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Rome Cavalieri, Waldorf Astoria Hotels & Resorts
Via Alberto Cadlolo 101
00136 Rome, Italy
*** In the Beginning ***
In 1954 Fred Joyce, the publicity Director for Hilton Hotels Corporation, issued the following press release:
"The Societa Generale Immobiliare (Real Estate), in cooperation with Hilton Hotels International have formed the company to be known as Italo American Nuovo Alberghi (New Hotel) which will have an eventual capitalizaiton of some $3 million. The hotel will be known as the Albergo dei Cavalieri Hilton and will cost approximately $7 million. Emilio Pifferi, a famous Italian architect is presently consulting in Rome with John W. Houser, executive vice president of Hilton Hotels International regarding the design and planning for the new hotel. It is expected that Rome's municipal government will build a new expressway from the heart of the city to the hotel."
Houser was a former Marine intelligence officer who became a director at Hilton Hotels International. Houser had negotiated with the pro-Batista Cuban faction for the casino in the Havana Hilton which opened in 1958 and nationalized in 1960.
The hotel would be owned by the Rome real estate Sociata General Immobiliare (The General Company of Real Estate). At that time the Vatican was the largest shareholder in Sociata General Immobiliare. The proposed name of the hotel was Albergo Dei Cavalieri Hilton (The hotel of knights Hilton). Societa General Immobiliare is known to have the Vatican among its stockholders. It has also built the Watergate Complex in Washington, D.C. The name Cavalieri pays tribute to the riders or knights who for centuries rode the path known as Via Francigene from Canterbury in England through France and on to Rome. Travellers used to rest on the hill of Monte Mario.
Conrad Hilton made a trip in 1955 to work with Italian concerns for the construction of the hotel. Hilton's plans were fought by the Left-wing parties in the Rome Municipal Council. The Communists (as Left-wingers were known then) contended the proposed Hilton Hotel was ugly and would ruin the sky line of Monte Mario. A proposal for a smaller, lower hotel was finally approved in 1959. Opposition to the hotel, led by Antonio Cederna, one of the founders of Italian Nostra, began immediately referring to the hotel site as a "wound" in the green of Monte Mario. The site of the hotel was expected to be a public green such as on the Janiculum Hill, the second tallest hill in Rome with Monte Mario the tallest. The Italian Nostra organisation was founded in 1955 with the specific aim of opposing the projected demolition of part of the city’s historic centre. The hotel is located in the residential area of Monte Mario, Rome’s highest hill. The Rome Cavalieri is 3 km from the Vatican and 5 km from the historic city centre and is nestled in a 15-acre private Mediterranean park, overlooking the Eternal City.
On September 13, 1960 Conrad Hilton watched as the cornerstone of a six-story hotel bearing his name was laid on Monte Mario. Designed by Ugo Luccichenti (1898 - 1976), Emilio Pifferi and Alberto Ressa the hotel was under construction from 1960 -1963.
*** Cavalieri Hilton Hotel opened in June 1963 ***
The hotel has 400 rooms and suites and sits high atop Monte Mario northwest of Rome. It has a panoramic view of almost the entire city. The italian architectural team of Ugo Luccichenti, Emillio Pisseri and Alberto Rossa designed the 8 story hotel. An opposing planner and architect, Italo Insolera, was quoted "the hotel was even worse in reality than one would expect." Others say the hotel belongs in Miami Beach. In the hotel lobby's atrium, the spiral fountain was designed by Franco Albini (1905/77) and Franca Helg (1920/89).
When opened in 1963 the building was an admirable example of modular architecture, resulting in a style which is both clean-lined and functional. The hotel resembled a Mediterranean vacation village, including olympic size swimming pool, tennis courts and a 7 acre park filled with pines, cyprus, olive pal and lemon trees. The hotel's original restaurants were the roof terrace restaurant night club La Pergolia with a cosmopolitan cuisine with specialties from around the world. At the garden level is a night club/restaurant known as L'Ellisse with French cuisine. La Belle Arti specialized in Italian food. The coffee shop (note the lower case) served Italian and American food with prices from $1.25 to $2.25. The coffee shop had an American style soda fountain and two pizza ovens. The hotel's massive ballroom, Salone dei Cavalieri, could seat 1,600. The hotels opening rates were $10.50 for a single to $74.00 for a two room suite. There was a 18% service charge and a 3% government tax. The ballroom was the largest space without column support at that time in Italy. Italians called it the most beautiful hotel in Rome "l'albergo più bello di Roma".
In 2001 the Rome Cavalieri Hilton, started a four-year, $45-million renovation designed to enhance the guest experience across all touchpoints of the resort. Each of the 370 guestrooms were modernized and refurbished, welcoming travelers with opulent new amenities and a higher level of convenience and connectivity. Also new is a collection of 25 individually designed and decorated suites. The property received extensive landscaping attention, the lobby received a face-lift, new fitness offerings were added and meeting space upgraded.
The Rome Cavalieri Hilton lobby received new reception and concierge desks by Italian architect Gaetano Castelli which feature surfaces made of Sodalite, a rare Brazilian semi-precious stone dramatically shaded in blue, gray and green. This stone is believed to facilitate communication between people, stimulate creativity and soothe and relax the soul. Antique multi-chrome marble panels, originally decorative features of an aristocratic southern Italian palazzo, adorn the center of each desk, encased at the sides by contemporary curved blue crystal. Also displayed in the lobby are some rare Old Master paintings, furniture, tapestries and artifacts dating from the 17th and 18th centuries.
In 2002 the Rome Cavalieri Hilton had 372 rooms. A standard double was US $474, Continental breakfast is US $29. The use of the fitness center was US $28; a massage, US $80. Dinner at La Pergola for two with wine, about US $320.
In 2008 the hotel was rebranded from "just a Hilton" to Rome Cavalieri, Waldorf Astoria Hotels & Resorts. Guestrooms were refurbished in 2011. The Imperial La Pergola is Rome’s only 3 star Michelin rooftop restaurant.
*** Hotel Art Collection ***
The Rome Cavalieri possibly has the world’s most prestigious art collection housed within a hotel worldwide. Among the over one thousand works of art kept in the hotel:
Paintings
"Ulysses discovering Achilles among the daughters of Nicomedes" by G.B. Tiepolo (1696/1770)
"Judgement of Paris" by Giuseppe Bazzani (1690/1769)
"Landscape with Hermit" by Alessandro Magnasco (1667/1749)
"Flora" by Carlo Cignani (1628/1719) a pupil of Francesco Albani
"Arrival of the Bucintoro in St. Mark's Square" by Josef Heintz the Younger (about 1600/78)
"Country landscape with bridge" by Giuseppe Zaïs (1709/84) artist from Belluno who died in poverty, exponent of the Arcadian school
"Dollar Sign" by Andy Warhol (1928/87)
Sculptures
Bronze statue "Boy with Dog" by Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770/1844)
Marble sculpture "The Kiss" by Antonio Tantardini (1829/79)
*** General Managers ***
Franz Schutzman (1915-2001) was the opening general manager. He served from 1962-1964. Prior to the Rome Cavalieri Hilton he was the Manager Raffles Hotel, Singapore, 1950-1959 and general manager Nile Hotel, Cairo, 1960-1961. From Rome Schutzman went on to general manager Hyatt Regency Toronto, Ontario, 1971-1974. Vice president, general manager United Nations Plaza Hotel, New York City, 1974-1976 and general manager The Manila Hotel, 1976-1987.
It is said Franz Schutzman concocted the popular cocktail, the Singapore Sling, while at the Raffles Hotel. Paul Schreiber was the opening Food and Beverage Manager, previously he was at the Hilton Hawaiian Village. In 1964 Berne Hal-Mann and Group played for seven months in the La Pergola - they were the house band at the Garden Bar at the Hilton Hawaiian Village for many years.
From 1964 to 1967 Gabor Olah De Garab (1924-2014) was the general manager. He also managed the Watergate Hotel in Washington DC for 18 years from 1967 to 1985. Gabor Olah de Garab was born in Paszto, Hungary on August 8, 1924. After studying hotel management at the world-renowned Ecole Hoteliere in Lausanne, Switzerland, he held managerial positions at the Gallia Excelsior in Milan, the Hotel Splendido in Portofino and the Cavalieri Rome Hilton. In 1967, at the request of Giuseppe Cecchi, one of Washington, DC's foremost real estate developers and then project manager for the Watergate complex development, Olah assumed leadership of the Watergate Hotel that year and served as its General Manager for 18 years.
When Hilton took over the Kaiser Hawaiian Village in 1961 it appointed Olaf S. Bonde as Executive Assistan Manager. German born Bonde came to the U.S. in 1952 and worked for the Statler hotel chain until it was purchased by Hilton. He arrived in Hawaii from the Berlin Hilton which he helped to open. Bonde has a Bachelor of Science in Hotel Administration, Heidelberg University, Germany, 1948. Bonde went on to be the general manager Tokyo Hilton, 1963-1965, and the Cavalieri Hilton-Rome from 1965-1972. He was appointed Area director, vice president Hilton International (central Europe, eastern Mediterranean), officed in Rome from 1973-1988. Currently semi-retired running Bonde Consulting.
Serge Ethuin was the Cavalieri general manager from 2008 thru 2014. Serge graduated in 1982 from the Ecole Hôtelière in Strasbourg, and began his career in 1983 working for the Hilton Group as a receptionist at Hilton Paris, Strasbourg Hilton and the Orly Hilton. In 1997, he was appointed general manager of the Hilton Madagascar and followed by Hilton Rome Airport and Hilton Arc de Triomphe. In 2008 he moved to head the Rome Cavalieri Hilton, which became the first European hotel to integrate the prestigious Waldorf-Astoria Collection. Serge Ethuin inspired a new dynamic through the three Michelin Star restaurant La Pergola, the Grand Spa Club, the hotel's unique Art collection. In 2011, he was awarded “Best General Manager” by Waldorf Astoria Worldwide. After 30 years within the Hilton Group, Serge Ethuin moved on to managed the Royal Monceau Raffles Paris and most recently as General Manager of the Hotel Metropole Monte-Carlo.
In 2014 Alessandro Maurizio Cabella was appointed general manager of the Rome Cavalieri, Waldorf Astoria Hotels & Resorts. He previously served as general manager at Hilton Molino Stucky Venice, the Hilton Vilamoura As Cascatas Golf Resort & Spa in Portugal and Hotel Mirabeau - Société des Bains de Mer Monte Carlo in Monaco.
It seems the best chef in Rome is German. Heinz Beck has presided over Pergola, the panoramic restaurant at the Rome Cavalieri Hilton, since 1994. The dining room tables are arrayed around the picture windows overlooking the city. Rare tapestries, paintings, sculptures, and blown glass give the restaurant an atmosphere of excellence. Rated 3 stars in the Michelin guide, La Pergola is routinely voted the best in Rome. The wine cellar is vast: an array of rooms containing 65,000 bottles of wine, with 3,500 different labels offered on the list. The 7 course tasting menu here was €210, with a full a la carte choice as an alternative. Heinz Beck now has restaurants in Portugal, Dubai, London (Apsleys) and Tokyo.
Compiled by Dick Johnson, May 2017
The litter (or Palaquin) is a class of wheelless vehicles, a type of human-powered transport, for the transport of persons. Examples of litter vehicles include lectica (ancient Rome), kiệu [轎] (Vietnam), sedan chair (Britain), litera (Spain), palanquin (France, India, Ghana), jiao (China), liteira (Portugal), wo (วอ, Chinese style known as kiao เกี้ยว) (Thailand), gama (Korea), koshi, ren and kago [駕籠] (Japan) and tahtırevan (Turkey).
Smaller litters may take the form of open chairs or beds carried by two or more carriers, some being enclosed for protection from the elements. Larger litters, for example those of the Chinese emperors, may resemble small rooms upon a platform borne upon the shoulders of a dozen or more people. To most efficiently carry a litter, porters will attempt to transfer the load to their shoulders, either by placing the carrying poles upon their shoulders, or the use of a yoke to transfer the load from the carrying poles to the shoulder.
DEFINITIONS
A simple litter, often called a king carrier, consists of a sling attached along its length to poles or stretched inside a frame. The poles or frame are carried by porters in front and behind. Such simple litters are common on battlefields and emergency situations, where terrain prohibits wheeled vehicles from carrying away the dead and wounded.
Litters can also be created by the expedient of the lashing of poles to a chair. Such litters, consisting of a simple cane chair with maybe an umbrella to ward off the elements and two stout bamboo poles, may still be found in Chinese mountain resorts such as the Huangshan Mountains to carry tourists along scenic paths and to viewing positions inaccessible by other means of transport.
A more luxurious version consists of a bed or couch, sometimes enclosed by curtains, for the passenger or passengers to lie on. These are carried by at least two porters in equal numbers in front and behind, using wooden rails that pass through brackets on the sides of the couch. The largest and heaviest types would be carried by draught animals.
Another form, commonly called a sedan chair, consists of a chair or windowed cabin suitable for a single occupant, also carried by at least two porters in front and behind, using wooden rails that pass through brackets on the sides of the chair. These porters were known in London as "chairmen". These have been very rare since the 19th century, but such enclosed portable litters have been used as an elite form of transport for centuries, especially in cultures where women are kept secluded.
Sedan chairs, in use until the 19th century, were accompanied at night by link-boys who carried torches. Where possible, the link boys escorted the fares to the chairmen, the passengers then being delivered to the door of their lodgings. Several houses in Bath, Somerset, England still have the link extinguishers on the exteriors, shaped like outsized candle snuffers. In the 1970s, entrepreneur and Bathwick resident, John Cuningham, revived the sedan chair service business for a brief amount of time.
ANTIQUITY
In pharaonic Egypt and many oriental realms such as China, the ruler and divinities (in the form of an idol) were often transported in a litter in public, frequently in procession, as during state ceremonial or religious festivals.
The ancient Hebrews fashioned the Ark of the Covenant to resemble and function as a litter for the ten commandments and presence of God.
In Ancient Rome, a litter called lectica or "sella" often carried members of the imperial family, as well as other dignitaries and other members of the rich elite, when not mounted on horseback.
The habit must have proven quite persistent, for the Third Council of Braga in 675 AD saw the need to order that bishops, when carrying the relics of martyrs in procession, must walk to the church, and not be carried in a chair, or litter, by deacons clothed in white.
In the Catholic Church, Popes were carried the same way in Sedia gestatoria, which was replaced later by the Popemobile.
IN ASIA
CHINA
In Han China the elite travelled in light bamboo seats supported on a carrier's back like a backpack. In the Northern Wei Dynasty and the Northern and Southern Song Dynasties, wooden carriages on poles appear in painted landscape scrolls.
A commoner used a wooden or bamboo civil litter (Chinese: 民轎; pinyin: min2 jiao4), while the mandarin class used an official litter (Chinese: 官轎; pinyin: guan1 jiao4) enclosed in silk curtains.
The chair with perhaps the greatest importance was the bridal chair. A traditional bride is carried to her wedding ceremony by a "shoulder carriage" (Chinese: 肩輿; pinyin: jiān yú), usually hired. These were lacquered in an auspicious shade of red, richly ornamented and gilded, and were equipped with red silk curtains to screen the bride from onlookers.
Sedan chairs were once the only public conveyance in Hong Kong, filling the role of cabs. Chair stands were found at all hotels, wharves, and major crossroads. Public chairs were licensed, and charged according to tariffs which would be displayed inside. Private chairs were an important marker of a person's status. Civil officers' status was denoted by the number of bearers attached to his chair. Before Hong Kong's Peak Tram went into service in 1888, wealthy residents of The Peak were carried on sedan chairs by coolies up the steep paths to their residence including Sir Richard MacDonnell's (former Governor of Hong Kong) summer home, where they could take advantage of the cooler climate. Since 1975 an annual sedan chair race has been held to benefit the Matilda International Hospital and commemorate the practice of earlier days.
KOREA
In Korea, royalty and aristocrats were carried in wooden litters called gama. Gamas were primarily used by royalty and government officials. There were six types of gama, each assigned to different government official rankings. In traditional weddings, the bride and groom are carried to the ceremony in separate gamas. Because of the difficulties posed by the mountainous terrain of the Korean peninsula and the lack of paved roads, gamas were preferred over wheeled vehicles.
JAPAN
As the population of Japan increased, less and less land was available as grazing for the upkeep of horses. With the availability of horses restricted to martial uses, human powered transport became more important and prevalent.
Kago (Kanji: 駕籠, Hiragana: かご) were often used in Japan to transport the non-samurai citizen. Norimono were used by the warrior class and nobility, most famously during the Tokugawa period when regional samurai were required to spend a part of the year in Edo (Tokyo) with their families, resulting in yearly migrations of the rich and powerful (Sankin-kōtai) to and from the capital along the central backbone road of Japan.
Somewhat similar in appearance to kago are the portable shrines that are used to carry the "god-body" (goshintai), the central totemic core normally found in the most sacred area of Shinto Shrines, on a tour to and from a shrine during some religious festivals.
THAILAND
In Thailand, the royalty were also carried in wooden litters called wo ("พระวอ" Phra Wo, literally, "Royal Sedan") for large ceremonies. Wos were elaborately decorated litters that were delicately carved and colored by gold leaves. Stained glass is also used to decorate the litters. Presently, Royal Wos and carriages are only used for royal ceremonies in Thailand. They are exhibited in the Bangkok National Museum.
INDONESIA
In traditional Javanese society, the generic palanquin or joli was a wicker chair with a canopy, attached to two poles, and borne on men's shoulders, and was available for hire to any paying customer. As a status marker, gilded throne-like palanquins, or jempana, were originally reserved solely for royalty, and later co-opted by the Dutch, as a status marker: the more elaborate the palanquin, the higher the status of the owner. The joli was transported either by hired help, by nobles' peasants, or by slaves.
Historically, the palanquin of a Javanese king (raja), prince (pangeran), lord (raden mas) or other noble (bangsawan) was known as a jempana; a more throne-like version was called a pangkem. It was always part of a large military procession, with a yellow (the Javanese colour for royalty) square canopy. The ceremonial parasol (payung) was held above the palanquin, which was carried by a bearer behind and flanked by the most loyal bodyguards, usually about 12 men, with pikes, sabres, lances, muskets, keris and a variety of disguised blades. In contrast, the canopy of the Sumatran palanquin was oval-shaped and draped in white cloth; this was reflective of greater cultural permeation by Islam. Occasionally, a weapon or heirloom, such as an important keris or tombak, was given its own palanquin. In Hindu culture in Bali today, the tradition of using palanquins for auspicious statues, weapons or heirlooms continues, for funerals especially; in more elaborate rituals, a palanquin is used to bear the body, and is subsequently cremated along with the departed.
INDIA
A palanquin, also known as palkhi, is a covered sedan chair (or litter) carried on four poles. It derives from the Sanskrit word for a bed or couch, pa:lanka.
Palanquins were one of the luxurious methods used by the rich and noblemen for travelling. This was primarily used in the past to carry a deity or idol of a God, and many temples have sculptures of God being carried in a palki. Later on, it was primarily used by European noblemen and ladies from the upper classes of society prior to the advent of the railways in India. Modern use of the palanquin is limited to Indian weddings and Pilgrimage.
Palanquins are mentioned in literature as early as the Ramayana (c. 250BC).
Palanquins began to fall out of use after rickshaws (on wheels, more practical) were introduced in the 1930s.
The doli (also transliterated from Hindi as dhooly or dhoolie) is a cot or frame, suspended by the four corners from a bamboo pole. Two or four men would carry it. In the time of the British in India, dhooly-bearers were used to carry the wounded from the battlefield and transport them.
Today in numerous areas of India including at the Hindu pilgrimage site of Amarnath Temple in Kashmir, palanquins can be hired to carry the customer up steep hills.
IN AFRICA
GHANA
In Southern Ghana the Akan and the Ga-Dangme carry their chiefs and kings in palanquins when they appear in their state durbars. When used in such occasions these palanquins may be seen as a substitutes of a state coach in Europe or a horse used in Northern Ghana. The chiefs of the Ga (mantsemei) in the Greater Accra Region (Ghana) use also figurative palanquins which are built after a chief's family symbol or totem. But these day the figurative palanquins are very seldom used. They are related with the figurative coffins which have become very popular among the Ga in the last 50 years. Since these figurative coffins were shown 1989 in the exhibition "Les magicians de la terre" in the Centre Pompidou in Paris they were shown in many art museums around the world.
ANGOLA
From at least the 15th century until the 19th century, litters of varying types known as tipoye were used in the Kingdom of Kongo as a mode of transportation for the elites. Seat-style litters with a single pole along the back of the chair carried by two men (usually slaves) were topped with an umbrella. Lounge-style litters in the shape of a bed were used to move one to two people with porter at each corner. Due to the tropical climate, horse were not native to the area nor could they survive very ong once introduced by the Portuguese. Human portage was the only mode of transportation in the region and became highly adept with missionary accounts claiming the litter transporters could move at speeds 'as fast as post horses at the gallop'.
IN THE WEST
EUROPE
Portuguese and Spanish navigators and colonistics encountered litters of various sorts in India, Mexico, and Peru. They were imported into Spain and spread into France and then Britain. All the names for these devices are ultimately derived from the root sed- in Latin sedere, "sit," which gave rise to seda ("seat") and its diminutive sedula ("little seat"), the latter of which was contracted to sella, the traditional Latin name for a carried chair. The carried chair met instant success in Europe, whose city streets were often a literal mess of mud and refuse: Where cities and towns did not enjoy the presence of sewage systems left over from Imperial Roman days, it was common to empty chamber pots and discard kitchen refuse from windows down into the adjacent streets. Affluent and well-to-do citizens often found it hazardous and impractical to negotiate those avenues, and sedan chairs allowed them to remain prim and spotless while the carrying valets had to contend with the mud and the filth.
In Europe, Henry VIII of England was carried around in a sedan chair — it took four strong chairmen to carry him towards the end of his life — but the expression "sedan chair" was not used in print until 1615. It does not seem to take its name from the city of Sedan. Trevor Fawcett notes that British travellers Fynes Moryson (in 1594) and John Evelyn (in 1644-5) remarked on the seggioli of Naples and Genoa, which were chairs for public hire slung from poles and carried on the shoulders of two porters.
From the mid-17th century, visitors taking the waters at Bath would be conveyed in a chair enclosed in baize curtains, especially if they had taken a heated bath and were going straight to bed to sweat. The curtains kept off a possibly fatal draft. These were not the proper sedan chairs "to carry the better sort of people in visits, or if sick or infirmed" (Celia Fiennes). In the 17th and 18th centuries, the chairs stood in the main hall of a well-appointed city residence, where a lady could enter and be carried to her destination without setting foot in a filthy street. The neoclassical sedan chair made for Queen Charlotte remains at Buckingham Palace.
By the mid-17th century, sedans for hire were a common mode of transportation. In London, "chairs" were available for hire in 1634, each assigned a number and the chairmen licensed because the operation was a monopoly of a courtier of Charles I. Sedan chairs could pass in streets too narrow for a carriage and were meant to alleviate the crush of coaches in London streets, an early instance of traffic congestion. A similar system was later used in Scotland. In 1738, a fare system was established for Scottish sedans, and the regulations covering chairmen in Bath are reminiscent of the modern Taxi Commission's rules. A trip within a city cost six pence and a day's rental was four shillings. A sedan was even used as an ambulance in Scotland's Royal Infirmary.
Chairmen moved at a good clip. In Bath they had the right-of-way and pedestrians hearing "By your leave" behind them knew to flatten themselves against walls or railings as the chairmen hustled through. There were often disastrous accidents, upset chairs, and broken glass-paned windows.
Sedan chairs were also used by the wealthy in the cities of colonial America. Benjamin Franklin used a sedan chair late in the 18th century.
COLONIAL PRACTICE
In various colonies, litters of various types were maintained under native traditions, but often adopted by the white colonials as a new ruling and/or socio-economic elite, either for practical reasons (often comfortable modern transport was unavailable, e.g. for lack of decent roads) and/or as a status symbol. During the 17-18th centuries, palanquins (see above) were very popular among European traders in Bengal, so much so that in 1758 an order was issued prohibiting their purchase by certain lower-ranking employees.
THE END OF TRADITION
In Great Britain, in the early 19th century, the public sedan chair began to fall out of use, perhaps because streets were better paved or perhaps because of the rise of the more comfortable, companionable and affordable hackney carriage. In Glasgow, the decline of the sedan chair is illustrated by licensing records which show twenty-seven sedan chairs in 1800, eighteen in 1817, and ten in 1828. During that same period the number of registered hackney carriages in Glasgow rose to one hundred and fifty.
THE TRAVELLING "SILLA" OF LATIN AMERICA
A similar but simpler palanquin was used by the elite in parts of 18th- and 19th-century Latin America. Often simply called a silla (Spanish for seat or chair), it consisted of a simple wooden chair with an attached tumpline. The occupant sat in the chair, which was then affixed to the back of a single porter, with the tumpline supported by his head. The occupant thus faced backwards during travel. This style of palanquin was probably due to the steep terrain and rough or narrow roads unsuitable to European-style sedan chairs. Travellers by silla usually employed a number of porters, who would alternate carrying the occupant.
A chair borne on the back of a porter, almost identical to the silla, is used in the mountains of China for ferrying older tourists and visitors up and down the mountain paths. One of these mountains where the silla is still used is the Huangshan Mountains of Anhui province in Eastern China.
WIKIPEDIA
One of several highlights of the LSL Chairman's Train is Pullman coach 310 Pegasus, which contains The Trianon Bar.
This coach contains a lounge, grand piano and bar and under past ownership has appeared in movies and adverts, as well as being used by HM The Queen when she opened the Borders Railway.
The stock was returning through Acton Bridge in the evening sun as 5Z69 10:30 Oban to Crewe Holding Sidings, having formed a private charter from Euston to Oban the night before.
Digital ID: 56031. [Unidentified baseball player in dark uniform - batting form.]. Goodwin & Co. -- Copyright Holder. Walzl's Imperial Portrait Studios -- Photographer
Source: The A.G. Spalding Baseball Collection (more info)
Repository: The New York Public Library. Photography Collection, Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division of Art, Prints and Photographs.
Subjects: Philadelphia Quakers (Baseball team); Baseball
See more information about this image and others at NYPL Digital Gallery.
Persistent URL: digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/id?56031
Rights Info: No known copyright restrictions; may be subject to third party rights (for more information, click here)
The harbour you see today is the result of many centuries of man-made improvements to the original natural harbour formed by the estuary of the River Esk. Contrary to most people’s instincts the piers lie to the East and West of the harbour mouth, which actually faces due North. Whitby is one of the few places in the UK where you can watch the sun rise and set over the sea in summer.
The West Pier is easier to access and an excursion along the pier and pier extensions makes a fine evening stroll. From the land side, you approach through the fine ornamental gate, erected and dedicated in 2005 to Whitby’s generations of seafarers. On the way to the 80 foot-high lighthouse you pass the capstans and mooring posts, recalling the days when ships were ‘warped’ (hauled) in and out of the harbour by sheer manpower.
Leaving the pier, the bandstand at Scotch Head, hosts visiting musicians and performances through the summer. Across the road, at the foot of the Khyber Pass, lies the Lifeboat Museum recalling the many heroic rescues since the first lifeboat was stationed here in 1826. The current lifeboat station lies directly opposite, on the East Side of the harbour.
Continuing on the West Side, the shellfish house, ice house, and fish market occupy the rest of the waterfront along Pier Road. The harbour is still a busy working environment with the dredger waging constant battle against silt and mud. A small vibrant fishing fleet and a host of yachts and pleasure craft fill the upper and lower harbours, separated by the swing-bridge. Non-sailors can take a trip to sea on a variety of boats, whether for a day’s sea-angling or simply a short trip to enjoy the views and experience the sea spray.
The swing-bridge offers a great opportunity to watch the many craft on the move, particularly during bridge openings which take place in the 2-hour period either side of high tide and are marked by the ringing of a handbell by the bridge-men. Quite a sight to see 75 feet of roadway on the move – complete with its street lights!
On the water, you may see the inshore lifeboat crews at practice and admire the local rowing crews in training for the annual Whitby Regatta, the townsfolks’ own holiday festival held in August. The tall sailing ship, usually moored at the Dock End, is the Grand Turk seen in the TV Hornblower series and other nautical films. The old Whitby lifeboat, the Mary Ann Hepworth; the mini-replica of Captain Cook’s ship Endeavour, the yellow boats and traditional fishing cobles all add colour and character to the harbour.
The Upper Harbour, above the swing-bridge, holds the marina yacht berthing. There is a riverside walk alongside the marina, offering fascinating views across the harbour to the Abbey, while on the opposite bank lies the busy Parkol shipyard and dry dock. Yet further upstream beyond the high-level road bridge, the Esk slips into its quieter, though still tidal, reaches where a host of wildlife thrives on the steep-sided, wooded banks of the river and swans glide serenely on the water.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE HARBOUR
People used to say that ’the only road to Whitby is the sea’, because crossing the North York Moors was very difficult until the first turnpike road was built in 1764. Thus, while many towns centre on a market square, Whitby’s heart is its harbour. The bottle-shaped estuary of the River Esk was the only natural harbour along the 100 miles (160 km) of treacherous coastline between the rivers Tees and Humber. By the early 1300s merchants from Lombardy and all over Northern Europe were sailing to Whitby, to trade with the wealthy Abbey. The natural harbour was improved with quays, a bridge and a pier – perhaps the first attempt to shelter the harbour from the full force of the North Sea. The main export was salt herring, with imports of wine and other supplies for Abbey use. Interestingly, coal was shipped to the Abbey from Sunderland as early as 1392 – the first record of the trade that was to make Whitby’s fortune.
Alum shale was discovered locally in the early 1600s, but required large shipments of coal and urine (for ammonia) to produce the finished product. Local fishermen had the navigational skills needed for coastal cargo shipping but required much larger vessels so shipyards developed along the west bank of the Upper Harbour. Sir Hugh Cholmley, the Lord of the Manor, commissioned a stone-built West Pier in 1632 and a new draw-bridge in 1634.
Whitby’s ship-building and repair industry expanded rapidly, driven by demand from the alum trade and the shipping of coal from Newcastle to London. Such was the growth that by the early 1700s Whitby ships were sailing regularly to the Baltic to secure the large quantities of timber, pitch and hemp needed for ship-building, sail and rope-making. At its peak in the 1790′s, Whitby vied with Newcastle to be the second largest producer of merchant ships, after London. The 14 shipyards with many dry docks, plus the sail-lofts and timber ponds extended along both sides of the upper harbour, to beyond where the high-level road bridge now spans the river.
From 1702, every passing collier ship paid a toll towards maintenance of the piers so vital to Whitby’s role as a harbour of refuge on this perilous coast. The sands between Tate Hill Pier and the East Pier are still known as Colliers’ Hope. If a storm-tossed ship could reach that small beach, then she was safe – at least until she set sail again. The piers were altered and extended several times, to better guide shipping safely into harbour and to lessen silting of the channel. The West Pier lighthouse was added in 1840 and that on the East Pier in 1856. The pier extensions were added around 1912 and the present swing-bridge opened in 1909.
2U43 London Waterloo to Windsor & Eton Riverside (via Hounslow).
South Western Railway service formed of 10 carriages.
Picture taken at Syon Lane [SYL]
Red Pública, intervención obra del equipo formado por Rodrigo Castro Peñalva, estudiante de arquitectura, y los arquitectos María González García, Juanjo López de la Cruz y Ángel Martínez García-Posada.
Premiada en el concurso Transversal de la BIACS en el emplazamiento del patio de la sede del COAS en la Plaza del Cristo de Burgos.
Red Pública, intervención obra del equipo formado por Rodrigo Castro Peñalva, estudiante de arquitectura, y los arquitectos María González García, Juanjo López de la Cruz y Ángel Martínez García-Posada.
Premiada en el concurso Transversal de la BIACS en el emplazamiento del patio de la sede del COAS en la Plaza del Cristo de Burgos.
I made this card to showcase the "Brea ornament" die, here it is used as a skirt in a dress form, from memory Box, for the new 2014 release.and use of the new stencils, to see how to use this die in other forms visit my blog:
stampingwithbibiana.blogspot.com/2014/01/3-projects-with-...
Routing 30,000 randomly-chosen trips through the paths suggested by 10,000 randomly-chosen geotags. These are perhaps the most interesting routes between the endpoints of the trips, even if not necessarily the most likely.
Data from the Twitter streaming API, August, 2011. Base map from OpenStreetMap, CC-BY-SA.
The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert or Marusthali (Land of the dead), is a large, arid region in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent that forms a natural boundary between India and Pakistan. It is the world's 9th largest subtropical desert. This desert spreads over about 2,340,000 km2, with 85% in India and the remaining part in Pakistan. It covers more than 2,000,000 km2 in Rajasthan and extends into Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana.
GEOGRAPHY
The Thar Desert extends between the Aravalli Hills in the north-east, the Great Rann of Kutch along the coast and the alluvial plains of the Indus River in the west and north-west. Most of the desert is covered by huge shifting sand dunes that receive sediments from the alluvial plains and the coast. The sand is highly mobile due to strong winds occurring before the onset of the monsoon. The Luni River is the only river integrated into the desert. Rainfall is limited to 100–500 mm per year, mostly falling from July to September.
Salt water lakes in the Thar Desert include the Sambhar, Kuchaman, Didwana in Rajasthan and Kharaghoda in Gujarat. These lakes receive rain water during monsoon and evaporate during the dry season. The salt is derived by the weathering of rocks in the region.
DESERTIFICATION CONTROL
The soil of the Thar Desert remains dry for much of the year and is prone to wind erosion. High velocity winds blow soil from the desert, depositing some on neighboring fertile lands, and causing shifting sand dunes within the desert. Sand dunes are stabilised by erecting micro-windbreak barriers with scrub material and subsequent afforestation of the treated dunes with seedlings of shrubs such as phog, senna, castor oil plant and trees such as gum acacia, Prosopis juliflora and lebbek tree. The 649 km long Indira Gandhi Canal brings fresh water to the Thar Desert. It was conceived to halt spreading of the desert to fertile areas.
There are few local tree species suitable for planting in the desert, which are slow growing. Therefore, exotic tree species were introduced for plantation. Many species of Eucalyptus, Acacia, Cassia and other genera from Israel, Australia, US, Russia, Zimbabwe, Chile, Peru and Sudan have been tried in Thar Desert. Acacia tortilis has proved to be the most promising species for desert afforestation and the jojoba is another promising species of economic value found suitable for planting in these areas.
PROTECTED AREAS
There are several protected areas in the Thar Desert:
in Pakistan:
the Nara Desert Wildlife Sanctuary covers 6,300 km2;
the Rann of Kutch Wildlife Sanctuary.
in India:
the Desert National Park covers 3,162 km2 and represents the Thar Desert ecosystem, it includes 44 villages. Its diverse fauna includes the great Indian bustard (Chirotis nigricaps), blackbuck, chinkara, fox, Bengal fox, wolf, and caracal. Seashells and massive fossilized tree trunks in this park record the geological history of the desert;
the Tal Chhapar Sanctuary covers 7 km2 and is an Important Bird Area. It is located in the Churu District, 210 km from Jaipur, in the Shekhawati region. This sanctuary is home to a large population of blackbuck, fox and caracal such as partridge and sand grouse;
Jalore Wildlife Sanctuary is a privately owned sanctuary 130 km from Jodhpur, where Asiatic wildcat, leopard, jirds, desert fox and herds of Indian gazelle live.
BIODIVERSITY
FAUNA
Stretches of sand in the desert are interspersed by hillocks and sandy and gravel plains. Due to the diversified habitat and ecosystem, the vegetation, human culture and animal life in this arid region is very rich in contrast to the other deserts of the world. About 23 species of lizard and 25 species of snakes are found here and several of them are endemic to the region.
Some wildlife species, which are fast vanishing in other parts of India, are found in the desert in large numbers such as the blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), chinkara (Gazella bennettii) and Indian wild ass (Equus hemionus khur) in the Rann of Kutch. They have evolved excellent survival strategies, their size is smaller than other similar animals living in different conditions, and they are mainly nocturnal. There are certain other factors responsible for the survival of these animals in the desert. Due to the lack of water in this region, transformation of the grasslands into cropland has been very slow. The protection provided to them by a local community, the Bishnois, is also a factor. Other mammals of the Thar Desert include a subspecies of red fox (Vulpes vulpes pusilla) and the caracal.
The region is a haven for 141 species of migratory and resident birds of the desert. One can see eagles, harriers, falcons, buzzards, kestrel and vultures. There are short-toed eagles (Circaetus gallicus), tawny eagles (Aquila rapax), greater spotted eagles (Aquila clanga), laggar falcons (Falco jugger) and kestrels. There are also a number of reptiles.
The Indian peafowl is a resident breeder in the Thar region. The peacock is designated as the national bird of India and the provincial bird of the Punjab (Pakistan). It can be seen sitting on khejri or pipal trees in villages or Deblina.
VEGETATION
The natural vegetation of this dry area is classed as Northwestern thorn scrub forest occurring in small clumps scattered more or less openly. Density and size of patches increase from west to east following the increase in rainfall. The natural vegetation of the Thar Desert is composed of the following tree, shrub and herb species:
trees and shrubs: Acacia jacquemontii, Balanites roxburghii, Ziziphus zizyphus, Ziziphus nummularia, Calotropis procera, Suaeda fruticosa, Crotalaria burhia, Aerva javanica, Clerodendrum multiflorum, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Lycium barbarum, Grewia tenax, Commiphora mukul, Euphorbia neriifolia, Cordia sinensis, Maytenus emarginata, Capparis decidua, Mimosa hamata
herbs and grasses: Ochthochloa compressa, Dactyloctenium scindicum, Cenchrus biflorus, Cenchrus setigerus, Lasiurus scindicus, Cynodon dactylon, Panicum turgidum, Panicum antidotale, Dichanthium annulatum, Sporobolus marginatus, Saccharum spontaneum, Cenchrus ciliaris, Desmostachya bipinnata, Eragrostis species, Ergamopagan species, Phragmites species, Tribulus terrestris, Typha species, Sorghum halepense, Citrullus colocynthis
The endemic floral species include Calligonum polygonoides, Prosopis cineraria, Acacia nilotica, Tamarix aphylla, Cenchrus biflorus.
PEOPLE
The Thar Desert is the most densely populated desert in the world, with a population density of 83 people per km2. In India, the inhabitants comprise Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. In Pakistan, inhabitants include Sindhis and Kolhis.
About 40% of the total population of Rajasthan live in the Thar Desert. The main occupation of the people is agriculture and animal husbandry. A colourful culture rich in tradition prevails in this desert. The people have a great passion for folk music and folk poetry.
Jodhpur, the largest city in the region, lies in the scrub forest zone. Bikaner and Jaisalmer are located in the desert proper. A large irrigation and power project has reclaimed areas of the northern and western desert for agriculture. The small population is mostly pastoral, and hide and wool industries are prominent.
The desert's part in Pakistan also has a rich multifaceted culture, heritage, traditions, folk tales, dances and music due to its inhabitants who belong to different religions, sects and castes.
THAR IN ANCIENT LITERATURE
The Indian epics describe this region as Lavanasagara (Salt-ocean). The Ramayana mentions Lavanasagara (the Salt-ocean) when Rama goes to attack Lanka with the army of vanaras. Rama uses his agneyashtra-amogha to dry up the sea named drumakulya situated on north of Lavanasagara. A fresh water source named Pushkar surrounded by Marukantara was created.
According to Jain cosmology, Jambūdvīpa is at the centre of Madhyaloka, or the middle part of the universe, where the humans reside. Jambūdvīpaprajñapti or the treatise on the island of roseapple tree contains a description of Jambūdvīpa and life biographies of Ṛṣabha and King Bharata. Jambūdvīpa continent is surrounded by ocean Lavanoda (Salt-ocean).
The Sarasvati River is one of the chief Rigvedic rivers mentioned in ancient Hindu texts. The Nadistuti hymn in the Rigveda (10.75) mentions the Sarasvati between the Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the west, and later Vedic texts like Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas as well as the Mahabharata mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert.
Most scholars agree that at least some of the references to the Sarasvati in the Rigveda refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra River, while the Helmand River is often quoted as the locus of the early Rigvedic river. Whether such a transfer of the name has taken place, either from the Helmand to the Ghaggar-Hakra, or conversely from the Ghaggar-Hakra to the Helmand, is a matter of dispute.
There is also a small present-day Sarasvati River (Sarsuti) that joins the Ghaggar.
The Mahabharata mentions the Kamyaka Forest situated on the western boundary of the Kuru Kingdom (Kuru Proper + Kurujangala), on the banks of the Saraswati River.[clarification needed] It lay to the west of the Kurukshetra plain. It contained within it a lake called the Kamyaka lake (2,51). Kamyaka forest is mentioned as being situated at the head of the Thar desert, near the lake Trinavindu (3,256). The Pandavas, on their way to exile in the woods, left Pramanakoti on the banks of the Ganges and went towards Kurukshetra, travelling in a western direction, crossing the rivers Yamuna and Drishadvati. They finally reached the banks of the Saraswati River.[clarification needed] There they saw the forest of Kamyaka, the favourite haunt of ascetics, situated on a level and wild plain on the banks of the Saraswati (3-5,36) abounding in birds and deer (3,5). There the Pandavas lived in an ascetic asylum (3,10). It took 3 days for Pandavas to reach the Kamyaka forest, setting out from Hastinapura, on their chariots (3,11).
In the Rigveda we also find mention of a River named Aśvanvatī along with river Drishadvati. Some scholars consider both Saraswati and Aśvanvatī the same river.
The human habitations on the banks of rivers Saraswati and Drishadvati had shifted to the east and south directions prior to Mahabharata period. During those days The present day Bikaner and Jodhpur areas were known as Kurujangala and Madrajangala provinces.
The Desert National Park, Jaisalmer has a collection of fossils of animals and plants of 180 million years old.
DESERT ECONOMY
AGRICULTURE
The Thar is one of most heavily populated desert areas in the world and the main occupations of people living here are agriculture and animal husbandry. Agriculture is not a dependable proposition in this area - after the rainy season, at least 33% of crops fail. Animal husbandry, trees and grasses, intercropped with vegetables or fruit trees, is the most viable model for arid, drought-prone regions. The region faces frequent droughts. Overgrazing due to high animal populations, wind and water erosion, mining and other industries result in serious land degradation.
The agricultural production is mainly from the Kharif crops. The Kharif crops are the crops that are grown in the summer season and are seeded in the months of June and July. These crops are harvested in the months of September and October and include bajra, pulses such as guar, jowar (Sorghum vulgare), maize (zea mays), sesame and groundnuts. In past few decades the development of canals, tube wells etc. has changed crop pattern. Now the desert districts in Rajasthan have started producing rabi crops like wheat, mustard, cumin seed etc.The people have started to grow cash crops too.
Thar region of Rajasthan is the main opium producer and consumer area. There are mainly two crop seasons. The water for irrigation comes from wells and tanks from underlying water sources deep below the surface. The Indira Gandhi Canal irrigates northwestern Rajasthan. The Government of India has started a centrally sponsored scheme under the title of Desert Development Programme based on watershed management with the objective to check spreading of desert and improve the living condition of people in desert.
LIVESTOCK
n the last 15–20 years, the Rajasthan desert has seen many changes, including a manifold increase of both the human and animal population. Animal husbandry has become popular due to the difficult farming conditions. At present, there are ten times more animals per person in Rajasthan than the national average, and overgrazing is also a factor affecting climatic and drought conditions.
A large number of farmers in Thar desert depend on animal husbandry for their livelihood. Cows, buffalos, sheep, goats, camels, and oxen consists of major cattle population. Barmer district has the highest cattle population out of which sheep and goats are in majority. Some of the best breeds of bullocks such as Kankrej (Sanchori) and Nagauri are from desert region.
Thar region of Rajasthan is the biggest wool-producing area in India. Chokla, Marwari, Jaisalmeri, Magra, Malpuri, Sonadi, Nali and Pungal breeds of sheep are found in the region. Of the total wool production in India, 40-50% comes from Rajasthan. The sheep-wool from Rajasthan is considered best for carpet making industry in the world. The wool of Chokla breed of sheep is considered of superior quality. The breeding centres have been developed for Karakul and Merino sheep at Suratgarh, Jaitsar and Bikaner. Some important mills for making Woolen thread established in desert area are: Jodhpur Woolen Mill, Jodhpur; Rajasthan Woolen Mill, Bikaner and India Woolen Mill, Bikaner. Bikaner is the biggest mandi (market place) of wool in Asia.
The live stock depends for grazing on common lands in villages. During famine years in the desert the nomadic rebari people move with large herds of sheep and camel to the forested areas of south Rajasthan or nearby states like Madhya Pradesh for grazing the cattle.
The importance of animal husbandry can be understood from the organization of large number of cattle fairs in the region. Cattle fairs are normally named after the folk-deities. Some of major cattle fairs held are Ramdevji cattle fair at Manasar in Nagaur district, Tejaji cattle fair at Parbatsar in Nagaur district, Baldeo cattle fair at Merta city in Nagaur district, Mallinath cattle fair at Tilwara in barmer district. Live stock is very important to the Thar desert people.
AGROFORESTRY
Forestry has an important part to play in the amelioration of the conditions in semi-arid and arid lands. If properly planned, forestry can make an important contribution to the general welfare of the people living in desert areas. The living standard of the people in the desert is low. They can not afford other fuels like gas, kerosene etc. Fire wood is their main fuel, of the total consumption of wood about 75 percent is firewood. The forest cover in desert is low. Rajasthan has a forest area of 31150 km2. which is about 9% of the geographical area. The forest area is mainly in southern districts of Rajasthan like Udaipur and Chittorgarh. The minimum forest area is in Churu district only 80 km2. Thus the forest is insufficient to fulfill the needs of firewood and grazing in desert districts. This diverts the much needed cattledung from the field to the hearth. This in turn results into the decrease in agricultural production. Agroforestry model is best suited to the people of desert. Some Institutes have done good work in Agroforestry.
The scientists of Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), have successfully developed and improved dozens of traditional and non-traditional crops/fruits, such as Ber trees (like plums) that produce much larger fruits than before (lemon-size) and can thrive with minimal rainfall. These trees have become a profitable option for farmers. One example from a case study of horticulture showed that in situation of budding in 35 plants of Ber and Guar (Gola, Seb & Mundia variety developed in CAZRI), using only one hectare of land, yielded 10,000 kg. of Ber and 250 kg. of Guar, which translates into double or even triple profit.
Arid Forest Research Institute, (AFRI) situated at Jodhpur is another national level institute in the region. It is one of the institutes of the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education ( ICFRE ) working under the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India. The Objective of the Institute is to carry out scientific research in forestry in order to provide technologies to increase the vegetative cover and to conserve the biodiversity in the hot arid and semi arid region of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Dadara & Nagar Haveli union territory.
The most important tree species in terms of providing a livelihood in Thar desert communities is Prosopis cineraria.
Prosopis cineraria provides wood of construction class. It is used for house-building, chiefly as rafters, posts scantlings, doors and windows, and for well construction water pipes, upright posts of Persian wheels, agricultural implements and shafts, spokes, fellows and yoke of carts. It can also be used for small turning work and tool-handles. Container manufacturing is another important wood-based industry, which depends heavily on desert-grown trees.
Prosopis cineraria is much valued as a fodder tree. The trees are heavily lopped particularly during winter months when no other green fodder is available in the dry tracts. There is a popular saying that death will not visit a man, even at the time of a famine, if he has a Prosopis cineraria, a goat and a camel, since the three together are some what said to sustain a man even under the most trying condition. The forage yield per tree varies a great deal. On an average, the yield of green forage from a full grown tree is expected to be about 60 kg with complete lopping having only the central leading shoot, 30 kg when the lower two third crown is lopped and 20 kg when the lower one third crown is lopped. The leaves are of high nutritive value. Feeding of the leaves during winter when no other green fodder is generally available in rain-fed areas is thus profitable. The pods have a sweetish pulp and are also used as fodder for livestock.
Prosopis cineraria is most important top feed species providing nutritious and highly palatable green as well as dry fodder, which is readily eaten by camels, cattle, sheep and goats, constituting a major feed requirement of desert livestock. Locally it is called Loong. Pods are locally called sangar or sangri. The dried pods locally called Kho-Kha are eaten. Dried pods also form rich animal feed, which is liked by all livestock. Green pods also form rich animal feed, which is liked by drying the young boiled pods. They are also used as famine food and known even to prehistoric man. Even the bark, having an astringent bitter taste, was reportedly eaten during the severe famine of 1899 and 1939. Pod yield is nearly 1.4 quintals of pods/ha with a variation of 10.7% in dry locations.
Prosopis cineraria wood is reported to contain high calorific value and provide high quality fuel wood. The lopped branches are good as fencing material. Its roots also encourage nitrogen fixation, which produces higher crop yields.
Tecomella undulata is one more tree species, locally known as Rohida, which is found in Thar Desert regions of northwest and western India. It is another important medium sized tree of great use in Agroforestry, that produces quality timber and is the main source of timber amongst the indigenous tree species of desert regions. The trade name of the tree species is Desert teak or Marwar teak.
Tecomella undulata is mainly used as a source of timber. Its wood is strong, tough and durable. It takes a fine finish. Heartwood contains quinoid. The wood is excellent for firewood and charcoal. Cattle and goats eat leaves of the tree. Camels, goats and sheep consume flowers and pods.
Tecomella undulata plays an important role in the ecology. It acts as a soil-binding tree by spreading a network of lateral roots on the top surface of the soil. It also acts as a windbreak and helps in stabilizing shifting sand dunes. It is considered as the home of birds and provides shelter for other desert wildlife. Shade of tree crown is shelter for the cattle, goats and sheep during summer days.
Tecomella undulata has medicinal properties as well. The bark obtained from the stem is used as a remedy for syphilis. It is also used in curing urinary disorders, enlargement of spleen, gonorrhoea, leucoderma and liver diseases. Seeds are used against abscess.
ECOTOURISM
Desert safaris on camels have become increasingly popular around Jaisalmer. Domestic and international tourists frequent the desert seeking adventure on camels for anything from a day to several days. This ecotourism industry ranges from cheaper backpacker treks to plush Arabian night style campsites replete with banquets and cultural performances. During the treks tourists are able to view the fragile and beautiful ecosystem of the Thar desert. This form of tourism provides income to many operators and camel owners in Jaisalmer as well as employment for many camel trekers in the desert villages nearby. But also people from various parts of the world come here to see pushkar mela and oasis.
INDUSTRY
Rajasthan is pre-eminent in quarrying and mining in India. The Taj Mahal was built with white marble mined from Makrana in Nagaur district. The state is the second largest source of cement in India. It has rich salt deposits at Sambhar. Jodhpur sandstone is mostly used in monuments, important buildings, residential buildings, and such. This stone is termed "chittar patthar". Jodhpur has also got mines of red stone locally known as ghatu patthar used in construction. Sandstone is found in Jodhpur and Naguar districts. Jalore is biggest centre of granite processing units.
Lignite coal deposits are there at places Giral, Kapuradi, Jalipa, Bhadka in Barmer district; Plana, Gudha, Bithnok, Barsinghpur, Mandla Charan, Raneri Hadla in Bikaner district and Kasnau, Merta, Lunsar etc., in Nagaur district. Lignite based Thermal power plant has been established at Giral in Barmer district. Jindal group is working on 1080 Megawatt power project in private sector at village Bhadaresh in Barmer district. "Neweli Lignite Barsinghpur Project" is in progress to establish two thermal power units of capacity 125 megawatts each at Barsinghpur in Bikaner district. Reliance Energy is working on establishing power generation through underground gasification technique in Barmer district with an outlay of about 30 billion rupees.
There is large storage of good quality petroleum in Jaisalmer and Barmer districts. The main places with deposits of petroleum are Baghewal, Kalrewal, and Tawariwal in Jaisalmer district and Gudha Malani area in Barmer district. Barmer district has started petroleum production on commercial scale.
Barmer district is in the news due to its large oil basin. The British exploration company Cairn Energy started production of oil on a large scale. Mangala, Bhagyam and Aishwariya are the major oil fields in the district. This is India's biggest oil discovery in 22 years. This promises to transform the local economy, which has long suffered from the harshness of the desert.
The Government of India initiated departmental exploration for oil in 1955-56 in the Jaisalmer area, Oil India Limited's discovered natural gas in 1988 in the Jaisalmer basin. Also known for their fine leather messenger bags made from wild camels native to the area.
The Thar desert seems an ideal place for generation of electricity from wind power. According to an estimate Rajasthan state has got a potential of 5500 Megawatt wind power generation as such it is in the priority of the state govt. Rajasthan State Power Corporation has established its first wind power based power plant at Amarsagar in Jaisalmer district. Some leading companies in the field are working on establishing wind mills in Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts. Solar energy also has a great potential in this region as most of the days during a year are cloud free. Solar energy based plant has been established at Bhaleri in Churu district to convert hard water into drinking water.
SALT WATER LAKES
There are a number of salt water lakes in Thar desert. These are Sambhar, Pachpadra, Tal Chhapar, Falaudi and Lunkaransar where Sodium chloride salt is produced from salt water. The Didwana lake produces Sodium Sulphate salt. Ancient Archaeological evidences of habitations have been recovered from Sambhar and Didwana lakes which shows their antiquity and historical importance.
WATER & HOUSING IN THE DESERT
Water scarcity plays an important role in shaping life in all parts of Thar. Natural (tobas) or man-made (johads), both types of small, intermittent ponds, are often the only source of water for animals and humans in the true desert areas. The lack of a constant water supply causes much of the local population to live as nomads. Most human settlements are found near the two seasonal streams of the Karon-Jhar hills. Potable groundwater is also rare in the Thar desert. Supplies are often sour due to dissolved minerals, and are only available deep underground. Wells that successfully bear sweet water attract nearby settlement, but are difficult to dig, possibly claiming the lives of the well-diggers.
According to 1980 housing census in Pakistan, there were 241,326 housing units of one or two very small rooms. The degree of crowding was six persons per housing unit and three persons per room. For most of the housing units (approximately 76 per cent), the main construction material of outer walls is unbaked bricks whereas wood is used in 10 per cent and baked bricks or stones with mud bonding in 8 per cent housing units. A large number of families still live in jhugis or huts which are housing units formed with straws and thin wood-sticks. The wind storm proves these jhugis unsustainable all the times. But the poverty leaves no other option to these jhugiwalas (people living in jhugis).
The river Luni is the only natural water source that drains inside a lake in the desert. It originates in the Pushkar valley of the Aravalli Range, near Ajmer and ends in the marshy lands of Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, after travelling a distance of 530 km. The Luni flows through part of Ajmer, Barmer, Jalor, Jodhpur, Nagaur, Pali, and Sirohi districts and Mithavirana Vav Radhanpur region of Banaskantha North Gujarat. Its major tributaries are the Sukri, Mithri, Bandi, Khari, Jawai, Guhiya and Sagi from the left, and the Jojari River from the right.
The Ghaggar is another intermittent river in India, flowing during the monsoon rains. It originates in the Shivalik Hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through Punjab and Haryana to Rajasthan; just southwest of Sirsa, Haryana and by the side of talwara jheel in Rajasthan, this seasonal river feeds two irrigation canals that extend into Rajasthan. It terminates in Hanumangarh district.
The Rajasthan Canal system is the major irrigation scheme of the Thar Desert and is conceived to reclaim it and also to check spreading of the desert to fertile areas. It is world's largest irrigation which is being extended in an attempt to make the desert arable. It runs south-southwest in Punjab and Haryana but mainly in Rajasthan for a total of 650 kilometers and ends near Jaisalmer, in Rajasthan. After the construction of the Indira Gandhi Canal, irrigation facilities were available over an area of 6770 km² in Jaisalmer district and 37 km² in Barmer district. Irrigation had already been provided in an area of 3670 km² in Jaisalmer district. The canal has transformed the barren deserts of this district into rich and lush fields. Crops of mustard, cotton, and wheat now flourish in this semi-arid western region replacing the sand there previously.
Besides providing water for agriculture, the canal will supply drinking water to hundreds of people in far-flung areas. As the second stage of work on the canal progresses rapidly, there is hope that it will enhance the living standards of the people of the state.
DESERT FOR RECREATION
Thar Desert provides the recreational value in terms of desert festivals organized every year. Rajasthan desert festivals are celebrated with great zest and zeal. This festival is held once a year during winters. Dressed in brilliantly hued costumes, the people of the desert dance and sing haunting ballads of valor, romance and tragedy. The fair has snake charmers, puppeteers, acrobats and folk performers. Camels, of course, play a stellar role in this festival, where the rich and colorful folk culture of Rajasthan can be seen.
Camels are an integral part of the desert life and the camel events during the Desert Festival confirm this fact. Special efforts go into dressing the animal for entering the spectacular competition of the best-dressed camel. Other interesting competitions on the fringes are the moustache and turban tying competitions, which not only demonstrate a glorious tradition but also inspire its preservation. Both the turban and the moustache have been centuries old symbols of honor in Rajasthan.
Evenings are meant for the main shows of music and dance. Continuing till late into the night, the number of spectators swells up each night and the grand finale, on the full moon night, takes place by silvery sand dunes.
WIKIPEDIA
A federal courthouse takes the form of a Cass Gilbert neoclassical skyscraper with a pyramidal gold-glazed terracotta roof.
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In Lower Manhattan on September 6th, 2018, the Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse, designed by Cass Gilbert and completed in 1936, 87001596 on the National Register of Historic Places, New York City Landmark 214, as viewed from the Brooklyn Bridge Promenade. There is the offramp connecting northbound Brooklyn Bridge traffic to Pearl Street and northbound FDR Drive.
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Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names terms:
• Manhattan (7022657)
• New York (7007567)
• New York (county) (1002715)
Art & Architecture Thesaurus terms:
• courthouses (300005969)
• gold leaf (300264831)
• historic buildings (300008063)
• Neoclassical (300021477)
• pilasters (300002737)
• pyramids (geometric figures) (300163119)
• skyscrapers (300004809)
• terracotta (clay material) (300010669)
Wikidata items:
• 6 September 2018 (Q45921204)
• 1930s in architecture (Q16482516)
• 1936 in architecture (Q2811656)
• Brooklyn Bridge (Q125006)
• Civic Center (Q1094453)
• federal building (Q51183740)
• Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive (Q124973)
• Lenapehoking (Q6522252)
• Lower Manhattan (Q11253)
• National Register of Historic Places (Q3719)
• neoclassical architecture (Q54111)
• New York City Landmark (Q19825927)
• Pearl Street (Q2356321)
• September 6 (Q2858)
• September 2018 (Q31179569)
• Thurgood Marshall (Q312348)
• Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse (Q821601)
Transportation Research Thesaurus terms:
• Ramps (Interchanges) (Pmrcpjsrr)
Library of Congress Subject Headings:
• Courthouses—New York (State) (sh94008987)
Union List of Artist Names IDs:
• Gilbert, Cass (American architect, 1859-1934) (500007284)
flickriver.com/photos/javier1949/popular-interesting/
Edificio perimetral y adecuación del entorno urbano de Templo de Diana Mérida. Badajoz Extremadura
Restauración Templo de Diana: Dionisio Hernández Gil, arquitecto 1986-1992.
Edificio perimetral y adecuación del entorno urbano: José María Sánchez García, Arquitecto Concurso de ideas 2005. Proyecto 2008 – 2009. Obras 2009 – 2011.
El Templo de Diana formaba parte del foro municipal siendo uno de los pocos edificios de carácter religioso que ha llegado hasta nuestros días en la ciudad de Mérida. Estaba dedicado al culto imperial, y su construcción puede datarse entre finales del siglo I a.C. o principios del I d.C. De planta rectangular, y rodeado de columnas, tiene el frente orientado al foro. Debió abandonarse en el siglo IV convirtiéndose la zona en una escombrera, hasta que en el primer tercio siglo XVI la familia de los Mesías, señores de los Corbos y de Villamesía, edifica sobre el solar su casa solariega, reintegrando en el palacio los restos del Templo y evitando la degradación de las ruinas. A finales del XVIII el palacio deja de ser residencia señorial por lo que el conjunto y su entorno entran en un nuevo proceso de degradación. Hacia 1970 el estado adquiere los terrenos y en1986 se finaliza la demolición de las edificaciones adosadas a las columnas. La restauración del templo se lleva a cabo bajo la dirección del arquitecto Dionisio Hernández Gil, en un proceso conocido por los especialistas como anastilosis, si bien el palacio no fue enteramente demolido, quedando integradas, pero diferenciadas, sus zonas más significativas con los restos del templo.
La operación para la adecuación del entorno, resultado de un concurso de ideas, se inicia por la consecución de un gran espacio alrededor del templo, a fin de dejar libre de arquitecturas ajenas un plano arqueológico y establecer en él una relación más cercana entre visitante y templo.
El proyecto se resuelve mediante una pieza perimetral en forma de “L”, que cose el borde edificado preexistente y libera una gran plaza alrededor del templo. Esta “L” resultado de la unión de la plataforma o recorrido elevado (que situada a la misma cota del podium del templo, libera el plano arqueológico, en planta baja, y permite una nueva relación visitante-templo) y la pantalla estructural (que pone en valor el templo enmarcándolo y abstrayéndolo de las edificaciones colindantes). Entre la pieza en L perimetral y la ciudad, unos volúmenes a modo de cajas voladas ocupan los espacios intersticiales alojando usos comerciales y culturales. Para recuperar la traza romana en planta baja la estructura perimetral se coloca en el borde del solar, alejada del templo. Se recupera la zona sagrada original de la época romana respetando los elementos arqueológicos que constituyen el antiguo espacio sacro: el Templo, los estanques laterales, el criptopórtico y el muro romano, que ahora quedan incorporados a la plaza.
La plataforma volada se eleva aproximadamente a la cota del basamento del templo para permitir al visitante observarlo como si estuviera dentro y a la vez proyectar una gran sombra sobre la plaza. Toda la plaza está terminada en tierra, en granito descompuesto, como era originariamente. La pieza en L se entiende como una piedra artificial, un compacto de cemento blanco y áridos propios del lugar que dan a éste los tonos del podio de granito del Templo. No es hormigón como tal, sino de un material más cálido y acorde a los que configuran el entorno.
Nikon D800E photos Bianca Buitendag & Bethany Hamilton Supergilr Pro Oceanside Beach Pier in San Diego! Shot form high up above on the Oceanside Pier!
Nikon D800E photos of Bianca Buitendag, Bethany Hamilton, and other pro surf girls at the Oceanside Huntington Beach Pier! Gorgeous pro surf girl goddesses all who are also professional swimsuit bikini / athletic sports clothing models! Shot with the awesome Nikon D800E & the Sigma 150-500mm f/5-6.3 AF APO DG OS HSM Telephoto Zoom Lens for Nikon Digital SLR Cameras. They're all professional models too (Alana Blanchard was a Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Model and Rip Curl Bikini Model!)!
And here're some epic video of pretty goddesses Bianca Buitendag and Alanna Blanchard I shot at the same time with the Panasonic X900MK 3MOS 3D Full HD SD Camcorder with 32GB Internal Memory mounted on my Nikon D800E via the 45surfer configuration.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=IxYPyOtzAQU (Bianca Buitendag paddling out and surfing!)
www.youtube.com/watch?v=9bX4gXnfLtc (alana running on beach, paddling out, surfing)
www.youtube.com/watch?v=-5LLePW95N0
www.youtube.com/watch?v=ANM70cBDNVo
www.youtube.com/watch?v=HIqA-0TOkjk
www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVEcj3bTdeQ
Last year I was shooting with a Nikon D4 with a 600mm F4 Prime monster Nikkor lens mounted on the tripod:
www.flickr.com/photos/herosjourneymythology45surf/8555104...
This year I wanted to be more nimble and work the whole area (shoot surfers warming up down the beach, coming and goring, running, hanging out/watching/etc.), so I opted to shoot with a Nikon D800E with the Sigma 150-500m lens mounted on a monopod. It can be tough to move tripod around with a 600mm F4 Prime monster Nikkor lens on a crowded beach, and it would be easy to upset folks each time you tried to set it up! There's a good chance they would say "enough" and throw you and all your equipment in the water! There's a common etiquette that one ought arrive early to claim a good spot, set up there, and keep it for the day. Latecomers are not welcome to set up on the main beach once it has filled up. But it's OK to walk around with a smaller setup as long as you stay out of everyone's way. Generally you can hug the water/shoreline with your feet and monopod in the water, as you're down low enough so that you don't block anyone's view from higher up on the beach, where all the tripods are mounted. The Sigma 150-500mm lens also allowed me to zoom out when surfers ran down the beach or got in and out of the water, and I also had a Nikon D800E with the 28-300 mm lens strapped around my neck. And both cameras had video cameras mounted to them in my famous 45surfer configuration! Needless to say, it can be a bit scary standing knee-deep in water with all that equipment, with large waves breaking. You wouldn't want to fall in!
Well, hope you enjoy the surf goddess photography!
All the best on your epic hero's journey from Johnny Ranger McCoy! :)
P.S. There's nothing like shooting the nikon D4 with the 600mm prime for quality, but I felt it was cool to give up a bit of quality for far more variety this year! Plus I do not want to become a pixel-peeper! :)
Fotos por Cortesia de Alejandro Blanco
www.flickr.com/photos/alejandro5000
HISTORIA Y ARTE
Se ha llegado a afirmar que San Juan de los Reyes es el primer monumento de Toledo que no adopta la más leve señal del arte árabe o mudéjar, queriendo defender con ello que su estilo pertenece a la gran corriente occidentalista que invadió Castilla a mediados del siglo XV. Si esta opinión ha podido ser defendida para hacer resaltar la innovación que el arte gótico-flamenco supone, no sólo para Toledo sino para toda la cultura española de la época de los Reyes Católicos, no es menos cierto que el cruce del arte gótico-flamenco con la tradición islámica y medieval en España va hacer de San Juan de los Reyes un monumento muy peculiar. En efecto, las formas europeas, debido a su inserción en las formas autóctonas mudéjares- debidamente matizadas - conseguirán hacer de él la obra más representativa de un arte nuevo y original, arte que será llamado hispano-flamenco, conocido también por arte isabelino.
Dos grandes corrientes históricas, la política y la religiosa van a servir de matiz para la fundación de San Juan de los Reyes. Fue Isabel de Castilla quien mando construir este monumento, templo votivo y memorial a la vez de la victoria obtenida el 1 de marzo de 1476 en los campos de Toro (Zamora), al derrotar los ejércitos de Fernando de Aragón a la facción contraria que favorecía a los secuaces de Juana la Beltraneja, presunta hija de Enrique IV,apoyada por las pretensiones al trono castellano de Alfonso V, rey de Portugal. Fue esta victoria la que abrió a Isabel las puertas de su glorioso reinado y en Toledo quiso dejar memoria histórica, a la vez que lugar sagrado donde sepultar sus restos mortales y los de su esposo. Este motivo condicionaría toda la arquitectura de la edificación, si bien circunstancias posteriores desaconsejarían semejante empeño inicial. La devoción de la casa Trastamara al apóstol San Juan evangelista (Juan le llamaban padres y abuelos) halló en Isabel un motivo más para dedicarlo al santo de su devoción personal, como dejaría constancia en el escudo de armas con el águila nimbada del discípulo de Cristo.
Resuelta la guerra de sucesión al trono de Castilla, un nuevo motivo habría de interferirse, esta vez para la dedicación del monasterio a la memoria de San Francisco de Asís y residencia de sus hijos en la inmortal Toledo.
La construcción del monasterio comenzó hacia el 1477, figurando como arquitecto principal Juan Guas (1433-1496). En 1484 es nombrado aparejador de las obras de la catedral toledana, simultaneando su actividad entre Segovia y el propio San Juan de los Reyes. Sigue en importancia Simón de Colonia (1450-1511), llamado a la muerte de Juan Guas "para informar y dar trazas para la terminación de San Juan de los Reyes." Entre los decoradores y escultores principales destacamos Antón y Enrique, hijos de Egas Cueman. La obra se realizó en varias etapas: iglesia-cimborrio (1486), decoración del crucero (1490), edificación del Claustro bajo (1495) y edificación definitiva del monasterio, concluyendo hacia el 1525-26 (gracias al interés que le prestó Carlos V, tras la muerte de la reina Isabel, su abuela materna).
Por efectos de la guerra de la Independencia (1808) y de la posterior desamortización y exclaustración (1836), tanto el monasterio como la iglesia y claustros se vieron lastimosamente danados en parte ruinosos, por lo que en 1883 se inició la obra de restauración a cargo de los arquitectos Arturo Melida y Cecilio Bejar. La Academia de Bellas Artes y más tarde, después de la Guerra Civil, la Dirección General de Regiones Devastadas, consiguieron su terminación, siendo su último impulsor Moreno Torres. Se entregó el monumento a la Orden Franciscana en 1954 y la iglesia se abrió al culto en 1967.
VISTA EXTERIOR
El esbelto cimborrio que podemos contemplar hace funciones de torre, gran cápsula geométrica que coronaría el monumental mausoleo, según la idea primigenia de servir cual panteón real al enterramiento de Fernando e Isabel.
Del mismo modo, el visitante puede observar mejor lo que podríamos llamar primer intento de influencia mudéjar; nos referimos al planteamiento geométrico del volumen, que en el cimborrio presenta figura octogonal, geometrización muy del gusto oriental, que en San Juan de los Reyes es vertida del ladrillo a la piedra.
Los ventanales habrían de procurar luz y ventilación al interior, con lo que la estructura torreada ganaría en prestancia por sus decoradas vidrieras; medidas de seguridad arquitectónica aconsejarían cegarlos terminándose su construcción. Aún así, las cresterías caladas del cimborrio y templo, más la abundancia de agujas volatilizan y dan ingravidaez al conjunto de dura piedra berroqueña. Un espigón, rematado por veleta y cruz, señala el punto elevado y concéntrico del octógono piramidal; la espadaña sobresale frontalmente con sus espaciosos claros y un pequeño campanil que presenta doble pináculo, único en su género, completan la airosa silueta de San Juan de los Reyes.
FACHADA
La portada principal o de ingreso al templo, que hoy se ve al poniente, fue abierta con posterioridad y labrada según diseño de Covarrubias, pero se realizó muchos años más tarde (1606-10), cuando se había perdido el gusto por el gótico, la que algún autor llama, humorísticamente, "semigótica y semirenacentista", o sea, ni una cosa ni otra. Ostenta variedad de esculturas de santos franciscanos que cortejan la imagen elevada de San Juan Evangelista, dentro de un arco conopial. Escudo y cruz coronan el conjunto entre yugos y flechas. Dos soldados, con cota y manto romanos, vigilan la entrada desde la altura de unos contra-fuertes, apunte de renacimiento fuera de lugar.
CADENAS
Motivo de extrañeza para el visitante es la presencia de la "tracería" (horizontal y vertical) de cadenas que en su día serían más numerosas. Son restos y reliquias de cadenas de los cautivos cristianos rescatados de las batallas de Málaga y Almería (1485-86) y que ellos mismos trasladaron hasta Toledo como exvotos de perenne agradecimiento a Dios y a su Reina.
NAVE PRINCIPAL
Conforme al estilo gótico del tiempo, la planta de la iglesia es de cruz latina, con brazos poco salientes. La nave central mide 55 metros de longitud, 12 de anchura, 20 la nave del crucero, más 30 de altitud. Está dividida en cuatro cuerpos con sus correspondientes bóvedas de crucería, abriéndose entre los pilares sendas capillas a uno y otro lado, poco entrantes, en un intento semidecorativo y funcional.
Los pilares van cubiertos por esculturas de tamaño natural, sostenidas por ménsulas y cubiertas por doseles afiligranados, referentes a santos o personajes bíblicos de no fácil identificación. Los nervios o palmas góticas de las bóvedas no se cruzan en diagonal sino transversalmente, lo que acusa influencia alemana. Apliques y florones rematan las junturas de los nervios, con un escudo central y numerosos signos de yugos y haces de flechas e iniciales coronadas de los Reyes, como si de un cielo estrellado se tratase.
Una tracería rematada con adorno vegetal recorre todo el perímetro de la nave, dividiendo los lienzos laterales en dos partes y subrayando, entre cenefas, una inscripción castellana en caracteres góticos, de derecha a izquierda, que dice así:
"ESTE MONESTERIO E IGLIA MANDARON HASER LOS MUY ESCLARESCIDOS PRINCIPES E SEÑORES DO HERNANDO E DOÑA YSABEL REY E REYNA DE CASTILLA DE LEON DE ARAGON DE CECILIA LOS CUALES SEÑORES POR BIENAVENTURADO MATRIMONIO SE IUTARO LOS DICHOS REYNOS SEYENDO EL DICHO SEÑOR Y SEÑORA Y SEÑOR NATURAL DE ARAGON Y CECILIA Y SEYENDO LA DICHA SEÑORA REYNA Y SEÑORA NATURAL DE LOS REYNOS DE CASTILLA Y DE LEON EL CUAL FUNDARON A GLIA DE NRO SEÑOR DIOS Y DE LA BIENAVENTURADA MADRE SUYA NUESTRA SEÑORA LA VIRGEN MARIA Y POR ESPECIAL DEVOCION QUE TUVIERON".
CRUCERO Y CIMBORRIO
Recordando que el templo estaba destinado para panteón de los Reyes y, por consiguiente, que los túmulos habían de ser colocados en el centro mismo de la iglesia, bajo la estrella del alto cimborrio y el cruce mismo de las naves, no puede sorprendernos que su autor haya reservado lo mejor de la decoración para este lugar que llamamos Crucero.
En la decoración repetitiva de los temas sobresale, en primer lugar, la de los escudos reales, agarrados y sostenidos por águilas y leones, seis a la derecha, seis a la izquierda, doce en total, como si de un apostolado se tratase. Las águilas están nimbadas en sus cabezas rítmicas por halos de santidad, en expresió del águila de Patmos, a quien el monumento está dedicado y que los Reyes hicieron suya junto al escudo monárquico.
Maravilla del arte gótico-flamenco que admira a cuantos lo contemplan es el cimborrio o lucernario octogonal, comenzado por Juan Guas y terminado, a su muerte, por Simón de Colonia, como se desprende de la decoración estrellada de su bóveda, de inspiración alemana y que recuerda el mudéjar por su geometrismo. Lleva ocho ventanales, que en su origen debieron pensarse vidriados para iluminar el Crucero, pero que dificultades de estabilidad aconsejarán cegarlos. Ocho ángeles sostienen, sobre sus hombros, sencillos capiteles coronados, de los que arrancan los nervios de la bóveda; en los ángulos, vistosas pechinas que simulan tribunas decoran el total de la geométrica cúpula.
CAPILLA MAYOR Y RETABLO
En cuanto al retablo del presbiterio, el original desapareció víctima de la guerra napoleónica. El actual proviene, desde el siglo pasado, del Hospital de Santa Cruz de Toledo, fundado por don Pedro González de Mendoza, Cardenal de la Santa Cruz de Jerusalén. Su autor es Francisco de Coomontes, entallador y pintor, según consta en el contrato: "el dicho retablo a de hazer, ansí la talla como la obra de pinzel".
Las pinturas son alusivas a la historia de la invención de la Cruz por Santa Elena; a los pasos de la pasión, Caida y Descendimiento, el autor añade la del longevo padre de Judas Iscariote, encontrando para Santa Elena las tres cruces del Gólgota; asímismo, a la derecha, la de la milagrosa resurrección de un muerto al contacto de la verdadera cruz de Cristo, milagro que permitió identificarla de entre las de los otros crucificados ladrones. En las calles laterales van pinturas que representan la flagelación, el "Ecce Homo", la Resurrección y la Bajada al Limbo. En su parte inferior, santos Doctores al centro, y Profetas del Antiguo Testamento en sus ángulos, ataviados a la usanza del tiempo. En la calle central, de arriba a abajo, un Calvario con María y Juan evangelista; una talla de San Juan, obra actual de Félix Granda, que sustituye a un conjunto con Santa Elena y la Cruz, acompañada por San Pedro y el Cardenal, orante; un relieve con la Virgen y el Niño; en lugar del original sagrario, desaparecido, un precioso retablito plateresco con la imagen de San Francisco de Asis, de la escuela de José de Mora. En las entrecalles, un apostolado pintado al óleo, con profusión de cruces de Jerusalén, armas del Cardenal, signos de la Pasión y medallones decorativos.
PÚLPITO Y TRIBUNAS
El púlpito, hexagonal, es del tiempo, con entrada por el lado del claustro, hoy impracticable. Según Gaspar Gómez de la Serna, es de componente mudéjar del estilo isabelino.
Pero, donde el derroche de ornamentación llega a ser desbordante, como si de una yesería árabe se tratara, es en las tribunas reales, sin duda lo más llamativo de la decoración. Nacen las tribunas a mitad de los pilares, dobles o bifrontes, con paneles a modo de trapecios, donde resaltan repetitivamente potentes y coronadas iniciales de los Reyes, entre emblemas de yugos y flechas. Pequeñísimas estatuas con ménsulas y doseles primorosos decoran el soporte, también bifronte, de extraño diseño poliédrico, hasta terminar en los antepechos de las tribunas propiamente dichas, monumental encaje en piedra de primoroso calado flamígero. La ornamentación vegetal, tan característica de este estilo, ha prestado sus ramas, hojas y flores para enriquecer una de las obras de arte mejor definidas en la historia: estilo isabelino.
CAPILLAS LATERALES
Correspondiendo a los cuatro cuerpos de la nave, ocho capillas (cuatro a cada lado) se abren al centro de la iglesia, de las que sólo cuatro (dos a cada lado) son de interés para el visitante.
A mano derecha, según se mira de frente, se encuentra la capilla de San Ildefonso, a la que corresponde un lienzo del siglo XVIII sobre el santo toledano, catalogado como trabajo de Ricci. Hoy también llamada "capilla de San Francisco", por contener una talla de dicho santo, fundador de la Orden.
Más abajo se ubica la capilla de la Inmaculada, con bella talla de la Concepción, siglo XVII, de la escuela castellana, proveniente del franciscano convento de Arévalo (Ávila) y donada al monasterio por la comunidad franciscana de Pastrana (Guadalajara) en 1968. Los cuadros representan a Juan Duns Escoto, que ora delante de una imagen mariana, y a Alejandro de Hales, profesor de la Sorbona de París, maestros de la escuela franciscana, defensores del dogma inmaculista. Sus autores son desconocidos, y provienen también de Pastrana, si bien pertenecían a Santa María de Jesœs, de Alcalá de Henares.
A la izquierda, junto al Coro, la llamada capilla del Cristo de la Buena Muerte, con una talla en color natural de la madera, del artista toledano Guerrero Corrales. El cuadro del Descendimiento es de Morales. Esta capilla está destinada también a la celebración del Sacramento de la Reconciliación (en ella se encuentran dos confesonarios), y junto a ella, a su derecha, se halla la capilla del Santísimo, donde se guarda habitualmente la Reserva del Santísimo y en donde se celebra la Eucaristía con bastante frecuencia.
Finalmente, junto al crucero, la capilla de Don Pedro de Ayala, que como quiere la inscripción latina, fue obispo de Canarias, decano y consejero real de la iglesia toledana. El sarcófago, deteriorado, se encuentra hoy en el museo toledano de Santa Cruz. Encontramos también en esta capilla la imagen de San Antonio de Padua, santo de gran tradición franciscana y conocida devoción popular.
CORO Y SACRISTÍA
El coro se alza sobre un soberbio arco rebajado, con bóveda de crucería y apliques originales, embellecida la balaustrada con crescería calada, rematada en los ángulos por pequeñas tribunas corales. "A lo largo del arco estaba escrito, con letras doradas en campo azul, el texto siguiente:
"MARÍA SANTÍSIMA CONCEBIDA SIN PECADO ORIGINAL EN EL PRIMER INSTANTE DE SU SER"
desaparecido en la restauración del siglo pasado" (Ramón Parro) y que da testimonio de la defensa del dogma de la Inmaculada Concepción en 1616 por los moradores del monasterio.
En el centro del arco, entre signos isabelinos, un heraldo real, arrodillado sobre ambón, presenta armas, que la tradición quiere que sea autorretrato de Juan Guas, como se sabe, autor del monumento.
La sacristía, una espaciosa y elevada nave blanqueada, impresiona al visitante por sus tres bóvedas de crucería, de gusto germánico, con claves en forma de florones en la intersección de sus arcos. Hoy no tiene más función que servir de tránsito para la visita del interior.
Reliquia del siglo XVIII ha quedado la hornacina arqueada en que un difunto yaciente, en actitud de erguirse sobre sí mismo, parece poner en sus labios la frase latina que figura en el testero y que traducida al castellano, dice así: "Espero, en tanto me llega la resurrección" (Job 14, 14). Parece insinuar que dicha sala fue algún tiempo dedicada a servir de enterramiento a los religiosos de la Comunidad.
PATIO
Los veinte ventanales que abren luces (cinco por cada lienzo) son de arco conopial y las columnas de la balaustrada le dan clara nota renacentista. De cada al patio, los ventanales centrales llevan águilas (sin halos de santidad) que sostienen escudos reales entre yugos y haces de flechas. Una crestería corrida bordea todo el tejado, ocultándolo, y está tejida con arcos minuciosos de medio punto entramados con los de estilo mudéjar, coronados por decoración vegetal en forma de trifolios. Los pináculos o agujas le dan mayor altura, salvando así la simetría con el claustro bajo.
Motivo inquietante para el que lo advierte es el sistema de gárgolas que sirven de aliviadero a las aguas recogidas del tejado y que son extrañas al estilo gótico. Según el profesor Azcárate, sus formas inverosímiles y estrambóticas pertenecen al gusto romántico de la restauración del siglo pasado, cuya presencia se presta a confusión con el estilo hispano-flamenco, con el que no tienen ninguna relación.
CLAUSTRO
Para visitar los claustros, partiendo del Crucero, se atraviesa una bellísima portada, típica del arte flamenco, observándose un bajo-relieve a la altura del arco, donde ángeles arrodillados, con túnicas de abundantes pliegues, presentan el emblema de las Cinco Llagas, patrimonio de la Orden de San Francisco, al que rodean con el cordón franciscano. En la parte correspondiente al Claustro, la misma portada, más embellecida si cabe, ostenta otro bajo-relieve, con la Verónica, que, tocada a la usanza del tiempo, muestra un lienzo con la Santa Faz, entre dos ángeles, también arrodillados, policromadas las formas.
El Claustro bajo está pensado como continuación del templo, por lo que no es de extrañar que coincidan bóvedas, ventanales y profusión de esculturas con los conocidos ambones y guardapolvos afiligranados, tan característicos del arte ojival. La composición rítmica y repetitiva de los motivos compite con una desconcertante riqueza decorativa de la naturaleza, a la que evoca con gran sentido realista. Tiene 30 metros de largo por lienzo, 4,20 de ancho y 8 de altura. La bella disposición de sus veinte ventanales (cinco por lienzo), con arquería arborescente y calada que imita celosías (Gaya Nuóo), más la ornamentación no repetida de sus archivoltas, consigue un efecto tal de luces y sombras, propio del gótico, que impresiona al visitante.
La escalera que conduce al Claustro alto es típicamente española, de cuatro tramos en caja cuadrada. Fernando Marías la adjudica a Egas, dada la semejanza que tiene con la escalera del Hospital del Cardenal Mendoza en Toledo y otras en la geografía española. En cuanto a la ornamentación, todos los autores la atribuyen a Alonso de Covarrubias, a quien estaban encomendadas entonces las obras del Alcázar. Su estilo es plateresco, con una cúpula rebajada, dividida en fajas y casetones que ostentan florones tallados en piedra, cuyos recuadros van disminuyendo conforme se acercan en la perspectiva al rosetón que sirve de clave. Sin duda que los escalones actuales son reconstrucción de Cecilio Béjar, ignorándose su elegancia original.
Se conservan las águilas bicéfalas que datan el tiempo de la construcción, a saber: el del emperador Carlos V, nieto de los Reyes Católicos. El plateresco introduce cariátides en lugar de figuras angélicas y gusta de las pechinas en forma de conchas.
El Claustro alto mide 4,60 metros de altura, siendo más bajo que el claustro inferior; asimismo, muestra mayor austeridad por sus muros lisos y blanqueados y, como decimos, es de factura posterior a todo el resto de la obra del monasterio. No obstante, muestra la distinción por el soberbio artesonado mudéjar, en pintada madera de alerce, con los signos repetitivos de los Reyes Católicos. Gruesas arcadas rebajadas flanquean sus lienzos, con leones rugientes que muestran escudos de los reinos de España, incluidos el de Granada y el de Navarra, más los motes reales del "tanto monta, monta tanto".
Entrada al Claustro e Iglesia:
C/ Reyes Católicos, 17 - 45002 - TOLEDO
Teléfono: 925 22 38 02
Correo electrónico:
monumento@sanjuandelosreyes.org
HORARIOS DE VISITAS
10:00 a 18:30 (1 de abril - 30 de septiembre)
10:00 a 17:30 (1 de octubre-30 de marzo)
Tarifa general (desde el 1-03-2008): 2.30 €
Tarifa reducida: estudiantes con carnet y mayores de 65 - 2.00 €
Menores de 12 años: gratis
Gratis: Miércoles, a partir de las 15:30
(ciudadanos de la Unión Europea, presentando DNI o pasaporte)
All photos in this gallery are all rights reserved. If you want to use any of them, please send an email before. Thanks for collaboration.
R.W.Bro. Mark Stoiko D.D.G.M. Toronto West addressing V.W.Bro. Richard T. Morell Grand Steward in the Grand Lodge of Canada in the Province of Ontario regarding his Masonic Regalia and the work which will be expected of him.
The Beginning:
In the year 1920, immediately after the first World War, there was a great influx into Masonry and a group of Masons from the Willys Overland plant (a pioneer and manufacturer of the Jeep 4 wheel drive vehicle) situated in West Toronto, feeling there was a need for a new Lodge in this area, formed themselves into a committee for that purpose.
This group was headed up by W. Bro. W.L. Abernathy of Stanley Lodge # 426, Toronto and ably assisted by W. Bro. W.L. Clark and Bro. J.G. Bruce, both of Victoria Lodge, Toronto.
Having fulfilled all the necessary requirements, the Institutional Meeting of King Hiram Lodge, U.D., G.R.C., was held in the Annette Street Temple on April 29th, 1920.
After the dispensation, the Most Worshipful,The Grand Master, M.W. Bro. F.W. Harcourt authorized W. Bro. W.L. Abernathy and Charter Members to meet as a Lodge to be known as “King Hiram”.
On the 15th day of November, 1920, the Lodge was duly instituted and consecrated. W. Bro. W.L. Abernathy was installed in the Chair of King Solomon and the Officers were invested to their several stations in King Hiram Lodge #566, on the register of Grand Lodge.
The name “King Hiram” was selected as being the most suitable to fulfill the hopes of the petitioners which was to build a strong Lodge appropriately named after King Hiram Abif the chief architect and overseer of the building of King Solomon’s Temple.
It was resolved that the Initiation Fee be set at $ 75.00, the Affiliation Fee at $15.00 and the Annual Dues at $6.00. The Tyler’s salary was set at $100.00 per year.
The Worshipful Master appointed a Visiting the Sick Committee, a Musical and an Entertainment Committee. A committee to set up the by-laws, a committee to arrange for a Ladie’s Night and a committee to arrange for and provide Christmas Entertainment.
The first candidate to be initiated was Mr. John Rutherford on June 4th, 1920.
The Work for the year consisted of 42 – E.A. Degrees, 32 – F.C. Degrees and 19 – M.M. Degrees.
The Twenties:
The first King Hiram Ladie’s Night was held in the form of a reception in the banquet room. An honorarium was established to pay the Secretary $150.00 per year for his services. A special emergent meeting was held on Saturday, February 8th, 1922 to conduct 15 Master Mason Degrees which beat the previous record by one Degree. The Worshipful Master and brethren attended at the laying of the foundation stone at the Weston Masonic Temple. On March 19th, 1924, W.M. B.H. Capsey had the pleasure of initiating his son, Vincent Bertram Capsey into the First Degree of Masonry. It was adopted that the Lodge present to each candidate the Volume of the Sacred Law on which his obligation was sealed. An annual picnic was held at High Park. A committee was appointed to request the Temple Board to install a pipe organ in the Lodge Room and a piano in the Banquet Hall. King Hiram visited Niagara River Lodge in Niagara Falls, New York and on a return visit the Worshipful Master of Niagara River Lodge presented our Lodge with a gavel which had been made from a piece of oak from the Old Fort Niagara.
The Thirties:
A new Lodge was instituted in the Annette Street Temple, named Memorial Lodge, in which many of the members of King Hiram were involved. W. Bro. Gordon James is installed as Worshipful Master being the first Master of King Hiram who was initiated into the Lodge, all others being Charter Members. Grand Lodge institutes an “Unemployment Bureau” under the Masonic Board of Relief due to the economic circumstances. In May 1935, we celebrated our 15th Anniversary. The creation of a Members Night was established and the ruling Master and W. Bro. Gately of Memorial Lodge conducted the Ceremony. In 1936, Ladies Night was postponed due to the death of King George V and the Grand Master requested a three month mourning period be observed. In 1938, with deep regret we recorded the death of W. Bro. W.L. Abernathy one of the founders and the first Master of King Hiram Lodge.
The Fourties:
It was resolved that the dues of all members enlisting in the Armed Forces be waived.
To support the war effort, Grand Lodge inaugurated a Fund for War Relief to be contributed to by members at large through the various Lodges. King Hiram purchased 3 $100.00 Victory Bonds and a further purchase in the amount of $350.00. Past Master, W. Bro. Fred Adams was honoured by the King as a Member of the British Empire (MBE) for his work in the supply of munitions. It was decided to send Christmas gifts to our members in the Forces. Bro. S.D. Shaw is installed in the Chair of King Solomon and initiates his son, Duncan Shaw and W.A. Bruce son of Bro. J.G. Bruce, the first Secretary of our Lodge. In 1945, we celebrated our 25th Anniversary. Our Grand Master requests us to hold a Thanksgiving Service for our victory in Germany. Bro. R.F. Wright is installed in the Chair of King Solomon. November 1st, becomes known as “Charlie Tottle” Night due to his reaching his 80th birthday and also for his long service to the Lodge. Bro. C.V. Tottle was elected Secretary in 1926 and served until his death in 1950. Bro. Wm. McBurnie returns to Lodge after serving 7 years overseas in the Armed Forces. W. Bro. Wm. Gow is appointed Grand Steward. Installation Night changes from January to December due to the continual bad weather conditions in January. It was approved that the Tyler’s pay be $2.50 per meeting.
The Fifties:
W. Bro. E.D. Magett appoints Bro. Joe Kemp as Chaplain and Bro. Doug Wright as Ass’t. Secretary. R.W. Bro. Floyd Albertson is honoured for his 23 years of service as Treasurer and his work in the Lodge since its inception. Bro. A.E. (Ed) Dyer is installed in the Chair of King Solomon. Two minutes silence was observed in respect to his late Majesty, King George V1.V.W. Bro. S.D. Shaw was congratulated and presented the Regalia of Grand Steward. Meetings and discussions were held regarding the division of Toronto District A. At Grand Lodge it was decided to split the district into two districts, A1 and A2, to take place in 1955. A donation was presented to River Park Lodge to help in the rebuilding of their Temple due to the damage suffered by Hurricane Hazel. In July, 1955, Grand Lodge celebrated its 100th meeting. An open air service was held at Exhibition Park with over 2,500 in attendance. Mr. R.J. Elrick is initiated into King Hiram Lodge. V.W. Bro. Bill Gow presents V.W. Bro. Archie Wright with his Regalia of Grand Steward. Bro. Joe Kemp is installed in the Chair of King Solomon, his father Bro. J.T. Kemp presents a gift on behalf of the family.
The Sixties:
Bro. Doug Wright is installed in the Chair of King Solomon by his father ,V.W. Bro. Archie Wright. This is the first time in the history of the Lodge that a father has installed his own son. The Metro Police Team confers the E.A. Degree on Mr. Robert N. Wilson. V.W. Bro. Archie Wright presents Grand Steward Regalia to V.W. Bro. Reg Wright. King Hiram members and ladies initiate visitations to William S. Farmer Lodge #1109 in Syracuse, New York. Mr. Lewis Crocker passes a Board of Trial and is accepted as a candidate for Initiation. W. Bro. Sam Wright is Installed in the Chair of King Solomon. Dues increase to $22.00. Father and Son night featured Johnny Bower of the Toronto Maple Leafs. W. Bro. A.E. (Ed) Dyer is elected D.D.G.M. of Toronto District #1. The following year Father and Son night featured Leo Cahill, coach of the Toronto Argonauts. Bro. Robert Elrick presents a D of C wand to the Lodge in memory of his father, Bro. Robert Elrick Sr.
The Seventies:
In 1970 we celebrated our 50th Anniversary. Father, Son and Daughter night featured entertainment and movies. V.W. Bro. Archie Wright passed to the Grand Lodge Above. V.W. Bro. Bill Gow, 41 years a Past Master of King Hiram is the first member to receive a 50 year service pin. Bro. Sam Hough of Danville, California visits and later affiliates with King Hiram after moving to Toronto. Bro.’s Lloyd Lemoine and Ernest Roy Imrie receive 50 year pins. Bro. Arnold Sinclair continues to deliver profound lectures when presenting the Candidates Bible. Father and Son night features Darryl Sittler of the Toronto Maple Leafs. Lodge members enjoy memorable cruises with Bro. Bill Rhyme aboard the “Lomar”. Visitations with King Hiram Lodge #37, Ingersoll are initiated. Visitations continue which result in the creation of the King Hiram Friendship Gavel. The Rt. Hon. Chief Justice James C. McRuer of King Hiram Lodge receives a 50 year pin. Dues increase to $80.00. Bro. James Rushford Sr, is presented a plaque for his service to King Hiram as Chaplain and his 57 years in Masonry. V.W. Bro. Joe Kemp is appointed Grand Steward. Bro. Ron Padgett entertains regularly on the organ with great talent, artistry and his well known humour.
The Eighties
Our 60th Anniversary. V.W. Bro. Doug Wright is appointed Grand Tyler and is presented with his fathers regalia, V.W. Bro. Archie Wright. Bro. Aubrey McGill is presented a plaque for his devotion as Chairman of the Benevolent and Sick Committee. V.W. Bro. Joe Kemp and V.W. Bro. Doug Wright are honoured for their many years of service as Secretary and Treasurer of the Lodge. Members Night tradition continues with Bro. Henry Strackholder being Initiated. King Hiram makes a donation to the Barbara Turnbull Fund. W. Bro. Ernie Morrison is appointed as Assistant Grand Director of Ceremonies. Annual dues increase to $65.00. W. Bro. Robert N. Wilson is honoured and presented his Grand Steward Regalia by W. Bro. George Owttrim. A year later V.W. Bro. Robert N. Wilson is presented a plaque in recognition of his service to Masonry and King Hiram Lodge. The first District Walkathon takes place and proves to be very successful. W. Bro. Alistair Clement initiates his son, Mr. Graham Clement into King Hiram. Bro. Aubrey McGill is awarded the prestigious William Mercer Wilson Award. M.W. Bro. William R. Pellow, Grand Master attends the Installation Ceremony of Bro. Edward Grinko being placed in the Chair of King Solomon. King Hiram hosts the District Education which features St. John’s Lodge #209 from London, Ontario. King Hiram hosts a special Appreciation Night for all Past D.D.G.M.’s of Toronto District #1.
The Nineties
Bro. Tom Thompson visits from Scotland to share the Installation Ceremony with his brother, W. Bro. Hugh Thompson. W. Bro. Sam Wright is honoured and presented with the Regalia of Assistant Grand Secretary. Bro. Rick Morell is Installed in the Chair of King Solomon. King Hiram donates $1000.00 to the Runnymede Chronic Care Hospital Fund. W. Bro. Sam Hough passes to the Grand Lodge above. R.W. Bro. A.E. (Ed) Dyer is presented a 50 year service pin. Bro. John Kikiantonis is awarded the Canada 125 Year Award Medal. W. Bro. Edward Grinko launches the district newsletter, “The Blue Print”. W. Bro. Robert Langzik and Bro. Aubrey McGill pass to the Grand Lodge above. V.W. Bro. Robert Wilson is appointed Grand Lodge Representative to the Grand Lodge of Utah. Memorial Lodge #652 affiliates with King Hiram Lodge. W. Bro. Lew Crocker is appointed Grand Steward. W. Bro. Rick Morell serves a second term as Worshipful Master. Bro. Earl Walsh is Installed in the Chair of King Solomon. In 1995 we celebrate our 75th Anniversary. A full year of celebrations and activities is planned including a Gala Anniversary Dance. Bro. John Kikiantonis is Installed in the Chair of King Solomon by V.W. Bro. Sam Wright who substituted for W. Bro. Edward Grinko due to the death of his wife. 50 year pins are presented to V.W. Bro. Doug J.B. Wright, V.W. Bro. Ed Wilkings, Bro. George Cowie and Bro. John Cholmomdeley. 25 year Past Master pins are presented to W. Bro. Proctor, R.W. Bro. Ed Dyer, V.W. Bro. Joe Kemp, V.W. Bro. Doug Wright, V.W. Bro. Ken McLean, W. Bro. Fred Twitchin, Sr., V.W. Bro. Sam Wright, V.W. Bro. Bill Hunter and W. Bro. Doug Kelman. W. Bro. Earl Walsh is Installed in the Chair of King Solomon for a second time by W. Bro. Lew Crocker. The following year Bro. Bill Wingrove is Installed in the Master’s Chair by W. Bro. Earl Walsh. V.W. Bro. Sam Wright is also Installed as Worshipful Master for his second time, 32 years later and initiated Bro.’s Scott Hoy, Ben MacDonald and Dusty Markle. We were saddened with the passing of V.W. Bro. Doug J.B. Wright to the Grand Lodge Above. W. Bro. Rick Morell is Installed in the Chair of King Solomon by W. Bro. Hugh Thompson.
A New Millennium
2000 – 2005:
Bro. Aaron Williams is Raised to the Sublime Degree of a Master Mason. A special night and reception is held for R.W. Bro. Earl Walsh who was elected D.D.G.M. of Toronto District #1. Bro. Ken Mullings is Installed in the Chair of King Solomon by his friend and mentor, W. Bro. Hugh Thompson. V.W. Bro. Hugh McKnight is made an honourary member of the Lodge. A reception is held to present W. Bro. Robert Elrick with his Grand Lodge Regalia. Mr. Stephen Brode is Initiated into King Hiram Lodge. A special meeting is held at Central Park Lodge to congratulate Bro. Imrie on his 102nd Birthday and his 80 years a Mason. W. Bro. John Kikiantonis is Installed as Master for a second time and also re-accepts the Office the following year. W. Bro. Kikiantonis enjoys the honour and pleasure of Initiating his son, Emmanuel into Masonry. Mr. Andrew Adamyk is Initiated into King Hiram Lodge. A memorial was conducted for V.W. Bro. Robert Elrick and R.W. Bro. Robert Wilson who passed to the Grand Lodge Above. V.W. Bro. Bill Hunter receives his 50 year pin. W. Bro. Hugh Thompson passes to the Grand Lodge Above. W. Bro. Edward Grinko is Installed as master for a second time and enjoys the distinct pleasure of Initiating his son, Christopher. Mr. James Berry is also Initiated into Masonry. The Secretary’s honorarium is raised to $500.00. V.W. Bro. Ed Wilkings is made a life member of King Hiram Lodge. W. Bro. Rick Morell is Installed for the fourth time as Worshipful master. King Hiram Lodge is now in its 85th year. Mr. Daniel Berube and Michael Bonner are Initiated and Bro. Antonio Texeira is Raised to the Sublime Degree of a Master Mason. A special evening was conducted for W. Bro. Ken Mullings to celebrate his retirement and his return to Jamaica.
The intervening years between 1920 and 2005 have been momentous years of change in the History of the World.
Consider the Twenties, an era of building following World War I. The Depression of the Thirties. The conflict and hardship encountered due to World War II. The united efforts of rebuilding throughout the Forties and Fifties. The social changes and struggles throughout the Sixties and Seventies. The boom of the Eighties, the recession of the Nineties and the dreams and expectations of a new Millennium.
The years have also seen many changes in King Hiram Lodge. We have witnessed and shared in the lives of many of the Men who have been instrumental in the creation of and continuation of our Lodge.
Throughout the years the spirit of Masonry has always been kept alive and we have at all times remembered the wishes of our Founders, to uphold the basic principles on which the Lodge was established, “to keep this a friendly Lodge and to show true Brotherhood to All”. Our strength in the past has been in the dedication, loyalty and respect, for our Lodge by the many men who have affixed their signatures to our By-Laws.
Lives of great men all remind us
We can make our lives sublime,
And, departing, leave behind us
footprints on the sands of time
– Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
* Reprinted from the King Hiram Lodge #566 “Consecration Night” Booklet, November 15, 1920.
Sun dog formed by the difffraction of light by tiny ice crystals high in the atmosphere, commonly related to cirrus or strato-cirrus clouds, as seen here. Such clouds, at least around where I live, most often precede a weather front. Although Lake Huron looks calm here, later that evening it turned rough with a wind shift and rain following the next day.
Img P6758c.
Reflection from skyscrapers are always fun to photograph. Now that I have the 1.4x extender it makes things far more easier and lens distortion does not appear to be much of an issue anymore. Some day I would consider getting the TS-90 as that seems like a nice to have.
# SML Data
+ Date: 2013-02-11 15:25:13 GMT +0800
+ Dimensions: 3456 x 5184
+ Exposure: 1/500 sec at f/5.6
+ Focal Length: 98 mm
+ ISO: 100
+ Flash: Did not fire
+ Camera: Canon EOS 7D
+ Lens: Canon EF 70-200 f/4L USM + EF 1.4x Extender III
+ GPS: 22°16'49" N 114°10'31" E
+ Location: 中國香港灣仔 中国香港湾仔 Wan Chai, Hong Kong SAR, China
+ Workflow: Lightroom 4, Photoshop CS6
+ Series: 形 Forms
“城市抽象之形 Urban Abstract Forms” / 香港灣仔建築 Architecture in Wan Chai, Hong Kong / 形 Forms / SML.20130211.7D.22765.P1.L1
/ #形 #Forms #SMLForms #CCBY #SMLPhotography #SMLUniverse #SMLProjects
/ #中國 #中国 #China #香港 #HongKong #攝影 #摄影 #photography #灣仔 #WanChai #建築 #建筑 #architecture #抽象 #abstract #城市 #urban #reflection
Quinceañera (pronounced: [kinseaˈɲeɾa]/[k̟ĩn̺s̺e̞äˈɲe̞ɾä]; feminine form of "fifteen-year-old"), also called fiesta de quince años, fiesta de quinceañera, quince años or simply quince, is a celebration of a girl's fifteenth birthday in parts of Latin America and elsewhere in communities of people from Latin America. This birthday is celebrated differently from any other as it marks the transition from childhood to young womanhood.[1] Latin myths and tradition tell about how girls were prepared to be married by the age of fifteen or become nuns. In the years prior to their fifteenth birthdays, girls were taught to cook, weave, and about child rearing by the elder women in their communities in preparation for their lives as married women.[2] The celebrations today vary significantly across countries; celebrations in some countries, for example, have taken on more religious overtones than in others.
In Brazil, a Portuguese-speaking country, the same celebration is called festa de debutantes, baile de debutantes or festa de quinze anos. In the French Caribbean and French Guiana, it is called fête des quinze ans. It is comparable to the debutante formerly common amongst the upper-class in the United Kingdom and the United States.
for more:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quincea%C3%B1era
Contents
[hide] 1 In specific countries 1.1 Argentina, Peru, Paraguay, Bolivia and Uruguay 1.1.1 Ceremony of the 15 Candles
1.2 Brazil
1.3 Cuba
1.4 Dominican Republic
1.5 Ecuador, Venezuela and Colombia
1.6 French Guiana and French Caribbean
1.7 Mexico
1.8 Traditions from other hispanic countries
2 Quinceañera's new tradition
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
In specific countries[edit]
Argentina, Peru, Paraguay, Bolivia and Uruguay[edit]
In Argentina, Peru, Paraguay, and Uruguay[citation needed] the celebration (which is never referred to as a quinceañera but as a fiesta de quince) begins with the arrival of the teenager accompanied by her father, the girl wearing an elaborate, elegant dress she has chosen according to her preferences in colors and style, but still maintaining with the traditional dress. The location, if indoors, commonly has its entrance specially adorned for the occasion. The father and daughter make their entry through this front-door entrance, while music plays and friends and relatives customarily give flowers (usually roses) to the father. After this, the ceremony of the waltz begins, in which the girl first dances with her father—or the father figure—who then passes her on to her friends and relatives. Normally, the ball is divided into segments between which various food dishes are served in order to allow the guests—who are usually close family members and friends—to mingle and enjoy the celebration. The following order of events represents a typical program:
1.Entrance, which is usually accompanied by slow songs
2.Waltz
3.Entree
4.First period of dancing
5.Main meal course
6.Second period of dancing
7.Dessert and video playback of the recorded birthday with her friends
8.15-candle ceremony (optional)
9.Third period of dancing
10.Toast, cake cutting, and a ritual where each female friend/relative pulls a ribbon out of a bunch. The ribbons all have charms on the ends except for one which has a ring.
11.Last period of dancing
Ceremony of the 15 Candles[edit]
In this ceremony, the birthday girl hands a candle to each of fifteen people she considers were most influential in her life during her fifteen years. It is often accompanied by a speech, usually dedicated to each of the people that are given candles. This ceremony is also known as the Tree of Life. The 15 candles symbolize the 15 years the girl has "left behind". Each of the candles represents a special memory, a moment shared with any person who is invited to join the ritual. This is to give gratitude to these 15 people she will tell how they helped her.
Brazil[edit]
In Brazil the celebration is called festa de debutantes, baile de debutantes or festa de quinze anos. The following order of events represents a typical program:
1.Entrance
2.Mass (optional)
3.First period of dancing (usually to international music)
4.Ceremony with videos about the girl's life with friends' greeting
5.A dance with men from her family and one boy (either her boyfriend or her best friend)
6.Second period of dancing (usually to national music)
7.Cake cutting
8.Third period of dancing
Cuba[edit]
In Cuba, the party may include a choreographed group dance, in which 14 couples waltz around the quinceañera, who is accompanied by one of the main dancers, a boy of her choice, her boyfriend or friends of rights.[vague] The choreography often includes four or six dancers or escorts called experts, who are allowed to dance around the quinceañera. They are usually inexperienced dancers whose function is to highlight the central couple. The male dancers are also allowed to wear tuxedos in different colors.
Fifteenth birthday celebrations were very popular in Cuba until the late 1970s. This practice partly entered Cuba via Spain, but the greatest influence was the French.[citation needed] The wealthy families who could afford to rent expensive dining rooms in private clubs or hotels of four and five stars were the real precursors of quinceañeras, which they called quinces. These celebrations usually took place in the house of the girl or the more spacious house of a relative.
Dominican Republic[edit]
This celebration is very traditional and common. It begins with a Mass in the Catholic Church to receive the blessing of God and give thanks for another year of life. At the birthday party, the birthday girl makes her entrance to the place of the party accompanied by 14 additional pairs of guests, which together with the teenager's own are 15 pairs of people total. Usually, the quinceañera wears a bright color dress. Ladies wear long dresses and gentlemen wear suits and ties, which are often brightly colored, but never to overshadow the birthday girl's dress, which is the focal point of the celebration. Almost immediately the quinceañera birthday girl dances the waltz with her partner who usually waltzes in the middle and passes her to the hands of her father to finish the waltz.
It is customary for the quinceañera girl and her escorts to perform several choreographed dances, which may include rhythms like merengue, pop, or salsa. A buffet and drinks are usually served. As the party favors or memories are given to the guests, an album is signed by invited guests to record their presence at the party. One of the main attractions in the Dominican Republic is the traditional cake of fifteen years, which is usually of immense size and beauty, decorated with colorful designs. The cake is cut shortly after the dancing. Traditionally an artist or band participates in the celebration to bring it to life and give a musical touch.
A Nicaraguan girl celebrating her quince años. In Nicaragua, only the girl, and never the celebration itself, is referred to as quinceañera.
Ecuador, Venezuela and Colombia[edit]
In Ecuador, the quince starts with the arrival of the teenager, accompanied by her father, who is then received by her mother and other relatives and friends. Then father and daughter dance a waltz and other tunes.[3] The quinceañera birthday girl will dance with her brothers (if any) and their uncles and godparents. Then she performs the paso doble and the waltz with all members of the procession (then optional dances to other music, such as merengue or pop). For this occasion the teenager wears an evening dress in light colors or pastels, is dressed and made up slightly, and usually places a tiara in her hair and jewels on her neck and hands. All the guests dress in formal attire, including the teenager's peers.
After the original dance, the choreography begins with a setup by the teenager and her friends. After that, the festival begins with music from live bands, some famous artists, DJs, food, drink, and at one late point of the night a "crazy hour" is carried out, in which the attendants wear masks or funny wigs and make noise with whistles and rattles while fast-tempo music is played. It is optional to make some surprise dance performed by the quinceañera birthday girl (alone or accompanied), and also a dance that will give away her friends, cousins, and others. [4]
French Guiana and French Caribbean[edit]
In French Guiana and the French Caribbean the celebration is known as fête des quinze ans.
Mexico[edit]
File:Mexican Quinceanera.theora.ogvPlay media
A Mexican quinceañera celebration
Quinceañera with "chambelanes"
In Mexico the quinceañera is adorned with elegant jewelry and makeup. Traditionally, this would be the first time she would wear makeup, but this is no longer the case. The quinceañera is also expected to wear a formal evening dress, traditionally a long, elegant ball gown chosen by the girl and most often, her mother, according to her color and style of favor.[5]
In the Mexican tradition, when the teenager is Catholic, the quinceañera celebration begins with a thanksgiving mass.[5] She arrives at the celebration accompanied by her parents, godparents and court of honor. The court of honor is a group of her chosen peers consisting of paired-off girls and boys, respectively known as damas (dames) and chambelanes (chamberlains). Typically, the court consists of pairs ranging from seven to fifthteen damas and chambelanes. At this religious mass, a rosary, or sometimes a necklace with a locket or pendant depicting Mexico's patron saint, the Virgin of Guadalupe, is presented to the teenager by her godparents, the necklace having been previously blessed by the church clergy. She is also awarded a tiara, which serves as a reminder that to her loved ones, especially her immediate family, the quinceañera will always be a princess. Some also see it as denoting that she is a "princess" before God and the world. After this, the girl may leave her bouquet of flowers on the altar for the Virgin Mary.[5]
After the thanksgiving mass, guests gather for a reception where the remaining celebratory events meant to honor the quinceañera will take place, including the rendering of gifts. This reception may be held at the quinceañera's home, at venues (such as dining halls, banquet halls, or casinos), or in some cases, in more public places, similar to a block party. During the reception, the birthday girl usually dances a traditional waltz with her father to a song chosen by both that speaks about the occasion and their relationship. Then her father passes her over to the "chambelán de honor", who is her chosen escort, and afterwards continues the dance with the rest of her court of honor.[5] Often this section of the celebration is previously practiced and/or choreographed, often weeks in advance, sometimes even with months of anticipation.[5] The basic reception consists of six major parts[6] with dances taking place while a traditional Mexican meal is served:
1.The formal entry - A grand entrance made by the Quinceañera once most guests have been seated.
2.The formal toast - An optional but usually featured part of the reception, generally initiated by the parents or godparents of the birthday girl.
3.The first dance - Usually a waltz where the girl dances, starting with her father.
4.The family dance - Usually a waltz involving just the immediate relatives, the "chambelanes", godparents and the closest friends of the girl.
5.The preferred song - Any modern song particularly enjoyed by the Quinceañera is played and danced.
6.The general dance - Also usually a waltz, where everyone dances to a musical waltz tune.
Traditionally, Mexican girls could not dance in public until they turned fifteen, except at school dances or at family events. So the waltz with her "chambelanes" is choreographed and elaborate to celebrate what was meant to be the quinceañera's first public dance.
Some families may choose to add a ceremonial components to the celebration, depending on local customs. Among them are the ceremony of the Change of Shoes, in which a family member presents the quinceañera with her first pair of high heel shoes; the Crowning ceremony, in which a close relative vests her with a crown on her head; and ceremonia de la ultima muñeca (literally "ceremony of the last doll"), during which her father presents her with a doll usually wearing a dress similar to the quinceañera herself. The ceremony of the last doll is based on a Maya tradition and is related to the birthday girl's receipt and renouncement of the doll as she grows into womanhood. Likewise, the ceremony of the change of shoes symbolizes the girl's maturity.[5]
Once all symbolic gestures have taken place, the dinner is commenced. At this point, the celebration reaches its peak; contracted musical groups begin playing music, keeping the guests entertained. The music is played while the guests dine, chat, mingle, and dance. The next morning the family and closest friends may also attend a special breakfast, especially if they are staying with the family. Sometimes what is known as a recalentado (re-warming) takes place in which any food not consumed during the event of the night before is warmed again for a brunch type event.[7]
Traditions from other hispanic countries[edit]
Another tradition[where?] is to have 14 ladies (sometimes 7), and 14 escorts (sometimes 7) as a court.[citation needed] The escorts hold flowers (usually roses) and the ladies carry candles. As the quinceañera dances the waltz with her father she blows out one candle, then picks up one rose. This continues until all candles have been blown out and all roses have been picked up. The 14 candles blown out represent her 14 years of age. When the time comes to cut the cake the quinceañera will blow out her last candle thus completing her 15 wishes. The flowers are given to her mother. An English quinceañera waltz song especially made for the father and daughter dance is "Sure As The Wind" - www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yw520MtDw28 .
Quinceañera's new tradition[edit]
Nowadays, many young girls create their own Quinceañera celebrations. Whereas traditional dresses were formal and usually white or pink only, dress designs are now more detailed.[8] Also, instead of having the traditional seven damas and seven chambelanes, the Quinceañera now also has the choice to pick all damas or all chambelanes. Traditionally, girls were not allowed to dance in public until turning fifteen, but this taboo has also receded significantly. The ceremony of the Changing of the Shoes has also been modified. Instead of wearing slippers before ceremonially exchanging them for high heels, a girl may decide to wear shoes compatible with the color and style of her dress instead of donning the traditional slippers.
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The easily erodable Kaibab Limestone often forms pockets and sharp edges on any area exposed to the elements.
NPS Photo by Kristen M. Caldon
Kaibab Formation: Thickness: 200-500 ft.
Deposited 270 million years ago, during the Paleozoic Era - Early Middle Permian Period, the Kaibab Formation is the topmost rock layer at the Grand Canyon.
It is largely made up of light colored limestones and is a cliff forming unit.
The Kaibab Formation contains numerous fossils indicative of a warm and shallow water environment, including crinoids, brachiopods, bryozoans, and sponges.
Chert, which forms irregular blobs and nodules, is common in the Kaibab. Chert is composed of silica and, as it is more resistant to weathering, can often be seen protruding from the rock around it.
It often forms where there is an empty space in the rock, such as in a worm burrow. It also forms where an organism made primarily of silica, such as a sponge, has been buried. Most of the sponges in the Kaibab Formation are preserved in chert.
The Kaibab Limestone is also distinct in that it is readily dissolved, resulting in the formation of karst topography on the canyon’s rims.
Numerous caves and sinkholes are present in the Kaibab, particularly on the North Rim.
While the Kaibab Limestone now caps Grand Canyon’s rims, many more rock layers once sat above the Kaibab.
Perhaps as much as one mile (1.6 km) of Mesozoic rock layers once covered the Kaibab Formation. Remnants of these rock layers exist near Grand Canyon, including Cedar Mountain and Red Butte.
Vishnu (/ˈvɪʃnuː/; Sanskrit: Viṣṇu) is a popular Hindu deity, the Supreme God of Vaishnavism (one of the three principal denominations of Hinduism) and one of the three supreme deities (Trimurti) of Hinduism. He is also known as Lord Narayana and Lord Hari. As one of the five primary forms of God in the Smarta tradition, He is conceived as "the Preserver or the Protector" within the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the divinity.
In Hindu sacred texts, Vishnu is usually described as having dark complexion of water-filled clouds and as having four arms. He is depicted as a blue being, holding a padma (lotus flower) in the lower left hand, the Kaumodaki gada (mace) in the lower right hand, the Panchajanya shankha (conch) in the upper left hand and the discus weapon Sudarshana Chakra in the upper right hand.
Adherents of Hinduism believe Vishnu's eternal and supreme abode beyond the material universe is called Vaikuntha, which is also known as Paramdhama, the realm of eternal bliss and happiness and the final or highest place for liberated souls who have attained Moksha. Vaikuntha is situated beyond the material universe and hence, cannot be perceived or measured by material science or logic. Vishnu's other abode within the material universe is Ksheera Sagara (the ocean of milk), where he reclines and rests on Ananta Shesha, (the king of the serpent deities, commonly shown with a thousand heads). In almost all Hindu denominations, Vishnu is either worshipped directly or in the form of his ten avatars, the most famous of whom are Rama and Krishna.
The Puranabharati, an ancient text, describes these as the dashavatara, or the ten avatars of Vishnu. Among the ten described, nine have occurred in the past and one will take place in the future as Lord Kalki, at the end of Kali Yuga, (the fourth and final stage in the cycle of yugas that the world goes through). These incarnations take place in all Yugas in cosmic scales; the avatars and their stories show that gods are indeed unimaginable, unthinkable and inconceivable. The Bhagavad Gita mentions their purpose as being to rejuvenate Dharma, to vanquish those negative forces of evil that threaten dharma, and also to display His divine nature in front of all souls.
The Trimurti (three forms) is a concept in Hinduism "in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the maintainer, preserver or protector and Shiva the destroyer or transformer." These three deities have also been called "the Hindu triad" or the "Great Trinity", all having the same meaning of three in One. They are the different forms or manifestation of One person the Supreme Being or Narayana/Svayam Bhagavan.
Vishnu is also venerated as Mukunda, which means God who is the giver of mukti or moksha (liberation from the cycle of rebirths) to his devotees or the worthy ones who deserve salvation from the material world.
ETYMOLOGY
The traditional explanation of the name Vishnu involves the root viś, meaning "to settle" (cognate with Latin vicus, English -wich "village," Slavic: vas -ves), or also (in the Rigveda) "to enter into, to pervade," glossing the name as "the All-Pervading One". Yaska, an early commentator on the Vedas, in his Nirukta, (etymological interpretation), defines Vishnu as viṣṇur viṣvater vā vyaśnoter vā, "one who enters everywhere". He also writes, atha yad viṣito bhavati tad viṣnurbhavati, "that which is free from fetters and bondages is Vishnu".
Adi Shankara in his commentary on the Sahasranama states derivation from viś, with a meaning "presence everywhere" ("As he pervades everything, vevesti, he is called Vishnu"). Adi Shankara states (regarding Vishnu Purana, 3.1.45): "The Power of the Supreme Being has entered within the universe. The root viś means 'enter into'." Swami Chinmayananda, in his translation of Vishnu Sahasranama further elaborates on that verse: "The root vis means to enter. The entire world of things and beings is pervaded by Him and the Upanishad emphatically insists in its mantra 'whatever that is there is the world of change.' Hence, it means that He is not limited by space, time or substance. Chinmayananda states that, that which pervades everything is Vishnu."
SACRET TEXTS - SHRUTI & SMRITI
Shruti is considered to be solely of divine origin. It is preserved as a whole, instead of verse by verse. It includes the four Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda) the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads with commentaries on them.
Smṛti refers to all the knowledge derived and inculcated after Shruti had been received. Smrti is not 'divine' in origin, but was 'remembered' by later Rishis (sages by insight, who were the scribes) by transcendental means and passed down through their followers. It includes the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana which are Sattva Puranas. These both declare Vishnu as Para Brahman Supreme Lord who creates unlimited universes and enters each one of them as Lord of Universe.
SHRUTI
VAISHNAVA CANON
The Vaishnava canon presents Vishnu as the supreme being, rather than another name for the Sun God, who also bore the name Suryanarayana and is considered only as a form of Vishnu.
VEDAS
In the Yajur Veda, Taittiriya Aranyaka (10-13-1), Narayana suktam, Lord Narayana is mentioned as the supreme being. The first verse of Narayana Suktam mentions the words "paramam padam", which literally mean "highest post" and may be understood as the "supreme abode for all souls". This is also known as Param Dhama, Paramapadam, or Vaikuntha. Rig Veda 1:22:20a also mentions the same "paramam padam". This special status is not given to any deity in the Vedas apart from Lord Vishnu/Narayana.[citation needed] Narayana is one of the thousand names of Vishnu as mentioned in the Vishnu Sahasranama. It describes Vishnu as the All-Pervading essence of all beings, the master of - and beyond - the past, present and future, one who supports, sustains and governs the Universe and originates and develops all elements within. This illustrates the omnipresent characteristic of Vishnu. Vishnu governs the aspect of preservation and sustenance of the universe, so he is called "Preserver of the universe".
Vishnu is the Supreme God who takes manifest forms or avatars across various ages or periods to save humanity from evil beings, demons or Asuras. According to the extant Hindu texts and traditions, Lord Vishnu is considered to be resident in the direction of the "Makara Rashi" (the "Shravana Nakshatra"), which is about coincident with the Capricorn constellation. In some of the extant Puranas, and Vaishnava traditions, Vishnu's eye is considered to be situated at the infinitely distant Southern Celestial Pole.
Following the defeat of Indra and his displacement as the Lord of Heaven or Swarga, Indra asks Lord Vishnu for help and thus Lord Vishnu takes his incarnations or avatars to Earth to save mankind, thus showing his position as Supreme God to all of creation.
In the Puranas, Indra frequently appears proud and haughty. These bad qualities are temporarily removed when Brahma and/or Shiva give boons to Asuras or Rakshasas such as Hiranyaksha, Hiranyakashipu and Ravana, who are then able to defeat Indra in wars between Devas and Asuras. The received boons often made Asuras virtually indestructible.
Indra has no option but to seek help from Vishnu. Indra prays before Vishnu for protection and the Supreme Lord obliges him by taking avatars and generating himself on Earth in various forms, first as a water-dweller (Matsya, fish), then as an amphibious creature (Kurma avatar or Tortoise), then as a half-man-half-animal (Varaha the pig-faced, human-bodied Lord, and Narasimha the Lord with lion's face and claws and a human body). Later, Vishnu appears as human beings (Vamana the short-heighted person), Parashurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha and finally as Kalki for performing his task of protecting his devotees from demons and anti-religious entities.
Vishnu's supremacy is attested by his victories over those very powerful entities. It is further attested by the accepted iconography and sculptures of Vishnu in reclining position as producing Brahma emerging from his navel. Brahma the creator is thus created in turn by Vishnu out of his own person. Instead Vishnu takes various avatars to slay or defeat those demons. But it is to be noted that Vishnu also provided boons to Akupresura, a bear faced demon who was destroyed by Lord Shiva.
Vishnu's actions lowered Indra's ranking among Hindu deities and led to the ascendancy of Vishnu.
Few temples are dedicated to the Sun or Suryanarayana, nor indeed Indra, nor does Indra figure largely in the Hindu religion.
Indra is almost completely absent from the deities considered as the chief or most important deity.
RIGVEDA
In the Rigveda, Vishnu is mentioned 93 times. He is frequently invoked alongside other deities, especially Indra, whom he helps in killing Vritra and with whom he drinks Soma. His distinguishing characteristic in the Vedas is his association with light. Two Rigvedic hymns in Mandala 7 are dedicated to Vishnu. In 7.99, Vishnu is addressed as the god who separates heaven and earth, a characteristic he shares with Indra.
The Rig Veda describes Vishnu as younger brother to Indra as Vamana. In Vaishnava canon the 'Vishnu' who is younger brother to Indra is identified as Vamana, Avatar of Vishnu, hence referred to as Vishnu by Vaishnavites. Vishnu is the Supreme God who lives in the highest celestial region, contrasted against those who live in the atmospheric or terrestrial regions. Vishnu is content with mere prayer, unlike almost all of the other gods who receive sacrificial offerings such as Havis, which is given using clarified butter, or Soma. Later foreign translators have view that Vedas place Indra in a superior position to Vishnu's Avatar of Vamana but in fact Vamana helps Indra by restoring his Kingdom.
An alternate translation is provided by Wilson according to Sayana:
When Thy (younger brother) Viṣṇu (Vamana) by (his) strength stepped his three paces, then verily thy beloved horses bore thee. (Rigveda 8:12:27)
Wilson mentions Griffith's possible translation as a footnote. However the following verse from Rigveda renders the above translation by Wilson more probable.
Him whose three places that are filled with sweetness, imperishable, joy as it may list them, Who verily alone upholds the threefold, the earth, the heaven, and all living creatures. (Rig veda 1:154:4)
Wilson offers an alternate translation for Rigveda 10:113:2:
Viṣṇu offering the portion of Soma, glorifies by his own vigor that greatness of his. Indra, the lord of heaven, with the associated gods having slain Vritra, became deserving of honour. (Rigveda 10:113:2)
This verse sees Vishnu as one who is glorified by his own strength, while Indra became deserving of honor after having slain Vritra only in association with other gods.
However Vishnu's praise for other gods does not imply worship. Wilson translates:
Viṣṇu, the mighty giver of dwellings praises thee, and Mitra and Varuna; the company of Maruts imitates thee in exhilaration. (Rigveda 8:15:9) (page 280)
The following verses show categorically Vishnu as distinguished from other gods in Rigveda.
He who presents (offering) to Viṣṇu, the ancient, the creator, the recent, the self-born; he who celebrates the great birth of that mighty one; he verily possessed of abundance, attains (the station) that is to be sought (by all). (Rigveda 1:156:2) (page 98)
No being that is or that has been born, divine Viṣṇu, has attained the utmost limit of thy magnitude, by which thou hast upheld the vast and beautiful heaven, and sustained the eastern horizon of Earth.(Rigveda 7:99:2) (page 196)
The divine Viṣṇu, the best of the doers of good deeds, who came to the pious instituter of rite (Indra), to assist (at its celebration), knowing (the desires of the worshiper), and present at the three connected period (of worship), shows favor to the Arya, and admits the author of the ceremony to a share of the sacrifice. (Rigveda 1:156:5) (page 99)
Jan Gonda, the late Indologist, states that Vishnu, although remaining in the background of Indra's exploits, contributes by his presence, or is key to Indra's success. Vishnu is more than a mere companion, equal in rank or power to Indra, or sometime the one who made Indra's success possible.
Descriptions of Vishnu as younger to Indra are found in only the hymns to Indra, but in a kathenotheism religion like that of the Rigveda, each god, for a time, is supreme in the mind of the devotee.
In the Rig Vedic texts, the deity or god referred to as Vishnu is the Sun God, who also bears the name 'Suryanarayana'. By contrast, the 'Vishnu' referred to in 'Vishnu Purana', 'Vishnu Sahasranamam' and 'Purusha Sooktham' is Lord Narayana, the Consort of Lakshmi. Vaishnavites make a further distinction by extolling the qualities of Vishnu by highlighting his differences from other deities such as Shiva,[citation needed] Brahma or Surya.
THREE STEPS
Hymn 7.100 refers to the celebrated 'three steps' of Vishnu (as Trivikrama) by which he strode over the universe and in three places planted his step. The 'Vishnu Suktam' (RV 1.154) says that the first and second of Vishnu's strides (those encompassing the earth and air) are visible to men and the third is in the heights of heaven (sky). This last place is described as Vishnu's supreme abode in RV 1.22.20:
The princes evermore behold / that loftiest place where Vishnu is / Laid as it were an eye in heaven.(trans. Griffith)
Griffith's "princes" are the sūri, either "inciters" or lords of a sacrifice, or priests charged with pressing the Soma. The verse is quoted as expressing Vishnu's supremacy by Vaishnavites.
Though such solar aspects have been associated with Vishnu by tradition as well as modern-scholarship, he was not just the representation of the sun, as he moves both vertically and horizontally.
In hymns 1.22.17, 1.154.3, 1.154.4 he strides across the earth with three steps, in 6.49.13, 7.100.3 strides across the earth three times and in 1.154.1, 1.155.5,7.29.7 he strides vertically, with the final step in the heavens. The same Veda also says he strode wide and created space in the cosmos for Indra to fight Vritra. By his stride he made dwelling for men possible, the three forming a symbolic representation of the dwelling's all-encompassing nature. This nature and benevolence to men were Vishnu's enduring attributes. As the triple-strider he is known as Trivikrama and as Urukrama, for the strides were wide.
BRAHMANAS
The Brahmanas are commentaries on the Vedas and form part of the Shruti literature. They are concerned with the detail of the proper performance of rituals. In the Rigveda, Shakala Shakha: Aitareya Brahmana Verse 1 declares: agnir vai devānām ava mo viṣṇuḥ paramus, tadantareṇa sarvā anyā devatā - Agni is the lowest or youngest god and Vishnu is the greatest and the highest God.
The Brahmanas assert the supremacy of Lord Vishnu, addressing him as "Gajapati", the one whom all sacrifices are meant to please. Lord Vishnu accepts all sacrifices to the demigods and allots the respective fruits to the performer In one incident, a demonic person performs a sacrifice by abducting the Rishis (sages), who meditate by constantly chanting God's name. The sacrifice is meant to destroy Indra. But the rishis, who worship Indra as a demigod, alter one pronunciation of the Veda Mantra, reversing the purpose of the sacrifice. When the fruit of the sacrifice is given and the demon is on the verge of dying, he calls to Vishnu, whom he addresses as Supreme Godhead and "the father of all living entities including himself".
Aitareya Brahmana 1:1:1 mentions Vishnu as the Supreme God. But in the Vaishnava canon, in different ages, with Vishnu in different avatars, his relationship with the asuras or demons, was always adversarial. The asuras always caused harm, while the sages and devas or celestial beings, did penance and called to Vishnu for protection. Vishnu always obliged by taking an avatar to vanquish the asuras. In the Vaishnava canon, Vishnu never gave or granted any boons to the asuras, distinguishing him from the gods Shiva and Brahma, who did. He is the only God called upon to save good beings by defeating or killing the asuras.
Sayana writes that in Aitareya Brahmana 1:1:1 the declaration agnir vai devānām ava mo viṣṇuḥ paramus,tadantareṇa sarvā anyā devatā does not indicate any hierarchy among gods. Even in Rigveda Samhita, avama and parama are not applied to denote rank and dignity, but only to mark place and locality.
In Rigveda 1:108:9,: yadindrāghnī avamasyāṃ pṛthivyāṃ madhyamasyāṃ paramasyāmuta sthaḥ | i.e., in the lowest place, the middle (place), and the highest (place). Agni, the fire, has, among the gods, the lowest place; for he resides with man on the earth; while the other gods are either in the air, or in the sky. Vishnu occupies the highest place. The words avama and parama are understood as 'First' and 'Last' respectively. To support this claim, Sayana adduces the mantra (1,4. As'val. Sr. S. 4, 2), agnir mukham prathamo devathanam samathanam uttamo vishnur asit, i.e., Agni was the first of the deities assembled, (and) Vishnu the last.
In the Kausitaki Brahmana (7.1) Agni is called Aaradhya (instead of avama), and Visnu parardha(instead of parama),i.e., belonging to the lower and higher halves (or forming the lower and higher halves). The Vishnu Purana gives tremendous importance to the worship of Vishnu and mentions that sacrifices are to begin only with both the lighting of fire or 'Agni', pouring of sacrificial offerings to Vishnu in 'Agni' so that those offerings reach and are accepted by Vishnu. Worship of Vishnu through Yajnas (or Homams) and other rituals, will not achieve the desired result if Agni's role is neglected.
Muller says "Although the gods are sometimes distinctly invoked as the great and the small, the young and the old (Rig veda 1:27:13), this is only an attempt to find the most comprehensive expression for the divine powers, and nowhere is any of the gods represented as the subordinate to others. It would be easy to find, in the numerous hymns of the Veda, passages in which almost every single god is represented as supreme and absolute."
However this notion is not completely correct as per the following verses, which shows Rigveda describe one or more gods as subject to other god(s).
Him whose high law not Varuna nor Indra, not Mitra, Aryaman, nor Rudra breaketh, Nor evil-hearted fiends, here for my welfare him I invoke, God Savitar, with worship. (Rigveda 2.038.09)
I invite to this place, with reverential salutations, for my good, that divine Savita, whose functions neither Indra, nor Varun.a, nor Mitra nor Aryaman nor Rudra nor the enemies (of the gods), impede. (Rigveda 2.038.09)
SMRITI
VISHNU SMRITI
The Vishnu Smṛti, is one of the later books of the Dharmashastra tradition of Hinduism and the only one that focuses on the bhakti tradition and the required daily puja to Vishnu, rather than the means of knowing dharma. It is also known for its handling of the controversial subject of the practice of sati (self-immolation of a widow on her husband's funeral pyre). The text was composed by an individual or group. The author(s) created a collection of the commonly known legal maxims that were attributed to Vishnu into one book, as Indian oral culture began to be recorded more formally.
BHAGAVATA PURANA
Vishnu is the only Bhagavan as declared in the Bhagavata 1:2:11 in the verse: vadanti tat tattva-vidas tattvam yaj jnanam advayam brahmeti paramatmeti bhagavan iti sabdyate, translated as "Learned transcendentalists who know the Absolute Truth call this non-dual substance as Brahman, Paramātma and Bhagavan."
VISHNU PURANA
In the Vishnu Purana (6:5:79) the personality named Parashara Rishi defines six bhagas:
aiśvaryasya samagrasya vīryasya yaśasaḥ śriyaḥ
jñāna-vairāgyayoś caiva ṣannāḥ bhaga itīṇganā
Jiva Gosvami explains the verse in Gopala Champu (Pūrva 15:73) and Bhagavata Sandarbha 46:10:
jñāna-śakti-balaiśvarya-vīrya-tejām.sy aśeṣataḥ
bhagavac-chabda-vācyāni vinā heyair guṇādibhiḥ
"The substantives of the word bhagavat (bhagavat-śabda-vācyāni) are unlimited (aśeṣataḥ) knowledge (jñāna), energies (śakti), strength (bala), opulence (aiśvarya), heroism (vīrya), splendor (tejas), without (vinā) objectionable (heyair) qualities (guṇādibhiḥ)."
SANGAM LITERATURE
Tamil Sangam literature (300BCE to 500CE) mentions mAyOn, or the dark one, as the supreme deity who creates, sustains and destroys the universe. Paripadal 3 describes the glory of Thirumal in the most superlative terms.
Paripadal by kaduvan iLaveyinanAr:
"thIyinuL theRal nI poovinuL naaRRa nI kallinuL maNiyu nI sollinuL vaaymai aRaththinuL anbu nI maRaththinuL mainthu nI vEthaththu maRai nI boothaththu madhalu nI vencudar oLiyu nI thingaLuL aLiyu nI anaiththu nI anaiththinut poruLu nI"
The last line states that Lord Vishnu is the supreme deity who is the inner controller (Antaryamin) of the entire universe. This is one of the Lord's glories, which is first mentioned in Vedas and later propounded by Alwars in Prabhandams and Sri Vaishnavaite Acharyas in various commentaries
The Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple and Vishnu, Lakshmi is mentioned in Tamil works of literature of the Sangam era, including the epic Silapadikaram (book 11, lines 35–40):
āyiram viritteḻu talaiyuṭai aruntiṟaṟ
pāyaṟ paḷḷip palartoḻu tētta viritiraik kāviri viyaṉperu turuttit tiruvamar mārpaṉ kiṭanta vaṇṇamum
On a magnificent cot having a thousand heads spread out, worshipped and praised by many, in an islet surrounded by Kaveri with bellowing waves, is the lying posture of the one who has Lakshmi sitting in his chest.
THEOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES
The actual number of Vishnu's auspicious qualities is countless, although his six most-important "divine glories" are:
Jnana (Omniscience); defined as the power to know about all beings simultaneously;
Aishvarya (Sovereignty), derived from the word Ishvara which means unchallenged rule over all;
Shakti (Power or Energy), the capacity to make the impossible possible;
Bala (Strength), the capacity to support everything by will and without any fatigue;
Virya (Vigour), the power to retain immateriality as the Supreme Spirit or Being in spite of being the material cause of mutable creations;
Tejas (Splendor), which expresses self-sufficiency and the capacity to overpower everything by spiritual effulgence.
Other important qualities attributed to Vishnu are Gambhirya (inestimatable grandeur), Audarya (generosity), and Karunya (compassion). Natya Shastra lists Vishnu as the presiding deity of the Sṛngara rasa.
The Rigveda says: Vishnu can travel in three strides. The first stride is the Earth. The second stride is the visible sky. The third stride cannot be seen by men and is the heaven where the gods and the righteous dead live. (This feature of three strides also appears in the story of his avatar Vamana/Trivikrama.) The Sanskrit for "to stride" is the root kram; its reduplicated perfect is chakram (guņa grade) or chakra (zero-grade), and in the Rigveda he is called by epithets such as vi-chakra-māņas = "he who has made 3 strides". The Sanskrit word chakra also means "wheel". That may have suggested the idea of Vishnu carrying a chakra.
FIVE FORMS
In Shree Vaishnavism, another school dating from around the 10th century AD, Vishnu assumes five forms:
In the Para Form, Para is the highest form of Vishnu found only in Sri Vaikunta also called Moksha, along with his consort Lakshmi, (and Bhumi Devi and Nila devi, avatars of Lakshmi) and surrounded by liberated souls like Ananta, Garuda, and a host of Muktas (liberated souls).
In the Vyuha form, Vishnu assumes four forms, which exercise different cosmic functions and controls activities of living beings.
In the Vibhava form, Vishnu assumes various manifestations, called Vibhavas, more popularly known as Avataras from time to time, to protect the virtuous, punish evil-doers and re-establish righteousness.
In the Antaryami; "Dwelling within" or "Suksma Vasudeva" form, Vishnu exists within the souls of all living beings and in every substance.
In the Arcavatara or Image manifestation, Vishnu is visible and therefore easily approachable by devotees since Para, Vyuha, Vibhava and Antaryami forms can only be imagined or meditated upon because they are beyond our reach. Such images can be
Revealed by Vishnu, for example, a self-manifested (Swayambhu) icon (murti), e.g. The Mahavishnu Temple at Tirunelli, The Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam, The Tirumala Venkateshwara Temple, etc.; or
Installed by Devas or celestial beings such as such as Guruvayur Temple installed by Vayu; or
Installed by humans, and consecrated according to Vaishnava Agama shastras or scriptures such as Lord Jagannatha of Jagannath Temple (Puri) at Puri.
RELATIONS WITH OTHER DEITIES
SHIVA
The three gods of the Trimurti clan are inseparable and in harmony in view of their common vision and universal good. They are perfectly ideal in all respects.
Both Asuras and Devas played supportive roles in this story by keeping company with Vishnu in his incarnated forms. Hanuman is a vanara who is completely dedicated to Rama. He gives Vishnu company and obeys his command, while playing an important part in Rama's life. He is regarded in Vaishnava canon because it is through blessings that Hanuman is born. Thus, Hanuman, Vishnu's constant companion, with his idol appearing temples of Rama, Krishna and Narasimha, i.e. all of Vishnu's avatars, is considered by Vaishnavas.
Syncretic forces produced stories in which the two deities were shown in cooperative relationships and combined forms. Harihara is the name of a combined deity form of both Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva (Hara). This dual form, which is also called Harirudra, is mentioned in the Mahabharata.
LAKSHMI
Vishnu's consort is Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth (also known as Maya). The Samvit (the primary intelligence/dark matter) of the universe is Vishnu, while the other five attributes emerge from this samvit and hence Maya or dark energy of the universe is Lakshmee is his ahamata, activity, or Vishnu's Power. This power of God, Maya or Shakti, is personified and has multiple names: Shree, Lakshmi, Maya, Vishnumaya or Mahamaya. She is said to manifest as Kriyashakti, (Creative Activity) and Bhutishakti (Creation). This world requires Vishnu's creativity. He therefore needs Lakshmi to always be with Him. Her various avatars as Lord Vishnu's consorts are Varahavatar (Bhoodevi) or Bhoomi, Ramavatar Seeta, Krishnavatar Rukmini)
SARASWATI & GANGA
According to Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Lord Vishnu had three wives Lakshmi, Saraswati and Ganga. Due to their constant quarrelsome nature among them. Once Ganga tried to be close with Vishnu, this rebuked Saraswati but Lakshmi tried to pacify them but faced a curse rather. As per the curse, Lakshmi to appear as Tulasi. Sarawati cursed Ganga to run as a river in the world and Saraswati was cursed to run as a river in the netherworld. After this, Lord Vishnu transformed and became Brahma and Shiva to pacify Saraswati and Ganga.
GARUDA
Vishnu's mount (Vahana) is Garuda, the eagle. Vishnu is commonly depicted as riding on his shoulders.
ICONOGRAPHY
According to various Puranas, Vishnu is the ultimate omnipresent reality and is shapeless and omnipresent. However, a strict iconography governs his representation, whether in pictures, icons, or idols:
He has four arms and is male: The four arms indicate his all-powerful and all-pervasive nature. His physical existence is represented by the two arms in the front, while the two arms at the back represent his presence in the spiritual world. The Upanishad Gopal Uttartapani describes the four arms.
The Shreevatsa mark is on his chest, symbolizing his consort Lakshmi.
He wears the auspicious "Kaustubha" jewel around his neck and a garland of vaijayanti flowers (Vanamala). Lakshmi dwells in this jewel, on Vishnu's chest.
A crown adorns his head: The crown symbolizes his supreme authority. This crown sometimes includes a peacock feather, borrowing from his Krishna-avatar.
He wears two earrings: The earrings represent inherent opposites in creation — knowledge and ignorance; happiness and unhappiness; pleasure and pain.
He rests on Ananta, the immortal and infinite snake.
Vishnu is always to be depicted holding four attributes:
A conch shell or Shankha, named Panchajanya, is held by the upper left hand. It represents Vishnu's power to create and maintain the universe. Panchajanya represents the five elements or Panchabhoota – water, fire, air, earth and sky or space. It also represents the five airs or Pranas that are within the body and mind. The conch symbolizes that Vishnu is the primeval Divine sound of creation and continuity. It also represented as Om. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna avatara states that of sound vibrations, 'He is Om'.
The Chakra, a sharp, spinning, discus-like weapon, named "Sudarshana", is held by the upper right hand. It symbolizes the purified spiritualized mind. The name Sudarshana is derived from two words – Su, which means good, superior, and Darshana, which means vision or sight; together. The Chakra represents destruction of ego in the awakening and realization of the soul's original nature and god, burning away spiritual ignorance and illusion, and developing higher spiritual vision and insight to realize god.
A mace or Gada, named "Kaumodaki", is held by the lower right hand. It symbolizes that Vishnu's divine power is the source of all spiritual, mental and physical strength. It also signifies Vishnu's power to destroy materialistic or demonic tendencies (Anarthas) that prevent people from reaching god. Vishnu's mace is the power of the Divine within us to spiritually purify and uplift us from our materialistic bonds.
A lotus flower or Padma is held by the lower left hand. It represents spiritual liberation, Divine perfection, purity and the unfolding of Spiritual consciousness within the individual. The lotus opening its petals in the light of the Sun is indicative of the expansion and awakening of our long dormant, original spiritual consciousness in the light of god. The lotus symbolizes that god is the power and source from which the universe and the individual soul emerges. It also represents Divine Truth or Satya, the originator of the rules of conduct or Dharma, and Divine Vedic knowledge or Jnana. The lotus also symbolizes that Vishnu is the embodiment of spiritual perfection and purity and that He is the wellspring of these qualities and that the individual soul must seek to awaken these intrinsic Divine qualities from Vishnu by surrendering to and linking with Him.
To this may be added, conventionally, the vanamaala flower garland, Vishnu's bow (Shaarnga/Kodand) and his sword Nandaka. A verse of the Vishnu Sahasranama stotram states;vanamālī gadhī shārngī shanki chakri cha nandaki / shrīmān nārāyaņo vişņo vāsudevo abhirakşatu//; translation: Protect us Oh Lord Narayana who wears the forest garland,who has the mace, conch, sword and the wheel. And who is called Vishnu and the Vasudeva.
In general, Vishnu's body is depicted in one of the following three ways:
Standing on a lotus flower, often with Lakshmi, his consort, beside him on a similar pedestal.
Reclining on the coiled-up thousand-hooded Shesha Naga, with Lakshmi seated at his feet; the assemblage rests on the "Kshira Sagar" (ocean of milk). In this representation, Brahma is depicted as sitting on a lotus that grows out of Vishnu's navel.
Riding on the back of his eagle mount, known as Garuda. Another name for Garuda is "Veda atma"; Soul of the Vedas. The flapping of his wings symbolizes the power of the Divine Truth of Vedic wisdom. Also the eagle represents the soul. Garuda carrying Vishnu symbolizes the soul or jiva atma carrying the Super soul or Param atma within it.
AVATARS
Ten avatars (dashavatara) of Vishnu are the most prominent: Apart from the most prominent incarnations there are believed to more.
The most commonly believed incarnations of Vishnu are:
Matsya, the fish that kills Damanaka to save the vedas and also saves Manu from a great flood that submerges the entire Earth.
Kurma, the turtle that helps the Devas and Asuras churn the ocean for the nectar of immortality.
Varaha, the boar that rescues the Earth and kills Hiranyaksha.
Narasimha, the half-lion half human, who defeats the demon Hiranyakashipu.
Vamana, the dwarf that grows into a giant to save the world from King Bali.
Parashurama, "Rama of the battle axe", a sage who appeared in the Treta Yuga. He killed Kartavirya Arjuna's army and clan and then killed all the kshatriyas 21 times.
Rama, the prince and king of Ayodhya who killed the Demon King Raavan.
Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu, who takes part in the Mahabharata epic. Krishna is worshipped as the Supreme Avatar of Vishnu (Supreme Personality of Godhead) in Gaudiya-Vaishnava philosophy.
Buddha, the ninth avatar of Vishnu.
Kalki, the tenth Avatar of Vishnu and said to be the harbinger of the end Kali Yuga. This avatar of Vishnu is yet to come.
Some versions of the above list include Hayagreeva among the Dashavataras while some include Buddha as ninth avatar of Vishnu. Another 22 avatars are given in Chapter 3, Canto 1 of the Bhagavata Purana, although it states that "the incarnations of the Lord are innumerable, like rivulets flowing from inexhaustible sources of water".
BEYOND HINDUISM
SIKHISM
Guru Granth Sahib of Sikhism mentions Vishnu, one verse goes:
The true Vaishnaav, the devotee of Vishnu, is the one with whom God is thoroughly pleased. He dwells apart from Maya. Performing good deeds, he does not seek rewards. Spotlessly pure is the religion of such a Vaishnaav; he has no desire for the fruits of his labors. He is absorbed in devotional worship and the singing of Kirtan, the songs of the Lords Glory. Within his mind and body, he meditates in remembrance on the Lord of the Universe. He is kind to all creatures. He holds fast to the Naam, and inspires others to chant it. O Nanak, such a Vaishnaav obtains the supreme status.
BUDDHISM
While some Hindus consider Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu, Buddhists in Sri Lanka venerate Vishnu as the custodian deity of Sri Lanka and protector of Buddhism. Lord Vishnu is also known as upulvan, or uthpala varna, meaning "Blue Lotus coloured". Some postulates that Uthpala varna was a local deity who later merged with Vishnu while another belief is that Uthpala Varna was an early form of Vishnu before he became a supreme deity in Puranic Hinduism. According to Chronicles "Mahawamsa", "Chulawamsa" and folklore in Sri Lanka, Buddha himself handed over the custodianship to Vishnu. Others believe that Buddha entrusted this task to Sakra(Indra) and Sakra delegated this task of custodianship to god Vishnu. In contrary to vedic Hinduism, in assimilation of Hindu god Vishnu into Sinhalese Buddhism, Vishnu becomes a mortal being and a Bodhisattva aspiring Buddhahood. Additionally, Vishnu is considered as the god of home and hearth representing mercy, goodness, order and stability. Many Buddhist and Hindu shrines are dedicated to Vishnu in Sri Lanka. In addition to specific Vishnu "Kovils" or "devalayas", all Buddhist temples necessarily house shrine rooms (Devalayas) closer to the main Buddhist shrine dedicated to Vishnu. John Holt in his groundbreaking study examines the assimilation, transformation, and subordination of the Hindu deity Vishnu within the contexts of Sri Lankan history and Sinhala Buddhist religious culture. He then explores the role and rationale of medieval Sinhala kings in assimilating Visnu into Sinhala Buddhism. According to Holt the veneration of Vishnu in Sri Lanka is evidence of a remarkable ability, over many centuries, to reiterate and reinvent culture as other ethnicities have been absorbed into their own. Though the Vishnu cult in Ceylon was formally endorsed by Kandyan kings in early 1700s, Holt states that vishnu images and shrines are among conspicuous ruins in the medieval capital Polonnaruwa. In Buddhist mythology, when Vishnu failed to traverse the universe in three steps, he was given the title "Ardha Vishnu (Half-Vishnu)" and when Vishnu banished demons from the Vaishali (Vishala)in India, he became "Mulu Vishnu or Whole Vishnu". The extreme significance of god Vishnu in Sinhala society is reflected in recitals of the traditional "Offerings to dwarfs and crossing the door frame (bahirwayanta dola pideem saha uluwahu peneema)" that starts with Sri Vishnu invocation.In the recitals,mentioning of the aspiring Buddhahood of Vishnu which is of prime importance to Buddhists and wishes for him to live five thousand and more years highlight the central role of Vishnu in the psyche of Sri Lankan Buddhists.
OTHERS
James Freeman Clarke, Richard Leviton, James Cowles Prichard, and others have noted the similarities between Vishnu and Ancient Egyptian God Horus.
During an excavation in an abandoned village of Russia in the Volga region, archaeologist Alexander Kozhevin excavated an ancient idol of Vishnu. The idol dates from between the 7th and 10th centuries. In the interview Kozhevin, stated that, "We may consider it incredible, but we have ground to assert that Middle-Volga region was the original land of Ancient Rus. This is a hypothesis, but a hypothesis, which requires thorough research"
THOUSAND NAMES OF VISHNU
Vishnu's many names and followers are collected in the Vishnu Sahasranama, (Vishnu's thousand names) from within the larger work Mahabharata. The character Bheeshma recites the names before Krishna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, praising him (Vishnu) as the supreme god. These Sahasranama are regarded as the essence of all Vedas by followers of Vaishnavism, who believe sincere chanting of Vishnu Sahasranama results in spiritual well-being and a greater awareness of God.
The names are generally derived from the Anantakalyanagunas (meaning: infinite auspicious attributes).
According to the Siddhartha-samhita there are twenty-four forms of Lord Vishnu. The twenty-four forms are
Vasudeva
Sankarshana
Pradyumna
Anirudha
Keshava
Narayana
Madhava
Govinda
Vishnu
Madhusudana
Trivikrama
Vamana
Sridhara
Hrishikesha
Padmanabha
Damodara
Purushottama
Achyuta
Narasimha
Janardana
Hari
Krishna
Adhokshaja
Upulvan, Uthpala Varna - In Sri Lanka, Vishnu is also referred to as Upulvan ( Blue Lotus Coloured)
WIKIPEDIA
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Gathering of the Tribes :
Moontribe-Party
Mojave Desert - 2001
Photo-Report:
www.flickr.com/photos/sterneck/sets/72157626608944632
Gathering of the Tribes
Moontribe
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Wolfgang Sterneck:
The Gathering of the Tribes
www.sterneck.net/stern/gathering-california
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Wolfgang Sterneck:
In the Cracks of the World *
Photo-Reports: www.flickr.com/sterneck/sets
Articles and Visions: www.sterneck.net
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THE GATHERING OF THE TRIBES
”Wir brauchen solche Treffen, um das Vertrauen wieder aufzubauen, das uns in der Kindheit genommen wurde...” - Es ist Sobey aus Vancouver, der mit diesen Worten die Atmosphäre des ”Gathering of the Tribes” in Los Angeles zusammenfasst. VertreterInnen von rund 50 Projekten setzen sich dort fünf Tage lang mit Wegen der persönlichen Entwicklung und der gesellschaftlichen Veränderung auseinander.
Das Verständnis von Tribe bzw. Stamm ist relativ weit gefächert und bewusst im Vorfeld nicht fest definiert. So er-streckt sich der Begriff auf lokale Projekte genauso wie auf die TeilnehmerInnen alternativer Festivals, auf grenzüber-schreitende Aktionsgruppen genauso wie auf kommuneartige Gemeinschaften. Vertreten sind unter anderem Leute vom Rainbow-Gathering, Burning Man und Earthdance, Angehörige der Farm-Kommune und anderer Eco-Village-Projekte, Mitglieder von Reclaim the Streets, Free our Forests, Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies, Subversive Sounds, Moontribe, Alice-Project und Dream Theatre.
Inhaltlich reicht das Spektrum von Gruppen aus dem radikalen politischen und ökologischen Spektrum über Initiativen, die sich aufklärend gegen die bestehende Drogenpolitik stellen, bis zu Personen die beispielsweise über Trance-Tänze oder meditative Musik zu einer heilenden Veränderung beitragen wollen. Die Vielfalt der verschiedenen Aus-richtungen führt dabei keineswegs zu einer Beliebigkeit, vielmehr befruchten und ergänzen sich die Positionen trotz einzelner Differenzen an vielen Punkten gegenseitig. Das verbindende Element liegt neben der durchgängig idealisti-schen Ausrichtung zum einem im Bezug zum Dance Movement, also zur Techno-Kultur in unterschiedlichen Ausfor-mungen, sowie im zweifellos oftmals vagen, aber immer ernsthaften Bestreben ”to make the world a better place”.
TRANCE AND POLITICS
Den inhaltlichen Teil der Konferenz leite ich mit einem Vortrag ein, der von einem übergreifenden Ansatz ausgeht. ”Viele glauben, dass die Party-Kultur eine Insel sei, doch die meisten vergessen dabei, dass jede Insel von einem Meer umgeben wird...” Es geht mir dabei um eine Auseinandersetzung mit der selbstherrlichen Zufriedenheit in der sich viele aus den verschiedenen Szenen oftmals zurücklehnen, solange sie ”geile Musik, gute Drogen und viel Spa-aaß” haben und den eigenen Alltag einigermaßen regeln können. Alles andere scheint egal, doch spätestens wenn der Drogenfahnder vor der Tür steht oder Partys verboten werden wird klar, dass diese scheinbare Insel-Idylle eine Illusion ist. Dann ist es jedoch schon viel zu spät.
Prügelnde Polizisten auf politischen Party-Demos machen den symbolhaften Einfluss des Meeres auf die Inseln ge-nauso augenscheinlich deutlich, wie beispielsweise die Ego-Trips von DJs, die sich im Zuge der Kommerzialisierung wie Rockstars verhalten, oder die Parties in ”3. Welt”-Ländern, bei denen die eingeflogenen Party-Freaks vor lauter Verpeilung einfach ignorieren, dass einige Kilometer weiter entfernt Menschen hungern. Die Auflistung lässt sich beliebig fortsetzen, letztlich geht es um die aktive Anerkennung einer Verantwortung, die weit über die Party hinaus-geht: ”Manche Leute denken, dass Techno eine Insel sei - und sie öffnen die Augen und sie beginnen zu tanzen, nicht nur auf dem Dancefloor, sondern auch überall in den Straßen, in den Klassenzimmern, in den Büroräumen, in den Supermärkten, auf den Treffen der Weltbanken. Und Tanzen steht dabei für Veränderung, radikale Veränderung...”
Beispielhaft für die Ausrichtung des Gatherings bildet der anschließende Beitrag von Cinnamon Twist einen inhaltli-chen Gegenpol, der sich mit der Frage ”Kann Trance-Tanz den Planeten retten?” beschäftigt. Im Rahmen seiner Antwort beschreibt Cinnamon eine ”gemeinschaftliche psychedelische Trance als eine direktes Gegengewicht zur zerstörenden Selbstgefälligkeit der westlichen, technisch-industriellen Mega-Maschine, die wahnhaft alles tut, um den Planeten Erde zu zerstören.” Cinnamon bezieht sich dabei auf positive Energien, die durch den Tanz freigesetzt wer-den. ”Obwohl sie von unterschiedlichen Begriffen ausgehen, glauben viele Stammeskulturen, dass sie mit ihren rituel-len Tänzen etwas bewegen können. Sie sind notwendig, um die natürliche Balance aufrecht zu erhalten, um Regen herbeizurufen, um Krankheiten zu heilen, um die Dinge in Bewegung zu halten. Deshalb sind diese Tänze für sie heilige Tänze. Und im Grunde ist nicht nur die Form des Tanzes bzw. das, was die TänzerInnen damit verbinden, heilig. Heilig ist vor allem das, was sie damit erzeugen: eine kollektive Energie.”
Diese Energien lassen sich Cinnamons Verständnis zufolge auch in der heutigen Zeit nutzen: ”Zweifellos haben wir keine Tradition derartiger heiliger Tänze mehr. Wir haben keine Tänze, die von einer derartigen Intention oder einem vergleichbaren gemeinschaftlichen Gefühl getragen sind. Was wir haben bzw. wonach wir letztlich streben, ist eine grundlegende Einstellung, die alles durchzieht, wenn wir für unsere Feiern zusammenkommen: Frieden - Liebe - Ge-meinschaft - Respekt. Und das ist nicht wenig für einen Anfang, auch wenn es leicht missbraucht werden kann. Es liegt an uns, ob gelingt, kollektive Energien freizusetzen, die zur Heilung der Erde beitragen ...”
DER KRIEG GEGEN TERROR, DROGEN UND PARTYS
Mehrere Vorträge und Workshops auf dem Gathering setzen sich mit dem ”War on Drugs” auseinander, der inzwi-schen auch zu einem Feldzug gegen das Dance-Movement wurde. Der ”Krieg gegen Drogen”, den die us-amerikanische Regierung ganz offiziell unter dieser treffenden wie auch entlarvenden Bezeichnung führt, hat eine lange Geschichte. In den westlichen Kulturen wurden und werden beständig bestimmte Substanzen als Drogen ver-boten, wobei der Umstand, dass darunter in einigen Regionen zeitweise auch einmal Alkohol, Tabak und Koffein fielen, eine gewisse Beliebigkeit schnell deutlich macht. Die Verbote der Substanzen bzw. die Verfolgung der Produ-zentInnen und der KonsumentInnen hängt dabei keineswegs nur mit einer vermeintlichen oder tatsächlichen schädli-chen Wirkung zusammen, sondern war schon immer mit wirtschaftlichen und machtpolitischen Interessen verknüpft. Letztlich lenkt die Überbetonung der Drogenproblematik von den eigentlichen inneren gesellschaftlichen Problemen ab, die wechselwirkend wiederum auch entscheidend zum zerstörenden Gebrauch von Drogen beitragen. Sie wird zudem genutzt, um die politische und auch militärische Einflussnahme auf andere Länder, sowie die Repression un-angepasster Minderheiten im Innern, zu rechtfertigen.
Die Größenordnung des ”War on Drugs” machen einige Statistiken schnell deutlich. Die Vereinigten Staaten haben als vermeintliches Land der Freiheit im Verhältnis zur Bevölkerungszahl weltweit die höchste Zahl an Gefängnissinsas-sen, wobei ein Großteil im Zusammenhang mit Drogen verurteilt wurde. So kommt es jährlich zu rund 5 Millionen Verhaftungen auf Grund von Drogendelikten, wobei über 2 Millionen Menschen in Folge wegen Verstößen gegen Drogengesetze verurteilt und inhaftiert werden. Besonders betroffen ist dabei die afroamerikanischen Bevölkerung, was die noch immer in weiten Teilen rassistische Ausrichtung der Rechtsprechung deutlich macht. 1969 flossen von Seiten der damaligen Nixon-Regierung rund 65 Millionen Dollar in den Krieg gegen Drogen, 1999 unter Clinton war es die kaum vorstellbar hohe Summe von 17,7 Milliarden Dollar, die unter Bush weiter gesteigert wurde.
Die Terroranschläge des 11. September 2001 werden gezielt genutzt, um den ”War on Terror” mit dem ”War on Drugs” zu verknüpfen. Medienwirksam setzt inzwischen US-Präsident George Bush Drogenkonsum mit einer Unter-stützung des Terrors gleich. ”Ich werde ständig von Jugendlichen gefragt, welchen Beitrag sie zum Krieg gegen den Terror leisten können. Nun, wichtig ist, sich gegen illegale Drogen zustellen. Wenn Du in den USA Drogen kaufst, dann ist das so, als würdest Du direkt eine Terror-Organisation unterstützen.”
Die entsprechende Politik richtet sich auch direkt gegen das Dance-Movement. So kam es zu einer von Teilen der Medien und einflussreichen PolitikerInnen getragenen Kampagne, die Techno mit Drogenkonsum gleichsetzt. Regie-rungsbehörden organisierten in diesem Sinne vorgeblich wissenschaftliche Konferenzen bei denen Techno-Partys mit den sogenannten Crack-Houses gleichgesetzt wurden, in denen Crackabhängige bzw. Crack-Dealer leben. Dieser Definition zufolge sind Partys und Raves Veranstaltungen, die vorrangig dazu dienen mit Drogen zu handeln bzw. diese zu konsumieren. Inzwischen wurden in einzelnen Bundesstaaten Gesetze verabschiedet, die VeranstalterInnen für den Konsum von Drogen auf ihren Partys direkt verantwortlich zu machen. Zu Teil macht man sich schon als nichtkonsumierender Party-Gast strafbar, wenn auf der Veranstaltung illegale Drogen gebraucht werden. Auf diesem Wege soll eine auch in den USA stark angewachsene Jugendkultur, die nicht den puritanischen Wertvorstellungen entspricht, unter Kontrolle gebracht werden.
Welche bizarren Ausformungen die Drogenhysterie annehmen kann, zeigt ein Prozess, in dem die Bürgerrechtsverei-nigung American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) gegen den Bundesstaat Louisiana klagte. Dieser hatte Rave-VeranstalterInnen angewiesen den Party-Gästen das Tragen von Masken und den Gebrauch von Glühstäben zu untersagen, da diese Utensilien angeblich in einem engen Zusammenhang mit dem Konsum von Ecstasy stehen. Während die meisten VeranstalterInnen den Auflagen nachkamen, formierte sich in der Szene Protest, der in der Forderung ”Fight for right to glow! - We’re gonna glow like we never glowed before!” einen ironischen Ausdruck fand. Der Prozess endete mit einem Erfolg der ACLU, den Bundesbehörden wurde untersagt, ohne rechtliche Grundlage auf lokale Rave-VeranstalterInnen hinsichtlich eines Verbotes von ”dekorativen Utensilien” Druck auszuüben.
Die Diskussion über Wege des Protests und Widerstands gegen die repressiven Entwicklungen ist auf dem Gathering allgegenwärtig. So trägt Scott Ehlers von der Campaign for New Drug Policies einen detaillierten Maßnahmenkatalog vor, der dazu beitragen soll, das Image der Techno-Kultur von einer Reduzierung auf Drogen und Kriminalität zu lö-sen. Das Ziel ist die Vermittlung eines Bildes einer Jugendkultur, die auf Werten wie Gemeinschaft und Gewaltlosig-keit basiert und sich auch über einzelne Projekte für das Wohl der Gesellschaft einsetzt. Das Future-Tribe-Project aus Florida beschreibt seine Kampagne ”I rave and I vote” mit der Jugendliche angeregt werden sollen, sich an den Wah-len zu beteiligen und einen Umschwung zu bewirken. Eine Gegenposition liegt im Ansatz den Underground zu stärken und sich dabei auf Strukturen zu konzentrieren, die von staatlichen Institutionen nicht angegriffen werden können. Ganz praktisch informiert daran anknüpfend ein Anwalt, welche Rechte gegenüber Polizeikontrollen bestehen. Leute vom Rainbow-Gathering berichten zudem über die Möglichkeiten sogenanntes Public-Land zu nutzen, das der Allge-meinheit gehört. Später betonen Mitglieder von DanceSafe und MAPS daneben die Bedeutung einer objektiven Auf-klärung über Drogen innerhalb der Techno-Szene und der Notwendigkeit von übergreifenden Forschungsprojekten.
SOZIALARBEITER, DJ-EGOS UND ZEN-KATZEN
Mehrfach führen einzelne Diskussionen über die Frage nach der Finanzierung alternativer, sozial ausgerichteter Pro-jekte zu einer kritischen Auseinandersetzung mit dem Bereich der Sozialarbeit. Übereinstimmung besteht darin, dass eine Ausweitung sozialer Projekte und die entsprechende Bereitstellung öffentlicher Gelder unbedingt nötig ist. Aufge-zeigt wird aber auch immer wieder der innere Konflikt vieler Projekte, die meist hauptsächlich auf Probleme konzent-riert sind, diese geradezu suchen bzw. sich darüber rechtfertigen müssen, um von öffentlicher Seite Gelder zu erhal-ten. Gleichzeitig werden oftmals nur Symptome angegangen, während die eigentlichen Ursachen von Erscheinungen wie Drogenabhängigkeit oder Obdachlosigkeit, die neben individuellen Faktoren zu einem beträchtlichen Teil in einem vor allem auf Profit und Konkurrenz ausgerichteten Gesellschaftssystem liegen, zumeist nicht aufgezeigt werden. Oftmals setzt die Zensurschere schon im Kopf an, um das Projekt bzw. den eigenen Arbeitsplatz nicht zu gefährden.
In der Diskussion wird der Realität einer notwendigen, allerdings vorrangig problemorientierten Sozialarbeit das Bild des ”positive space” gegenübergestellt. ”Wenn es im weitesten Sinne Räume gibt, in denen sich die Menschen selbstbestimmt und gemeinschaftlich entfalten können, in denen ihnen beigebracht wird, sich auch einmal selbstkri-tisch zu reflektieren,”, so Theo in einer Diskussionsrunde, ”dann werden viele Probleme automatisch wegfallen bzw. sie treten überhaupt nicht mehr auf.”
Ein weiterer Aspekt, der in vielen Diskussionsrunden immer wieder angesprochen wird, ist die Rolle der DJs. Ausge-hend von einer Abkehr vom jeglichem Starkult stand der DJ in seiner Wichtigkeit ursprünglich auf einer Ebene neben den TänzerInnen auf der Dancefloor oder den Leuten aus der Deko-Gruppe. Die Rollen waren sogar austauschbar beziehungsweise sollten bewusst austauschbar sein, denn im Mittelpunkt stand das gemeinsame Feiern als ein Aus-druck eines anderen Lebensweges. Von wenigen Ansätzen abgesehen sind diese Zeiten jedoch auch bei alternativen Partys vorbei. Längst haben die DJs die Rolle eingenommen, die über Jahrzehnte hinweg der Lead-Singer einer Rockband hatte.
Für viele Personen außerhalb der Szenen ist nur schwer nachvollziehbar, dass ein DJ selbst zum Musiker werden kann. Er ist dabei nicht nur für die musikalische Atmosphäre einer Nacht verantwortlich. Im Idealfall entsteht aus zwei oder drei Schallplatten, die ineinander gemixt werden, ein neuer Track. Die Samples, Sounds und Loops werden zu DJ-Tools, zu Werkzeugen und Materialien der DJs, die immer wieder in unterschiedlichen Betonungen und Ge-schwindigkeiten neu zusammengesetzt werden. Dieses Verständnis von Dekonstruktion und Neugestaltung ist jedoch immer seltener anzutreffen, meist begnügen sich die DJs inzwischen auf möglichst fließende Übergänge zwischen den einzelnen Stücken.
Mit der steigenden Popularität einzelner DJs ist in vielen Projekten die Frage der Kommerzialisierung und des Selbst-verständnisses der DJs verbunden. Nachdem es anfangs noch ein Vergnügen und eine Ehre war auf einer Party aufzulegen, sprechen viele DJs dann bald vom ”Arbeiten” oder oftmals auch mit einer gewissen Überheblichkeit de-monstrativ davon, gebucht zu sein. Kritisiert wird vor diesem Hintergrund zudem die scheinbar unkritische Auswahl der Auftrittsorte von Seiten vieler alternativer DJs. Dabei wird jedoch deutlich, dass die DJs keineswegs zwangsläufig ihre ursprünglichen Ideale plötzlich verraten haben und ”kommerziell” geworden sind, vielmehr setzt eine nur schwer steuerbare Eigendynamik ein. Um sich noch mehr auf die Musik konzentrieren zu können, geben viele DJs nach ers-ten Erfolgen ihre alten Jobs auf, geraten dann aber in eine Abhängigkeit von Auftritten, um ihren Lebensunterhalt bestreitenzu können.
Ein anderes Diskussionsthema bildet das ”im Moment sein”. Mishou spricht davon, dass Katzen die wahren buddhis-tischen Zen-Meister sind, indem sie alles ausblenden können und tatsächlich den Moment leben. Während sie in einer sonnigen Ecke behaglich dösen, leben sie Zen ohne eine Vorstellung davon zu haben. ”Wie oft befinden wir uns dagegen in Situationen, die einfach an uns vorbeirauschen, die im Rückblick wie ein Augenblick erscheinen, weil wir uns nicht bewusst auf sie konzentrieren?”
Ein Anhalten im Sinne eines bewusstes Wahrnehmens des Momentes bzw. der entsprechenden Situation wirkt dem entgegen. Ein Ansatz kann bei geschlossenen Augen eine bewusste Konzentration auf die Geräusche sein, die uns umgeben, und davon ausgehend auf das, was gerade passiert. Dies bedeutet keineswegs ein Rückzug in eine esote-rische Innerlichkeit, so die durchgängige Einschätzung der Runde. Vielmehr steht es für ein Bewusst-Sein im eigentli-chen Sinne des Wortes. Dies bildet den Ausgangspunkt für ein Wahrnehmen von dem was uns umgibt und weiterge-hend für ein entsprechendes Handeln, nicht zuletzt auch in einem gesellschaftlichen Sinne.
GEMEINSCHAFTLICH LEBEN
Der zweite Konferenz-Tag ist der Frage nach den Möglichkeiten gemeinschaftlichen Zusammenlebens gewidmet. An mehreren Punkten tritt dabei die Frage nach dem ”next step”, dem nächsten Schritt, auf. Einige Gruppen, die mit ihren Projekten gewisse Erfolge und eine Kontinuität erreicht haben, berichten von den internen Diskussionen über eine tiefer gehende Weiterführung, die sich stärker auf die Gruppe als Gemeinschaft bezieht. Das Spektrum reicht dabei von Wohngemeinschaften über kommuneartige Projekte bis zu Kulturzentren.
Auf großes Interesse stößt das Projekt einer Gruppe aus Vancouver. In den letzten Jahren organisierte dort das My-corrhiza Collective verschiedene Partys, um mit dem Gewinn ein Landstück in Elaho Valley zu kaufen. Damit soll ein Beitrag zur Rettung des verbliebenen Regenwaldes in Kanada geleistet werden, der weiterhin in weiten Teilen von der Abholzung bedroht ist. Chris Hill von Mycorrhiza erklärt in diesem Zusammenhang die tiefere Bedeutung des Projekt-Namens: ”In den Regenwäldern leben die Bäume in einer symbioten Assoziation mit einer Vielzahl von Bodenpilzen zusammen, die als Mykorrhiza bezeichnet wird. Die Pilze umgeben die Wurzeln der Bäume, sie leben von ihnen und schützen sie gleichzeitig. Dieses Symbolik übertragen wir auf unsere Aktivitäten: Wir wollen ein energetisches Netz-werk im Untergrund aufbauen, das den Wald als Teil eines globalen natürlichen Organismuses stärkt.”
Das Gelände soll zur Basis eines Gemeinschaftsprojektes werden: ”Wir sind gerade dabei ein Camp in Elaho Valley aufzubauen. Es soll zum einen dazu dienen, die Aufmerksamkeit auf die Zerstörung dieses so wichtigen Regenwal-des und die Folgen zu richten. Zum anderen wollen wir von diesem Camp ausgehend ein Öko-Dorf errichten, das langfristig unabhängig bestehen kann und sich über Anbau von Nahrungsmitteln und eine eigene Energieversorgung selbst trägt. Langfristig setzen wir dabei auf Hanf als Rohstoff. Das Camp soll zu einer Anlaufstelle für Menschen werden, die von ähnlichen Ideen geleitet werden und mit uns dieses Projekt als eine Gemeinschaft in Einklang mit der Natur aufbauen wollen. Wir haben damit begonnen, weltweite Kontakte zu Personen und Organisationen zu knüpfen, um aus ihren Erfahrungen zu lernen und mit ihnen zusammenzusarbeiten. Gleichzeitig wollen wir im Sommer eine Reihe von Veranstaltungen und Festivals durchführen. Im Anschluss werden wir als eine Art internationale Karawane, zu der alle Interessierten eingeladen sind, die Pazifik-Küste bis nach Südamerika hinunterziehen, um unsere Ideen weiterzutragen und mit den Menschen gemeinsam zu feiern.”
Im Anschluss spricht Sean Siple über die Erfahrungen der Farm, einer Großkommune in Tennessee, der rund 200 Personen angehören. Im Sinne eines Öko-Dorfes basiert sie auf ökologischen und basisdemokratischen bzw. ge-meinschaftlichen Prinzipien. Die Farm wurde 1971 im Anschluss an die Hippie-Ära gegründet, zu einem Zeitpunkt als ebenfalls die Frage nach dem nächsten Schritt gestellt wurde und teilweise mit dem Aufbau von kommuneartigen Gemeinschaften beantwortet wurde. Die meisten dieser Projekte scheiterten schon nach wenigen Jahren am Druck durch die umgebende Gesellschaft, sowie an ungelösten inneren Widersprüchen und zwischenmenschlichen Proble-men. Klar wurde dabei immer wieder, dass es nicht ausreicht sich in eine vermeintliche Idylle zurückzuziehen.
Notwendig ist dagegen ein Verständnis, das die Wechselbeziehungen zwischen der äußeren Gesellschaft und dem Leben in dem entsprechenden Projekt ausreichend berücksichtigt. Ebenso bedeutsam ist zudem eine ständige Ausei-nandersetzung mit den Prozessen innerhalb des Projektes bzw. mit der eigenen Persönlichkeit, so kräftezerrend es vordergründig sie auch sein mag. Denn genausowenig wie man zu einem völlig anderen Menschen wird, wenn man auf eine idealistische Party geht, auch wenn vielleicht viele Alltagsbelastungen zurücklassen werden, so wenig wan-delt sich eine Person von einem auf den anderen Tag, wenn sie sich einer Kommune anschließt. Das Überwinden von überzogenen egozentrischen Verhaltensstrukturen ist ein ebenso notwendiger, aber auch langer Prozess wie die Auseinandersetzung mit dem Konkurrenzdenken oder sexistischen Einstellungen. Aufbrechen lassen sich diese Strukturen nur, wenn sie ständig hinterfragt und angegangen werden, so beispielsweise in angeleiteten Gesprächs-runden in denen offen über die Entwicklungen der Gruppe bzw. der einzelnen Personen gesprochen wird.
Sean beschreibt die Bedeutung derartiger Prozesse am Beispiel eines Problems innerhalb der Farm, das diese fast zum Scheitern gebracht hätte. Der Gründer der Kommune nahm lange hinweg eine besondere Stellung innerhalb des Projektes ein, die allgemein respektiert wurde. Nach einigen Jahren verselbstständigte sich jedoch diese Position, aus dem Bezug auf eine charismatische Leitfigur war eine hierarchische Struktur geworden, die dem eigentlichen basis-demokratischen Anspruch völlig entgegenstand. Nur im Rahmen eines längeren, zähen Prozesses konnte dieser Zustand inzwischen zugunsten einer Verteilung von Verantwortung überwunden werden.
Der zweite Teil der Ansprache von Sean ist von einem Appell an die TeilnehmerInnen des Gatherings geprägt, sich ihrer Verantwortung für die Zukunft des Planeten Erde bewusst zu sein und diese auch weitergehend auszufüllen: ”Ihr habt eine Aufgabe, eine Mission. Vielleicht seid ihr die letzte Generation, die noch etwas verändern kann, danach mag es schon zu spät sein, um die ökologische Katastrophe aufzuhalten. Ich habe hier auf dem Gathering von beeindru-ckenden Projekten gehört, habe mit wunderbaren Menschen gesprochen. Verbreitet Eure Ideen weiter, lebt sie, teilt Eure Erfahrungen, tragt Eure Liebe weiter, liebt... Es liegt an Euch, doch ich spreche nicht von Euren Recht oder von einer Verpflichtung, es ist Eure Entscheidung, die ihr treffen müsst!”
VERBINDENDE RITUALE
Mehrere gruppendynamische Workshops auf dem Gathering haben zum Ziel ganz praktisch zwischenmenschliche Barrieren abzubauen und Prozesse innerhalb von Gruppen deutlich zum machen. So laufen bei einer Übung alle Anwesenden, zu diesem Zeitpunkt etwa hundert Personen, in Kreis. Nach einem Stop-Zeichen soll jede Person an-halten und der Person, die ihr am nächsten steht in die Augen schauen, und sich zum einen ihre positiven Energien, sowie im Anschluss bei anderen Person deren Ängste und Aggressionen vorstellen. Deutlich wird dabei insbesondere wie schwer es fällt einer andern Person in die Augen zu schauen, nicht wenige schließen zeitweise die Augen oder beginnen nervös zu reagieren. In einigen Fällen entsteht jedoch durch den so tiefen Blickkontakt und die gegenseitige Bereitschaft sich emotional auf den andere Person einzulassen eine zuvor völlig unerwartete gefühlsmäßige Verbin-dung.
Der dritte Tag der Konferenz wird von einem Ritual eingeleitet. In der zuvor meist hell erleuchteten Konferenz-Halle flackert nur eine lange Reihe von Teelichtern. Alle Eintretenden müssen ihre Schuhe ausziehen und die Gespräche beenden. Dann werden die Anweisungen für das Ritual schriftlich zusammengefasst verteilt. Zuerst sind darin ver-schiedene Meditationsübungen beschrieben, später soll sich jede Person auf einen tiefen Wunsch konzentrieren und ihn visualisieren. Die Stärke dieses Rituals liegt in dem atmosphärischen Bruch zu den aufwühlenden und eher nach außen gerichteten Tagen zuvor. Unmittelbar entsteht ein Gefühl innerer und äußerer Ruhe. Insbesondere durch die Meditationen wird es nocheinmal verstärkt möglich sich auf sich selbst zu konzentrieren. Eine anschließende Chakra-Meditation greift diese Atmosphäre auf und ermöglicht ein weiteres Hineingleiten in den eigenen Körper. Inwieweit sich die Teilnehmenden auf diese Übungen und die spirituellen Hintergründe einlassen, bleibt jeder und jedem selbst überlassen. Wesentlich für die Einzelnen wie auch für das Gathering als Ganzes sind vielmehr die Energien, die kon-zentriert bzw. freigesetzt werden.
Einen Höhepunkt des Gatherings bildet dann der Ecstatic-Dance-Workshop, der von Techno-Rhythmen untermalt wird. Die Anweisungen der Workshop-Leiterin hinsichtlich bestimmter Bewegungen und Körperhaltungen werden jedoch von den meisten nur Anfangs befolgt. Schon nach kurzer Zeit tanzen die rund 50 TeilnehmerInnen wild durch den Raum, durcheinander springend, hüpfend, teilweise schreiend. Es entwickelt sich eine Atmosphäre in der alle genau so tanzen können, wie sie es gerade wollen, ohne dass sie deshalb jemand kopfschüttelnd anschaut. Im Ge-genteil, wer sich fallen lassen will, kann dies tun, im sicheren Gefühl von der Gruppe aufgefangen zu werden. Es ist in diesen Momenten regelrecht spürbar wie innere Blockaden und angestaute Energien zumindest für die Zeit des Tan-zes aufgebrochen werden. Am Ende bilden die Beteiligten mit ihren Körpern ein kreisartiges Gebilde. Alle drücken sich aneinander, summen, rufen, schreien ekstatisch, die meisten ausgefüllt von einem Gefühl des Glücks.
Gerade die Verbindung von theoretischen Informationen, leidenschaftlichen Diskussionen und auch körperlich-emotionaler Nähe macht die Stärke des Gatherings aus. Von Anfang an prägt eine Atmosphäre der Offenheit in der es problemlos möglich ist, eine Person anzusprechen und mit ihr über Ideale und Ideen wie auch über persönliche Erfahrungen zu sprechen. Zudem vermittelt die Vielfalt der Tribes und ihrer zum Teil wegweisenden Projekte ein Ge-fühl der Hoffnung in einer ansonsten in Anbetracht der sozialen und ökologischen Entwicklungen meist äußerst de-primierenden Welt. Nicht zuletzt entwickelt sich insbesondere über die gruppendynamischen Übungen und die Rituale eine gefühlsmäßige Nähe, die ansonsten im Alltag kaum einmal erfahren werden kann. Zum Teil geht diese Nähe so tief, dass einzelne Personen anfangen zu weinen oder sich zeitweise zurückziehen, da sie diese Intensität nicht ertra-gen konnten. So nehmen die TeilnehmerInnen über die inhaltliche Ebene hinaus vor allem ein Grundgefühl der Mög-lichkeit und der Notwendigkeit einer grundlegenden Veränderung mit nach Hause.
THE MOON INSIDE
Den Abschluss des Gatherings bildet eine Open-Air-Party, die im wesentlichen von Mitgliedern des Moontribes orga-nisiert wird. Die 1993 gegründete Gruppe genießt inzwischen in der Dance-Community weiter Teile der Vereinigten Staaten geradezu Kultstatus. Bekannt wurde der Moontribe durch seine Full-Moon-Partys in der Wüste der weiteren Umgebung von Los Angeles. Die auf Non-Profit-Basis durchgeführten Partys verzichten meist bewusst auf Werbung, wie auch auf Verkaufsstände aller Art, Dekoration und Beleuchtung. ”Der Mond und die Sterne sind unsere Lightshow” führt Dallas dazu aus, um dann auf das Selbstverständnis Moontribes einzugehen. ”Es gehört zu unseren wichtigsten Zielen unsere Integrität zu wahren und uns kommerziellen Bestrebungen zu verschließen. Wenn Du an einer unserer Partys teilnimmst, wirst Du selbst zu einem Teil des Moontribes, Du hast genauso Verantwortung für den Ablauf der Party, bist genauso verantwortlich für deren Atmosphäre, wie alle anderen.”
Innerhalb des eigentlichen Tribes sind Hierarchien auf ein pragmatisches Minimum reduziert. Die wesentlichen Ent-scheidungen werden von Konsensprinzip ausgehend gemeinsam getroffen. Den Kern bildet das Council, dem meist 13 Personen angehören, um dieses herum hat sich das sogenannte Collective gebildet, das aus Leuten besteht, die sich in irgendeiner Weise einbringen, aber nicht zum Kern gehören wollen. Die Moontribe-Community wird wiederum von denjenigen gebildet, die zu den Full-Moon-Partys kommen.
Die Party-Nacht an sich verläuft in Anbetracht der hohen Erwartungen jedoch lange eher enttäuschend. Rund drei Stunden dauert es, bis man von Los Angeles aus endlich den angestrebten Platz in der Wüste gefunden hat, da die erst am Abend verteilte Wegbeschreibung einige kleine, aber folgenschwere Unklarheiten aufweist. Dort erweist sich die steppenartige Hügellandschaft mit ihrem eisigen Wind sofort als äußerst unwirtlich. Vom Parkplatz aus ist dann noch einmal ein längerer Fußmarsch nötig, um dann endlich ein überdachtes DJ-Pult zu erreichen. Die unverständli-che Reduzierung auf nur zwei Boxentürme verhindert die für das Tanzen so wichtige umschließende Beschallung, so dass sich die meisten direkt von dem DJ zwischen den Boxen eher frierend als tanzend drängelten. Es ist einer dieser Momente, in denen man sich zweifelnd fragt ”Was mache ich hier eigentlich?”.
Am Morgen wandelt sich jedoch die Atmosphäre schlagartig. Mit der Temperatur ändert sich auch die Stimmung und es wird endlich möglich, ein Gefühl für den Raum zu erhalten. Im Laufe des Tages wird dann auch verständlich, dass die Reduzierung einen wesentlichen Teil des so eigenen Charakter der Moontribe-Partys ausmacht. Wüste, Musik bzw. Tanz und Gemeinschaft sind dabei die zentralen Faktoren und nicht etwa ein bekannter DJ oder eine überfrach-tete Dekoration. Insbesondere die Kargheit der Landschaft und die aufsteigende Sonne können dabei ein Gefühl der inneren Klarheit erzeugen.
Die Musik wird von den DJs der am Gathering beteiligten Projekte bestimmt und umfasst ein entsprechend weites Spektrum elektronischer Musik. Daneben entstehen an verschiedenen Stellen immer wieder Trommelsessions, teil-weise die Musik auf der Tanzfläche begleitend, dann in einem angemessenen Abstand einen eigenen Rhythmus findend. Es ist charakteristisch, dass sich einige TänzerInnen völlig ausziehen, ohne dass ihnen in ihrer Nacktheit jemand eine übertriebene Aufmerksamkeit schenkt. Es ist ein genauso selbstverständlicher Teil der Party, dass sich auf dem Dancefloor immer wieder Tanzende an den Händen nehmen und einen Kreis bilden, der sich an einer Stelle öffnet, um spiralförmig ineinander zu gehen und sich danach wieder aufzulösen. Derartige Elemente sind Ausdruck eines Gefühls der Offenheit und der Gemeinschaftlichkeit, das ansonsten in der Party-Szene trotz aller Beschwörun-gen von ”Love and Unity” nur selten zu finden ist. Den Ausklang bilden am späten Nachmittag Golden Buddha, eine psychedelische Rockband, deren scheinbar endlose Improvisationen sich irgendwann im Nichts auflösen und die letzten Anwesenden noch einmal auf eine ganz eigene Reise nehmen.
Schnell deutlich wird für mich jedoch auch, dass bestimmte Rollen und Verhaltensklischees, die ich von vielen Partys in Deutschland und anderen Ländern kenne, auch hier zu finden sind. Eine geradezu globale Erscheinung ist der Freak, der in Gesprächen und in seinem Outfit seinen vorgeblich so tiefen Bezug zu Goa unablässig zur Schau stellt und sich am liebsten mit ”wichtigen” Leuten für alle sichtbar direkt beim DJ unterhält. Ebenso bekannt ist die housige Frau, die so gerne eine Diva wäre, sich in dem Glauben gefällt, sie würde über allem stehen und doch völlig in ihren Eitelkeiten und Unsicherheiten verfangen ist. Dies betrachtend unterhalte ich mich mit Tibo über die Frage inwieweit wir beide selbst Rollen spielen, wo die Grenzen zwischen Authentizität und Übernahme liegen. Ohne diese Fragen abschließend zu beantworten, wenn dies überhaupt möglich ist, lassen wir uns nach einigen Stücken wieder in die Musik fallen.
Zur Mittagszeit erklimme ich dann einen der ”Hills”. Zusammen mit Susie verweile ich dort, betrachte aus der Ferne die Tanzfläche. Wir lassen unsere Gedanken in der Weite dieser beeindruckenden Landschaft schweifen bis sie sich wieder finden. Ich spüre bald, dass ich weitergehen muss, allein weiter hinauf klettern muss. Ein Plateau nach dem anderen lasse ich hinter mir, bis ich irgendwann an einen Platz gelange, an dem ich keinen Menschen mehr sehe, keinen Sound mehr höre. Ich genieße diese Atmosphäre, diese Energie. Schließe die Augen. Und beginne zu hören. Bewusst zu hören. Das Summen vorbeischwirrender Insekten, das Rauschen des Windes, den Klang der Wüste. Langsam steigen Gefühle auf, Befürchtungen und Hoffnungen verdichten sich, werden zu Bildern von dem was mög-lich ist, auch wenn es oft so unerreichbar scheint. Traumhafte, unwirkliche, reale Bilder ausgefüllt von den Energien des Gatherings. Die Sterne sind erreichbar, aber nur wenn wir es wirklich wollen...
Wolfgang Sterneck (2001)
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Bordertown: regional capital.
Unlike Mundulla, Bordertown was surveyed as part of the Gold Escort Route and not in response to the declaration of the Tatiara Agricultural selection area in 1872. Bordertown was surveyed in 1852 after discussion between the Surveyor–General and Inspector Tolmer of the Gold Escort service. They chose a site near a well, on the banks of Tatiara Creek and on Cannawigara Station close to Mr Scott’ woolshed. Importantly they wanted a town site near the Victorian border. They surveyed a grid town with North, South, East and West terraces and streets named after local pastoralists- McLeod, Binnie, Scott and Woolshed after Scott’s woolshed! The town was to be a half way depot for the Gold Escort service. Of the 104 town lots offered for sale only 10 sold and they were to Mr Scott and two speculators. More sold later but no one bought land to develop or use. In 1854 two police officers were stationed at Bordertown and a small police station was built and a police paddock for their horses etc established. They were the only residents in Bordertown. In 1856 a store keeper arrived and opened a store in the town and the first house was built. Then in 1859 a block was purchased for a hotel, the Woolshed Inn and the first hotel licensed. Later in 1865 the publican took over the store as well. The population of Bordertown was not growing! A new police station was built in 1863 and in 1867 a local committee erected a small wooden school room. The town had a few residents only but the surrounding stations had more. This was the situation in Bordertown when the Tatiara Agricultural Area was declared in 1872. As so little development had occurred in the town a new town was surveyed and designed. The new town surveyed in 1871 had a surrounding parkland belt and suburban blocks of land beyond that. With time the suburban blocks were all converted into ¼ acre residential plots.
But one other resident of the district needs mentioning. In 1859 the owners of the main local stations Cannawigara, Wirrega, Nalang and Padthaway got together and decided they needed the services of a doctor and that they would encourage Dr Penny to take up residence in or near Bordertown. Dr Penny had practised in Robe since 1851 and the station owners offered him a fixed annual income to move to Bordertown. Dr Penny chose a site outside of the town, nearer to Mundulla for his home site which he called Charla. A block of land was taken from Binnie’s Wirrega station. Penny started building a substantial stone home in 1861 which was not completed until 1865. Behind the stone house was a wooden slab kitchen. Dr Penny had 40 acres of gardens and stabling for his horses around the house. With such improvements Dr Penny wanted the freehold for his land. Special permission had to be obtained for a survey not within one of the hundreds. In 1865 George Goyder authorised and conducted the survey himself of a 38 acre block for Dr Penny. It became section one of the Hundred of Tatiara in later years. Dr Penny practised from Charla until his death in 1887. The Penny’s had purchased freehold selector lands in the 1870s and his family remained at Charla and on this property until 1968.
Once the farmers moved into the Hundred of Tatiara and the rural population increased so did the township of Bordertown as a major service centre. The town grew slowly but surely until the 1950s when it was boosted further with the AMP development of lands near Keith and the introduction of trace elements to make the lands north of Bordertown productive pastoral country. The 1950s were also boom years for both wool and wheat prices and farmer prosperity resulted in town growth and prosperity. Unfortunately it was also the time when so many early buildings were demolished and replaced with 1960s style structures. Today Bordertown has a population of 2,500 and many functions of a regional centre such as saleyards, stock agents, state government offices, regional hospital and nursing home, high school, local abattoir, engineering works, fuel depots etc.
Bordertown Historical Walk.
Bordertown railway station. The rail yards were hives of activity in the early years with wheat stores, two rail gauges, railway dam, interstate and local trains and stock yards run by the major stock and station agents such as Elder Smith and Company. The first railway station for passengers was erected in 1883 but without a platform. This burnt down in a fire in 1889 and a wooden replacement station, with platform opened in 1890. In turn this was replaced by a fine Art Nouveau American design stone railway station in 1914.
Eudunda Farmers Cooperative Store. This group opened a general store in 1936 as their 39 ninth store in SA. They opened in an 1880s store which they remodelled in 1940. The store was further altered in 1955 and completely revamped in 1987. In 1989 the Eudunda Farmers store moved to another location in the town and became the Foodland store and it still operates as an IGA supermarket.
Bordertown Hotel. It was licensed early in 1869 in the western part of Bordertown but the business struggled in the late 19th century. Finally the hotel closed in 1893. Owners tried to get it relicensed for several years and were not successful until 1898. They then purchased a new site near the railway station for ease of access by travellers and a brand new two storey hotel opened in 1903. Its exterior is largely unaltered from that time.
1. Child Care Centre/Kindergarten/Hospital.
Like most country towns Bordertown had several private hospitals, usually run by local nurses before the government hospital opened in 1924 as the Tatiara Soldiers Memorial Hospital. It was enlarged in 1926/27 to increase the size to over 30 beds. In 1967 a new hospital was built with more than 42 beds. A two storey nurse’s home was constructed adjoining the hospital in 1972. It is now the Charla Nursing Home, named after the home of the district’s first Doctor, Dr Robert Penny. After World War Two many SA communities wanted to adopt the relatively new trend of having a town kindergarten for pre-school age children. After lots of local fund raising Bordertown opened a kindergarten in 1955 on the corner of Patterson Street. It is now the Child Care Centre.
2. Lutheran Church.
Lutheran church services began in Lutheran homes, conducted by the Lutheran minister from Dimboola in Victoria, in the early 1930s. A Lutheran minister was stationed in Bordertown from 1939 but no church was built at that time. A second Lutheran synod also began regular Lutheran services in Bordertown from the late 1930s. At one stage Lutheran services were held in the Methodist Church. In 1950 both congregations met and decided to build a joint church for both synods and this was completed in 1953. Separate Lutheran services were held in the one church until formal amalgamation of the two synods in 1965 and the formation of Trinity Lutheran church in 1967. The church was too small for the combined congregations and so the 1953 church was demolished and replaced with a grand new church in 1985.
3. Anglican Church.
Anglican services began in 1880 in Bordertown but the first church was not opened until 1887. A fine stone rectory was erected next to the church in 1907. A vestry was added in 1925 and a stone hall in 1961. Surprisingly the church was not consecrated until a visit by the Anglican bishop in 1936. It is unusual in that the entrance is now at the rear of the church.
4. Methodist/Uniting Church.
Wesleyan Methodist services began in Bordertown around 1882 but a church was not built until 1887. An adjoining parsonage was built in 1897 but it has since been demolished and replaced (1961.) A new church hall was opened in 1963 and the old church has been much altered.
5. Masonic Lodge/Temple.
This strange looking building in DeCourcey Street began as the Masonic Lodge. It was opened in 1926 after being built by one of the local members. The Lodge was formed in Bordertown in 1911 and it met for years in the Institute building. Note the pillar and curved brick entrance. By 1926 the Lodge had obviously decided it was allowed to have windows facing the street. It had a large hall about 50 feet by 30 feet and a couple of meeting and supper rooms. It closed in 2008 and was sold in 2011. Note the symmetry of the façade; strong brick quoins and bricks across the roof line to give two identical almost square sections beside the entrance. It is an interesting structure.
6. Churches of Christ.
The first home services of the churches of Christ started in the Tatiara in 1882 with the origins of their building fund going back to 1890. A church opened at Carew in the Tatiara in 1899. The first Bordertown church opened in 1905, built by church members and a fine manse was completed in 1912. In 1953 a second church was built on their town land. This 1953 church is now used as a hall. The old 1905 church was demolished in 1963 and a new church of red brick replaced it in 1965. It still serves the Churches of Christ community in Bordertown.
7. Former Congregational Church.
The Congregational Church was erected 1880; the porch was added in 1924, and the hall was erected 1926. In 1966 a porch was added to link the church and the hall. Reverend David Milne was the first minister in this region. He visited Bordertown in 1862 and held the first services in the Woolshed Inn. He lived in Kingston with his second wife with whom he had seven children to complement the four from his first marriage. He travelled regularly to the Bordertown district for many years until he moved here with his family in 1873 after the Tatiara Agricultural Area was declared. He then continued with services and pushed for the erection of a Congregational Church which took another seven years to accomplish. He also serviced the Congregational Church in Mundalla and in Cannawigara and other small settlements. He continued preaching and he undertook Congregational Missionary work until 1910 when he died aged 83 years. The Congregational church closed when it amalgamated with the Methodist church to form the Uniting Church in Bordertown in 1971. It is now leased by the Naracoorte funeral parlour.
8. Old School Room.
Bordertown Old Primary School. The local wooden school room opened in 1867 only to be replaced with a stone room in 1874. The Education Department added another couple of rooms to create a T shaped school in 1884 as the school enrolments rose once the farmers arrived in the Tatiara. When the government started up the first country high schools Bordertown was one of the first when it opened in 1913 in the original 1874 classroom. The first teacher in charge was a woman but the high school closed in 1916 because of World War One. Few boys were left in the school as these younger ones had to work full time on the family farms as older boys had gone to war. High school classes resumed in Bordertown in 1920 and two new classrooms were added to the school for their use in 1921. The revamped high school became a Higher Primary School in 1922. From 1939 the Higher Primary classes occupied the 1884 classrooms as well as the 1921 rooms. In 1959 the government made the decision to separate the primary and high schools and the primary school moved to a new school site in 1971. The old school complex is used as club rooms for several town organisations.
9. Old Catholic Church.
Bordertown was added to the Catholic parish of Penola from its first surveying in 1852. After the 1872 farm selection act the parish priests from Penola visited more often. Catholic services in Bordertown began at the Woolshed Inn in 1881. A foundation stone for a Catholic Church was laid in 1883 and opened in 1884. This impressive church still stands albeit as a private residence. The limestone walls are an impressive 22 inches thick. The first resident priest for Bordertown arrived in 1939.
10. New Catholic Church.
When the first priest arrived in 1939 he purchased five acres of land for a Catholic School which was eventually built. The priest worked on building his own presbytery and it was completed in 1954 next to the church. A new St. Mary’s Catholic Church as opened in 1969. The old church was used as a hall for some time.
11. Council Offices.
The original Council Chamber for the district was in Mundulla. It closed in 1904 when the stone and brick chamber opened in Bordertown. This fine old building was demolished in 1959 when the new Council Offices were opened. A further two storey structure was added in 1978. Outside of the Council Offices is a bust of Prime Minister Robert Hawke donated in 1987 and unveiled by Bob Hawke’s father who returned to the town in which he had formerly served. In the foyer of the Council Offices is a painting of Hawke in the Hawke Gallery. The Council has an art gallery.
12. Old Institute and current Library.
Bordertown Institute. A local committee was formed and after several years of discussions and fund raising an institute was opened in 1878. Prior to this the library facility had been located in the 1867 school classroom until the Education Department took over that school and wanted to charge high rents for the library room. The Institute was increased in size and a new façade and new front rooms in the classical style with a grand pediment were added in 1909. The Premier of the day Mr Peake opened the new Institute. Yet another new institute hall was opened in 1960 again with the opening ceremony by the Premier of the day who was Sir Thomas Playford on that occasion. The extensions included a new town library. Many organisations held their meetings here and it was also the location of many private and official town functions. A theatre was added to the Institute/Library complex in 1982.
13. Hawke House.
This building opened in 1888 as the first national Bank in Bordertown. In 1897 it was sold to the Congregational Church as a manse and much later Prime Minister Bob (or Robert) Hawke was born here in December 1929. Presumably he was conceived here too as Clement and Ella Hawkes occupied this manse in 1928. The Reverend Hawke left Bordertown in 1935 and Bob Hawke started school at Maitland Primary School on Yorke Peninsula. The Hawkes left Maitland in 1939 and moved to Perth. Bob Hawke then undertook his secondary education at Perth Modern School before going on to the University of Western Australia. The school established in 1911 is a government school for academically gifted students. Hawke House is now owned by the Uniting Church and used as a welfare centre. Opposite Hawke House is the Apex Park which was originally designated as McLaren Place by the surveyor of the town in 1852 who was John McLaren. Look for the sculpture done by Bordertown High School students in 1999 and the mural done by Bordentown Primary School students in 1996. The mural on the Library wall was done by the High School students.
14. Woolshed Inn.
This was the first hotel licensed in Bordertown in 1859 and it was so named because it was close to John and Charles Scott’s woolshed for their Cannawigara station. In 1882 the early structures were added to with a new single storey hotel. As fashions and interests changed the Woolshed Inn became the Tatiara Hotel in 1927 but it reverted to the historic Woolshed Inn name in 1969. The original 1859 building with its 12 paned window can be seen in the yard of the current hotel.
15. Police/Information Centre/Tolmer Park.
This spot was originally the police paddock from 1854. Police have always been stationed on the corner. The toilets are called the Old Gaol but there was never a gaol, only a couple of cells in conjunction with the police station which was usual in any country towns. The Information Centre is here and inside you can see the front of the old police station built in 1930. The first police building was erected early in 1854- a mere shack. In 1863 the first proper police station costing £300 was built. In 1930 another new police station was built and the third station was put up in 1963. The old 1863 station was then demolished and the 1930 station was turned into a police residence. In 1983 the fourth police station was opened along the street. The old police paddock is now Tolmer Recreation Park. It was fenced in 1857 to stop the troopers’ horses from straying. The last Gold Escort service left here in December 1853. The police were then on their own with little to do. Look for the white kangaroos which have been bred from a single white male obtained in 1980 on the road towards Melbourne and read the information boards around Tolmer Park.
A visit to the National Trust property that is Penrhyn Castle
Penrhyn Castle is a country house in Llandygai, Bangor, Gwynedd, North Wales, in the form of a Norman castle. It was originally a medieval fortified manor house, founded by Ednyfed Fychan. In 1438, Ioan ap Gruffudd was granted a licence to crenellate and he founded the stone castle and added a tower house. Samuel Wyatt reconstructed the property in the 1780s.
The present building was created between about 1822 and 1837 to designs by Thomas Hopper, who expanded and transformed the building beyond recognition. However a spiral staircase from the original property can still be seen, and a vaulted basement and other masonry were incorporated into the new structure. Hopper's client was George Hay Dawkins-Pennant, who had inherited the Penrhyn estate on the death of his second cousin, Richard Pennant, who had made his fortune from slavery in Jamaica and local slate quarries. The eldest of George's two daughters, Juliana, married Grenadier Guard, Edward Gordon Douglas, who, on inheriting the estate on George's death in 1845, adopted the hyphenated surname of Douglas-Pennant. The cost of the construction of this vast 'castle' is disputed, and very difficult to work out accurately, as much of the timber came from the family's own forestry, and much of the labour was acquired from within their own workforce at the slate quarry. It cost the Pennant family an estimated £150,000. This is the current equivalent to about £49,500,000.
Penrhyn is one of the most admired of the numerous mock castles built in the United Kingdom in the 19th century; Christopher Hussey called it, "the outstanding instance of Norman revival." The castle is a picturesque composition that stretches over 600 feet from a tall donjon containing family rooms, through the main block built around the earlier house, to the service wing and the stables.
It is built in a sombre style which allows it to possess something of the medieval fortress air despite the ground-level drawing room windows. Hopper designed all the principal interiors in a rich but restrained Norman style, with much fine plasterwork and wood and stone carving. The castle also has some specially designed Norman-style furniture, including a one-ton slate bed made for Queen Victoria when she visited in 1859.
Hugh Napier Douglas-Pennant, 4th Lord Penrhyn, died in 1949, and the castle and estate passed to his niece, Lady Janet Pelham, who, on inheritance, adopted the surname of Douglas-Pennant. In 1951, the castle and 40,000 acres (160 km²) of land were accepted by the treasury in lieu of death duties from Lady Janet. It now belongs to the National Trust and is open to the public. The site received 109,395 visitors in 2017.
Grade I Listed Building
History
The present house, built in the form of a vast Norman castle, was constructed to the design of Thomas Hopper for George Hay Dawkins-Pennant between 1820 and 1837. It has been very little altered since.
The original house on the site was a medieval manor house of C14 origin, for which a licence to crenellate was given at an unknown date between 1410 and 1431. This house survived until c1782 when it was remodelled in castellated Gothick style, replete with yellow mathematical tiles, by Samuel Wyatt for Richard Pennant. This house, the great hall of which is incorporated in the present drawing room, was remodelled in c1800, but the vast profits from the Penrhyn slate quarries enabled all the rest to be completely swept away by Hopper's vast neo-Norman fantasy, sited and built so that it could be seen not only from the quarries, but most parts of the surrounding estate, thereby emphasizing the local dominance of the Dawkins-Pennant family. The total cost is unknown but it cannot have been less than the £123,000 claimed by Catherine Sinclair in 1839.
Since 1951 the house has belonged to the National Trust, together with over 40,000 acres of the family estates around Ysbyty Ifan and the Ogwen valley.
Exterior
Country house built in the style of a vast Norman castle with other later medieval influences, so huge (its 70 roofs cover an area of over an acre (0.4ha)) that it almost defies meaningful description. The main components of the house, which is built on a north-south axis with the main elevations to east and west, are the 124ft (37.8m) high keep, based on Castle Hedingham (Essex) containing the family quarters on the south, the central range, protected by a 'barbican' terrace on the east, housing the state apartments, and the rectangular-shaped staff/service buildings and stables to the north. The whole is constructed of local rubblestone with internal brick lining, but all elevations are faced in tooled Anglesey limestone ashlar of the finest quality jointing; flat lead roofs concealed by castellated parapets. Close to, the extreme length of the building (it is about 200 yards (182.88m) long) and the fact that the ground slopes away on all sides mean that almost no complete elevation can be seen. That the most frequent views of the exterior are oblique also offered Hopper the opportunity to deploy his towers for picturesque effect, the relationship between the keep and the other towers and turrets frequently obscuring the distances between them. Another significant external feature of the castle is that it actually looks defensible making it secure at least from Pugin's famous slur of 1841 on contemporary "castles" - "Who would hammer against nailed portals, when he could kick his way through the greenhouse?" Certainly, this could never be achieved at Penrhyn and it looks every inch the impregnable fortress both architect and patron intended it to be.
East elevation: to the left is the loosely attached 4-storey keep on battered plinth with 4 tiers of deeply splayed Norman windows, 2 to each face, with chevron decoration and nook-shafts, topped by 4 square corner turrets. The dining room (distinguished by the intersecting tracery above the windows) and breakfast room to the right of the entrance gallery are protected by the long sweep of the machicolated 'barbican' terrace (carriage forecourt), curved in front of the 2 rooms and then running northwards before returning at right-angles to the west to include the gatehouse, which formed the original main entrance to the castle, and ending in a tall rectangular tower with machicolated parapet. To the right of the gatehouse are the recessed buildings of the kitchen court and to the right again the long, largely unbroken outer wall of the stable court, terminated by the square footmen's tower to the left and the rather more exuberant projecting circular dung tower with its spectacularly cantilevered bartizan on the right. From here the wall runs at right-angles to the west incorporating the impressive gatehouse to the stable court.
West elevation: beginning at the left is the hexagonal smithy tower, followed by the long run of the stable court, well provided with windows on this side as the stables lie directly behind. At the end of this the wall turns at right-angles to the west, incorporating the narrow circular-turreted gatehouse to the outer court and terminating in the machicolated circular ice tower. From here the wall runs again at a lower height enclosing the remainder of the outer court. It is, of course, the state apartments which make up the chief architectural display on the central part of this elevation, beginning with a strongly articulated but essentially rectangular tower to the left, while both the drawing room and the library have Norman windows leading directly onto the lawns, the latter terminating in a slender machicolated circular corner tower. To the right is the keep, considerably set back on this side.
Interior
Only those parts of the castle generally accessible to visitors are recorded in this description. Although not described here much of the furniture and many of the paintings (including family portraits) are also original to the house. Similarly, it should be noted that in the interests of brevity and clarity, not all significant architectural features are itemised in the following description.
Entrance gallery: one of the last parts of the castle to be built, this narrow cloister-like passage was added to the main block to heighten the sensation of entering the vast Grand Hall, which is made only partly visible by the deliberate offsetting of the intervening doorways; bronze lamp standards with wolf-heads on stone bases. Grand Hall: entering the columned aisle of this huge space, the visitor stands at a cross-roads between the 3 principal areas of the castle's plan; to the left the passage leads up to the family's private apartments on the 4 floors of the keep, to the right the door at the end leads to the extensive service quarters while ahead lies the sequence of state rooms used for entertaining guests and displayed to the public ever since the castle was built. The hall itself resembles in form, style and scale the transept of a great Norman cathedral, the great clustered columns extending upwards to a "triforium" formed on 2 sides of extraordinary compound arches; stained glass with signs of the zodiac and months of the year as in a book of hours by Thomas Willement (completed 1835). Library: has very much the atmosphere of a gentlemen’s London club with walls, columned arches and ceilings covered in the most lavish ornamentation; superb architectural bookcases and panelled walls are of oak but the arches are plaster grained to match; ornamental bosses and other devices to the rich plaster ceiling refer to the ancestry of the Dawkins and Pennant families, as do the stained glass lunettes above the windows, possibly by David Evans of Shrewsbury; 4 chimneypieces of polished Anglesey "marble", one with a frieze of fantastical carved mummers in the capitals. Drawing room (great hall of the late C18 house and its medieval predecessor): again in a neo-Norman style but the decoration is lighter and the columns more slender, the spirit of the room reflected in the 2000 delicate Maltese gilt crosses to the vaulted ceiling. Ebony room: so called on account of its furniture and "ebonised" chimneypiece and plasterwork, has at its entrance a spiral staircase from the medieval house. Grand Staircase hall: in many ways the greatest architectural achievement at Penrhyn, taking 10 years to complete, the carving in 2 contrasting stones of the highest quality; repeating abstract decorative motifs contrast with the infinitely inventive figurative carving in the newels and capitals; to the top the intricate plaster panels of the domed lantern are formed in exceptionally high relief and display both Norse and Celtic influences. Next to the grand stair is the secondary stair, itself a magnificent structure in grey sandstone with lantern, built immediately next to the grand stair so that family or guests should not meet staff on the same staircase. Reached from the columned aisle of the grand hall are the 2 remaining principal ground-floor rooms, the dining room and the breakfast room, among the last parts of the castle to be completed and clearly intended to be picture galleries as much as dining areas, the stencilled treatment of the walls in the dining room allowing both the provision of an appropriately elaborate "Norman" scheme and a large flat surface for the hanging of paintings; black marble fireplace carved by Richard Westmacott and extremely ornate ceiling with leaf bosses encircled by bands of figurative mouldings derived from the Romanesque church of Kilpeck, Herefordshire. Breakfast room has cambered beam ceiling with oak-grained finish.
Grand hall gallery: at the top of the grand staircase is vaulted and continues around the grand hall below to link with the passage to the keep, which at this level (as on the other floors) contains a suite of rooms comprising a sitting room, dressing room, bedroom and small ante-chamber, the room containing the famous slate bed also with a red Mona marble chimneypiece, one of the most spectacular in the castle. Returning to the grand hall gallery and continuing straight on rather than returning to the grand staircase the Lower India room is reached to the right: this contains an Anglesey limestone chimneypiece painted to match the ground colour of the room's Chinese wallpaper. Coming out of this room, the chapel corridor leads to the chapel gallery (used by the family) and the chapel proper below (used by staff), the latter with encaustic tiles probably reused from the old medieval chapel; stained and painted glass by David Evans (c1833).
The domestic quarters of the castle are reached along the passage from the breakfast room, which turns at right-angles to the right at the foot of the secondary staircase, the most important areas being the butler's pantry, steward's office, servants' hall, housekeeper's room, still room, housekeeper's store and housemaids' tower, while the kitchen (with its cast-iron range flanked by large and hygienic vertical slabs of Penrhyn slate) is housed on the lower ground floor. From this kitchen court, which also includes a coal store, oil vaults, brushing room, lamp room, pastry room, larder, scullery and laundry are reached the outer court with its soup kitchen, brewhouse and 2-storey ice tower and the much larger stables court which, along with the stables themselves containing their extensive slate-partitioned stalls and loose boxes, incorporates the coach house, covered ride, smithy tower, dung tower with gardeners' messroom above and footmen's tower.
Reasons for Listing
Included at Grade I as one of the most important large country houses in Wales; a superb example of the relatively short-lived Norman Revival of the early C19 and generally regarded as the masterpiece of its architect, Thomas Hopper.
Victorian Kitchens
Scullery
Photo Credit: Smithsonian’s National Zoo
Top Five Reasons to Visit the Smithsonian’s National Zoo this Holiday Season
Instead of hibernating this holiday season, visitors can weather the winter at the Smithsonian’s National Zoo. With so much to see indoors, a stroll through the Zoo will not feel like an arctic trek. Visitors can stop in any of the eight animal houses to warm up, enjoy animal demonstrations and chat with keepers about the Zoo’s residents and conservation efforts. To view the demonstration schedule, visit nationalzoo.si.edu/Visit/DailyPrograms/.
1.Go Bananas on Turkey Day—This Thanksgiving, take a break from cooking and swing by the Great Ape House and Think Tank for Kiko’s birthday celebration. The Zoo’s only fully adult male orangutan—distinguishable by his large cheek pads and long hair—turns 24 years old Thursday, Nov. 24. Watch him tear open his birthday piñata to reach the “cake” made of leaf-eater chow inside.
2.ZooLights—Sparkling brighter than ever in its fifth straight year at the National Zoo, ZooLights—powered by Pepco—remains the only free holiday light show in the Washington-Metro area. Create memories with loved ones while enjoying dozens of environmentally friendly animal light displays, an “iceless” skating rink, train rides around Great Cats circle and more. Visitors can thaw their paws and attend keeper talks in the Small Mammal House, Great Ape House, Reptile Discovery Center, Think Tank and Kids’ Farm. ZooLights will run the weekends of Nov. 25–27, Dec. 2–4, and Dec. 9–11, and every night beginning Dec. 16–Jan. 1 (except Dec. 24, 25, 31), from 5 p.m.–9 p.m.
3.Meet a Kiwi—Visitors can flock to the Bird House to see the nation’s only Meet a Kiwi program! They can interact with Manaia, a brown kiwi that hatched at the Zoo in 2006, and learn what it takes to breed and raise these unique birds, as well as catch up with the latest conservation efforts, including Operation Nest Egg, which improves wild kiwi’s chance for survival. Meet a Kiwi takes place in the resource room at the Bird House every Monday, Wednesday and Friday at 11 a.m.
4.See Red (and White) Pandas—Since making their debut in the Giant Panda House, Pili and Damini—the Zoo’s feisty red panda cubs—have delighted visitors with their playfulness. They have mastered the climbing structure in their enclosure and will transition to the outdoor Red Panda Exhibit soon. In addition to ground-level viewing, visitors will be able to watch the cubs maneuver through the trees with ease from the observation overlook. The cubs’ father, Tate, currently occupies this exhibit. Visitors can try to spot the differences between Pili and Damini (hint: the rings around Pili’s eyes form a complete circle).
5.Feel the Heat—Only a five-minute walk from the Mane Grille, the Amazonia Exhibit stays 80 degrees Fahrenheit year-round. Visitors can meander through the aquarium and encounter the giant, alluring arapaima fish, graceful stingrays, swimming river turtles and more. The Field Station has two new species: angelfish and pink-toed tarantulas. In the rainforest, there is a fish feeding demonstration every day at 11 a.m. as well as titi monkeys, spoonbills and the sleepy two-toed sloth. Frogs, salamanders and caecilians live in the Amphibian Alert Exhibit, and visitors can learn how Smithsonian scientists are saving them from extinction.
Visitors are encouraged to take public transportation to the National Zoo. It is possible to reserve a parking space 48 hours in advance by calling Friends of the National Zoo (FONZ) Guest Services at (202) 633-4480 between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. Monday through Friday. Parking reservation fees of $20 for FONZ members and $30 for nonmembers apply.
# # #
Tiny sea creatures inhabit every tiny compartment
Shapes and designs with perfect form and proportion
Ancient history embedded in every shape
Historic episodes etched into every fold
Every crevice
Every mark....
I need to learn your codes
I need to understand how
You all came about???
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Egyptian representational art forms – sculpture in the round, relief, and painting – acquired a distinctive appearance by the beginning of the Dynastic Period. At the same time the level of work in decorative and functional art forms, such as painted patterning, stone vase manufacture, ivory carving, furniture making, and metalwork was very high, while architecture evolved rapidly from then on, continuing to develop as new materials were mastered and new forms introduced. From the beginning, works of art in a wide range of genres are the most important single legacy from ancient Egypt, and one that is remarkably consistent in character. Changes in art through different periods relate to changes in society and throw light on them, although art seeks its inspiration more in other art than in the world. Egyptian art is superficially approachable, yet also alien from western art.
from
John Baines and Jaromir Malek, Atlas of Ancient Egypt (Revised Edition) (Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 2002), p. 56.
Nikon D810 Photos Pro Women's Surfing Trestles Sports Photography With New Tamron SP 150-600mm F/5-6.3 Di VC USD Lens for Nikon D810!
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The new Nikon D810 rocks for sports photography! New Instagram!
Nikon D810 Photos Pro Women's Surfing Sports Photography Tamron SP 150-600mm F/5-6.3 Di VC USD !
I shot in DX mode which crops away the extra pixels and takes me 1.5X closer while allowing for up to 7 FPS with the Nikon D810's Nikon MB-D12 Battery Grip using the 8 AA battery option! 8 Duracells took me through around 3,000 shots no problem--maybe more! I was shooting at the equivalent of 900mm with the 1.5x crop factor! Pretty close! Had I gone with the Nikon D4s, I would have gotten 12 fps, but no DX crop factor, as the sensor has only around 24mp, compared to the d810's 36 megapixels! Sure the larger pixel size on the Nikon D4s full frame sensor comes in handy indoors or at night, but in the bright sun, there's more than enough light for the smaller pixels in crop mode! Sure we lose some pixels from the outer edges when shooting in DX crop mode, but most of those pixels would be cropped away in Lightroom anyway. And the smaller files make the memory cards last longer, while also upping the FPS to 7 shots per second! Not quite 12 FPS, but still awesome and enough I felt!
What a beautiful way to test the Nikon D810 and Tamron 150-600mm zoom lens for sports photography!
Athletic graceful girl goddesses! Tall, thin, fit and in shape! Pro women's surfers form the van's us open wearing both long wetsuits and bikini bottoms with shorty wetsuit tops/summer wetsuits. Sexy, beautiful beach babes and water goddesses all! Many are professional swimsuit bikini / surf lifestyle models too!
45surf photography! :)
I get asked a lot of questions (I love questions--ask away!), and one of the more common ones is "What kind of camera shoul I buy?" Begin with anything, and then, when it falls short of the beauty you are trying to capture, invest in a new one! The important thing is to think of it as buying not something for yourself, but a gift for the world, who will witness all the magnificent photos you shoot with it! Then, the next most important thing to do is to shoot, shoot, shoot, shoot! For each and every epic shot on an awesome camera helps justify its cost! I shoot with the awesome Nikon D810, Sony A7R, and now the Sony A7RII! And in the long run, the cost of the camera is a very small entity, when conpared to the cost of life and time. So buy a great camera, and then give the gift of epic photography to the world! View your artistic mission into photography as an epic odyssey of heroic poetry! Take it from Homer in Homer's Odyssey: "Tell me, O muse, of that ingenious hero who travelled far and wide after he had sacked the famous town of Troy. Many cities did he visit, and many were the nations with whose manners and customs he was acquainted; moreover he suffered much by sea while trying to save his own life and bring his men safely home; but do what he might he could not save his men, for they perished through their own sheer folly in eating the cattle of the Sun-god Hyperion; so the god prevented them from ever reaching home. Tell me, too, about all these things, O daughter of Jove, from whatsoever source you may know them. " --Samuel Butler Translation of Homer's Odyssey
All the best on your Epic Hero's Odyssey from Johnny Ranger McCoy!
"Contrapuntal Forms 1950-51" is carved from Irish blue limestone. It was commissioned for the Festival of Britain by the Arts Council and in 1953 was presented to the new town of Harlow where it still (normally) stands.
Rapid strata formation in soft sand (field evidence).
Photo of strata formation in soft sand on a beach, created by tidal action of the sea.
Formed in a single, high tidal event. Stunning evidence which displays multiple strata/layers.
Why this is so important ....
It has long been assumed, ever since the 17th century, that layers/strata observed in sedimentary rocks were built up gradually, layer upon layer, over many years. It certainly seemed logical at the time, from just looking at rocks, that lower layers would always be older than the layers above them, i.e. that lower layers were always laid down first followed, in time, by successive layers on top.
This was assumed to be true and became known as the superposition principle.
It was also assumed that a layer comprising a different material from a previous layer, represented a change in environmental conditions/factors.
These changes in composition of layers or strata were considered to represent different, geological eras on a global scale, spanning millions of years. This formed the basis for the Geologic Column, which is used to date rocks and also fossils. The evolutionary, 'fossil record' was based on the vast ages and assumed geological eras of the Geologic Column.
There was also circular reasoning applied with the assumed age of 'index' fossils (based on evolutionary beliefs & preconceptions) used to date strata in the Geologic Column. Dating strata from the assumed age of (index) fossils is known as Biostratigraphy.
We now know that, although these assumptions seemed logical, they are not supported by the evidence.
At the time, the mechanics of stratification were not properly known or studied.
An additional factor was that this assumed superposition and uniformitarian model became essential, with the wide acceptance of Darwinism, for the long ages required for progressive microbes-to-human evolution. There was no incentive to question or challenge the superposition, uniformitarian model, because the presumed, fossil 'record' had become dependant on it, and any change in the accepted model would present devastating implications for Darwinism.
This had the unfortunate effect of linking the study of geology so closely to Darwinism, that any study independent of Darwinian considerations was effectively stymied. This link of geology with Darwinian preconceptions is known as biostratigraphy.
Some other field evidence, in various situations, can be observed here: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
and also in the links to stunning, experimental evidence, carried out by sedimentologists, given later.
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GEOLOGIC PRINCIPLES (established by Nicholas Steno in the 17th Century):
What Nicolas Steno believed about strata formation is the basis of the principle of Superposition and the principle of Original Horizontality.
dictionary.sensagent.com/Law_of_superposition/en-en/
“Assuming that all rocks and minerals had once been fluid, Nicolas Steno reasoned that rock strata were formed when particles in a fluid such as water fell to the bottom. This process would leave horizontal layers. Thus Steno's principle of original horizontality states that rock layers form in the horizontal position, and any deviations from this horizontal position are due to the rocks being disturbed later.”)
BEDDING PLANES.
'Bedding plane' describes the surface in between each stratum which are formed during sediment deposition.
science.jrank.org/pages/6533/Strata.html
“Strata form during sediment deposition, that is, the laying down of sediment. Meanwhile, if a change in current speed or sediment grain size occurs or perhaps the sediment supply is cut off, a bedding plane forms. Bedding planes are surfaces that separate one stratum from another. Bedding planes can also form when the upper part of a sediment layer is eroded away before the next episode of deposition. Strata separated by a bedding plane may have different grain sizes, grain compositions, or colours. Sometimes these other traits are better indicators of stratification as bedding planes may be very subtle.”
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Several catastrophic events, flash floods, volcanic eruptions etc. have forced Darwinian, influenced geologists to admit to rapid stratification in some instances. However they claim it is a rare phenomenon, which they have known about for many years, and which does nothing to invalidate the Geologic Column, the fossil record, evolutionary timescale, or any of the old assumptions regarding strata formation, sedimentation and the superposition principle. They fail to face up to the fact that rapid stratification is not an extraordinary phenonemon, but rather the prevailing and normal mechanism of sedimentary deposition whenever and wherever there is moving, sediment-laden water. The experimental evidence demonstrates the mechanism and a mass of field evidence in normal (non-catastrophic) conditions shows it is a normal everyday occurrence.
It is clear from the experimental evidence that the usual process of stratification is - that strata are not formed by horizontal layers being laid on top of each other in succession, as was assumed. But by sediment being sorted in the flowing water and laid down diagonally in the direction of flow. See diagram:
www.flickr.com/photos/truth-in-science/39821536092/in/dat...
The field evidence (in the image) presented here - of rapid, simultaneous stratification refutes the Superposition Principle and the Principle of Lateral Continuity.
We now know, the Superposition Principle only applies on a rare occasion where sedimentary deposits are laid down in still water.
Superposition is required for the long evolutionary timescale, but the evidence shows it is not the general rule, as was once believed. Most sediment is laid down in moving water, where particle segregation is the general rule, resulting in the simultaneous deposition of strata/layers as shown in the photo.
See many other examples of rapid stratification (with geological features): www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
Rapid, simultaneous formation of layers/strata, through particle segregation in moving water, is so easily created it has even been described by sedimentologists (working on flume experiments) as a law ...
"Upon filling the tank with water and pouring in sediments, we immediately saw what was to become the rule: The sediments sorted themselves out in very clear layers. This became so common that by the end of two weeks, we jokingly referred to Andrew's law as "It's difficult not to make layers," and Clark's law as "It's easy to make layers." Later on, I proposed the "law" that liquefaction destroys layers, as much to my surprise as that was." Ian Juby, www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/
The example in the photo is the result of normal, everyday tidal action formed in a single incident, and subsequently eroded by water flow revealing the strata/layers.
Where the water current or movement is more turbulent, violent, or catastrophic, great depths (many metres) of stratified sediment can be laid down in a short time. Certainly not the many millions of years assumed by evolutionists.
The composition of strata formed in any deposition event. is related to whatever materials are in the sediment mix, not to any particular timescale. Whatever is in the mix will be automatically sorted into strata/layers. It could be sand, or other material added from mud slides, erosion of chalk deposits, coastal erosion, volcanic ash etc. Any organic material (potential fossils), alive or dead, engulfed by, or swept into, a turbulent sediment mix, will also be sorted and buried within the rapidly, forming layers.
See many other examples of rapid stratification with geological features: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
Stratified, soft sand deposit. demonstrates the rapid, stratification principle.
Important, field evidence which supports the work of the eminent, sedimentologist Dr Guy Berthault MIAS - Member of the International Association of Sedimentologists.
(Dr Berthault's experiments (www.sedimentology.fr/)
And also the experimental work of Dr M.E. Clark (Professor Emeritus, U of Illinois @ Urbana), Andrew Rodenbeck and Dr. Henry Voss, (www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/)
Location: Yaverland, Isle of Wight. Photographed 12/10/2018 This field evidence demonstrates that multiple strata in sedimentary deposits do not need millions of years to form and can be formed rapidly. This natural example confirms the principle demonstrated by the sedimentation experiments carried out by Dr Guy Berthault and other sedimentologists. It calls into question the standard, multi-million year dating of sedimentary rocks, and the dating of fossils by depth of burial or position in the strata.
Mulltiple strata/layers are evident in this example.
Dr Berthault's experiments (www.sedimentology.fr/) and other experiments (www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/) and field studies of floods and volcanic action show that, rather than being formed by gradual, slow deposition of sucessive layers superimposed upon previous layers, with the strata or layers representing a particular timescale, particle segregation in moving water or airborne particles can form strata or layers very quickly, frequently, in a single event.
And, most importantly, lower strata are not older than upper strata, they are the same age, having been created in the same sedimentary episode.
Such field studies confirm experiments which have shown that there is no longer any reason to conclude that strata/layers in sedimentary rocks relate to different geological eras and/or a multi-million year timescale. www.youtube.com/watch?v=5PVnBaqqQw8&feature=share&.... they also show that the relative position of fossils in rocks is not indicative of an order of evolutionary succession. Obviously, the uniformitarian principle, on which the geologic column is based, can no longer be considered valid. And the multi-million, year dating of sedimentary rocks and fossils needs to be reassessed. Rapid deposition of stratified sediments also explains the enigma of polystrate fossils, i.e. large fossils that intersect several strata. In some cases, tree trunk fossils are found which intersect the strata of sedimentary rock up to forty feet in depth. upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lycopsi... They must have been buried in stratified sediment in a short time (certainly not millions, thousands, or even hundreds of years), or they would have rotted away. youtu.be/vnzHU9VsliQ
In fact, the vast majority of fossils are found in good, intact condition, which is testament to their rapid burial. You don't get good fossils from gradual burial, because they would be damaged or destroyed by decay, predation or erosion. The existence of so many fossils in sedimentary rock on a global scale is stunning evidence for the rapid depostion of sedimentary rock as the general rule. It is obvious that all rock containing good intact fossils was formed from sediment laid down in a very short time, not millions, or even thousands of years.
See set of photos of other examples of rapid stratification: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/
Carbon dating of coal should not be possible if it is millions of years old, yet significant amounts of Carbon 14 have been detected in coal and other fossil material, which indicates that it is less than 50,000 years old. www.ldolphin.org/sewell/c14dating.html
www.grisda.org/origins/51006.htm
Evolutionists confidently cite multi-million year ages for rocks and fossils, but what most people don't realise is that no one actually knows the age of sedimentary rocks or the fossils found within them. So how are evolutionists so sure of the ages they so confidently quote? The astonishing thing is they aren't. Sedimentary rocks cannot be dated by radiometric methods*, and fossils can only be dated to less than 50,000 years with Carbon 14 dating. The method evolutionists use is based entirely on assumptions. Unbelievably, fossils are dated by the assumed age of rocks, and rocks are dated by the assumed age of fossils, that's right ... it is known as circular reasoning.
* Regarding the radiometric dating of igneous rocks, which is claimed to be relevant to the dating of sedimentary rocks, in an occasional instance there is an igneous intrusion associated with a sedimentary deposit -
Prof. Aubouin says in his Précis de Géologie: "Each radioactive element disintegrates in a characteristic and constant manner, which depends neither on the physical state (no variation with pressure or temperature or any other external constraint) nor on the chemical state (identical for an oxide or a phosphate)."
"Rocks form when magma crystallizes. Crystallisation depends on pressure and temperature, from which radioactivity is independent. So, there is no relationship between radioactivity and crystallisation.
Consequently, radioactivity doesn't date the formation of rocks. Moreover, daughter elements contained in rocks result mainly from radioactivity in magma where gravity separates the heavier parent element, from the lighter daughter element. Thus radiometric dating has no chronological signification." Dr. Guy Berthault www.sciencevsevolution.org/Berthault.htm
Rapid strata formation and rapid erosion at Mount St Helens.
slideplayer.com/slide/5703217/18/images/28/Rapid+Strata+F...
Visit the fossil museum:
www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157641367196613/
Just how good are peer reviews of scientific papers?
www.sciencemag.org/content/342/6154/60.full
www.examiner.com/article/want-to-publish-science-paper-ju...
The neo-Darwinian idea that the human genome consists entirely of an accumulation of billions of mutations is, quite obviously, completely bonkers. Nevertheless, it is compulsorily taught in schools and universities as 'science'.
Bain News Service,, publisher.
King Geo. reviews Australians
[between ca. 1915 and ca. 1920]
1 negative : glass ; 5 x 7 in. or smaller.
Notes:
Title from unverified data provided by the Bain News Service on the negatives or caption cards.
Forms part of: George Grantham Bain Collection (Library of Congress).
Format: Glass negatives.
Rights Info: No known restrictions on publication.
Repository: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA, hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
General information about the Bain Collection is available at hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.ggbain
Higher resolution image is available (Persistent URL): hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ggbain.24757
Call Number: LC-B2- 4250-9
Nikon D800E photos Bianca Buitendag & Bethany Hamilton Supergilr Pro Oceanside Beach Pier in San Diego! Shot form high up above on the Oceanside Pier!
Nikon D800E photos of Bianca Buitendag, Bethany Hamilton, and other pro surf girls at the Oceanside Huntington Beach Pier! Gorgeous pro surf girl goddesses all who are also professional swimsuit bikini / athletic sports clothing models! Shot with the awesome Nikon D800E & the Sigma 150-500mm f/5-6.3 AF APO DG OS HSM Telephoto Zoom Lens for Nikon Digital SLR Cameras. They're all professional models too (Alana Blanchard was a Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Model and Rip Curl Bikini Model!)!
And here're some epic video of pretty goddesses Bianca Buitendag and Alanna Blanchard I shot at the same time with the Panasonic X900MK 3MOS 3D Full HD SD Camcorder with 32GB Internal Memory mounted on my Nikon D800E via the 45surfer configuration.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=IxYPyOtzAQU (Bianca Buitendag paddling out and surfing!)
www.youtube.com/watch?v=9bX4gXnfLtc (alana running on beach, paddling out, surfing)
www.youtube.com/watch?v=-5LLePW95N0
www.youtube.com/watch?v=ANM70cBDNVo
www.youtube.com/watch?v=HIqA-0TOkjk
www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVEcj3bTdeQ
Last year I was shooting with a Nikon D4 with a 600mm F4 Prime monster Nikkor lens mounted on the tripod:
www.flickr.com/photos/herosjourneymythology45surf/8555104...
This year I wanted to be more nimble and work the whole area (shoot surfers warming up down the beach, coming and goring, running, hanging out/watching/etc.), so I opted to shoot with a Nikon D800E with the Sigma 150-500m lens mounted on a monopod. It can be tough to move tripod around with a 600mm F4 Prime monster Nikkor lens on a crowded beach, and it would be easy to upset folks each time you tried to set it up! There's a good chance they would say "enough" and throw you and all your equipment in the water! There's a common etiquette that one ought arrive early to claim a good spot, set up there, and keep it for the day. Latecomers are not welcome to set up on the main beach once it has filled up. But it's OK to walk around with a smaller setup as long as you stay out of everyone's way. Generally you can hug the water/shoreline with your feet and monopod in the water, as you're down low enough so that you don't block anyone's view from higher up on the beach, where all the tripods are mounted. The Sigma 150-500mm lens also allowed me to zoom out when surfers ran down the beach or got in and out of the water, and I also had a Nikon D800E with the 28-300 mm lens strapped around my neck. And both cameras had video cameras mounted to them in my famous 45surfer configuration! Needless to say, it can be a bit scary standing knee-deep in water with all that equipment, with large waves breaking. You wouldn't want to fall in!
Well, hope you enjoy the surf goddess photography!
All the best on your epic hero's journey from Johnny Ranger McCoy! :)
P.S. There's nothing like shooting the nikon D4 with the 600mm prime for quality, but I felt it was cool to give up a bit of quality for far more variety this year! Plus I do not want to become a pixel-peeper! :)