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Copyright © 2011 Ruggero Poggianella. All rights reserved. Please, do not use my photos without my written permission.
La Cappella Palatina è una basilica a tre navate dedicata ai santi Pietro e Paolo. Fu fatta costruire per volere di Ruggero II e venne consacrata il 28 aprile 1140 come chiesa della famiglia reale. Le tre navate sono separate da colonne in granito e marmo cipollino a capitelli compositi che sorreggono una struttura di archi ad ogiva. Completa la costruzione la cupola, eretta sopra le tre absidi del santuario. La cupola e il campanile originariamente erano visibili dall'esterno prima di venire inglobate nel Palazzo Reale in seguito alle costruzioni successive. La cupola, il transetto e le absidi sono interamente decorate nella parte superiore da mosaici bizantini, tra i più importanti della Sicilia, raffiguranti il Cristo Pantocratore benedicente, gli evangelisti e scene bibliche varie.
I mosaici di datazione più antica sono quelli della cupola, risalenti alla costruzione originaria del 1143.
Il soffitto in legno della navata centrale e le travature della altre navate sono decorate con intagli e dipinti di stile arabo. In ogni spicchio sono presenti stelle lignee con rappresentazioni di animali, danzatori e scene di vita della corte islamica.
Danneggiata dal terremoto del settembre 2002 fu sottoposta a restauri, conclusi nel luglio 2008. Il progetto dei restauri redatto dall'architetto Guido Meli dirigente del centro regionale per il restauro della Regione Siciliana venne finanziato dal mecenate tedesco Reinold Wurth per oltre tre milioni di euro.
Le decorazioni dei mosaici rappresentano scene di carattere aulico e venatorio con grande dedizione nell'esecuzione degli animali tra cui, oltre i mitilogici centauri appaiono leopardi, pavoni, cervi, cigni sullo sfondo di una vegetazione di alberi e palme. Le rappresentazioni dai canoni sontuosi ma con accenti di rigidità, delineano la chiarissima matrice greco-bizantina dell'opera. La volta della sala risale invece al periodo successivo di Federico II, come testimoniato dalla rappresentazione dell'aquila sveva.
La Cappella Palatina si trova nel sontuoso Palazzo dei Normanni, che oggi ospita il parlamento siciliano.
La Cappella è sicuramente il luogo più celebre della città di Palermo. I lavori di costruzione iniziarono nel 1130, anno in cui fu Ruggero II fu incoronato re di Sicilia, e terminarono nel 1143.
La Cappella è importante perché rappresenta la sintesi culturale e politica operata dai Normanni. Infatti, essa fonde in modo mirabile le espressioni architettoniche più rilevanti per la Sicilia: l'europea, la siciliana, la bizantina, l'araba. La Cappella si presenta sotto forma di basilica a tre navate sorrette da colonne di granito con capitelli corinzi riccamente decorati. L'elegante mosaico bizantino presente al suo interno, che si ritroverà nella chiesa della Martorana e nel Duomo di Monreale, è stato definito come uno dei più belli e meglio conservati di tutta Italia. È ormai certo che i mosaici sono stati eseguiti in due momenti successivi: si ritiene che i più antichi risalgano agli anni intorno al 1240, mentre quelli della navata centrale dovrebbero risalire agli anni 1260-1270.
I mosaici della navata centrale riportano scene dell’antico testamento; quelli del presbiterio ricordano episodi della vita di Cristo, e quelli delle navate laterali episodi della vita di San Pietro e San Paolo. Splendidi sono i mosaici più antichi, nella cupola che sovrasta il coro: rappresentano il Cristo Pantocratore (onnipotente), circondato da angeli ed arcangeli, e i quattro Evangelisti che paiono assorti in meditazione.
I mosaici di datazione più antica sono quelli della cupola, risalenti alla costruzione originaria del 1143.
Il soffitto in legno della navata centrale e le travature della altre navate sono decorate con intagli e dipinti di stile arabo. In ogni spicchio sono presenti stelle lignee con rappresentazioni di animali, danzatori e scene di vita della corte islamica.
Danneggiata dal terremoto del settembre 2002 fu sottoposta a restauri, conclusi nel luglio 2008. Il progetto dei restauri redatto dall'architetto Guido Meli dirigente del centro regionale per il restauro della Regione Siciliana venne finanziato dal mecenate tedesco Reinold Wurth per oltre tre milioni di euro.
Le decorazioni dei mosaici rappresentano scene di carattere aulico e venatorio con grande dedizione nell'esecuzione degli animali tra cui, oltre i mitilogici centauri appaiono leopardi, pavoni, cervi, cigni sullo sfondo di una vegetazione di alberi e palme. Le rappresentazioni dai canoni sontuosi ma con accenti di rigidità, delineano la chiarissima matrice greco-bizantina dell'opera. La volta della sala risale invece al periodo successivo di Federico II, come testimoniato dalla rappresentazione dell'aquila sveva.
La Cappella Palatina si trova nel sontuoso Palazzo dei Normanni, che oggi ospita il parlamento siciliano.
La Cappella è sicuramente il luogo più celebre della città di Palermo. I lavori di costruzione iniziarono nel 1130, anno in cui fu Ruggero II fu incoronato re di Sicilia, e terminarono nel 1143.
La Cappella è importante perché rappresenta la sintesi culturale e politica operata dai Normanni. Infatti, essa fonde in modo mirabile le espressioni architettoniche più rilevanti per la Sicilia: l'europea, la siciliana, la bizantina, l'araba. La Cappella si presenta sotto forma di basilica a tre navate sorrette da colonne di granito con capitelli corinzi riccamente decorati. L'elegante mosaico bizantino presente al suo interno, che si ritroverà nella chiesa della Martorana e nel Duomo di Monreale, è stato definito come uno dei più belli e meglio conservati di tutta Italia. È ormai certo che i mosaici sono stati eseguiti in due momenti successivi: si ritiene che i più antichi risalgano agli anni intorno al 1240, mentre quelli della navata centrale dovrebbero risalire agli anni 1260-1270.
I mosaici della navata centrale riportano scene dell’antico testamento; quelli del presbiterio ricordano episodi della vita di Cristo, e quelli delle navate laterali episodi della vita di San Pietro e San Paolo. Splendidi sono i mosaici più antichi, nella cupola che sovrasta il coro: rappresentano il Cristo Pantocratore (onnipotente), circondato da angeli ed arcangeli, e i quattro Evangelisti che paiono assorti in meditazione
Even without attending Open House this year, I took a lot of shots during September. THis these are the shots from the sixth out of seven churches I visited on the Saturday of the Heritage Weekend, with Elham to follow in due course. But on top of these there are then the shots from the day I spent on the Marsh with John Vigar, seven more that day, and then the six Suffolk, one Essex and one Norfolk church from my road trip to Fakenham a couple of weeks back.
In short, there will be many more pictures of churches for at least a few weeks, maybe a couple of months.
Just to you know.
By now the Saturday of the heriage weekend was getting on, I left Alkham at about two, and drove along to Folkestone, up the M20 and then up the Elham Valley beyond Lyminge where the first signpost pointed across the valley and up the valley side.
This was the third time I had tried to get into St Martin, and depsite having been there before, I struggled to find it again.
The road turned then would along the top of the valley, with turn offs heading back down the valley having no signs. I thought I had gone through the village, when I did come to the welcome to Acrise sign.
Half a mile on was the crossroads, and so I knew down the gravel track to the right was the way to the church. I parked up, got the camera gear and followed a couple who were walking their dog down to the church. Sun streamed through the mature trees on either side, creating a green tunnel with the church at the end.
The church was much older than I remembered, I walked round to the porch and found the door open. In I went.
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An atmospheric church hidden away in the undergrowth of the `big house`. The large round headed windows are seventeenth century, and are filled with dark nineteenth century glass. The extraordinary chancel arch dates from the thirteenth century, but incorporates earlier deeply cut mouldings, assembled to create a unique and atmospheric piece. The manorial pew, complete with table dated 1758 and tiny eighteenth century schoolchildren's chairs, stands on the south side. The chancel was `very well restored` in the nineteenth century, and it is the character of that period that prevails at the east end.
www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Acrise
t Martin’s Church, Acrise, dating back some 900 years, continues to retain the simplicity and atmosphere of its original early Norman construction. Comprised of a nave and chancel, topped by massive wooden tie beams and king posts, it lies quietly hidden from the road. Approached through an avenue of trees, rooks seemingly act as sentinels, protecting the small church and ancient yard they have chosen as their home.
Acrise owes its name to the abundance of oaks that grew on the high ground in the area – oak rise. There are still many old oak trees to be found within the parish, which even today has only a small population of around two hundred people. Listed in the Domesday Book (1086) as being held by Ansketel of Rots from Bishop Odo of Bayeaux, it comprised one manor, woodland and a church.
St Martin’s was probably built by Ansketel shortly after the Domesday entry and replaced an earlier Saxon church. Whilst much of the work is now hidden by later 14th century alterations, parts of original windows and priest’s door remain testimony to the early Norman origin.
The church was dedicated to the popular St Martin who was born in Hungary in 316AD, serving as a Roman army officer before turning to Christianity. Outside the town gates of Amiens he famously gave half his military cloak to a beggar in whom he saw Christ. Subsequently, in a dream, he saw Christ wearing the garment. Baptised, Martin devoted himself to promoting rural monasticism throughout Western Europe.
Records show that there was a painted image of St Martin within the church. This would have been a reminder to the medieval parishioners that ‘Martinmas’ (11th November) was a key time of the year, being the day for hiring new servants and salting meat for the winter. Some say that you can still see traces of the painting to the side of the chancel arch.
Numerous very striking wall monuments dating back to Elizabeth I illustrate a strong association with the families that lived locally and at the adjacent manor house, Acrise Place. Notably, the Papillons resided there for some two hundred years from 1666 – the year of the great fire of London They were intimately connected with St Martin’s and would have sat in the unusual box shaped ‘Squires pew’, present to this day.
The musicians’ gallery was restored in 1824 and although no record exists of when it was originally constructed, tiny chairs (circa 1805), still in use, remain from when it accommodated the Sunday school. A magnificently carved and painted Royal Coat of Arms (circa 1690), from the reign of William and Mary, hangs in front of the gallery.
Substantially unaltered since the 14th century, St Martin’s has played its part in the history of the last millennium but never more so than in 1214. Then it would probably have been the first church in the land to ring out its bells to mark the end of the Pope’s six long years of Interdict. King John, camped nearby on Barham Downs with an army of soldiers, awaited a French invasion. England had been ex-communicated for John’s refusal to appoint the Pope’s choice as Archbishop of Canterbury, with the consequence that priests were unable to christen, marry nor bury their flock.
The French king, Phillip, saw his opportunity to enter into a crusade and invade these shores. John thwarted the plan by offering the crown of England, in exchange for the lifting of the Interdict, to the Pope’s Legate at Hoad’s Farm, a mile distant from St Martin’s. Church bells rang out across the whole country at the news and undoubtedly, St Martin’s would have been the first to ring a peel.
It is only possible to touch briefly on the history of St Martin’s, with its roots stretching back to the last time England was conquered. It stood its ground in 1944, playing its part when Acrise was home to British, American and Canadian troops preparing for the D Day landings. St Martin’s continues to stand, unbowed, a tribute to the craftsmen that fashioned it all those centuries ago.
So come and walk up the tree-lined avenue, listen as the rooks chatter a welcome and enter through the door as countless generations have done before. Pause, reflect and step back into history.
Anthony van Dyck (1599-1641), active in Antwerp and London
Thetis and Hephaestus, 1630/1632
The sea goddess Thetis persuaded Hephaestus to make a suit of armor for her son Achilles. Once the weapons were ready - the moment of the "fitting" is shown here - Thetis hurried away and Hephaestus was left without the promised reward of love. Van Dyck as so often proves to be a master in the representation of ambivalent feelings: the half-hesitant, half greedy gestures of Hephaestus, the posturing goddess and the eagerly laying hands on blacksmith journeyman tell a failed love story.
Anthonis van Dyck (1599-1641), tätig in Antwerpen und London
Thetis und Hephaistos, 1630/1632
Die Meeresgöttin Thetis überredete Hephaistos, eine Rüstung für ihren Sohn Achill anzufertigen. Sobald die Waffen fertig waren - der Moment der "Anprobe" ist hier dargestellt - eilte Thetis davon und Hephaistos blieb ohne den versprochenen Liebeslohn zurück. Van Dyck erweist sich wie so oft als Meister in der Darstellung zwiespältiger Gefühle: die halb zögerlichen, halb gierigen Gesten des Hephaistos, die posierende Göttin und der eifrig handanlegende Schmiedegeselle erzählen eine missglückte Liebesgeschichte.
Austria Kunsthistorisches Museum
Federal Museum
Logo KHM
Regulatory authority (ies)/organs to the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Culture
Founded 17 October 1891
Headquartered Castle Ring (Burgring), Vienna 1, Austria
Management Sabine Haag
www.khm.at website
Main building of the Kunsthistorisches Museum at Maria-Theresa-Square
The Kunsthistorisches Museum (KHM abbreviated) is an art museum in Vienna. It is one of the largest and most important museums in the world. It was opened in 1891 and 2012 visited of 1.351.940 million people.
The museum
The Kunsthistorisches Museum is with its opposite sister building, the Natural History Museum (Naturhistorisches Museum), the most important historicist large buildings of the Ringstrasse time. Together they stand around the Maria Theresa square, on which also the Maria Theresa monument stands. This course spans the former glacis between today's ring road and 2-line, and is forming a historical landmark that also belongs to World Heritage Site Historic Centre of Vienna.
History
Archduke Leopold Wilhelm in his Gallery
The Museum came from the collections of the Habsburgs, especially from the portrait and armor collections of Ferdinand of Tyrol, the collection of Emperor Rudolf II (most of which, however scattered) and the art collection of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm into existence. Already In 1833 asked Joseph Arneth, curator (and later director) of the Imperial Coins and Antiquities Cabinet, bringing together all the imperial collections in a single building.
Architectural History
The contract to build the museum in the city had been given in 1858 by Emperor Franz Joseph. Subsequently, many designs were submitted for the ring road zone. Plans by August Sicard von Sicardsburg and Eduard van der Null planned to build two museum buildings in the immediate aftermath of the Imperial Palace on the left and right of the Heroes' Square (Heldenplatz). The architect Ludwig Förster planned museum buildings between the Schwarzenberg Square and the City Park, Martin Ritter von Kink favored buildings at the corner Währinger street/Scots ring (Schottenring), Peter Joseph, the area Bellariastraße, Moritz von Loehr the south side of the Opera ring, and Ludwig Zettl the southeast side of the Grain market (Getreidemarkt).
From 1867, a competition was announced for the museums, and thereby set their current position - at the request of the Emperor, the museum should not be too close to the Imperial Palace, but arise beyond the ring road. The architect Carl von Hasenauer participated in this competition and was able the at that time in Zürich operating Gottfried Semper to encourage to work together. The two museum buildings should be built here in the sense of the style of the Italian Renaissance. The plans got the benevolence of the imperial family. In April 1869, there was an audience of Joseph Semper with the Emperor Franz Joseph and an oral contract was concluded, in July 1870 was issued the written order to Semper and Hasenauer.
Crucial for the success of Semper and Hasenauer against the projects of other architects were among others Semper's vision of a large building complex called "Imperial Forum", in which the museums would have been a part of. Not least by the death of Semper in 1879 came the Imperial Forum not as planned for execution, the two museums were built, however.
Construction of the two museums began without ceremony on 27 November 1871 instead. Semper subsequently moved to Vienna. From the beginning on, there were considerable personal differences between him and Hasenauer, who finally in 1877 took over sole construction management. 1874, the scaffolds were placed up to the attic and the first floor completed, in 1878, the first windows installed, in 1879, the Attica and the balustrade finished, and from 1880 to 1881 the dome and the Tabernacle built. The dome is topped with a bronze statue of Pallas Athena by Johannes Benk.
The lighting and air conditioning concept with double glazing of the ceilings made the renunciation of artificial light (especially at that time, as gas light) possible, but this resulted due to seasonal variations depending on daylight to different opening times.
Dome hall
Entrance (by clicking on the link at the end of the side you can see all the pictures here indicated!)
Grand staircase
Hall
Empire
The Kunsthistorisches Museum was on 17 October 1891 officially opened by Emperor Franz Joseph I. Since 22 October 1891, the museum is accessible to the public. Two years earlier, on 3 November 1889, the collection of arms, Arms and Armour today, had their doors open. On 1 January 1890 the library service resumed its operations. The merger and listing of other collections of the Highest Imperial Family from the Upper and Lower Belvedere, the Hofburg Palace and Ambras in Tyrol needs another two years.
1891, the Court museum was organized in seven collections with three directorates:
Directorate of coins, medals and antiquities collection
The Egyptian Collection
The Antique Collection
The coins and medals collection
Management of the collection of weapons, art and industrial objects
Weapons collection
Collection of industrial art objects
Directorate of Art Gallery and Restaurieranstalt (Restoration Office)
Collection of watercolors, drawings, sketches, etc.
Restoration Office
Library
Very soon the room the Court Museum (Hofmuseum) for the imperial collections was offering became too narrow. To provide temporary help, an exhibition of ancient artifacts from Ephesus in the Theseus Temple was designed. However, additional space had to be rented in the Lower Belvedere.
1914, after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne, his "Estensische Sammlung (Collection)" passed to the administration of the Court Museum. This collection, which emerged from the art collection of the house of d'Este and world travel collection of Franz Ferdinand, was placed in the New Imperial Palace since 1908. For these stocks, the present collection of old musical instruments and the Museum of Ethnology emerged.
The First World War went by, apart from the oppressive economic situation without loss. The Court museum remained during the five years of war regularly open to the public.
Until 1919 the K.K. Art Historical Court Museum was under the authority of the Oberstkämmereramt (head chamberlain office) and belonged to the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. The officials and employees were part of the royal household.
First Republic
The transition from monarchy to republic, in the museum took place in complete tranquility. On 19 November 1918 the two imperial museums on Maria Theresa Square were placed under the state protection of the young Republic of German Austria. Threatening to the stocks of the museum were the claims raised in the following weeks and months of the "successor states" of the monarchy as well as Italy and Belgium on Austrian art collection. In fact, it came on 12th February 1919 to the violent removal of 62 paintings by armed Italian units. This "art theft" left a long time trauma among curators and art historians.
It was not until the Treaty of Saint-Germain on 10 September 1919, providing in Article 195 and 196 the settlement of rights in the cultural field by negotiations. The claims of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Italy again could mostly being averted in this way. Only Hungary, which presented the greatest demands by far, was met by more than ten years of negotiation in 147 cases.
On 3 April 1919 was the expropriation of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine by law and the acquisition of its property, including the "Collections of the Imperial House", by the Republic. On 18 June 1920 the then provisional administration of the former imperial museums and collections of Este and the secular and clergy treasury passed to the State Office of Internal Affairs and Education, since 10 November 1920, the Federal Ministry of the Interior and Education. A few days later it was renamed the Art History Court Museum in the "Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna State", 1921 "Kunsthistorisches Museum" . Of 1st January 1921 the employees of the museum staff passed to the state of the Republic.
Through the acquisition of the former imperial collections owned by the state, the museum found itself in a complete new situation. In order to meet the changed circumstances in the museum area, designed Hans Tietze in 1919 the "Vienna Museum program". It provided a close cooperation between the individual museums to focus at different houses on main collections. So dominated exchange, sales and equalizing the acquisition policy in the interwar period. Thus resulting until today still valid collection trends. Also pointing the way was the relocation of the weapons collection from 1934 in its present premises in the New Castle, where since 1916 the collection of ancient musical instruments was placed.
With the change of the imperial collections in the ownership of the Republic the reorganization of the internal organization went hand in hand, too. Thus the museum was divided in 1919 into the
Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection (with the Oriental coins)
Collection of Classical Antiquities
Collection of Ancient Coins
Collection of modern Coins and Medals
Weapons collection
Collection of Sculptures and Crafts with the Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments
Picture gallery
The Museum 1938-1945
Count Philipp Ludwig Wenzel Sinzendorf according to Rigaud. Clarisse 1948 by Baroness de Rothschildt "dedicated" to the memory of Baron Alphonse de Rothschildt; restituted to the Rothschilds in 1999, and in 1999 donated by Bettina Looram Rothschild, the last Austrian heiress.
With the "Anschluss" of Austria to the German Reich all Jewish art collections such as the Rothschilds were forcibly "Aryanised". Collections were either "paid" or simply distributed by the Gestapo at the museums. This resulted in a significant increase in stocks. But the KHM was not the only museum that benefited from the linearization. Systematically looted Jewish property was sold to museums, collections or in pawnshops throughout the German Reich.
After the war, the museum struggled to reimburse the "Aryanised" art to the owners or their heirs. They forced the Rothschild family to leave the most important part of their own collection to the museum and called this "dedications", or "donations". As a reason, was the export law stated, which does not allow owners to bring certain works of art out of the country. Similar methods were used with other former owners. Only on the basis of international diplomatic and media pressure, to a large extent from the United States, the Austrian government decided to make a change in the law (Art Restitution Act of 1998, the so-called Lex Rothschild). The art objects were the Rothschild family refunded only in the 1990s.
The Kunsthistorisches Museum operates on the basis of the federal law on the restitution of art objects from the 4th December 1998 (Federal Law Gazette I, 181 /1998) extensive provenance research. Even before this decree was carried out in-house provenance research at the initiative of the then archive director Herbert Haupt. To this end was submitted in 1998 by him in collaboration with Lydia Grobl a comprehensive presentation of the facts about the changes in the inventory levels of the Kunsthistorisches Museum during the Nazi era and in the years leading up to the State Treaty of 1955, an important basis for further research provenance.
The two historians Susanne Hehenberger and Monika Löscher are since 1st April 2009 as provenance researchers at the Kunsthistorisches Museum on behalf of the Commission for Provenance Research operating and they deal with the investigation period from 1933 to the recent past.
The museum today
Today the museum is as a federal museum, with 1st January 1999 released to the full legal capacity - it was thus the first of the state museums of Austria, implementing the far-reaching self-financing. It is by far the most visited museum in Austria with 1.3 million visitors (2007).
The Kunsthistorisches Museum is under the name Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum with company number 182081t since 11 June 1999 as a research institution under public law of the Federal virtue of the Federal Museums Act, Federal Law Gazette I/115/1998 and the Museum of Procedure of the Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum, 3 January 2001, BGBl II 2/ 2001, in force since 1 January 2001, registered.
In fiscal 2008, the turnover was 37.185 million EUR and total assets amounted to EUR 22.204 million. In 2008 an average of 410 workers were employed.
Management
1919-1923: Gustav Glück as the first chairman of the College of science officials
1924-1933: Hermann Julius Hermann 1924-1925 as the first chairman of the College of the scientific officers in 1925 as first director
1933: Arpad Weixlgärtner first director
1934-1938: Alfred Stix first director
1938-1945: Fritz Dworschak 1938 as acting head, from 1938 as a chief, in 1941 as first director
1945-1949: August von Loehr 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections, in 1949 as general director of the historical collections of the Federation
1945-1949: Alfred Stix 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections, in 1949 as general director of art historical collections of the Federation
1949-1950: Hans Demel as administrative director
1950: Karl Wisoko-Meytsky as general director of art and historical collections of the Federation
1951-1952: Fritz Eichler as administrative director
1953-1954: Ernst H. Buschbeck as administrative director
1955-1966: Vincent Oberhammer 1955-1959 as administrative director, from 1959 as first director
1967: Edward Holzmair as managing director
1968-1972: Erwin Auer first director
1973-1981: Friderike Klauner first director
1982-1990: Hermann Fillitz first director
1990: George Kugler as interim first director
1990-2008: Wilfried Seipel as general director
Since 2009: Sabine Haag as general director
Collections
To the Kunsthistorisches Museum also belon the collections of the New Castle, the Austrian Theatre Museum in Palais Lobkowitz, the Museum of Ethnology and the Wagenburg (wagon fortress) in an outbuilding of Schönbrunn Palace. A branch office is also Ambras in Innsbruck.
Kunsthistorisches Museum (main building)
Picture Gallery
Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection
Collection of Classical Antiquities
Vienna Chamber of Art
Numismatic Collection
Library
New Castle
Ephesus Museum
Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments
Arms and Armour
Archive
Hofburg
The imperial crown in the Treasury
Imperial Treasury of Vienna
Insignia of the Austrian Hereditary Homage
Insignia of imperial Austria
Insignia of the Holy Roman Empire
Burgundian Inheritance and the Order of the Golden Fleece
Habsburg-Lorraine Household Treasure
Ecclesiastical Treasury
Schönbrunn Palace
Imperial Carriage Museum Vienna
Armory in Ambras Castle
Ambras Castle
Collections of Ambras Castle
Major exhibits
Among the most important exhibits of the Art Gallery rank inter alia:
Jan van Eyck: Cardinal Niccolò Albergati, 1438
Martin Schongauer: Holy Family, 1475-80
Albrecht Dürer : Trinity Altar, 1509-16
Portrait Johann Kleeberger, 1526
Parmigianino: Self Portrait in Convex Mirror, 1523/24
Giuseppe Arcimboldo: Summer 1563
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary 1606/ 07
Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary (1606-1607)
Titian: Nymph and Shepherd to 1570-75
Portrait of Jacopo de Strada, 1567/68
Raffaello Santi: Madonna of the Meadow, 1505 /06
Lorenzo Lotto: Portrait of a young man against white curtain, 1508
Peter Paul Rubens: The altar of St. Ildefonso, 1630-32
The Little Fur, about 1638
Jan Vermeer: The Art of Painting, 1665/66
Pieter Bruegel the Elder: Fight between Carnival and Lent, 1559
Kids, 1560
Tower of Babel, 1563
Christ Carrying the Cross, 1564
Gloomy Day (Early Spring), 1565
Return of the Herd (Autumn), 1565
Hunters in the Snow (Winter) 1565
Bauer and bird thief, 1568
Peasant Wedding, 1568/69
Peasant Dance, 1568/69
Paul's conversion (Conversion of St Paul), 1567
Cabinet of Curiosities:
Saliera from Benvenuto Cellini 1539-1543
Egyptian-Oriental Collection:
Mastaba of Ka Ni Nisut
Collection of Classical Antiquities:
Gemma Augustea
Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós
Gallery: Major exhibits
ID: 002589
This picture is (c) Copyright Frank Titze, all rights reserved.
It may NOT be reproduced, copied, edited, published, transmitted or uploaded in any way without my permission.
See more pictures on frank-titze.art.
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Forged without the aid of any modern power tools by David DelaGardelle and Andy Davis, the Sword of Cawood is a historical reproduction of an existing historical sword which was found in the late 19th Century at the River Ouse near Cawood Castle. The Castle was an ancient Lord's stronghold in North Yorkshire.
Throughout history much has been unknown about the original sword and its owner. It is extremely unique in the sense that it is a sword on the cusp of two eras. On the one hand it follows the traditional Viking age sword style with its lobed shaped pommel and short stout grip. But on the other hand it has a distinctly medieval crossbar with its wide curved shape. The original sword also carries inscriptions that run down the blades fuller and is made up of a number of capital letters which do not form any known words. On one side they are in Roman script and on the other they are in Lombardic script. It is believed that these letters stood for words which in turn represented a phrase or saying that possibly held great spiritual power of sorts to the swords owner. Many historians speculate that each letter in combination may refer to a verse out of the book of Psalms or some other verse out of the Old Testament of Scripture.
Because so much is still unknown about the original sword it holds a great mythic and legendary quality among the people of its homeland in Yorkshire and far beyond to this day.
This reproduction of the Cawood sword crafted by us at the Mad Dwarf Workshop was a project undertaken with the serious aim of producing it as authentically and traditionally as possible. While we by no means were able to use the exact historical tools the ancient smiths would have used on the original, we still aimed to craft it as authentically as possible, avoiding modern tools at any cost.
The exact measurements and specifications that we used to make sure this sword was as accurate as possible were kindly provided by New Zealand swordsmith Peter Lyons, who has handled the original sword and documented its specs.
Stats:
OAL: 37"
Blade Length: 32"
Point of Balance: 7 1/2" from guard
Wood type: figured antique & reclaimed walnut.
Guard and Pommel: 200+ year old wrought iron from an anchor chain out of England.
Steel type: 200+ year old wagon spring steel, 150+ year old steel from an antique English saw blade, and high carbon 1085.
(all steels were tested by hardening and tempering to see if they met standards for a sword blade prior to use)
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Copyright © 2014 Ruggero Poggianella
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La Ford Mustang è un'autovettura sportiva statunitense prodotta dalla Ford Motor Company dal 1964. Si tratta di uno dei prodotti più venduti dell'industria automobilistica mondiale, imitata da molti costruttori e tuttora in produzione. La sua struttura originaria derivava dalla Ford Falcon. Fortemente voluta dal manager della società dell'epoca Lee Iacocca, poteva essere considerata una piccola muscle car equipaggiata di un motore da 2,8 L di cilindrata, erogante una potenza di 105 CV (78 kW). La presentazione della Mustang coincise perfettamente con la prima ondata della generazione dei cosiddetti Baby Boomers, cioè di quei giovani nati subito dopo la fine della seconda guerra mondiale. Questi giovani si affacciavano sul mondo del lavoro in un contesto di un'economia forte. A questa generazione nessun costruttore di automobili aveva pensato e pertanto non esistevano modelli di auto indirizzati specificatamente a loro.
Fu Iacocca ad identificare questo settore del mercato e a proporre loro una vettura giovane e sofisticata.
La Ford però in quel periodo risentiva di una situazione economica difficile dovuta agli scarsi risultati, e seguente dismissione, della Edsel avvenuto alla fine del 1959. Quando Iacocca propose la sua nuova vettura si trovò di fronte una direzione, con al vertice Robert McNamara, poco propensa ad imbarcarsi in una nuova rischiosa avventura. Iacocca però perseverò ed ottenne il via libera per la produzione alla metà del 1962. Gli vennero concessi 18 mesi per progettare e realizzare la vettura che sarebbe divenuta la Mustang. Alla fine il progetto venne portato a termine in un tempo inferiore e utilizzando un budget minore di quanto preventivato. La chiave di volta di questo successo fu data dalla decisione di utilizzare il maggior numero possibile di componenti meccaniche già prodotte dalla Ford. Per quanto riguardava il design della vettura ci si basò sul manuale interno spingendo al massimo la tecnologia produttiva dell'epoca.
Fu utilizzata anche, all'epoca, la nuova tecnologia che permetteva di ottenere superfici vetrate curve con assenza di distorsioni. Come detto la piattaforma di partenza era quella della Falcon. Il telaio però venne completamente rivisto per adeguarlo alle caratteristiche della nuova vettura. Fu aggiunto anche un innovativo sistema strutturale, detto Torque Box, che permetteva di incrementare la rigidità, la solidità e la maneggevolezza della vettura, rispetto a quelle dell'epoca, facilitandone nello stesso tempo la produzione. In pratica questa componente diventava un singolo pezzo da realizzare. Anche il lancio pubblicitario della Mustang fu un grande successo. La vettura venne presentata al New York Fair il 17 aprile del 1964. Due giorni dopo, 19 aprile, venne presentata in contemporanea sulle tre televisioni americane. La risposta del pubblico fu enorme ed immediata e si verificò un quasi terremoto in tutte le concessionarie Ford del paese. L'idea iniziale che portò alla realizzazione della Mustang si deve a Donald N. Frey e a Lee Iacocca, allora general manager della Ford. Il primissimo concept della vettura, denominata Ford Mustang I, fu realizzato in appena 100 giorni e debuttò il 7 ottobre 1962, durante il GP degli Stati Uniti a Watkins Glen (New York). Profondamente diverso dal modello che nacque in seguito, era una spyder a due posti con motore centrale, lunga appena 3.919 millimetri e larga 1.549 mm. Infatti, nelle prime intenzioni di Iacocca, l'auto doveva fare concorrenza alla Chevrolet Corvair Monza. Il motore utilizzato fu il 1498cc V4 della Ford Taunus, in versione da 109cv. Per "saggiare" la risposta dei potenziali acquirenti, i vertici Ford promossero dei tour dimostrativi nei college, ricercando una clientela giovane; tuttavia, la risposta del pubblico fu poco entusiasta, così l'auto rimase allo stadio di concept car, e il progetto dovette ricominciare da capo, arrivando poi all'auto che si conosce oggi. Il design dell'auto venne affidato a David Ash e a Joseph Oros, dello studio di design della Lincoln – Mercury, marchi di proprietà della Ford, che risultarono vincitori di una gara interna voluta da Iacocca. La versione base doveva essere costituita da una vettura hardtop sulla quale sarebbe stato montato un motore a sei cilindri in linea. La cilindrata di questa unità motrice era di 2,8 L mentre la potenza sviluppata raggiungeva i 105 hp (78 kW). La trasmissione doveva essere affidata ad un cambio manuale a tre marce. Il prezzo di vendita della prima Mustang doveva essere di 2.368 dollari USA dell'epoca ma alla fine quest'ultimo crebbe di alcune centinaia di dollari. Il design della Mustang ricevette molti riconoscimenti e premi. Il suo muso lungo, che ricordava la Lincoln Continental, il suo abitacolo corto e un tocco di stile internazionale che faceva pensare alle Ferrari le valsero nel 1964 il prestigioso premio quale Motor Trend Car of the Year e, prima vettura a riceverlo, il premio “Eccellenza” nel design proposto dalla Tiffany. Nello stesso anno la Mustang fu anche la pace-car alla 500 miglia di Indianapolis. Nonostante il suo progetto fosse indirizzato a farla identificare come vettura sportiva nella realizzazione della Mustang si era ampiamente fatto ricorso a componenti di altre vetture della Ford. Così sospensioni e trasmissione provenivano dalla Ford Falcon e dalla media Ford Fairlane. La piattaforma utilizzata era quella della Falcon del 1964 con sezioni laterali scatolate e con cinque elementi di rinforzo saldati. Sebbene la lunghezza della Mustang e della Falcon fosse identica, 4,613 m, l'interasse della Mustang era più corto, 2,743 m. Anche la larghezza differiva di poco, la Mustang era di 86 mm più stretta della Falcon, mentre quasi identica rimase la carreggiata delle due vetture. La Mustang pesava a secco 1.170 kg per la versione che montava il sei cilindri in linea e 1.360 kg nella versione dotata di motore a V8. Come per la Falcon e la Fairlane la Mustang adottava lo schema delle sospensioni indipendenti all'anteriore e lo SLA (Short-Long-Arm), con molle montate sul braccio superiore. Le sospensioni posteriori erano del tipo Hotchkiss con l'assale montato su molle. I freni erano quelli standard della Falcon: a tamburo da 229 mm di diametro per la versione sei cilindri e da 254 mm per la versione dotata di V8. Lo sterzo era caratterizzato da un rapporto di riduzione di 27:1 ed erano necessarie 5 rotazioni complete del volante per raggiungere il massimo angolo di sterzata. Poteva però essere montato, come optional, anche uno sterzo più diretto, con rapporto di 21,7:1, che migliorava le prestazioni in questo campo, anche se a prezzo di un maggiore sforzo fisico da parte del conducente. Molto del fascino della Mustang derivava dalla lista degli optional disponibili che rendeva possibile realizzare quasi una vettura su misura per ogni cliente. Erano disponibili diverse tipologie di trasmissioni: quattro marce manuale e tre marce automatico Cruise-O-Matic. Come motori era possibile montare un sei cilindri in linea da 4,2 L e da 164 Hp (122 kW) oppure un motore da 4,7 L da 210 hp (157 kW). A partire dal giugno del 1964 divenne disponibile la versione K-Code da 271 hp (202 kW) del motore. Quest'ultimo faceva parte di un kit nel quale erano comprese molle delle sospensioni più dure, ammortizzatori più rigidi, barre anti-rollio anteriori, ruote più larghe e sterzo manuale. Questo kit ad alte prestazioni era l'optional più costoso della gamma Mustang e nel 1965 ne furono montati solo 7.273 su un totale di 680.992 Mustang vendute. Altri optional erano costituiti dal differenziale autobloccante, cerchi ruota e relative coperture di disegno più elaborato, freni più potenti, aria condizionata, consolle centrale, tetto in vinile, diversi impianti radio, sedili e diversi altri accessori. Verso la fine del 1965 divennero disponibili, sempre a richiesta, i freni a disco anteriori. Furono poi aggiunti dei pacchetti specificatamente rivolti agli interni, Interior Decor Group o Pony Interior. Naturalmente il prezzo di acquisto della vettura, basso inizialmente, saliva con queste personalizzazioni di diverse centinaia di dollari che rendevano la Mustang una delle vetture con il più alto margine di profitto per i concessionari e per la ditta stessa. Due erano le tipologie di carrozzeria disponibili: decapottabile e hardtop. Fu con il model year 1965, cioè dopo soli cinque mesi dalla presentazione del modello, che vennero introdotti i primi importanti cambiamenti. Per prima cosa venne rivista la gamma dei motori disponibili. Venne tolto il 2,8 L che fu sostituito da un 3,3 L che forniva 120 hp (89 kW) a 4.400 giri al minuto. Con l'introduzione del modello 1965 venne eliminato anche la versione che montava il 4,2 L che fu rimpiazzata da due nuovi modelli dotati del 4,7 L (289inch) V8. La prima, di ingresso alla gamma, con carburatore doppio corpo e 200 hp (149 kW) di potenza. La gamma continuava con un modello dotato di carburatore a quattro corpi che forniva 225 hp (168 kW) per concludersi con il modello ad alte prestazioni, o HiPo, che invece era rimasto invariato. Altra importante variante fu l'introduzione della carrozzeria fastback, cioè due porte più portellone posteriore. Con questo modello ci fu anche il passaggio, avvenuto su tutta la produzione Ford, dai generatori a corrente continua (DC) Dinamo a quelli a corrente alternata (AC) Alternatore e venne introdotto anche il nuovo pacchetto optional GT, o ad alte prestazioni, nel quale erano compresi sia il precedente pacchetto HiPo che altre componenti. Questo kit era disponibile con i motori da 200 e da 225 hp e con tutte le tipologie di carrozzeria, dal cabrio, soft top, hard top e coupé. Il modello 1966 della Mustang vide l'introduzione di modifiche minori negli allestimenti e di alcuni nuovi optional. Questi ultimi erano rappresentati dalla trasmissione automatica anche per le versioni più potenti, nuovi colori per gli interni e per la carrozzeria, un sistema audio Stereosonic ad otto tracce e con ricezione in AM oltre ad una delle prime radio AM/FM disponibili su una vettura. Il modello 1967 fu il primo a subire delle riprogettazioni importanti e che vide l'ingresso nella gamma del motore Big block V8. Il modello che funse da base per l'introduzione di questo motore fu quello dotato del 4.7 L. Su questa vettura venne montato il motore a V da 6,4 L (391inch) che forniva 320 hp (239 kW), già montato sulla Ford Thunderbird. Con il model year 1968 venne introdotto il motore Supercobra da 6,5 L. Venne usata una versione limitata a 335 hp (250 kW) e non quella originale da 410 hp (305 kW). L'anno successivo venne introdotta la muscle car Boss 429, una vettura costruita a mano e creata per ottenere l'omologazione NASCAR. Questa vettura fu disponibile solo nel biennio 1969 – 1970. La carrozzeria era simile alla fastback ed era stata denominata dalla Ford Sport Roof. Gli interni, lussuosi, erano denominati Mach 1. Per i colori la Ford si mantenne su schemi sobri, rispetto a quelli sgargianti dell'epoca. Altre caratteristiche che permettevano di riconoscere questa vettura erano le decalcomanie Boss 429 poste su entrambi i parafanghi anteriori, le ruote Magnum 500 da 15 pollici (380 mm) di diametro con gomme Goodyear Polyglass e la presa d'aria realizzata sul cofano. Per ottenere maggiori benefici nelle competizioni, e con le tariffe assicurative, la potenza del motore era stata limitata a 375 hp (280 kW). Però era possibile ottenere con poche modifiche effettuate direttamente in fabbrica (montaggio della testata in alluminio con camera di combustione emisferica e sostituzione della guarnizione della testata con un mix di O-ring e altre guarnizioni – sostituzione impianto di scarico e rimozione del limitatore all'aspirazione) un incremento di 75/100 hp (56/74 kW). Se la vettura veniva portata a questo livello di prestazioni non erano più disponibili l'aria condizionata e la trasmissione automatica. Nello stesso periodo per ottenere le omologazioni nella Trans-Am fu creata la Boss 302 nella quale la Ford cercò di unire la potenza di una muscle car con la maneggevolezza di una vettura sport. Su questa vettura era montato il 4,8 L V8 del 1968. Su questo motore furono montate le testate del futuro 5,8 L (351inch) che verrà presentato nel 1970 con la denominazione di Cleveland. La potenza erogata dal motore era di 290 hp (216 kW) mentre la trasmissione era del tipo manuale a quattro marce. Originariamente la vettura doveva essere denominata Trans-Am ma la Ford fu battuta dalla Pontiac che applicò la stessa denominazione ad una versione speciale della Firebird. L'aspetto estetico della vettura era stato curato da Larry Shinoda e la vettura venne soprannominata Baby Boss. Nei primi due anni di produzione furono vendute quasi 1.5 milioni di Mustang, stabilendo così il nuovo record delle vendite. Le vetture venivano prodotte negli stabilimenti di San Josè (California), Dearborn e Metuchen (New Jersey). Le altre case automobilistiche si trovavano nella condizione di non poter reagire. La General Motors produceva la Convair Monza, una vettura a motore posteriore che poteva competere con la Mustang ma le cui vendite rimasero sempre molto lontane da quelle realizzate dalla vettura Ford. Fu solo nel 1967, con la presentazione della Chevrolet Camaro e della Pontiac Firebird, che la GM poté contare su dei modelli comparabili alla Mustang. La AMC presentò, nel 1968, la sua Javelin e in seguito la AMX, una due posti capace di elevate prestazioni. La Chrysler aveva presentato qualche settimana prima della Mustang la sua Barracuda che però non ottenne lo stesso successo della sua concorrente, anche se in seguito divenne una delle più potenti Muscle-car disponibili. In Germania la prima serie fu venduta col nome T5, poiché Mustang identificava un veicolo commerciale della Krupp, e venne acquistata prevalentemente dai militari americani stanziati nel paese. Dopo la fusione tra la Lincoln e la Mercury, ambedue marchi del gruppo Ford, un'altra Mustang fece la sua apparizione: la Mercury Cougar. Questa vettura altro non era che un Mustang di fascia alta. Presentata nel 1967 ottenne nello stesso anno il premio quale Motor Trend Car.
Burlington Danes School, in west London, was built 1936-7 to a design by the Modernist practice Burnet, Tait & Lorne. The structure is brick cladding on a reinforced concrete frame.
I arrived to photograph it at about 3.30 in the afternoon. At the gates stood a man in a para-military uniform. "Security" no doubt. When I returned from a reconnaissance of the side of the building he had gone. "Good", I thought. However, within a few minutes two of the teaching staff appeared. My obvious curiosity about the building attracted their attention.
"Can I help you?"
I explained that I had hoped, if there were no objection, that I might take a photograph. Actually I was being nice. The building was fully visible from the street and I was going to take a photo whether they liked it or not. My interlocutor, a nice middle-aged lady, said that she thought it would be alright so long as none of the students were in view. I groaned inwardly ...and noted the unspoken insinuation. I noted too that she had said "students", where I would have preferred to say "schoolchildren" and wondered, not for the first time, to what extent the problem of "paedophilia" (strictly speaking a meaningless and illiterate word ...but let that pass) is the result of the mad and wicked modern insistence that childhood is something to be rushed through as quickly as possible and that children should take on the appurtenances of adulthood at the earliest possible age. A growing trickle of pupils was now emerging from the school's doorway. "It should be all clear in about fifteen minutes", said the nice lady. I had been walking for several hours and was in need of refreshment. Over her shoulder I saw a large pub on the opposite side of the road. "I'll come back later", I said.
Nearly half an hour later, after partaking of some fortified cordial waters, I returned to the school gate. My nice lady had disappeared and there were now three male teachers. Oh well. Might as well brazen it out. I took two paces inside the gate and raised my camera.
"Excuse me".
I repeated my explainer about wanting to take a photograph of the building.
"Have you been given permission?"
"No", I replied, "I could take an almost identical photograph from the pavement, in which case no permission would be necessary, but there is a slightly better view from here".
The three teachers conferred. Once again I was told that I could take a photo as long as no student was in the picture. "We even have to get written permission from the parents to take photographs of the students for school purposes", he added.
To be fair he was perfectly polite and correct. You have to feel a little bit sympathetic towards anyone placed in the position of having to defend a policy which he probably thinks just as idiotic as you do. What nonsense it is! If I had an unwholesome interest in taking photographs of children there would be nothing to stop me from doing it in a public place. I'd have to be a complete fool to turn up at the gates of a school to take them. Of course, patrolling the school gates makes no difference whatsoever. It merely shifts potential problems to another place. It's all about the avoidance of legal liability.
Without Photoshop thanks to the El Capitan Mac OS update so a very quick edit in tonality of a shot from last nights outing shooting strangers in the vibrant Albert Road, Portsmouth.
Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
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La Cattedrale di Palermo, dedicata alla Vergine Maria Santissima Assunta in cielo, è un grandioso complesso architettonico composto in diversi stili, dovuti alle varie fasi di costruzione.
Eretta nel 1185 dall'arcivescovo Gualtiero Offamilio sull'area della prima basilica che i Saraceni avevano trasformato in moschea, ha subito nel corso dei secoli vari rimaneggiamenti; l'ultimo è stato alla fine del Settecento, quando, in occasione del consolidamento strutturale, si rifece radicalmente l'interno su progetto di Ferdinando Fuga.
Nel 1767 infatti, l'arcivescovo Filangieri aveva commissionato a Ferdinando Fuga un restauro conservativo dell'edificio, teso solamente a consolidarne la struttura. I lavori ebbero inizio solo dal 1781, eseguiti non dal Fuga ma dal palermitano Giuseppe Venanzio Marvuglia e durarono fino al XIX secolo inoltrato. I rifacimenti del Marvuglia furono in realtà molto più invasivi e radicali dei progetti dell'architetto fiorentino, che pensava invece di conservare, almeno in parte, il complesso longitudinale delle navate e l'originario soffitto ligneo. Il restauro intervenne a cambiare l'aspetto originario del complesso, dotando la chiesa della caratteristica ma discordante cupola, eseguita secondo i disegni del Fuga. Fu in quest'occasione che si distrusse la preziosa tribuna che Antonello Gagini aveva innalzato all'inizio del XVI secolo e che era ornata di statue, fregi e rilievi. Anche le pittoresche cupolette maiolicate destinate alla copertura delle navate laterali risalgono al rifacimento del 1781.
In questa cattedrale, sintesi di storia e di arte dell'ultimo millennio, oltre ai sovrani normanni, furono anche incoronati Vittorio Amedeo II di Savoia e Carlo III di Borbone, figure importanti della storia siciliana.
La cattedrale è fiancheggiata da quattro torri d'epoca normanna ed è sovrastata da una cupola. A sud è collegata al Palazzo Arcivescovile con due grandi arcate ogivali si cui s'innalza la torre campanaria con l’orologio.
La facciata principale sulla via Bonello presenta decorazioni dovute a maestri lapicidi trecenteschi e quattrocenteschi. L'aspetto goticheggiante deriva dalla presenza delle torri a bifore e colonnine e dalle merlature ad archetti che corrono lungo tutto il fianco destro della costruzione.
Il fianco destro della costruzione, con le caratteristiche torrette avanzate e l'ampio portico in stile gotico-catalano (l'attuale accesso), eretto intorno al 1465, si affaccia sulla piazza. Il portale di questo ingresso è opera di Antonio Gambara, eseguita nel 1426, mentre i battenti lignei sono del Miranda (1432). La Madonna a mosaico è del XIII secolo; i due monumenti alle pareti, opere del primo Settecento, rappresentano Carlo III di Borbone a destra e Vittorio Amedeo II di Savoia a sinistra.
La parte absidale stretta fra le torricelle è quella più originale del XII secolo, mentre la parte più manomessa è il fianco sinistro. La facciata sud-occidentale, che guarda l'arcivescovado, va riferita ai secoli XIV-XV.
L'interno, che ha subito profonde trasformazioni tra la fine del Settecento e i primi dell’Ottocento, è a croce latina con tre navate divise da pilastri (gruppi tetrastili con 4 colonne incastonate provenienti dalla antica costruzione rogeriana) con statue di santi che facevano parte della decorazione della tribuna del Gagini.
Nella navata destra, la prima e la seconda cappella, comunicanti fra di loro, custodiscono le tombe imperiali e reali dei normanni, intorno alle quali ruota una storia romanzesca e ricca d'interesse. Ruggero II, re dal 1130, aveva stabilito già nel 1145 che il Duomo di Cefalù da lui fondato diventasse il mausoleo della famiglia reale. In tal senso aveva predisposto la sistemazione di due sarcofagi in porfido, un granito molto prezioso e di notevole durezza, originario dell'Egitto, dal colore rosso cupo che, nell'antichità, era usato esclusivamente per le commissioni imperiali. Alla sua morte nel 1154, però, egli venne sepolto nella cattedrale di Palermo in un avello di porfido dalla forma molto più semplice. Nel 1215 Federico II fece trasportare i due sarcofagi da Cefalù alla cattedrale di Palermo destinandoli a sé e al padre Enrico VI. Il sarcofago di Federico II è sormontato da un baldacchino con colonne in porfido e l'urna è sorretta da due coppie di leoni; insieme a quelli di Federico II sono stati conservati anche i resti di Pietro II d’Aragona. Le altre tombe sono quelle di Costanza d'Aragona (1183-1222), sorella del re d'Aragona e moglie di Federico II, di Gugliemo, duca d'Atene figlio di Federico III d'Aragona, e dell’imperatrice Costanza d'Altavilla, figlia di Ruggero II e madre di Federico II.
Sul pavimento della navata centrale è stata realizzata, durante i rifacimenti moderni, una meridiana in marmo con tarsie colorate che rappresentano i segni zodiacali, (opera di Giovan Battista Piazzi astronono qui collocata nell'anno 1801). Il ricco altare del Sacramento, in bronzo, lapislazzulo e marmi colorati, è stato realizzata su disegno di Cosimo Fanzago(XVII secolo). Nel presbiterio si dispone il bellissimo coro ligneo tardo-quattrocentesco in stile gotico-catalano e il trono episcopale, ricomposto in parte con frammenti d'antichi mosaici del XII secolo. Durante la fase dei restauri della fine del XVIII secolo, fu incaricato il pittore di Sciacca Mariano Rossi di decorare la Cattedrale. Gli affreschi, secondo il disegno originale, dovevano ricoprire il catino dell'abside, la volta del coro, la cupola e la navata centrale, e dovevamo rappresentare idealmente il ristabilimento della religione cristiana in Sicilia ad opera dei Normanni. Mariano Rossi iniziò nel 1802 e non terminò tutto il lavoro, ma ancora oggi si possono ammirare gli affreschi nel catino dell'abside, dove sono rappresentati Roberto il Guiscardo e il conte Ruggero che restituiscono la chiesa al vescovo Nicodemo e nella volta del coro, dove è dipinta l'Assunzione di Maria Vergine.
A destra del presbiterio si trova la cappella di Santa Rosalia, patrona di Palermo, con le reliquie e l'urna d'argento, opera seicentesca di Matteo Lo Castro, Francesco Ruvolo e Giancola Viviano, portata in processione durante la festa patronale il 15 luglio. I due altorilievi di Valerio Villareale, rappresentano: Santa Rosalia invoca Cristo per la liberazione della peste e l'Ingresso delle gloriose reliquie di Santa Rosalia a Palermo. Oltre al coro ligneo in stile gotico-catalano del 1466 e ai resti marmorei della tribuna gaginiana riadattati, di alto interesse artistico sono la statua marmorea della Madonna con Bambino di Francesco Laurana, eseguita insieme ad altri aiuti nel 1469, la pregiata acquasantiera (posta al quarto pilastro) opera incerta di Domenico Gagini e la Madonna della Scala eseguita nel 1503 da Antonello Gagini e posta sull'altare della sacrestia nuova.
From the autumn 2016 trip to Vietnam:
Upon waking up and checking out around 8:00 in the morning, we found a bright, sunny day; great for a road trip down to Hoi An. After a quick breakfast (also known as me watching Junebug drink coffee), we went back to the store where we’d met Mr. Trung on Monday night.
Mr. Trung & Mr. Trong were there, as they said they would be, and we were off for a quick stop at the Danang Cathedral a few blocks away. This particular cathedral, also called Con Ga Church (Rooster Church) by the locals is slightly peculiar. For starters, it’s a lovely pastel pink. Aside from that, it’s a rather nice looking cathedral, though we couldn’t go inside; it wasn’t open that early in the morning, I suppose. (Some of the windows were open, though, and it was dark inside, so we didn’t miss much.)
The other aspect of this church – that lends to its local name – is the weathercock on top of the steeple. This isn’t an old church (as far as churches go). It was buily for Danang’s French residents in 1923 and today serves a Catholic community of over 4000. (Thanks to LP for this information…)
After 5-10 minutes at the church, we headed off to the Museum of Cham Sculpture, which is a place I was quite interested in seeing. This museum was founded in 1915 and has the largest collection of Cham artefacts in the world. (Before you allow that to excite you, I doubt there are more than a handful of museums in the world that even have Cham art.)
A quick note about the Cham. This is an ancient empire that rivaled the neighboring Khmer empire at Angkor. The Champa empire was nowhere near as large in scope or size as the Khmer empire, though it persevered. The Chams controlled the region on the Vietnamese coast from central to southern Vietnam between the 2nd and the 19th century (before finally being assimilated into Vietnam).
The art from this museum comes from sites all over the country including Phu Quoc and My Son. I was quite impressed by the collection and spent about an hour slowly walking around. It’s not a huge museum, but what they have is excellent.
From the museum, we finally headed off from Danang and made our way south towards Hoi An. Thanks to the advice of Mr. Trung, we stopped at Marble Mountain on the way to Hoi An. (I kept thinking it sounds like an amusement park…) Instead, I’ll give an excerpt from LP Vietnam about the Marble Mountains as it’s fairly succinct and says most of what you need to know:
“Just off the China Beach coastal road, the Marble Mountains (Ngu Hanh Son) consist of five craggy marble outcrops topped with pagodas. Each mountain is named for the natural element it’s said to represent: Thuy Son (Water), Moc Son (Wood), Hoa Son (Fire), Kim Son (Metal or Gold) and Tho Son (Earth). The villages that have sprung up at the base of the mountains specialize in marble sculpture, though they now astutely use marble from China rather than hacking away at the mountains that bring the visitors (and buyers) in.”
When you say you’re going to the Marble Mountains, what you really mean to say is that you’re going to Thuy Son. For about $2-3, you take an elevator up to the top of the mountain. This is the “crowded” mountain in terms of sites and, therefore, people, though it didn’t feel crowded at all – especially by Chinese standards that I’m accustomed to.
The first thing you see upon exiting the elevator at the top of the mountain is a pavilion that affords a nice view of the sea. The Sea Watch Tower & Xa Loi Pagoda are a good introduction to this mountain.
After that, you come to the first temple & cave. The Linh Ung Pagoda is directly in front of the Tang Chon Cave. From there, it’s a short, and not too strenuous, walk upstairs towards the peak. En route, you pass Van Thong Cave (which we skipped), exiting a “gorge” through a masonry gate.
At this point, you come to an area that can go off in quite a few directions. Immediately to the right of the gate is a short walk up to Linh Nham Cave (which we skipped); a relaxation area with another walk off that to the peak (skipped…); a path to Tam Thai Pagoda, Tam Ton Pagoda, and Tu Tom Pagoda (visited all). In addition, the River Watch Tower is off in this direction with its views of the other 4 Marble Mountains and Danang in the distance.
After visiting the pagodas, we returned to the main junction and visited the last two caves (past the relaxation area). Hoa Nghiem Cave guards the entrance to Huyen Khong Cave, which is a somewhat large cavern with a natural oculus.
From there, we walked down to the village at the base, and I bought a little marble Buddha. We talked with Mr. Trong for a few minutes about getting from Hoi An to Hue on Thursday. With very little negotiation, we paid 1.35 million VND/person (~$60). For a point of comparison, the domestic flights in Vietnam all seem to be less than $50, so this was a bit pricy, but also worth it.
With “negotiating” done, we were off again to Hoi An, about 20 kilometers off to the south. The Hoang Trinh Hotel was – by far – the best customer service I’ve had at a hotel on this trip (and possibly anywhere). It felt like we were being welcomed on Fantasy Island. The only thing missing was Tattoo shouting, “De plane! De plane!”
Madam An’s hotel is a wonderful experience. Buffet breakfast; comfortable, trendy rooms; tour arrangements and other advice; and the friendliest demeanor you could wish for. They even gave me a free tie when we checked out. The cost for this? About $25/night.
The Hoang Trinh hotel is right across the street from the Confucian Temple (which was incredibly unappealing to me) and, more importantly, close to the Old Town, which is the reason most people come to Hoi An.
Every full moon, Hoi An has a lantern festival which is supposed to be quite lovely, though we weren’t here during a full moon. That, however, didn’t keep me from enjoying myself. The Old Town is just a section of town near the river where all the buildings appear as they did centuries ago. Inside the buildings now, though, are restaurants (Vietnamese & western), bars, souvenir shops, and the like.
The Old Town is photogenic during day or night, but I liked it best at dusk. On Tuesday, after a quick rest at the hotel, we went to the Old Town in the early afternoon after grabbing some banh mi on the street.
Admission to the Old Town is 120,000 VND (~$5-6 US) and covers a full week. We spent the afternoon watching the sun go by, wandering around shops, and drinking beer (or coffee) on the riverside opposite Old Town. As the sun got lower, we wandered around the Old Town again, eventually eating a less-than-satisfying pizza (thank God I wasn’t too hungry) at one of the restaurants next to the river before passing by the Japanese Bridge on the way back to the hotel.
When we got back to the hotel, we had the fellow at the front desk (whose English wasn’t nearly as fluent as Jean, the day girl, but he was just as helpful) arrange a day trip on Wednesday to My Son, which is “Vietnam’s version of Angkor Wat.” More on that in the next installation.
As always, thanks for dropping by and viewing these pictures. Please feel free to leave any questions or comments and I’ll answer as I have time.
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Portuguese
O Forte de São Mateus do Cabo Frio localiza-se numa ilhota rochosa na extremidade nordeste da atual praia do Forte, na cidade de Cabo Frio, no litoral norte do estado brasileiro do Rio de Janeiro.
No século XX, sem manutenção, o Forte de São Mateus, abandonado, encontrava-se em ruínas ao final da década de 1930. A estrutura abrigou nesse período um farol, demolido em meados do século pelo risco de desabamento que apresentava.
De propriedade da União, o imóvel, o penedo em que se ergue e a ponta da praia num círculo de quinhentos metros de raio a partir do centro do forte encontram-se tombados pelo Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional a partir de 1956, passando a ser administrados pela Prefeitura do Município de Cabo Frio. Nesse mesmo ano sofreu a primeira intervenção de restauro, sob a direção técnica do Professor Adail Bento Costa. Em foto da placa comemorativa dessa restauração pode-se ler:
"Forte de S. Matheus
Construído por Constantino de Menelau em 1616.
Restaurado pela Direção Técnica do Prof. Adail Bento Costa em 1957.
Sob os auspícios do Dr. Miguel Couto Filho Governador do Estado"
Com o aumento do turismo na região a partir da década seguinte, a FLUMITUR - Companhia de Turismo do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (depois TURISRIO) promoveu nova intervenção de restauro (1972), visando a instalação projetada de um museu. Esse projeto foi retomado a partir de 1977, na gestão do Prefeito José Bonifácio Ferreira Novellino, que criou um espaço cultural para exposição de artistas locais no Forte São Mateus, para o que lhe instalou luz e água, reparando o piso do caminho e construindo uma nova ponte de acesso. Entre 1983 e 1992, foram promovidas melhorias no seu entorno pelo governo do Prefeito Ivo Saldanha. Em 1989, com o apoio da Rede de Postos Itaipava foram restaurados os caibros do telhado, portas, janelas, ferrolhos e chaves, num investimento total de NCz$ 36 mil (trinta e seis mil cruzeiros novos), sob a supervisão do Arquiteto Maximiliano Soutelinho da SPHAN. Nesse mesmo ano, procedeu-se o tombamento municipal do imóvel.
No início de 1993, durante a segunda administração do Prefeito José Bonifácio Ferreira Novellino encontrando-se o forte novamente semi-abandonado e bastante deteriorado, foi reafirmado o seu uso cultural. Com a aprovação e supervisão do Patrimônio Histórico, refez-se o telhado, substituíram-se e envernizaram-se as madeiras das portas e janelas, limpou-se, aterrou-se e nivelou-se o terrapleno, caiaram-se paredes, muralhas e guarita; retiraram-se acréscimos externos de cimento modernos, tendo-se melhorado a vigilância e limpeza do entorno.
Atualmente administrado pela Prefeitura Municipal de Cabo Frio, o forte recuperou sua vocação de espaço cultural e turístico, aberto de terça a domingo, das 9 às 19h.
Wikipedia
Copyright © 2009 Ruggero Poggianella. All rights reserved.
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Bom Jesus do Monte es un santuario portugués situado en los alrededores de la ciudad de Braga, en el norte del país. Su nombre significa 'Buen Jesús del Monte'. El Santuario es un ejemplo notable de lugar de peregrinaje. Su característica más prominente son sus escaleras monumentales barrocas, que salvan un desnivel de 116 metros. Es una importante atracción turística de la ciudad de Braga. Numerosas cumbres en Portugal y otras partes de Europa han sido lugares de devoción religiosa desde antiguo, y es posible que la colina del Bom Jesus fuese una de ellas. Sin embargo, el primer indicio de la existencia una capilla sobre la colina data de 1373. Esta capilla —dedicada a la Santa Cruz— fue reconstruida en los siglos XV y XVI. En 1629 se construyó una iglesia de peregrinaje dedicada al Bom Jesus (Buen Jesús), con seis capillas dedicadas a la Pasión de Cristo. El Santuario actual se empezó a construir en 1722, bajo el patrocinio del Arzobispo de Braga, Rodrigo de Moura Telles. Se puede ver su escudo de armas se ve en la puerta, al principio de la escalera. Bajo su dirección se completó la primera fila de escaleras, con capillas dedicadas al Via Crucis. Cada capilla está decorada con esculturas de terracota que describen la Pasión de Cristo. También patrocinó el siguiente segmento de escaleras, que tiene una forma zigzagueante y está dedicado a los Cinco Sentidos. Cada sentido (vista, oído, olfato, gusto y tacto) está representado por una fuente diferente. Al final de esta escalera, se construyó, alrededor de 1725, una iglesia barroca, a cargo del arquitecto Manuel Pinto Vilalobos. Las obras de las primeras capillas, escaleras e iglesia tuvieron lugar a lo largo del siglo XVIII. En una zona detrás de la iglesia (el llamado Terreiro dos Evangelistas), se construyeron, en la década de 1760, tres capillas octogonales con estatuas que describían episodios posteriores a la Crucifixión, como el encuentro de Jesús con María Magdalena. Su diseño exterior se le atribuye al célebre arquitecto bracarense André Soares. Alrededor de estas capillas hay cuatro fuentes barrocas con estatuas de los evangelistas, que datan también de aquella década. Alrededor de 1781, el arzobispo Gaspar de Braganza decidió completar el conjunto añadiendo un tercer tramo de escaleras y una nueva iglesia. La tercera escalera también sigue un patrón zigzagueante y está dedicada a las Tres Virtudes Teologales: Fe, Esperanza y Caridad, cada una con su fuente. La iglesia vieja se demolió y se construyó una nueva siguiendo un estilo neoclásico, a cargo del arquitecto Carlos Amarante. Esta nueva iglesia, comenzada en 1784, tenía decorado su interior a comienzos del siglo XIX y fue consagrada en 1834. El retablo principal está dedicado a la Crucifixión. En el siglo XIX, la zona alrededor de la iglesia y la escalera se expropió para convertirla en un parque. En 1882, para facilitar el acceso al Santuario, se construyó el Elevador do Bom Jesus, que unía la ciudad de Braga con la colina. Fue el primero de su clase que se construyó en la Península Ibérica y aún sigue en uso. El diseño del Santuario del Bom Jesus, con su naturaleza barroca remarcada por la forma zigzagueante de sus escaleras, ha influido muchos otros lugares de Portugal (como Lamego) y el Brasil colonial, como el Santuario de Congonhas. Los peregrinos, al subir las escaleras, encontraban un programa teológico que contrastaba los sentidos del mundo material con las virtudes del espíritu, y al mismo tiempo experimentaban las escenas de la Pasión de Cristo. La culminación de aquel esfuerzo era el templo de Dios, o sea, la iglesia situada en la cima de la colina. La presencia de varias fuentes a lo largo de las escaleras dan idea de la purificación del creyente. La iglesia nueva (construida en 1784-1834 por Carlos Amarante) fue una de las primeras iglesias neoclásicas de Portugal.
Il santuario Bom Jesus do Monte si erge in cima ad una monumentale scalinata barocca a Braga in Portogallo. La scalinata, scolpita nell'austero granito grigio evidenziato dal riverberante biancore dei muri a calce, è l'illustrazione del barocco del nord del paese. Il santuario a cui conduce la scalinata, più austero, venne costruito da Carlos Amarante tra il 1784 e il 1811 in stile neoclassico.
Simbolismo della Via Sacra.
La Via Sacra, che il pellegrino percorreva sulle ginocchia, è formata da un sentiro orlato da cappelle, che corrispondono alle stazioni della via crucis. Prosegue con le scalinate dei cinque sensi e delle Tre Virtù. La Via Sacra rappresenta il percorso spirituale del fedele che deve imparare a dominare i propri sensi ed acquisire le tre virtù cardinali (Fede, Speranza e Carità per guadagnarsi la salvezza.
Elevador do bom Jesus do Monte.
Inaugurata nel 1882, fu la prima funicolare ad essere costruita nella penisola iberica. Si tratta della funicolare più antica del mondo ed utilizza esclusivamente la forza di gravità dell'acqua, grazie a due serbatoi che fungono da contrappeso. Un elegante portico da accesso al sentiero serpeggiante bordato da cappelle che custodiscono ciascuna una scena della Passione illustrata da personaggi di terracotta in grandezza naturale, animati da uno straordinario realismo espressivo. Vicino ad ogni cappella si erge una piccola fontana ornata da motivi mitologici.
Scalinata dei Cinque Sensi.
La scalinata, a doppia rampa, presenta alla base due colonne intorno alle quali è avvolto un serpente; l'acqua fuoriesce dalla bocca del rettile e cola a spirale intorno al suo corpo. Sopra la fontana delle Cinque Piaghe (l'acqua zampilla dai cinque bisanti che appaiono nello stemma del Portogallo, ogni piano di sosta è adorno di fontane allegoriche che illustrano i cinque sensi. A seconda del senso illustrato, l'acqua zampilla dagli occhi (vista), dalle orecchie (udito), dal naso (olfatto) e dalla bocca (gusto). Il tatto è rappresentato da un personaggio che tiene nelle mani un brocca da cui sgorga l'acqua.
Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
Soviet-Russian postcard. Lyudmila Gurchenko and Yuriy Nikulin in the Russian WWII drama Dvadtsat' dney bez voyny/ Twenty Days Without War (Aleksej German, 1977). Postcard issued in 1982.
Lyudmila Markovna Gurchenko (born Gurchenkov) (Russian: Людмила Марковна Гурченко, informal – Lucia, 12 November 1935 – 30 March 2011), was a popular Soviet and Russian actress, singer and entertainer. A celebrity after her film debut Carnival Night, she next her downfall because of bad reputation, but after years of modest roles she had her comeback with Siberiade and Station for Two. She became People's Artist of the USSR in 1983, thanks to the succes of films like these.
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According to Daniel, author of the website, Historic Buildings of Connecticut, this house was built for Julius Deming who was a wealthy merchant and is one of Connecticut's finest examples of the Federal style.
For more information on this house, please visit the link below
historicbuildingsct.com/?p=680
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Ha ha in the past I had this home titled, My Summer Home. It was actually a summer home to the daughter of Julius Deming. What a life!!
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From the Connecticut Guide (1935)
"On the east side of North St. (in Litchfield CT) opposite the Tallmadge house, is the *Julis Deming House (6) known as The Lindens, from the trees planted by his daughter Lucretia in 1838. It is the most pretentious house in Litchfield. In the pediment with its Palladian window and the refinement of architectural detail, we see the genius of Wm. Spratt, whom we shall meet again in the Cowles house in Farmington and Champion house in East Haddam. Deming secured his services through Zenas Cowles, who was a business acquaintance and in turn recommended Spratt to his father-in-law, Col. Henry Champion. (The south pediment and the east end are later additions.) The house, completed in 1793, took two years to build. The tremendous stones in the foundation were gotten out by professional stone-splitters; one of them is 22 by 2 feet, and 14 inches thick. Shingles for the roof were hauled by oxen from Pittsfield, Mass. The owner brought fireplace marbles, glass, etc. from England in his own vessels. Julius Deming was born in North Lyme in 1755, and, after service in the Revolution, moved to Litchfield in 1781, where he became its leading merchant. He owned ships trading with England and the West Indies. New Haven was used as a port, and strings of freight wagons, loaded with molasses and other goods, were a familiar sight on the inland road. With Col. Tallmadge and Oliver Wolcott, Jr., Deming organized the Litchfield China Trading Co. One of their ships, the "Trident." made voyages to China for 14 years. Deming and Tallmadge had branch stores in the neighboring towns."
www.skyweb.net/~channy/CTGuideLitch.html
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The neighborhood of this home has a rich and fabulous history. Within walking distance from this home is: The first law school in the U.S., The Tapping Reeve House and Law school, The famous Miss Pierce School (for Young Ladies), the birthplace home of the American novelist, Harriet Beecher Stowe to name but a few of the historical treasures of this area.
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this page without written permission and consent.
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La quinta edizione del festival organizzato da Wired Italia. Due lunghi fine settimana in cui vivere l’innovazione nell’economia, nella scienza, nella politica, nell’intrattenimento, nella cultura. Milano e Firenze si trasformano per un fine settimana nel luna park della scienza e della tecnologia. Oltre 150 relatori, performance artistiche, laboratori di stampa 3D, droni in volo, videogame, film, documentari, speed date sul lavoro, maratone di coding e workshop per tutte le età. A Milano da venerdì 26 a domenica 28 maggio ai Giardini Indro Montanelli.
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ore 12:00
Quando la tecnologia diventa un linguaggio
Speaker
Federico Ferri - Direttore Responsabile Sky Sport
Federico Ferri è da fine 2016 Direttore Responsabile di Sky Sport. Torinese, 39 anni, Federico Ferri è stato autore di alcuni dei più importanti prodotti della rete, da Sky Sport Tech, che porta la sua firma, al rinnovato storytelling di programmi di punta come Sky Calcio Live, Sky Calcio Club e Sky Calcio Show, fino ad alcuni format di successo molto apprezzati dal nostro pubblico e dalla critica sportiva, come “Buffa Racconta” e “Mister Condò”.
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ore 12:30
Sempre in prima linea
Speaker
Nadya Tolokonnikova - Fondatrice Pussy Riot
Nadežda Andreevna Tolokonnikova, anche nota come “Nadya Tolokno” è una artista e attivista politica russa. È tra le fondatrici del collettivo Pussy Riot, uno dei più importanti gruppi artisti degli ultimi anni che ha focalizzato la propria attività sulla violazione dei diritti umani in Russia e altrove. Nell’agosto 2012 è stata condannata a due anni di carcere in seguito alla performance anti Putin alla cattedrale di Cristo il Salvatore a Mosca. La protesta ha attirato l’attenzione e il supporto internazionale e l’adesione di personaggi quali Peter Gabriel, Sir Paul McCartney, Madonna, Bjork and Aung San Suu Kyi.
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ore 13:00
Sempre più in alto
Speaker
Gianmarco Tamberi - Atleta
Gianmarco Tamberi (Civitanova Marche, 1º giugno 1992) è un atleta italiano specializzato nel salto in alto, disciplina di cui è campione mondiale indoor a Portland 2016 e campione europeo ad Amsterdam 2016, nonché detentore del record italiano sia outdoor che indoor. In carriera vanta anche una medaglia di bronzo agli Europei juniores di Tallinn 2011.
È figlio dell’ex saltatore in alto e primatista italiano Marco Tamberi, suo attuale allenatore, e fratello di Gianluca, primatista italiano juniores del lancio del giavellotto, modello e attore.
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ore 13:30
10 cose da fare per fare prevenzione - In collaborazione con Airc
Speaker
Geppi Cucciari - Artista e Testimonial Airc
Ugo Pastorino -Dottore e Direttore Scientifico Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori
Geppi Cucciari (Cagliari, 18 agosto 1973) è un’attrice e comica italiana, nota sul piccolo schermo per la sua comicità e le capacità di recitazione.
Il dottor Ugo Pastorino nasce ad Albenga (SV) il 15 luglio 1954. Nel 1979 consegue la Laurea in Medicina e Chirurgia presso l’Università Statale di Milano (110/lode). Dall’ottobre 2014 è Direttore Scientifico della Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori.
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ore 14:30
Insta-star
Speaker
Beatrice Vendramin - Attrice
Attrice, cantante e modella sin da bambina Beatrice Vendramin è un vero e proprio punto di riferimento per la generazione Zeta. É una delle protagoniste di Alex&Co, la situation comedy di Disney dal successo strepitoso dove interpreta il ruolo di Emma. Nel 2016 debutta sul grande schermo a fianco di Giovanna Mezzogiorno e Margherita Buy in “Come Diventare grandi, nonostante i genitori” per la regia di Luca Lucini dove è un’adolescente alle prese con tutte le sfide che la sua giovane età porta con sè.
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ore 15:00
Mediocrazia
Speaker
Alain Deneault - Docente e scrittore
Alain Deneault è un docente e filosofo canadese. Ha scritto saggi sulle politiche governative, sui paradisi fiscali e sulla crisi del pensiero critico. Insegna Scienze Politiche presso l’Università di Montréal e collabora con la rivista Liberté.
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ore 15:30
EPCC@WNF
Speaker
Alessandro Cattelan - Conduttore Radio e Tv
Alessandro Cattelan (Tortona, 11 maggio 1980) è un conduttore televisivo, conduttore radiofonico, scrittore e attore e comico italiano. Presentatore di punta di Sky Italia, tra i suoi programmi di maggior successo vi sono X Factor ed E poi c’è Cattelan.
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ore 16:30
Lo chiamavano cinema italiano
Speaker
Gabriele Mainetti - Attore e Regista
Nato a Roma nel 1976, è attore, regista e produttore cinematografico. Inizia come attore per cinema e fiction, è al contempo un compositore musicale e ha scritto le musiche per molti dei suoi lavori. Come regista inizia con il cortometraggio Basette. Nel 2011 fonda la Goon Films, che raggiunge il successo con Tiger Boy. Vince numerosi premi. Nel 2015 la sua casa di produzione realizza il suo primo cortometraggio: Lo chiamavano Jeeg Robot che, con un budget basso, ottiene grandi incassi e vince 7 statuette al David di Donatello, tra cui quella di miglior regista.
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ore 17:30
Lo strano caso dei TheGiornalisti
Speaker
Tommaso Paradiso - Cantante Thegiornalisti
Tommaso Paradiso è autore e cantante della band Thegiornalisti, ha scritto numerosi testi per artisti italiani. Nato 33 anni fa a Roma, ha iniziato a suonare con alcune band della capitale. Nel 2009 nasce Thegiornalisti. Dopo il debutto nel 2011 col primo album, Vol. 1, seguito dal secondo disco Vecchio, il gruppo ha raggiunto la notorietà grazie all’album Fuoricampo, pubblicato nel 2014. In particolar modo, si sono fatti conoscere nel 2015 con il singolo Fine dell’estate.
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ore 18:15
La critica del giornalismo
Speaker
Ilaria D’Amico - Conduttrice Tv e Giornalista
Ilaria D’Amico è una conduttrice televisiva, giornalista sportiva italiana. Dal 2003 lavora in Sky. Ha frequentato giurisprudenza all’Università La Sapienza di Roma senza conseguire la laurea. La D’Amico raccontò in tv nel 2006 a Fabio Fazio che esordì, grazie all’amico di famiglia Renzo Arbore, in televisione nel 1997 con La giostra dei goal su Rai International, programma che ha condotto per sei edizioni.
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ore 18:45
Tecnologici per caso
Speaker
Federico Russo - Conduttore radio e tv e Musicista
Francesco Mandelli - Attore, Comico e Musicista
Federico Russo nasce a Firenze il 22 dicembre 1980.
Negli anni del liceo, dopo aver abbandonato la “promettente” carriera calcistica, fonda con il suo compagno di banco gli “Scrabbles”, gruppo del quale è cantante, con cui si esibisce in giro per la Toscana sognando Smashing Pumpkins, Rolling Stones, Modern Lovers, Led Zeppelin e tutto ciò che c’è di irraggiungibile!
Francesco Mandelli (Erba, 3 aprile 1979) è un attore, presentatore, autore e musicista, noto per aver esordito nel 1998 nei panni del Nongiovane. Su MTV ha scritto e partecipato a programmi di successo quali Tokusho, Videoclash, BlackBox e Lazarus. Il grande successo è stato raggiunto, assieme al socio Biggio, con I soliti idioti, giunto alla quarta serie e trasformato successivamente in film e in un libro.
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I had a dream – last night – I saw your face – all dark and golden – elusive, fleeting – reminiscent of an imperishable longing – enclosed in my speechlessness.
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Behold me, in my chiffon, gauze, and tinsel,
Flitting out of the shadow into the spotlight,
And into the shadow again, without a whisper! –
Firefly's my name, I am evanescent.
Firefly's your name. You are evanescent.
But I follow you as remorselessly as darkness,
And shut you in and enclose you, at last, and always,
Till you are lost, – as a voice is lost in silence.
Till I am lost, as a voice is lost in silence...
Are you the one who would close so cool about me?
My fire sheds into and through you and beyond you:
How can your fingers hold me? I am elusive.
How can my fingers hold you? You are elusive?
Yes, you are flame, but I surround and love you,
Always extend beyond you, cool, eternal,
To take you into my heart's great void of silence.
You shut me into your heart's great void of silence. . .
O sweet and soothing end for a life of whirling!
Now I am still, whose life was mazed with motion.
Now I sink into you, for love of sleep.
~ Conrad Aiken ~
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City of London Bus Route #205 Bishopsgate St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate Church. 2019 White Ford Transit Custom 340 Trend Auto Diesel 1995 cc Police Van LJ19EGX
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he London Eye is a giant Ferris wheel situated on the banks of the River Thames in London, England. The entire structure is 135 metres (443 ft) tall and the wheel has a diameter of 120 metres (394 ft). It is the tallest Ferris wheel in Europe, and the most popular paid tourist attraction in the United Kingdom, visited by over 3.5 million people annually. When erected in 1999 it was the tallest Ferris wheel in the world, until surpassed first by the 160 m (520 ft) Star of Nanchang in 2006 and then the 165 m (541 ft) Singapore Flyer in 2008. Supported by an A-frame on one side only, unlike the taller Nanchang and Singapore wheels, the Eye is described by its operators as "the world's tallest cantilevered observation wheel". It provides the highest public viewing point, and is the 20th tallest structure, in London. The London Eye, or Millennium Wheel, was officially called the British Airways London Eye and then the Merlin Entertainments London Eye. Since 20 January 2011, its official name is the EDF Energy London Eye following a three-year sponsorship deal.
The London Eye adjoins the western end of Jubilee Gardens, on the South Bank of the River Thames between Westminster Bridge and Hungerford Bridge, in the London Borough of Lambeth. The site is adjacent to that of the former Dome of Discovery, which was built for the Festival of Britain in 1951.
The London Eye was designed by architects Frank Anatole, Nic Bailey, Steve Chilton, Malcolm Cook, Mark Sparrowhawk, and the husband-and-wife team of Julia Barfield and David Marks. Mace were responsible for construction management, with Hollandia as the main steelwork contractor and Tilbury Douglas as the civil contractor. Consulting engineers Tony Gee & Partners designed the foundation works while Beckett Rankine designed the marine works. Nathaniel Lichfield and Partners assisted The Tussauds Group in obtaining planning and listed building consent to alter the wall on the South Bank of the Thames. They also examined and reported on the implications of a Section 106 agreement attached to the original contract. Later, they also prepared planning and listed building consent applications for the permanent retention of the attraction, which involved the co-ordination of an Environmental Statement and the production of a planning supporting statement detailing the reasons for its retention.
The rim of the Eye is supported by tensioned steel cables and resembles a huge spoked bicycle wheel. The lighting was redone with LED lighting from Color Kinetics in December 2006 to allow digital control of the lights as opposed to the manual replacement of gels over fluorescent tubes. The wheel was constructed in sections which were floated up the Thames on barges and assembled lying flat on piled platforms in the river. Once the wheel was complete it was lifted into an upright position by a strand jack system made by Enerpac. It was first raised at 2 degrees per hour until it reached 65 degrees, then left in that position for a week while engineers prepared for the second phase of the lift. The project was European with major components coming from six countries: the steel was supplied from the UK and fabricated in The Netherlands by the Dutch company Hollandia, the cables came from Italy, the bearings came from Germany (FAG/Schaeffler Group), the spindle and hub were cast in the Czech Republic, the capsules were made by Poma in France (and the glass for these came from Italy), and the electrical components from the UK. The wheel's 32 sealed and air-conditioned ovoidal passenger capsules, designed and supplied by Leitner-Poma, are attached to the external circumference of the wheel and rotated by electric motors. Each of the 10-tonne (11-short-ton) capsules represents one of the London Boroughs, and holds up to 25 people, who are free to walk around inside the capsule, though seating is provided. The wheel rotates at 26 cm (10 in) per second (about 0.9 km/h or 0.6 mph) so that one revolution takes about 30 minutes. It does not usually stop to take on passengers; the rotation rate is slow enough to allow passengers to walk on and off the moving capsules at ground level. It is, however, stopped to allow disabled or elderly passengers time to embark and disembark safely.
La The Merlin Entertainments London Eye meglio nota solamente come London eye "Occhio di Londra", o anche con il nome di Millenium wheel “Ruota del Millennio” è una ruota panoramica costruita nel 1999 ed aperta al pubblico nel Marzo del 2000. Con i suoi 135 metri, era la più alta del mondo fino alla costruzione di The Star of Nanchang, aperto nel maggio del 2006 e successivamente del Singapore Flyer, 25 metri più alto del London Eye. Il London Eye è diventato l’attrazione a pagamento più popolare nel Regno Unito, con 3.5 milioni di visitatori all’anno. Il London Eye si innalza per 135 metri all’estremità ovest dei Jubilee Gardens, sulla riva sud del Tamigi tra il Ponte di Westminster e lo Hungerford Bridge.
l cerchio dell’Eye viene sostenuto da barre di collegamento che lo fanno sembrare una grande ruota di bicicletta: venne infatti rappresentato così in un poster pubblicitario di una gara di biciclette di beneficenza. L’illuminazione venne rifatta con LED nel Dicembre del 2009 dalla Color Kinetics, per permettere il controllo digitale delle luci al posto della sostituzione manuale del gel sui tubi fluorescenti. La ruota venne realizzata in pezzi che vennero poi trasportati lungo il Tamigi su chiatte e piattaforme galleggianti. Una volta completata, la ruota venne issata con delle gru che la sollevavano di 2° l’ora, fino a raggiungere i 65°. Venne lasciata in quella posizione per una settimana, mentre gli ingegneri preparavano la seconda fase del sollevamento. Il peso totale di acciaio dell’Eye è di 1.700 tonnellate. Essa consta di 32 navicelle, ciascuna di 25 persone di capienza. La costruzione venne effettuata in Olanda dalla società Hollandia. L’inaugurazione venne tenuta dal Primo Ministro Tony Blair alle ore 20:00 GMT del 31 dicembre 1999, sebbene non venne aperta al pubblico fino a Marzo 2000 a causa di alcuni problemi tecnici. L’Eye viene fatto funzionare dalla Merlin Entertainments ed è sponsorizzato dalla British Airways; già dall’apertura ha rappresentato un punto di riferimento ed un’attrazione turistica. Fino a luglio 2002 circa 8,5 milioni di persone erano montati sull’Eye. Inizialmente l’autorizzazione era prevista per 5 anni, ma all’epoca il Lambeth Council concordò di rendere l’attrazione permanente.
Il 28 agosto 2003 David Blaine fece un giro completo di 30 minuti in piedi sopra una navicella per le prove come stuntman di 'Above the Below'. Dal 1º gennaio 2005 l’Eye è stato il punto principale dei festeggiamenti di capodanno londinesi, con 10 minuti di fuochi artificiali, alcuni sparati proprio dalla ruota. Dopo l’acquisto del Gruppo Tussauds nel 2007, la Merlin Entertainments possiede il 100% dell’Eye, oltre ad aver provveduto ai prestiti per la costruzione originaria, mentre la British Airways è associata al marchio. In precedenza il Gruppo Tussauds, la British Airways e la famiglia di Marks Barfield (gli architetti principali) possedevano un terzo dell’Eye ciascuno. Nel 2006 venne stabilito che il pass annuale Merlin di £95 poteva essere utilizzato anche sul London Eye. In agosto 2007 il London Eye venne temporaneamente ribattezzato The McCartney Eye, in concomitanza con l’uscita del DVD intitolato "The McCartney Years".
PGB Photographer & Creative - © Philip Romeyn - Phillostar Gone Ballistic 2021 - Photo may not be edited from its original form. Commercial use is prohibited without contacting me.
Forged without the aid of any modern power tools by David DelaGardelle and Andy Davis, the Sword of Cawood is a historical reproduction of an existing historical sword which was found in the late 19th Century at the River Ouse near Cawood Castle. The Castle was an ancient Lord's stronghold in North Yorkshire.
Throughout history much has been unknown about the original sword and its owner. It is extremely unique in the sense that it is a sword on the cusp of two eras. On the one hand it follows the traditional Viking age sword style with its lobed shaped pommel and short stout grip. But on the other hand it has a distinctly medieval crossbar with its wide curved shape. The original sword also carries inscriptions that run down the blades fuller and is made up of a number of capital letters which do not form any known words. On one side they are in Roman script and on the other they are in Lombardic script. It is believed that these letters stood for words which in turn represented a phrase or saying that possibly held great spiritual power of sorts to the swords owner. Many historians speculate that each letter in combination may refer to a verse out of the book of Psalms or some other verse out of the Old Testament of Scripture.
Because so much is still unknown about the original sword it holds a great mythic and legendary quality among the people of its homeland in Yorkshire and far beyond to this day.
This reproduction of the Cawood sword crafted by us at the Mad Dwarf Workshop was a project undertaken with the serious aim of producing it as authentically and traditionally as possible. While we by no means were able to use the exact historical tools the ancient smiths would have used on the original, we still aimed to craft it as authentically as possible, avoiding modern tools at any cost.
The exact measurements and specifications that we used to make sure this sword was as accurate as possible were kindly provided by New Zealand swordsmith Peter Lyons, who has handled the original sword and documented its specs.
Stats:
OAL: 37"
Blade Length: 32"
Point of Balance: 7 1/2" from guard
Wood type: figured antique & reclaimed walnut.
Guard and Pommel: 200+ year old wrought iron from an anchor chain out of England.
Steel type: 200+ year old wagon spring steel, 150+ year old steel from an antique English saw blade, and high carbon 1085.
(all steels were tested by hardening and tempering to see if they met standards for a sword blade prior to use)
To see more please visit our website at:
Poland after tragic death of its President Lech Kaczynski, who died in a plane crash in Smolensk, Russia, on 10th April 2010.
© Mieszko Stanislawski / Babel Images
no Mary Roses were harmed during the making of this photoshoot!
she laughs!!!!
____
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Please don't use any of my pictures without my written permission.
© Copyright 2010 Barbara Geraci & AlterErgo Studio
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Feeling so empty without you beside me
What could have happened for you to just leave me
I don’t know if I can make it, I’m sorry
I’m trying hard to move on, on my own
...Can’t believe you’ve gone away
I can’t make it one more day all by myself
What am I suppose to do
I can’t get over you
This pain is break~ ing me down...
...All I want, all I need is you here...
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già à,
anh thấy anh ướt nhẹp chưa
sao còn ham hố ==
em biết là anh thật vọng
미안해 :(
em cũng thật vọng khi mới bước vào
thật ra là rất shock
cảm ơn anh vì đã cố gắng cười và hát bằng trái tim mình
thật sự cảm ơn anh
cố giữ gìn sức khỏe nhé anh già
sắp bận rộn promo vol.5 rồi đấy
hẹn 1 lần nữa gặp lại
1 ngày k xa nào đó :)
이특 오빠,
파이팅!!!!!
사랑해!!!!
~~~~~~~~~~~
cái lyric là It's Over Now của Brian :))
bỏ bớt mấy câu, thấy ý nghĩa khác hẳn =))
ôi ss3, BEST NIGHT EVER!!!!!!!!
cầm cái máy chụp đến nỗi k nghĩ là mình còn có thể cầm dc =))
tay nó run run, bh 2 tay rụng lun =))
bằng chứng cho sự hiện diện của ngày đó
yên tâm nói đó k phải là mơ
chẹp, up hình trễ qá :))
ai có FB mà chưa add tớ thì add đi, tớ có up mấy hình tớ chụp dc ở ss3 đấy
Annie Elf nhá :">
chụp dc qả banh sung ném
dc kyu nhìn thẳng vô ống kính, cười
"dc" chul nhìn vs gương mặt hầm hầm vì mình lỡ cười nhếc mép :">
dc teuk chú ý chút đỉnh =))
won cũng có nhìn thoáng qa =))
dong nữa =))
huyk ít qa ST1 qá :((
hae nữa :((
wook cũng có qa qăng qăng =))
ôi các anh già
yêu qá =))
sáng cn, nhờ 1 "người bạn tốt"
đi taxi chung vs 1 bạn nữa mà og taxi nhìn cứ như là 2 đứa vội đi tiễn bạn dzai :">
cũng đúng mà =))
mà nhờ "người bạn tốt" mà tới đó nhìn trong vô vọng......
chỉ còn nghe dc tiếng nói China Airline to Taipei is now boarding......
hơi bị thất vọng vụ khán giả.....
anw, truyện qa rồi, lòng vẫn lâng lâng :))
sẽ cố gắng đi ss4 Sing or Bankok :">
cái này lâu lắm rồi...h mới coi dc bản rõ :))
- super junior show - cooking + siwon's diary
www.youtube.com/watch?v=jC8F-kzu79U&feature=mfu_in_or...
슈퍼주니오 짱!!!
Please don't use this image on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit permission. If you wish to use this image, please, contact me through flickrmail or at vicenc.feliu@gmail.com. © All rights reserved...
"The post-and-rail fences stretching across the fields lying between us and the enemy's position, I regard as the fatal obstacle to our complete success on the left, and success there would, doubtless, would have changed the fate of the day. Of the existence of this obstacle none of my division had any previous knowledge, and we learned it at the expense of many valuable lives." Gen. John Walker, Army of Northern Virginia.
Also called Stack Rail, Zig Zag, Appalachian Rail, and Worm Fencing, Virginia Snake Rail Fencing has decorated Virginia and American farmland for centuries. Back then, posts could not be pressure treated as they are done today in order to preserve them. To avoid planting posts in rocky ground that would rot quickly, many homesteaders installed stack rail fencing or some configuration similar to it. Although it took considerably more wood than a split rail fence, it was easy to install. Rails that rot out are easily replaced and the fence is strengthened by its zig-zag configuration.
The Commonwealth of Virginia was primarily a "fence out" state, meaning that landowners were responsible for fencing out neighbors' animals, rather than the other way around. Many livestock owners had communal grazing areas. Snake Rail fences have dotted the landscapes of Virginia since the first settlements in Jamestown Island and still do today.
All Saints, Hilgay, Norfolk
Hilgay is one of those large, independent south-west Norfolk fen villages that feel as if they really ought to be in Cambridgeshire. The church is set away from the village centre, and you'd be unlikely to find it without a map if it wasn't for the handily named Church Street. All Saints is set about a hundred metres back from the road, and the avenue of limes that lead up to it are undoubtedly the longest in East Anglia. A local once told me it was the longest lime avenue in the world, which may also be true, although I don't suppose there are hundreds of lime avenues in Africa, Latin America and South-East Asia queuing up to compete with it.
The church appears long and apparently low, although this is in fact an illusion caused by the squatness of the tower. It appears very un-East Anglian, the nave and chancel in layered carstone and the tower in white brick. The carstone of the south aisle is not layered but ragged, and this creates a very primitive, rugged effect, like a marbled gingerbread cake. The ramshackle appearance of the tower contributes a bit as well
The large gravestone with an anchor, cross and heart on this side of the graveyard is striking, and you might think at first it is the memorial to Hilgay's most famous son, Captain Thomas Manby. Manby was the inventor of the Manby cradle, a device for rescuing sailors from stranded ships at sea (I hope you're taking notes, there will be a test at the end) but in fact it isn't. His memorial is inside the church. When I came here in 2005, this large memorial, which actually depicts the Christian virtues of Faith, Hope and Charity, still had a heart-shaped lead-plate with the name and details of the grave's inhabitant, but it won't surprise you to learn that this has long since been stripped away. The best memorial on this side of the church is a deeply cut relief of a windmill, the workers busy unloading sacks of grain.
George Street undertook the considerable restoration of All Saints in the 1860s, although the tower predates this by about seventy years, replacing one which collapsed in the 1790s. The interior is wide and open, and at first appears almost entirely 19th century. The aisle is as wide as the nave, and the aisle chapel altar is as grand and dressed as the main altar. It feels a little like two churches side by side. Just inside the door is a very rare beast, a glass-walled funeral bier. The font is a grand Victorian marble job, and matches the not quite so successful pulpit. They do seem a little out of place here, a reminder that Street's urban, sophisiticated style is sometimes a little uncomfortable in East Anglia.
There is a good set of 15th century benches with animals on some of the ends, including a rather disturbing anthropomorphic creature that I suppose must be something from a bestiary. From a century or so later comes the memorial to Henry and Ursula Hawe in the south aisle chapel.
All Saints is at first sight not the most exciting of churches, but it is full of little details and has a lovely harmonious feel, from the stations of the cross to the good late 19th century glass by Ward and Hughes, from the screen brought from the redundant St Mary Beswick in Manchester to the jaunty little gallery shoehorned under the tower which Pevsner, unaccountably, thought dull.
Captain Danby's memorial is in the south aisle chapel, and records that his is a name to be remembered as long as there is a stranded ship. Poignantly, the memorial also remembers four of his eight brothers and sisters who died in infancy. It is a fairly typical sentimental memorial of the mid-19th century, but has a striking addition that you only notice after a moment. In another hand along the bottom, someone has inscribed carefully The public should have paid this tribute. How curious! There must be a story there somewhere.
This church has a long-standing Anglo-catholic tradition, and as part of that it used to be open every day. I am afraid that this is no longer the case, and there is not even a keyholder notice now.
Almost without doubt, this is the well at which Jesus encountered the Samaritan woman in John 4. She told him, "the well is deep," and even today it takes a couple of seconds for water poured from the top to reach the bottom (75 feet; object falls 64 feet in 2 seconds). Jacob settled in the area (Genesis 33:18-20) probably in the Middle Bronze period, from 2000-1500 BC. The well is now in a church in Nablus, near the foot of Mt. Gerazim and Mt. Ebal, next to the ruins of ancient Shechem, a 6,000 year old site (see photos on this web site). The first church was built over the well in about 380 AD. It was destroyed in the Samaritan uprising in 484 or 529, and rebuilt, lasting until the 9th century. It may have been destroyed again and rebuilt by the 12th century. The Greek Orthodox Church bought the land in 1890 and started to build a church but didn’t finish it until 2007. The area is heavily Muslim and experiences sectarian violence from time to time, so it is not always visited. There has been some violence against the church, and there are bullet holes in the exterior gate.
Is15-9315-Jacobs-Well-6x9-58-FLAT
XXXII. The Life without Passion
THEY that have power to hurt, and will do none,
That do not do the thing they most do show,
Who, moving others, are themselves as stone,
Unmovèd, cold, and to temptation slow,—
They rightly do inherit heaven's graces,
And husband nature's riches from expense;
They are the lords and owners of their faces,
Others, but stewards of their excellence.
The summer's flower is to the summer sweet,
Though to itself it only live and die;
But if that flower with base infection meet,
The basest weed outbraves his dignity:
For sweetest things turn sourest by their deeds;
Lilies that fester smell far worse than weeds.
-- W. Shakespeare
Salt...every human's need in entire life...without salt there is no food and no world...
it is available everywhere...we are seeing very beautiful advertisement about the salt product from various brands...but there is an story behind this product...
Tamil Nadu is one of the few states that produce salt in India. In Tamil Nadu, salt is produced primarily in the three districts of Nagapattinam, Tuticorin and Marakkanam in Villupuram.
This is about the Salt production at Marakkanam in Villupuram Dist.
The salt pan workers work under extremely hazardous conditions. They work with the harsh sun beating down upon them under the open sky and have employment only for about six months in a year.
Their daily wages vary between 35 rupees to 85 rupees (US$ 0.78 to 1.9). Women generally get paid lower than men. In Marakknam, most of the workers belong to the Schedule Caste communities. It is estimated that about 3000 workers exist in Marakkanam area.
While poverty, indebtedness and deprivation are common to all the salt pan workers, the women, as in many other poor communities, become greater victims of poverty. Generally, they suffer from serious gynaecological problems and. malnutrition and anaemia are also very common. They also do not have support systems to take care of their children. They hardly have access to any quality medical care. Since usually both the parents go to work in the salt pans, it is not clear as to who takes care of their children.
I have captured their activities in three seasons ie., initial ground preparation, Salt making and storing, the final one is in the rainy season where the ground is full of water... I had been there many times to see their activities and i used to talk to them about their work and life balance, to be frank I was so shocked while seeing their work on the field...it was so hot and if we continue be there for more than 15min we may feel that the water level in our body will be completely drained out. such a hot and dry day whole day and everyday...
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During a previous holiday, we visited many areas in Somerset and Devon and during one of those trips we happened to find the rural village of Exford, at the centre of Exmoor National Park. On the River Exe, at the heart of Exmoor National Park, Exford has an attractive village green surrounded by shops, restaurants and hotels. It is a busy walking, fishing and equine centre.
'Bridge House' is another example of the quaint cottages in the village and is opposite the main road bridge across the River Exe. It has an intriguing niche above the front door in which sits a horse's head sculpture.
Taken with my Canon EOS 7D and Canon EF 18-135mm f/3.5-5.6 IS USM Lens and framed in Photoshop.
Better viewed in light box - click on the image or press 'L' on your keyboard.