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This is a very simple manipulation, but I am recently beginning to figure out that sometimes, less is more. I kind of wish I added more to this, but whenever I tried, it just didn't look the way I wanted it to. So this is what I settled with and I am very happy with how it turned out.
Model is the beautiful doll-faced Nina, with the hands (literally) of Mikolaj and Nina's twin sister, Emily. Also, a big thank-you to my friend Allie for letting me use her syringe.
*quick note: no model/hands were harmed in the making of this photograph. :)
Variable power output modifications for Vivitar 2800 thyristor flash.
Part Two:
6. The disassembled flash unit is shown in "ONE", together will the newly soldered cable to the photo diode. You will need to use thin wire, no thicker than the existing wire in the flash. I replaced the white cable shown with thinner wire at a later stage.
7. Gently pull out the bottom PCB as far as you can.
8. Solder a cable to left and right connections of the photo diode as shown in "TWO". These wires should be about 15cm in length- they need to be long enough to feed up the side of the flash as indicated by the red dotted line in "ONE".
9. The other side of this PCB is shown in THREE.
10. Now comes the messy part. Using a soldering iron or the tool of your choice, make a ) shaped hole in the top side of the upper flash unit. The outer part is shown in photo "FOUR"- you will need to make a similar hole in the inner part (not shown). This hole needs to be long enough to allow the cables to move freely when the upper part of the flash is angled when using the flash.
(The following part may be amended later).
11. Feed the newly soldered wires alongside the existing wires, feeding it through the holes in the PCBs and refit the lower PCB.
12. Feed the wires through the new hole in the upper inner part of the flash head and reassemble the flash unit.
13. Take a 100k miniature potentiometer (mine is linear; I may try a log one later; a 250k potentiometer may be better but I don't have one) and snip off the prongs.
14. Solder the new wires to the centre and right terminals of the potentiometer (the underside of the potentiometer).
15. Push the wires back into the flash head and glue the potentiometer to the centre of the part shown in photo "FOUR".
16. Dtrill a 6mm hole in the centre of a cap that fits over the circular moulding shown in photo FOUR (I used the lid from a milk carton- the red cap shown in the other photo). Push it over the spindle of the potentiometer (cut the spindle to length prior to soldering the wires to it) and tighten up the washer/ nut.
17. Attach a knob to the spindle.
18. Test it. You have a 50% chance of turning the knob clockwise will increase the power output. If it reduces the power output, unsolder and reverse the wires on the back of the potentiometer (you did leave enough slack to do this didn't you?).
I think that covers it- please correct me if I've made a mistake, missed out a step or if it's unclear (I need to upload a missing photo). I will also be trying out a smaller sub-miniature potentiometer at a later date.
Total cost of this flash and mod was £4.85:
Flash: £3.21 (fleabay)
Knob: 94p
Potentiometer: 70p
Plastic cap and wire: free.
If you want to check the trigger voltage see: forums.steves-digicams.com/flash-external/84981-trigger-v...
Well he is kinda finished. I see a lot of things I could've done better. But I will alter him when I have time again.
I will sand his eyes a tad better for example. They are a tad bit grainy now. So it needs to be smoother.
But in the end I am happy with the result. He is the little snarling guy I wanted him to be, haha.
Fun project ^^
I have been having tons of fun playing around with the newly released LEGO Exo Suit set by Peter Reid and Mark Stafford. I have also done some modifications to the set to make it even more to my liking.
Here you can see the Exo Suit from the back. As I have mentioned on the frontal image, I have replaced all trans-yellow parts with blue. I liked the trans yellow, but wanted to match my Exo Suit more to Classic Space, thus blue was added. And I added some blue "wiring" using LEGO rubber-bands, at the lower arms, the upper arms (at the back) and the back of the legs.
In addition the back of the arms were greebled inspired by some of the techniques from Peter Reid's book (this set is a great study on greebling). The hoses were replaced by thicker ones, the ankles, the thighs, the elbows and shoulders all got modified and greebled. There are a few more things here and there that you will probably notice, but those are the major changes.
Chassis n° PCD39006
Engine n° 0026
Ultra rare EB 110 SS Prototype with unique factory modifications
Estimated : € 850.000 - 1.100.000
Sold for € 1.152.500
RM Sotheby's
Place Vauban
Parijs - Paris
Frankrijk - France
February 2018
Bugatti, one of the most legendary marques of all time, bears the name of Ettore Bugatti, who built his first automobile in 1898. In the first years of the 20th century, Bugatti designed several very important cars while working for other manufacturers. Following the factory’s move to Molsheim, the German town in Alsace, France, success abounded for Bugatti well into the mid-1930s, but the company fell on hard times soon thereafter. Ettore died in 1947 and the company lost direction. Bugatti ceased production completely in 1956.
After passing through the hands of several owners, the Bugatti name was purchased in 1991 by Italian businessman Romano Artioli, seeking to revive the fabled marque to its former glory with a new supercar. Artioli’s Bugatti Automobili S.p.A. produced just 139 total examples of the quad-turbo 3.5-litre V-12 EB110 and a later variant called the EB110 Super Sport (shortened to SS), boasting even more performance with a top speed of 216 mph of which only 36 were built. The car offered here, chassis no. PCD39006, is a factory prototype of the SS variant and is, consequently, an ultra-rare and hugely significant automobile fit for any Bugatti connoisseur.
Manufactured in early 1993, the car was intended to be used for body developments and was used in April of 1993 for homologation testing. Completed in June of 1993 with two-wheel drive and fitted with engine number 009, the car was used for fuel consumption homologation testing and afterwards, was later fitted with the standard four-wheel drive system and received a new and very special Super Sport engine, engine, no. 0026, the unit previously fitted to the prototype C7 (serial no. MCD39006 deconstructed) that was used to set the EB110’s world speed record in 1992 at 342.7 km/h.
Further to this, it was used as a test bed for the evaluation of several other modifications. The factory-spec EB110 had a significant issue with fuel delivery. The car had two separate fuel tanks and fillers, one for each bank of the 3.5-litre V-12 engine. This caused the engine to run on only six cylinders if one tank ran dry before the other. The prototype introduced a dual tank with a single filler to eliminate this problem, and also featured a revised gear shifter and lightweight carbon fibre engine cover, modifications not seen on other EB110s.
Mr Artioli’s company went into administration in 1995, and this car was sold to its first private owner in 1997. It was part of the Marin De Rijn Collection in the Netherlands until 2015, when it was purchased by the consignor. With him the car was shown at Salon Privé, where it received Best in Class honours.
Presented in concours condition in stunning light grey metallic, this rare and all-original EB110 SS prototype shows just 3.300 km on the odometer and is arguably the finest EB110 in existence. The car was recently fully serviced by HR Owen Bugatti of London, is UK registered and is ready to drive and enjoy. It also retains its original books and tools. Considering its exceptionally low mileage, its use as a factory test bed and known ownership history from new, it is plain to see that this EB110 SS prototype is a remarkable automobile in every sense and one truly fit for inclusion in the world’s finest collections.
Modification of the "Privateer Oliver Cromwell," to turn it into a Spanish Fireship. The skeleton crew battles rough seas as they evacuate the burning ship...
For more pictures, see:
Modifications on the Technic set 8110 Unimog U400.
- blue cabine
- steering steeringwheel
- black wheels, closed
- moving bucket (3 sides)
- Train bogey front and back
- Snowplough
Journal of Doctor S. Finnigan – Leading doctor of Project B27
Entry 104
After three months of the modification project, we are finally starting the last phase. The subject’s immune system is no longer fighting the medication and his muscles have been dissolved from the bones. According to Professor Rosenfeld’s calculations, they will easily reattach to the carbon skeleton after the procedure. Our head engineer Mr. Gordon and his team finished the prototype ten days ago and produced the first usable version. We are now making the final calibrations. The subject has been sedated and the observation team has arrived. The insertion procedure will start at 3pm, after the gouvernment‘s permission is given.
_______________________
This is something I wanted to upload for years now ! In 2011, n7mereel, Mr. Grievous and me built this, but never came around to uploading it for several reasons. Now I finally found the photos on my PC, reedited them and we decided to uploade them.
I still like it very much, even though it is a bit old.
Hope you agree !
Work in progress:
ready modification of 'Taiga' face mold, but I still need to smooth all the surface.
Рабочий процесс: модификация модели лица "Тайга" готова, но ещё нужно сгладить всю поверхность.
Latest modifications to my Harman Titan clone. I added a magnetically mounted viewfinder made from an old vegetable juice can and a beaded chain to keep the magnetic cap safe (I don't want to loose this one)
The appearance of the latest serial TEM2s reflects the evolution started in separate modifications - the TEM2U (ТЭМ2У, TEM2U) produced since 1978. www.flickr.com/photos/cetus13/49124144911/in/album-721577...
TEM2 (ТЭМ2) shunting locomotives were built routinely at 1960-90 yy primarily by the Bryansk Machine-Building Plant (JSC BMZ located in Bryansk, Russia; Брянский машиностроительный завод). With 6225 total production of base modification, 1000 were built in Soviet Ukraine by the Voroshilovgrad Locomotive works, (Ворошиловградский тепловозостроительный завод, ВЗОР, now the Luhansk Locomotive works), the leading Soviet Plant for steam engine and diesel locomotive production located in now rebel Luhansk Region.
The long story of TEM2 locomotives started when a small number of the ALCO RSD-1 switchers were obtained by USSR as the Lend-Lease shipments during WW2. They were designated as Da20 (Да20) type of locomotives of Soviet Railways. www.flickr.com/photos/cetus13/50992848521/in/album-721577...
The ALCO RSD-1 was hastily developed version of the ALCO RS-1 switcher with 2-axle bogie replaced by 3-axle for the poor Iranian railtracks that were used for shipment of Soviet Russia during war with Nazi Germany and Allies. By Jerry Pinkepank opinion this engine saved Soviet Russia during WW2 as it provided shipment of a bigger half of the lend-lease supplies (4 160 000 gross long tons) across Iran to USSR.
TE1 (ТЭ1), the first Soviet diesel locomotive built in big series at 1947-50 (298 ones) was in fact the non-lycensed copy of the american ALCO RSD-1 locomotive but in metric scale. www.flickr.com/photos/cetus13/47941920187/in/album-721577... TE1 were not excellent as the mainline locomotives, so its next variation, TEM1, were intended to use as shunting locomotives. They were developed on the base of TE1 locomotive and still had many elements of original ALCO RSD-1 design, but with modifications - bogies were significantly improved (especially the technology of its fabrication), also the D50 diesel (metric variant of the ALCO 539T used in TE1 and TE2) was modified to 2D50 (2Д50) version. www.flickr.com/photos/cetus13/48045101808/in/album-721577... TEM2 was developed as upgrade of the TEM1 with some modifications made including improved 1200 hp diesel PD1M (ПД1М) - further development of the 1000 hp. 2D50, bogies had additional coiled springs included in etc.
dumping car model 32-6982-01 built by the TikhvinSpetsMash, code 1568 (ЗАО ТихвинСпецМаш, ТСМ, Tikvin, Leningrad region, Russia) max load 72 t is equipped with bogies model 18-9855 (Barber-S) with inreased max load to 25 metric tons (standar 18-100 family had 22 t)
My Lomo Konstruktor F SLR camera. Here you see the red paint stripe I put on the back of the mirror return lever to remind me that I need to cock the shutter. I also did this to my original model Konstroktor too.
I bought this camera in 2016 because I enjoyed playing around with the original, plus I wanted flash capability.
fully mechanical hot hatch - modification of 31070 creator set
Flickr: www.flickr.com/photos/osterummoc/
Instagram: www.instagram.com/osterummoc/
Rebrickable: rebrickable.com/users/osterum/mocs/
Video: youtu.be/kZ3il-J_858
As requested here, here's an instruction video (made up of still photos taken after the event) of how I modified the LEGO L-motors for my DP1 model, so that the motors run 4.9x faster. The 2nd stage of the epicyclic gearbox needs to be bonded together (and its outer planet teeth removed), thus taking it out of the gear chain.
ATTEMPT AT YOUR OWN RISK!!
NOTE: I tried to make a jig to enable the housing to be taken apart without permanently cutting the plastic, but without success. Despite carefully aligning aluminium prongs filed from 1" sq angle, and assembling into a solid vice-like construction, it only served to crush (not quite permanently, thankfully) the whole motor. Damn!
TEETH INFO: L-motor epicyclic gearbox teeth -
Sun - 11T
Planets - 16T
Ring - 43T
The outer ring is stationary, reduction is achieved by driving the sun, the output of each stage is the planet carrier.
Flickr Lounge: jigsaw puzzle image
Time and plant life (and gravity) have made some changes here and there to the original building.
Marcus los his tooth piece ;)
I made it of apoxie for him and painted it. The thing looks like some creepy monster on its own :P
taken on the 21 dec 2012 in wiltshire uk...... Im not sure what these lines in the sky are but as you can see from the pictures they seemed to be pulling the spray left by the aircraft across the sky (see next 2 pics in my photostream). As much as i dont like to believe it, i think weather modification is real and poses a great threat to all of us and life on earth in general as we all have to breathe the same air !.. The reason i post these pictures is to try and raise awareness as i feel that the more people that know about this, the more chance there is of putting an end to this complete madness !!! For those of you who have not heard of this before please research geo engineering, chemtrails, solar radiation management... Anyway thanks for looking at my pictures and thanks to all you guys who continue to post great pictures here on flickr.....
So...what did I do to this EAH body?
Long story short:
After I shortened the neck and upper arms, I put the bits that were cut off in an acetone resistent lidded jar and added pure acetone ( don't smell the stuff! Work in a well ventilated area!). Once the plastic had melted to the right consistency, I used it to thicken the neck, glue back together the upper arms and to elongate the knees, then once the plastic was solid again I used sandpaper to make everything smooth.
I also cut a little bit of lenght from the bottom of her forearms, and slimmed down the calves ( her forearms and lower legs are made from different types of plastic and won't melt with acetone)
Short story long:
Like people who repaint dolls know well, acetone won't damage a doll's vinyl head, but it will melt its plastic body. In the past I used this fact to my advantage to remove the kind of copyright information that's molded ( insted of printed ) on some dolls and to glue back some doll torsos that I had cracked open and limbs that I had shortened.
When I had to modify this EAH body to fit my custom mini unoa head, I first thought about thickening the neck with epoxy putty, but then I would have had to use paint to cover the mods, and paint chips and it's difficult to match anyway. That's when I remembered the plastic melting properties of acetone, and after a quick internet search which returned a lot of results about car repairs... AND this tutorial www.flickr.com/photos/6_6tina/albums/72157646135456221 I was finally able to obtain my ideal closest equivalent to a 1/6 scale Unoa body... that's not a resin fluorite Unoa light *cries*
By the way:
Almost a year ago, when I posted the first pictures of this body, I included a brief "how to" underneath a pic of the naked body, hybridized with the head of Barbie's little sister Chelsea. That photo gained thousands of views in a suspiciously very short time.
Now... I'm not bothered -AT ALL- by doll nudity, but somehow, the fact that what was basically a child's head on a fairly realistically sculpted naked body was gaininig so many views so fast made me a bit uneasy, lol :| so I deleted the picture... totally forgetting about the tutorial underneath it, so here it is again :P
Scarification
Hey there Harry Potter fans! You must have seen Harry’s scar on his forehead. That is something different from what we are talking about here. If you wish, you could also have a similar scar like Harry on your body (wherever you like). You just need to opt for scarification and i...
Reddit user Conc, also known as "Steve who restored the real Delorean A car"(imgur.com/a/OlWlB#0) inspired me with his modifications to improve my own set, and I'm satisfied with the outcome.
The Colosseum or Coliseum (/kɒləˈsiːəm/ kol-ə-SEE-əm), also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium; Italian: Anfiteatro Flavio [aŋfiteˈaːtro ˈflaːvjo] or Colosseo [kolosˈsɛːo]), is an oval amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy. Built of travertine, tuff, and brick-faced concrete, it is the largest amphitheatre ever built. The Colosseum is situated just east of the Roman Forum. Construction began under the emperor Vespasian in AD 72, and was completed in AD 80 under his successor and heir Titus. Further modifications were made during the reign of Domitian (81–96). These three emperors are known as the Flavian dynasty, and the amphitheatre was named in Latin for its association with their family name (Flavius).
The Colosseum could hold, it is estimated, between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators, having an average audience of some 65,000; it was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles (for only a short time as the hypogeum was soon filled in with mechanisms to support the other activities), animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although partially ruined because of damage caused by earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is still an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome and is listed as one of the New 7 Wonders of the World. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and also has links to the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
The Colosseum
The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheatre. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, following the reign of Nero.]This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum (with Caesareum an adjective pertaining to the title Caesar), but this name may have been strictly poetic as it was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby (the statue of Nero was named after the Colossus of Rhodes).[citation needed] This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world"). This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as Coloseumul (Romanian), le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).
A map of central Rome during the Roman Empire, with the Colosseum at the upper right corner
The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.
Cross-section from the Lexikon der gesamten Technik (1904)
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both symbolically and precisely at the heart of Rome.
Construction was funded by the opulent spoils taken from the Jewish Temple after the Great Jewish Revolt in 70 AD led to the Siege of Jerusalem. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." Along with the spoils, estimated 100,000 Jewish prisoners were brought back to Rome after the war, and many contributed to the massive workforce needed for construction. The slaves undertook manual labor such as working in the quarries at Tivoli where the travertine was quarried, along with lifting and transporting the quarried stones 20 miles from Tivoli to Rome.[17] Along with this free source of unskilled labor, teams of professional Roman builders, engineers, artists, painters and decorators undertook the more specialized tasks necessary for building the Colosseum.
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of Vespasian in around 70–72 AD (73-75 AD according to some sources) The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished by his son, Titus, in 80, and the inaugural games were held in A.D. 80 or 81. Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. Commemorative coinage was issued celebrating the inauguration.The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[20]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. Gladiatorial fights are last mentioned around 435. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[21] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.[16]
Medieval
Map of medieval Rome depicting the Colosseum
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small chapel had been built into the structure of the amphitheater, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvial terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century [22] and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheater was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[16] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.
Modern
The Colosseum in a 1757 engraving by Giovanni Battista Piranesi
1747 view by Giovanni Paolo Panini, emphasizing the semi-rural environs of the Colosseum at the time
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[23] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
Allied troops consult a guidebook outside the Colosseum after liberation in 1944
In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Significance in Christianity). However, there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone before the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition, other than the reasonably plausible conjecture that some of the many martyrs may well have been.[24]
Interior of the Colosseum, Rome (1832) by Thomas Cole, showing the Stations of the Cross around the arena and the extensive vegetation
Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.[16]
The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices).
In recent years the Colosseum has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the colour of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[25] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold in November 2012 following the abolishment of capital punishment in the American state of Connecticut in April 2012.
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[27] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[28] Elton John (September 2005),[29] and Billy Joel (July 2006).
The Colosseum today as a background to the busy metropolis
Physical description
Exterior
Original façade of the Colosseum
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 24,000 square metres (6 acres). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic metres (3,531,467 cubic feet) of travertine stone which were set without mortar; they were held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[16] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.
The exterior of the Colosseum, showing the partially intact outer wall (left) and the mostly intact inner wall (center and right)
The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters. Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[4] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[
Entrance LII of the Colosseum, with Roman numerals still visible
The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators. Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) survive.
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.
Interior seating
The raked areas that once held seating
According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebeians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.[16]
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.[32]
Arena and hypogeum
The Colosseum arena, showing the hypogeum now filled with walls. The walls were added early in the Colosseum's existence when it was decided it would no longer be flooded and used for naval battles.
Latin inscription in the Colosseum
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[16] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). The hypogeum was not part of the original construction but was ordered to be built by Emperor Domitian. Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[16]
Detail of the hypogeum
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[16]
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[16] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct. However, the construction of the hypogeum at Domitian's behest put an end to the practise of flooding, and thus also to naval battles, early in the Colosseum's existence.
Supporting buildings
The Colosseum – a view from the Oppian Hill
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
Use
Pollice Verso (Thumbs Down) by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1872
The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, Barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, Caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days. During lunch intervals, executions ad bestias would be staged. Those condemned to death would be sent into the arena, naked and unarmed, to face the beasts of death which would literally tear them to pieces. Other performances would also take place by acrobats and magicians, typically during the intervals.
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor, and animals would then be introduced. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story – played by a condemned person – was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
Today
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year entering to view the interior arena.[33] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.
The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI led the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum on Good Fridays.
Restoration
In 2011 Diego Della Valle, head of the shoe firm Tod's, entered into an agreement with local officials to sponsor a €25 million restoration of the Colosseum. Work was planned to begin at the end of 2011, taking up to two and a half years. Due to the controversial nature of using a public–private partnership to fund the restoration, work was delayed and began in 2013. The restoration is the first full cleaning and repair in the Colosseum's history.[38] The first stage is to clean and restore the Colosseum's arcaded façade and replace the metal enclosures that block the ground-level arches. Taking three years, the final product of this work was unveiled July 1, 2016, when the Italian minister of culture, Dario Franceschini, also announced that the funds have been committed to replace the floors by the end of 2018. These will provide a stage that Franceschini says will be used for "cultural events of the highest level." The project also plans to create a services center and to restore the galleries and underground spaces inside the Colosseum.. New to tours of the restored marvel beginning November 1, 2017, the top two levels have been opened for guided visits. The fourth level held the marketplace, and the top fifth tier is where the poorest citizens, the plebians, gathered and watched the show, bringing picnics for the day-long event.
Significance in Christianity
The Colosseum is generally regarded by Christians as a site of the martyrdom of large numbers of believers during the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, as evidenced by Church history and tradition.On the other hand, other scholars believe that the majority of martyrdoms may have occurred at other venues within the city of Rome, rather than at the Colosseum, citing a lack of still-intact physical evidence or historical records. These scholars assert that "some Christians were executed as common criminals in the Colosseum—their crime being refusal to reverence the Roman gods", but most Christian martyrs of the early Church were executed for their faith at the Circus Maximus.[48][49] According to Irenæus (died about 202), Ignatius of Antioch was fed to the lions in Rome around 107 A.D and although Irenaeus says nothing about this happening at the Colosseum, tradition ascribes it to that place.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was not regarded as a monument, and was used as what some modern sources label a "quarry,"[54] which is to say that stones from the Colosseum were taken for the building of other sacred sites.[55] This fact is used to support the idea that, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated the Colosseum was not being treated as a sacred site.[56] It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius – but not the Colosseum – as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian religious order, but it is not known whether this was for any particular religious reason.
Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs, although some of his contemporaries did not share his conviction.A century later Fioravante Martinelli listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra. Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary.
Cross dedicated to the Christian martyrs, placed in 2000 by Pope John Paul II.
At the insistence of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, before he died in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains its Christian connection today. A Christian cross stands in the Colosseum, with a plaque, stating:
The amphitheater, one consecrated to triumphs, entertainments, and the impious worship of pagan gods, is now dedicated to the sufferings of the martyrs purified from impious superstitions.
Other Christian crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheater.
Flora
Plants on the inner walls of the Colosseum
The Colosseum has a wide and well-documented history of flora ever since Domenico Panaroli made the first catalogue of its plants in 1643. Since then, 684 species have been identified there. The peak was in 1855 (420 species). Attempts were made in 1871 to eradicate the vegetation, because of concerns over the damage that was being caused to the masonry, but much of it has returned. 242 species have been counted today and of the species first identified by Panaroli, 200 remain.
The variation of plants can be explained by the change of climate in Rome through the centuries. Additionally, bird migration, flower blooming, and the growth of Rome that caused the Colosseum to become embedded within the modern city centre rather than on the outskirts of the ancient city, as well as deliberate transport of species, are also contributing causes. Another reason often given is their seeds being unwittingly transported either on the fur or in the faeces of animals brought there from all corners of the empire.
Works modeled on, or inspired by, the Colosseum
The Kongresshalle, or "Congress Hall", (1935, unfinished) at the Nazi Party Rally grounds, Nuremberg, Germany
The Summer Olympic Games medal from 1928 to 2000, designed by Giuseppe Cassioli, features a depiction of the Colosseum. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens the Colosseum was replaced by a depiction of the Panathinaiko Stadium
The exterior of the Vancouver Public Library in British Columbia resembles the current state of the Colosseum. It was designed by Moshe Safdie.
The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum entrance was inspired by the Colosseum.
The Palazzo della Civilta Italiana was very closely modelled on the Colosseum. It was built for Mussolini for the Universal Exhibition of 1942 but the exhibition never happened due to the outbreak of World War II. The architects were Giovanni Guerrini, Ernesto Bruno La Padula, and Mario Romano.
McCaig's Tower, overlooking Oban, Scotland.
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Popular culture references
The Colosseum was featured in the 2010 video game Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood. The Colosseum is of great importance to the entire Assassin's Creed series as a whole: first, it was an entrance site to a Lair of Romulus, second, the Lair beneath the Colosseum led directly to the Temple of Juno Moneta which housed the Apple of Eden, third, it was used in a Passion Play depicting Jesus Christ's crucifixion where an assassination attempt was unfoiled by the protagonist Ezio Auditore da Firenze, fourth, in the 21st century, Desmond Miles freeran through the maze in the Colosseum in order to find the Temple of Juno Moneta below the Basilica of Santa Maria in Ara Coeli and the Apple kept in it by Ezio in 1506 and fifth, it has a glyph at the top.[62] In addition, the Colosseum is elliptical (oval-shaped) in reality, but it was made circular for Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood, since devising shadows for different sides of the buildings would have "driven game designers nuts".[63]
The iconic status of the Colosseum has led it to be featured in numerous films, such as Roman Holiday, Demetrius and the Gladiators, 20 Million Miles to Earth, Way of the Dragon, Gladiator (in which it was re-created via CGI), Megiddo: The Omega Code 2, The Core, The Lizzie McGuire Movie, Jumper, and the animated movie Madagascar 3: Europe's Most Wanted.
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