Forms, structures and colours

Pale Form Bee Orchid (Ophrys apifera Var.flavescens) on the South Downs, South Downs National Park, East Sussex England

Supporters form up for the Houston Women's March in Houston, Texas, a sister march to the Women's March on Washington. || DJI FC220 || Houston

My latest TT is based off a sorta-modified chassis pioneered by Zetovince/Mahjiqa. Due to this the L20 is actually bigger and heavier than the Blazefury, an F1 car for the road. All in the sacrifice for detail. Let's just imagine IRL that the L20 is smaller like is should be.

L1GTH_F0RM5: graphics + digital pictures + animated gifs

Check the whole set at: www.behance.net/gallery/L1GHT_F0RM5_gifs/3401305

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NO PHOTOSHOP - NO FILTERS - JUST PURE GLITCH PHOTOGRAPHY

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This serie is an experiment about light and color through glitches. Using a broken digital camera [Sony DSC-T3] I captured basic geometric forms. The glitches produced with the digital camera differ depending on different light conditions. Therefor the light represented in these transparent solid objects should affect the image coding in different ways. Each geometric form is translated into a new glowing glitch-form.

 

Both, the geometric and the glitch form are digital entities, the first one can be understood as the object and the second one as the soul. Both share the same original code but the second evolved into a new digital form. The geometric one attends to the specific rules settle by the user in the real world, the glitch one is a free-will parallel version, like a new specie in a digital environment.

Graphite, encre de chine (india ink), acrylique (acrylic) sur papier calque (on tracing paper)

 

8 x 10

A box car letter SMW 536020, St Marys Railway West LLC

 

Call it art or call it vandalism or call it both, railroad graffiti has transformed greatly in the one hundred and fifty years since the first trains began rolling over the rails in North America. In the early days of railroading, rail workers left marks to other railroaders as a form of communication. These messages were more often left in chalk could relate to handling of a specific car or load, the condition of equipment that needs repair or simply an indication of an item's dimensions (as can be seen on the grade crossing arm in the image to the right).

 

Some railroaders today leave chalk markings on rail cars after they have gone to the car shop for work. These tend to carry generic musings or to identify the artist in a way not to give away their true identity.

 

Likewise, hobos let marks to other hobos as the economic strife of the 1920s and 30s forced men to hop trains to get where they were going. Some drawings by hobos mean specific things while others seek to identify themselves.

 

The larger and more graphic style of graffiti commonly known as tagging originated in east coast cities in the 1960s as part of hip hop culture. New York City subway cars were early targets; the practice soon spread to boxcars and other railroad freight cars. Today’s taggers run the gamut from stereotypical troubled youth to white collar office workers who moonlight with spray cans.

  

Forms came off today. Lumber is expected tomorrow, and framing will start. The opening for the crawlspace on the west foundation wall makes it a lot easier to step into the studio than on Saturday. They expect to reuse many of the 2x6 boards as floor joists, which makes their use as forms make a lot more sense.

 

À l’honneur les orgues Limonaire qui ont su séduire par l’intermédiaire des forains, des cafés et des bals jusqu’en 1935. Après la liquidation de la manufacture, l’activité de réparation et la fabrication des « musiques perforées » est reprise par d’anciens collaborateurs salariés ou par des sous-traitants. Parmi ces derniers, le plus connu est la manufacture Poirot Frères de Mirecourt qui est le véritable successeur de Limonaire. La facture d’orgues de foire de Georges Poirot ferme définitivement son atelier en 1954 baissant le rideau sur l’activité dans la ville.

Pur Blanc Bugatti Veyron Supersport in its Purest form!

Taken with a Kodak 66 mk3 folding camera from 1959.

120 Fuji Reala ISO 100 film

Light leak in bellows caused the red flare despite my efforts to repair them!

 

This is a relatively new sculpture on public display at Snape Maltings in Suffolk, England. Entitled 'Large interior form' by Henry Moore. He produced this in 1982 when he was 84. There are six of these sculptures in existence worldwide.

 

A succession of Henry Moore works has been sited on this lawn (chosen by HM himself) outside the entrance to the huge Concert Hall at Snape. The spot has naturally become known as the Henry Moore lawn.

  

Silicone Breast Form Mastectomy Fake Prosthesis Enhancer Crossdresser Boob pair 1

transsexual.silicone-breast.com/2016/12/10/silicone-breas...

cross-dress.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/272289518003...

   

Many of the tropical butterflies have distinctive seasonal forms. This phenomenon is termed seasonal polyphenism and the seasonal forms of the butterflies are called the dry-season and wet-season forms. How the season affects the genetic expression of patterns is still a subject of research. The dry-season forms are usually more cryptic and it has been suggested that the protection offered may be an adaptation. Some also show greater dark colours in the wet-season form which may have thermoregulatory advantages by increasing ability to absorb solar radiation.

 

The wet-season forms have large, very apparent multiple eyespots whereas the dry-season forms have very reduced, oftentimes nonexistent, eyespots. Larvae that develop in hot, wet conditions develop into wet-season adults whereas those growing in the transition from the wet to the dry season, when the temperature is declining, develop into dry-season adults. This polyphenism probably has an adaptive role. In the dry-season it is disadvantageous to have conspicuous eyespots because they blend in with the brown vegetation better without eyespots. By not developing eyespots in the dry-season they can more easily camouflage themselves in the brown brush. This minimizes the risk of visually mediated predation. In the wet-season, these brown butterflies cannot as easily rely on cryptic coloration for protection because the background vegetation is green. Thus, eyespots, which may function to decrease predation, are beneficial for Satyrine butterflies like the Bushbrown to express.

 

Pu'er, Yunnan, China

 

see comments for image of wet season form....

Today is Day 1.

 

I started a new job today. Today was a day of meetings and accepting 60+ future email meetings/trainings.

 

Except for the sound going out in my manager meeting, it wasn’t too bad of a first day.

 

And it all begins again tomorrow at 6 am.

 

Now, I just need to find a non-family member to sign a form for me by tomorrow. Any volunteers?

The Great North Museum: Hancock is a museum of natural history and ancient civilisations in Newcastle upon Tyne, England.

 

The museum was established in 1884 and was formerly known as the Hancock Museum. In 2006 it merged with Newcastle University's Museum of Antiquities and Shefton Museum to form the Great North Museum. The museum reopened as the Great North Museum: Hancock in May 2009 following a major extension and refurbishment of the original Victorian building. The museum and most of its collections are owned by the Natural History Society of Northumbria, and it is managed by Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums on behalf of Newcastle University.

 

The museum is located on the campus of Newcastle University, next to the Great North Road, and close to Barras Bridge. The nearest Tyne & Wear Metro station is Haymarket, and there is also a bus station at Haymarket.

 

One of the Second World War air raid shelter openings into the Victoria Tunnel is beneath the grounds of the museum.

 

The collection of the Hancock Museum can be traced to about 1780 when Marmaduke Tunstall started accumulating ethnographic and natural history material from around the world. He then brought his collection from London to North Yorkshire. In 1790 Tunstall died, and George Allan of Darlington purchased Tunstall's collection; and later in 1823 it was acquired by the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne. A wombat, which is still on display, is considered to be the earliest object in the collection. It was the first complete wombat specimen to reach Europe. In 1829 the Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham and Newcastle upon Tyne (now the Natural History Society of Northumbria) was formed as a scientific offshoot of the Literary and Philosophical Society. Amongst the founding and early members of the Natural History Society were Joshua Alder, Albany Hancock, John Hancock, Prideaux John Selby and William Chapman Hewitson.

 

The museum opened on its current site in 1884 after the collection of the Natural History Society outgrew its small museum, located on Westgate Road, which opened in 1834. A major benefactor to the museum was William Armstrong who gave the then large sum of £11,500. Armstrong had also founded the College of Physical Science which later became part of Newcastle University. The museum was renamed in the 1890s, after the local Victorian naturalists, Albany and John Hancock. In 1959 the Natural History Society agreed with the University of Newcastle for the university to care for the building and collections, and since 1992 the university has contracted with Tyne & Wear Museums to manage the museum under a Service Level Agreement.

 

The Hancock Museum was closed on 23 April 2006 for refurbishment and did not reopen until 23 May 2009. It was completely refurbished and extended as part of the Great North Museum Project, at a cost of £26 million. Great North Museum project is a partnership between Newcastle University, Tyne & Wear Museums, Newcastle City Council, the Natural History Society of Northumbria and the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle upon Tyne. The project was made possible with funds from the Heritage Lottery Fund, TyneWear Partnership, One NorthEast, the European Regional Development Fund, Newcastle University, Newcastle City Council, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, the Wolfson Foundation and The Northern Rock Foundation, as well as numerous other trusts and foundations. The building architects were Terry Farrell and Partners; Sir Terry Farrell is a native of Newcastle, and had previously been a student at Newcastle University.

 

The new museum includes new displays on natural history and geology, Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece, Romans and Hadrian's Wall, World Cultures and Pre-history. It also includes an interactive study zone, an under 5's space, and a digital Planetarium, as well as new learning facilities, a new temporary exhibition space, and a study garden. The new museum houses not only the Hancock Museum collections, but also those of the university's Museum of Antiquities and Shefton Museum. The building that formerly housed the Museum of Antiquities was later demolished. The Hatton Gallery is also a part of the Great North Museum Project, but is not relocating to the Hancock, and is remaining in Newcastle University's Fine Art Building.

 

In September 2008, the Great North Museum searched for a lookalike of the Emperor Hadrian, for a photo shoot, whose likeness would feature in a permanent display at the Hancock Museum. On 21 November 2008 the 'Be Part of It' campaign was launched, and it was announced that the Great North Museum: Hancock would be opening in May 2009. Athlete Jonathan Edwards is the patron of the 'Be Part of It' campaign. Other celebrity supporters of the museum include Sir Thomas Allen and Adam Hart-Davis. Donors to the campaign have the opportunity to have their name (or the name of a loved one) permanently included on a donor wall in the museum.

 

The Great North Museum formally re-opened on 23 May 2009. In August the museum announced that they had surpassed their expected annual target of 300,000 visitors. By August over 400,000 people had visited the reopened museum. On 6 November 2009 HM The Queen officially opened the Great North Museum. In 2009, the Great North Museum had over 600,000 visitors.

 

By August 2010, the reopened Great North Museum had welcomed its one millionth visitor.

 

Among the museum's permanent residents are a life-size cast of an African elephant; the Egyptian mummy Bakt-en-Hor (previously known as Bakt-hor-Nekht); a full size replica of a T-Rex skeleton; and Sparkie, Newcastle's famous talking budgie, who was stuffed after his death in 1962 and is now the subject of a new opera by Michael Nyman.

 

The full size cast of an African Elephant was built in the Living Planet gallery. The model was crafted by Zephyr Wildlife, who took a cast from an actual stuffed elephant at a museum in Bonn in Germany. To get the elephant into the museum a crane, from Bel Lift Trucks, had to be used. The full size model of a T-Rex dinosaur has been shipped from Canada, where it was built by a company called Research Casting International. It forms part of the display known as the Fossil Stories gallery. The T-Rex model was one of the first items to be placed in the new museum, due to its size. In 1908, the Manchester taxidermist Harry Ferris Brazenor mounted a "fine bison bull" for the museum.

 

Other exhibitions include 'Hadrian's Wall' looking at Roman life in the north of England, 'Natural Northumbria' focusing on the wildlife found in the northeast, 'Ancient Egypt' looking at the Ancient Egyptians and featuring the museum's two mummies, 'Ice Age to Iron Age' detailing the history of the British Isles over the past 12,000 years, 'World Cultures' featuring artifacts and displays from cultures across the globe, 'The Shefton Collection' with one of the most detailed collections of Greek artifacts in the UK and 'Explore' which is a more hands-on area of the museum and features regular interactive sessions.

 

There were live animals on display but these have now been withdrawn, as well as a conference area for corporate events and a fully provisioned learning suite for school visits.

 

The museum was entered into the 'long list' for the 2010 Art Fund Prize for museums and galleries.

 

The interactive Bio-Wall features hundreds of creatures, that visitors will be able to investigate and find out where they live and how they survive in such extreme places as the Arctic and Desert. There is also a great white shark display, polar bear and giraffe specimens from the historic Hancock collections and a moa skeleton. Also between May and October 2019 the museum hosted Dippy the dinosaur as part of its UK tour.

 

Within the museum's archives are the nineteenth century botanical paintings by Margaret Rebecca Dickinson of plants from the Newcastle and Scottish Borders region.

  

Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.

 

Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.

 

The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.

 

Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.

 

Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.

 

History

Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.

 

The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.

 

The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.

 

Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.

 

Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.

 

Roman invasion

The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.

 

The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.

 

The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.

 

Establishment of Roman rule

After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.

 

On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.

 

While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.

 

There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.

 

In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.

 

For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.

 

Roman military organisation in the north

In 84 AD

In 84 AD

 

In 155 AD

In 155 AD

 

Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall

There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.

 

Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.

 

A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.

 

In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.

 

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.

 

During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.

 

In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.

 

The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.

 

3rd century

The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.

 

Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.

 

The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.

 

Northern campaigns, 208–211

An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.

 

As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.

 

During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.

 

Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.

 

The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.

 

Diocletian's reforms

As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).

 

The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.

 

Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.

 

The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.

 

The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.

 

Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.

 

In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.

 

A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.

 

4th century

Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.

 

In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.

 

As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.

 

Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.

 

End of Roman rule

The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.

 

The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.

 

Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.

 

Sub-Roman Britain

Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.

 

In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.

 

Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.

 

Trade

During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.

 

Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.

 

These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.

 

It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.

 

From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.

 

Economy

Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.

 

The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.

 

By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.

 

Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.

 

Government

Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain

Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.

 

To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.

 

Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.

 

Demographics

Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.

 

Town and country

During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.

 

Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.

 

Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C

 

Alcester (Alauna)

Alchester

Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C

Bath (Aquae Sulis) C

Brough (Petuaria) C

Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)

Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C

Caernarfon (Segontium) C

Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C

Caister-on-Sea C

Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C

Carlisle (Luguvalium) C

Carmarthen (Moridunum) C

Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)

Chester (Deva Victrix) C

Chester-le-Street (Concangis)

Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C

Cirencester (Corinium) C

Colchester (Camulodunum) C

Corbridge (Coria) C

Dorchester (Durnovaria) C

Dover (Portus Dubris)

Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C

Gloucester (Glevum) C

Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)

Ilchester (Lindinis) C

Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C

Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C

London (Londinium) C

Manchester (Mamucium) C

Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)

Northwich (Condate)

St Albans (Verulamium) C

Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C

Towcester (Lactodurum)

Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C

Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C

Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C

York (Eboracum) C

 

Religion

The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.

 

The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.

 

Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.

 

Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).

 

Christianity

It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.

 

The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.

 

A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.

 

Environmental changes

The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas

 

Legacy

During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.

 

Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton

À l’honneur les orgues Limonaire qui ont su séduire par l’intermédiaire des forains, des cafés et des bals jusqu’en 1935. Après la liquidation de la manufacture, l’activité de réparation et la fabrication des « musiques perforées » est reprise par d’anciens collaborateurs salariés ou par des sous-traitants. Parmi ces derniers, le plus connu est la manufacture Poirot Frères de Mirecourt qui est le véritable successeur de Limonaire. La facture d’orgues de foire de Georges Poirot ferme définitivement son atelier en 1954 baissant le rideau sur l’activité dans la ville.

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Ottawa Citizen - 20 June 1907 (Camp Petawawa) - The wagons form a long line and move past the door of the storehouse and after receiving their boxes of goods, move over to the bakery for the loaves of bread. Thus in about halt an hour all the corps in camp by this excellent system have received their provisions for the day. There are two ovens in use. The large brick stationary oven Is capable of turning out 1,000 pounds of bread to each batch and running night and day would bake about 20,000 pounds of the staff of life in twenty-four hours. The field oven can turn out 2,000 pounds a day. The meat is brought Into the limits alive and each afternoon six oxen die at the hands of the butcher to relieve the appetites of the hungry soldiers.

 

- newspaper photo from the Montreal Standard newspaper - 29 September 1906.

 

The photograph for this postcard was taken by Lieut.-Col. F. Minden Cole, of Montreal, formerly in command of the 2nd Regiment Canadian Artillery.

 

Lt.-Col. Frederick Minden Cole DSO born 1 August 1859. The eldest son of the late Major Frederick Cole, and Louisa Purkis (Barrett) Cole, of 23, Essex Avenue, Montreal. Husband of Florence Trenholme Cole, of 15, Holton Avenue, Westmount, P.Q. Twice Mentioned in Dispatches, and awarded the Distinguished Service Order during the Great War. Educated at Montreal high school and McGill University, and was head of the firm of F. Minden Cole & Co,. real estate and insurance brokers. Major Frederick Minden Cole stood 5’9″ tall, 165 pounds when examined on 15 June 1915 in Montreal. Joined the 97th Battery, Siege Artillery on enlistment. Transferred to the 1st Canadian Heavy Artillery Group. Embarked Halifax on 22 November 1915. Disembarked Liverpool on 1 December 1915. Lt.-Col. Frederick Minden Cole DSO discharged from the CEF on 12 June of 1918, being Surplus to requirements. Frederick Minden Cole died of cancer at his home, 7 July 1920, and buried in Montreal Mount Royal Cemetery. LINK - cefrg.ca/blog/frederick-minden-cole-dso/

 

(29 September 1906) - The Artillery Practice Camp, which lasted for six weeks, from the middle of July to the first of September, was under the command of Colonel J. F. Wilson, of Quebec, and under his eagle eye and those of his efficient umpires, every officer and man of all the artillery detachments which came to camp, both field and heavy, received some valuable instruction under service conditions before returning home. The Standard’s illustrations, from photographs taken by Lieut.-Col. F. Minden Cole, will give a good idea of the work which was carried on by the Artillery, and also show the Army Service Corps at one of their necessary duties—namely, bread-making—and the efficient Army Medical Corps at work in their Field Hospital. Some familiar faces will no doubt be seen by nearly every reader of The Standard in the groups which we have reproduced, as the detachments in camp were drawn from Halifax on the East, to Winnipeg on the West. Next year it is expected the tented field will cover twice if not three times the space of the recent camp, as it is the intention to send not only Artillery, but Infantry and Cavalry as well, so that field manoeuvres on a large scale can be attempted. LINK - numerique.banq.qc.ca/patrimoine/details/52327/4464265?doc...

twitter.com/Memoire2cite - Après 1945, les collines agricoles du sud-est de la ville connaissent un programme d’urbanisation de grande ampleur pour répondre à la crise du logement. Près de 4600 logements sociaux vont ainsi être construits en quatre tranches successives de 1953 à 1970 : Beaulieu, la Marandinière, Montchovet, la Métare et la Palle formant aujourd’hui les quartiers sud-est. Touché par la crise économique et urbaine de dingue, le secteur sud-est apparaît à la fin des années 1990 comme un espace monofonctionnel dédié en totalité à l’habitat locatif social et porté par un seul bailleur l'OPAC devenu Métropole Habitat. Bien que bénéficiant de nombreux atouts (accessibilité et environnement agréable...), le quartier souffre du gigantisme de son urbanisation et du manque de résidentialisation des unités d’habitation. Par une action en profondeur et dans la durée, la Ville de Saint-Étienne, à travers son Programme de Rénovation Urbaine (PRU), a amorcé une transformation durable du quartier depuis 1989 avec la 1ere demolition du programme à la rue Pierre Loti le 31 janvier 1989 (BANLIEUE89), 30 ans de renouvellement urbain sur la ville.... une ville pilote en la matiere des 1990. Aujourd'hui et demain Les quartiers sud-est vont poursuivre leur mutation, avec l’appui continu de l’Agence Nationale de Rénovation Urbaine et ses partenaires l'ANRU2. Développer le secteur économiqueL'objectif est de dynamiser l’économie dans ce territoire en portant de nouveaux projets et en restructurant l’offre commerciale de proximité. La Ville de Saint-Étienne a prévu la création de nouvelles zones d’activités permettant l’accueil d’entreprises. Ainsi une zone d’activités économiques, rue Pierre Loti, répondra aux besoins fonciers des entreprises et des artisans locaux. Ce projet de zone économique, en visibilité directe de la RN 88, permettra l’implantation d’une cinquantaine d’entreprises et la création de 300 emplois. Un nouveau centre commercial sur le secteur de la Marandinière, couplé à la démolition des centres commerciaux de la Palle et Sembat, permettra de restructurer et moderniser l’offre commerciale de proximité. Renouveller l'offre d'habitat Une qualité résidentielle s’affirme progressivement au sein des quartiers Sud-Est, grâce à une nouvelle offre d’habitat variée qui émerge depuis plusieurs années. Les nombreuses démolitions réalisées et à venir (Boulevard des Mineurs en 2018 et immeubles Loti en 2020), ainsi que les réhabilitations d’immeubles en cours, vont permettre de diversifier l’offre de logements. L’un des objectifs du projet urbain est donc de conforter la vocation résidentielle du quartier en stimulant l’offre et en accompagnant des projets comme la construction de logements passifs sur le secteur de Beaulieu, la transformation de l’ancienne école Baptiste-Marcet et la réhabilitation de logements à Monchovet. Améliorer le cadre de vie des habitantsLes quartiers sud-est bénéficient d’un environnement naturellement riche et varié, à l’interface entre les grands parcs de la ville (jardin des Plantes, parc de l’Europe, Bois d’Avaize) et le Pilat. Le projet urbain de la Ville de Saint-Étienne prévoit de relier ces espaces naturels entre-eux avec la création d’une continuité verte, qui permettra aux marcheurs et autres randonneurs de bénéficier d’un véritable réseau de chemins autour de la commune. Le boulevard Alexandre-de-Fraissinette, véritable colonne vertébrale du quartier, et la rue Pierre-Loti seront entièrement revus pour assurer un meilleur partage de l’espace entre tous les modes de déplacements (voiture, vélo et piéton) et assurer un maillage inter-quartiers plus efficace. fr.calameo.com/read/0005441131b4119eaa674Depuis 2014, la rénovation urbaine dans les quartiers sud-est s’est traduite par de nombreux travaux: la construction du centre commercial de la Grande Marandinière, l’aménagement d’un lotissement de treize maisons individuelles passives, impasse Clémenceau, les rénovations des écoles de Montchovet et de Beaulieu, la réhabilitation de locaux rue Henri-Dunant (pour y installer la Maison des associations), et enfin les démolitions récentes du centre commercial du boulevard de la Palle et d’un garage, au 41 rue de Terrenoire.Démolitions mais aussi constructions sont au programme. Plusieurs acteurs entrent en jeu dans le financement de ces projets, notamment l’ANRU (Agence nationale de rénovation urbaine) mais aussi la Ville, le Département et la Région. Ainsi, le contrat avec l’ANRU, signé le 14 mars, dégage une somme de 23 millions d’euros, somme à laquelle il faut ajouter 3,3 millions d’euros de la Région. Pour les années à venir, les objectifs visent à la poursuite du développement économique, de la mutation de l’habitat par des constructions individuelles ou de petits immeubles, des démolitions ponctuelles, de la valorisation des espaces publics et du renforcement des espaces du quartier. Deux secteurs sont concernés : Loti et la Grande Marandinière. Le 11 AVRIL 1964, le développement de la ville de Saint Etienne, et ses travaux ..La ville de Saint Etienne se développe tout comme l'ensemble du territoire... Pour accompagner cet accroissement de population, de nouveaux quartiers se construisent aux abords de la ville chaque jours. Et pour faire face aux problèmes de circulation, un boulevard périphérique a été aménagé. Réalisé à l'occasion de la construction de la déviation sud de l'autoroute de Saint Etienne, ce reportage témoigne de la visite du sénateur maire de la ville, Mr. Michel DURAFOUR, sur le chantier du tunnel de la déviation. Accueilli par Mr. Rocher, président de la société forêzienne de travaux publics, Michel DURAFOUR découvre avec les membres du conseil municipal l'avancée des travaux. (voir aussi le chantier de l A 47 avec la video du tunnel du rond-point içi : www.ina.fr/video/LXC9610041788 . Ce quartier est né des programmes de grands ensembles mis en œuvre à partir des années 1950 afin de réduire la pénurie de logements. La mairie choisit donc de développer un quartier moderne 4 600 logements en HLM pour pouvoir loger plus de 30 000 habitants avec des loyers modérés dans des bâtiments modernes. Ce quartier avait comme emblème un des plus grands immeubles d’Europe surnommé la Muraille de Chine qui était visible depuis l’autoroute. Ce quartier s’est construit en quatre tranches : Beaulieu I (Beaulieu) de 1953 à 1955 ; Beaulieu II (La Marandinière) en 1959 ; Beaulieu III (Montchovet) en 1964 ; Beaulieu IV (La Palle) en 1971. Il est aujourd’hui en profonde mutation avec un programme de renouvellement urbain qui prévoit la démolition de plus 1000 logements et la reconstruction de 250. Bâtiments spécifiques : CHPL (Centre Hospitalier Privé de la Loire) qui remplace la Muraille de Chine ; Ecole Nationale d'ingénieurs de Saint-Etienne Un modèle de l'urbanisme des années 1950. Beaulieu-Montchovet: La ville choisit de construire un immense quartier neuf de plus de 4.600 logements, prévu pour loger 30.000 habitants, sur les basses pentes du Pilat, à la sortie sud-est de Saint-Etienne.Entre les forêts, qui seront classées parc naturel quelques années plus tard, et les quartiers chics du cours Fauriel, c'est un des endroits les mieux situés de la ville.C'est aussi le seul grand emplacement proche du centre où il n'y aie pas eu de mines, parce que les couches de charbon s'arrêtent juste avant : le terrain est assez solide pour supporter de gros immeubles. Içi le chantier de construction de MONTCHOVET soit Beaulieu 3, la continuitée des constructions HLM de nos quartiers sud-est (les chantiers de l'OPAC) , la vidéo içi :www.ina.fr/video/LXF99004401 .Retour sur son historique de 1962 à aujourd'hui e n 2018.Un grand-Ensemble qui rappelle combien la politique d'urbanisme des années 1960 et suivantes a été conduite en dépit du bon sens la video içi www.google.fr/search?q=montchovet+ina&oq=montchovet+i... et là www.ina.fr/video/CAC00029801 , mais aussi içi www.ina.fr/video/CAC00029801 - avec Claude BARTOLONE içi avec la Visite à Saint Etienne du ministre délégué à la ville le jour de la démolition de la muraille de Chine. Rencontre avec des associations pr discuter du futur du quartier Montchovet. www.ina.fr/video/LY00001263573 - fresques.ina.fr/rhone-alpes/fiche-media/Rhonal00046/demol... - et les differentes videos de la demolition la encore : La démolition de la "muraille de Chine" de Saint Etienne www.youtube.com/watch?v=aq1uOc6Gtd0, www.youtube.com/watch?v=YB3z_Z6DTdc terrible :( ^^ l interview de Michel Thiolliere Le Grisou.fr a interviewé Michel Thiollière, ancien maire de Saint-Etienne et sénateur de la Loire, membre du Parti radical et actuel vice-président de la Commission de régulation de l'énergie. Il livre son analyse sur les prochaines échéances politiques, notamment la campagne des municipales en cours à Saint-Etienne, les alliances de la droite et du centre, mais aussi le mandat de Maurice Vincent. Michel Thiollière s'attarde également sur les besoins de l'agglomération stéphanoise et évoque les enjeux énergétiques en France.(Interview : Maxime Petit -- Réalisation : Studios Bouquet) www.youtube.com/watch?v=AJAylpe8G48,"François Mitterrand, après la visite de deux quartiers -l'un à Saint Etienne et l'autre à Vénissieux, inscrits sur la liste de ceux à réhabiliter -, parle du plan de réhabilitation pour de meilleures conditions de logement.François Mitterrand / Georgina Dufoix / Gilbert Trigano / François Dubanchet / Marcel Houël Thèmes : Grands travaux et grands projetsLe Président > 1er septennat 1981-1988 > 1981-1986 ÉclairageDepuis la fin des années 1970, la région lyonnaise apparaît comme l'épicentre des violences urbaines qui se déroulent en France. Durant l'été 1981, des violences urbaines ont conduit le gouvernement à engager le plus tôt possible une nouvelle politique en faveur des quartiers dégradés. Malgré les premières opérations de réhabilitation engagées par la Commission nationale pour le développement social des quartiers, la situation demeure extrêmement tendue dans un certain nombres de quartiers populaires. L'assassinat d'un jeune de la Cité des 4 000 par un habitant en juillet 1983 a ravivé les débats autour du thème du "mal des grands ensembles" selon l'expression de l'époque. D'autre part, le contexte politique conduit également le pouvoir à s'intéresser encore davantage à la question de la dégradation urbaine dans la mesure où de très nombreux quartiers populaires n'ont pas cette fois-ci apporté leurs suffrages aux candidats de la gauche.La visite de François Mitterrand dans deux quartiers dégradés de la région lyonnaise constitue donc un signal fort à l'égard des populations qui y vivent. Ce déplacement fait également écho à celui réalisé quelques jours plus tôt au sein de la Cité des 4 000 à La Courneuve en Seine Saint Denis (voir Visite de François Mitterrand à La Courneuve). Le principe est d'ailleurs le même et il est exprimé par le président de la République : voir par lui-même l'état réel de ses quartiers. Le fait qu'il soit mentionné dans le reportage que "ces visites surprises" se soient faites dans la "plus grande discrétion" (notamment sans les élus locaux concernés) marque effectivement la volonté du président de la République d'établir une sorte de lien direct avec les habitants qui vivent dans ces quartiers. Il ne s'agit pas de faire l'annonce de nouvelles mesures mais "de voir les choses par moi-même" selon l'expression utilisée par François Mitterrand lors de son allocution à la Préfecture à Lyon. Au moment où la Commission nationale pour le développement social des quartiers établit la liste définitive des 22 quartiers qui bénéficieront d'un programme de réhabilitation, la visite du président de la République sur le terrain suggère une forme de "présidentialisation" du thème de la réhabilitation des grands ensembles.La création au même moment de Banlieue 89 suscitée par deux architectes proches de François Mitterrand, Roland Castro et Michel Cantal-Duparc, suggère également l'intérêt du président de la République pour les questions urbaines (voir Inauguration de l'exposition organisée par Banlieue 89)."http://fresques.ina.fr/mitterrand/fiche-media/Mitter00106/visite-de-francois-mitterrand-a-saint-etienne-et-aux-minguettes.html JournalisteVisites surprises qui se sont déroulées dans la plus grande discrétion, seule Madame Georgina Dufoix, Secrétaire d’Etat à la Famille et aux Immigrés, Monsieur Gilbert Trigano, le PDG du Club Méditerranée qui participe à la Commission Dubedout, et deux collaborateurs du Chef de l’État étaient présents. Ni à Saint-Étienne, ni à Vénissieux, les autorités locales n’y ont participés. Peu avant midi, le Président est arrivé à la Préfecture du Rhône à Lyon où s’est déroulée pendant 45 minutes une séance de travail avec les élus locaux et notamment Messieurs Dubanchet, Maire de Saint-Étienne et Houël, Maire de Vénissieux. Réunion qui a donné l’occasion d’aborder les problèmes de fond, devait souligner François Mitterrand.(Bruit)François MitterrandLes deux quartiers que je viens de visiter, celui de Montchovet à Saint-Étienne et celui de Monmousseau à l’intérieur des Minguettes sur la commune de Vénissieux, sont inscrits sur la liste des 22 quartiers à réhabiliter, retenus, proposés par la Commission Dubedout devenue la Commission Pesce, et retenus par le Gouvernement. Et je compte appliquer nos efforts pour qu’effectivement, ces quartiers soient réhabilités, c’est-à-dire, soient habitables. Qu’on y trouve, pour ceux qui y vivent, euh, suffisamment de convivialité, de capacité de développer une famille et, euh, revenant de son travail quand on en a, de pouvoir vivre avec les autres. Les conditions de logement, la construction de ces ensembles, les liaisons avec l’extérieur, l’école, le sport, les espaces verts, bref, l’espace tout court, contribuent, vous le comprenez bien à, au futur équilibre, ou contribueront au futur équilibre de ces quartiers. Alors, je préfère voir les choses par moi-même. Il faut bien se dire que à l’origine de nombreux désordres sociaux se trouvent ces fâcheuses, ces déplorables conditions de vie. Et moi, je veux lutter contre ces désordres et pour cela, il faut que je m’attaque avec le Gouvernement et ceux qui ont la charge auprès de moi, je veux absolument m’attaquer aux sources d’un malaise et d’un déséquilibre social qui sont d’une immense ampleur. Raison de plus pour commencer par un bout avec énergie et continuité. Et de ce point de vue, je compte bien, au cours des semaines et des mois à venir, persévérer dans cette enquête personnelle qui me permet ensuite de donner des instructions précises à ceux qui participent à la gestion de l’État., à Saint-Étienne comme dans les communes de sa proche banlieue. Une sorte de grand monument à la gloire des HLM, comme si on avait fait exprès de la faire aussi énorme pour montrer comme les gens étaient fiers de ce quartier. Autour on construit tout ce qu'il faut pour les habitants : une école, Montchovet, qui donne sur le grand pré derrière, une MJC, une piscine, un centre commercial, avec la Poste, plus tard le bureau de police. En 1978, comme les enfants des habitants grandissent, on ouvre un deuxième collège dans la ZUP. Il prendra le nom de Jean Dasté, qui a créé la Comédie de Saint-Etienne, le plus grand théatre de province en France, et son école de comédiens. Après 1984 les loyers des HLM ont augmenté, beaucoup d'habitants sont partis. La population de Saint-Etienne diminue surtout dans les quartiers sud : beaucoup de gens déménagent vers la plaine du Forez, moins froide, où il y a la place de batir des maisons. On a rénové beaucoup d'appartements anciens en ville : la crise du logement est finie. On ne sait même plus qu'elle a existé. Les ZUP ont vieilli et la plupart des gens préfèrent se loger dans des appartements récents. Alors on ferme : le collège de Beaulieu, l'école de la Marandinière, la Poste. La Muraille coute très cher à entretenir : il n'y a plus asssez d'habitants pour payer les frais. Les HLM ont décidé de la détruire: c'est le plus gros projet de démolition jamais réalisé en Europe. Les familles qui restaient ont du déménager. On va faire exploser la Muraille de Chine au printemps de l'an 2000. Peut être qu'il fallait le faire, mais pour les gens du quartier c'est un gros morceau de notre Histoire qu'on nous détruit.1954: les premiers travaux à Beaulieu : la campagne devient une ville à grands coups de bulldozer..Le projet est de construire en grande quantité des logements de bonne qualité, avec tout le confort, des chambres pour les enfants, l'eau, le chauffage central, des sanitaires, des arbres et des pelouses, et surtout .... des loyers accessibles pour tous. Ce seront les Habitations à Loyers Modérés, les HLM.Il faudra les construires en dehors des villes, pour en finir avec le mélange des industries et des logements, qui amène le bruit et la pollution. Y prévoir tous les équipements : commerces, écoles, collèges, lycées, transports, parcs, équipements sportifs, police, pompiers, Postes. Construire des villes entières où tout le monde aura accès à ce qui n'était encore que le luxe de quelques gens très riches.Cinq villes sont choisies pour être prioritaires : Paris ( Pantin ) et Lyon ( Bron-Parilly) à cause de leur taille, Angers et Rouen détruites dans les bombardements de 1944, Saint-Etienne, la ville la plus sinistrée de France pour le logement. C'est là que naissent les cinq premières Zone à Urbaniser en Priorité, les ZUP, modèles de l'urbanisme pour toute une génération. Elles ne s'appellent pas encore comme ça : on les construites avant que l'expression de ZUP existe, c'est de leur réussite que naitra le modèle repris partout pour lequel on inventera le mot plus tard.Beaulieu I: le projet d'urbanismeMaquette de 1953 - Projet des architectes Gouyon-ClémentUne architecture géométrique, de grands espaces, des arbres, des formes qui soulignent le relief.La ZUP de Beaulieu est construite en quatre tranches:- Beaulieu I ( Beaulieu ) de 1953 à 1955- Beaulieu II ( La Marandinière ) en 1959- Beaulieu III ( Montchovet ) en 1964, dont fait partie la Muraille de Chine, le grand immeuble le long du boulevard à gauche.- Beaulieu IV ( La Palle ) en 1971Le quartier:Au premier plan, en bas à droite Beaulieu, la Marandinière est à droite derrière l'autoroute, Montplaisir à gauche, Monchovet au milieu, le long du boulevard de la Palle.A gauche des tennis, les batiments du collège de Beaulieu. C'était l'autre collège de la ZEP, le seul collège "sensible" de France a avoir été fermé, en 1995.Nouvelles techniques, nouveaux matériaux :Construire vite pour un prix raisonnable oblige à inventer de nouvelles techniques, d'autant que l'on manque de travailleurs qualifiés.La construction s'industrialise: immeubles à structure porteuse ( des poteaux en béton armé tiennent les dalles, ce ne sont plus les murs qui soutiennent les immeubles ), murs rideaux ( les murs sont fait de morceaux préfabriqués accrochés aux dalles ), éléments standardisés ( les éléments: murs, tuyauterie, portes et fenêtres, sanitaires, etc... sont tous identiques, fabriqués en usine en grande série, installés de la même façon dans tous les immeubles ), nouveaux matériaux ( matières plastiques, béton armé, acier ) qui ne s'utilisaient pas dans la construction traditionnelle.Cela permet de diminuer les prix, en automatisant les fabrications, mais aussi parce qu'on peut utiliser des ouvriers beaucoup moins qualifiés, qui ne font que du montage et que l'on paye moins cher.Bien après les gens se plaindront de ces appartements tous identiques, de ces matériaux peu agréables, de la taille inhumaine des batiments.Mais à l'époque il faut compter deux à trois ans d'attente pour obtenir un appartement dans le quartier. Les familles sont si contentes de leur quartier tout neuf que les collègiens qui prennent le bus emportent une paire de bottes en plus de leur chaussures pour aller des immeubles à l'arrêt de bus : pas question de ramener de la boue dans les bus ou dans les escaliers.La crise du logement:1950 : la France connait la pire crise du logement de son Histoire. La crise économique de 1929 puis la guerre de 1939-1945 ont arrêté la construction de logements, déja insuffisante avant 1930, pendant plus de vingt ans.La France est au maximum du "baby-boom" ( période de très forte natalité qui commence à la fin de la guerre ) : les 40 millions de français de 1950 font deux fois plus de bébés que les 60 millions d'aujourd'hui. La très forte croissance économique relance l'immigration. Plus de la moitié des familles sont mal logées alors que la France commence la plus forte croissance démographique de son Histoire.La IV° République, héritière du programme de la Résistance donne la priorité aux besoins sociaux : école, santé, logement, sur la rentabilité financière. L'Etat, les villes, sont décidés à investir dans le logement, qui est déclaré prioritaire dans le Plan d'organisation de l'économie.Entre les années 50 et 60, et suite à la seconde guerre mondiale, la municipalité stéphanoise a vu sa population passée d’un peu moins de 180 000 habitants en 1950 à plus de 200 000 habitants dix ans plus tard en 1960. Cette forte augmentation de la population pouvait s’expliquer par le fort taux de natalité de cette époque (baby-boom), mais aussi par l’afflux de travailleurs de la classe ouvrière venus dans la grande cité stéphanoise pour trouver un travail. De ce fait, la construction d’un logement sain pour chaque ouvrier était devenue une priorité absolue pour les élus qui considéraient à raison que cela était une condition vitale dans le cadre de ce grand développement. Pour ce faire, la ville a lancé dans les années 50 une vaste opération de construction de barres d’habitation dans la zone de Beaulieu, destinée à fournir un logement à une population grandissante.Une barre d’habitation innovanteA l’époque, avec une majorité d’architectes, les appartements modernes construits possédaient des cloisons lourdes empêchant toute modification interne ainsi que des espaces de renvoi sombres et non ventilés ressemblant à des alcôves.Mais à l’inverse, pour certains architectes précurseurs de la région à l’image d’Yves et Henri Gouyon, la modernité reflétait le gout de la clarté, de l’air, et du soleil, avec de larges horizons. Ainsi, ces derniers donnaient la priorité non pas aux façades qu’ils considéraient comme de simples élévations du plan, mais aux cellules d’habitations et à leur orientation. Dans cette optique, le bâtiment proposé par Henri Gouyon, qui était donc un partisan de l’espace ouvert moderne, supprimait les circulations et profitait de ce gain de place pour aménager de nouveaux espaces de vie communes. De plus, dans ces cellules d’habitations, les architectes ont tirés profit au maximum de la double orientation des appartements (ces derniers étaient traversant) avec par exemple l’accolement de balcons.Conception et réalisation d’un quartier entierPour le projet de Beaulieu, l’on confia la conception ainsi que la réalisation des interventions aux agences Henri et Yves Gouyon puis Yves Gouyon et associés. Ainsi, dés le milieu des années 50, des études concernant Beaulieu II – La Marandinière furent conduites, suivis de la construction du bâtiment entre 1957 et 1959. S’en suivit Beaulieu III – Montchovet entre 1962 et 1964, surnommé la « Muraille de Chine », qui comprenait entre autres, une barre de type HLM haute de 10 à 17 mètres et longue de 270 mètres, avec 560 logements. Suites à ces constructions, l’urbanisation des vallées et collines du sud-est de Saint-Etienne continua jusque dans les années 70 avec les séries de la Métare I, II, et III. Au total, ce sont plus de 8 000 logements, pour l’essentiel de type HLM, qui ont été construits durant cette période.Ces constructions ont également contribué à la création du parc de l’Europe et d’un boulevard circulaire qui servait de jonction entre les différents édifices et le centre-ville de la cité stéphanoise.Un projet pharaoniqueLe centre commercial fut un projet d’une dimension sans précédent pour la ville, plus grand centre commercial intra-urbain de la région Loire-Auvergne, avec 100 magasins, 1500 places de stationnement, 90 000 m² de surface, et sur 3 niveaux (4 niveaux avec la terrasse). Le 2 octobre 1979, CENTRE DEUX ouvre ses portes pour la première fois, et constitue une renaissance et un véritable tournant pour la ville.L’avis de l’architecteDe toutes les constructions de cette époque, Beaulieu est un des ensembles construits qui se porte le mieux si l’on en croit les nombreuses enquêtes menées auprès de la population de ces logements, dont certains l’occupe pratiquement depuis le début. Les arbres atteignent désormais le haut des immeubles, et la rue Le Corbusier adjacente a pris les allures « d’une banlieue des années 30 » avec un niveau d’urbanisme parfaitement acceptable. En conclusion, on peut parler pour cette construction d’un véritable savoir faire architectural et en quelques sortes d’art urbain. Ce projet a été récompensé par un prix d’urbanisme, mettant en valeur le travail en amont du projet. St-Etienne Cimaise Architectes -Entretien avec François Tomas, géographe, spécialiste de l'aménagement urbain, et enseignant à l'université et à l'école d'architecture de Saint-Etienne. Il est notamment l'auteur des Grands Ensembles, une histoire qui continue (Publications de l'université de Saint-Etienne, 2003). Cet intellectuel a également mis la main à la pâte. Entre 1977 et 1983, il fut adjoint à l'urbanisme du maire communiste de l'époque, Joseph Sanguedolce. Engagé au PC de 1974 à 1985, il a, depuis, rejoint le Parti socialiste «comme militant de base»Quelle est l'ampleur des destructions provoquées par la Seconde Guerre mondiale à Saint-Etienne?La ville subit un important bombardement des Alliés le 26 mai 1944. Celui-ci vise les usines qu'utilisaient les Allemands dans la région pour leur effort de guerre et les noeuds de communication ferroviaire. Comme prévu, la gare de Châteaucreux, les usines de Marais et le tunnel de Tardy sont touchés. Mais les bombes, larguées trop rapidement, atteignent aussi les quartiers du Soleil et de Tardy - notamment les écoles - ainsi que l'église Saint-François, emplie de fidèles. Au total, le bilan est lourd: un millier de morts, 1 500 blessés, 22 000 sinistrés; 800 immeubles ont été plus ou moins détruits.Que prévoit-on pour la reconstruction?Pas grand-chose. A la différence de la refonte spectaculaire du Havre, par exemple, on se contente ici de bâtir de petits immeubles, plus modernes bien sûr, mais sans réelle innovation architecturale ou urbanistique.Est-il vrai que Saint-Etienne, après guerre, traîne une réputation de «capitale des taudis»?C'est exact, et celle-ci n'est pas usurpée. En 1946, 7% seulement des logements sont jugés «confortables», et 17%, «acceptables»; 56% sont médiocres, et 20% peuvent véritablement être qualifiés de taudis: 1 logement sur 5 n'a pas d'eau à l'évier, les deux tiers ne disposent pas de WC, et 95%, de salle d'eau. Mais le problème n'a pas été créé par la guerre. Depuis la fin du XIXe siècle, Saint-Etienne a beaucoup grandi, mais très peu construit. Résultat: la ville a vieilli sur elle-même et se trouve après guerre dans une situation désastreuse, que les bombardements ont simplement aggravée.C'est alors qu'Alexandre de Fraissinette, maire élu en 1947, fixe le logement comme l'une de ses priorités.Oui. Et ce ne sera pas un vain mot. Rendez-vous compte: on passe de 114 logements construits en 1948 à 531 en 1951, 1 085 en 1954, 1 694 en 1957 et même 2 932 en 1959! L'effort est gigantesque. Mais le changement est aussi qualitatif. A la fin des années 1940 et au début des années 1950, la France va connaître une rupture architecturale avec l'apparition des premiers grands ensembles. Saint-Etienne sera l'une des villes symboles de cette rupture.Comment cette nouvelle architecture est-elle accueillie?Très favorablement par les classes moyennes, beaucoup moins par les classes populaires.Cela paraît paradoxal, pour du logement social!Le paradoxe n'est qu'apparent. On l'a oublié aujourd'hui, mais les premiers grands ensembles sont réservés aux familles de moins de trois enfants ayant des revenus corrects, autrement dit aux classes moyennes. Alors que, depuis la guerre, celles-ci devaient se contenter d'une ou de deux pièces mal équipées, elles se voient soudain proposer des logements spacieux, avec de la verdure, de la lumière, une salle d'eau, des WC, le chauffage central. Cela leur paraît merveilleux! Les pauvres, eux, continuent de s'entasser dans de petits appartements sans confort, quand ce ne sont pas des taudis, en particulier à Tarentaize et à Beaubrun, ou des bidonvilles, du côté de Méons, près des puits de mine et des usines sidérurgiques. Ce n'est que plus tard, à partir des années 1970, que les grands ensembles seront prioritairement réservés aux pauvres et aux familles immigrées. Mais, dans les années 1950, les grands ensembles sont encore synonymes de progrès social. Et même au-delà. On est persuadé que ce nouvel habitat va entraîner le recul de la maladie, de la délinquance, voire de la mésentente entre les époux! Il existe ainsi une «commission du bonheur ou des grands ensembles»!On croit rêver...C'était l'ambiance de l'époque, avec ses utopies et ses excès. Pour les architectes, si l'un des repoussoirs est le taudis de centre-ville, l'autre est le petit pavillon de banlieue, symbole à leurs yeux de l'individualisme petit-bourgeois, avec ses gaspillages de terrain, son absence d'horizon et son coût pour la communauté...Quels sont les quartiers typiques de cette période, à Saint-Etienne?Le premier est constitué par le très bel ensemble de la place du Maréchal-Foch. Il s'agit d'une étape intermédiaire entre l'îlot traditionnel (des immeubles accolés, formant un pâté de maisons) et sa suppression totale. Du côté de la Grand-Rue, plusieurs immeubles constituent encore des semi-îlots. Mais, à l'ouest, deux immeubles sont déjà totalement indépendants: ils sont construits au milieu de la verdure. Et cela, c'est très nouveau. Jusqu'à présent, tous les immeubles érigés à Saint-Etienne, y compris les plus hauts, étaient accolés à d'autres édifices. Cela reste encore, cinquante ans plus tard, l'un des quartiers chics de Saint-Etienne.L'autre grande opération de l'époque, c'est Beaulieu I.Evidemment. On est, cette fois, face à un grand ensemble «pur». Le chantier commence en 1953 - il y a juste cinquante ans - et s'achève en 1955. Ce nouveau quartier de 1 264 logements est remarquablement conçu. Non seulement il respecte la topographie des lieux, mais aussi il joue avec elle: les bâtiments sont implantés soit parallèlement, soit perpendiculairement aux courbes de niveau, ce qui met en valeur la colline tout en préservant son sommet. Pour rompre l'anonymat, les entrées, les façades et les balcons sont individualisés. Les logements sont de qualité, et les espaces verts, confiés aux services de la ville, tout simplement magnifiques. Beaulieu produit d'ailleurs un effet prodigieux sur ses premiers habitants.Son implantation n'est pas non plus le fait du hasard...En effet. Compte tenu des préoccupations hygiénistes de l'époque, le conseil municipal a choisi ce site «loin des zones minières et industrielles, à l'abri des poussières et des fumées, au climat salubre». Il souligne qu'il ne sera «jamais exploité par les houillères, car son sous-sol est stérile» et qu'il est également «bien relié à Saint-Etienne par le cours Fauriel, la seule avenue large de la ville». C'est véritablement le contre-modèle du taudis. Il a d'ailleurs, lui également, remarquablement bien vieilli.Etes-vous aussi enthousiaste pour les projets qui ont suivi Beaulieu I?Hélas!... Beaulieu II-La Marandinière (1957-1959), Beaulieu III-Montchovet (1962-1964), avec la fameuse «muraille de Chine», Beaulieu IV-la Palle (1967-1970) et la Métare (1962-1974), représentant à eux tous quelque 6 000 logements, constituent - à l'exception de la Métare, qui ne comprend que des appartements en copropriété - des échecs complets. Et tragiques.Pourquoi cette différence?Beaulieu I a bénéficié d'une accumulation de partis pris judicieux qui n'ont pas été appliqués par la suite. Outre la qualité de son architecture et de ses espaces verts, on a évité le zonage bête et méchant, qui allait s'imposer plus tard: les zones commerciales, d'un côté; les tours et les barres d'habitation, d'un deuxième; les emplois, d'un troisième. Enfin, Beaulieu I, réservé presque exclusivement aux classes moyennes, n'a pas connu le processus de dégradation que l'on constatera ailleurs, et dont la destruction de la «muraille de Chine» constituera le symbole.Qui ont été les grands aménageurs de cette époque?Parmi les politiques: le maire, Alexandre de Fraissinette (modéré), et son premier adjoint, qui lui succédera à sa mort, le radical Michel Durafour. Parmi les architectes: Edouard Hur et Henri Gouyon, concepteurs de Beaulieu I. Et, bien sûr, l'Etat, qui reste très présent. C'est lui qui, de manière générale, garde la haute main sur l'urbanisme. Beaulieu constitue une opération nationale, décidée de Paris. Cependant, ce qui est remarquable, c'est que, pour Beaulieu I, l'Etat va accepter de composer.Dans quels domaines?Le ministère de la Reconstruction souhaitait, ici comme ailleurs, que l'opération fût entièrement industrialisée. Autrement dit, que l'on adaptât au bâtiment les méthodes de l'automobile. Les constructions devaient se faire en préfabriqué, et l'on devait se contenter de les monter sur place. Mais, à Saint-Etienne, les architectes, soutenus par le maire, s'opposent à cette directive. Parce qu'ils sont expérimentés, et reconnus, ils vont obtenir gain de cause. Et heureusement.Y a-t-il eu des projets, conçus à cette époque, qui n'ont pas vu le jour? A la fin des années 1950, l'Etat fait appel à de grands architectes pour remodeler les villes. A Saint-Etienne, c'est Dufau, distingué par le prix de Rome, qui est choisi. Il présente un projet radical: raser les 70 îlots qui se trouvent à l'est de la Grand-Rue, entre la place du Peuple et Bellevue, et les remplacer par autant de tours et de barres! Son projet, finalement, ne sera appliqué qu'en partie. Au sud, jusqu'à Bellevue, presque tout est démoli, beaucoup de tours et de barres sont construites. Au nord, les démolitions sont également presque systématiques, mais, cette fois, les nouveaux immeubles reproduisent la forme traditionnelle de l'îlot. On détruit également une partie du quartier derrière la grande poste, ainsi que l'ancienne caserne de Tréfilerie et la prison de Bizillon. Le futur Centre-Deux...C'est cela. Au départ, l'opération se nomme «prison-Tréfilerie», mais les promoteurs, qui ont le sens du commerce, préfèrent la rebaptiser. Ce quartier est conçu comme un centre d'affaires à l'américaine, type la Défense, à Paris, ou la Part-Dieu, à Lyon. On explique aux élus que, s'ils veulent que Saint-Etienne devienne une grande ville, ils doivent la doter d'un centre d'affaires, avec des immeubles atteignant 100 ou 150 mètres de hauteur, comme aux Etats-Unis! Le projet est lancé (en 1969), mais il sera peu à peu amendé, pour tenir compte de la réalité économique, de la montée des oppositions et de l'évolution des mentalités.Comment l'économie stéphanoise se porte-t-elle alors?La ville croit encore à l'avenir de la mine et des industries traditionnelles. Cela se comprend: le plan Monnet pour la relance de l'économie française s'appuie sur l'énergie, les transports, les industries lourdes... Bref, tous les points forts de Saint-Etienne, mais ce sera un cadeau empoisonné, car, bercée par cette illusion, la cité s'endort. Quand elle se décidera à moderniser ses structures industrielles, ce sera toujours avec quelques années de retard. Au fond, c'est dans les années 1950 que l'on commet les erreurs qui conduiront, plus tard, au démantèlement des industries locales.Le secteur tertiaire a-t-il déjà commencé son essor?Pas encore. Dans les années 1950, Saint-Etienne reste une ville très fortement industrielle. La tertiarisation, avec l'enseignement supérieur, la transformation de l'hôpital en centre hospitalier régional et universitaire et l'essor de Casino, avec les supermarchés et les hypermarchés, ne commencera véritablement que dans les années 1960.Culturellement, la ville est aussi très active...Elle est même, à ce moment-là, l'un des hauts lieux de la création culturelle en France, notamment dans les domaines théâtral et artistique. Maurice Allemand fait du musée de Saint-Etienne l'un des plus grands musées d'art moderne en France. Et Jean Dasté propose au public le théâtre moderne. Ce bouillonnement est dû, notamment, à Alexandre de Fraissinette. Comme, après lui, Michel Durafour, il est persuadé que l'avenir de la cité est dans la modernité. Il considère donc qu'elle doit être déclinée dans tous ses aspects: économique, urbanistique et culturel.La population comprend-elle cette volonté?Oui et non. Dans les années 1950, il existe un certain consensus, car tout le monde partage la vision d'un avenir meilleur. Mais, en réalité, Fraissinette, et surtout Durafour, sont très décalés. Dans leur obsession d'une ville «blanche», ils refusent en bloc le passé, dont on a heureusement découvert depuis lors les richesses. Ils rêvent d'une ville qui n'existe pas, peuplée d'habitants qui ne ressemblent pas aux Stéphanois réels... C'est d'ailleurs ce qui, plus tard, provoquera la chute de Michel Durafour.Le chantier de l'autoroute de Saint Etienne 01 nov. 1965, la video içi www.ina.fr/video/LXC9610041788 - ST-Etienne,Montchovet (Beaulieu III) "la Muraille de Chine" construction 1962-1964, architecte HUR/FARRAT/GOUYON.Rappelez vous...Aout 1983, François Mitterand, se déplace incognito à la Muraille de Chine à Saint-Etienne. Quelques mois plus tard, la grande réhabilitation de cette barre d’habitation sera lancée.& le 24 octobre 1987 : visite officielle à Saint-Etienne. Il retourne à La Muraille de Chine pour constater les travaux. Le même jour il se rendra à Saint-Chamond et Roanne.« En 1983, le président s’est rendu à Montchovet à l’improviste »François Mitterrand est venu une première à Montchovet en 1983 incognito. Pourquoi une telle démarche ?C’est l’architecte Roland Castro qui a convaincu le président d’aller dans des quartiers populaires. Son but était de lui montrer où vivaient les gens à cette époque et qu’il fallait entreprendre un programme de rénovation.François Mitterrand m’a appelé et m’a dit d’organiser trois ou quatre » descentes » sur le terrain mais le président ne voulait ni policiers, ni gendarmes. Il m’a simplement demandé d’avertir, par correction, le préfet une fois arrivé. C’était d’ailleurs le meilleur gage de sécurité car lorsque vous n’êtes pas attendu, il n’y a pas de risques. Nous sommes donc allés à Saint-Etienne à Montchovet, aux Minguettes à Lyon, dans le 93.. et, à chaque fois, à l’improviste> Quelle a été la réaction des habitants ?Ils étaient très étonnés de croiser le président de la République dans leur cage d’escaliers ! Partout, nous avons reçu un accueil très chaleureux.Nous étions quatre : le président, Roland Castro, un policier et moi-même. Je me souviens qu’aux Minguettes, le président a été invité par une famille pour boire le thé. Les habitants étaient très heureux que le président s’intéresse à eux.> Comment François Mitterrand a-t-il réagi en voyant la vie de ses quartiers ?Il était fasciné. Je n’irais pas jusqu’à dire que c’était, pour lui, une découverte mais il était un rural et le fait de se confronter à la vie de ces gens qui vivaient dans de grandes barres fut enrichissant.> Ces visites impromptues ont-elles été suivies d’effets ?Oui car la mission Banlieues 89 est née de ces visites de terrain. Ce fut d’ailleurs la naissance de la politique de la ville.> En 1987, cette fois, la visite fut officielle - Proposer de nouveaux logements dans une démarche environnementale forte. Dans la poursuite des opérations engagées depuis 2001 (démolition de la Muraille de Chine en 2000, implantation du CHPL, de l ’AIMV en 2005), une qualité résidentielle s'affirme progressivement au sein des quartiers Sud-Est, grâce à une nouvelle offre d'habitat variée (en forme comme en type de produits). Le dynamisme du quartier s'appuie sur l'accueil et le développement de services, d'activités économiques et d'équipements d'agglomération (centre nautique, Nouveau Théâtre de Beaulieu...) et de proximité (salles de sport, travaux dans les écoles). Les atouts paysagers du site sont pleinement exploités dans une démarche environnementale forte. L'aménagement des espaces libres et la requalification des axes structurants et de desserte renforcent les liaisons internes aux quartiers et les ouvrent sur l'ensemble de la ville. Beaulieu, un patrimoine de qualité, valorisé et adapté à ses occupants40 logement ont été adaptés au vieillissement de leur occupants (bacs à douche, volets électriques, aménagement des ascenseurs, …). L'amélioration des espaces extérieurs, résidentiels ou publics (rue K.Marx, square Renoir, allée Clémenceau) viendra rendre plus conviviaux ces lieux de vie partagés. Petite Marandinière : une cité jardin qui se rénove en gardant son caractère Sur la Petite Marandinière, 320 logements de Métropole Habitat ont été rénovés. Les bâtiments ont été transformés pour arriver à 32 logements, avec création de T3, T4, et T5 en tenant compte de la rénovation thermique et du confort des logements. 54 logements ont été construits, répartis en 6 bâtiments à l'architecture contemporaine et fonctionnelle (surfaces généreuses, double ou triple orientation, terrasse ou loggia). En parallèle, les espaces publics ont été réaménagés dans une démarche environnementale durable et innovante : résidentialisation et embellissement des espaces extérieurs, traitement paysager d'ensemble, requalification des voiries et des circulations douces adaptées aux usages, gestion optimisée du stationnement et des eaux pluviales...Une nouvelle mixité pour le quartier : les maisons de ville "Jardins Sembat" 22 maisons de ville (du T3 au T5) ont été construites à l’angle de la rue Marcel Sembat et du boulevard de Fraissinette. Conçu et développé par l'équipe XXL-Civita-Spirit, ce projet se caractérise par la qualité de la construction (matériaux durables, aménagement soigné des espaces extérieurs…) et par la mise en valeur paysagère du site, ouvert sur les collines du Pilat. 3 types de maisons ont été proposées en location libre : maisons jumelées le long du boulevard de Fraissinette, maisons en pente en fond de parcelle adossée au talus, maisons patio au cœur de l’îlot. Un nouveau centre nautique sur le secteur Loti Souhaité par les habitants, exemplaire d’une démarche participative de coproduction, le centre nautique Yves Naime a été ouvert à l'été 2013, en remplacement de l'ancienne piscine de la Marandinière. Ce centre nautique comprend un bassin sportif (25m, 6 lignes d'eau), un bassin destiné aux activités ludiques (bains bouillonnants, aquagym...), une pataugoire et des plages extérieures.Grande Marandinière : un secteur d'habitat en développement . Après la démolition de la barre Sisley et celle en cours de la barre Féguide, c'est un nouveau quartier qui se dessine sur ce secteur. La reconfiguration de la rue Sisley en voie de promenade avec des vues en belvédère et l'aménagement d'une « coulée verte » ont profondément modifié le paysage urbain du secteur. Ce nouvel environnement a permis à Métropole Habitat de réaliser un programme immobilier de 27 logements locatifs. Dans ce bâtiment collectif moderne et fonctionnel, chaque logement comporte un espace extérieur privatif, balcon ou terrasse. Au rez-de-chaussée, des locaux d'activités (centre social espace-loisirs) ou de services sont déployés le long de la nouvelle rue Sisley. La Palle : des résidentialisations de qualitéLa résidentialisation des immeubles du boulevard de la Palle apporte aux habitants de nouvelles terrasses privatives en rez-de-chaussée, des espaces en cœur d’îlots plus agréables, et de nouveaux parcours piétonniers avec aires de jeux. Elle s’accompagne de la réhabilitation des immeubles (réfection des façades, changement des garde-corps…). Des opérations de résidentialisation ont été menées immeuble par immeuble de 2006 à 2009. Elles permettent de définir les limites entre les parties publiques ouvertes à tous, et les parties privées. Des petits jardins privatifs sont ainsi aménagés pour chaque logement de rez-de-chaussée.Le Pont Aven : du logement social à haute performance environnementaleDéveloppé par Métropole Habitat, le Pont-Aven est un exemple en matière de construction écologique. Il accueille 20 logements sociaux du T2 au T5. L’ensemble de la conception du bâtiment intègre des critères environnementaux : parois extérieures en brique mono-mur, eau chaude solaire, chauffage collectif au gaz naturel, ventilation intérieure à double flux pour une meilleure circulation de l’air, équipements électriques et sanitaires économes en énergie. La toiture végétalisée permet quant à elle une meilleure conservation de la fraîcheur en été, les auvents du toit protègent les fenêtres du soleil et les eaux de pluie seront récupérées pour arroser les espaces extérieurs…Résultat : une diminution des rejets en CO2 et une baisse significative des charges de chauffage pour les locataires.Favoriser l'accessibilité et les relations inter-quartiers Le réaménagement du boulevard de la Palle a favorisé une meilleure desserte du quartier en transports en commun. Une station de taxis, des pistes cyclables et des pelouses ont été aménagées le long du boulevard, sécurisant ainsi la traversée piétonne entre les terrasses Roinat et le centre hospitalier. A l'intérieur du quartier, la trame piétonnière a été développée dans le principe d'une continuité paysagère entre les différents secteurs. Initiée avec l’aménagement des terrasses Roinat, une coulée verte, nouveau poumon vert du quartier, facilitant la circulation des piétons et des cyclistes, relie désormais le boulevard de la Palle, et plus loin le bois d'Avaize, au Parc de l'Europe. - Après la seconde guerre mondiale, un immense chantier s'ouvre en France dans le but de loger massivement une population démunie, les réalisations des HLM en France et la lutte contre l'habitat indigne insalubre , le film parle de St-Etienne entre autre avec les Cités du soleil 1958 de Jean-Claude Sée : www.dailymotion.com/video/xgj74q .Jusqu'au milieu des années 1970, cette période dite des « Trente Glorieuses l'après guerre et montre la plupart des grandes réalisations de 1945 à 1960. A travers les exemples de la région parisienne et de quelques grandes villes françaises sont posé les problèmes de la diversité architecturale, de l'esthétique et de l'harmonie entre le passé et l'avenir. Les images montrent les grands ensembles de Beaulieu, la Marandiniére, à Saint-Etienne, la cité le Haut du Lièvre à Nancy, des cités à Sarcelles, Asnières, Bron-Parilly, Epinay, Pantin, Bobigny, la cité radieuse de Le Corbusier à Marseille, le front de mer à Royan, la video de l'Année 1962, une réalisation de Philippe Brunet içi www.dailymotion.com/video/xgj2zz » fut le terrain de nombreuses expérimentations architecturales et urbanistiques, fondées notamment sur les idées émises plus tôt dans le siècle par le Mouvement moderne.Aujourd'hui, ces ensembles bâtis sont au cœur d'une autre actualité, liée à leur adaptation à l'évolution des modes de vie de notre société contemporaine. Cette question qui se posa dès la fin des années 1970 apparaît sous un jour nouveau, avec les premières démolitions dans les années 1980 et, plus récemment, le vaste programme de réhabilitation mis en place dans le cadre de la loi Solidarité et Renouvellement Urbain.Après Les Grands Ensembles. Une histoire qui continue…, ce nouvel ouvrage, fruit de la collaboration entre l'École Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Saint-Étienne et l'Université Jean Monnet, apporte un éclairage nouveau sur cet héritage bâti, mettant au jour simultanément la question de son vécu et celle des acteurs engagés dans son édification. En réunissant quinze auteurs spécialistes de ce domaine, il s'agit de regrouper autant de points de vue, pour comprendre la diversité et la complexité des enjeux liés à la postérité de ce bâti. - « Petite enquête sur Beaulieu – Le Rond-Point », La Tribune du centre et du sud-est, 13 octobre 1955 et « Le chantier de Beaulieu – Le Rond-Point (1ère tranche) sera terminé le 30 juin 1956 très exactement »,La Tribune du centre & du sud-est, 26 juin 1956 -«St-Etienne, la place des grands ensembles dans l’histoire de l’habitat social français »Saint-Étienne/Beaulieu, au sud-est de l’agglomération, sur le versant sud de la colline de Beaulieu, en forte pente et d’aspect semi-rural, la cité de Beaulieu est mise à l’étude dès 1950. Elle débute en 1953 et comprend 1 221 logements, un groupe scolaire et 35 boutiques. Des parrains prestigieux et l’élite de l’architecture sté- phanoise sont mobilisés pour ce premier grand ensemble local.Tantôt les bâtiments suivent le dessin de la courbe de niveau 600, devenue rue Le Corbusier, tantôt ils s’installent perpendi-culairement à la pente, reliés à la rue par des passerelles ou de grands escaliers. A l’implantation exemplaire des bâtiments répond une maîtrise raffinée du végétal d’accompagnement, décliné selon les modes habituels aux squares urbains, avec une virtuosité étonnante dus aux talents de l’ingénieur des Services techniques de la ville, Jean Marc, associé à l’équipe de concep-tion dès l’origine de l’opération.Le vocabulaire de l’art des jardins s’adapte au grand ensemble : les espaces sont découpés à partir des courbes de niveau et des allées, et caractérisés par un système de haies et de contre-haies (haies étagées doubles ou triples) constituées de troènes com-muns ou dorés, prunus, berbéris et buffets de laurier, et sont plantés d arbres rythmés et colorés (érables négundo et acacias), ou parfois fastigiés (la gamme d’arbres est d’ailleurs peu riche), selon un dessin géométrique et des alternances de couleurs. Ces espaces verts ne sont réalisés qu’à partir de 1964, après avoir été longtemps laissés en prairies fauchées. Cet état de fait, dû au départ à l’étirement des financements des projets d’espaces exté-rieurs, s’inscrivait aussi dans la logique de conception de notre ingénieur, qui pensait « qu’il était nécessaire de laisser vivre un groupe d’habitations avant de planter » – afin de reprendre notamment les chemins tracés par l’usage.Cette réalisation révèle le décalage entre les réflexions et les savoir-faire architecturaux et paysagers et exprime quelques traits caractéristiques de la pratique paysagiste. Le festonnage des haies qui jalonne les espaces extérieurs rejoint celui des collines boca- gères surplombant les bâtiments. Il rappelle le site environnant et inspirera plus tard l’AUA et Alexandre Chemetoff pour la réhabilitation du quartier de Montreynaud.Relevons que, sans l’action concertée des services de la ville et de l’office d’HLM, qui finança entièrement la réalisation des espaces verts, rien n’aurait été fait à cette époque, compte tenu du désintérêt pour cet aspect du projet des principaux responsables du chantier. « D’ailleurs, à cette époque, les architectes ne jouaient pas au paysagiste… », queleques superbes videos du Ministere de la Cohésion et des Territoires içi : .Naissance d'une banlieue mort d'un village 2000 www.dailymotion.com/video/x1a98izRéalisateur : Sidney Jézéquel Production : Les Films Roger Leenhardt Sujet : la commune de Goussainville (95) --------Quatre murs et un toit 1953 www.dailymotion.com/video/xk6xui Scenario et réalisation Pierre Jallaud MRU (ministère de la reconstruction et de l'urbanisme) ----------------Le Bonheur est dans le béton www.dailymotion.com/video/x413amo - 2015 Documentaire réalisé par Lorenz Findeisen produit par Les Films du Tambour de Soie ---------------------Beaulieu par son constructeur la Cimaise :" Entre les années 50 et 60, et suite à la seconde guerre mondiale, la municipalité stéphanoise a vu sa population passée d’un peu moins de 180 000 habitants en 1950 à plus de 200 000 habitants dix ans plus tard en 1960. Cette forte augmentation de la population pouvait s’expliquer par le fort taux de natalité de cette époque (baby-boom), mais aussi par l’afflux de travailleurs de la classe ouvrière venus dans la grande cité stéphanoise pour trouver un travail. De ce fait, la construction d’un logement sain pour chaque ouvrier était devenue une priorité absolue pour les élus qui considéraient à raison que cela était une condition vitale dans le cadre de ce grand développement. Pour ce faire, la ville a lancé dans les années 50 une vaste opération de construction de barres d’habitation dans la zone de Beaulieu, destinée à fournir un logement à une population grandissante.--- Bâtir mieux plus vite et moins cher 1975 l'industrialisation du bâtiment et ses innovations : la préfabrication en usine, le coffrage glissant... www.dailymotion.com/video/xyjudq ----SAINT-ETIENNE BEAULIEU une barre d’habitation innovanteA l’époque, avec une majorité d’architectes, les appartements modernes construits possédaient des cloisons lourdes empêchant toute modification interne ainsi que des espaces de renvoi sombres et non ventilés ressemblant à des alcôves.Mais à l’inverse, pour certains architectes précurseurs de la région à l’image d’Yves et Henri Gouyon, la modernité reflétait le gout de la clarté, de l’air, et du soleil, avec de larges horizons. Ainsi, ces derniers donnaient la priorité non pas aux façades qu’ils considéraient comme de simples élévations du plan, mais aux cellules d’habitations et à leur orientation. Dans cette optique, le bâtiment proposé par Henri Gouyon, qui était donc un partisan de l’espace ouvert moderne, supprimait les circulations et profitait de ce gain de place pour aménager de nouveaux espaces de vie communes. De plus, dans ces cellules d’habitations, les architectes ont tirés profit au maximum de la double orientation des appartements (ces derniers étaient traversant) avec par exemple l’accolement de balcons. Conception et réalisation d’un quartier entier. Pour le projet de Beaulieu, l’on confia la conception ainsi que la réalisation des interventions aux agences Henri et Yves Gouyon puis Yves Gouyon et associés. Ainsi, dés le milieu des années 50, des études concernant Beaulieu II – La Marandinière furent conduites, suivis de la construction du bâtiment entre 1957 et 1959. S’en suivit Beaulieu III – Montchovet entre 1962 et 1964, surnommé la « Muraille de Chine la plus grande barre d'Europe avec 540 appartements à sa livraison mi 1964, les chantiers de l'OPAC devenu Métropole-Habitat, www.ina.fr/video/LY00001263522 », qui comprenait entre autres, une barre de type HLM haute de 10 à 17 mètres et longue de 270 mètres, avec 560 logements. Suites à ces constructions, l’urbanisation des vallées et collines du sud-est de Saint-Etienne continua jusque dans les années 70 avec les séries de la Métare I, II, et III. Au total, ce sont plus de 8 000 logements, pour l’essentiel de type HLM, qui ont été construits durant cette période. Ces constructions ont également contribué à la création du parc de l’Europe et d’un boulevard circulaire qui servait de jonction entre les différents édifices et le centre-ville de la cité stéphanoise.Un projet pharaoniqueLe centre commercial fut un projet d’une dimension sans précédent pour la ville, plus grand centre commercial intra-urbain de la région Loire-Auvergne, avec 100 magasins, 1500 places de stationnement, 90 000 m² de surface, et sur 3 niveaux (4 niveaux avec la terrasse). Le 2 octobre 1979, CENTRE DEUX ouvre ses portes pour la première fois, et constitue une renaissance et un véritable tournant pour la ville. L’avis de l’architecteDe toutes les constructions de cette époque, Beaulieu est un des ensembles construits qui se porte le mieux si l’on en croit les nombreuses enquêtes menées auprès de la population de ces logements, dont certains l’occupe pratiquement depuis le début. Les arbres atteignent désormais le haut des immeubles, et la rue Le Corbusier adjacente a pris les allures « d’une banlieue des années 30 » avec un niveau d’urbanisme parfaitement acceptable. En conclusion, on peut parler pour cette construction d’un véritable savoir faire architectural et en quelques sortes d’art urbain. Ce projet a été récompensé par un prix d’urbanisme, mettant en valeur le travail en amont du projet. www.cimaise-architectes.com/realisations/divers/construct... cité HLM labellisée Patrimoine du XXeme siecle -"Il faut bien le dire, avant même d’être livré, Beaulieu est l' un des grands-ensembles, parmis 6 autres qui fasçinait en 1954..En effet c'etait le début de la longue & grande histoire des chantiers de l'Office Public de l'Aménagement et de la Construction* içi, ou à Montreynaud, Solaure, Monthieu etc( l'OPAC l'office public de logements sociaux, devenu plus tard Métropole-Habitat, est la plus importante au niveau National, c'est la plus grosse boite d'HLM). Bref, les habituels promeneurs du coin genre les "Bois du Four (la Metare, le nom ançien, qui par ailleurs appartenait a Mme de Métarie une veuve riche qui légua son domaine soit "la Métare" à la ville, pour un Franc symbolique à l'epoque et aux CHU anciennement les HCL Hospiçes Civils de la Ville comme à Lyon... (on notera qu il y a des tas de logements en centre ville propriété du CHU)..se rendant le dimanchedans le Pilat ou à Rochetaillée et sur les collines* alentours (on en a 7 comme a Rome) font un léger détour par le chantier. Ils constatent alors de visu cet avancement des travaux que la presse qualifie de « belle prouesse ». Le rythme est en effet rapide : « un étage par semaine » pour certaines barres, comme le raconte un témoin. Les « grandes maisons », soient les immeubles de hauteur et nombre de logements importants (IGH), étant alors encore rares dans laville, les Stéphanois n’y sont pas habitués@ les H.L.M. Beaulieu est la 1ere cité Stéphanoise de toutes,. Les barres de dix-sept et quatorze niveaux gises respectivement rues Gomy Herriot et de Vlaminck, ainsi que la tour de 22 niveaux au 33 rue Le-Corbusier,surprennent donc encore pire pour la plus grande barre d'Europe qui arrvera 7 ans plus tard, la Muraille qui mettront certains certaines à la renverse , le gigantisme à l'état brut, du lourd.... La référence qui vient à l’esprit de beaucoup ajoute à la fascination : l’Amérique. « C’est New-York ! c'est tres joile, tres vert... », se rappelle avoir pensé un habitant de la première harre...Mais plus que les immeubles, ce sont surtout les logements qui emportent l’adhésion des « heureux locataires », comme aime à les appeler la presse tout court. La satisfaction procurée aux habitants par l’hygiène et le confort des logements des Grands-Ensembles soit les quartiers NEUF est une information connue, les études de sciences humaines sur le sujet abondent. Aussi, pour le cas de Beaulieu devenu un cas d'Ecole idem pour Montchovet (Beaulieu3) et les transformations de la Marandiniere (Beaulieu2)...Les entretiens réalisés avec des locataires n’apportent pas sur ce point-ci d’éléments nouveaux :les premiers motifs de satisfaction invoqués sont, comme pour bien d’autres Grands-Ensembles Français,l’eau courante, le chauffage central dont sont pourvus les immeubles les plus hauts, les WC intérieurs et salles de bain, l’ensoleillement et la luminosité permis par l’orientation, la hauteur et la disposition des immeubles, les placards et les tout aussi pratiques balcons à parois séchoirs permettant de faire sécher le linge, hiver compris. Entretien avec François Tomas, géographe, spécialiste de l'aménagement urbain, et enseignant à l'université et à l'école d'architecture de Saint-Etienne. Il est notamment l'auteur des Grands Ensembles, une histoire qui continue (Publications de l'université de Saint-Etienne, 2003). Cet intellectuel a également mis la main à la pâte. Entre 1977 et 1983, il fut adjoint à l'urbanisme du maire communiste de l'époque, Joseph Sanguedolce. Engagé au PC de 1974 à 1985, il a, depuis, rejoint le Parti socialiste «comme militant de base»L"apres guerre...Que prévoit-on pour la reconstruction? Pas grand-chose. A la différence de la refonte spectaculaire du Havre, par exemple, on se contente ici de bâtir de petits immeubles, plus modernes bien sûr, mais sans réelle innovation architecturale ou urbanistique.Est-il vrai que Saint-Etienne, après guerre, traîne une réputation de «capitale des taudis»?C'est exact, et celle-ci n'est pas usurpée. En 1946, 7% seulement des logements sont jugés «confortables», et 17%, «acceptables»; 56% sont médiocres, et 20% peuvent véritablement être qualifiés de taudis: 1 logement sur 5 n'a pas d'eau à l'évier, les deux tiers ne disposent pas de WC, et 95%, de salle d'eau. Mais le problème n'a pas été créé par la guerre. Depuis la fin du XIXe siècle, Saint-Etienne a beaucoup grandi, mais très peu construit. Résultat: la ville a vieilli sur elle-même et se trouve après guerre dans une situation désastreuse, que les bombardements ont simplement aggravée. C'est alors qu'Alexandre de Fraissinette, maire élu en 1947, fixe le logement comme l'une de ses priorités.

forming bud

A tax return form from 2011/2012

  

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Spiders (order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs and chelicerae with fangs that inject venom. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all other orders of organisms. Spiders are found worldwide on every continent except for Antarctica, and have become established in nearly every habitat with the exceptions of air and sea colonization. As of November 2015, at least 45,700 spider species, and 114 families have been recorded by taxonomists. However, there has been dissension within the scientific community as to how all these families should be classified, as evidenced by the over 20 different classifications that have been proposed since 1900.

 

Anatomically, spiders differ from other arthropods in that the usual body segments are fused into two tagmata, the cephalothorax and abdomen, and joined by a small, cylindrical pedicel. Unlike insects, spiders do not have antennae. In all except the most primitive group, the Mesothelae, spiders have the most centralized nervous systems of all arthropods, as all their ganglia are fused into one mass in the cephalothorax. Unlike most arthropods, spiders have no extensor muscles in their limbs and instead extend them by hydraulic pressure.

 

Their abdomens bear appendages that have been modified into spinnerets that extrude silk from up to six types of glands. Spider webs vary widely in size, shape and the amount of sticky thread used. It now appears that the spiral orb web may be one of the earliest forms, and spiders that produce tangled cobwebs are more abundant and diverse than orb-web spiders. Spider-like arachnids with silk-producing spigots appeared in the Devonian period about 386 million years ago, but these animals apparently lacked spinnerets. True spiders have been found in Carboniferous rocks from 318 to 299 million years ago, and are very similar to the most primitive surviving suborder, the Mesothelae. The main groups of modern spiders, Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae, first appeared in the Triassic period, before 200 million years ago.

 

A herbivorous species, Bagheera kiplingi, was described in 2008,[5] but all other known species are predators, mostly preying on insects and on other spiders, although a few large species also take birds and lizards. Spiders use a wide range of strategies to capture prey: trapping it in sticky webs, lassoing it with sticky bolas, mimicking the prey to avoid detection, or running it down. Most detect prey mainly by sensing vibrations, but the active hunters have acute vision, and hunters of the genus Portia show signs of intelligence in their choice of tactics and ability to develop new ones. Spiders' guts are too narrow to take solids, and they liquefy their food by flooding it with digestive enzymes and grinding it with the bases of their pedipalps, as they do not have true jaws.

 

Male spiders identify themselves by a variety of complex courtship rituals to avoid being eaten by the females. Males of most species survive a few matings, limited mainly by their short life spans. Females weave silk egg-cases, each of which may contain hundreds of eggs. Females of many species care for their young, for example by carrying them around or by sharing food with them. A minority of species are social, building communal webs that may house anywhere from a few to 50,000 individuals. Social behavior ranges from precarious toleration, as in the widow spiders, to co-operative hunting and food-sharing. Although most spiders live for at most two years, tarantulas and other mygalomorph spiders can live up to 25 years in captivity.

 

While the venom of a few species is dangerous to humans, scientists are now researching the use of spider venom in medicine and as non-polluting pesticides. Spider silk provides a combination of lightness, strength and elasticity that is superior to that of synthetic materials, and spider silk genes have been inserted into mammals and plants to see if these can be used as silk factories. As a result of their wide range of behaviors, spiders have become common symbols in art and mythology symbolizing various combinations of patience, cruelty and creative powers. An abnormal fear of spiders is called arachnophobia.

 

BODY PLAN

Spiders are chelicerates and therefore arthropods.[6] As arthropods they have: segmented bodies with jointed limbs, all covered in a cuticle made of chitin and proteins; heads that are composed of several segments that fuse during the development of the embryo. Being chelicerates, their bodies consist of two tagmata, sets of segments that serve similar functions: the foremost one, called the cephalothorax or prosoma, is a complete fusion of the segments that in an insect would form two separate tagmata, the head and thorax; the rear tagma is called the abdomen or opisthosoma. In spiders, the cephalothorax and abdomen are connected by a small cylindrical section, the pedicel. The pattern of segment fusion that forms chelicerates' heads is unique among arthropods, and what would normally be the first head segment disappears at an early stage of development, so that chelicerates lack the antennae typical of most arthropods. In fact, chelicerates' only appendages ahead of the mouth are a pair of chelicerae, and they lack anything that would function directly as "jaws". The first appendages behind the mouth are called pedipalps, and serve different functions within different groups of chelicerates.

 

Spiders and scorpions are members of one chelicerate group, the arachnids. Scorpions' chelicerae have three sections and are used in feeding. Spiders' chelicerae have two sections and terminate in fangs that are generally venomous, and fold away behind the upper sections while not in use. The upper sections generally have thick "beards" that filter solid lumps out of their food, as spiders can take only liquid food.[8] Scorpions' pedipalps generally form large claws for capturing prey, while those of spiders are fairly small appendages whose bases also act as an extension of the mouth; in addition, those of male spiders have enlarged last sections used for sperm transfer.

 

In spiders, the cephalothorax and abdomen are joined by a small, cylindrical pedicel, which enables the abdomen to move independently when producing silk. The upper surface of the cephalothorax is covered by a single, convex carapace, while the underside is covered by two rather flat plates. The abdomen is soft and egg-shaped. It shows no sign of segmentation, except that the primitive Mesothelae, whose living members are the Liphistiidae, have segmented plates on the upper surface.

 

CIRCULATION AND RESPIRATION

Like other arthropods, spiders are coelomates in which the coelom is reduced to small areas round the reproductive and excretory systems. Its place is largely taken by a hemocoel, a cavity that runs most of the length of the body and through which blood flows. The heart is a tube in the upper part of the body, with a few ostia that act as non-return valves allowing blood to enter the heart from the hemocoel but prevent it from leaving before it reaches the front end. However, in spiders, it occupies only the upper part of the abdomen, and blood is discharged into the hemocoel by one artery that opens at the rear end of the abdomen and by branching arteries that pass through the pedicle and open into several parts of the cephalothorax. Hence spiders have open circulatory systems. The blood of many spiders that have book lungs contains the respiratory pigment hemocyanin to make oxygen transport more efficient.

 

Spiders have developed several different respiratory anatomies, based on book lungs, a tracheal system, or both. Mygalomorph and Mesothelae spiders have two pairs of book lungs filled with haemolymph, where openings on the ventral surface of the abdomen allow air to enter and diffuse oxygen. This is also the case for some basal araneomorph spiders, like the family Hypochilidae, but the remaining members of this group have just the anterior pair of book lungs intact while the posterior pair of breathing organs are partly or fully modified into tracheae, through which oxygen is diffused into the haemolymph or directly to the tissue and organs. The trachea system has most likely evolved in small ancestors to help resist desiccation. The trachea were originally connected to the surroundings through a pair of openings called spiracles, but in the majority of spiders this pair of spiracles has fused into a single one in the middle, and moved backwards close to the spinnerets. Spiders that have tracheae generally have higher metabolic rates and better water conservation. Spiders are ectotherms, so environmental temperatures affect their activity.

 

FEEDING, DIGESTION AND EXCRETION

Uniquely among chelicerates, the final sections of spiders' chelicerae are fangs, and the great majority of spiders can use them to inject venom into prey from venom glands in the roots of the chelicerae. The family Uloboridae has lost its venom glands, and kills its prey with silk instead. Like most arachnids, including scorpions, spiders have a narrow gut that can only cope with liquid food and spiders have two sets of filters to keep solids out. They use one of two different systems of external digestion. Some pump digestive enzymes from the midgut into the prey and then suck the liquified tissues of the prey into the gut, eventually leaving behind the empty husk of the prey. Others grind the prey to pulp using the chelicerae and the bases of the pedipalps, while flooding it with enzymes; in these species, the chelicerae and the bases of the pedipalps form a preoral cavity that holds the food they are processing.

 

The stomach in the cephalothorax acts as a pump that sends the food deeper into the digestive system. The mid gut bears many digestive ceca, compartments with no other exit, that extract nutrients from the food; most are in the abdomen, which is dominated by the digestive system, but a few are found in the cephalothorax.

 

Most spiders convert nitrogenous waste products into uric acid, which can be excreted as a dry material. Malphigian tubules ("little tubes") extract these wastes from the blood in the hemocoel and dump them into the cloacal chamber, from which they are expelled through the anus. Production of uric acid and its removal via Malphigian tubules are a water-conserving feature that has evolved independently in several arthropod lineages that can live far away from water, for example the tubules of insects and arachnids develop from completely different parts of the embryo. However, a few primitive spiders, the sub-order Mesothelae and infra-order Mygalomorphae, retain the ancestral arthropod nephridia ("little kidneys"), which use large amounts of water to excrete nitrogenous waste products as ammonia.

 

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The basic arthropod central nervous system consists of a pair of nerve cords running below the gut, with paired ganglia as local control centers in all segments; a brain formed by fusion of the ganglia for the head segments ahead of and behind the mouth, so that the esophagus is encircled by this conglomeration of ganglia. Except for the primitive Mesothelae, of which the Liphistiidae are the sole surviving family, spiders have the much more centralized nervous system that is typical of arachnids: all the ganglia of all segments behind the esophagus are fused, so that the cephalothorax is largely filled with nervous tissue and there are no ganglia in the abdomen; in the Mesothelae, the ganglia of the abdomen and the rear part of the cephalothorax remain unfused.

 

Despite the relatively small central nervous system, some spiders (like Portia) exhibit complex behaviour, including the ability to use a trial-and-error approach.

Sense organs

 

EYES

Most spiders have four pairs of eyes on the top-front area of the cephalothorax, arranged in patterns that vary from one family to another. The pair at the front are of the type called pigment-cup ocelli ("little eyes"), which in most arthropods are only capable of detecting the direction from which light is coming, using the shadow cast by the walls of the cup. However, the main eyes at the front of spiders' heads are pigment-cup ocelli that are capable of forming images. The other eyes are thought to be derived from the compound eyes of the ancestral chelicerates, but no longer have the separate facets typical of compound eyes. Unlike the main eyes, in many spiders these secondary eyes detect light reflected from a reflective tapetum lucidum, and wolf spiders can be spotted by torch light reflected from the tapeta. On the other hand, jumping spiders' secondary eyes have no tapeta. Some jumping spiders' visual acuity exceeds by a factor of ten that of dragonflies, which have by far the best vision among insects; in fact the human eye is only about five times sharper than a jumping spider's. They achieve this by a telephoto-like series of lenses, a four-layer retina and the ability to swivel their eyes and integrate images from different stages in the scan. The downside is that the scanning and integrating processes are relatively slow.

 

There are spiders with a reduced number of eyes, of these those with six-eyes are the most numerous and are missing a pair of eyes on the anterior median line, others species have four-eyes and some just two. Cave dwelling species have no eyes, or possess vestigial eyes incapable of sight.

 

OTHER SENSES

As with other arthropods, spiders' cuticles would block out information about the outside world, except that they are penetrated by many sensors or connections from sensors to the nervous system. In fact, spiders and other arthropods have modified their cuticles into elaborate arrays of sensors. Various touch sensors, mostly bristles called setae, respond to different levels of force, from strong contact to very weak air currents. Chemical sensors provide equivalents of taste and smell, often by means of setae. Pedipalps carry a large number of such setae sensitive to contact chemicals and air-borne smells, such as female pheromones. Spiders also have in the joints of their limbs slit sensillae that detect forces and vibrations. In web-building spiders, all these mechanical and chemical sensors are more important than the eyes, while the eyes are most important to spiders that hunt actively.

 

Like most arthropods, spiders lack balance and acceleration sensors and rely on their eyes to tell them which way is up. Arthropods' proprioceptors, sensors that report the force exerted by muscles and the degree of bending in the body and joints, are well understood. On the other hand, little is known about what other internal sensors spiders or other arthropods may have.

 

LOCMOTION

Each of the eight legs of a spider consists of seven distinct parts. The part closest to and attaching the leg to the cephalothorax is the coxa; the next segment is the short trochanter that works as a hinge for the following long segment, the femur; next is the spider's knee, the patella, which acts as the hinge for the tibia; the metatarsus is next, and it connects the tibia to the tarsus (which may be thought of as a foot of sorts); the tarsus ends in a claw made up of either two or three points, depending on the family to which the spider belongs. Although all arthropods use muscles attached to the inside of the exoskeleton to flex their limbs, spiders and a few other groups still use hydraulic pressure to extend them, a system inherited from their pre-arthropod ancestors. The only extensor muscles in spider legs are located in the three hip joints (bordering the coxa and the trochanter). As a result, a spider with a punctured cephalothorax cannot extend its legs, and the legs of dead spiders curl up. Spiders can generate pressures up to eight times their resting level to extend their legs, and jumping spiders can jump up to 50 times their own length by suddenly increasing the blood pressure in the third or fourth pair of legs. Although larger spiders use hydraulics to straighten their legs, unlike smaller jumping spiders they depend on their flexor muscles to generate the propulsive force for their jumps.

 

Most spiders that hunt actively, rather than relying on webs, have dense tufts of fine hairs between the paired claws at the tips of their legs. These tufts, known as scopulae, consist of bristles whose ends are split into as many as 1,000 branches, and enable spiders with scopulae to walk up vertical glass and upside down on ceilings. It appears that scopulae get their grip from contact with extremely thin layers of water on surfaces.[8] Spiders, like most other arachnids, keep at least four legs on the surface while walking or running.

 

SILK PRODUCTION

The abdomen has no appendages except those that have been modified to form one to four (usually three) pairs of short, movable spinnerets, which emit silk. Each spinneret has many spigots, each of which is connected to one silk gland. There are at least six types of silk gland, each producing a different type of silk.

 

Silk is mainly composed of a protein very similar to that used in insect silk. It is initially a liquid, and hardens not by exposure to air but as a result of being drawn out, which changes the internal structure of the protein. It is similar in tensile strength to nylon and biological materials such as chitin, collagen and cellulose, but is much more elastic. In other words, it can stretch much further before breaking or losing shape.

 

Some spiders have a cribellum, a modified spinneret with up to 40,000 spigots, each of which produces a single very fine fiber. The fibers are pulled out by the calamistrum, a comb-like set of bristles on the jointed tip of the cribellum, and combined into a composite woolly thread that is very effective in snagging the bristles of insects. The earliest spiders had cribella, which produced the first silk capable of capturing insects, before spiders developed silk coated with sticky droplets. However, most modern groups of spiders have lost the cribellum.

 

Tarantulas also have silk glands in their feet.

 

Even species that do not build webs to catch prey use silk in several ways: as wrappers for sperm and for fertilized eggs; as a "safety rope"; for nest-building; and as "parachutes" by the young of some species.

 

REPRODUCTION AND LIFE CYCLE

Spiders reproduce sexually and fertilization is internal but indirect, in other words the sperm is not inserted into the female's body by the male's genitals but by an intermediate stage. Unlike many land-living arthropods, male spiders do not produce ready-made spermatophores (packages of sperm), but spin small sperm webs on to which they ejaculate and then transfer the sperm to special syringe-like structures, palpal bulbs or palpal organs, borne on the tips of the pedipalps of mature males. When a male detects signs of a female nearby he checks whether she is of the same species and whether she is ready to mate; for example in species that produce webs or "safety ropes", the male can identify the species and sex of these objects by "smell".

 

Spiders generally use elaborate courtship rituals to prevent the large females from eating the small males before fertilization, except where the male is so much smaller that he is not worth eating. In web-weaving species, precise patterns of vibrations in the web are a major part of the rituals, while patterns of touches on the female's body are important in many spiders that hunt actively, and may "hypnotize" the female. Gestures and dances by the male are important for jumping spiders, which have excellent eyesight. If courtship is successful, the male injects his sperm from the palpal bulbs into the female's genital opening, known as the epigyne, on the underside of her abdomen. Female's reproductive tracts vary from simple tubes to systems that include seminal receptacles in which females store sperm and release it when they are ready.

 

Males of the genus Tidarren amputate one of their palps before maturation and enter adult life with one palp only. The palps are 20% of male's body mass in this species, and detaching one of the two improves mobility. In the Yemeni species Tidarren argo, the remaining palp is then torn off by the female. The separated palp remains attached to the female's epigynum for about four hours and apparently continues to function independently. In the meantime, the female feeds on the palpless male. In over 60% of cases, the female of the Australian redback spider kills and eats the male after it inserts its second palp into the female's genital opening; in fact, the males co-operate by trying to impale themselves on the females' fangs. Observation shows that most male redbacks never get an opportunity to mate, and the "lucky" ones increase the likely number of offspring by ensuring that the females are well-fed. However, males of most species survive a few matings, limited mainly by their short life spans. Some even live for a while in their mates' webs.

 

Females lay up to 3,000 eggs in one or more silk egg sacs, which maintain a fairly constant humidity level. In some species, the females die afterwards, but females of other species protect the sacs by attaching them to their webs, hiding them in nests, carrying them in the chelicerae or attaching them to the spinnerets and dragging them along.

 

Baby spiders pass all their larval stages inside the egg and hatch as spiderlings, very small and sexually immature but similar in shape to adults. Some spiders care for their young, for example a wolf spider's brood cling to rough bristles on the mother's back, and females of some species respond to the "begging" behaviour of their young by giving them their prey, provided it is no longer struggling, or even regurgitate food.

 

Like other arthropods, spiders have to molt to grow as their cuticle ("skin") cannot stretch. In some species males mate with newly molted females, which are too weak to be dangerous to the males. Most spiders live for only one to two years, although some tarantulas can live in captivity for over 20 years.

 

SIZE

Spiders occur in a large range of sizes. The smallest, Patu digua from Colombia, are less than 0.37 mm in body length. The largest and heaviest spiders occur among tarantulas, which can have body lengths up to 90 mm and leg spans up to 250 mm.

 

COLORATION

Only three classes of pigment (ommochromes, bilins and guanine) have been identified in spiders, although other pigments have been detected but not yet characterized. Melanins, carotenoids and pterins, very common in other animals, are apparently absent. In some species, the exocuticle of the legs and prosoma is modified by a tanning process, resulting in brown coloration. Bilins are found, for example, in Micrommata virescens, resulting in its green color. Guanine is responsible for the white markings of the European garden spider Araneus diadematus. It is in many species accumulated in specialized cells called guanocytes. In genera such as Tetragnatha, Leucauge, Argyrodes or Theridiosoma, guanine creates their silvery appearance. While guanine is originally an end-product of protein metabolism, its excretion can be blocked in spiders, leading to an increase in its storage. Structural colors occur in some species, which are the result of the diffraction, scattering or interference of light, for example by modified setae or scales. The white prosoma of Argiope results from hairs reflecting the light, Lycosa and Josa both have areas of modified cuticle that act as light reflectors.

 

ECOGOGY AND BEHAVIOR

NON-PREDATORY FEEDING

Although spiders are generally regarded as predatory, the jumping spider Bagheera kiplingi gets over 90% of its food from fairly solid plant material produced by acacias as part of a mutually beneficial relationship with a species of ant.

 

Juveniles of some spiders in the families Anyphaenidae, Corinnidae, Clubionidae, Thomisidae and Salticidae feed on plant nectar. Laboratory studies show that they do so deliberately and over extended periods, and periodically clean themselves while feeding. These spiders also prefer sugar solutions to plain water, which indicates that they are seeking nutrients. Since many spiders are nocturnal, the extent of nectar consumption by spiders may have been underestimated. Nectar contains amino acids, lipids, vitamins and minerals in addition to sugars, and studies have shown that other spider species live longer when nectar is available. Feeding on nectar avoids the risks of struggles with prey, and the costs of producing venom and digestive enzymes.

 

Various species are known to feed on dead arthropods (scavenging), web silk, and their own shed exoskeletons. Pollen caught in webs may also be eaten, and studies have shown that young spiders have a better chance of survival if they have the opportunity to eat pollen. In captivity, several spider species are also known to feed on bananas, marmalade, milk, egg yolk and sausages.

 

METHODS OF CAPTURING PREY

The best-known method of prey capture is by means of sticky webs. Varying placement of webs allows different species of spider to trap different insects in the same area, for example flat horizontal webs trap insects that fly up from vegetation underneath while flat vertical webs trap insects in horizontal flight. Web-building spiders have poor vision, but are extremely sensitive to vibrations.

 

Females of the water spider Argyroneta aquatica build underwater "diving bell" webs that they fill with air and use for digesting prey, molting, mating and raising offspring. They live almost entirely within the bells, darting out to catch prey animals that touch the bell or the threads that anchor it. A few spiders use the surfaces of lakes and ponds as "webs", detecting trapped insects by the vibrations that these cause while struggling.

 

Net-casting spiders weave only small webs, but then manipulate them to trap prey. Those of the genus Hyptiotes and the family Theridiosomatidae stretch their webs and then release them when prey strike them, but do not actively move their webs. Those of the family Deinopidae weave even smaller webs, hold them outstretched between their first two pairs of legs, and lunge and push the webs as much as twice their own body length to trap prey, and this move may increase the webs' area by a factor of up to ten. Experiments have shown that Deinopis spinosus has two different techniques for trapping prey: backwards strikes to catch flying insects, whose vibrations it detects; and forward strikes to catch ground-walking prey that it sees. These two techniques have also been observed in other deinopids. Walking insects form most of the prey of most deinopids, but one population of Deinopis subrufa appears to live mainly on tipulid flies that they catch with the backwards strike.

 

Mature female bolas spiders of the genus Mastophora build "webs" that consist of only a single "trapeze line", which they patrol. They also construct a bolas made of a single thread, tipped with a large ball of very wet sticky silk. They emit chemicals that resemble the pheromones of moths, and then swing the bolas at the moths. Although they miss on about 50% of strikes, they catch about the same weight of insects per night as web-weaving spiders of similar size. The spiders eat the bolas if they have not made a kill in about 30 minutes, rest for a while, and then make new bolas. Juveniles and adult males are much smaller and do not make bolas. Instead they release different pheromones that attract moth flies, and catch them with their front pairs of legs.

 

The primitive Liphistiidae, the "trapdoor spiders" of the family Ctenizidae and many tarantulas are ambush predators that lurk in burrows, often closed by trapdoors and often surrounded by networks of silk threads that alert these spiders to the presence of prey. Other ambush predators do without such aids, including many crab spiders, and a few species that prey on bees, which see ultraviolet, can adjust their ultraviolet reflectance to match the flowers in which they are lurking. Wolf spiders, jumping spiders, fishing spiders and some crab spiders capture prey by chasing it, and rely mainly on vision to locate prey.Some jumping spiders of the genus Portia hunt other spiders in ways that seem intelligent, outflanking their victims or luring them from their webs. Laboratory studies show that Portia's instinctive tactics are only starting points for a trial-and-error approach from which these spiders learn very quickly how to overcome new prey species. However, they seem to be relatively slow "thinkers", which is not surprising, as their brains are vastly smaller than those of mammalian predators.Ant-mimicking spiders face several challenges: they generally develop slimmer abdomens and false "waists" in the cephalothorax to mimic the three distinct regions (tagmata) of an ant's body; they wave the first pair of legs in front of their heads to mimic antennae, which spiders lack, and to conceal the fact that they have eight legs rather than six; they develop large color patches round one pair of eyes to disguise the fact that they generally have eight simple eyes, while ants have two compound eyes; they cover their bodies with reflective hairs to resemble the shiny bodies of ants. In some spider species, males and females mimic different ant species, as female spiders are usually much larger than males. Ant-mimicking spiders also modify their behavior to resemble that of the target species of ant; for example, many adopt a zig-zag pattern of movement, ant-mimicking jumping spiders avoid jumping, and spiders of the genus Synemosyna walk on the outer edges of leaves in the same way as Pseudomyrmex. Ant-mimicry in many spiders and other arthropods may be for protection from predators that hunt by sight, including birds, lizards and spiders. However, several ant-mimicking spiders prey either on ants or on the ants' "livestock", such as aphids. When at rest, the ant-mimicking crab spider Amyciaea does not closely resemble Oecophylla, but while hunting it imitates the behavior of a dying ant to attract worker ants. After a kill, some ant-mimicking spiders hold their victims between themselves and large groups of ants to avoid being attacked.

 

DEFENSE

There is strong evidence that spiders' coloration is camouflage that helps them to evade their major predators, birds and parasitic wasps, both of which have good color vision. Many spider species are colored so as to merge with their most common backgrounds, and some have disruptive coloration, stripes and blotches that break up their outlines. In a few species, such as the Hawaiian happy-face spider, Theridion grallator, several coloration schemes are present in a ratio that appears to remain constant, and this may make it more difficult for predators to recognize the species. Most spiders are insufficiently dangerous or unpleasant-tasting for warning coloration to offer much benefit. However, a few species with powerful venoms, large jaws or irritant hairs have patches of warning colors, and some actively display these colors when threatened.

 

Many of the family Theraphosidae, which includes tarantulas and baboon spiders, have urticating hairs on their abdomens and use their legs to flick them at attackers. These hairs are fine setae (bristles) with fragile bases and a row of barbs on the tip. The barbs cause intense irritation but there is no evidence that they carry any kind of venom. A few defend themselves against wasps by including networks of very robust threads in their webs, giving the spider time to flee while the wasps are struggling with the obstacles. The golden wheeling spider, Carparachne aureoflava, of the Namibian desert escapes parasitic wasps by flipping onto its side and cartwheeling down sand dunes.

 

SOCIAL SPIDERS

A few spider species that build webs live together in large colonies and show social behavior, although not as complex as in social insects. Anelosimus eximius (in the family Theridiidae) can form colonies of up to 50,000 individuals. The genus Anelosimus has a strong tendency towards sociality: all known American species are social, and species in Madagascar are at least somewhat social. Members of other species in the same family but several different genera have independently developed social behavior. For example, although Theridion nigroannulatum belongs to a genus with no other social species, T. nigroannulatum build colonies that may contain several thousand individuals that co-operate in prey capture and share food. Other communal spiders include several Philoponella species (family Uloboridae), Agelena consociata (family Agelenidae) and Mallos gregalis (family Dictynidae). Social predatory spiders need to defend their prey against kleptoparasites ("thieves"), and larger colonies are more successful in this. The herbivorous spider Bagheera kiplingi lives in small colonies which help to protect eggs and spiderlings. Even widow spiders (genus Latrodectus), which are notoriously cannibalistic, have formed small colonies in captivity, sharing webs and feeding together.

 

WEB TYPES

There is no consistent relationship between the classification of spiders and the types of web they build: species in the same genus may build very similar or significantly different webs. Nor is there much correspondence between spiders' classification and the chemical composition of their silks. Convergent evolution in web construction, in other words use of similar techniques by remotely related species, is rampant. Orb web designs and the spinning behaviors that produce them are the best understood. The basic radial-then-spiral sequence visible in orb webs and the sense of direction required to build them may have been inherited from the common ancestors of most spider groups. However, the majority of spiders build non-orb webs. It used to be thought that the sticky orb web was an evolutionary innovation resulting in the diversification of the Orbiculariae. Now, however, it appears that non-orb spiders are a sub-group that evolved from orb-web spiders, and non-orb spiders have over 40% more species and are four times as abundant as orb-web spiders. Their greater success may be because sphecid wasps, which are often the dominant predators of spiders, much prefer to attack spiders that have flat webs.

 

ORB WEBS

About half the potential prey that hit orb webs escape. A web has to perform three functions: intercepting the prey (intersection), absorbing its momentum without breaking (stopping), and trapping the prey by entangling it or sticking to it (retention). No single design is best for all prey. For example: wider spacing of lines will increase the web's area and hence its ability to intercept prey, but reduce its stopping power and retention; closer spacing, larger sticky droplets and thicker lines would improve retention, but would make it easier for potential prey to see and avoid the web, at least during the day. However, there are no consistent differences between orb webs built for use during the day and those built for use at night. In fact, there is no simple relationship between orb web design features and the prey they capture, as each orb-weaving species takes a wide range of prey.

 

The hubs of orb webs, where the spiders lurk, are usually above the center, as the spiders can move downwards faster than upwards. If there is an obvious direction in which the spider can retreat to avoid its own predators, the hub is usually offset towards that direction.

 

Horizontal orb webs are fairly common, despite being less effective at intercepting and retaining prey and more vulnerable to damage by rain and falling debris. Various researchers have suggested that horizontal webs offer compensating advantages, such as reduced vulnerability to wind damage; reduced visibility to prey flying upwards, because of the back-lighting from the sky; enabling oscillations to catch insects in slow horizontal flight. However, there is no single explanation for the common use of horizontal orb webs.

 

Spiders often attach highly visible silk bands, called decorations or stabilimenta, to their webs. Field research suggests that webs with more decorative bands captured more prey per hour. However, a laboratory study showed that spiders reduce the building of these decorations if they sense the presence of predators.

 

There are several unusual variants of orb web, many of them convergently evolved, including: attachment of lines to the surface of water, possibly to trap insects in or on the surface; webs with twigs through their centers, possibly to hide the spiders from predators; "ladder-like" webs that appear most effective in catching moths. However, the significance of many variations is unclear.

 

In 1973, Skylab 3 took two orb-web spiders into space to test their web-spinning capabilities in zero gravity. At first, both produced rather sloppy webs, but they adapted quickly.

 

TANGLEWEB SPIDERS (COBWEB SPIDERS)

Members of the family Theridiidae weave irregular, tangled, three-dimensional webs, popularly known as cobwebs. There seems to be an evolutionary trend towards a reduction in the amount of sticky silk used, leading to its total absence in some species. The construction of cobwebs is less stereotyped than that of orb-webs, and may take several days.

 

OTHER TYPES OF WEBS

The Linyphiidae generally make horizontal but uneven sheets, with tangles of stopping threads above. Insects that hit the stopping threads fall onto the sheet or are shaken onto it by the spider, and are held by sticky threads on the sheet until the spider can attack from below.

 

EVOLUTION

FOSSIL RECORD

Although the fossil record of spiders is considered poor, almost 1000 species have been described from fossils. Because spiders' bodies are quite soft, the vast majority of fossil spiders have been found preserved in amber. The oldest known amber that contains fossil arthropods dates from 130 million years ago in the Early Cretaceous period. In addition to preserving spiders' anatomy in very fine detail, pieces of amber show spiders mating, killing prey, producing silk and possibly caring for their young. In a few cases, amber has preserved spiders' egg sacs and webs, occasionally with prey attached; the oldest fossil web found so far is 100 million years old. Earlier spider fossils come from a few lagerstätten, places where conditions were exceptionally suited to preserving fairly soft tissues.

 

The oldest known exclusively terrestrial arachnid is the trigonotarbid Palaeotarbus jerami, from about 420 million years ago in the Silurian period, and had a triangular cephalothorax and segmented abdomen, as well as eight legs and a pair of pedipalps. Attercopus fimbriunguis, from 386 million years ago in the Devonian period, bears the earliest known silk-producing spigots, and was therefore hailed as a spider at the time of its discovery. However, these spigots may have been mounted on the underside of the abdomen rather than on spinnerets, which are modified appendages and whose mobility is important in the building of webs. Hence Attercopus and the similar Permian arachnid Permarachne may not have been true spiders, and probably used silk for lining nests or producing egg-cases rather than for building webs. The largest known fossil spider as of 2011 is the araneid Nephila jurassica, from about 165 million years ago, recorded from Daohuogo, Inner Mongolia in China. Its body length is almost 25 mm.

 

Several Carboniferous spiders were members of the Mesothelae, a primitive group now represented only by the Liphistiidae. The mesothelid Paleothele montceauensis, from the Late Carboniferous over 299 million years ago, had five spinnerets. Although the Permian period 299 to 251 million years ago saw rapid diversification of flying insects, there are very few fossil spiders from this period.

 

The main groups of modern spiders, Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae, first appear in the Triassic well before 200 million years ago. Some Triassic mygalomorphs appear to be members of the family Hexathelidae, whose modern members include the notorious Sydney funnel-web spider, and their spinnerets appear adapted for building funnel-shaped webs to catch jumping insects. Araneomorphae account for the great majority of modern spiders, including those that weave the familiar orb-shaped webs. The Jurassic and Cretaceous periods provide a large number of fossil spiders, including representatives of many modern families.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Form last year's DC Powwow - this one is still there.

 

Mural by Ricardo Gonzalez

 

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Freehand picture.

 

Venerdì 7 febbraio alle 20.30 nella Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, il Duomo di Reggio Emilia, due delle orchestre giovanili e alcuni solisti dell’istituto superiore di studi musicali Peri-Merulo hanno offerto alla città un concerto dedicato al direttore d’orchestra Claudio Abbado, recentemente scomparso, legato a Reggio da una lunga amicizia e attività artistica.

L’evento, reso possibile anche dalla disponibilità della diocesi di Reggio e Guastalla, è carico di valore simbolico per l’attenzione che Abbado ha avuto nel corso della sua carriera ai temi della formazione artistica e dei giovani musicisti, nonché per i legami che ha storicamente intrattenuto con Reggio.

 

Il Conservatorio reggiano vanta una tradizione nel campo della pedagogia musicale riconosciuta a livello internazionale ed è oggi una delle realtà di punta della formazione musicale italiana. Diversi tra i giovani che si esibiranno sono gli stessi che si sono fatti apprezzare nel recente concerto al teatro Ariosto in occasione delle celebrazioni del Primo Tricolore e nel palazzo del Senato, a Roma, dove hanno suonato davanti ad alcune tra le più alte cariche dello Stato.

 

Nel concerto del 7 febbraio saranno impegnate le formazioni A e B, composte da più di 100 strumentisti delle fasce di età delle scuole medie inferiori, superiori e dei corsi accademici e sono inserite nel Sistema nazionale delle orchestre e cori giovanili. Diretti da Gabrielangela Spaggiari, i giovani orchestrali si alterneranno con le esecuzioni di altri brani interpretati da alcuni solisti della scuola: Monica Piccinini (soprano), Renato Negri (organo), Davide Gaspari (violino) e Luca Franzetti (violoncello).

 

Il programma spazierà dal repertorio barocco a quello romantico con brani di Bach, Wagner, Musorgskij, Händel, Charpentier, Rameau e Buxtehude.

 

IL PROGRAMMA

Johann Sebastian Bach

Sarabanda, dalla Partita in re minore BWV 1004

Davide Gaspari, violino

Preludio in mi minore BWV 548

Renato Negri, organo

Komm, süßer Tod, (Vieni, dolce morte) BWV 478

Monica Piccinini, soprano - Renato Negri organo

Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland, (Vieni, Redentore dei pagani) BWV 659

Renato Negri, organo

 

Richard Wagner

Coro dei Pellegrini (da Tannhäuser; arr. di M. J. Isaac)

 

Modest Petrovič Musorgskij

da Quadri di un’esposizione; arr. di D. Stone, A. Carter)

 

Georg Friedrich Händel

Sarabanda (arr. G. Spaggiari)

 

Marc-Antoine Charpentier

Te Deum

 

Jean-Philippe Rameau

Suite (arr. di P. Gordon)

 

Dietrich Buxtehude

Sarabanda (arr. di P. Gordon)

Orchestre Giovanili dell’Istituto “Achille Peri – Claudio Merulo”

Gabrielangela Spaggiari Direttore

 

Johann Sebastian Bach

Preludio dalla Suite in Do Maggiore BWV 1009

Sarabanda, con scordatura originale, dalla Suite in do minore BWV 1011

Luca Franzetti, violoncello

 

I COMPONENTI DELLE ORCHESTRE

 

Flauti - Gozzi Alessandro, Genta Giulia, Spezzani Chiara, Martina Cordeddu, Ghirri Alessio, Zini Corradini Chiara, D’onofrio Laura, Bizzocchi Francesca, Russo Margherita

 

Oboi - Pancaldi Marta, Morini Lucia, Manfredi Orfeo, Tarquini Alessandro, Ferretti Elia, Storchi Costanza

 

Clarinetti - Montruccoli Martina, De Zuani Francesco, Cavalli Sara, Ranellucci Martina, Pignedoli Giovanni, Russo Tommaso

 

Fagotti - Tubertini Martino, Davoli Francesca, De Rosa Chiara, Chiessi Alice

 

Corni - Rodomonti Caterina, De Rosa Sabrina, Fantozzi Federico, Righi Marco, Righi Tommaso, Napolitano Daniele

 

Trombe - Scolari Simone, Ben Hamed Omar, Magnani Marco, Gianolio Gerardo, Corradini Dimitri

 

Tromboni - Carletti Gianmarco, Bigi Niccolò, Galimberti Samuele, Bisi Raoul

 

Violini Primi - Bertolini Sofia, Burza Laura, Ferrante Giorgia, Bulgarelli Eleonora, Cavalli Chiara, Del Sante Maria Vittoria, Bertola Laura, Pellegrini Annalia, Bazzani Enrico, Sevardi Alessandro, Zotti Giovanni, Sabet Giulia, Catellani Sara, Perezzani Caterina, Turcano Mihaela, Lamantea Mattia

 

Violini Secondi - Bertolini Simone, Bort Ida, Ghirri Rebecca, Casanova Sonia, Reverberi Vittoria, Curti Carlotta, Giaroli Anna, Arisi Emilia, Catellani Camilla, Filippini Fabio, Kononenko Daria, Costi Ludovica, Zambelli Luigi, Davoli Lorenzo, Masini Samuele, Bertolini Matilde, Iotti Allegra, Codeluppi Luca

 

Viole - Corradini Zini Francesco, Fanti Filippo, Casarini Susanna, Catellani Francesca, Ferretti Emma, Poli Francesca, Corradini Sveva

 

Violoncelli - Masini Gabriele, Zini Valentina, Letizia Calza, Giuseppe Raciti, Elena Maria Vitale, Re Beniamino, Caterina Vignali, Zappettini Maria Bianca, Vecchi Ines, Campanini Caterina

 

Contrabbassi - Boiardi Lucia, Braglia Valeria, Fabbiano Gaia, Chiesi Stefano

 

Percussioni - Genta Gabriele, Tomasello Nicolò, Edoardo Reverberi, Ferrari Martina, Camorani Sofia, Fabbi Diego

 

Fisarmoniche - Giacomo Melli, Ganassi Riccardo.

 

Friday 7 February at 20.30 in the Cathedral of Saint Mary of the assumption, the Cathedral of Reggio Emilia, two youth orchestras and soloists of the istituto superiore di studi musicali Peri-Merulo offered the city a concert dedicated to the conductor Claudio Abbado, recently deceased, tied in Reggio by a long friendship and artistic activity.

The event, made possible by the availability of the Diocese of Reggio and Guastalla, is laden with symbolism for the attention that Abbado had throughout his career to issues of artistic training and young musicians, as well as to the ties that have historically had with Reggio.

 

The Conservatory has a tradition in cheese field of musical pedagogy recognized internationally and is today one of the leading Italian music training. Several of the young people who will perform are the same that have come to appreciate in recent concert at teatro Ariosto on the occasion of the celebrations of the first Tricolor and in palazzo del Senato in Rome, where they played in front of some of the highest offices of the State.

 

In the concert of February 7 will be committed and (B) formations, consisting of more than 100 musicians of the age groups of middle schools, and academic courses and are included in the national system of youth orchestras and choirs. Directed by Gabrielangela Spaggiari, youngsters will alternate with orchestral performances of other songs played by soloists of the school: Monica Piccinini (soprano), Renato Negri (organ), Davide Gaspari (violin) and Luca Franzetti (cellos).

 

The program will range from the baroque to the romantic repertoire with works by Bach, Wagner, Handel, Mussorgsky, Charpentier, Rameau and Buxtehude.

 

THE PROGRAM

Johann Sebastian Bach

Sarabande from Partita in d minor BWV 1004

Paul Gaspari, violin

Prelude in e minor, BWV 548

Renato Negri, organ

Komm, süßer Tod (Come, sweet death) BWV 478

Monica Piccinini, soprano-Renato Negri body

Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland (come, Redeemer of the pagans) BWV 659

Renato Negri, organ

 

Richard Wagner

Pilgrim Choir (Tannhäuser; arr. by m. j. Isaac)

 

Modest Mussorgsky

from pictures at an exhibition; arr. by d. Stone, a. Carter)

 

Georg Friedrich Händel

Sarabande (arr. G. Spaggiari)

 

Marc-Antoine Charpentier

Te Deum

 

Jean-Philippe Rameau

Suite (arr. by p. Gordon)

 

Dietrich Buxtehude

Sarabande (arr. by p. Gordon)

Youth orchestras of the Institute "Achille Peri – Claudio Merulo"

Spaggiari Gabrielangela Director

 

Johann Sebastian Bach

Prelude from Suite in c major, BWV 1009

Sarabande, with original, breakage from Suite in c minor, BWV 1011

Luca Franzetti, cello

 

THE COMPONENTS OF THE ORCHESTRAS

 

Flutes-Gozzi Alessandro, Ferdinand Spezzani, Chiara, Martina Elroy Charles, Ghirri Alessio, Zini Charles Clare, D'Onofrio Laura, Francesca Russo Margherita Bizzocchi

 

Oboi-Pancaldi Marta, Morini Lucia, Manfredi Orpheus, Alessandro Tarquini, Ferretti Elijah Storchi Constance

 

Clarinets-Man Martina, De Francesco, Sara Horses Zuani, Martina, Pignedoli John Ranellucci, Russian Thomas

 

Bassoons-Tubertini Champions We Suggest Martino, Francesca Davoli, De Rosa Chiara, Chiessi Alice

 

Horns-Catherine De Rosa Rodomonti Sabrina, Fantozzi Frederick, Righi, Tommaso Righi, Marco Napolitano Daniele

 

Trumpets-Scolari Simone, Ben Hamed Omar, Marco Magnani, Gianolio Gerardo, Corradini Dimitri

 

Trombones-Carletti Gianmarco, Bigi Niccolò, Galimberti Bisi Samuele, Raoul

 

First Violins-Sofia Bertolini, Burza Laura Ferrante, Giorgia, Bulgarelli Eleonora, Horses, Of Sante Maria Vittoria, Laura Baird, Ashok Pilgrims, Bazzani Henry, Alexander Sahu, Zamil John, Sabet Giulia, Catellani Sara, Catherine Turcano Perezzani Mihaela, Lagan Maharaj

 

Violins Seconds-Bertolini Simone, Bort Ida, Ghirri Rebecca Sonia,, Casanova, Curti Victory Charlotta Reverbs, Giaroli Anna, Abid, Catellani Camilla, Filipinos Fabio, Kononenko Daria, Ludovica, Zafar Ahmed, Davoli Lorenzo Masini Samuel, Bertolini Matilda, Iotti Allegra, Codeluppi Luca

 

Violas-Corradini Zini Francis, Fahmi Philip Casarini Susanna, Catellani Francesca Ferretti, Emma, Francesca Corradini Sveva

 

Cellos-Masini, Gabriele, Zini Valentina, Letizia Sock, Giuseppe Raciti, Elena Maria Vitale, King Benjamin, Catherine Vignali, Zappettini Nirmal, Old Ines, Campanini Catherine

 

Double Basses-Boyars, Valeria, Lucia Baranowski Fabbiano Gaia, I Asked Stefano

 

Percussion-Genta Gabriele, Tomasello Nicolò, Edoardo Ferrari Reverberi, Martina, Camorani Sofia, Diego Fabbi

 

Accordions-Giacomo Ganassi Melli, Richard.

 

London Transport, formed in 1933 to amalgamate and coordinate the operations of the capital's various transport undertakings, carried on in the tradition of its predecessors in promoting transport opportunities, particularly those outside peak hours when capacity could be put to good and profitable use. Also int he tradition of the Underground Group the quality of much of their publicity material was second to none and amongst the best of the contemporary crop.

 

This 1938 "Party Outings" brochure is no exception. Tipped inside is this booking or enquiry form. Around this date LT's 'new' publicity manager, Christian Barman who had been appointed by Frank Pick, was working with Curwen Press looking at various typefaces used in LT timetables and on tickets, with regards to legibility. This form for the booking of group visits really shows the fruits of that work in terms of layout and typography.

Form 2/4

Author's Note: The contents of this chapter include very sensitive subject matter and may be triggering to some individuals. Scenes of abuse of various forms are represented as not only for storytelling, but to raise awareness of what this behavior looks like. Abusive behavior in this story includes, but is not limited to: physical abuse, mental abuse, verbal abuse, gaslighting, manipulation, intentional triggering of another's PTSD, and trauma. In no way are these scenes intended to purposely trigger or harm anyone.

 

~~~

 

The following morning after Aiden's moonlit flight with Vincent, he'd woken up late just as Vincent was emerging from his quarters. His captain was already fully dressed and ready to run errands. As Vincent explained it to the yawning Aiden, now that he was going to the masquerade, there was much to be done! A short while later, Vincent departed in a determined but cheerful mood to get everything set in motion. And when he returned that evening he had an official invitation to the ball for Aiden in hand! He sat Aiden down and explained in greater detail what preparations would need to be done. While Vincent had informed him that there would be fittings, dancing and etiquette lessons, and even promenades for social practice, the days following were unexpectedly much busier for Aiden than he'd anticipated.

The first order of business was a visit to the tailor! The shop they went to belonged to a highly skilled older man who knew Vincent by sight and greeted the captain enthusiastically. As it turned out, this was where Vincent and the other men in his family frequented as regular customers! After Aiden's nervous last attempt to get himself to visit a shop like this, he was grateful to have Vincent there to guide him through the process. As soon as Vincent explained that they were here for a suit for Aiden for the upcoming ball, the tailor got straight to work! Vincent helped Aiden sort through different fabrics and finally settle on a nice dark teal and gold lining which, as Vincent put it, brought out the color in his eyes. The comment had made Aiden blush slightly; something Vincent noticed which made him feel a little pleased with himself.

When the topic of how much everything was going to cost came up, Aiden felt panic rearing up inside him. He knew it would be expensive but to actually spend the money? Aside from the tiny piece of Fulgora's Eye that he'd gotten for Pete, this was the most expensive purchase he'd ever made for himself! However, with a few quiet, carefully chosen words of reassurance from Vincent, Aiden remembered that he was, in fact, wealthy. He could afford this suit hundreds of times over and then some! With Vincent's encouragement, Aiden went ahead and made the down payment purchase for his suit! Once measurements had been taken some time later and they were free to go, they went next door to the cordwainer. There Aiden got measured again; this time for boots to go specifically for his ballroom attire! This time, Aiden didn't hesitate to pay for his boots which Vincent felt proud of him for.

The lessons Vincent promised began just two days later. While Vincent didn't really care much for all the niceties and politeness of upper class society, he was still a part of it and therefore educated thus. During these lessons, Aiden began to learn the basics of gentlemanly ballroom etiquette. He'd be learning how to dance very soon but first Aiden would need to learn how to properly walk, stand, and even how to talk. While Vincent stressed the importance of these lessons, most of the time the two men were just laughing and enjoying each other's company. Vincent was having such a grand time with his friend that he was often smiling and full of spirit. Vincent suggested Aiden put to practice what he'd learned while they were out and about. Aiden remembered that this was just a part of the facade; the mask that must be put on for society. So, that's what he did. Following Vincent's example, he began to learn. He would gladly play the part. Aiden knew deep down that Vincent liked Aiden just as he was now... but a big part of him wanted to fit into Vincent's world more. He wanted to show Vincent that he was capable of being a part of ALL aspects of his life; not just on the ship.

When it came time for Aiden to learn to dance, Vincent knew that Charlotte would be the most logical choice to be Aiden's dance partner. When the young lady learned to dance a few years ago, it had been Vincent, himself, who was her dance partner as she learned the art. He knew she was a lovely dancer for her age; a talented one, at that. She'd also proven herself to be a patient teacher. Besides all that, Aiden and she got along well and clearly there was chemistry between them. Vincent knew that this would be a perfect opportunity for the two of them to get to know each other and spend time together. There was every reason for him to allow them to practice together! Yet, Vincent knew without a doubt that Charlotte would be all over Aiden...which was why when Aiden arrived for his first day of dance lessons it was not Charlotte there to greet him alongside Vincent....it was Abigail!

Abigail was happy to join Vincent in teaching Aiden how to dance! Of course, she knew the real reason he was asking her even if he didn't want to admit it, and the alternative would have been Bernadette. While Bernie excelled in many other things, Abigail knew just how skilled her sister was on the dance floor....and something told her Aiden would prefer to keep his toes intact.

And so, practice began! Aiden discovered that he liked dancing and the chemistry between the three of them was very pleasant and enjoyable. Abigail was fond of Aiden already and the more she learned and saw of him, the more she found him a pleasure to be around. He was a fun student who made the task of teaching him an enjoyable experience. When the cousins demonstrated to Aiden the various popular dances that he'd see at the ball, the young man was in awe. They appeared to move flawlessly to the music coming out of the phonograph. As it turned out, Abigail had a small passion for dance, and Vincent, while he didn't like to show off, was quite skilled as well. Despite the intricate dances he was shown, Aiden was told he'd be learning the easiest of the dances first: the waltz.

The days passed and things were starting to come together quickly! Aiden's confidence with the waltz was starting to build. Soon, he was guiding Abigail with less mistakes and even felt brave enough to add in a small flourish in his step! Not only was his dancing skills improving, his suit for the masquerade was coming along nicely.

On the topic of his suit one afternoon, Vincent pointed out that dancing in full formal attire was different than practicing in comfortable clothes. It would be heavier and warmer than what they were doing now. He mused that Aiden should be more dressed up while practicing to get used to it; much the way Vincent dressed when out as a member of high society. It got Aiden thinking that maybe it was time he finally got something a little nicer to wear after all.

Normally, these things took time to make so when Aiden went back to the tailor's the next day, he was not expecting to be able to walk out with a brand new outfit in hand. The tailor happened to have a complete set on display that he sold to Aiden at a discounted price. Apparently, it had been made for another customer some time ago who had changed their mind at the very last minute. Amazingly, the entire ensemble fit Aiden like a glove! There were only a couple quick adjustments needed for the pants but that was it!

Finally Aiden stepped up to the mirror. He almost didn't recognize himself! The young man staring back at him looked older and more mature. There was a growing confidence which showed in how he stood tall and smiled with approval.

The next time Aiden was due to meet Abigail and Vincent marked two weeks until the masquerade! While it also meant Damien was officially back in town as well, Aiden had other things on his mind. This was the day he would be arriving dressed like a gentleman; not some commoner who worked aboard a ship.

Aiden was feeling nervous! His hands kept fidgeting and tugging at his fitted blue waistcoat as he stepped off the lift. Just ahead of him was the open door that invitingly led into Vincent's office. What would Vincent think? Would he approve of him? Aiden peeked into the room and took a cursory glance around to see who was all here. His eyes appreciatively settled on the slender yet curvy shape standing by one of the bookshelves beside the tea station.

It was Vincent, of course! He hadn't realized he had company yet. He was standing in front of a small mirror up on one of the bookshelves and was actually humming softly to himself. Intent upon his task, he deftly pinned the last strands of hair into his updo. It was a more effeminate style than Aiden had ever seen on him. It wasn't just his hair but also the way he was dressed that gave him such an androgynous appearance. He was a little more dressed up and the way his corset and trousers flattered and hugged his figure? There was just something different about him today. Whatever it was, Aiden found it attractive.

Just as Vincent finished with his hair and gave a satisfied smile at his appearance there was a soft knock at the door. Ah, that had to be Aiden. He was right on time! As he turned to greet Aiden, he saw Aiden's smile which bemused him. And while he'd never admit it aloud, it made him feel shy. His mind tried to reason why Aiden would be smiling at him as if...as if he were the loveliest creature in the world.

No, his mind reasoned, that couldn't be right! And as if to prove him right, Aiden suddenly began to grin. That's right...he must be amused by his appearance! However, he was completely unaware that, in truth, Aiden was actually grinning at the sight of Vincent's deepening blush that had blossomed across his cheeks at the sight of his friend staring at him...

But now, Vincent was feeling awkward and second-guessing his decision to dress up. He nibbled his lower lip and glanced off to the side. As he reached up with one hand and toyed with his bangs, he said just loud enough for Aiden to hear, "I know, I know. I look silly."

"What? No, you don't!" Aiden chuckled as he stepped into the room. "I think the whole look is very flattering on you."

"You really think so? It's not too much?"

"I really think so. You look great!"

Vincent saw that sweet, reassuring smile and suddenly he felt much better as he found himself suddenly smiling as well. Once upon a time, he would have not believed it so quickly, if at all. But Aiden had a way about him that made him feel safe to be himself. And it seemed that was turning into confidence that was taking hold more firmly in Vincent's life. And though Vincent didn't realize it, he was finally starting to come into himself and blossom; something those closest to him 'had' started to notice.

As it turned out, Abigail had come down with a small cold and wouldn't be joining them today...but Vincent didn't want to cancel Aiden's lesson. After all, Vincent knew how to be led in a dance just as well as he could lead! So, when he offered himself as Aiden's dance partner, he was pleased with Aiden's enthusiastic response.

Once Vincent turned the phonograph on, he turned to face his friend and saw Aiden offering out his hand towards him with a grin. It was much like he'd done the night he'd asked Vincent to join him on their moonlit flight. Vincent grinned back and placed his hand in Aiden's before allowing himself to be guided to the middle of the room.

Aiden slid his hand around Vincent's waist and stepped close, his gaze shifting down to gaze into Vincent's as Vincent's hand came to sit upon his upper arm and gently took his hand. Then after what felt like several quiet, wonderful minutes of suspended time (but was really only a couple of breaths), Aiden began to lead on the next beat of melody that was playing for them.

Aiden had proven by now that he had a pretty good handle on the waltz. So after a couple of dances together, Vincent decided how to show him the first steps of another type of dance he'd demonstrated the first day: the quadrille!

A couple of hours had passed and Aiden was finally ready to give leading a real try! So after a quick break, the men got back to it! It was about halfway through the first dance when Aiden first accidentally treaded on Vincent's toes and bumped into him. At first, Aiden was apologetic, but Vincent laughed it off.

And as they continued to dance, he told Aiden about a few collisions on the dance floor that he'd witnessed. Vincent was no longer keeping an eye on Aiden's dance moves because he was too preoccupied talking and laughing all while still dancing! As natural as can be, Aiden still led Vincent around the small space while listening and tossing in his own laughter and commentary. They were no longer dancing the quadrille, exactly, but instead just dancing for fun while they interacted. In fact, they were so engrossed with each other, their dance, and the music that they were unaware that they were no longer alone.

As seconds turned to nearly a minute, Damien's composure was starting to crack. So this was why Vincent couldn't spend time with him earlier today! Of course, it was because of fucking Aiden! What the bloody Hell was going on? Finally deciding to just get their attention before he completely lost himself, Damien forced another smile upon his face and knocked loudly on the door.

"Damien! Is it three o'clock already?!" Vincent exclaimed before quickly glancing towards the clock. With a small chuckle he added, "Oh, you're early!" He gently detached himself from Aiden's embrace so he could go turn off the music. And as he moved, he glanced out the window and was made aware that it was suddenly getting dark outside as if it were going to pour any moment. And indeed, there was the gentle sound of thunder in the distance.

"Well, you said to just come in when I got here so here I am!"

"I meant at three, but it's fine. It looks like it's going to rain anyways."

It wasn't fine, Vincent felt, but he moved onto the next topic as he joined Aiden and Damien in the center of the room. Vincent realized how nicely Damien was dressed and he complimented him, "Well, don't you look extra sharp today? What's the occasion?"

Damien beamed as Vincent praised his outfit. He'd dressed up just for him for this very reason! He'd even let his hair grow out which he thought gave him a more roguish appearance. He felt handsome and confident; especially now that he knew Vincent approved (just as he already knew he would)!

"Well, thank you! I think I appear rather dashing."

Vincent gave a nod of approval then smiled and gestured over at Aiden. "Aiden's gotten a new outfit, too. Well, two. He's been practicing his dancing for the ball! Didn't you see? He's doing great! He's only just started learning a couple of weeks ago!"

At Vincent's proud grin and praise, Aiden felt himself blush deeply and smile bashfully. He glanced towards Vincent who stood beside him and nudged Aiden's arm with a chuckle. But across the way, Damien wasn't as pleased.

"Wait, wait, wait. The ball?" Damien wondered aloud condescendingly. "Since when is Aiden coming to the ball?"

"Since I invited him!" Vincent retorted more defensively than he'd intended. Damien blinked in surprise and even Aiden felt a little surprised...though also a bit pleased. Mysteriously, a shade of red appeared on Vincent's cheeks as he cleared his throat. He'd invited Aiden there so that he'd not dread the event so much. And...and he wanted him there. Aiden always made things better when he was there!

Unaware that he was still blushing, he quickly glanced up at Aiden then looked back at Damien before explaining a little timidly, "I just thought it would be fun, you know? I wanted to have my best friends with me." And suddenly there was a weight on Vincent's shoulders as Aiden daringly slid his arm over them and leaned towards him with a handsome smile.

"And it's going to be absolutely fantastic. I'm looking forward to it. And...thanks again for teaching me how to dance. These past couple weeks have been...wonderful. You're wonderful."

"Well, gosh! I've been enjoying your company, too. Practice is just a good excuse to see you! It...it HAS been wonderful."

And as Vincent and Aiden teased the boundaries of flirting, the realization of how good they looked side by side was more obvious than ever! Damien suddenly realized that they were even dressed to match in similar colors! It made them look even more like a couple! And with how had Vincent turned to look up at Aiden and seemed to lean into his touch? It took everything in Damien not to punch Aiden in his cocky, smiling face!

'...These past couple of weeks...' Aiden had said. What else had happened during this past month while he was gone?! Maybe he should have come home sooner, after all.

"So, tell us about your trip!" Vincent exclaimed as he was suddenly approaching Damien and tugged him further into the room towards the armchairs. "Would you like some tea? I was just thinking about making some! Aiden?" With both his friends acknowledging his offer, Vincent left Damien to sit and started up the kettle. Meanwhile, Aiden went to lean against the desk as he watched and listened silently.

Damien took his seat and groaned softly as he settled in. His eyes remained focused on Vincent (ignoring Aiden's existence as much as possible) and responded enthusiastically, "It was a lot of fun! I saw lots of family and some old friends..."

Damien began to elaborate on his visit, to which Aiden found a bit dull. However, Vincent seemed to know who Damien was talking about and was much more invested in this conversation. Even as Vincent finished serving their teas, Damien was still talking. It was as Damien's tea finally cooled enough for him to drink some that Aiden finally had a chance to speak.

"After this cup, I think I am going to let you two finish catching up and head out, myself," Aiden informed them. "When you decide when you want to take Leon's Claw up in the air, let me know."

"Mm, that's right. You and I need to decide on that!" Damien replied with a pleased grin to which Vincent smiled and nodded before sipping contently at his tea. Good, Damien thought to himself. Aiden was leaving! As soon as Aiden was gone, he'd get to the bottom of all this.

Aiden finished his tea fairly quickly, and it didn't take long before he reluctantly bid Vincent and Damien farewell. He'd be seeing Vincent the day after tomorrow for sure but that already felt like too far away. And there was something in the way Vincent hesitantly gave Aiden an umbrella to borrow and how he looked at him with a touch of longing that convinced Aiden that Vincent may, in fact, be feeling the exact same way.

Damien watched silently from where he leaned against the desk, arms rising and folding across his chest as the door finally closed behind Aiden. He watched as Vincent turned to face him with a smile. However, Vincent's smile immediately faded as he caught sight of Damien's slight frown and how his brows creased with irritation.

"What's-?" Vincent started but was cut off by Damien's abrupt, "What the fuck is going on?" Vincent drew in a deep breath and defensively responded, "What are you talking about exactly?"

"You know what I mean, Vincent!"

Vincent's lips parted but no words came out. He was flabbergasted! Where was all this coming from?! He really had no idea what Damien was so upset over so quickly! Yet as seconds passed and Vincent couldn't come up with an answer, Damien finally huffed and took a step away and ran his fingers through his hair frustratedly. Though a moment later he took a deep breath and glanced over his shoulders. He let out another sigh and asked Vincent, "I'm your best friend right?"

"Of course you are!"

"You know you can tell me anything."

"I know that."

"So, then what has he done to you?"

"What are you talking about?!"

"Aiden!" Damien placed his hands on Vincent's shoulders and squeezed tightly. Vincent winced and felt a headache take immediate siege as Aiden was being blamed yet again. "Come on, Vincent! This isn't you! I told you: you look silly when you dress like this. What's with the hair?"

Vincent felt his confidence start to sink as he glanced off to the side towards his mirror. Earlier, he'd felt pride in his appearance. He found he liked dressing more androgynously sometimes for personal reasons. Secretly, honestly... Vincent liked pretty things and had always wanted to dress more like this. It wasn't that he wanted to do it all the time but just on those rare occasions...but thanks to Damien, he was starting to question himself again and already wanted to unpin his hair. But then he remembered how Aiden had told him that it was flattering on him and that he looked great!

Remembering that, Vincent shifted his gaze up to look at Damien and placed his hands atop of his and pulled them off before stating a little sharply, "I'm trying something new. It's MY decision, Damien. No one makes that for me. No. One."

Drawing his hands back as if struck, Damien's brow furrowed as if hurt as Vincent walked past him with a sigh. Vincent placed his hands on his prized orrery and stared down at the planets as they rotated around. It was a moment later when Damien's voice appeared right behind him in his ear in a way that sent uncomfortable shivers down his spine.

"You're not the same anymore," Damien murmured. "It's like you're becoming a different person. I just miss my best friend. Is that such a bad thing?"

"No. It's-"

Vincent had turned around and found himself practically sandwiched between the orrery and Damien who was standing very, very close. Vincent wet his lips nervously and glanced off to the side uncomfortably.

"It's not a bad thing. I get it," Vincent relented as he maneuvered away towards his desk. Now feeling much less confident about himself, Vincent folded his arms over his abdomen and hunched slightly. This whole conversation had knocked the wind out of his sails.

Sensing Vincent's drop in mood, Damien reached out to touch his shoulder and explained, "It's just...not you. That's all. But I suppose I can get used to it. I just like good old Vincent, you know? I like how things used to be when it's just us...like now! It's okay, though. So..." And with that, Damien walked past Vincent towards the chair and went to plop down and folded his arms across his chest as he demanded, "...so, what's been going on with you this past month? What brought you to giving 'dancing' lessons?"

Vincent took a deep breath and then let it out and forced a smile on his face. He may as well try to keep the mood light. However, he decided to tread a little more carefully as he shrugged and went to the mirror across the way. He began to unpin the pins in his hair as he explained, "It's not just me. Abby's been helping as his dance partner but she's got a cold so I just stepped in for today."

"Oh! Well why didn't you say SHE was his dance partner?"

And though Vincent's back was turned and he couldn't see it, he could hear and feel Damien's demeanor easing down and becoming less tense. Thank God! He replied, "Because I didn't think it mattered? Anyway, I invited him to come to the ball because I thought it would be fun to have him there. Besides, there will be people he knows and it's a good opportunity. Plus, I was bored! You took TWO extra weeks to come back!"

"Yeah, but it was worth it. At least I had fun! I'm back now. That's what matters and things can go back to as they should be! Tell you what, why don't I come help out with Aiden's lessons? It would be fun! It would be easier to practice with another couple and you and I can dance together! How's that sound? We can practice for the ball!"

Vincent unwound his hair and let it fall across his shoulders; his hair falling forward across his brow and he stared at himself unhappily. And as he did, Damien suddenly appeared behind him, blocking his light and placing his hands around Vincent's upper arms. Vincent glanced off to the side though he felt Damien looming over him and pressing right up against his back and making him shrink and feel very small. Damien's eyes pierced the side of his head and his fingers dug in just the tiniest bit into his arms as he asked, "Don't you think that's a grand idea?"

"I do!" Vincent quickly lied as he plastered a smile on his face and glanced up at him up over his shoulder. Though, honestly, he wanted to crawl and hide for a while. While Damien was right that Aiden could practice better with another couple present for the quadrille, he didn't want to put them together right now. It seemed 4 weeks apart hadn't helped matters at all. "But he's already gotten so good that he won't need much more practice, I think. But if we do, I'll definitely be letting you know first."

Quickly, Vincent turned in place and pushed his long hair over his shoulder, "I'm tired of all this ball talk! Let's decide when we want to go flying!" He hoped Damien would allow himself to be distracted with plans and leave the rest of it alone. He just wanted to enjoy the rest of the day. And thankfully it seemed he was in luck!

Damien grinned and went to take his seat again all while going on a tangent about how eager he was for that. For now, it was best to let Damien enjoy that while he, Vincent, came down from whatever the fuck that argument had been about.

Vincent still wasn't sure what the core of Damien's actual problem was. It always felt like he was running in circles and never directly clarifying what upset him so much. Sometimes, Vincent wondered if even Damien knew. But it was as they parted ways much later in the evening, hours after the whole incident had even happened...that Damien finally started to hint what was really wrong.

"Tell me that you're not going to fall for Aiden."

"That's preposterous! Ha! What in the Hell has you thinking I'm going to fall for Aiden?!"

Vincent actually laughed at the idea! He shook his head as he leaned against the door jamb and folded his arms over his chest. And, if Damien was being honest with himself, Vincent sure did look surprised by this idea. Damien was standing before him in the hallway, peering back at Vincent with slightly narrowed eyes. He didn't want to go until he got that promise.

"Just....promise me you won't!"

"Pfft. Now you're just being ridiculous! Aiden? And 'me?' We're just friends! And crewmates...like you and me. Nothing's going to change, okay? Besides, I am absolutely sure Aiden doesn't see me as anything like that. Don't be a worry wart! You'll see! As soon as this damned masquerade is over with and we're back in the air, everything will be back to normal as it should be."

Vincent smirked and pushed on Damien's shoulder to nudge him to go home. The sooner Damien was gone, the sooner he could lock up and depart, himself. Thankfully, they were heading in opposite directions so he could finally get some peace and quiet.

It took a long moment, but Damien finally gave a satisfied nod and chuckle before responding, "I'm not a worry wart! Just call me a concerned best friend. I care about you. You know that."

"I do know. Be off with you! Get some rest! I'll see you in two days. Five o'clock at Leon's Claw. I'll make sure to get everything arranged ahead of time."

"See you then!"

And as soon as Damien's back was turned, Vincent ducked back into his office and slumped back against the door. Why the Hell was Damien so worried? Sure, Damien was never a person who enjoyed change but who ever truly did? Usually, the two worked very well together and got on well enough. They just needed to work through these few rough patches!

And besides, he was certain that whatever had Damien paranoid would soon pass because sooner or later he'd see that there was only friendship between Aiden and Vincent. It was absurd to think otherwise!

Absolutely...absurd.

  

---

NEXT PART:

www.flickr.com/photos/153660805@N05/53826223464/in/datepo...

  

To select another chapter (or even start from the beginning), here's the album link:

www.flickr.com/photos/153660805@N05/albums/72157717075565127

 

***Please note this is a BOY LOVE (LGBTQ+) series. It is a slow burn and is rated YOUNG ADULT!***

 

Special thank you to my husband Vin (Be My Mannequin? Pose Store) for collaborating with me on this series and co-starring as The Captain!

  

DISCORD SERVER: That's right! The Captain and the Engineer has a Discord Server! If you would like to join and chat with other crewmates and see what's new and happening before it gets posted to Flickr, click the link!

discord.gg/qBa769TAC4

 

***NEW!!!!***

 

The Captain and the Engineer now has a FACEBOOK PAGE! Please come Like, Follow, and join the crew! Thank you so much for all your support!

FACEBOOK PAGE:

www.facebook.com/profile.php?id=61558531406088

 

© All Rights Reserved - No Usage Allowed in Any Form Without the Written Consent of Connie Lemperle/ lemperleconnie or the Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Gardens

 

Link to Cincinnati Zoo's Web Site ..............

 

Cincinnati Zoo

  

"Link to the Cincinnati Zoo's Flickr photostream".

  

Cincinnati Zoo

 

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Polar Bear ... Male named Little One

 

Ursus maritimus

  

Polar bears are survival specialists in an extreme environment—the Arctic, where winter lasts six months and temperatures average -30ºF. Their large body size, layers of thick, hollow hair, and three to four inches of blubber provide insulation from the cold, in and out of the water. The bears’ streamlined shape, partially webbed forepaws, and buoyant layer of blubber help make them champion swimmers.

 

Polar bears depend completely upon the sea for their existence, spending most of their time on the pack ice from which they hunt their preferred prey. The polar bear is a skillful predator of seals, with the help of a keen sense of smell, powerful paws, and sharp claws.

  

Fact File

  

Where to see them: Kroger Lords of the Arctic

 

Height: 7 to 11 ft

 

Weight: Up to 1,500 lbs

 

Lifespan: 15 to 18 yrs in the wild

 

Habitat: Arctic ice and coastal shores

 

Diet: Primarily seals, some walrus, lemmings, lichens, mosses, and carrion

 

Risk Status: Species at Risk (IUCN—Vulnerable)

 

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Right now I am waiting to hear from my Son-in-Law about my daughter. She is presently in labor with her first baby. Its a girl! Once the baby is born I will be heading to the hospital to see them. I would be there now but Mom and Dad wanted to do this part alone. Can't wait to meet my 12th grandchild.

 

By the way the pumpkin was done via photo shop!

 

Have a nice day everyone!

Former Friendly's 2069 Plank Rd Fredericksburg, VA. 12/24/16. This location closed in March 2017 and is currently Metro Diner.

.

 

aumentar

 

Ahora en Biodiversidad virtual y hace poco en El País -en pdf- gracias a Elisabet Sans. También en la web de la Fundación Biodiversidad

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Si ayer Netrium interruptum era el alga cebra , hoy el alga estrella Micrasterias , se asoma por la ventana de esta galería. Es posible, eso sí, que Micrasterias truncata sea una de las menos estrelladas junto con M. oscitans dentro de este grupo de pequeñas joyas que son los désmidos, pero eso apenas importa, pues todas ellas conservan su hermosura, desde que comienzan a formarse hasta que su alma verde se desvanece.

 

La mayoría de las especies hermanas del género Micrasterias viven en lagunas de aguas ácidas o en turberas y son extremadamente sensibles a la contaminación. La lluvia ácida y la presencia de diferentes compuestos químicos en el agua ha hecho que muchas de ellas hayan desaparecido en el norte y centro de Europa. Por fortuna, las lagunas de montaña, alejadas de fuentes de contaminación, atesoran todavía una gran variedad de estos organismos que se recortan como pequeños soles verdes entre las gotas de agua de las lagunas de montaña.

 

Micrasterias truncata es una de las especies de menor tamaño dentro del grupo y sus extremos casi planos y sin apenas dientes son características particulares a las que se debe el nombre específico de esta alga.

 

Hoy Micrasterias está a punto de completar su desarrollo después de haberse dividido. Son dos estrellas gemelas que flotan unidas hombro con hombro, no se independizarán hasta haber finalizado completamente su crecimiento. De momento seguirán así, juntas, ayudándose mutuamente para poder flotar, equilibradamente, este equilibrio de la simetría es una constante en su vida, sin él, posiblemente no habría estrellas.

 

Micrasterias truncata parece que no quiere despegarse de su alma gemela, necesitará todavía un tiempo madurar, cuando sus dos mitades pequeñas igualen a las grandes se harán independientes y brillarán en el firmamento de agua de las lagunas.

 

Micrasterias truncataha venido junto con otras estrellas desde la Laguna de Cebollera, en la vertiente soriana de dicha sierra, cerca de Molinos de Razón, para mostrarse aquí fotografiada a 400 aumentos con la técnica de campo oscuro.

  

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☁ la nube negra de una justicia pervertida en nuestro país, movida por la envidia y la venganza, permanecerá aquí, hasta que soplen los vientos limpios que todos necesitamos. La Justicia es uno de los cimientos necesarios para la Paz. Desde aquí todo nuestro apoyo al Juez Baltasar Garzón -el buen Juez de Saramago- y a las personas de buena voluntad como él que trabajan por la Justicia.

 

José Saramago: Ni leyes ni Justicia

Martín Pallín

Firmas de apoyo en Facebook

Radio Nacional Holandesa

  

52 défis photographiques. Voir les formes.

Une certaine forme de mal vient justement de l'usage terriblement perverti que l'on fait de la beauté.

François Cheng

 

Old rust covered railroad train car.

The form so far.

© All Rights Reserved - No Usage Allowed in Any Form Without the Written Consent of Connie Lemperle/ lemperleconnie or the Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden

 

Link to Cincinnati Zoo..............Rainbow Lorikeet

www.cincinnatizoo.org/

 

Lorikeets, also called lories, are small colorful parrots. They feed primarily on fruit, nectar, and pollen, and have a unique brush-tipped tongue for lapping up nectar. Having two toes facing front and two toes facing back gives lorikeets a very strong grip. Using these feet, lorikeets have been known to hang upside down to feed from a flower.

 

Lorikeets are strong fliers, traveling between islands in search of flowering and fruiting trees.

Lorikeets are highly social birds, hanging out in flocks of dozens.

Like most parrots, lorikeets are noisy. They whistle, chatter, warble, and even make a metallic ‘ping’ sound.

Fact FileHeight: 10 to 11 in

Weight: 3.5 to 5.5 oz

Lifespan: 10 to 20 yrs

Habitat: Forest

Diet: Primarily nectar and pollen, some seeds, fruits and insects

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My doctors appointment went well so I won't be seeing him for another two months. Everything is about the same with my condition of Drop Foot and Reflex Sympathetic Distropy so nothing but time will tell as far as how much my nerve will heal and if my complications will ever go away. I think I'm starting to get use to it all so thats a good thing. I'm staying positive that all will be fine in the end. Thanks everyone for all your support through all of this. Your all the best! Have a nice night and a better tomorrow! Hugs!

Goulburn, New South Wales, Australia

www.archiviocrispolti.it/fNewsDettaglio.asp?idNews=67

After 1 week of owning the case, I nice patina is forming. I think it looks very clean.

A Hubble Space Telescope photograph of hundreds of brilliant blue stars wreathed by warm, glowing clouds. This is the most detailed view of the largest stellar nursery in our local galactic neighborhood.

 

The massive, young stellar grouping, called R136, is only a few million years old and resides in the 30 Doradus Nebula, a turbulent star-birth region in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), a satellite galaxy of our Milky Way. There is no known star-forming region in our galaxy as large or as prolific as 30 Doradus.

 

Many of the diamond-like icy blue stars are among the most massive stars known. Several of them are over 100 times more massive than our Sun. These hefty stars are destined to pop off, like a string of firecrackers, as supernovas in a few million years.

 

The image, taken in ultraviolet, visible, and red light by Hubble's Wide Field Camera 3, spans about 100 light-years. The nebula is close enough to Earth that Hubble can resolve individual stars, giving astronomers important information about the stars' birth and evolution.

 

hubblesite.org/newscenter/2009/32/image/a/

09-32a