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www.youtube.com/channel/UCkNYo1uLNy67xCfeyc1h-ZQ?sub_conf... The purpose of creating and assigning 5G networks
Previous generation mobile communication networks had the following purposes and functionality:
1G: Analog Voice Service
2G: Voice over digital network services, low speed data services (GPRS, EDGE)
3G: High-speed data services (HSPA), with the ability to transmit voice over IP, mobile Internet access MBB (Mobile Broadband).
4G: LTE, LTE-A Mobile Broadband MBB, Voice over Voice (VoLTE)
5G networks greatly expand the limited functionality of previous generation mobile networks. The main functional features of 5G networks are as follows:
EMBB Advanced Mobile Broadband (enhanced MBB)
Ultra-Low Latency Reliable Communication (ULLRC) Massive IoT / IIoT, mMTC (massive Machine Type Communication)
Based on these three generalized types of functionality, the whole variety of services and capabilities of IMT2020 (5G) networks is built, the most characteristic of which are shown in the figure below:
The variety of functional capabilities of IMT2020 / 5G networks. Source: Emerging Trends in 5G / IMT2020, 2016, ITU
Gigabytes per second. 5G networks can significantly increase the speed of data transmission through various radio access technologies (RAT), and by using the new 5G NR radio frequency spectra (New Radio). The user gets almost unlimited bandwidth, both for home use of various services, and for the purposes of enterprises (Immersive Telepresence, Industrial IoT, etc.)
Smart House. A wide range of different Internet of Things (IoT) services will be available for the Smart Home and Smart Building solutions: video surveillance, control and automation of household appliances, security systems management, content storage, climate control, etc.
Smart city. The Smart City solution is a horizontal and vertical scaling of the functionality and range of Smart Home services. Main services of Smart City: Safe City, e-Government e-Government, e-Health e-Health, e-Education e-Education, e-Banking e-banking, Smart Meters utilities electronic collection, Smart Grid smart grids, etc. .
New 4K / 8K video services: Volumetric video, ultra-high definition (UHD) screen, presence effect option.
Work in the cloud. The service makes it possible not only to store data in a cloud storage and retrieve it from there, but also to use application programs that work directly from the cloud. Moreover, with the possibility of them but also use applications that work directly from the cloud. Moreover, with the possibility of them
use on any device and from any location. In addition, it is possible to use APIs through which cloud service providers can provide their services to subscribers of a 5G network operator.
Augmented and virtual reality (AR / VR). The virtual reality service VR (Virtual Reality) immerses a person in another world, influencing his senses, especially his vision (VR glasses). Augmented Reality AR (Augmented Reality) service combines a real environment for a user with virtual objects. These services are suitable not only for entertainment, games, virtual communication in the "telepresence" mode, but can also significantly improve the learning process, when students using VR glasses can, for example, visually see the internal structure of a person at a lecture on anatomy, a master in the workshop can study the assembly order of a complex unit, etc.
Industrial Automation. The 5G network, coupled with the technology of the Internet of things IoT, with the help of industrial sensors IIoT (Industrial Internet of things), as well as with the help of artificial intelligence, AI (AI, Artificial Intelligence) can significantly increase the degree of automation of production. At the same time, it becomes possible in real time to analyze large volumes of heterogeneous data (Big Data) both based on the findings (insights) and using machine and deep learning (Machine learning, Deep learning).
Business Critical Applications These applications may include, for example, electronic medicine (e-Health), emergency communications (Mission Critical Communication), tactile Internet (Tactile Internet) and others.
Unmanned vehicles (Driverless Vehicles). Unmanned transport can act as part of the Smart City service, however, it can be provided on its own platform. It includes not only unmanned vehicles (driverless cars), but also unmanned tractors for “smart agriculture” (Smart Agriculture), unmanned trains for the metro and suburban railways, drones and other types of public and special transport. In addition, on the 5G platform, the implementation of ADAS (Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems) driver assistance systems is possible.
It should be emphasized that the figure above shows only some of the services and solutions of the 5G platform. Unlike the networks of previous generations, the range of services of which was strictly limited and somewhat expanded in 4G, the services of the 5G platform are synergistic and scalable, and are not limited to once defined functionality. In fact, 5G plays the role of a platform for the development of new services and DevOps applications, when new functions are created by developers (Development) in close coordination with the teams who are responsible for their implementation and operation (Operation).
In general, we can say that the 5G network incorporates not only mobile, but also fixed communication services, as well as high-speed Internet access with low latency and, in addition, specialized and corporate networks for vertical industries.
5G / IMT2020 platform versatility
Due to the fifth generation networks, it will also be possible to improve the quality of the use of existing services where large volumes of traffic are involved.
Theodore Sizer, vice president of wireless technology at Bell Labs, noted that there will be a wide variety of devices running on 5G networks. Smartphones and tablets will not go anywhere, but besides them, a whole “zoo” of various devices will appear on the network, including CCTV cameras, weather sensors, sensors of “smart” electric networks, “smart” houses and cars.
Ericsson said that 5G will usher in the long-term development of the Networked Society:
South Korean operator SK Telecom, one of the first companies to demonstrate 5G technology in action, at the initial stage of deployment of new generation networks focuses on ordinary users as the main consumers of services, company representatives told TAdviser in February 2016. Thanks to 5G, users can watch 3D-TV without glasses, download in seconds or watch UltraHD video online at high speed.
It will also be possible to use virtual and augmented reality applications at a new level, according to SK Telecom. For example, include elements of augmented reality in the educational process, creating virtual museums and models of the universe in the classrooms.
In the projects of “smart cities” 5G will allow real-time transmission of information from a much larger number of sensors at various objects. Qualcomm's senior director of product management for mobile technology, Sanjeev Athalye, notes that it will be possible to deploy a thousand sensors instead of a hundred, for servicing which there will be a sufficiently smaller number of base stations than with existing networks. These can be, for example, sensors for monitoring the state of housing and communal services objects, sensors for “smart lighting” or sound sensors installed for safety and order in the city. In the latter case, the sensors can detect suspicious or too loud sounds, and this information will be automatically transmitted to law enforcement.
New services using 5G can also be implemented in medicine. For example, to organize remote monitoring of patients. The doctor will be able to quickly receive information from special sensors and monitor the condition of patients around the clock.
Thanks to its very low latency, 5G will also open up more possibilities for remote operations using the robot. Such a service is especially relevant for small settlements where there are no surgeons in the field: controlling the manipulations of the robot, the operation can be performed by a specialist located in a completely different place. Due to 5G, such a service can be deployed in wireless networks.
The low data latency that next-generation networks can provide is also important for the deployment of smart power networks. Using sensors will allow you to instantly detect damage on the power line and block the spread of the consequences of damage further along the line. Thus, damage will affect fewer consumers of electricity.
In large manufacturing companies, in retail, logistics, 5G will make it possible to use more industrial robots that perform various functions instead of people and drones. The latter are already used in some industries, but are most often managed using Wi-Fi networks. 5G will allow you to cover a greater distance than Wi-Fi networks, and due to the low latency - increase the stability of such systems. For example, Amazon has a project to deploy a system for delivering goods using drones.
An example of services for which 5G will have an advantage is urban surveillance systems. 5G will help simplify their deployment and use. Now traffic from thousands of cameras in cities is mainly transmitted via fixed networks. To deploy such an infrastructure is not an easy task, since it is necessary to lay many wires. With 5G, you can receive terabytes of high-quality video
permissions without the use of wires.
Another example is a vehicle monitoring service in companies. Qualcomm’s Sanjeev Atali believes that with the advent of a new generation of networks, operators who provide such a service will be able to reduce its cost. This will be possible due to the fact that the cost of one 5G base station will be lower than the cost of stations for existing networks, and also due to the fact that one base station can simultaneously serve more devices, respectively, less base stations will be required for the service.
First Aberdeen operated ADL Enviro400 Facelift SN12 AEW - 33675 - is pictured working a service on route 15 towards Countesswells via Airyhall.
This vehicle was wearing the First Olympia livery at the time but has since been repainted into the Aberdeen Urban livery. It is one of 6 ex-Manchester E400s with Aberdeen.
Date Taken: April 19th, 2024
Device Used: iPhone 12 Pro Max
Date Uploaded: May 12th, 2025
Upload Number: 1403
Interested in seeing some bus videos? You'll find buses both real and virtual on my YouTube channel, as well as other cool bus-themed stuff too! - www.youtube.com/@ZZ9sTransport
© ZZ9's Transport Photography (ZZ9 Productions). All Rights Reserved. Modification, redistribution, reuploading and the like is prohibited without prior written permission from myself.
colour without line.
Da ich sehr an der Linie klebe, habe ich mir als Übung das Malen nur mit Farbflächen auferlegt (ohne Vorzeichnung).
© All Rights Reserved - No Usage Allowed in Any Form Without the Written Consent of Connie Lemperle/ lemperleconnie or the Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden
Link to Cincinnati Zoo..............Lemur
Also a new group to join for anyone who has Ohio Zoo pictures!
www.flickr.com/groups/ohio_zoos/
Also check out Zoos Around the World group!
www.flickr.com/groups/zoos_around_the_world/
Thanks everyone for your well wishes! I truly appreciate them! Hugs!
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London | Architecture | Night Photography
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The Lloyd's building (also sometimes known as The Inside-Out Building)[1] is the home of the insurance institution Lloyd's of London, and is located at One Lime Street, in the City of London, England.
It was designed by architect Richard Rogers and built between 1978 and 1986. Bovis was the management contractor for the scheme.[2] Like the Pompidou Centre (designed by Renzo Piano and Rogers), the building was innovative in having its services such as staircases, lifts, electrical power conduits and water pipes on the outside, leaving an uncluttered space inside. The twelve glass lifts were the first of their kind in the UK. It is important to note that (like this Centre Pompidou) this building was highly influenced by the work of Archigram in the 1950's and 60's
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyd%27s_building
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Its a Lloyds Architecture at Night - London
This is one of the oldest photographs from my photography archives. Every so often, I would open it and work on it, but was never satisfied with the results. Then, the other day, something told me to go back and start again. So I did, and here it is.
Non chiedetemi cosa ci fosse di così interessante dentro quel buco.... con Indi certe domande sono superflue!!
26 by 26 Challenge #15: Take a portrait without showing the face. – Tom Broadbent
Way out of my comfort zone to make portraits other than of my family, and to ask to make an actual portrait without showing the face would even be harder to explain, so I've got this offering instead. On holiday in Bali ! Even in paradise there are lots of workers ! Although to be fair this lady tends to the Balinese altars on the hotel grounds. In B&W because the lush colours would distract and now the scene is almost timeless, and a bit surreal
Explore highest place #105 on 07/10/13, thanks so very much for the views, comments and faves ! I'm overwhelmed by how many people have viewed this and all the faves !
Ladies and gentlemen, welcome to Tuesday Night Fights! Approaching the ring is MISTER BARRACUUUUDAAA, or better known as, the ROOOOBIIN MAAAASK!!!!
This guy again! How many versions does he have?? *
At least five since this is "E".
Don't forget 'Mr. Barracuda'.
Ah, yes! Will we ever know all the versions of Robin Mask?
It's good you asked! Perhaps we need a history-
NO!
Please, not again! Not like with Warsman! **
-so, without further ado-
No, please!
More ado!
We'll ado!
-here is the history of ROBIN MASK!
Prehistory
Robin Mask stands at an imposing 217cm/7'1". He weighs in at 155kg/341 lbs. He is blood type 'A'! He hails from England and is a Seigi Chojin of 960,000 power! He has teamed with Warsman, Kinnikuman and Terry the Kid. He is the master of the Tower Bridge and the Robin Special.
Though he began as a villain, Robin Mask soon became one of the most essential members of the justice Chojin (Justice Supermen) team. Robin wore knight-type armor made out of sapphire (later remade out of steel), and wearing the armor reduced his strength, giving his opponent a fair chance at beating him. Although Robin is only a few years older than most of the cast, he is considered the veteran of the group and often comes up with the teams’ overall battle plan.
Robin Mask often wears a blue undershirt underneath his armor, making it seem at times that he has blue skin. He is depicted as having pale skin beneath his undershirt, and his armor - in its original form - is blue-and-black (with pink accents) to match his undershirt.
Robin is a pale man with blond or brown hair (depending on his aesthetic choice. He is handsome with thick eyebrows'. His later armor he wears is silver/steel in color, with red accents, and he lacks an undershirt so that his skin is visible. He has red eyes through his mask, but it is not clear if they are red when his mask is removed.
Born into England’s famous Robin family, Robin Mask began wrestling at a young age and made quite a name for himself.
By 1979, he had become so famous that he was invited to compete in the 19th Chojin Olympics. He not only made it into the actual tournament but went on to win, defeating Japan’s Uldraman. Over the next year, he had numerous matches, including one against a man named Quarrelman. Before the match could get under way, Quarrelman walked away, saying that the he saw no point in fighting such an easy opponent.
We are introduced to Robin "42 Years Ago" from the Demon Seed Arc in Kinnikuman Nisei, where he acts as the rugby captain in Oxford University and scores every point in the match as the most popular player. He is dating the team assistant, Alisa, and he is seen to be very excited about becoming a wrestler and meeting Alisa's parents. He acts unwittingly in an uncouth manner, to which Alisa's father derides him from snobbery and forbids their union.
Robin drowns his sorrows in a bar, where he engages in fights and gets drunk, only for John Bullman to intervene. He then reveals to his father, Robin Knight, that he wishes to forfeit his Chojin status and become human for Alisa's sake, just as she was willing to give up her family for his sake. He is given the blessing of Robin Grande and the "Icon of Robin", that will allow him to become human. Robin goes to Stonehenge and reneges on his powers, thus becoming human.
After seeing John Bullman die in the ring, he flees in order to assume again his position of Chojin to protect the people, and gives up his second chance with Alisa's family to be a justice Chojin. He is ganged up outside a bar by hooligans and beaten up, only to be rescued by Terryman, who gives him back his powers with the stone used to remove them. He then goes to the ring to defeat Guillotine King. On September 9th, 1976, he wins the battle with the support of Alisa, making his debut.
Kinnikuman - 20th Chojin Olympics Arc
The 20th Chojin Olympics were coming around and Uldraman’s previous loss to Robin caused the committee to decide not to use a Japanese representative this year, upsetting Kinnikuman. Robin decided to confront Kinnikuman and test his skills. He instantly was able to put Kinnikuman in a Bow and Arrow Lock. Kinnikuman, however, refused to submit, and after a few hours, Robin let go of the hold. The fact that Robin Mask - the champion - was caused to struggle impresses the committee and gained Kinnikuman a spot in the Olympics. It is revealed Robin Mask only pretended to struggle, so that Kinnikuman could gain a place in the Olympics.
Robin gives the commencement speed during the preliminary matches, on November 13th 1979. When participants refuse to engage in the rock-paper-scissors first preliminary round, Robin chastises them and demands they respect the process. The third and final preliminary match is a race to the moon and back, in which Robin comes first place. In the match-ups, Robin is given the A-Block, and his first match is against Canadianman. He is due to fight at Kourakuen Stadium at 6.30pm, which is broadcast worldwide.
Canadianman lifts the entire stadium, before becoming giant-sized and putting Robin Mask in a Canadian Back-Breaker. Robin counters by a Suplex, sending Candianman hurtling into the stadium, which wins him the match. After the match he raised Canadianman’s arm in a show of good sportsmanship.
Robin next appears as a special commentator for the Terryman vs. Skyman match.
The Nippon Budokan is the setting for the semi-final match between Terryman and Robin Mask, who both arrive together as friends. Shortly before their match, Terry had been shot in the leg by Kinkotsuman (who was aiming for Kinnikuman). Because of this handicap, Terry stooped to dirty fighting in order to gain and advantage over Robin, but Robin was much too strong for Terry. After being thrown out of the ring, Robin leapt back in and continued the fight. He then applies a Boston Crab on Terry. Terry soon submits, giving Robin the win. When Robin realised that Terry had fought with a wounded leg, he offered Terry his spot in the finals, but Terry refused it.
Kinnikuman and Robin Mask face a press conference in anticipation of their match in the finals. The match will be a one-round death-match at the National Stadium, at April 4th at 4pm. They add a rule that a three-count pin will also allow a victory, at Robin's request, to give Kinnikuman a chance to win due to his lack of a finishing move. They also instigate a rule, at Kinnikuman's request, that losing the match will lead to exile from one's home-country. At this point, a celebratory dance occurs. Kinkotsuman sends enlarged animals to attack them, which Robin Mask defeats single-handed.
The match begins to 100,000 spectators. Moved by Ramenman’s tearfully begging him to defeat Robin (and allow him to look back on his own defeat with pride), Kinnikuman took his fight seriously. Kinnikuman was so skilled, that it inspires Robin to remove his armor; this reveals that he wears the armor for his opponent’s protection rather than his own. After a series of exchanged blows, Kinnikuman manages to remove Robin's mask. Robin then runs head-first into the corner of the ring, which causes a huge crack to appear in his mask.
Robin proceeds to stab Kinnikuman in the back with the spike of his mask, causing him to bleed profusely on the canvas. He proceeds to trap Kinnikuman in his trademark Tower Bridge, but Suguru refused to give up until finally a loud crack was heard. Robin let go of Suguru believing him to be dead. When he noticed the crowd wasn’t cheering for him, he looked at Kinnikuman’s lifeless body and begun to realize that he had been taking things too far. As he was distracted by thought, Kinnikuman jumped onto his shoulders and pinned him with a Mexican Rolling Clutch Hold, gaining the victory.
During the closing ceremonies, Robin is shunned by the English fans. Alisa appears to console him, and Kinnikuman tries to revoke the exile rule so they can have a good life, even willing to sacrifice his championship belt. He offers Robin a chance to live in Japan, which Robin seemingly accepts. It is later shown that Robin has refused the offer due to his pride, and decides - against Alisa's wishes - to live as a wanderer.
American Tour Arc
Robin reappears in South America. Kinnikuman confronts him when he sees Robin murder an opponent in the ring, when Robin's opponent is torn in two pieces. Alisa is currently absent. When Kinnikuman is capture by the World Supermen Federation, Robin brings him food so that he will survive and remain strong. After tearing Dynamite Piper in half at the Luck Lumber Joe, Robin was allowed the chance to regain his title from Kinnikuman and faced him in a match.
The match with Kinnikuman takes place over the Grand Canyon, at 1,600 meters high. Before the fight can be finished, Iwao crashes an airplane into the ring. The match is determined to be in Robin's favor, but - due to his assumed death - the belt then goes to the next in the WSF's line, which is Skull Bozu. Kinnikuman is revealed to be alive, while Robin took the brunt of the airplane attack and is willing to let himself be sacrificed as Kinnikuman has not enough strength to remove the plane.
Robin reveals that he and Alisa went to live in Africa, where Robin became an animal ranger. He read about Kinnikuman's activity in Hawaii and yearned to return to the life of a justice Chojin, which caused him to leave Alisa at home, and be taken in by the Sheik Seijin. Kinnikuman eventually manages to free Robin, but the WSF explode the ring, and only Kinnikuman can escape. Robin seemingly falls to his death.
Warsman Begins
It is later revealed that Robin Mask survived. As it turns out, he went to Russia to survey potential candidates as "Mr Barracuda". Warsman catches his interest, especially when Warsman discovers and masters the Pallo Special, a move Robin had been working on in secret. Robin decides that Warsman will be the one to overthrow Kinnikuman and become the new Chojin Olympics champion.
When Kommandas has Warsman on the ropes, Robin shows up to cheer him on. Kommandas is no longer Warsman's friend, now he's a killing machine for the Soviet Union. After getting some advice from Robin, Warsman shows Robin that he can be a perfect Brutal Chojin, even killing Kommandas with his Pallo Special by tearing his arms off. Robin is shocked, thinking that he's seeing the birth of a cold, fighting computer in action.
Robin offers Warsman a chance to become the champion of the Chojin Olympics. Still paranoid, Warsman tries to attack Robin, but Robin easily blocks the punch and repeats his offer. Robin reveals his true identity. Robin notes that Warsman's Pallo Special is still incomplete, but it was pretty good for a first try. Robin Mask offers Warsman a towel, which he accepts, making Robin Mask his new manager.
21st Chojin Olympics Arc
"Mr. Barracuda" doesn't show up at all until the semi-finals of the 21st Chojin Olympics: The Big Fight; Barracuda exits the vehicle taking Warsman to the arena, where he is seen carrying a chain, and chastises Warsman for taking time to sign children's autographs. He intensely trains Warsman in preparation for his match against Ramenman. Just before the match, he strikes people in the way with a whip to allow Warsman passage.
Just before the match, Bibimba accidentally runs into Warsman, which causes Barracuda to try and strike her with his whip - Warsman stops him. Barracuda also reveals that Warsman is a 'fighting computer' capable of memorizing moves of his opponents and analyzing how best to counter them. When Bibimbap tries to get Warsman to show mercy on Ramenman, Barracuda convinces him to brutally attack until Ramenman is left paraplegic.
He helps Warsman prepare for the finals, against Kinnikuman, by releasing death-row inmates for him to kill while blindfolded. When Kinnikuman suffers a mask mishap, Barracuda realizes that the removal of Kinnikuman's mask will mean his death, and creates a rule that the finals will be a Mask Removal Death-Match. At Warsman's weigh-in, Barracuda is outraged to find out that the belt (gifted by Bibimba puts him overweight); Warsman soon loses control, where it is revealed only Barracuda can calm him, and he drags Warsman away in chains. Barracuda reveals his motivation is revenge against Kinnikuman.
Barracuda reveals himself to be Robin Mask.
Robin reveals he survived the fall, but his body was too injured to ever fight again. Unable to personally fight and with the world thinking he was dead, he went in search for a student to train for the purpose of defeating Kinnikuman. He found one in Russia in the body of young Robo Chojin Warsman. Robin trained him to be a cold-blooded killer and then entered him into the 21st Chojin Olympics, after teaching him all of his techniques.
When Kinnikuman refused to take an opportunity to throw Warsman onto his own Bear Claws, Warsman decided to fight the rest of the match fairly and destroyed his Bear Claws. Robin ordered him to put on the spare Bear Claws and when he wouldn’t, Robin began beating on him. When Bibimba (who had befriended Warsman) tried to stop him he slapped her, causing Warsman to strike him and then proceed with the fight. Robin realizes that he was wrong and crushed the spare Bear Claws. After Kinnikuman won, both Warsman and Robin joined the justice Chojin side.
Seven Akuma Chojin Arc
Robin is next seen after the battle with Black Hole.
He announces that Kinnikuman is too injured to fight, so the remaining Devil Chojin should fight against the remaining Justice Chojin. Robin chooses Atlantis for his opponent. He fights Atlantis on a special ring on a lake in Ueno, where Atlantis surprises Robin in the ring before attacking from behind. Robin starts strong, as he manages to counter Atlantis, but Atlantis ultimately dives into the waters.
He follows with high speed into the lake, as he rapidly kicks at Atlantis' head, but he is eventually knocked away by a Magnum Canon. Atlantis tries to force Robin into the lake with his Magnum Canon, but the ropes stretch and Robin is able to use those to jump away. He proceeds to ride the Magnum Canon, until he lands a Drop Kick to the face. Atlantis then throws Meat's leg into the lake. This causes Robin to abandon his strategy, as he dives into the lake to save Meat's leg from harm. Atlantis follows him and proceeds to strangle him.
Alisa arrives to support Robin, at which point he attempts a Pile Driver. This creates two whirlpools, as the power of Atlantis and Robin collide, and then - after several seconds of silence - Atlantis emerges from the lake with the mask of Robin Mask in his hands. It is revealed, after rescuing Meat's right leg, that he was trapped within an Atlantis Driver. Alisa clutches Robin's mask in grief, while Kinnikuman retrieves Meat's leg. This is the last Robin is seen, due to his death, until later in the arc. Robin is later revived by Buffaloman, who sacrifices his life force. He emerges alive from the lake, as he retrieves his mask.
Golden Mask Arc
Robin Mask appears with the other justice chojin for a fitness test. It is during this time that the Golden Mask and Silver Mask are separated, resulting in all justice chojin slowly losing their power. Robin Mask - along with his companions - are placed into plastic bubbles, which act as life-support devices. During Kinnikuman's battle with Planetman, Planetman steals the souls of the seigi chojin trapped within the life support devices. Robin - and the others - are saved when Kinnikuman sacrifices Warsman in order to protect the rest of the group and defeat Planetman. This defeat of Planetman restores Robin - and others - to full power.
Warsman is revealed to be alive, but in a precarious state. Robin Mask decides to turn into a microscopic size and go inside Warsman's body, along with Terryman, Brocken Jr., Kinnikuman, and Geronimo. Terryman decides that the group will hold off the remaining Devil Knights, until Kinnikuman can reach the top floor and retrieve the Golden Mask - the matches will take place on a tower of rings formed along Warsman's spinal column.
Junkman shows his true form.
Robin Mask challenged Junkman on the first ring. Junkman sees Kinnikuman scaling the spine, but - as he seeks to stop him from reaching the top - Robin Mask intervenes and stops him from an attack. Junkman attempts a Junk Crush, but Robin dodges and the attack strikes the spinal column instead. When Junkman tries the same attack again, Robin tries a Shoulder Throw, but he then attacks once more the spinal column. Robin realizes the aimed attacks are deliberate: Junkman seeks to disable Warsman and prevent Kinnikuman from climbing higher.
Junkman tries a Junk Crush again, and Robin allows himself to be caught, before he reveals the philosophy he teaches to younger chojin: "when forced to make a sacrifice, try to save both things". He thus removes his armor and saves himself from being crushed, as it seemingly stops the Junk Crush. Junkman crushes the armor and uses it to prove his strength, before he tries to attack Kinnikuman again - Robin stops the attack with his bare hands. Junkman retaliates by making spikes appear on his front, which violently cut and slash at Robin.
Robin believes he has found Junkman's one weakness, which is that he cannot see what happens at his back, and flips him over, until his front spikes trap him in the ring canvas. He tries a Robin Drop, but Junkman uses his Double Face technique. Junkman strikes again with a Junk Crush. Robin refuses to stay down and circles Junkman, only to be hit again, and - in an attempt to gain speed, to avoid being hit following times - removes his belt and part of his helmet. It appears Robin has used all his strength, even as he gains an advantage and Junkman smashes his face on a corner-post. Junkman uses another Junk Crush, but Robin counters with a Reverse Tower Bridge.
Junkman is thus defeated, with Robin as the victor.
Dream Chojin Tag Arc
Robin Mask first arrives at Beverly Park.
He - along with the other Idol Chojin - take Kinnikuman to Korakuen Hall. They reveal that there is a new tag-team tournament, and that Robin and Warsman have formed the Chojin Master/Student Combo. The two of them then leave. They are shown - as part of the preliminaries - defeating Blood Illusions with a Double German Suplex Hold. They arrive early in Japan to plan for victory, before they arrive at Tournament Mountain. They make their way through a maze to find their allocated partner in the first rounds.
They are matched against the Hell Missionaries.
When Robin Mask tries to shake Neptuneman's hand, he is rejected and Neptuneman kills Kendaman. This causes Robin Mask to flashback to his youth, where he met Quarrelman, and he reveals that Quarrelman was due to fight him in the English preliminary finals of the Chojin Olympics, but that Quarrelman decided against this and walked away. He was known for the same attack used against Kendaman: the Quarrel Special. Robin reveals - in a flashback - he invented a new attack just for Quarrelman, as payback for refusing to fight him in the finals of the Olympic preliminaries.
During the match, they send in Big the Budo first, to prevent Robin from fighting Neptuneman as he desire. Robin manages to avoid the attacks by Big the Budo, before Warsman takes a lead and distracts him, and Neptuneman reveals he will not tag into the ring, even if Big the Budo dies. Robin Mask then uses a Tower Bridge to help Warsman perform a Rolling Bear Claw, which manages to slice open Neptuneman's chest. Robin then uses his Robin Special on Big the Budo, which convinces Neptuneman to join the ring.
Robin attempts a Robin Special on Neptuneman, but Neptuneman counters with a Neptune Sliding. After stabbing Neptuneman with the spike of his helmet, they exchange in a series of blows, until it seems that Robin has given up and let down his guard, but - by allowing Neptuneman to attack him - he becomes certain that this is Quarrelman. Warsman then tags in to take over, but loses his mask.
Quarrelman reveals his plans to steal the masks of the strongest Chojins and then give them to their minions (thus giving them their powers). Warsman is then killed by a Cross Bomber, before dying in Robin's arms and being reassured that no one is laughing at his exposed face. Robin then attacks in earnest. Robin fights on Warsman's behalf, including using both the Tower Bridge and the Bear Claw, and seems to have the advantage for a while. Robin is distracted by retrieving Warsman's mask, which allows him to be severely injured. Neptuneman uses the Robin Special against Robin, followed by the Cross Bomber.
This causes Robin to become unmasked.
The Hell Missionaries decide to give the spectators a closer look at the Chojin Master/Student Combo, by throwing them out of the ring and intending for them to fall their deaths. Right when they were about to hit the ground, the first Kinnikuman Great - (Prince Kamehame in disguise) - catches Robin and Warsman, but he injures his knees in the process. Robin is placed down on the ground, but - when he gets up - his face is fully revealed for the first time. The media tried to get close-ups and photos of his handsome face.
Kinnikuman and the others - excluding Terryman - attack the media, as they say it is rude to try and get pictures of his face. Kinnikuman then gives Robin a towel to put over his face. The aftermath of this was Robin losing his fighting spirit. During the semi finals between the 20 Million Powers and the Hell Missionaries, Robin returned with a cut out mask to help support the justice Chojin.
He offers Kinnikuman his steel armour, which allows him to reach the ring, when Neptuneman uses a magnetic power against the 20 Million Powers. At the tournament end, Robin retrieves all the stolen masks from Neptuneman and swears to give them back to their rightful owners.
Survivor Match for the Kinniku Throne Arc
Robin Mask can be seen celebrating with Kinnikuman.
Robin is promoted to Chief of Staff, which means - at first - he must not help Kinnikuman, when his position as a member of the royal family is challenged. He and Terryman are obligated to protect their new posts within the Chojin Association, and so they stay behind as Kinnikuman goes to his matches alone.
While teaching a class, one of Robin’s students listened to the Kinnikuman vs. Kinnikuman Mariposa battle on his radio. This alerts Robin to Kinnikuman's peril, and he and Terry rush to Japan. They arrive just in time to save Meat from King the 100-Ton. Robin initially attended in his role as Kinnikuman's friend to offer support, but Kinnikuman reveals he wrote down Robin's name on his team roster in invisible ink.
He is thus able to fight as Team Leader.
After seeing how important winning the tournament was to Kinnikuman, this caused him to regain his fighting spirit and fight Mariposa himself. Mariposa attacks before the gong, and manages to get in a second attack soon after the first, but Robin is able to counter the third time with an overhead throw. Mariposa starts to push Robin's body through the mat itself. Robin is nearly knocked unconscious by the Muscle Revenger by Mariposa. He breaks free and uses a Tower Bridge, and then Mariposa covers himself in flames.
Robin learns that Mariposa - (while still George the Thief) - had stolen the Robin Family treasure: the Anoalo Sceptre. Robin nearly gives the match to Mariposa due to numerous factors, including the staff in his possession, the power of his touted trump card (the Muscle Revenger) as well as hearing the Chojin's story of his sorrowful past, nearly forcing him to forfeit the match. After being reminded of Kinnikuman's own sorrowful history, Robin overcomes all of Mariposa's deception and reclaims the staff. He uses its power to ultimately defeat Mariposa with a Robin Special.
The next round is against Team Zebra.
Robin teamed up with Kinnikuman against Kinnikuman Zebra and Parthenon. They are successful against the duo for most of the match, until Robin ends up becoming petrified within Parthenon's pillars, in order to save Kinnikuman (who was preparing for his inevitable defeat after taking the Fated Prince's Muscle Inferno). While trapped inside Parthenon, Robin ends up laying the ultimate groundwork for Zebra's defeat, using his Friendship Power to prevent Kinnikuman from being completely covered in Parthenon's shadow of brutality. This prevents Zebra from fighting at full power.
Using the methane from the decayed bodies and fossils used to build Parthenon in conjunction with his own Anoalo Sceptre, Robin escapes from the giant Chojin and breaks him using his Robin Special, both defeating him and forcing Robin out of the match with his work successfully done. He saves Kinnikuman's life later in the match, with his "Handshake of Friendship".
Robin later helps Kinnikuman in training for the final match.
After Kinnikuman's match with Satan Cross, Kinnikuman is left weakened and Robin Mask carries him to the next match of their final round. It is during this time that Kinnikuman accidentally urinates on Robin.
In the final match against Team Super Phoenix, Robin took part in a Six-Man Tag Match with Kinnikuman and The Samurai (actually Neptuneman, and originally none other than Quarrelman) against Super Phoenix, Omegaman, and Mammothman. To make the battle “more interesting”, Super Phoenix began burning the Muscle Prophecy pages of both fighters, causing them to slowly disappear. Robin and Mammothman begin a fierce one-on-one battle. As they fought, Mammothman used his blood-seeking Big Tusks against Robin, but Robin overcame this by putting his own blood on Mammothman.
This causes the Big Tusks to attack Mammothman.
Robin eventually defeats Mammothman with the Rope Work Tower Bridge. Mammothman then disappears, and shortly afterwards so does Robin, leaving only his helmet and armor behind. During the fight between Suguru and Phoenix, the souls of Robin, Neptuneman, Kinnikuman Soldier, and Geronimo (all of whom had their Muscle Prophecy pages destroyed) helped Kinnikuman regain his Kajiba no Kuso Djikara and defeat Super Phoenix.
After the tournament, Robin and the others were revived by Kinnikuman’s Face Flash.
Robin returned to England to serve the Queen.
Farewell, Kinnikuman!
This one-shot takes place during Kinnikuman's retirement ceremony.
The Justice Chojin are dismayed that Kinnikuman's retiring. Wolfman's disappointed because Kinnikuman's retiring right after Wolfman's retirement, leaving Japan with no protectors. Ramenman's shocked that Kinnikuman retired before he did. Terryman promises that he'll find a stronger partner for a new tag-team.
When Warsman rings the bell, he uses his Bear Claws, causing it to crack. Brocken Jr. calls out Warsman for ruining the atmosphere. Robin Mask even tells Warsman to back down before challenging Kinnikuman to one last fight. Robin Mask says the ceremony is a farce and shatters the bell with a chop, which Terryman likens to a slap to Kinnikuman's face. Robin Mask's quite angry at Kinnikuman's retirement and demands an answer from Kinnikuman.
Kinnikuman says he'll explain after the ceremony, but that isn't enough for Robin Mask. Thus, Robin Mask attacks Kinnikuman. While Kinnikuman defends himself against Robin Mask's assault, he realizes that the helmet Robin Mask is wearing is from the 20th Chojin Olympics tournament, more specifically the finals match after Kinnikuman caused the helmet to crack. Robin Mask wants a proper rematch since the last two matches weren't proper losses.
Buffaloman and Terryman try to interfere, but Warsman tells them that Robin Mask wants a serious match against Kinnikuman. Robin Mask places Kinnikuman into a Robin Special, but Kinnikuman doesn't feel that at all. Kinnikuman counters with a Kinniku Driver. Robin Mask reverses the Kinniku Driver and places him into the Tower Bridge, causing Kinnikuman's torso to tear up. Kinnikuman escapes the Tower Bridge because the Kinniku Driver left a mark on Robin Mask. Kinnikuman uses this opportunity to land a Kinniku Buster.
Robin Mask compliments both of Kinnikuman's techniques before punching Kinnikuman's face. Kinnikuman returns with a punch of his own, leading to a mighty fisticuffs exchange. Harabote tells Meat about the time Mayumi retired and reveals that he wanted a last match with Mayumi, but he didn't want to break tradition. He sheds a tear because Robin Mask did something he couldn't achieve. The other Justice Chojin cheer Robin on. Although this match is a sham in Robin's eyes, he still wants to fight.
Seeing as the Chairman receiving the retirement letter is the only way Kinnikuman's retirement can be made official, Kinnikuman hands Robin Mask his retirement letter. Robin Mask crushes the letter and gives Kinnikuman a bro-fist, showing off their friendship as Justice Chojin.
Kinnikuman (2011) Perfect Origin Arc
It is revealed - after accumulating so many injuries over the years - that Robin Mask has entered suspended animation as a part of his healing process. He is in England, where he will remain in stasis until his healing is completed. During this time, Marlinman appears at the River Thames to challenge Robin Mask. After the defeat of the first group of Perfect Chojin, a new group appears, and it is at this point that Robin Mask is revealed to have been fully healed and returns to his companions.
The next tournament is scheduled to take place on a pyramid, with seven steps and seven rings, and Robin Mask convinces Kinnikuman to rest, so that they can take care of their opponents on his behalf. A series of tunnels leads the Justice and Devil Chojin to their opponents: Robin - on ring six - is assigned Nemesis. Nemesis starts with an upper-hand, as he employs a one-handed back-breaker. Robin eventually is able to land a knee-kick. After exchanging a series of blows, throughout the other matches, Nemesis attacks with a Flying Head Scissors. Robin Mask evades and counters with a Boston Crab.
Nemesis evades the attack and reverses it with a Pile-Driver, but Robin Mask breaks free in turn with a headbutt, and proceeds with an Ice Rock Gyro. They engage in a series of blows, before both fall to the canvas and hold each other in an equal grapple. At this point, Nemesis reveals the origin of the Perfect Chojin. He states that Perfect Chojin are descended from chojin chosen by the gods, but all other chojin are descended from those rejected by the gods. He proceeds to use a Nemesis Driver.
He drives Robin's head into the canvas, but Robin pulls himself out. Nemesis throws Robin again with a double-arm suplex, and follows through with a high-kick, until Robin is able to counter with a throw. Robin uses a Unicorn Fire Head, but Nemesis counters after with a Battleship Sinker, and Robin still stands, as he reveals that Kinnikuman is his main motivation and reason for throwing away his pride. He describes in detail how his defeat by Kinnikuman allowed him to be reborn as a better chojin with Friendship Power.
Nemesis knocks off Robin's Analo Staff with a knee-strike, and they engage in a series of blows again. He is eventually able to stop Robin's blows with the Perfect Defender, which is a variation of the Muscle Curtain, and continues to use the Perfect Assailant, which Robin dodges and uses to lead into a Robn Special. Nemesis breaks free and uses a Scorpion Death-Lock. He convinces Robin to remove his armor and fight at full-power, which leads to Robin attempting a Naked Tower Bridge.
The attack starts to tear apart Nemesis' body, but also has an effect on Robin's body. Nemesis eventually breaks free and uses a Tombstone Driver, leading Robin to try a British Steel Edge. The technique is broken, leading Robin to say goodbye to his friends, before Nemesis uses another Battleship Sinker. Robin is knocked out and the match it declared to be in Nemesis' favor. Nemesis then tosses Robin's body down the pyramid and into the sands of the dunes below. Despite Kinnikuman's attempts to save Robin, he is only able to save the visor of his mask, and Robin's body sinks out of reach of his friends.
Robin Mask is currently still dead as of volume seventy.
Kinnikuman Nisei Hercules Factory Arc
In Kinnikuman Nisei, Robin is the headmaster of the Hercules Factory and the father of rogue Chojin Kevin Mask. He is one of the original chojin defeated on Earth by the new dMp, which prompts a state of emergency among the older chojin. He is present as a key player in the international meeting at the Muscle League headquarters, and he is the one to propose opening a school: the Hercules Factory. They decide to use the next three months to train the new generation. He is often the one to referee and chaperone training. At graduation, Robin is the one to make the announcements. He engages in an argument with Mantaro Kinniku about his placement.
HF First Year Replacement Matches Arc
Robin has a very brief appearance as he referees the matches of Generation Ex, often commenting on their victories against the older generation. He appears very much as he did in the prologue chapters, as he acts in the role of headmaster.
Ultimate Chojin Tag Tournament
He is involved with the current story-line as two evil Time Chojins have gone back in time to steal the Completion Bulbs on the bottom of the Tag Trophy and end up killing him and subsequently mess up the timeline. Now, Kinniku Mantaro and the others (along with secret stowaways Neptuneman and Warsman) have gone back in time to stop Kevin from disappearing. Mantaro manages to save Robin but accidentally bumps into Alisa, causing her to become a victim of the Death Watch Branding in his place.
After the Ultimate Chojin Tag Tournament is announced Robin goes with Alisa in a medical helicopter, but not before hearing Terry the Kid refer to Kevin by name. While in the helicopter, Alisa asks if they can name their first son after their favorite pub, Kevin's Bar. This cause Robin to trust the New Generation and decide to help them. He comes across Terry the Kid, who is depressed about always being Mantaro's sidekick, and witnesses him saving a puppy from an oncoming bus. He tells Kid that he believes Kevin may be his son, and the two of them form The Adrenalines (ジ・アドレナリンズ).
Battle Royale
During the preliminary Battle Royal entrances, Robin sees a fading Kevin in a glass chamber, which had been stolen by the Time Chojins.
First Round
The match takes place at Kuramae Kokugikan, at 2.30pm. The Adrenalines arrive in matching costumes and masks, until Terry the Kid reveals himself by removing his mask, and the Wailing Ghost Gang arrives on palanquins, but the Adrenalines strike the Wailing Ghost Gang before the bell is rung. The bell is rung and The Adrenalines start with a flying body attack in a synchronized aerial move, before the Wailing Ghost Gang toss them across the ring.
The Wailing Ghost Gang retaliate with a Gaon's Bamboo-Copter Blood-Fountain. This knocks Terry the Kid out of the ring, and Robin Mask slams Gaon down onto the mat. The Gaon gains an advantage, as Robin Mask becomes distracted by the sight of Kevin Mask disappearing at the ring-side. The Wailing Ghost Gang team up against Robin Mask, and use a Wailing Leg Slash, which causes Robin to collapse at the side of the ring and allow Terry the Kid to switch with him. Kid is able to take the lead.
Kid uses a Dead-Crush Arm-Breaker against Emperor Death. Emperor Death counters with a Snake-Belly Hand, before using an Emeishan Drop. Gaon joins in with a drop-kick to Kid's face, while Kid works out that Kevin's survival depends on Robin's victory during the match, as his death will result in Kevin's death. He kicks Gaon on the back of his head, before Gaon counters by tossing him to Emperor Death, who uses a Cobra Claw to force Kid to his feet. The Wailing Ghost Gang gain an advantage, until Robin Mask sees Kid in distress and tags himself into the match. Robin Mask uses a Kingdom Neck Chancery.
Emperor Death uses his snake-hand to remove Robin Mask's armor, and he tosses the armor onto Kevin Mask's clear-bed. Robin Mask then uses an Indian Death-Lock on Emperor Death, and Gaon then stops him with a Gaon Ride. Emperor Death then uses a Snake-Tail Foot against to hang from the rafters, as he uses a Snake-Belly Hand and engages in Slow-Slicing. Emperor Death then uses a Blood-Leech Bowl technique to keep Robin Mask alive, while he announces his aim to gain immortality with the trophy bulbs.
Terry the Kid then kicks Robin's armor back into the ring. Robin Mask uses a Blood Fountain to blind his opponents, before Kid uses a $1,000,000 Kick to incapacitate Emperor Death. Robin uses his Maelstrom Power, followed by a Greenwich Time Crash, and puts back on his armor, which helps to heal him with its familial and ancestral powers. The Wailing Ghost Gang try to use another Bamboo-Copter, until The Adrenalines use Tag Formation A. Kid also then uses a Texas Tornado Elbow.
This knocks out Gaon. The Adrenalines then use an Adrenaline Bridge upon Emperor Death, which causes Emperor Death to be knocked out in turn, and Harabote Muscle declares the match in The Adrenalines favour, causing the audience to throw cushions into the ring in support of them.
Quarter-Finals
The Adrenalins then face the Five Disasters in a Water Deathmatch, which freaks Robin out because of him dying against Atlantis in his last one. Not only that, but Kevin, in his healing tube, was tied above the ring. It had seemed like a close match at first, until Thunder threw Kevin's tube into the water, causing Robin to go after him. After that, it had looked like Robin had died the same way as his first death, but he had actually taken Kevin's mask since it doubled as an oxygen tank. Robin then put Lightning in a Tower Bridge, but it only broke his original costume and revealed a second one. Lightning then broke out and performed Justice Crushing Finale on the Adrenalines. They then tried to do Deathwatch Branding on Robin, but Terry saved him with a Condor Kick only to get slashed by Thunder's Lion's Authority, ending the match.
💪M💪U💪S💪C💪L💪E💪
A year of the shows and performers of the Bijou Planks Theater.
M.U.S.C.L.E. # 197, "Robin Mask D"
Painted by Paprika, thus losing all collectible value forever.
* So far, we have seen Robin Mask C in BP 2020 Day 245:
www.flickr.com/photos/paprihaven/49087843181/
And his alias of Mister Barracuda in BP 2019 Day 197:
www.flickr.com/photos/paprihaven/48297957742/
There's much more to come... 😏
I feel this photo as a gift from my friend Peter who invited me for a little photo session into his garden.
We tried a lot of angles and perspectives and took photos with or without macro ring flashes...
Special thanks to the model, the dragonfly kept still for all that session...
have a nice sunday
Runa Photography © 2013
© All rights reserved, don´t use this image without my permission
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En geografía, una cuenca endorreica es un área en la que el agua no tiene salida fluvial hacia el océano. El término tiene raíces griegas, endo, "interior" y rhein, "fluir". Cualquier lluvia o precipitación que caiga en una cuenca endorreica permanece allí, abandonando el sistema únicamente por infiltración o evaporación, lo cual contribuye a la concentración de sales. En las cuencas endorreicas en las que la evaporación es mayor que la alimentación, los lagos salados han desaparecido y se forman salares. Las cuencas endorreicas también son denominados sistemas de drenaje interno.
En zonas de mayor pluviosidad, el agua se acumulará inicialmente en la depresión rodeada por colinas, en la medida en que el nivel se va elevando, podrá alcanzar el punto más bajo de estas colinas circundantes, y comenzar a salir agua superficialmente en este punto, creando un surco, que podrá evolucionar hasta transformarse en un río. En la medida en que este "surco" se va profundizando, el nivel inicial del lago se ira también reduciendo, hasta crearse un nuevo equilibrio. De esta forma una cuenca endorreica, en tiempos geológicos, se puede ir conectando con otras, y finalmente llegar hasta el mar, en cuyo caso dejará de ser endorreica. Este proceso se puede observar muy claramente en el sistema endorreico del altiplano boliviano-peruano. En efecto, las oscilaciones del nivel del lago Titicaca, en tiempos geológicos, e incluso en tiempos históricos, es determinada por la capacidad del río Desaguadero, el cual corriendo por un valle donde pueden ocurrir deslizamientos de tierra, que obstruyen parcialmente el río, limitando su capacidad de evacuar las aguas del lago Titicaca hacia el lago Poopó. Prueba de esto es que en la década de los 90 se han encontrado ruinas sumergidas de la cultura Tiahuanaco, en la Isla del Sol.
Fuente: wikipedia
© 2018 Marco Polo. Todos los derechos reservados.
© 2018 Marco Polo. Alle Rechte vorbehalten
© 2018 Marco Polo. All rights reserved. Use without permission is illegal.
www.flickriver.com/photos/29469501@N03/popular-interesting/
Colmar (en francés: Colmar, en alsaciano Colmer; en alemán Colmar, entre 1871-1918 y 1940-1945: Kolmar ) es una ciudad y comuna, capital del departamento del Alto Rin, región de Alsacia, Francia y desde enero del 2016, forma parte de la Región Gran-Este.
Tiene unos 68.000 habitantes, lo que la convierte en la segunda comuna del departamento del Alto Rin y la tercera comuna alsaciana por número de habitantes después de Estrasburgo y Mulhouse.
Colmar es mencionada por la primera vez en el siglo IX. Ciudad imperial libre miembro de la Decápolis Alsaciana, ésta conoce un rápido desarrollo al final de la Edad Media y durante el Renacimiento. Sin embargo, a partir de la Reforma, seguida de la Guerra de los campesinos alemanes, es posteriormente anexada a Francia al término de la Guerra de los Treinta Años.
En el año 1871 Colmar es anexionada al Imperio alemán y de nuevo devuelta a Francia tras la firma del armisticio de 1918. Posteriormente la ciudad volverá a ser anexionada a la Alemania nazi durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, para finalmente volver bajo jurisdicción francesa al final de la guerra.
La ciudad cuenta con un rico patrimonio cultural: el ex-convento de los Dominicos, la Colegiata de San Martín, el Teatro Municipal, los canales de la "Pequeña Venecia" y varias construcciones que datan de la Edad Media. Además, su situación geográfica (ubicada en medio de los viñedos alsacianos), le han otorgado la denominación de "Capital de los vinos de Alsacia. En Colmar se encuentra el Museo Unterlinden que alberga al famoso Retablo de Issenheim y es la tierra natal del creador de la Estatua de la Libertad, Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi siendo quizás el destino más famoso para visitar mercados de Navidad en toda Francia.
La Petite Venise:
El centro de la ciudad antigua, bien conservada, alberga varios edificios, a veces de gran tamaño, de estilo gótico alemán y primer Renacimiento, así como antiguas iglesias, entre las cuales la colegiata de San Martín (del siglo XIII) es la mayor y más notable.
El artista local del siglo XV Martin Schongauer pintó la que se considera su obra maestra, La Virgen de las Rosas, en la iglesia de los dominicos. El famoso Retablo de Isemheim, de Matthias Grünewald, es el tesoro más destacado que alberga el Museo de Unterlinden . En este museo, abierto en 1853, se halla en el antiguo convento de la orden dominicana "Unterlinden" (que significa "bajo los tilos").
En 1834, nació en Colmar Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, creador de la famosa Estatua de la Libertad, ubicada en la ciudad de Nueva York.
Una vez por año, en el mes de agosto, Colmar alberga la Feria de los vinos y en el mes de diciembre, la ciudad entera se vuelve un paraíso navideño con sus 5 mercados de Navidad, famosos en todo el país por su belleza y tradición.
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Graffiti is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire.
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
[explore #410 on 26.03.09]
time to change.. the buddy icon :P
well, I also should dye my hair 'cause I look blond for an half and dark for the other half actually, but never mind -.-"
hooray for batroom mirror's shots u.u
tempo di cambiare.. la buddy icon :P
vabbè, mi dovessi anche fare una tintura, che sono mezza bionda e mezza bruna, ma pazienza -.-"
ah, e poi sì, mi faccio le foto allo specchio nel gabinetto, perchè le gabinette si autoritraggono nel gabinetto (non fa una piega, no? u.u)
published on the online magazine fringe indie, on february-march 2010.
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DC Brau Brewing Co., Washington, DC.
THIS PHOTOGRAPH IS PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT. REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION WITHOUT THE EXPRESS WRITTEN CONSENT OF THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER IS PROHIBITED.
Model: Janae Fulton
Photographer: Justin Bonaparte
Praga was beautiful, I saw a lot of beautiful things and did a lot of pictures. I started too a photographic series which I want to realize. But after some days I went to Berlin, Germany. Another beautiful city, bigger as Praga and four days are not enough to explore it. Anyway enjoy this shot!
Please view large, it looks way better.
My heart is heavy right now. I think deep down I know why, but I don't want to admit it. I don't want to face it.
But God is stronger. God is bigger.
Because He still loves me, even though I am so selfish. Even though I forsake Him everyday. Even though I don't go to Him for everything. Even though I can go a whole day without a thought of Him and what He does and has done for me.
Forgive me, Lord.