilidad de una carrera musical para su hijo. Kündinger contestó que nada sugería que fuera un compositor potencial o incluso un buen intérprete. A Chaikovski se le dijo que acabara su curso y luego intentara acceder a un puesto en el Ministerio de Justicia.
Chaikovski se graduó el 25 de mayo de 1859 con el rango de consejero titular, el rango más bajo en la carrera de funcionario. El 15 de junio fue admitido en el Ministerio de Justicia. Seis meses más tarde alcanzó el puesto de asistente subalterno y dos meses después de esto, asistente superior. En ese cargo se quedó Chaikovski para el resto de su carrera de funcionario, que duraría tres años.
En 1861, asistió a las clases de teoría musical organizadas por la Sociedad Musical Rusa (SMR) impartidas por Nikolái Zaremba. Un año más tarde siguió a Zaremba para entrar en el nuevo Conservatorio de San Petersburgo. Chaikovski no dejaría su puesto en el Ministerio hasta «que no estuviera bastante seguro de que estaba destinado a ser músico en vez de funcionario». Desde 1862 hasta 1865 estudió armonía, contrapunto y fuga con Zaremba, y Antón Rubinstein, director y fundador del Conservatorio, le impartió instrumentación y composición. En 1863 abandonó su carrera de funcionario y se dedicó a estudiar música a tiempo completo, graduándose en diciembre de 1865. Rubinstein estaba impresionado por el talento musical de Chaikovski, pero esto no evitó tanto los conflictos con él como con Zaremba acerca de la Primera Sinfonía del joven compositor, escrita tras su graduación, cuando la envió para que le dieran una lectura concienzuda. La sinfonía recibió su primera interpretación completa en Moscú en febrero de 1868, donde fue bien recibida.
La orientación de Rubinstein hacia la música occidental le trajo la oposición del grupo nacionalista musical conocido como Grupo de los Cinco. Al ser el alumno más conocido de Rubinstein, Chaikovski fue tratado como un blanco fácil, especialmente como carne de cañón para las críticas de César Cui. Esta actitud cambió ligeramente cuando Rubinstein abandonó el panorama musical de San Petersburgo en 1867. En 1869 Chaikovski inició una relación laboral con el compositor Mili Balákirev, líder de Los Cinco; el resultado fue el reconocimiento de la primera obra maestra de Chaikovski, la fantasía-obertura Romeo y Julieta, una obra que Los Cinco adoptaron incondicionalmente. Permaneció cordial con ellos, pero nunca intimó con la mayoría del grupo de Los Cinco, dado que su música le parecía ambivalente; sus metas y estilo estético no iban con él. Se aseguró de mantener una independencia musical de ellos así como de la facción conservadora del Conservatorio de San Petersburgo, una actitud que facilitó su aceptación como profesor del Conservatorio de Moscú, puesto que le fue ofrecido por Nikolái Rubinstein.
Chaikovski compaginó sus quehaceres profesionales con la realización de críticas musicales mientras seguía componiendo. Algunas de sus obras más conocidas de este periodo son Primer concierto para piano, las Variaciones sobre un tema rococó para violonchelo y orquesta, la Sinfonía «Pequeña Rusia» y el ballet El lago de los cisnes. El Primer concierto para piano recibió un rechazo inicial por parte de Nikolái Rubinstein, persona a la cual el concierto iba dedicado, tal y como contó Chaikovski tres años después. La obra fue entonces ofrecida al pianista Hans von Bülow, cuya manera de interpretar había impresionado a Chaikovski durante una aparición en Moscú en marzo de 1874. Bülow estrenó la obra en Boston en octubre de 1875; Rubinstein finalmente acabó apoyando la obra.
El escritor Aleksandr Poznanski mostró a través de su investigación que Chaikovski tuvo sentimientos homosexuales y que algunas de las relaciones más cercanas que mantuvo fueron con personas del mismo sexo. El criado de Chaikovski, Alekséi Sofrónov y el sobrino del compositor, Vladímir "Bob" Davýdov, han sido citados como intereses románticos.
Más dudas plantea la conformidad que tenía Chaikovski de su propia naturaleza sexual. Tras leer toda la correspondencia de Chaikovski, incluyendo la no publicada, Poznanski concluye que el compositor «finalmente empezó a ver sus peculiaridades sexuales como algo inevitable e incluso como una parte natural de su personalidad... sin haber sufrido ningún daño psicológico grave». También han sido publicadas secciones importantes de la autobiografía de su hermano Modest, en las cuales se refiere a esta orientación sexual de su hermano, que comprendía por ser similar a la suya. Algunas cartas que fueron suprimidas por los censores soviéticos, en las cuales Chaikovski habla abiertamente sobre su homosexualidad, han sido publicadas en ruso, así como traducidas al inglés por Poznanski. Sin embargo, el biógrafo Anthony Holden afirma que la búsqueda del musicólogo y erudito británico Henry Zajaczkowski «mediante líneas psicoanalíticas» tiende en cambio a «una inhibición severa inconsciente por parte del compositor acerca de sus sentimientos sexuales»:
"Una consecuencia de esto podría ser una indulgencia sexual excesiva como una especie de solución falsa: el individuo de ese modo se engaña a sí mismo diciéndose que acepta sus impulsos sexuales. Complementando esto y, además, como sistema de defensa psicológica, sería precisamente la idealización por Chaikovski de algunos jóvenes de su círculo [el así denominado «Cuarta Suite»], en la cual Poznanski centra su atención. Si la respuesta del compositor a posibles objetivos sexuales era o usarlos y rechazarlos o idealizarlos, aquello muestra que era incapaz de iniciar una relación íntegra y segura con otro hombre. Esto era, sin lugar a duda, la tragedia [de Chaikovski]."
El musicólogo e historiador Roland John Wiley sugiere una tercera alternativa, basada en las cartas de Chaikovski. Sugiere que a pesar de que Chaikovski no sufría «ningún sentimiento insoportable de culpabilidad» sobre su homosexualidad, permaneció temeroso de las consecuencias negativas de que eso saliera a la luz, especialmente en las ramas de su familia. Su decisión de casarse e intentar llevar una doble vida fue propiciada por varios factores: la posibilidad de que se revelara su situación, la voluntad de agradar a su padre, su propio deseo de una casa permanente y su amor por los niños y la familia. A pesar de que Chaikovski pudiera haber tenido una vida activa en cuanto a romances, las pruebas sobre emplear «argot sexual y tener encuentros apasionados» son limitadas. Buscó la compañía de homosexuales en su círculo durante largos periodos, «asociándose abiertamente y estableciendo conexiones profesionales con ellos». Wiley añade, «las críticas de inexpertos en la materia sobre lo contrario, que no justifican su asunción, salvo por el periodo de [corta vida matrimonial], afirman que la sexualidad de Chaikovski incluso afectó a su inspiración profundamente, o hizo de su música una confesión idiosincrática o incapaz de comunicar contenido filosófico». Lo cierto es que el último movimiento de la Sexta Sinfonía de Chaikovski, más conocida como la Patética, refleja la progresiva desesperación del autor ante la hostilidad de su entorno social y anuncia acaso su suicidio, camuflado bajo el manto de una enfermedad autoinducida, nueve días después de su estren
En 1868, Chaikovski conoció a la soprano belga Désirée Artôt, que por aquel entonces se encontraba en una gira por Rusia. Se encapricharon el uno del otro y se comprometieron al matrimonio. Chaikovski le dedicó su Romance en fa menor para piano, Op. 5. Sin embargo, el 15 de septiembre de 1869, sin decirle nada a Chaikovski, Artôt se casó con un miembro de su grupo, el barítono español Mariano Padilla y Ramos. La opinión generalizada es que Chaikovski superó el asunto bastante pronto. Sin embargo, se ha postulado que codificó su nombre en el Concierto para piano n.º 1 en si bemol menor y el poema sinfónico Fatum. Se volvieron a ver, más tarde, en varias ocasiones y en octubre de 1888 Chaikovski escribió Seis canciones francesas, Op. 65, para ella, como respuesta a su simple petición de una única canción. Chaikovski más tarde llegó a decir que fue la única mujer que jamás amó.
En abril de 1877, el alumno favorito de Chaikovski, Vladímir Shilovski, se casó de repente con la aristócrata Anna Vasílieva, hija del conde Alekséi Vasíliev. La boda de Shilovski pudo incitarlo en cambio a plantearse tomar también tal paso. Declaró su intención de casarse en una carta a su hermano. A esto le siguió el desdichado matrimonio de Chaikovski con una de sus antiguas estudiantes de composición, Antonina Miliukova. El poco tiempo que duró con su mujer lo llevó a una crisis emocional, seguida de una estancia en Clarens (Suiza) para descansar y recuperarse. Permanecieron casados legalmente pero nunca volvieron a vivir juntos ni tuvieron ningún hijo, aunque ella más tarde tendría tres hijos con otro hombre.
La debacle marital de Chaikovski pudo haberlo obligado a enfrentarse a la verdad en lo concerniente a su sexualidad. Aparentemente, nunca más consideró el matrimonio como camuflaje o vía de escape, ni se consideró capaz de amar a una mujer de la misma forma que a un hombre. Le escribió una carta a su hermano Anatoli desde Florencia (Italia) el 19 de febrero de 1878:
"Gracias a la rutina de mi vida ahora, a la algunas veces tediosa pero siempre inviolable tranquilidad, y por encima de todo, al tiempo que cura todas las heridas, me he recuperado totalmente de mi locura. No hay ninguna duda de que durante algunos meses he estado un poco loco, y sólo ahora, al estar completamente recuperado, he aprendido a relacionar objetivamente con todo lo que hice durante mi breve periodo de locura. El hombre que en mayo se le ocurrió casarse con Antonina Ivánovna, quien durante junio escribió una ópera entera como si nada hubiera pasado, quien en septiembre huyó de su mujer, quien en noviembre se embarcó destino a Roma y otras cosas por el estilo; ese hombre no era yo, sino otro Piotr Ilich."
Unos días más tarde, en otras cartas dirigidas a Anatoli, añadió que no había «nada más en vano que intentar ser alguien distinto al que soy por naturaleza».
Se suele afirmar que la tensión del matrimonio y el estado emocional de Chaikovski justo antes, en realidad, pudieron haber mejorado la creatividad del compositor. Hasta cierto punto, pudo darse este caso. Mientras la Cuarta Sinfonía se inició algunos meses antes de que Chaikovski se casara con Antonina, tanto la sinfonía como la ópera Eugenio Oneguin, que podría decirse que son dos de sus mejores composiciones, se sostienen como una prueba de esta mejoría en su creatividad. Acabó ambas obras en los seis meses que pasaron desde su compromiso hasta el fin de la cura de reposo tras su crisis matrimonial. Cuando estuvo en Clarens además compuso su Concierto para violín, recibiendo para ello ayuda técnica de uno de sus antiguos estudiantes, el violinista Iósif Kotek. Kotek posteriormente le ayudaría a establecer contacto con Nadezhda von Meck, la viuda de un magnate de los ferrocarriles, que se convirtió en su mecenas y confidente.
Como el Primer concierto para piano, el Concierto para violín fue rechazado inicialmente por la persona a la cual el concierto iba dedicado, en este caso el notable virtuoso y pedagogo Leopold Auer. Recibió el estreno en manos de otro solista (Adolph Brodsky), y a pesar de que finalmente contaría con el favor del público, la audiencia silbó durante su estreno en Viena, y fue denigrado por el crítico musical Eduard Hanslick:
"El compositor ruso Chaikovski seguramente posea un talento no ordinario, pero más bien, uno exagerado, obsesionado con actuar como un hombre de letras, pero careciendo de criterio y gusto... lo mismo puede decirse de su nuevo, largo y ambicioso Concierto para violín. Durante un rato avanza discretamente, con sobriedad, con musicalidad y sin ser irreflexivo, pero pronto la vulgaridad toma la mano superior y sigue así hasta el final del primer movimiento. El violín a partir de entonces no se toca: es zarandeado, rasgado, maltrecho... El Adagio intentaba en un principio reconciliarnos y convencernos cuando, demasiado pronto, se interrumpe para dirigirse a un final que nos transporta a la brutal y espantosa jovialidad de una celebración de iglesia rusa. Vemos una gran cantidad de caras burdas y soeces, escuchar insultos groseros y oler el aliento a alcohol. Durante una discusión sobre ilustraciones obscenas, Friedrich Vischer una vez sostuvo que había pinturas cuyo hedor uno podía incluso ver. El Concierto para violín de Chaikovski nos enfrenta por primera vez con la espantosa idea de que puede haber composiciones musicales cuyo tufo hediondo uno puede escuchar."
uer tardíamente aceptaría el concierto y finalmente lo tocaría con gran éxito entre el público. En el futuro enseñó la obra a sus alumnos, incluyendo Jascha Heifetz y Nathan Milstein. Auer más tarde diría sobre el comentario de Hanslick que «el hecho de que el último movimiento tuviera un ligero aroma a vodka [...] no iba acorde con su buen juicio ni con su reputación como crítico».
La intensidad de la emoción personal fluyendo ahora a través de las obras de Chaikovski era totalmente nueva en la música rusa. Esto instó a algunos comentaristas rusos a colocar su nombre junto con el del novelista Fiódor Dostoyevski. Como los personajes de Dostoyevski, sentían que el héroe musical de Chaikovski persistía al explorar el significado de la vida mientras se está atrapado en un triángulo fatal de amor, muerte y destino. El crítico Ossovski escribió sobre Chaikovski y Dostoyevski: «Con una pasión oculta ambos se detienen ante los momentos de horror, ante el sentimiento total de derrumbe y encuentran aguda dulzura en la fría trepidación del corazón ante el abismo, ambos obligan al lector a experimentar estos sentimientos también».
La fama de Chaikovski entre las audiencias de conciertos empezó a expandirse fuera de Rusia y continuó creciendo. Hans von Bülow se convirtió en un ferviente defensor de la música del compositor tras escuchar algunas de sus obras en un concierto en Moscú durante la cuaresma de 1874. En un periódico alemán a finales de ese año, alabó el Primer cuarteto de cuerda, Romeo y Julieta y otras obras, e interpretaría algunas otras obras de Chaikovski tanto como pianista y como director. En Francia, Camille Benoit empezó a introducir la música de Chaikovski a los lectores de la Revue et gazette musicale de Paris. La música también recibió bastante publicidad durante la Exhibición Internacional de 1878 en París. Mientras, la reputación de Chaikovski crecía, el aumento correspondiente de interpretaciones de sus obras no tuvo lugar hasta que empezó a dirigirlas él mismo, empezando a mediados de la década de 1880. Sin embargo, en el año 1880 todas las óperas que Chaikovski había completado hasta la fecha ya habían contado con una puesta en escena y todas sus obras orquestales habían tenido interpretaciones recibidas con comprensión.
Nadezhda von Meck era la viuda de un rico empresario de ferrocarriles ruso y una mecenas influyente en las artes. Tras oír alguna obra de Chaikovski, fue animada por el violinista Kotek para que le encargara algunas piezas de música de cámara. Su apoyo llegó a significar un elemento importante en la vida de Chaikovski; finalmente von Meck le acabaría pagando un subsidio anual de 6000 rublos, lo que le permitió dejar el puesto en el Conservatorio de Moscú en octubre de 1878 y concentrarse en la composición. Con el mecenazgo de von Meck se inició una relación que, debido a la insistencia de ella, fue principalmente epistolar: ella estipuló desde un principio que nunca se conocieran cara a cara. Intercambiaron unas 1000 cartas desde 1877 hasta 1890. En estas cartas Chaikovski fue mucho más abierto sobre su vida y proceso creativo que con ninguna otra persona.
Además de ser una adepta entregada a las obras musicales de Chaikovski, von Meck se convirtió en una parte vital para su existencia en el día a día. Tal y como le explicó a ella,
"Hay algo tan especial sobre nuestra relación que a veces me deja atónito. Te he contado más de una vez, creo que tú eres para mí la misma mano del Destino, vigilándome y protegiéndome. El mismo hecho de que no te conozco personalmente, junto con el hecho de sentirme tan cerca de ti, hace que te imagine como una presencia oculta pero benevolente, como una Providencia divina."
En 1884 Chaikovski y von Meck quedaron emparentados por el matrimonio de uno de sus hijos, Nikolái, y la sobrina de Chaikovski, Anna Davýdova. Sin embargo, en 1890 von Meck de repente dio por terminada la relación. Padecía problemas de salud que dificultaban su escritura; también había presiones por parte de la familia además de dificultades financieras debido a la mala gestión de sus propiedades por parte de su hijo Vladímir. La ruptura con Chaikovski fue anunciada en una carta entregada por un criado de confianza, en lugar del servicio postal habitual. Contenía la petición de que nunca la olvidara y venía con el adelanto del subsidio de un año. Justificaba esto al estar en bancarrota, lo cual, si no literalmente cierto, era evidentemente una amenaza real por aquel entonces.
Chaikovski se enteró casi un año más tarde de los problemas financieros de su benefactora.63 Esto no le impidió continuar dando por sentado el subsidio (con frecuentes expresiones efusivas sobre su gratitud eterna), ni se ofreció a devolver el anticipo que recibió con la carta de despedida. A pesar de su creciente popularidad por toda Europa, la asignación de von Meck seguía siendo una tercera parte de los ingresos del compositor. Aunque ya no necesitara su dinero tanto como en el pasado, la pérdida de su amistad, apoyo y ánimo fue devastadora; permaneció confundido y resentido sobre su abrupta desaparición durante los restantes tres años de su vida.
Chaikovski volvió al Conservatorio de Moscú en otoño de 1879, tras haber abandonado Rusia durante un año al desintegrarse su matrimonio. Sin embargo, rápidamente dimitió, estableciéndose en Kámenka aunque viajando sin cesar. Durante estos años, contando con la seguridad de los ingresos regulares de von Meck, erró por Europa y la Rusia rural, sin permanecer mucho tiempo en un sitio y viviendo principalmente solo, evitando el contacto social siempre que le fuera posible. Esto pudo haberse debido en parte a problemas con Antonina, quien accedería o rechazaría alternativamente la opción de divorciarse, llegando hasta un punto en el que se trasladó a un apartamento justo debajo del de su marido. Chaikovski enumera las acusaciones de Antonina hacia él en detalle a Modest: «Soy un impostor que se casó con ella para ocultar mi verdadera naturaleza... La insultaba cada día, sus padecimientos por mi culpa eran grandes... a ella le horroriza mi vergonzosa voz, etc., etc.». Es posible que viviera durante el resto de su vida con el miedo de que Antonina pudiera revelar públicamente su inclinación sexual. Estos factores pueden explicar el por qué, excepto por el Trío para piano que escribió tras la muerte de Nikolái Rubinstein, sus mejores trabajos durante este periodo sean en géneros que no dependen mucho de la expresión personal.
Conforme la reputación de Chaikovski crecía rápidamente fuera de Rusia, se consideró, tal y como Alexandre Benois lo escribió en sus memorias, «obligatorio [en los círculos progresistas musicales en Rusia] tratar a Chaikovski como un renegado, un maestro dependiente principalmente de Occidente». En 1880 esta opinión cambió, prácticamente de la noche a la mañana. Durante las ceremonias de conmemoración para el monumento dedicado a Pushkin en Moscú, Fiódor Dostoyevski dijo que el poeta había recibido un aviso profético de que Rusia conformaría una «unión universal» con Occidente. Un clamor sin precedentes a raíz del mensaje de Dostoyevski se extendió por toda Rusia y el desdén por la música de Chaikovski se disipó. Incluso creó un culto siguiendo a varios jóvenes intelectuales de San Petersburgo, incluyendo Benois, Léon Bakst y Serguéi Diáguilev.
En 1880 la Catedral de Cristo Salvador de Moscú, encargo del zar Alejandro I para conmemorar la derrota de Napoleón Bonaparte en 1812, estaba a punto de finalizarse; el 25 aniversario de la coronación de Alejandro II tendría lugar en 1881 y la Exhibición de Artes e Industria de Moscú de 1882 estaba en los preparativos. Nikolái Rubinstein sugirió una pieza conmemorativa grandiosa para emplearse en las festividades relacionadas. Chaikovski empezó el proyecto en octubre de 1880, acabándolo en seis semanas. Le escribió a von Meck que la obra resultante, la Obertura 1812, sería «demasiado fuerte y ruidosa, pero la escribí sin un cálido sentimiento de amor, por tanto no tendrá ningún mérito artístico». También le advirtió al director Eduard Nápravník que «no me sorprenderé ni ofenderé si encuentras que la obra está escrita en un estilo inapropiado para conciertos sinfónicos». Sin embargo, esta obra se ha convertido para muchos, tal y como la autoridad en Chaikovski, David Brown lo expresa, en «la pieza de Chaikovski que mejor conocen».
El 23 de marzo de 1881, Nikolái Rubinstein murió en París. Chaikovski estaba de vacaciones en Roma y acudió inmediatamente para asistir al funeral en París de su respetado mentor, pero llegó demasiado tarde (aunque formaría parte del grupo de gente que vio el féretro de Rubinstein al volver a Rusia). En diciembre, empezó a trabajar en un Trío para piano en la menor, «dedicado a la memoria de un gran artista». El trío fue estrenado de forma privada en el Conservatorio de Moscú, en el cual Rubinstein había sido director, durante el primer aniversario de su muerte por tres de sus profesores: el pianista Serguéi Tanéyev, el violinista Jan Hřímalý y el violonchelista Wilhelm Fitzenhagen. La pieza se hizo extremadamente popular en vida del compositor y, como un irónico giro del destino, sería la elegía del propio compositor cuando se interpretó en los conciertos memoriales que tuvieron lugar en Moscú y San Petersburgo en noviembre de 1893.
Durante 1884 Chaikovski empezó a deshacerse de su insociabilidad y preocupaciones. En marzo de ese año, el zar Alejandro III le otorgó la Orden de San Vladimiro (de cuarta clase), llevada por la nobleza hereditaria. La condecoración del zar fue una muestra visible del apoyo oficial, que ayudó a la rehabilitación social del compositor. Esta recuperación se sustentó en la confianza ganada tras el tremendo éxito de su Tercera Suite orquestal en su estreno de enero de 1885 en San Petersburgo, bajo la dirección de Hans von Bülow. Chaikovski le escribió a Nadezhda von Meck: «No había visto nunca tal triunfo. Vi como toda la audiencia se conmovía y me daba las gracias. Estos momentos suponen el mejor reconocimiento de toda la vida de un artista. Hacen que toda la vida empleada y todo el trabajo valgan la pena». La prensa al igual se mostró unánimemente favorable.
En 1885, Chaikovski se estableció de nuevo en Rusia. El zar le pidió personalmente una nueva producción de Eugenio Oneguin para que se representara en San Petersburgo. La ópera se había visto previamente solo en Moscú de la mano de un conjunto de estudiantes del Conservatorio. Aunque la recepción de la crítica de la producción de Oneguin que tuvo lugar en San Petersburgo fue negativa, la ópera llenaba cada noche; 15 años más tarde el hermano del compositor Modest identificó este momento como el momento en el que Chaikovski empezó a ser conocido y apreciado por las masas, alcanzando el mayor grado de popularidad que jamás contara un compositor ruso. Las noticias sobre el éxito de la ópera se extendieron y la obra se interpretó en los teatros de ópera de toda Rusia y el extranjero.
Una peculiaridad de la producción de Oneguin que tuvo lugar en San Petersburgo fue que Alejandro III solicitó que la ópera se representara no en el Teatro Mariinski sino en el Teatro Bolshói Kámenny. Esto supuso que la música de Chaikovski estaba reemplazando la ópera italiana como el arte imperial oficial. Además, gracias a Iván Vsévolozhski, director de los Teatros Imperiales y mecenas del compositor, Chaikovski fue recompensado con una pensión vitalicia de 3000 rublos al año por parte del zar. En esencia este hecho hizo que se convirtiera en el compositor principal de la corte en la práctica, no siendo un título en realidad.
En enero de 1887 se produjo el debut de Chaikovski como director invitado, realizando una sustitución de última hora en el Teatro Bolshói de Moscú para las primeras tres interpretaciones de su ópera Cherevichki.81 Dirigir era una actividad que el compositor quería conquistar desde hace una década, dado que se dio cuenta de que obtener éxito fuera de Rusia dependía hasta cierto punto de dirigir uno mismo sus propias obras. En un año de interpretaciones de la obra Cherevichki, Chaikovski contaba con considerable demanda por toda Europa y Rusia, que le ayudaron a superar el miedo escénico que tenía desde siempre y potenciar su confianza en sí mismo. Le escribió a von Meck, «¿¡Reconocerías ahora en este músico ruso que viaja por toda Europa a aquel hombre que, solo unos años atrás, huyó de la vida en sociedad y vivió recluido en el extranjero o en el país!?» En 1888 dirigió el estreno de su Quinta Sinfonía en San Petersburgo, repitiendo la obra una semana más tarde con el estreno de su poema sinfónico Hamlet. A pesar de que ambas obras fueron recibidas con gran entusiasmo por la audiencia, los críticos se mostraron hostiles, con César Cui tildando la sinfonía de «rutinaria» y «rimbombante». No obstante, Chaikovski continuó dirigiendo la sinfonía en Rusia y Europa. Esta etapa como director lo llevó a Norteamérica en 1891, donde dirigió la orquesta de la Sociedad de la Orquesta Sinfónica de Nueva York en su Marcha Eslava en el concierto inaugural de la sala de conciertos Carnegie Hall de Nueva York. En 1893, la Universidad de Cambridge en Reino Unido le otorgó a Chaikovski un grado honorario como Doctor of Music.
Chaikovski murió en San Petersburgo el 6 de noviembre de 1893, nueve días después del estreno de su Sexta Sinfonía, la Patética. Fue enterrado en el Cementerio Tíjvinskoye en el Monasterio de Alejandro Nevski, cerca de las tumbas de sus compañeros compositores Aleksandr Borodín, Mijaíl Glinka, Nikolái Rimski-Kórsakov, Mili Balákirev y Modest Músorgski. Debido a la innovación formal de la Patética y el contenido emocionalmente incontenible en sus movimientos centrales, la obra fue recibida por el público con silenciosa incomprensión durante su primera interpretación. La segunda interpretación, dirigida por Nápravník, tuvo lugar veinte días después en un concierto memorial y fue aceptada de manera más favorable. La Patética desde entonces se ha convertido en una de las obras más conocidas de Chaikovski.
La muerte de Chaikovski ha sido atribuida tradicionalmente al cólera, contraído con mayor probabilidad al beber agua contaminada durante varios días antes. Sin embargo, algunos han elaborado teorías sobre la base de un supuesto suicidio. De acuerdo con una variación de esta teoría, se le impuso una sentencia de muerte en un «tribunal de honor» por un compañero de la Escuela Imperial de Jurisprudencia de San Petersburgo, como reprobación por la homosexualidad del compositor. Esta teoría no demostrada salió a la luz por la musicóloga rusa Aleksandra Orlova en 1979, cuando emigró a Occidente. Wiley afirma en el New Grove (2001), «La polémica acerca de la muerte [de Chaikovski] puede que haya llegado a un punto muerto... Estos rumores, por culpa de su fama, tardaron en extinguirse... Con respecto a la enfermedad, existen problemas con las pruebas que no ofrecen ninguna esperanza de hallar un resultado satisfactorio; la confusión de los testigos; sin tener en cuenta los efectos a largo plazo del tabaco y el alcohol. No sabemos cómo murió Chaikovski. Puede que jamás lo descubramos...»
Chaikovski escribió varias obras que son populares entre el público aficionado a la música clásica, entre las que se encuentran Romeo y Julieta, la Obertura 1812, sus tres ballets (El cascanueces, El lago de los cisnes y La bella durmiente) y la Marcha Eslava. Estas, junto con dos de sus cuatro conciertos, tres de sus seis sinfonías numeradas y, de sus diez óperas, La dama de picas y Eugenio Oneguin, son probablemente sus obras más familiares. Casi tan populares son la Sinfonía Manfredo, Francesca da Rimini, el Capricho italiano y la Serenata para cuerdas. Sus tres cuartetos de cuerdas y tríos para piano contienen bellos pasajes, así como sus ciento seis canciones siguen siendo interpretadas en recitales. Chaikovski también escribió unas cien obras para piano, a lo largo de su vida. Brown afirma que «aunque algunas de ellas pueden ser exigentes técnicamente, la mayoría son composiciones encantadoras, no pretenciosas, dirigidas a pianistas aficionados». Añade, no obstante, que «hay más atractivo e ingenio en estas piezas de las que cabría esperar».
La educación formal que recibió Chaikovski en el conservatorio le permitió escribir obras con tendencias y técnicas orientadas al estilo occidental. Su música es una muestra de un amplio ámbito y amplitud de técnicas, desde una forma «clásica» equilibrada simulando la elegancia rococó del siglo XVIII, hasta un estilo más característico de los nacionalistas rusos, o (según Brown) un idioma musical expreso para canalizar sus propias emociones trastornadas. A pesar de su reputación como «máquina de hacer llorar», la auto-expresión no era un principio central para Chaikovski. En una carta a von Meck del 5 de diciembre de 1878, le explicó que hay dos tipos de inspiración para un compositor sinfónico, una subjetiva y otra objetiva, y que la música programática puede y debe existir, al igual que es imposible exigir que la literatura se las arregle sin el elemento épico y se limite únicamente al lirismo. Igualmente, las grandes obras orquestales que Chaikovski compuso pueden dividirse en sendas categorías: las sinfonías en una y otras obras, como los poemas sinfónicos, en otra. De acuerdo con el musicólogo Francis Maes, la música programática como Francesca da Rimini o la Sinfonía Manfredo eran en su mayor parte el credo artístico del compositor como una expresión de su «ego lírico». Maes también identifica un grupo de composiciones que están fuera de la dicotomía de la música programática contra el «ego lírico», donde Chaikovski tiende a la estética pre-romántica. Entre las obras de este grupo se encuentran las cuatro suites orquestales, el Capricho italiano, el Concierto para violín y la Serenata para cuerdas.
Aunque la música de Chaikovski ha sido siempre popular entre el público, frecuentemente fue juzgada duramente por músicos y compositores. Sin embargo, su reputación como compositor de importancia está hoy en día aceptada. Su música ha ganado seguidores en las salas de conciertos de todo el mundo, en segundo lugar justo por detrás de Beethoven, gracias en gran parte a lo que Harold C. Schonberg califica de «una dulce, inagotable y supersensual fuente de melodía... con un toque de neurosis, tan emotivo como un grito desde una ventana en una noche oscura». Según Wiley, esta combinación de melodía sobrecargada y emoción recargada polariza a los oyentes, con un popular ruego de la música de Chaikovski compensada con el desdén crítico hacia ella entendida como vulgar y carente de pensamiento elevado o filosofía. Recientemente, la música de Chaikovski ha recibido una revaluación profesional, en la que los músicos reaccionan favorablemente a la música llena de melodías y su artesanía.
Chaikovski creía que su profesionalidad en combinar su talento y altos niveles de calidad en sus obras le distanciaban de sus contemporáneos del «Grupo de los Cinco». Compartía varios ideales suyos, incluyendo un énfasis en el carácter nacionalista en su música. Su intención era, no obstante, unir esos ideales con un estándar lo suficientemente alto para satisfacer los criterios de Europa Oriental. Su perfeccionismo, además, impulsó su deseo de alcanzar un público mayor, no sólo nacional sino internacional, que fue lo que finalmente logró.
Chaikovski pudo haber recibido influencias para sus composiciones del mecenazgo mayoritario denominado «del siglo XVIII» prevalente en la Rusia de aquella época, que todavía estaba profundamente influido por su aristocracia. En este estilo de mecenazgo, el mecenas y el artista a menudo estarían en igualdad de condiciones. Las dedicatorias dirigidas a los benefactores no eran un acto de humilde gratitud sino expresiones de su asociación artística. La dedicatoria de la Cuarta Sinfonía a von Meck se sabe que significó un sello sobre su amistad. La relación de Chaikovski con el duque Konstantín Konstantínovich nació a partir del fruto creativo de las Seis canciones, Op. 63, para las cuales el gran duque escribió la letra. Chaikovski no tuvo conflictos de estilo en tocar para los gustos del público, aunque nunca se demostró que satisficiera otros gustos aparte del suyo propio. Los temas patrióticos y el estilismo de las melodías del siglo XVIII en sus obras concordaban con los valores de la aristocracia rusa.
Según Brown en el New Grove (1980), las melodías de Chaikovski van del «estilo occidental al estilismo de canciones populares y en ocasiones las mismas canciones populares». Su empleo de repeticiones con estas melodías generalmente reflejan el estilo secuencial de las prácticas occidentales, las cuales Chaikovski extendía en una inmensa longitud, construyendo «una emocionante experiencia de intensidad casi insostenible». Experimentó en ocasiones con métricas inusuales, aunque usualmente, como en sus melodías de danza, empleaba una firma, en esencia un compás regular que «a veces se convertía en el agente más expresivo en algunos movimientos debido a su enérgico uso». Chaikovski además practicó con un amplio rango de armonías, desde las prácticas de las armonías y texturas occidentales de sus primeros dos cuartetos de cuerda al empleo de la escala de tonos enteros en el centro del final de su Segunda Sinfonía; esta última era una práctica que solían usar el Grupo de los Cinco.
Debido a que Chaikovski escribió la mayoría de su música para orquesta, sus texturas musicales estaban condicionadas cada vez más con los colores orquestales que empleaba, especialmente tras la Segunda suite orquestal. Brown mantiene que mientras que el compositor estaba habituado a las prácticas orquestales de Occidente, él «prefería diferenciar los colores orquestales haciéndolos más brillantes y definidos según la tradición establecida por Glinka». Tendía a emplear más los instrumentos agudos por su «veloz delicadeza», aunque equilibra esta tendencia con «una certera exploración de los sonidos oscuros e incluso lúgubres de los instrumentos de metal».
Wiley cita a Chaikovski como «el primer compositor ruso de un nuevo tipo, totalmente profesional, que asimiló con firmeza la maestría sinfónica de la tradición de Europa Occidental; en un estilo profundamente original, personal y nacional en el cual unificó el saber hacer de Beethoven y Schumann con las obras Glinka y transformó los logros de Liszt y Berlioz en la música programática en materias de elevación shakesperiana y de importancia psicológica».
Chaikovski creía que su profesionalidad en combinar su talento y altos niveles de calidad en sus obras le distanciaban de sus contemporáneos del Grupo de los Cinco. Compartía varios ideales suyos, incluyendo un énfasis en el carácter nacionalista en su música. Su intención era, no obstante, unir esos ideales con un estándar lo suficientemente alto para satisfacer los criterios de Europa Oriental. Holden sostiene que Chaikovski fue el primer compositor ruso profesional legitimado, afirmando que sólo las tradiciones de música popular y la música de la Iglesia ortodoxa rusa existían antes de nacer él. Holden continúa, «Veinte años después de la muerte de Chaikovski, en 1913, La consagración de la primavera de Ígor Stravinski estalló en la escena musical, marcando la llegada de Rusia en la música del siglo XX. Entre estos dos mundos, la música de Chaikovski se convirtió en el único puente».
Su perfeccionismo, además, impulsó su deseo de alcanzar un público mayor, no sólo nacional sino internacional, que fue lo que finalmente logró. El musicólogo ruso Solomón Vólkov sostiene que Chaikovski fue quizás el primer compositor ruso en pensar sobre el sitio de su país en la cultura musical europea." Como el compositor escribe a von Meck desde París,
"Qué agradable es estar convencido de antemano del éxito de nuestra literatura en Francia. Cada libro étalage contiene traducciones de Tolstói, Turguénev y Dostoyevski... Los periódicos están imprimiendo constantemente artículos muy entusiastas sobre uno u otro de estos escritores. ¡Quizás algún día esto también ocurra con la música rusa!
Chaikovski se convirtió en el primer compositor ruso en dar a conocer personalmente al público extranjero sus obras así como las de otros compositores rusos. Además mantuvo lazos cercanos de negocios y personales con muchos de los principales músicos de Europa y de los Estados Unidos. Para los rusos, según Vólkov, esto era algo totalmente nuevo e inusual.
Por último, el impacto de las propias obras de Chaikovski, especialmente en el ballet, no pueden subestimarse; su dominio de las danseuse (melodías que se ajustan a los movimientos físicos a la perfección), junto con su viva orquestación, temas efectivos y continuidad de ideas eran inauditas en el género, estableciendo nuevos estándares para el papel de la música en el ballet clásico. Noel Goodwin caracteriza El lago de los cisnes como «una obra maestra imperecedera [en el género del ballet]» y La bella durmiente como «el ejemplo supremo de ballet clásico del siglo XIX», mientras que Wiley calificó la última obra como «potente, variada y rítmicamente compleja».
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piotr_Ilich_Chaikovski
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Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (Russian: Пётр Ильи́ч Чайко́вский; 7 May 1840 [O.S. 25 April] – 6 November [O.S. 25 October] 1893) was a Russian composer of the romantic period, whose works are among the most popular music in the classical repertoire. He was the first Russian composer whose music made a lasting impression internationally, bolstered by his appearances as a guest conductor in Europe and the United States. He was honored in 1884 by Emperor Alexander III, and awarded a lifetime pension.
Although musically precocious, Tchaikovsky was educated for a career as a civil servant. There was scant opportunity for a musical career in Russia at that time and no system of public music education. When an opportunity for such an education arose, he entered the nascent Saint Petersburg Conservatory, from which he graduated in 1865. The formal Western-oriented teaching he received there set him apart from composers of the contemporary nationalist movement embodied by the Russian composers of The Five, with whom his professional relationship was mixed. Tchaikovsky's training set him on a path to reconcile what he had learned with the native musical practices to which he had been exposed from childhood. From this reconciliation he forged a personal but unmistakably Russian style—a task that did not prove easy. The principles that governed melody, harmony and other fundamentals of Russian music ran completely counter to those that governed Western European music; this seemed to defeat the potential for using Russian music in large-scale Western composition or for forming a composite style, and it caused personal antipathies that dented Tchaikovsky's self-confidence. Russian culture exhibited a split personality, with its native and adopted elements having drifted apart increasingly since the time of Peter the Great. This resulted in uncertainty among the intelligentsia about the country's national identity—an ambiguity mirrored in Tchaikovsky's career.
Despite his many popular successes, Tchaikovsky's life was punctuated by personal crises and depression. Contributory factors included his early separation from his mother for boarding school followed by his mother's early death, the death of his close friend and colleague Nikolai Rubinstein, and the collapse of the one enduring relationship of his adult life, which was his 13-year association with the wealthy widow Nadezhda von Meck who was his patron even though they never actually met each other. His homosexuality, which he kept private, has traditionally also been considered a major factor, though some musicologists now downplay its importance. Tchaikovsky's sudden death at the age of 53 is generally ascribed to cholera; there is an ongoing debate as to whether cholera was indeed the cause of death, and whether his death was accidental or self-inflicted.
While his music has remained popular among audiences, critical opinions were initially mixed. Some Russians did not feel it was sufficiently representative of native musical values and expressed suspicion that Europeans accepted the music for its Western elements. In an apparent reinforcement of the latter claim, some Europeans lauded Tchaikovsky for offering music more substantive than base exoticism and said he transcended stereotypes of Russian classical music. Others dismissed Tchaikovsky's music as "lacking in elevated thought," according to longtime New York Times music critic Harold C. Schonberg, and derided its formal workings as deficient because they did not stringently follow Western principles.
Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky was born in Votkinsk, a small town in Vyatka Governorate (present-day Udmurtia) in the Russian Empire, into a family with a long line of military service. His father, Ilya Petrovich Tchaikovsky, had served as a lieutenant colonel and engineer in the Department of Mines, and would manage the Kamsko-Votkinsk Ironworks. His grandfather, Pyotr Fedorovich Tchaikovsky (né Petro Fedorovych Chaika), was born in the village of Mikolayivka, Poltava Gubernia, Russian Empire (present day Ukraine), and served first as a physician's assistant in the army and later as city governor of Glazov in Vyatka. His great-grandfather, a Ukrainian Cossack named Fyodor Chaika, distinguished himself under Peter the Great at the Battle of Poltava in 1709. Tchaikovsky's mother, Alexandra Andreyevna was the second of Ilya's three wives, 18 years her husband's junior and French on her father's side. Both Ilya and Alexandra were trained in the arts, including music—a necessity as a posting to a remote area of Russia also meant a need for entertainment, whether in private or at social gatherings. Of his six siblings, Tchaikovsky was close to his sister Alexandra and twin brothers Anatoly and Modest. Alexandra's marriage to Lev Davydov would produce seven children and lend Tchaikovsky the only real family life he would know as an adult, especially during his years of wandering. One of those children, Vladimir Davydov, whom the composer would nickname 'Bob', would become very close to him.
In 1844, the family hired Fanny Dürbach, a 22-year-old French governess. Four-and-a-half-year-old Tchaikovsky was initially thought too young to study alongside his older brother Nikolai and a niece of the family. His insistence convinced Dürbach otherwise. By the age of six, he had become fluent in French and German. Tchaikovsky also became attached to the young woman; her affection for him was reportedly a counter to his mother's coldness and emotional distance from him, though others assert that the mother doted on her son. Dürbach saved much of Tchaikovsky's work from this period, including his earliest known compositions, and became a source of several childhood anecdotes.
Tchaikovsky began piano lessons at age five. Precocious, within three years he had become as adept at reading sheet music as his teacher. His parents, initially supportive, hired a tutor, bought an orchestrion (a form of barrel organ that could imitate elaborate orchestral effects), and encouraged his piano study for both aesthetic and practical reasons. However, they decided in 1850 to send Tchaikovsky to the Imperial School of Jurisprudence in Saint Petersburg. They had both graduated from institutes in Saint Petersburg and the School of Jurisprudence, which mainly served the lesser nobility, and thought that this education would prepare Tchaikovsky for a career as a civil servant. Regardless of talent, the only musical careers available in Russia at that time—except for the affluent aristocracy—were as a teacher in an academy or as an instrumentalist in one of the Imperial Theaters. Both were considered on the lowest rank of the social ladder, with individuals in them enjoying no more rights than peasants. His father's income was also growing increasingly uncertain, so both parents may have wanted Tchaikovsky to become independent as soon as possible. As the minimum age for acceptance was 12 and Tchaikovsky was only 10 at the time, he was required to spend two years boarding at the Imperial School of Jurisprudence's preparatory school, 1,300 kilometres (800 mi) from his family. Once those two years had passed, Tchaikovsky transferred to the Imperial School of Jurisprudence to begin a seven-year course of studies.
Tchaikovsky's early separation from his mother caused an emotional trauma that lasted the rest of his life and was intensified by her death from cholera in 1854, when he was fourteen. The loss of his mother also prompted Tchaikovsky to make his first serious attempt at composition, a waltz in her memory. Tchaikovsky's father, who had also contracted cholera but recovered fully, sent him back to school immediately in the hope that classwork would occupy the boy's mind. Isolated, Tchaikovsky compensated with friendships with fellow students that became lifelong; these included Aleksey Apukhtin and Vladimir Gerard. Music, while not an official priority at school, also bridged the gap between Tchaikovsky and his peers. They regularly attended the opera and Tchaikovsky would improvise at the school's harmonium on themes he and his friends had sung during choir practice. "We were amused," Vladimir Gerard later remembered, "but not imbued with any expectations of his future glory". Tchaikovsky also continued his piano studies through Franz Becker, an instrument manufacturer who made occasional visits to the school; however, the results, according to musicologist David Brown, were "negligible".
In 1855, Tchaikovsky's father funded private lessons with Rudolph Kündinger and questioned him about a musical career for his son. While impressed with the boy's talent, Kündinger said he saw nothing to suggest a future composer or performer. He later admitted that his assessment was also based on his own negative experiences as a musician in Russia and his unwillingness for Tchaikovsky to be treated likewise. Tchaikovsky was told to finish his course and then try for a post in the Ministry of Justice.
On 10 June 1859, the 19-year-old Tchaikovsky graduated as a titular counselor, a low rung on the civil service ladder. Appointed to the Ministry of Justice, he became a junior assistant within six months and a senior assistant two months after that. He remained a senior assistant for the rest of his three-year civil service career.
Meanwhile, the Russian Musical Society (RMS) was founded in 1859 by the Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna (a German-born aunt of Tsar Alexander II) and her protégé, pianist and composer Anton Rubinstein. Previous tsars and the aristocracy had focused almost exclusively on importing European talent. The aim of the RMS was to fulfill Alexander II's wish to foster native talent. It hosted a regular season of public concerts (previously held only during the six weeks of Lent when the Imperial Theaters were closed) and provided basic professional training in music. In 1861, Tchaikovsky attended RMS classes in music theory taught by Nikolai Zaremba at the Mikhailovsky Palace (now the Russian Museum). These classes were a precursor to the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, which opened in 1862. Tchaikovsky enrolled at the Conservatory as part of its premiere class. He studied harmony and counterpoint with Zaremba and instrumentation and composition with Rubinstein.
The Conservatory benefited Tchaikovsky in two ways. It transformed him into a musical professional, with tools to help him thrive as a composer, and the in-depth exposure to European principles and musical forms gave him a sense that his art was not exclusively Russian or Western. This mindset became important in Tchaikovsky's reconciliation of Russian and European influences in his compositional style. He believed and attempted to show that both these aspects were "intertwined and mutually dependent". His efforts became both an inspiration and a starting point for other Russian composers to build their own individual styles.
Rubinstein was impressed by Tchaikovsky's musical talent on the whole and cited him as "a composer of genius" in his autobiography. He was less pleased with the more progressive tendencies of some of Tchaikovsky's student work. Nor did he change his opinion as Tchaikovsky's reputation grew. He and Zaremba clashed with Tchaikovsky when he submitted his First Symphony for performance by the RMS in Saint Petersburg. Rubinstein and Zaremba refused to consider the work unless substantial changes were made. Tchaikovsky complied but they still refused to perform the symphony. Tchaikovsky, distressed that he had been treated as though he were still their student, withdrew the symphony. It was given its first complete performance, minus the changes Rubinstein and Zaremba had requested, in Moscow in February 1868.
Once Tchaikovsky graduated in 1865, Rubinstein's brother Nikolai offered him the post of Professor of Music Theory at the soon-to-open Moscow Conservatory. While the salary for his professorship was only 50 rubles a month, the offer itself boosted Tchaikovsky's morale and he accepted the post eagerly. He was further heartened by news of the first public performance of one of his works, his Characteristic Dances, conducted by Johann Strauss II at a concert in Pavlovsk Park on 11 September 1865 (Tchaikovsky later included this work, re-titled, Dances of the Hay Maidens, in his opera The Voyevoda).
From 1867 to 1878, Tchaikovsky combined his professorial duties with music criticism while continuing to compose. This activity exposed him to a range of contemporary music and afforded him the opportunity to travel abroad. In his reviews, he praised Beethoven, considered Brahms overrated and, despite his admiration, took Schumann to task for poor orchestration. He appreciated the staging of Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen at its inaugural performance in Bayreuth, Germany, but not the music, calling Das Rheingold "unlikely nonsense, through which, from time to time, sparkle unusually beautiful and astonishing details". A recurring theme he addressed was the poor state of Russian opera.
In 1856, while Tchaikovsky was still at the School of Jurisprudence and Anton Rubinstein lobbied aristocrats to form the RMS, critic Vladimir Stasov and an 18-year-old pianist, Mily Balakirev, met and agreed upon a nationalist agenda for Russian music, one that would take the operas of Mikhail Glinka as a model and incorporate elements from folk music, reject traditional Western practices and use exotic harmonic devices such as the whole tone and octatonic scales. They saw Western-style conservatories as unnecessary and antipathetic to fostering native talent. Eventually, Balakirev, César Cui, Modest Mussorgsky, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov and Alexander Borodin became known as the moguchaya kuchka, translated into English as the Mighty Handful or The Five. Rubinstein criticized their emphasis on amateur efforts in musical composition; Balakirev and later Mussorgsky attacked Rubinstein for his musical conservatism and his belief in professional music training. Tchaikovsky and his fellow conservatory students were caught in the middle.
While ambivalent about much of The Five's music, Tchaikovsky remained on friendly terms with most of its members. In 1869, he and Balakirev worked together on what became Tchaikovsky's first recognized masterpiece, the fantasy-overture Romeo and Juliet, a work which The Five wholeheartedly embraced. The group also welcomed his Second Symphony, subtitled the Little Russian. Despite their support, Tchaikovsky made considerable efforts to ensure his musical independence from the group as well as from the conservative faction at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory.
he infrequency of Tchaikovsky's musical successes, won with tremendous effort, exacerbated his lifelong sensitivity to criticism. Nikolai Rubinstein's private fits of rage critiquing his music, most famously attacking the First Piano Concerto, did not help matters. His popularity grew, however, as several first-rate artists became willing to perform his compositions. Hans von Bülow premiered the First Piano Concerto and championed other Tchaikovsky works both as pianist and conductor. Other artists included Adele Aus der Ohe, Max Erdmannsdörfer, Eduard Nápravník and Sergei Taneyev.
Another factor that helped Tchaikovsky's music become popular was a shift in attitude among Russian audiences. Whereas they had previously been satisfied with flashy virtuoso performances of technically demanding but musically lightweight compositions, they gradually began listening with increasing appreciation of the music itself. Tchaikovsky's works were performed frequently, with few delays between their composition and first performances; the publication from 1867 onward of his songs and great piano music for the home market also helped boost the composer's popularity.
During the late 1860s, Tchaikovsky began to compose operas. His first, The Voyevoda, based on a play by Alexander Ostrovsky, premiered in 1869. The composer became dissatisfied with it, however, and, having re-used parts of it in later works, destroyed the manuscript. Undina followed in 1870. Only excerpts were performed and it, too, was destroyed. Between these projects, Tchaikovsky started to compose an opera called Mandragora, to a libretto by Sergei Rachinskii; the only music he completed was a short chorus of Flowers and Insects.
The first Tchaikovsky opera to survive intact, The Oprichnik, premiered in 1874. During its composition, he lost Ostrovsky's part-finished libretto. Tchaikovsky, too embarrassed to ask for another copy, decided to write the libretto himself, modelling his dramatic technique on that of Eugène Scribe. Cui wrote a "characteristically savage press attack" on the opera. Mussorgsky, writing to Vladimir Stasov, disapproved of the opera as pandering to the public. Nevertheless, The Oprichnik continues to be performed from time to time in Russia.
The last of the early operas, Vakula the Smith (Op.14), was composed in the second half of 1874. The libretto, based on Gogol's Christmas Eve, was to have been set to music by Alexander Serov. With Serov's death, the libretto was opened to a competition with a guarantee that the winning entry would be premiered by the Imperial Mariinsky Theatre. Tchaikovsky was declared the winner, but at the 1876 premiere, the opera enjoyed only a lukewarm reception. After Tchaikovsky's death, Rimsky-Korsakov wrote the opera Christmas Eve, based on the same story.
Other works of this period include the Variations on a Rococo Theme for cello and orchestra, the Third and Fourth Symphonies, the ballet Swan Lake, and the opera Eugene Onegin.
Discussion of Tchaikovsky's personal life, especially his sexuality, has perhaps been the most extensive of any composer in the 19th century and certainly of any Russian composer of his time. It has also at times caused considerable confusion, from Soviet efforts to expunge all references to same-sex attraction and portray him as a heterosexual, to efforts at armchair analysis by Western biographers. Biographers have generally agreed that Tchaikovsky was homosexual. He sought the company of other men in his circle for extended periods, "associating openly and establishing professional connections with them". His first love was reportedly Sergey Kireyev, a younger fellow student at the Imperial School of Jurisprudence. According to Modest Tchaikovsky, this was Pyotr Ilyich's "strongest, longest and purest love". The degree to which the composer might have felt comfortable with his sexual nature has, however, remained open to debate. It is still unknown whether Tchaikovsky, according to musicologist and biographer David Brown, "felt tainted within himself, defiled by something from which he finally realized he could never escape" or whether, according to Alexander Poznansky, he experienced "no unbearable guilt" over his sexual nature and "eventually came to see his sexual peculiarities as an insurmountable and even natural part of his personality ... without experiencing any serious psychological damage". Relevant portions of his brother Modest's autobiography, where he tells of the composer's sexual orientation, have been published, as have letters previously suppressed by Soviet censors in which Tchaikovsky openly writes of it. Such censorship has persisted in the current Russian government, resulting in many officials, including the current culture minister Vladimir Medinsky, to outright deny his homosexualit
Chloe Bruce at Judgement Day 2011.
(C) Matt Giles Photography. No unauthorised usage alowed without prior written permission
embodied form: 198
7.16.16 nll
I created these two “couplings” tonight. I might cut them out and start piecing them together to see how they interact with each other. I used one of the pods as inspiration for another ‘digital sketch’.
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AN IN DEPTH LOOK AT CORVUS CORONE
LEGEND AND MYTHOLOGY
Crows appear in the Bible where Noah uses one to search for dry land and to check on the recession of the flood. Crows supposedly saved the prophet, Elijah, from famine and are an Inuit deity. Legend has it that England and its monarchy will end when there are no more crows in the Tower of London. And some believe that the crows went to the Tower attracted by the regular corpses following executions with written accounts of their presence at the executions of Anne Boleyn and Jane Gray.
In Welsh mythology, unfortunately Crows are seen as symbolic of evilness and black magic thanks to many references to witches transforming into crows or ravens and escaping. Indian legend tells of Kakabhusandi, a crow who sits on the branches of a wish-fulfilling tree called Kalpataru and a crow in Ramayana where Lord Rama blessed the crow with the power to foresee future events and communicate with the souls.
In Native American first nation legend the crow is sometimes considered to be something of a trickster, though they are also viewed positively by some tribes as messengers between this world and the next where they carry messages from the living to those deceased, and even carry healing medicines between both worlds. There is a belief that crows can foresee the future. The Klamath tribe in Oregon believe that when we die, we fly up to heaven as a crow. The Crow can also signify wisdom to some tribes who believe crows had the power to talk and were therefore considered to be one of the wisest of birds. Tribes with Crow Clans include the Chippewa (whose Crow Clan and its totem are called Aandeg), the Hopi (whose Crow Clan is called Angwusngyam or Ungwish-wungwa), the Menominee, the Caddo, the Tlingit, and the Pueblo tribes of New Mexico.
The crow features in the Nanissáanah (Ghost dance), popularized by Jerome Crow Dog, a Brulé Lakota sub-chief and warrior born at Horse Stealing Creek in Montana Territory in 1833, the crow symbolizing wisdom and the past, when the crow had became a guide and acted as a pathfinder during hunting. The Ghost dance movement was originally created in 1870 by Wodziwob, or Gray Hair, a prophet and medicine man of the Paiute tribe in an area that became known as Nevada. Ghost dancers wore crow and eagle feathers in their clothes and hair, and the fact that the Crow could talk placed it as one of the sages of the animal kingdom. The five day dances seeking trance,prophecy and exhortations would eventually play a major part in the pathway towards the white man's broken treaties, the infamous battle at Wounded knee and the surrender of Matȟó Wanáȟtaka (Kicking Bear), after officials began to fear the ghost dancers and rituals which seemed to occur prior to battle.
Historically the Vikings are the group who made so many references to the crow, and Ragnarr Loðbrók and his sons used this species in his banner as well as appearances in many flags and coats of arms. Also, it had some kind of association with Odin, one of their main deities. Norse legend tells us that Odin is accompanied by two crows. Hugin, who symbolizes thought, and Munin, who represents a memory. These two crows were sent out each dawn to fly the entire world, returning at breakfast where they informed the Lord of the Nordic gods of everything that went on in their kingdoms. Odin was also referred to as Rafnagud (raven-god). The raven appears in almost every skaldic poem describing warfare.Coins dating back to 940's minted by Olaf Cuaran depict the Viking war standard, the Raven and Viking war banners (Gonfalon) depicted the bird also.
In Scandinavian legends, crows are a representative of the Goddess of Death, known as Valkyrie (from old Norse 'Valkyrja'), one of the group of maidens who served the Norse deity Odin, visiting battlefields and sending him the souls of the slain worthy of a place in Valhalla. Odin ( also called Wodan, Woden, or Wotan), preferred that heroes be killed in battle and that the most valiant of souls be taken to Valhöll, the hall of slain warriors. It is the crow that provides the Valkyries with important information on who should go. In Hindu ceremonies that are associated to ancestors, the crow has an important place in Vedic rituals. They are seen as messengers of death in Indian culture too.
In Germanic legend, Crows are seen as psychonomes, meaning the act of guiding spirits to their final destination, and that the feathers of a crow could cure a victim who had been cursed. And yet, a lone black crow could symbolize impending death, whilst a group symbolizes a lucky omen! Vikings also saw good omens in the crow and would leave offerings of meat as a token.
The crow also has sacred and prophetic meaning within the Celtic civilization, where it stood for flesh ripped off due to combat and Morrighan, the warrior goddess, often appears in Celtic mythology as a raven or crow, or else is found to be in the company of the birds. Crow is sacred to Lugdnum, the Celtic god of creation who gave his name to the city of Lug
In Greek mythology according to Appolodorus, Apollo is supposedly responsible for the black feathers of the crow, turning them forever black from their pristine white original plumage as a punishment after they brought news that Κορωνις (Coronis) a princess of the Thessalian kingdom of Phlegyantis, Apollo's pregnant lover had left him to marry a mortal, Ischys. In one legend, Apollo burned the crows feathers and then burned Coronis to death, in another Coronis herself was turned into a black crow, and another that she was slain by the arrows of Αρτεμις (Artemis - twin to Apollo). Koronis was later set amongst the stars as the constellation Corvus ("the Crow"). Her name means "Curved One" from the Greek word korônis or "Crow" from the word korônê.A similar Muslim legend allegedly tells of Muhammad, founder of Islam and the last prophet sent by God to Earth, who's secret location was given away by a white crow to his seekers, as he hid in caves. The crow shouted 'Ghar Ghar' (Cave, cave) and thus as punishment, Muhammad turned the crow black and cursed it for eternity to utter only one phrase, 'Ghar, ghar). Native Indian legend where the once rainbow coloured crows became forever black after shedding their colourful plumage over the other animals of the world.
In China the Crow is represented in art as a three legged bird on a solar disk, being a creature that helps the sun in its journey. In Japan there are myths of Crow Tengu who were priests who became vain, and turned into this spirit to serve as messengers until they learn the lesson of humility as well as a great Crow who takes part in Shinto creation stories.
In animal spirit guides there are general perceptions of what sightings of numbers of crows actually mean:
1 Crow Meaning: To carry a message from your near one who died recently.
2 Crows Meaning: Two crows sitting near your home signifies some good news is on your way.
3 Crows Meaning: An upcoming wedding in your family.
4 Crows Meaning: Symbolizes wealth and prosperity.
5 Crows Meaning: Diseases or pain.
6 Crows Meaning: A theft in your house!
7 Crows Meaning: Denotes travel or moving from your house.
8 Crows Meaning: Sorrowful events
Crows are generally seen as the symbolism when alive for doom bringing, misfortune and bad omens, and yet a dead crow symbolises potentially bringing good news and positive change to those who see it. This wonderful bird certainly gets a mixed bag of contradictory mythology and legend over the centuries and in modern days is often seen as a bit of a nuisance, attacking and killing the babies of other birds such as Starlings, Pigeons and House Sparrows as well as plucking the eyes out of lambs in the field, being loud and noisy and violently attacking poor victims in a 'crow court'....
There is even a classic horror film called 'THE CROW' released in 1994 by Miramax Films, directed by Alex Proyas and starring Brandon Lee in his final film appearance as Eric Draven, who is revived by a Crow tapping on his gravestone a year after he and his fiancée are murdered in Detroit by a street gang. The crow becomes his guide as he sets out to avenge the murders. The only son of martial arts expert Bruce Lee, Brandon lee suffered fatal injuries on the set of the film when the crew failed to remove the primer from a cartridge that hit Lee in the abdomen with the same force as a normal bullet. Lee died that day, March 31st 1993 aged 28.
The symbolism of the Crow resurrecting the dead star and accompanying him on his quest for revenge was powerful, and in some part based on the history of the carrion crow itself and the original film grossed more than $94 Million dollars with three subsequent sequels following.
TAKING A CLOSER LOOK
So let's move away from legend, mythology and stories passed down from our parents and grandparents and look at these amazing birds in isolation.
Carrion crow are passerines in the family Corvidae a group of Oscine passerine birds including Crows, Ravens, Rooks, Jackdaws, Jays, Magpies, Treepies, Choughs and Nutcrackers. Technically they are classed as Corvids, and the largest of passerine birds. Carrion crows are medium to large in size with rictal bristles and a single moult per year (most passerines moult twice). Carrion crow was one of the many species originally described by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus (Carl Von Linne after his ennoblement) in his 1758 and 1759 editions of 'SYSTEMA NATURAE', and it still bears its original name of Corvus corone, derived from the Latin of Corvus, meaning Raven and the Greek κορώνη (korōnē), meaning crow.
Carrion crow are of the Animalia kingdom Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Passeriformes Family: Corvidae Genus: Corvus and Species: Corvus corone
Corvus corone can reach 45-47cm in length with a 93-104cm wingspan and weigh between 370-650g. They are protected under The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 in the United Kingdom with a Green UK conservation status which means they are of least concern with more than 1,000,000 territories. Breeding occurs in April with fledging of the chicks taking around twenty nine days following an incubation period of around twenty days with 3 to 4 eggs being the average norm. They are abundant in the UK apart from Northwest Scotland and Ireland where the Hooded crow (Corvus cornix) was considered the same species until 2002. They have a lifespan of around four years, whilst Crow species can live to the age of Twenty years old, and the oldest known American crow in the wild was almost Thirty years old. The oldest documented captive crow died at age Fifty nine. They are smaller and have a shorter lifespan than the Raven, which again is used as a symbol in history to live life to the full and not waste a moment!
They are often mistaken for the Rook (Corvus frugilegus), a similar bird, though in the UK, the Rook is actually technically smaller than the Carrion crow averaging 44-46cm in length, 81-99cm wingspan and weighing up to 340g. Rooks have white beaks compared to the black beaks of Carrion crow, a more steeply raked ratio from head to beak, and longer straighter beaks as well as a different plumage pattern. There are documented cases in the UK of singular and grouped Rooks attacking and killing Carrion crows in their territory. Rooks nest in colonies unlike Carrion crows. Carrion crows have only a few natural enemies including powerful raptors such as the northern goshawk, the peregrine falcon, the Eurasian eagle-owl and the golden eagle which will all readily hunt them.
Regarded as one of the most intelligent birds, indeed creatures on the planet, studies suggest that Corvids cognitive abilities can rival that of primates such as chimpanzees and gorillas and even provide clues to understanding human intelligence. Crows have relatively large brains for their body size, compared to other animals. Their encephalization quotient (EQ) a ratio of brain to body size, adjusted for size because there isn’t a linear relationship is 4.1. That is remarkably close to chimps at 4.2 whilst humans are 8.1. Corvids also have a very high neuronal density, the number of neurons per gram of brain, factoring in the number of cortical neurons, neuron packing density, interneuronal distance and axonal conduction velocity shows that Corvids score high on this measure as well, with humans scoring the highest.
A corvid's pallium is packed with more neurons than a great ape's. Corvids have demonstrated the ability to use a combination of mental tools such as imagination, and anticipation of future events. They can craft tools from twigs and branches to hook grubs from deep recesses, they can solve puzzles and intricate methods of gaining access to food set by humans., and have even bent pieces of wire into hooks to obtain food. They have been proven to have a higher cognitive ability level than seven year old humans. Communications wise, their repertoire of wraw-wraw's is not fully understood, but the intensity, rhythm, and duration of caws seems to form the basis of a possible language. They also remember the faces of humans who have hindered or hurt them and pass that information on to their offspring.
Aesop's fable of 'The Crow and the Pitcher, tells of a thirsty crow which drops stones into a water pitcher to raise the water level and enable it to take a drink. Scientists have conducted tests to see whether crows really are this intelligent. They placed floating treats in a deep tube and observed the crows indeed dropping dense objects carefully selected into the water until the treat floated within reach. They had the intelligence to pick up, weigh and discount objects that would float in the water, they also did not select ones that were too large for the container.
Pet crows develop a unique call for their owners, in effect actually naming them. They also know to sunbathe for a dose of vitamin D, regularly settling on wooden garden fences, opening their mouths and wings and raising their heads to the sun. In groups they warn of danger and communicate vocally. They store a cache of food for later if in abundance and are clever enough to move it if they feel it has been discovered. They leave markers for their cache. They have even learned to place walnuts and similar hard food items under car tyres at traffic lights as a means of cracking them!
Crows regularly gather around a dead fellow corvid, almost like a funeral, and it is thought they somehow learn from each death. They can even remember human faces for decades.Crows group together to attack larger predators and even steal their food, and they have different dialects in different areas, with the ability to mimic the dialect of the alpha males when they enter their territory!
They have a twenty year life span, the oldest on record reaching the age of Fifty nine. Crows can leave gifts for those who feed them such as buttons or bright shiny objects as a thank you, and they even kiss and make up after an argument, having mated for life.
In mythology they are associated with good and bad luck, being the bringers of omens and even witchcraft and are generally reviled for their attacks on baby birds and small mammals. They have an attack method of to stunning smaller birds before consuming them, tearing violently at smaller, less aggressive birds, which is simply down to the fact that they are so highly intelligent, and also the top of the food chain. Their diet includes over a thousand different items: Dead animals (as their name suggests), invertebrates, grain, as well as stealing eggs and chicks from other birds' nests, worms, insects, fruit, seeds, kitchen scraps. They are highly adaptable when food sources grow scarce. I absolutely love them, they are magnificent, bold, beautiful and incredibly interesting to watch and though at times it is hard to witness attacks made by them, I cannot help but adore them for so many other and more important reasons.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE PAIR IN MY GARDEN
Crows have been in the area for a while, but rarely had strayed into my garden, leaving the Magpies to own the territory. Things changed towards the end of May when a beautiful female Carrion crow appeared and began to take some of the food that I put down for the other birds. Within a few days she began to appear regularly, on occasions stocking up on food, whilst other times placing pieces in the birdbath to soften them. She would stand on the birdbath and eat and drink and come back over the course of the day to eat the softened food.
Shortly afterwards she brought along her mate, a tall and handsome fella, much larger than her who was also very vocal if he felt she was getting a little too close to me. By now I had moved from a seated position from the patio as an observer, to laying on a mat just five feet from the birdbath with my Nikon so that I could photograph the pair as they landed, scavenged and fed. She was now confident enough to let me be very close, and she even tolerated and recognized the clicking of the camera. At first I used silent mode to reduce the noise but this only allowed two shooting frame rates of single frame or continuous low frame which meant I was missing shots. I reverted back to normal continuous high frames and she soon got used to the whirring of the mechanisms as the mirror slapped back and forth.
The big fella would bark orders at her from the safety of the fence or the rear of the garden, whilst she rarely made a sound. That was until one day when in the sweltering heat she kept opening her beak and sunning on the grass, panting slightly in the heat. I placed the circular water sprayer nearby and had it rotating so that the birdbath and grass was bathed in gentle water droplets and she soon came back, landed and seemed to really like the cooling effect on offer. She then climbed onto the birdbath and opened her wings slightly and made some gentle purring, cooing noises....
I swear she was expressing happiness, joy....
On another blisteringly hot day when the sprayer was on, she came down, walked towards it and opened her wings up running into the water spray. Not once, but many times.
A further revelation into the unseen sides to these beautiful birds came with the male and female on the rear garden fence. They sat together, locked beaks like a kiss and then the male took his time gently preening her head feathers and the back of her neck as she made tiny happy sounds. They stayed together like that for several minutes, showing a gentle, softer side to their nature and demonstrating the deep bond between them. Into July and the pair started to bring their three youngsters to my garden, the nippers learning to use the birdbath for bathing and dipping food, the parents attentive as ever. Two of the youngsters headed off once large enough and strong enough.
I was privileged to be in close attendance as the last juvenile was brought down by the pair, taught to take food and then on a night in July, to soar and fly with it's mother in the evening sky as the light faded. She would swoop and twirl, and at regular intervals just touch the juvenile in flight with her wing tip feathers, as if to reassure it that she was close in attendance. What an amazing experience to view. A few days later, the juvenile, though now gaining independence and more than capable of tackling food scraps in the garden, was still on occasions demand feeding from it's mother who was now teaching him to take chicken breast, hotdogs or digestive biscuits and bury them in the garden beds for later delectation. The juvenile also liked to gather up peanuts and bury them in the grass. On one occasion I witnessed a pair of rambunctious Pica Pica (Magpies), chasing the young crow on rooftops, leaping at him no matter how hard he tried to get away. He defended himself well and survived the attacks, much to my relief.
Into August and the last youngster remained with the adults, though now was very independent even though he still spent time with his parents on rooftops, and shared food gathering duties with his mum.Hotdog sausages were their favourite choice, followed by fish fingers and digestive biscuits which the adult male would gather up three at a time. In October, the three Crows were still kings of the area, but my time observing them was pretty much over as I will only put food out now for the birds in the winter months.
Corvus Corone.... magnificently misunderstood by some!
Paul Williams June 4th 2021
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©DESPITE STRAIGHT LINES (Paul Williams)
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Photograph taken at an altitude of Fifty three metres at 15:25pm on a summer afternoon on Tuesday 8th June 2021, of an adult Carrion crow (Corvus corone), standing beside some ground covering Geranium macrorrhizum off Hythe Avenue and Chessington Avenue in Bexleyheath, Kent.
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Nikon D850 Focal length 460mm Shutter speed: 1/800s Aperture f/7.1 iso250 Hand held with Tamron VC Vibration control set to ON in position 1 14 Bit uncompressed RAW NEF file size L (8256 x 5504 pixels) FX (36 x 24) Focus mode: AF-C AF-Area mode: 3D-tracking AF-C Priority Selection: Release. Nikon Back button focusing enabled 3D Tracking watch area: Normal 55 Tracking points Exposure mode: Manual exposure mode Metering mode: Matrix metering White balance on: Auto1 (4600k) Colour space: RGB Picture control: Neutral (Sharpening +2)
Tamron SP 150-600mm F/5-6.3 Di VC USD G2. Nikon GP-1 GPS module. Lee SW150 MKII filter holder. Lee SW150 95mm screw in adapter ring. Lee SW150 circular polariser glass filter.Lee SW150 Filters field pouch. Hoodman HEYENRG round eyepiece oversized eyecup.Mcoplus professional MB-D850 multi function battery grip 6960.Two Nikon EN-EL15a batteries (Priority to battery in Battery grip). Black Rapid Curve Breathe strap. My Memory 128GB Class 10 SDXC 80MB/s card. Lowepro Flipside 400 AW camera bag.
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LATITUDE: N 51d 28m 28.35s
LONGITUDE: E 0d 8m 10.48s
ALTITUDE: 54.0m
RAW (TIFF) FILE: 130.00MB NEF FILE: 90.80MB
PROCESSED (JPeg) FILE: 41.40MB
PROCESSING POWER:
Nikon D850 Firmware versions C 1.10 (9/05/2019) LD Distortion Data 2.018 (18/02/20) LF 1.00
HP 110-352na Desktop PC with AMD Quad-Core A6-5200 APU 64Bit processor. Radeon HD8400 graphics. 8 GB DDR3 Memory with 1TB Data storage. 64-bit Windows 10. Verbatim USB 2.0 1TB desktop hard drive. WD My Passport Ultra 1tb USB3 Portable hard drive. Nikon ViewNX-1 64bit Version 1.4.1 (18/02/2020). Nikon Capture NX-D 64bit Version 1.6.2 (18/02/2020). Nikon Picture Control Utility 2 (Version 2.4.5 (18/02/2020). Nikon Transfer 2 Version 2.13.5. Adobe photoshop Elements 8 Version 8.0 64bit.
I hand formed the hoop shapes using brass wire and wire wrapped the top using fine brass wire. Using the brick stitch technique, I wove tiny seed beads around the perimeter of the hand formed shapes, using nymo thread, a strong multifilament thread favored by bead artists. The beadwork on these earrings will not flop around as I use a firm tension in my weaving, but it is slightly flexible. Store your earrings flat when not wearing them, and I would recommend not wearing these to bathe or swim since there is thread in the design.
These earrings feature tiny size 11 and size 15 seed beads in primarily red with accents of green, pink, yellow and blue - a simple, clean, modern, geometric look.
Dimensions: The earrings measure 1.5 inches across at their widest, and 2 inches long from the top of the ear wire to the bottom of the beaded hoop. (The earrings measure 3.8 cm across at their widest, and 5.08 cm tall.)
Wake turbulence forms behind aircrafts as they passes through the clouds when descending for landing. London Heathrow Airport UK
More images like this in my Wake turbulence set
All rights reserved Copyright © 2011
Chinese opera, a popular form of drama and musical theatre in China with roots going back to the early periods in China. It is a composite performance art that is an amalgamation of various art forms that existed in ancient China, and evolved gradually over more than a thousand years, reaching its mature form in the 13th century during the Song Dynasty.
As interesting as front of the stage, back stage has been a mysterious place to me.
Finally, I get the chance to visit this wonderland of transformation.
Hope you will enjoy this series as much as I do :)
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The mysterious world behind the curtains:
Follow my rediscovery of the Hungry Ghosts "Yu Lan" Festival here:
For my past visits to the Hungry Ghosts "Yu Lan" Festival here:
Hungry Ghosts "Yu Lan" Festival
More Chinese Temples images here:
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