@tessa whats good

 

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 06-Apr-25.

 

English titles, left side

 

History approximate. This aircraft was delivered to Aeroflot as RA-42421 in 1993. It was transferred to Kuban Airlines (date unknown) and sold to Izhavia in early 2014.

 

It was noted in service with Izhavia in May-18 but by Jul-18 it was operating for Turuhan Avia. It was registered to UT Air in Jul-19 and appears to have been permanently retired at Surgut, Russia in Jun-20.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 11-Feb-25, some slight 'yellowing' along the top edge.

 

First flown with the Boeing test registration N1787B, this aircraft was delivered to GATX B737-800 Partners BV and leased to Novair Sweden as SE-DVR in Apr-99.

 

It was returned to the lessor in Apr-04 and immediately leased to SunExpress Airlines as TC-SUM. The aircraft was fitted with blended winglets in May-05.

 

It returned to the lessor in May-16 and was leased to Blue Air (Romania) as YR-BMD later the same month. The aircraft was sub-leased to TUI Airlines Netherlands in Jun-16 and returned to Blue Air at the end of Oct-16.

 

It was ferried to Tucson, AZ, USA at the end of Dec-19 and stored. It was sold to the Boeing Capital Corporation as N748BC in Jan-20 and remained stored at Tucson.

 

It was sold to GA Telesis in Sep-20 and re-registered N288LR in Nov-20. It continued in storage at Tucson until it was ferried to Miami, FL, USA in Jan-21 to await freighter conversion.

 

The aircraft was converted to full freighter configuration in Jul-21 and ferried to Dothan, AL, USA for painting. It was due to be leased to Mesa Airlines and operated on behalf of DHL Aviation but the lease and sub-lease was cancelled.

 

In Aug-21 it was leased to Compass Cargo Airlines, Bulgaria as LZ-CXA and continues in service. Updated 10-Feb-25.

 

Note: Novair Sweden ceased operations on 09-Sep-23.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 02-Jan-22 (DeNoise AI).

 

The final Airtours/MyTravel hybrid colour scheme for G-BYDA. The Airtours International DC-10's weren't repainted in the full new MyTravel Airways livery as they were about to be retired.

 

This aircraft was delivered to Singapore Airlines as 9V-SDA in Oct-78. Singapore didn't keep their DC-10's for very long and it was sold to Wardair Canada as C-GFHX in Sep-81.

 

It was sold to a lessor in Apr-88 and leased to Canadi>n Airlines in May-88 (Wardair was merged into Canadi>n in Dec-89). The aircraft was returned to the lessor in Mar-89 and leased to Minerve (France) as F-GGMZ later that month.

 

Minerve merged with AOM Air Outre Mer in Apr-92 to form AOM French Airlines. It was sub-leased to Air Guadeloupe/Air Martinique in May-92, returning to AOM French Airlines in Sep-93.

 

The aircraft was returned to the lessor in Nov-94 and was stored until it was leased to Taesa (Mexico) as XA-SYE in Jun-95. Taesa immediately sub-leased it to Dominicana for a year. It returned to Taesa in Jun-96 and was returned to the lessor in May-97.

 

It was leased to Premiair (Denmark) as OY-CNO a few days later. It was stored at Copenhagen in Feb-98. The lease was transferred to Airtours International Airways in Sep-98 and it was initially operated as OY-CNO with Danish Flight Deck Crew.

 

The aircraft was re-registered G-BYDA in Mar-99. Airtours International was renamed MyTravel Airways in Feb-02. It continued to operate until, after 27 years in service, it was returned to the lessor in Apr-05 and stored at Kemble, UK. It was broken up at Kemble in Jul-05. Updated 13-Nov-21.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 20-Nov-20, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 05-Apr-23.

 

Martinair only kept their A320's for just over 4 years.

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWDE, this aircraft was delivered to SALE Singapore Aircraft Leasing Enterprise and leased to Martinair as PH-MPE in Mar-03 and returned to the lessor in Nov-07.

 

It was leased to Etihad Airways as A6-EIB in Dec-07. The aircraft was sub-leased to Air Seychelles as S7-SIL in Jul-15 and returned to Etihad in Aug-19 when it was stored at Abu Dhabi. It was moved to Hyderabad, India in Dec-19 for continued storage and returned to the lessor in Aug-20.

 

It was leased to SmartLynx Airlines - Malta as 9H-SLB two weeks later and, because of the COVID-19 Pandemic, it was stored at Malta on delivery. The aircraft was ferried to St. Athan, Wales, UK in Sep-20.

 

It never entered service and was permanently retired at St. Athan, Wales, UK. It was broken up there in Mar-23.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a slightly better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 08-Dec-24

 

Dates appearing in this history are approximate. This aircraft was delivered to Balkan - Bulgarian Airlines as LZ-BTN in 1990. It was wet-leased to Lao Airlines, Laos around Nov-91 and returned to Balkan - Bulgarian in Spring 1992.

 

It was wet-leased to Palair Macedonia around May-92 and returned to Balkan - Bulgarian by Apr-94. The aircraft was sold to Hemus Air, Bulgaria as LZ-HMN in Mar-01. It was sold to BH Air - Balkan Holidays around May-02.

 

The aircraft was sold to Aeroflot Russian Airlines as RA-85765 in Aug-05. It was noted still in service in Sep-10 but by Jul-11 it was operational with the Ulyanovsk Higher Civil Aviation School - UVAUGA (still in basic Aeroflot livery with Cyrillic 'UVAUGA' titles). It was eventually retired and broken up but I don't know where or when! Updated 08-Dec-24

Here is Arriva Buses Wales DAF DB250 East Lancs Lowlander Y704 XJF 4189 is seen at Bangor bus station as it's about to replace Wrightbus VDL SB200 Pulsar CX14 BYM 3174 to do the route 5 to Llandudno to collect more passangers. 28/01/17

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 19-Jan-25.

 

Fleet No: '648'.

 

This aircraft was delivered to Delta Air Lines as N648DL in May-89. It was transferred to Delta's low-cost subsidiary, 'Song by Delta' in 2003. It wasn't a success and the aircraft returned to Delta Air Lines in May-06.

 

Blended winglets were added in Dec-08. After 25 years in service the aircraft was permanently retired at Marana, AZ, USA in Sep-14. It was last noted still at Marana in Mar-15. The registration was cancelled in Dec-18.

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 09-Jan-21, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 17-Apr-25.

 

Leased from / operated by NAYSA Aero Taxis.

 

This aircraft was delivered to Transair France as N22120 in Dec-97, it was transferred on delivery to Transair USA Inc. They sold it to the Aircraft Credit Corporation in Jan-98 and it was sold on to Kansas Beechcraft Leasing Inc the same day.

 

The aircraft was leased to Proteus Airlines (France) as F-GRPM the following day. Proteus Airlines was merged into Compagne Aerienne Europeenne Regional (Regional Airlines) in Apr-01.

 

It was returned to the lessor in Oct-02 and leased to NAYSA Aero Taxis (Spain) as EC-IJO a few days later. It was wet-leased to Binter Canarias in early 2005 and returned to NAYSA in 2006.

 

The aircraft was returned to the lessor and sold to B & I Aviation (Dubai) in Sep-09. In Oct-09 it was leased to Safari Plus, operating as Safari Express Airways (Tanzania) as 5H-SPB. It was noted at Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania in Jun-18 and appears to have been operational until early Sep-24. No further information. Updated 17-Apr-25.

This bus is one of 8 2019 Thomas C2's currently in the fleet. This bus replaced a 1999 AmTran Conventional. 9 is the only C2 in the fleet with a Thomas emblem next to the entrance door

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 11-Nov-20, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 01-Apr-24.

 

Named: "Usti Nad Labem" (name is above the shield aft of the forward door).

 

First flown with the Boeing test registration N1876B, this aircraft was delivered to CSA Czech Airlines as OK-CGH in Mar-97. It was sold to Mauritania Airlines as 5T-CLA in Jan-11.

 

The aircraft was withdrawn from use and stored at Nouakchott, Mauritania in Jan-16, It was registered to CSDS Aircraft Sales & Leasing Ltd (date unknown but possibly Jan-18) and remained stored at Nouakchott.

 

It's still shown as 'stored' in most databases but hasn't flown for 8 years, It's now 27 years old and I'd say it's probably permanently retired. Updated 02-Apr-24.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 16-Dec-21.

 

'Thar - Colours of the Desert' special tail livery.

 

This aircraft was built as a 'Combi' with a main deck side cargo door (SCD), it was delivered to PIA Pakistan International Airlines as AP-BAK in Jul-79.

 

It was removed from scheduled services in Mar-08 but continued in service on bloodstock (Horses!) charters and Haj Pilgrimage flights.

 

It was permanently retired at Karachi, Pakistan in mid 2011 after 32 years in service and was broken up there in Aug-13.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 08-Jan-25.

 

With additional '1000th Boeing 747' titles.

 

This aircraft, the 1,000th Boeing 747 (Line No:1000) was delivered to Singapore Airlines as 9V-SMU in Oct-93. It was withdrawn from service and stored at Singapore in Dec-10.

 

The aircraft was sold to Wilmington Trust Company as N417AC in Mar-11 and converted to freighter configuration with a main deck cargo door at Tel Aviv, Israel in Dec-11.

 

It was leased to Southern Air as N400SA in Jan-12. The aircraft was returned to the lessor in Dec-14 and permanently retired at St. Athan, Wales, UK. It was broken up at St. Athan in Dec-15.

 

Note: The registration 9V-SMU was later used on a Singapore Airlines Airbus A350-941.

Amtrak Capitol Corridor train 745 is westbound on the track 1 bridge at Benicia with P42 186 leading Charger 2103.

 

Pulled 3 ticks off Erie and at least 15 off myself for this one. There could be more I haven't found yet. Ridiculous.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 07-Nov-17.

 

Fleet No: '493'.

 

This aircraft was delivered to Delta Air lines as N493DA in May-75. It served with Delta for 25 years and was permanently retired at Victorville, CA, USA in Jan-00. It was broken up at Victorville around 2003.

old picture [:

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 12-Jul-16, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 01-Sep-24.

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWIF, this aircraft was leased to ACES Colombia as VP-BVB in Nov-97. ACES ceased operations in Aug-03, the aircraft was repossessed and stored at Nimes, France.

 

It stayed at Nimes for 18 months until It was re-registered with the temporary French registration F-WQUO in Feb-05 and then leased to Valuair (Singapore) as 9V-VLD later the same month.

 

It returned to the lessor in May-06 and was immediately leased to Lotus Airlines (Egypt) as SU-LBG. Lotus Airlines ceased operations in May-11 and the aircraft was repossessed again, re-registered N416AC and stored at Dublin, Ireland.

 

It was leased to Zest Airways (Philippines) as RP-C8994 in Nov-11. Zest was renamed Philippines Air Asia in Jan-16. The aircraft was returned to the lessor in Jul-18 and permanently retired at Kemble, UK. It was broken up at Kemble in Nov-18.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 07-Feb-22 (DeNoise AI). Unfortunately, many of my old negatives are suffering from this 'yellow plague'.

 

Named: "Pella".

 

This aircraft was delivered to Olympic Airways as SX-BKG in Jun-93. All Olympic Airways debts disappeared in Dec-03 when the airline was renamed Olympic Airlines.

 

The same thing happened again when Olympic Airlines was closed down at the end of Sep-09. It became Olympic Air the following day. However, this aircraft wasn't transferred to the new company and was stored at Athens in Oct-09.

 

It remained stored until it was sold by the Olympic Airlines liquidator to AerSale Inc (USA) as N148AS in Dec-10. It was ferried to Istanbul-SAW in Jan-11 for post storage maintenance before being stored at Bucharest-Baneasa (Romania) in Feb-11.

 

The aircraft was leased to Moscovia Airlines (Russia) as VQ-BNX in Nov-12 and returned to the lessor in May-14 when it was stored at Roswell, NM, USA. It was re-registered N148AS again in Jul-14.

 

It was briefly leased to SkyKing Inc for a couple of weeks in Sep/Oct-14 before being leased to Xtra Airways (USA) in mid Oct-14. It was re-registered N149XA in Jun-16. It was returned to AerSale Inc in Feb-18 and sold to Swift Air (USA) the following month.

 

Swift Air had reserved the registration N809TJ in Jun-18 but it wasn't taken up and the aircraft remained as N149XA. On 01-Jan-20 Swift Air was renamed iAero Airways. It was withdrawn from service and stored at Dothan, AL, USA in Sep-23. Updated 04-Feb-24.

Replacing an earlier scanned slide with a better version 07-Jun-15, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 31-Aug-23.

 

Another misty morning at London-Gatwick. This had been a Southend weather diversion the previous evening.

 

The 'Scottish Flyer' was a short-lived 'bus-stop' scheduled service operation between Mar/Nov-69. It operated up the UK east coast between Southend and Aberdeen via five or six intermediate points including Luton, East Midlands, Leeds/Bradford, Teesside, Newcastle and Edinburgh. They aimed for 5/6 minute turnrounds with engines 3 & 4 kept running. Seat capacity was reduced and a large baggage area was introduced with passengers having to carry their own baggage on and off the aircraft. It wasn't a success!

 

Delivered new to Continental Airlines in Aug-58 as N246V, it was sold to Channel Airways in Dec-66 but was leased back to Continental for a further 2 months until it became G-AVHK in Feb-67.

 

Most of the original Continental livery also became part of the Channel Airways livery. It was retired and stored at Southend UK in May-70. Used for spares it was finally broken up there in Jun-72.

....at Camberwell Green.

Replacing an earlier scanned slide with a better version 29-Jan-15, plus DeNoise AI 07-Jan-23.

 

The above photo was taken through the dirty window of a Channel Airways Vickers Viking...

 

Hybrid livery. Basic Silver City Airlines with British United titles.

 

Originally built as a Bristol 170 Mk XIA (11A) and registered to the Bristol Aeroplane Company as G-AIME in Dec-46, this aircraft was delivered to Suidair (South Africa) as ZS-BVI in Aug-47.

 

They didn't have it long and it returned to the Bristol Aeroplane Company two months later, in Oct-47, and was re-registered G-AIME again in Jan-48. It was converted to a Bristol 170 Freighter 21 in early 1948 and was leased to British Aviation Services in Jul-48.

 

It was returned to the Bristol Aeroplane Company in 1949 and was eventually sold to Silver City Airways in Nov-50 and was converted to 'Wayfarer' standard with passenger seats. It was occasionally leased to the Ministry of Defence for trooping flights and used the RAF serial XF662 during these flights.

 

In Feb-56 it was leased to Air Kruise (Kent) Ltd. They dropped the '(Kent)' and were renamed Air Kruise Ltd in Feb-57. The aircraft was returned to Silver City in Oct-57 (I can remember seeing it at Blackpool in the early 1960's operating passenger services to the Isle of Man).

 

Silver City became a part of the British United Group in Jan-63 as part of British United Air Ferries. It remained in the above livery and was withdrawn from use at the end of the summer season in Oct-63 when it was stored at Lydd, UK. It was later moved to Southend, UK and was broken up there in May-64.

Replacing an earlier scanned slide with a better version 25-Feb-15, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 12-Sep-23.

 

Only delivered to Britannia a month before, still awaiting it's titles and tail logo.

 

Delivered new to BOAC British Overseas Airways Corporation in Nov-56 as G-ANBJ, it was wet-leased to Malayan Airlines from Feb/Mar-62 and again from Jun/Jul-62. It was stored at London-Heathrow in Nov-62 after just 6 years in service.

 

It was leased to Britannia Airways (previously known as Euravia) in Apr-65 and they bought it in Jul-70. It was retired at Luton in Nov-70 and broken up there in Feb-71.

Replacing an earlier scanned phoro with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 30-Jul-24.

 

Taken into a low sun on a misty Manchester Morning.

 

First flown as G-PRIN in Nov-89 as a standard B.Ae 146-200, this aircraft was converted to a 'QC' version with a main-deck cargo door in May-90 and delivered to Princess Air in Jun-90.

 

It was repossessed by British Aerospace in Feb-91 and re-registered G-6-148. It was leased to Air UK as G-BTIA in Mar-91 for 2 months, returning to British Aerospace in May-91.

 

It was leased to BAF British Air Ferries the following month. They briefly sub-leased it British Airways in Jun-92 before returning it to B.Ae in Sep-92. It was leased to Safair (South Africa) as ZS-NCB in Oct-92 and returned to B.Ae Asset Management in Feb-95.

 

The aircraft was stored until it was leased to Titan Airways as G-ZAPK in Apr-96. It was sub-leased to Meridiana in May-96 for 1 month and Titan Airways bought it in Feb-97.

 

As well as being used on Titan's own charter services it was leased to Jersey European Airways (Mar/Jun-97), CityJet (Jan/Dec-01), British Airways Citiexpress (Jun/Aug-02) and Scot Airways (May-05/Aug-06). It was retired by Titan in Nov-13 and stored.

 

It was due to be sold in Australia to Skyforce Aviation as VH-SJF but that didn't happen (Skyforce Aviation ceased operations in May-15 but was later rebranded as Pionair).

 

It remained stored until it was sold to Pionair Australia as VH-SAZ in Nov-17. Still in Titan Airway black livery with the orange sun and Pionair titles. The aircraft seems to operate intermittently and was parked at Cairns, QLD, Australia in Nov-21. It was back in service by Aug-22. Stored again, date unknown. Updated 29-Jul-24.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 25-May-24.

 

Fleet No: "1AA".

 

This aircraft was the 4th MD-11 Prototype, first flown on 05-Jun-90 with the McDonnell Douglas test registration N411MD. After flight testing was complete it was originally for delivery to British Caledonian Airways (B.Cal). The order was transferred to British Airways after they had taken over B.Cal in late 1987. However, it was eventually cancelled.

 

It was delivered to American Airlines as N1750B in May-91. The type didn't really fit in with American's fleet plans, they sold it (and the rest of their MD-11 fleet) six years later to FedEx Federal Express as N581FE in Feb-97. It was converted to freighter configuration with a main deck cargo door in May-97.

 

The aircraft was written off on 17-Oct-99 when it overran the runway on landing at Subic Bay (now Clark Airport), Philippines. Due to an un-noticed air speed indicator error. the aircraft landed too fast and overran the runway, hitting a concrete post and slamming into a wire fence before plunging into the bay. All of the aircraft was submerged, 10 m offshore, except for the flight deck. The two flight crew survived.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 02-Feb-20, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 08-Jun-23. Trying to get rid of the yellow and it's turned a bit purple!

 

Previously in Air Hong Kong livery. Repainted into basic Cathay Pacific livery with additional Cathay Pacific stickers. I have a similar photo of it taken 7 weeks earlier with Air Hong Kong stickers!

 

This aircraft was ordered by Libyan Arab Airlines as a 'Combi' passenger/freighter with a side cargo door (SCD). It was due to be registered 5A-DIK but the order was cancelled prior to delivery.

 

The aircraft first flew in Mar-80 and was stored at Seattle-Everett, WA, USA until it was delivered to VARIG Brasil as PP-VNB in Feb-81. In Dec-82 VARIG sold it to Orient Leasing and leased it back.

 

It was returned to Orient Leasing in Dec-94 and was stored at Rio de Janeiro-Galeao, Brazil. In Feb-96 it was sold to Cathay Pacific Airways as VR-HME.

 

The aircraft was converted to a full freighter configuration by Apr-96 and leased to Cathay's subsidiary, Air Hong Kong. In Oct-97 it was re-registered B-HME when Hong Kong became an autonomous region of China.

 

The aircraft was returned to Cathay Pacific Airways Cargo in Jul-02 and continued in operation until it was retired in Sep-08 and stored at Victorville, CA, USA. It was last noted still at Victorville in May-15.

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 14-Oct-19.

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWKT in Jun-04, this aircraft was originally an A330-203 but was modified to A330-202 standard before delivery. It was delivered to GECAS General Electric Capital Aircraft Services and leased to Qatar Airways as A7-AFM in Sep-04.

 

It was returned to the lessor in Sep-16 and returned to Airbus A330-203 standard. It was re-registered D-AXGF in Oct-16 and leased to Sun Express Airlines Germany for operation on behalf of Eurowings. The aircraft was temporarily stored at Frankfurt, Germany in Mar-20 due to the COVID-19 Pandemic.

 

Sun Express Germany was closed down by joint owners Lufthansa & Turkish Airlines in late Jun-20 and the aircraft was moved to Dusseldorf for further storage. It was transferred to Lufthansa Technik in Jul-20 and moved back to Frankfurt for storage.

 

In Jul-21 it was transferred to Eurowings Discover and operates long-haul leisure services on previous Lufthansa routes to the Caribbean, Central America and East Africa, as well as some long-haul services for Lufthansa (such as Frankfurt / Atlanta and Frankfurt to destinations in Canada). Current, updated 07-Dec-22.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 06-Apr-17, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 15-Dec-23.

 

Named: "Jacob Roggeveen", Fleet No: "DP-013"

 

This aircraft was delivered to KLM Royal Dutch Airlines as PH-BDP in Mar-89. After 21 years in service it was retired in Nov-10 and stored at Norwich UK where it was later broken up. The registration was cancelled in Feb-11.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 26-Apr-19, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 22-Jul-23.

 

Operated by Air Atlanta Icelandic on behalf of Virgin Atlantic Airlines in partial Saudia livery (dark green tail) with partially painted Air Atlanta Icelandic titles.

 

First flown with the Boeing test registration N6018N, this aircraft was delivered to ILFC International Lease Finance Corporation and leased to VARIG Airlines Brasil as PP-VOB in May-88.

 

It was returned to ILFC as N824DS in Jan-00. Two weeks later it was leased to Air Atlanta Icelandic as TF-ATI. The aircraft was wet-leased to Saudi Arabian Airlines for a Haj Pilgrimage operation between Feb/Apr-00.

 

In Jul-00 it was wet-leased to Virgin Atlantic Airways and returned to Air Atlanta in Nov-00. It was immediately placed on a long-term wet-lease with Iberia between Jan-01/Nov-05. On its return the aircraft was due to be stored at Marana, AZ, USA but then operated another Haj Pilgrimage wet-lease for Saudia between Dec-05/Feb-06.

 

It was wet-leased again to Iberia between Apr/May-06 and then at the end of May-06 it was wet-leased, long-term, to Saudi Arabian Airlines.

 

On it's return to Air Atlanta in Mar-10, the aircraft was permanently retired at Roswell, NM, USA. It was last noted still at Roswell in Dec-10, missing engines, nosecone and many other parts.

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better shot without heat shimmer!

 

WAMOS Air, operating services on behalf of Jet2.com.

 

First flown in Mar-09 with the Airbus test registration F-WWKN, this aircraft was ordered by ILFC for lease to XL Airlines UK as G-XLXC. However, XL Airways UK had ceased operations in Sep-08. The lease was to be transferred to XL Airways France, but that wasn't taken up.

 

The aircraft was parked at Toulouse until it was leased to Gulf Air as A9C-KJ in Jun-09. It was withdrawn from service and stored at Bahrain in Jan-13 before being returned to the lessor in Mar-13 and stored at Lake Charles, LA, USA.

 

It was leased to Air Europa as EC-MAJ in Mar-14. The aircraft was withdrawn from service and initially stored at Chateauroux, France in Jan-20 before being returned to the lessor and stored at Perpignan, France in early Feb-20. It was moved to Barcelona, Spain in Jul-20 for further storage.

 

The aircraft was leased to WAMOS Air in Sep-20 and was stored at Madrid, Spain on delivery. It moved to Ciudad Real Central Airport, Spain in Nov-20 for further storage and entered service as a 'Preighter' in Feb-21. The aircraft returned to passenger service in a Y366 configuration in Feb-22.

 

In Jun-22 it was wet-leased to Jet2.com for the summer season. Current, 01-Aug-22.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 13-Oct-21 (DeNoise AI).

 

First flown with the Boeing test registration N1787B, this aircraft was delivered to Itochu Airlease and leased to Sterling European Airways as OY-SEH in Jan-99.

 

It was sub-leased to Transavia Holland between Apr/Sep-99 and to Air Berlin from Apr/Jun-01. The aircraft was sub-leased to Israir (Israel) between Jul/Sep-01. It was returned to the lessor in Mar-07 and was due to be leased to Transavia Holland as PH-HSW.

 

Instead, it was leased to Transavia France as F-GZHV in May-07 and was fitted with blended winglets before it entered service.

 

The aircraft was temporarily stored at Nantes, France in Mar-20 due to the COVID-19 Pandemic and returned to service in Jul-20. It was stored at Perpignan, France in Sep-22 (it's nearly 24 years old so I'm not sure if it's permanently retired).

Replacing an earlier scanned slide with a better version 22-Mar-15, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 06-Mar-23.

 

Fleet No: "635".

 

Delivered new to TCA Trans Canada Airlines as CF-THQ in Feb-58, TCA was renamed Air Canada in Jun-64. It was initially withdrawn from use and stored at Montreal-Dorval in Aug-71 and later transferred to Winnipeg.

 

It was sold to United Aircraft Services Ltd in Apr-94 and, technically, became C-FTHQ the following month when the Canadian Government also introduced the C-Gxxx registration series.

 

It was sold to Beaver Enterprises in Jun-75 as part of a 24 aircraft deal. They sold it to Wabush Mines in Sep-76. It was sold to Filair Airlines, Zaire, in Jan-88 as 9Q-CTU.

 

It suffered a landing accident at Kinshasa in Mar-92 when the starboard undercarriage leg was torn off. It was stored at Kinshasa until it was sold it to Bazair in 1996. It was repaired and operated for two years until it was retired at Boende, Dem Republic of Congo in 1998. It was noted still there, derelict, in Feb-13.

Birdoswald Roman Fort was known as Banna ("horn" in Celtic) in Roman times, reflecting the geography of the site on a triangular spur of land bounded by cliffs to the south and east commanding a broad meander of the River Irthing in Cumbria below.

 

It lies towards the western end of Hadrian's Wall and is one of the best preserved of the 16 forts along the wall. It is also attached to the longest surviving stretch of Hadrian's Wall.

 

Cumbria County Council were responsible for the management of Birdoswald fort from 1984 until the end of 2004, when English Heritage assumed responsibility.

 

This western part of Hadrian's Wall was originally built using turf starting from 122 AD. The stone fort was built some time after the wall, in the usual playing card shape, with gates to the east, west and south.

 

The fort was occupied by Cohors I Aelia Dacorum and by other Roman auxiliaries from approximately AD 126 to AD 400.

 

The two-mile sector of Hadrian's Wall either side of Birdoswald is also of major interest. It is currently the only known sector of Hadrian's Wall in which the original turf wall was replaced, probably in the 130s, by a stone wall approximately 50 metres further north, to line up with the fort's north wall, instead of at its east and west gates. The reasons for this change are unclear, although David Woolliscroft (Woolliscroft, 2001) has plausibly suggested that it was the result of changing signalling requirements, whilst Stewart Ainsworth of Time Team suggested it was a response to a cliff collapse into the river. At any rate, this remains the only area in which both the walls can be directly compared.

 

As of 2005, it is the only site[citation needed] on Hadrian's Wall at which significant occupation in the post-Roman period has been proven. Excavations between 1987 and 1992 showed an unbroken sequence of occupation on the site of the fort granaries, running from the late Roman period until possibly 500AD. The granaries were replaced by two successive large timber halls, reminiscent of others found in many parts of Britain dating to the fifth and sixth centuries. Tony Wilmott (co-director of the excavations) has suggested that, after the end of Roman rule in Britain, the fort served as the power-base for a local warband descended from the late Roman garrison, possibly deriving legitimacy from their ancestors for several generations.

 

Inside were built the usual stone buildings, a central headquarters building (principia), granaries (horrea), and barracks. Unusually for an auxiliary fort, it also included an exercise building (basilica exercitatoria), perhaps reflecting the difficulties of training soldiers in the exposed site in the north of England.

 

Geophysical surveys detected vici (civilian settlements) of different characters on the eastern, western and northern sides of the fort. A bathhouse was also located in the valley of the River Irthing.

 

Approximately 600 metres east of Birdoswald, at the foot of an escarpment, lie the remains of Willowford bridge which carried Hadrian's Wall across the River Irthing. The westward movement of the river course over the centuries has left the east abutment of the bridge high and dry, while the west abutment has probably been destroyed by erosion. Nevertheless, the much-modified visible remains are highly impressive. Until 1996, these remains were not directly accessible from the fort, but they can now be reached by a footbridge.

 

The fort at Birdoswald was linked by a Roman road, sometimes referred to as the Maiden Way, to the outpost fort of Bewcastle, seven miles to the north. Signals could be relayed between the two forts by means of two signalling towers.

 

The fort has been extensively excavated for over a century, with twentieth century excavations starting in 1911 by F.G. Simpson and continuing with Ian Richmond from 1927 to 1933 .[6] The gateways and walls were then re-excavated under the supervision of Brenda Swinbank and J P Gillam from 1949 to 1950.

 

Extensive geophysical surveys, both magnetometry and earth resistance survey, were conducted by TimeScape Surveys (Alan Biggins & David Taylor, 1999 & 2004) between 1997 -2001. These surveys established that the sub-surface remains in the fort were well preserved.

 

An area between the fort and the escarpment was excavated by Channel 4's archaeological television programme Time Team in January 2000. The excavation detected signs of an extramural settlement (vicus), but the area is liable to erosion and the majority of the vicus could have fallen over the cliffs.

 

In 2021 Newcastle University, Historic England, and English Heritage launched a major new archaeological excavation at the site.

 

Today the fort's site is operated by English Heritage as Birdoswald Roman Fort. The visitor centre features displays and reconstructions of the fort, exhibits about life in Roman Britain, the site's history through the ages, and archaeological discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries. Visitors can walk outside along the excavated remains of the fort.

 

Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.

 

Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.

 

The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.

 

Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.

 

Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.

 

History

Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.

 

The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.

 

The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.

 

Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.

 

Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.

 

Roman invasion

The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.

 

The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.

 

The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.

 

Establishment of Roman rule

After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.

 

On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.

 

While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.

 

There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.

 

In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.

 

For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.

 

Roman military organisation in the north

In 84 AD

In 84 AD

 

In 155 AD

In 155 AD

 

Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall

There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.

 

Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.

 

A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.

 

In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.

 

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.

 

During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.

 

In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.

 

The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.

 

3rd century

The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.

 

Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.

 

The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.

 

Northern campaigns, 208–211

An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.

 

As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.

 

During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.

 

Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.

 

The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.

 

Diocletian's reforms

As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).

 

The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.

 

Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.

 

The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.

 

The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.

 

Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.

 

In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.

 

A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.

 

4th century

Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.

 

In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.

 

As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.

 

Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.

 

End of Roman rule

The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.

 

The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.

 

Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.

 

Sub-Roman Britain

Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.

 

In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.

 

Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.

 

Trade

During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.

 

Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.

 

These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.

 

It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.

 

From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.

 

Economy

Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.

 

The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.

 

By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.

 

Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.

 

Government

Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain

Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.

 

To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.

 

Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.

 

Demographics

Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.

 

Town and country

During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.

 

Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.

 

Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C

 

Alcester (Alauna)

Alchester

Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C

Bath (Aquae Sulis) C

Brough (Petuaria) C

Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)

Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C

Caernarfon (Segontium) C

Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C

Caister-on-Sea C

Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C

Carlisle (Luguvalium) C

Carmarthen (Moridunum) C

Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)

Chester (Deva Victrix) C

Chester-le-Street (Concangis)

Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C

Cirencester (Corinium) C

Colchester (Camulodunum) C

Corbridge (Coria) C

Dorchester (Durnovaria) C

Dover (Portus Dubris)

Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C

Gloucester (Glevum) C

Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)

Ilchester (Lindinis) C

Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C

Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C

London (Londinium) C

Manchester (Mamucium) C

Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)

Northwich (Condate)

St Albans (Verulamium) C

Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C

Towcester (Lactodurum)

Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C

Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C

Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C

York (Eboracum) C

 

Religion

The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.

 

The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.

 

Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.

 

Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).

 

Christianity

It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.

 

The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.

 

A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.

 

Environmental changes

The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas

 

Legacy

During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.

 

Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages). The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe

Replacing those very tired looking omnidekkas since brand new, a smarter looking Pink line takes place in the roads around Bilborough and the city centre. Think pink as you can guarantee a smooth ride with free wifi and USB onboard. And a perfect day to photograph these as they look super smart.

 

no. YN19 EFO

Camera: 24Squared

Lens: .10mm pinhole

Film: Eastman 5220

Developer: Xtol

Scanner: Epson V600

Photoshop: Curves, Healing Brush (spotting)

Cropping: None

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 19-Dec-21 (DeNoise AI).

 

A dark December day in Manchester.

 

Fleet No: "076".

 

Originally ordered by KLM Royal Dutch Airlines as PH-DTM the order was cancelled before completion. It was sold on delivery to PAL Philippine Airlines, originally as RP-C2000. However that registration wasn't taken up and it was delivered as RP-C2003 in Oct-76.

 

It was sold to a lessor in Oct-88 and leased back to PAL until it was returned to the lessor in May-94. The aircraft was re-registered EI-DLA in Jun-94 and it was leased to Leisure Air (USA) the following month. It didn't stay long and was returned to the lessor in Nov-94 (Leisure Air ceased operations in Jan-95) and stored at Greensboro, NC, USA.

 

It wasn't until Jul-96 that it was leased to Continental Airlines, still as EI-DLA (Fleet No:076). The aircraft was withdrawn from use and stored at Mojave, CA, USA in Feb-00. It made it's last flight in Aug-03 when it was ferried to Greenwood, MS, USA and permanently retired. It was broken up there in Jul/Aug-04.

A westbound Norfolk Southern coal train passes beneath a Nickel Plate Road style signal in Painesville, Ohio, in July 2005. These signals have since been replaced.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise 07-Sep-25.

 

First flown in Nov-94 with the Airbus test registration F-WWAA, this aircraft was stored at Toulouse until it was delivered to China Eastern Airlines as B-2325 in Mar-95.

 

It was retired and stored at Shanghai-Hongqiao in Mar-14. The aircraft was sold to AVIC Leasing in Dec-14 and converted to freighter configuration at Dresden, Germany in Mar-16 and leased to Uni-Top Airlines, China in later the same month.

 

The aircraft was permanently retired at Shanghai-Hongqiao in Jun-19.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 20-Apr-16.

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration D-AVYD, this aircraft was delivered to Tunis Air in Sep-98. Now almost 18 years old (as of Apr-16), it continues in service.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version.

 

Shame this isn't in sharper focus! Ah well, such is life!

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 14-Aug-25.

 

'Colum', Ireland World Tail livery.

 

This aircraft was leased to Cityflyer Express as G-BZAU in Jun-98 and operated on behalf of British Airways. It was renamed British Airways Citiexpress in Nov-02 while the operation for British Airways continued.

 

In Feb-06 the company was renamed BA Connect although not many aircraft carried those titles. It became BA Cityflyer again in Mar-07 while the operation for British Airways continued.

 

The aircraft was withdrawn from service in May-10 and returned to BAE Systems Asset Management. It was stored at Southend, UK.

 

In Aug-10 it was leased to National Jet Express (Australia) as VH-NJQ and operated on behalf of Cobham Aviation. It was permanently retired at Adelaide, South Australia in Jun-21. It was broken up there in Sep-22.

In this age of LED lighting replacing everything that went before it, it is refreshing to see that some oldies hang on. This 1970s Simplex 'Gemini' 55w Watt sodium lantern looks like quite at home on the much older ESLA wall mounted bracket.

 

Oxton Village, Nottinghamshire. 09jul2021.

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 18-Apr-24.

 

Named: "Al-Wuseil".

 

First flown as an A330-203 with the Airbus test registration F-WWKU, this aircraft was delivered to Qatar Airways as A7-ACD at the end of Mar-03. It was sold to Doha Leasing (A330) Ltd on delivery and leased back to Qatar Airways.

 

It was converted to A330-202 standard in Sep-04 to bring it in line with the rest of the Qatar A330-200 fleet. It was returned to the lessor in May-18 and sold to Wilmington Trust SP Services (Dublin) Ltd as EI-GGP in Jun-18.

 

The aircraft was leased to Air Italy (Italy) a few days later. Air Italy ceased operations on 11-Feb-20, just at the start of the COVID-19 Pandemic (Italy suffered very badly early on).

 

It was returned to the lessor and stored at Doha, Qatar. The aircraft was 'leased' to Qatar Airways as A7-ACR in Nov-20, although it never entered service. It was ferried to Teruel, Spain in Dec-20 and permanently retired. It was broken up at Teruel in Sep-21. Updated 01-Apr-24.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 13-Feb-14.

 

First flown with the Boeing test registration N6005C, this aircraft was delivered to QANTAS Airways as VH-EBV in Apr-85. It was stored at Avalon, Australia in Jun-03 and returned to service in Mar-05. In Dec-05 the aircraft was wet-leased to Garuda Indonesia Airways on Haj Pilgrimage operations, returning to QANTAS in Feb-06. It operated it's last QANTAS service at the end of Dec-08 and was stored at Marana, AZ, USA in Jan-10. It was expected that it would be broken up but it was sold to Sayegh Group Aviation in Aug-10 as N175SG. It was ferried to Ras Al Khaimah, UAE in Oct-10. In Nov-10 the aircraft was leased to Al Sayegh Airlines and sub-leased to Centrafrique Air Express as XT-DMA (Burkina Faso!), still in basic QANTAS livery. It operated some Haj Pilgrimage flights between Dec-10/Mar-11 and was again stored at Ras Al Khaimah. As far as I'm aware it never flew again, although it was re-registered C5-AKR (Gambia!) in Jan-12 to the Sayegh Aviation Group. It remained stored at Ras Al Khaimah and was last noted still there in Feb-13.

The 1860’s were a boom time of naval construction. The first ironclad battleships had amply demonstrated that the reign of the old wooden ship of the line was at an end. Such ships were extremely vulnerable to the new technology of high explosive shells, giving ships that were actually armoured to withstand such weapons a huge advantage. As a result, the world’s naval powers were keen to dispose of their now useless fleets, replacing them with ironclads as fast as they could.

 

Nowhere was this boom of shipbuilding greater than the Old Perceptan Empire. Ever since the Avalonian Continental and Western Holy Wars of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, where the navies of its rivals had been practically annihilated, Perceptum had maintained a massive margin of global naval supremacy for half a century by the virtue of being able to supplement its massive number of warships faster than its rivals could build new navies. But with the advent of the ironclad, this vast Armada of wooden sailing ships had been rendered obsolete at a stroke. A similar thing was happening in the navies of its geopolitical enemies, who were capitalizing on the opportunity to finally catch up. Having built its hegemony through the use of its navy, and none to eager to lose the control of the sea which its economy depended upon, the Imperial Government authorized one of the biggest construction programmes in history to replace its fleet with modern ironclad warships. Scores of the grand old wooden ships were sold and scrapped, with only the most modern preserved for conversion that turned them into comparatively ugly hunks of steel. Moreover, Imperial shipyards worked overtime to build entirely new ships with iron framed hulls; ships like the mighty Forza. The great majority of these ships were armed in the traditional broadside manner, before this type was ultimately superseded by ships with central battery and turret armaments.

 

When laid down in 1866, the Lorica and her class were intended to be the last, and grandest, of the Imperial Navy’s broadside battleships. In practice, conversion works on older ships and the construction of other broadsiders continued alongside their building until 1870, so it’s unclear which ship was THE last of the old way of fighting, but the Loricas were the last class of them to be ordered. For the Marina Imperiale, she was the embodiment of the sendoff, with some of the older men in the officer corps shedding tears over the passing of an age. They were the only class of broadside ironclad to possess more than a single gundeck, and although only the lower of the two benefitted from the thickest armour (8in of wrought iron backed by 20in of teak) their height allowed them to ship no less than fifty-six guns. As grand as this may seem, the arrangement caused several problems. The shear weight of all those guns threatened stability, and with so many weapons on two decks, it would be impossible to equip each gun with its own armoured ammunition hoist. This forced the guncrews to share hoists and get creative with how they handled the shot and powder... which would obviously prove hazardous in battle. The magazines were correspondingly huge, and although protected by relatively thick armour for a ship of the type, it was insufficient against the increasingly large guns mounted by central battery and turret ironclads. The only real strength they had was the mobility that resulted from their length to width ratio, but maneuvering such top-heavy iron sailing ships proved notoriously hazardous.

 

As can be expected, the Eight Years War was not kind to them. The ships performed admirably despite their age, their massive batteries of updated guns proving useful in calm seas and coastal battles where they proved their worth in guarding the Empire’s ports from attack. And unlike most other broadsiders, their entire hull was armoured with wrought iron ranging between four and eight inches, which allowed them to tank hits from smaller guns. Their relative agility even allowed them to dodge torpedoes while other, less nimble ships foundered. But whenever they were dragged too far out to sea, predictable problems arose. Their instability, worsened by the even heavier new rifled gun battery, caused more than one of them to sink in bad weather, in particularly fast turns or due to uncontrolled flooding in battle. With such a tendency to roll so heavily, the lower gun deck (which housed all the 8in guns, as opposed to the 4 and 6in rifles on the upper deck) would be subject to flooding should the hatches be opened in rough seas. Worse yet was the damage inflicted by the more modern ships the Empire was facing; the big-gun ships favoured by the Order of Achatius and her Allies found no problem with overmatching the Lorica’s armour, even from range. Once penetrated, the ships citadel and vulnerable ammunition stores were wide open to destruction.

 

Several of them did, however, survive the War. Wartime construction eventually caught up, allowing the the Loricas to be replaced on the front line by newer, tougher ships that moved the old broadsiders to relatively safe port defense and reserve posts. After the war, the Perceptan navy diligently reorganized itself and, strapped for cash, decided to sell many of its obsolescent ships off to the highest foreign bidders. At least one Lorica found its way into the Royal Pyu Navy, while another became flagship to a short-lived but famous pirate of the Chornslad Alliance. After superseding their value as combatants, they would serve for the rest of their days as depot ships, coal hulks and training vessels... an ignominious end to the era of the sailing battleship.

Replaced with Full sized image

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 01-May-20.

 

Named: "City of Groningen".

 

First flown with the Fokker test registration PH-EXP, this aircraft was delivered to Austrian Air Services as OE-LFD in Jan-89 and operated on behalf of Austrian Airlines. Austrian Air Services was merged into Tyrolean Airways in May-94 and services for Austrian Airlines continued.

 

It was returned to Austrian Airlines in May-96. The aircraft was due to be leased to Denim Air (Netherlands) as PH-DMD but the lease was cancelled and it was leased to Skyways (Sweden) as SE-LEM in Apr-97.

 

It was returned to Austrian Airlines in Jan-99 and leased to Denim Air as PH-DMD the same day and operated on behalf of European Air Express. It returned to Denim Air in Aug-99 and was wet-leased to Air Nostrum (Spain).

 

Austrian Airlines sold the aircraft to Elmo Aviation Ltd in Nov-00 while the lease to Denim Air and sub-lease to Air Nostrum continued. It was returned to Denim Air and Elmo Aviation in May-01 and stored at Eindhoven, Netherlands.

 

It was re-registered TF-JMG in Sep-01 and eventually leased to Air Iceland (Flugfelag Islands) in Apr-02. It was wet-leased to Air Adriatic in Apr-04, short term.

 

The aircraft returned to the lessor in Jul-04 and was due to be leased to Air Baltic as YL-BAX but the lease was cancelled and it was leased to VLM Vlaamse Luchttransport Maatschappij (Belgium) as OO-VLM in Sep-04.

 

VLM was merged into CityJet (Ireland) in Nov-09. However it separated again under new management, becoming VLM again in Apr-15. Unfortunately that version of VLM ceased operations in Jun-16 (see note below).

 

The aircraft was returned to the lessor and stored at Saarbrucken, Germany. The aircraft was sold to Air Panama as HP-1992PST in Jan-17 and stored at Panama City's Paitilla Airport.

 

I can't find any evidence of it entering service and I'm assuming it was used as a spares source (it was 29 years old by that time). Updated 04-Jan-23.

 

Note: When you scratch the surface of VLM in it's later years, there were many owners and airlines involved including KLM/Air France, CityJet (also owned by KLM/Air France), a Management Buy-out, a German company and others. It's very complicated and, to be honest, of no real interest to the average aviation enthusiast.

Replacing an earlier scanned slide with a better version 10-Feb-15, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 17-Jun-23. A bit blurred!

 

With additional 'On Charter to C.A.A.C' (Central African Airlines Corporation) stickers.

 

This was parked outside the British Eagle hangars at London-Heathrow being serviced with British Eagle equipment. As the rest of the BOAC DC-7C fleet had been disposed of by spring 1964, I think Eagle had a maintenance contract for the remaining 2 freighters which were in service until spring 1965. As the stickers say, it was being 'Operated for C.A.A.C.' (Central African Airways Corporation).

 

This aircraft was delivered new to BOAC in Apr-57 and was in passenger service for just three and a half years before it was converted into a freighter with 2 main-deck cargo doors by the Douglas Aircraft Company at their Santa Monica, CA, plant in Dec-60.

 

It continued in service with BOAC Cargo until it was sold to Universal Trading Corp (USA) in May-65. It was transferred to FB Ayer & Associates the same month as N16465. It was leased to Airlift International in Jan-66, returning to FB Ayer in Sep-66.

 

The following month it was leased to International Aerodyne and sub-leased back to Airlift International. It was returned to FB Ayer in Sep-67. In Feb-68 it was leased to Air Caribbean Transport as 6Y-JFK and returned to FB Ayer in Apr-70, again as N16465 and was stored at Tucson, AZ, USA.

 

It was sold to Onyx Aviation in Mar-78 and sold again in Nov-78 to ComTran Inc and sold again to La mancha Aire Inc in Dec-81. Finally, it was sold to Paterson Aircraft Corp in Sep-83. It was later stored again at Miami and broken up there in Dec-92.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 03-Aug-24.

 

Named: "City of Hazrat Shah Jalal (R.A)".

 

This aircraft was delivered to Singapore Airlines as 9V-SDF in Nov-79. It was leased to VARIG Brasil as PP-VMR in Dec-79 and returned to Singapore Airlines as 9V-SDF in Nov-80.

 

It was sold to Biman Bangladesh Airlines as S2-ACQ in Nov-83 and was permanently retired at Dhaka, Bangladesh in Sep-11 after 32 years in service. Used as a spares source, it was eventually broken up at Dhaka in Feb-17.

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 05-Jan-22 (DeNoise AI).

 

UK Football Association 'Emirates FA Cup' logojet (right side).

 

First flown in Jul-13 with the Airbus test registration F-WWAD, this aircraft was ferried to the Airbus Factory airfield at Hamburg-Finkenwerder for cabin fitout and painting. it was delivered to Emirates Airline as A6-EES in Dec-13.

 

The aircraft was withdrawn from service in Mar-20 and stored at Dubai-World Central due to the COVID-19 Pandemic. It was moved back to Dubai-International in Oct-21 and returned to service in late Nov-21 after repainting in the 'DUBAI EXPO' special livery. Current, updated 05-Jan-22.