Replacing the usual Airbus A330-300.

The Jaguar XK is a luxury grand tourer introduced in 2006, where it replaced the Jaguar XK8. The XK introduced an aluminium monocoque bodyshell, and is available both as a two-door coupé and two-door cabriolet/convertible.

 

Making its debut at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show, the Jaguar XKR-S is the most extreme expression yet of Jaguar's passion for building beautiful, fast cars. For the first time with a series production car, Jaguar gains entry to the exclusive '300kph club' thanks to the effortless performance of the supercharged 5.0-litre AJ-V8 engine. A revised fuelling map means the direct-injection powerplant now produces 550bhp and 680Nm of torque.

 

Source: Wikipedia and Netcarshow

 

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

 

Camera: Nikon D300S

Exposure: 0.013 sec (1/80)

Aperture: f/2.8

Focal Length: 17 mm

ISO Speed: 250

 

If you like my pictures, why wouldn't you like my Facebook page!? Robin Kiewiet Photography

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 06-Sep-22 (DeNoise AI).

 

Leased from / operated by Titan Airways.

 

First flown in Sep-90 with the British Aerospace (Avro) registration G-PRCS, this aircraft was converted to a -200QC (Quick Change) with the addition of a main cabin cargo door in Mar-91. It had been ordered by Princess Air (UK), however, they ceased operations in Feb-91.

 

The aircraft was leased to National Jet Systems (Australia) as VH-NJQ in Jul-91. It was returned to B.Ae Asset Management as G-BWLG in Jan-96. The aircraft was sold to Sterope Leasing and leased to Air Jet (France) as F-GMMP in Apr-96. It was operated on behalf of Air France between Jan/Jul-00 before being returned to Asset Management and to B.Ae Systems in Aug-00.

 

In Sep-00 the aircraft was leased to Titan Airways as G-ZAPO. It was wet-leased to Go Fly ('Just Go / Go Today') in May-01 and returned to Titan Airways in Sep-01. It was wet-leased to Aurigny Airlines (Guernsey CI, UK) between Aug-03/Feb-04, then to Scot Airways (Scotland, UK) between May/Jul-05.

 

The aircraft continued in operation for Titan until it was withdrawn from service and stored at Kemble, UK in May-11. It was returned to B.Ae Systems Asset Management five days later. B.Ae Systems returned it to Falco Regional Aircraft in Jul-11 when it was permanently retired. It was broken up at Kemble in Jul-16. Updated 06-Sep-22.

Woordfoto: fietsen

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 21-Jan-18, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 02-Nov-23.

 

Fleet No: '630'.

 

This aircraft was delivered to Delta Air Lines as N630DL in Nov-87. It was in service with Delta for 25 years before being retired and stored at Marana, AZ, USA in Jul-12. The registration was finally cancelled in May-17.

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 13-Oct-19.

 

Photo taken from the Templeton overpass.

 

Named: "Leverkusen".

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWCF, this aircraft was delivered to Lufthansa as D-AIHE in Jan-04. It was withdrawn from service in Mar-20 as a consequence of the COVID-19 Pandemic and stored at Teruel, Spain in Apr-20. It never returned to service and was broken up at Teruel in Jul-25

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus DeNoise AI 04-Dec-22.

 

Taken into the sun on a very cold, misty and frosty December morning.

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWKG, this aircraft was delivered to Airtours Financial Services and leased to Airtours International Airways as G-MDBD in Jun-99.

 

It was wet-leased to Garuda Indonesia Airways for a Haj Pilgrimage operation between Mar/May-01. Airtours was renamed MyTravel Airways in May-02. The aircraft was sub-leased to MyTravel Airways A/S (Denmark) in Nov-06 and returned to MyTravel Airways in Feb-07.

 

The MyTravel Group was merged into Thomas Cook AG and MyTravel Airways was merged into Thomas Cook Airlines UK in Mar-08. The aircraft was wet-leased to Garuda Indonesia Airways again in Sep-11, returning to Thomas Cook UK in Dec-11.

 

The Thomas Cook Travel Group (UK) ceased operations on 23-Sep-19, taking Thomas Cook Airlines UK with it. The aircraft was initially impounded at Manchester, UK and then stored in Oct-19.

 

Along with two other 20 year old A330-243's which were owned by Thomas Cook, no other airline was interested in buying it and all three aircraft were broken up at Manchester in Feb-21.

Replaced on X43 duties by 'Sky Class' Enviro 400s, several of the previous 'Witch Way' Volvo B9TL / Wright are now in 'Hotline' livery for the 152 on which The Blackburn Bus Company 2768 was photographed in Hoghton.

 

This image is copyright and must not be reproduced or downloaded without the permission of the photographer.

St Mary's Old Church is a roofless ruin in the hamlet of Kilmuir, just outside Dunvegan. The church was built in 1694 -- the date is inscribed on a stone over the north door -- to replace an older medieval church that served as the parish church for the Duirinish region of northern Skye.

 

The original building was a simple rectangle, but a north burial aisle was added in 1839. A 1735 burial enclosure with fine Renaissance carving stands against the west gable.

 

The church stands within a stone-walled burial ground enclosure. Within the burial ground are three medieval grave slabs carved with traditional claymore and foliage symbols. The largest of these stones measures 6'5" long and 20 inches across, tapering to 16.5" at the foot.

 

Interestingly, several chiefs of Clan Macleod are buried here, though the church at Rodel on the Isle of Harris was the principal burial place for clan chiefs. Also buried here are several generations of MacCrimmons, who served as hereditary pipers for Clan Macleod.

 

THE DUNVEGAN

TWO CHURCHES WALK

If you’re planning to explore the local area, Dunvegan village and perhaps the Giant MacAskill museum, then this walk will start you off on the right foot. As it’s only minutes from our doorstep, there’s plenty of time for a leisurely breakfast before you set off. Then head out along the road towards Dunvegan Castle to find the starting point.

 

Take a Hike

The relatively easy walk from the Duirinish Church of Scotland is 2 miles (3 km). It passes through woodland and open moor and can take between 45 minutes – 1 hour depending on how long you stop along the way.

 

The walk starts through the gate to the left of the church and there is an information board giving details of the route.

 

If you’re walking this woodland route in spring or summer then you will be treated to a display of wildflowers. You may miss them, however, if you are distracted by glimpses of Loch Dunvegan through the trees.

 

The walk will take you up to the Millennium Stone, a prominent viewpoint over Dunvegan village. From here there are views across Loch Dunvegan to Macleod’s Tables and The Cuillin Ridge in the distance. Then head downhill to the ruins of St Mary’s Church below.

 

More information about this walk can be found on the Walkhighlands website.

 

The Millennium Stone

This 15-foot (5 metre) high stone was brought up from south Skye. It was erected by the people of the Dunvegan community on 24th June 2000 (Midsummer’s Day) to commemorate the new millennium. This was an impressive feat, using only hand power and rope-techniques. A process that would have been used to build stone circles thousands of years ago.

 

The stone stands proudly on top of a low crag overlooking the village of Dunvegan.

 

St Mary’s Church & Burial Ground

The remains of this post-reformation parish church and burial ground are situated in Kilmuir on the outskirts of Dunvegan village. They have been recognised as a monument of national importance by Historic Environment Scotland.

 

The site has been the focus of religious worship over centuries and there are indications that the church was a medieval foundation. This is seen in the East-West alignment of the church and the existence of three medieval carved grave slabs. Although the parish itself dates to the post-reformation period. The north entrance shows a date of 1694 and the burial enclosure with its balustrade walls dates from 1735.

 

Once the parish church for Duirinish, it was the burial site for a number of the Chiefs of the Clan MacLeod. The most recent was John MacLeod of MacLeod in February 2007. In addition, generations of the MacCrimmons, hereditary pipers to the Clan, are at rest in the graveyard.

 

An early 18th-century ashlar obelisk memorial to Lord Thomas Frazer (father of 11th Lord Lovat, who was executed on Towerhill in 1747), dominates the graveyard. There are also two medieval grave slabs with claymore and leaf design and a third that is extremely worn with only the border visible.

 

Dunvegan is a village on the Isle of Skye in Scotland. It is famous for Dunvegan Castle, seat of the chiefs of Clan MacLeod. Dunvegan is within the parish of Duirinish, and Duirinish Parish Church is at Dunvegan. In 2011 it had a population of 386.

 

In The Norse Influence on Gaelic Scotland (1910), George Henderson suggests that the name Dùn Bheagain derives from Old Gaelic Dùn Bheccáin ([the] fort of Beccán), Beccán being a Gaelic personal name. Dùn Bheagain would not mean 'little fort' as this would be Dùn Beag in Gaelic.

 

Dunvegan sits on the shores of the large Loch Dunvegan, and the Old School Restaurant in the village is noted for its fish, caught freshly from the loch itself. Dunvegan is situated at the junction of the A850, and the A863. The B884 road also has a junction with the A863, at the eastern end of Dunvegan.

 

Dunvegan's permanent population is declining. However, numbers staying in the area during holidays have increased dramatically over the years since 2001.

 

Tourist information used to be situated in the parade of shops at Lochside, but is now available on a seasonal basis at Dunvegan Castle's St Kilda Shop. The Giant MacAskill Museum, which celebrates the life of Angus Mòr MacAskill was established in 1989 and is managed by Peter MacAskill, father of the street trials cycle rider Danny MacAskill.

 

The Isle of Skye, is the largest and northernmost of the major islands in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. The island's peninsulas radiate from a mountainous hub dominated by the Cuillin, the rocky slopes of which provide some of the most dramatic mountain scenery in the country. Although Sgitheanach has been suggested to describe a winged shape, no definitive agreement exists as to the name's origins.

 

The island has been occupied since the Mesolithic period, and over its history has been occupied at various times by Celtic tribes including the Picts and the Gaels, Scandinavian Vikings, and most notably the powerful integrated Norse-Gaels clans of MacLeod and MacDonald. The island was considered to be under Norwegian suzerainty until the 1266 Treaty of Perth, which transferred control over to Scotland. The 18th-century Jacobite risings led to the breaking-up of the clan system and later clearances that replaced entire communities with sheep farms, some of which involved forced emigrations to distant lands. Resident numbers declined from over 20,000 in the early 19th century to just under 9,000 by the closing decade of the 20th century. Skye's population increased by 4% between 1991 and 2001. About a third of the residents were Gaelic speakers in 2001, and although their numbers are in decline, this aspect of island culture remains important.

 

The main industries are tourism, agriculture, fishing, and forestry. Skye is part of the Highland Council local government area. The island's largest settlement is Portree, which is also its capital, known for its picturesque harbour. Links to various nearby islands by ferry are available, and since 1995, to the mainland by a road bridge. The climate is mild, wet, and windy. The abundant wildlife includes the golden eagle, red deer, and Atlantic salmon. The local flora is dominated by heather moor, and nationally important invertebrate populations live on the surrounding sea bed. Skye has provided the locations for various novels and feature films, and is celebrated in poetry and song.

 

A Mesolithic hunter-gatherer site dating to the seventh millennium BC at An Corran in Staffin is one of the oldest archaeological sites in Scotland. Its occupation is probably linked to that of the rock shelter at Sand, Applecross, on the mainland coast of Wester Ross, where tools made of a mudstone from An Corran have been found. Surveys of the area between the two shores of the Inner Sound and Sound of Raasay have revealed 33 sites with potentially Mesolithic deposits. Finds of bloodstone microliths on the foreshore at Orbost on the west coast of the island near Dunvegan also suggest Mesolithic occupation. These tools probably originated from the nearby island of Rùm. Similarly, bloodstone from Rum, and baked mudstone, from the Staffin area, were found at the Mesolithic site of Camas Daraich, also from the seventh millennium BC, on the Point of Sleat, which has led archaeologists to believe that Mesolithic people on Skye would travel fairly significant distances, at least 70 km, both by land and sea.

 

Rubha an Dùnain, an uninhabited peninsula to the south of the Cuillin, has a variety of archaeological sites dating from the Neolithic onwards. A second- or third-millennium BC chambered cairn, an Iron Age promontory fort, and the remains of another prehistoric settlement dating from the Bronze Age are nearby. Loch na h-Airde on the peninsula is linked to the sea by an artificial "Viking" canal that may date from the later period of Norse settlement. Dun Ringill is a ruined Iron Age hill fort on the Strathaird Peninsula, which was further fortified in the Middle Ages and may have become the seat of Clan MacKinnon.

 

The late Iron Age inhabitants of the northern and western Hebrides were probably Pictish, although the historical record is sparse. Three Pictish symbol stones have been found on Skye and a fourth on Raasay. More is known of the kingdom of Dál Riata to the south; Adomnán's life of Columba, written shortly before 697, portrays the saint visiting Skye (where he baptised a pagan leader using an interpreter) and Adomnán himself is thought to have been familiar with the island. The Irish annals record a number of events on Skye in the later seventh and early eighth centuries – mainly concerning the struggles between rival dynasties that formed the background to the Old Irish language romance Scéla Cano meic Gartnáin.

 

Legendary hero Cú Chulainn is said to have trained on the Isle of Skye with warrior woman Scáthach.

 

The Norse held sway throughout the Hebrides from the 9th century until after the Treaty of Perth in 1266. However, apart from placenames, little remains of their presence on Skye in the written or archaeological record. Apart from the name "Skye" itself, all pre-Norse placenames seem to have been obliterated by the Scandinavian settlers. Viking heritage, with Celtic heritage is claimed by Clan MacLeod. Norse tradition is celebrated in the winter fire festival at Dunvegan, during which a replica Viking long boat is set alight.

 

The most powerful clans on Skye in the post–Norse period were Clan MacLeod, originally based in Trotternish, and Clan Macdonald of Sleat. The isle was held by Donald Macdonald, Lord of the Isles’ half-brother, Godfrey, from 1389 until 1401, at which time Skye was declared part of Ross. When the Donald Macdonald, Lord of the Isles, re-gained Ross after the battle of Harlaw in 1411, they added "Earl of Ross" to their lords' titles. Skye came with Ross.

 

Following the disintegration of the Lordship of the Isles, Clan Mackinnon also emerged as an independent clan, whose substantial landholdings in Skye were centred on Strathaird. Clan MacNeacail also have a long association with Trotternish, and in the 16th century many of the MacInnes clan moved to Sleat. The MacDonalds of South Uist were bitter rivals of the MacLeods, and an attempt by the former to murder church-goers at Trumpan in retaliation for a previous massacre on Eigg, resulted in the Battle of the Spoiling Dyke of 1578.

 

After the failure of the Jacobite rebellion of 1745, Flora MacDonald became famous for rescuing Prince Charles Edward Stuart from the Hanoverian troops. Although she was born on South Uist, her story is strongly associated with their escape via Skye, and she is buried at Kilmuir in Trotternish. Samuel Johnson and James Boswell's visit to Skye in 1773 and their meeting with Flora MacDonald in Kilmuir is recorded in Boswell's The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides. Boswell wrote, "To see Dr Samuel Johnson, the great champion of the English Tories, salute Miss Flora MacDonald in the isle of Sky, was a striking sight; for though somewhat congenial in their notions, it was very improbable they should meet here". Johnson's words that Flora MacDonald was "A name that will be mentioned in history, and if courage and fidelity be virtues, mentioned with honour" are written on her gravestone. After this rebellion, the clan system was broken up and Skye became a series of landed estates.

 

Of the island in general, Johnson observed:

 

I never was in any house of the islands, where I did not find books in more languages than one, if I staid long enough to want them, except one from which the family was removed. Literature is not neglected by the higher rank of the Hebrideans. It need not, I suppose, be mentioned, that in countries so little frequented as the islands, there are no houses where travellers are entertained for money. He that wanders about these wilds, either procures recommendations to those whose habitations lie near his way, or, when night and weariness come upon him, takes the chance of general hospitality. If he finds only a cottage he can expect little more than shelter; for the cottagers have little more for themselves but if his good fortune brings him to the residence of a gentleman, he will be glad of a storm to prolong his stay. There is, however, one inn by the sea-side at Sconsor, in Sky, where the post-office is kept.

 

— Samuel Johnson, A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland.

 

Skye has a rich heritage of ancient monuments from this period. Dunvegan Castle has been the seat of Clan MacLeod since the 13th century. It contains the Fairy Flag and is reputed to have been inhabited by a single family for longer than any other house in Scotland. The 18th-century Armadale Castle, once home of Clan Donald of Sleat, was abandoned as a residence in 1925, but now hosts the Clan Donald Centre. Nearby are the ruins of two more MacDonald strongholds, Knock Castle, and Dunscaith Castle (called "Fortress of Shadows"), the legendary home of warrior woman, martial arts instructor (and, according to some sources, Queen) Scáthach. Caisteal Maol, a fortress built in the late 15th century near Kyleakin and once a seat of Clan MacKinnon, is another ruin.

 

In the late 18th century the harvesting of kelp became a significant activity, but from 1822 onward cheap imports led to a collapse of this industry throughout the Hebrides. During the 19th century, the inhabitants of Skye were also devastated by famine and Clearances. Thirty thousand people were evicted between 1840 and 1880 alone, many of them forced to emigrate to the New World. The "Battle of the Braes" involved a demonstration against a lack of access to land and the serving of eviction notices. The incident involved numerous crofters and about 50 police officers. This event was instrumental in the creation of the Napier Commission, which reported in 1884 on the situation in the Highlands. Disturbances continued until the passing of the 1886 Crofters' Act and on one occasion 400 marines were deployed on Skye to maintain order. The ruins of cleared villages can still be seen at Lorgill, Boreraig and Suisnish in Strath Swordale, and Tusdale on Minginish.

 

As with many Scottish islands, Skye's population peaked in the 19th century and then declined under the impact of the Clearances and the military losses in the First World War. From the 19th century until 1975 Skye was part of the county of Inverness-shire, but the crofting economy languished and according to Slesser, "Generations of UK governments have treated the island people contemptuously" --a charge that has been levelled at both Labour and Conservative administrations' policies in the Highlands and Islands. By 1971 the population was less than a third of its peak recorded figure in 1841. However, the number of residents then grew by over 28 percent in the thirty years to 2001. The changing relationship between the residents and the land is evidenced by Robert Carruthers's remark c. 1852, "There is now a village in Portree containing three hundred inhabitants." Even if this estimate is inexact the population of the island's largest settlement has probably increased sixfold or more since then. During the period the total number of island residents has declined by 50 percent or more. The island-wide population increase of 4 percent between 1991 and 2001 occurred against the background of an overall reduction in Scottish island populations of 3 percent for the same period. By 2011 the population had risen a further 8.4% to 10,008 with Scottish island populations as a whole growing by 4% to 103,702.

 

Historically, Skye was overwhelmingly Gaelic-speaking, but this changed between 1921 and 2001. In both the 1901 and 1921 censuses, all Skye parishes were more than 75 percent Gaelic-speaking. By 1971, only Kilmuir parish had more than three-quarters of Gaelic speakers while the rest of Skye ranged between 50 and 74 percent. At that time, Kilmuir was the only area outside the Western Isles that had such a high proportion of Gaelic speakers. In the 2001 census Kilmuir had just under half Gaelic speakers, and overall, Skye had 31 percent, distributed unevenly. The strongest Gaelic areas were in the north and southwest of the island, including Staffin at 61 percent. The weakest areas were in the west and east (e.g. Luib 23 percent and Kylerhea 19 percent). Other areas on Skye ranged between 48 percent and 25 percent.

 

In terms of local government, from 1975 to 1996, Skye, along with the neighbouring mainland area of Lochalsh, constituted a local government district within the Highland administrative area. In 1996 the district was included in the unitary Highland Council, (Comhairle na Gàidhealtachd) based in Inverness and formed one of the new council's area committees. Following the 2007 elections, Skye now forms a four-member ward called Eilean a' Cheò; it is currently represented by two independents, one Scottish National Party, and one Liberal Democrat councillor.

 

Skye is in the Highlands and Islands electoral region and comprises a part of the Skye, Lochaber and Badenoch constituency of the Scottish Parliament, which elects one member under the first past the post basis to represent it. Kate Forbes is the current MSP for the SNP. In addition, Skye forms part of the wider Ross, Skye and Lochaber constituency, which elects one member to the House of Commons in Westminster. The present MP Member of Parliament is Ian Blackford of the Scottish National Party, who took office after the SNP's sweep in the General Election of 2015. Before this, Charles Kennedy, a Liberal Democrat, had represented the area since the 1983 general election.

 

The ruins of an old building sit on top of a prominent hillock that overlooks a pier attended by fishing boats.

Caisteal Maol and fishing boats in Kyleakin harbour

The largest employer on the island and its environs is the public sector, which accounts for about a third of the total workforce, principally in administration, education, and health. The second-largest employer in the area is the distribution, hotels, and restaurants sector, highlighting the importance of tourism. Key attractions include Dunvegan Castle, the Clan Donald Visitor Centre, and The Aros Experience arts and exhibition centre in Portree. There are about a dozen large landowners on Skye, the largest being the public sector, with the Scottish Government owning most of the northern part of the island. Glendale is a community-owned estate in Duirinish, and the Sleat Community Trust, the local development trust, is active in various regeneration projects.

 

Small firms dominate employment in the private sector. The Talisker Distillery, which produces a single malt whisky, is beside Loch Harport on the west coast of the island. Torabhaig distillery located in Teangue opened in 2017 and also produces whisky. Three other whiskies—Mac na Mara ("son of the sea"), Tè Bheag nan Eilean ("wee dram of the isles") and Poit Dhubh ("black pot")—are produced by blender Pràban na Linne ("smugglers den by the Sound of Sleat"), based at Eilean Iarmain. These are marketed using predominantly Gaelic-language labels. The blended whisky branded as "Isle of Skye" is produced not on the island but by the Glengoyne Distillery at Killearn north of Glasgow, though the website of the owners, Ian Macleod Distillers Ltd., boasts a "high proportion of Island malts" and contains advertisements for tourist businesses in the island. There is also an established software presence on Skye, with Portree-based Sitekit having expanded in recent years.

 

Some of the places important to the economy of Skye

Crofting is still important, but although there are about 2,000 crofts on Skye only 100 or so are large enough to enable a crofter to earn a livelihood entirely from the land. In recent years, families have complained about the increasing prices for land that make it difficult for young people to start their own crofts.

 

Cod and herring stocks have declined but commercial fishing remains important, especially fish farming of salmon and crustaceans such as scampi. The west coast of Scotland has a considerable renewable energy potential and the Isle of Skye Renewables Co-op has recently bought a stake in the Ben Aketil wind farm near Dunvegan. There is a thriving arts and crafts sector.

 

The unemployment rate in the area tends to be higher than in the Highlands as a whole, and is seasonal, in part due to the impact of tourism. The population is growing and in common with many other scenic rural areas in Scotland, significant increases are expected in the percentage of the population aged 45 to 64 years.

 

The restrictions required by the worldwide pandemic increased unemployment in the Highlands and Islands in the summer of 2020 to 5.7%; which was significantly higher than the 2.4 percent in 2019. The rates were said to be highest in "Lochaber, Skye and Wester Ross and Argyll and the Islands". A December 2020 report stated that between March (just before the effects of pandemic were noted) and December, the unemployment rate in the region increased by "more than 97%" and suggested that the outlook was even worse for spring 2021.

 

A report published in mid-2020 indicated that visitors to Skye added £211 million in 2019 to the island's economy before travel restrictions were imposed because of the COVID-19 pandemic. The report added that "Skye and Raasay attracted 650,000 visitors [in 2018] and supported 2,850 jobs". The government estimated that tourism in Scotland would decline by over 50% as a result of the pandemic. "Skye is highly vulnerable to the downturn in international visitors that will continue for much of 2020 and beyond", Professor John Lennon of Glasgow Caledonian University told a reporter in July 2020.

 

Tourism in the Highlands and Islands was negatively impacted by the pandemic, the effects of which continued into 2021. A September 2020 report stated that the region "has been disproportionately impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic to date when compared to Scotland and the UK as a whole". The industry required short-term support for "business survival and recovery" and that was expected to continue as the sector was "severely impacted for as long as physical distancing and travel restrictions". A scheme called Island Equivalent was introduced by the Scottish government in early 2021 to financially assist hospitality and retail businesses "affected by Level 3 coronavirus restrictions". Previous schemes in 2020 included the Strategic Framework Business Fund and the Coronavirus Business Support Fund.

 

Before the pandemic, during the summer of 2017, islanders complained about an excessive number of tourists, which was causing overcrowding in popular locations such as Glen Brittle, the Neist Point lighthouse, the Quiraing, and the Old Man of Storr. "Skye is buckling under the weight of increased tourism this year", said the operator of a self-catering cottage; the problem was most significant at "the key iconic destinations, like the Old Man of Storr and the Quiraing", he added. Chris Taylor of VisitScotland sympathised with the concerns and said that the agency was working on a long-term solution. "But the benefits to Skye of bringing in international visitors and increased spending are huge," he added.

 

An article published in 2020 confirmed that (before the pandemic), the Talisker Distillery and Dunvegan Castle were still overcrowded in peak periods; other areas where parking was a problem due to large crowds included "the Old Man of Storr, Kilt Rock, the Quiraing, the Fairy Pools, and Neist Point. This source also stated that Portree was "the busiest place on the island" during peak periods and suggested that some tourists might prefer accommodations in quieter areas such as "Dunvegan, Kyleakin and the Broadford and Breakish area".

 

Skye is linked to the mainland by the Skye Bridge, while ferries sail from Armadale on the island to Mallaig, and from Kylerhea to Glenelg, crossing the Kyle Rhea strait on the MV Glenachulish, the last turntable ferry in the world. Turntable ferries had been common on the west coast of Scotland because they do not require much infrastructure to operate, a boat ramp will suffice. Ferries also run from Uig to Tarbert on Harris and Lochmaddy on North Uist, and from Sconser to Raasay.

 

The Skye Bridge opened in 1995 under a private finance initiative and the high tolls charged (£5.70 each way for summer visitors) met with widespread opposition, spearheaded by the pressure group SKAT (Skye and Kyle Against Tolls). On 21 December 2004, it was announced that the Scottish Executive had purchased the bridge from its owners and the tolls were immediately removed.

 

Bus services run to Inverness and Glasgow, and there are local services on the island, mainly starting from Portree or Broadford. Train services run from Kyle of Lochalsh at the mainland end of the Skye Bridge to Inverness, as well as from Glasgow to Mallaig from where the ferry can be caught to Armadale.

 

The island's airfield at Ashaig, near Broadford, is used by private aircraft and occasionally by NHS Highland and the Scottish Ambulance Service for transferring patients to hospitals on the mainland.

 

The A87 trunk road traverses the island from the Skye Bridge to Uig, linking most of the major settlements. Many of the island's roads have been widened in the past forty years although there are still substantial sections of single-track road.

 

A modern 3 story building with a prominent frontage of numerous windows and constructed from a white material curves gently away from a green lawn in the foreground. In the background there is a tall white tower of a similar construction.

 

Students of Scottish Gaelic travel from all over the world to attend Sabhal Mòr Ostaig, the Scottish Gaelic college based near Kilmore in Sleat. In addition to members of the Church of Scotland and a smaller number of Roman Catholics, many residents of Skye belong to the Free Church of Scotland, known for its strict observance of the Sabbath.

 

Skye has a strong folk music tradition, although in recent years dance and rock music have been growing in popularity on the island. Gaelic folk rock band Runrig started in Skye and former singer Donnie Munro still works on the island. Runrig's second single and a concert staple is entitled Skye, the lyrics being partly in English and partly in Gaelic and they have released other songs such as "Nightfall on Marsco" that were inspired by the island. Ex-Runrig member Blair Douglas, a highly regarded accordionist, and composer in his own right was born on the island and is still based there to this day. Celtic fusion band the Peatbog Faeries are based on Skye. Jethro Tull singer Ian Anderson owned an estate at Strathaird on Skye at one time. Several Tull songs are written about Skye, including Dun Ringil, Broadford Bazaar, and Acres Wild (which contains the lines "Come with me to the Winged Isle, / Northern father's western child..." about the island itself). The Isle of Skye Music Festival featured sets from The Fun Lovin' Criminals and Sparks, but collapsed in 2007. Electronic musician Mylo was born on Skye.

 

The poet Sorley MacLean, a native of the Isle of Raasay, which lies off the island's east coast, lived much of his life on Skye. The island has been immortalised in the traditional song "The Skye Boat Song" and is the notional setting for the novel To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf, although the Skye of the novel bears little relation to the real island. John Buchan's descriptions of Skye, as featured in his Richard Hannay novel Mr Standfast, are more true to life. I Diari di Rubha Hunis is a 2004 Italian language work of non-fiction by Davide Sapienza [it]. The international bestseller, The Ice Twins, by S K Tremayne, published around the world in 2015–2016, is set in southern Skye, especially around the settlement and islands of Isleornsay.

 

Skye has been used as a location for several feature films. The Ashaig aerodrome was used for the opening scenes of the 1980 film Flash Gordon. Stardust, released in 2007 and starring Robert De Niro and Michelle Pfeiffer, featured scenes near Uig, Loch Coruisk and the Quiraing. Another 2007 film, Seachd: The Inaccessible Pinnacle, was shot almost entirely in various locations on the island. The Justin Kurzel adaption of Macbeth starring Michael Fassbender was also filmed on the Island. Some of the opening scenes in Ridley Scott's 2012 feature film Prometheus were shot and set at the Old Man of Storr. In 1973 The Highlands and Islands - a Royal Tour, a documentary about Prince Charles's visit to the Highlands and Islands, directed by Oscar Marzaroli, was shot partly on Skye. Scenes from the Scottish Gaelic-language BBC Alba television series Bannan were filmed on the island.

 

The West Highland Free Press is published at Broadford. This weekly newspaper takes as its motto An Tìr, an Cànan 's na Daoine ("The Land, the Language, and the People"), which reflects its radical, campaigning priorities. The Free Press was founded in 1972 and circulates in Skye, Wester Ross, and the Outer Hebrides. Shinty is a popular sport played throughout the island and Portree-based Skye Camanachd won the Camanachd Cup in 1990. The local radio station Radio Skye is a community based station that broadcast local news and entertainment to the Isle Of Skye and Loch Alsh on 106.2 FM and 102.7 FM.

 

Whilst Skye had unofficial flags in the past, including the popular "Bratach nan Daoine" (Flag of the People) design which represented the Cuillins in sky blue against a white sky symbolising the Gaelic language, land struggle, and the fairy flag of Dunvegan, the Island received its first official flag "Bratach an Eilein" (The Skye Flag) approved by the Lord Lyon after a public vote in August 2020. The design by Calum Alasdair Munro reflects the Island's Gaelic heritage, the Viking heritage, and the history of Flora MacDonald. The flag has a birlinn in the canton, and there are five oars representing the five areas of Skye, Trotternish, Waternish, Duirinish, Minginish, and Sleat. Yellow represents the MacLeods, and Blue the MacDonalds or the MacKinnons.

 

The Hebrides generally lack the biodiversity of mainland Britain, but like most of the larger islands, Skye still has a wide variety of species. Observing the abundance of game birds Martin wrote:

 

There is plenty of land and water fowl in this isle—as hawks, eagles of two kinds (the one grey and of a larger size, the other much less and black, but more destructive to young cattle), black cock, heath-hen, plovers, pigeons, wild geese, ptarmigan, and cranes. Of this latter sort I have seen sixty on the shore in a flock together. The sea fowls are malls of all kinds—coulterneb, guillemot, sea cormorant, &c. The natives observe that the latter, if perfectly black, makes no good broth, nor is its flesh worth eating; but that a cormorant, which hath any white feathers or down, makes good broth, and the flesh of it is good food; and the broth is usually drunk by nurses to increase their milk.

 

— Martin Martin, A Description of The Western Islands of Scotland.

 

Similarly, Samuel Johnson noted that:

 

At the tables where a stranger is received, neither plenty nor delicacy is wanting. A tract of land so thinly inhabited must have much wild-fowl; and I scarcely remember to have seen a dinner without them. The moor-game is every where to be had. That the sea abounds with fish, needs not be told, for it supplies a great part of Europe. The Isle of Sky has stags and roebucks, but no hares. They sell very numerous droves of oxen yearly to England, and therefore cannot be supposed to want beef at home. Sheep and goats are in great numbers, and they have the common domestic fowls."

 

— Samuel Johnson, A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland.

A black sea bird with a black beak, red feet and a prominent white flash on its wing sits on a shaped stone. The stone is partially covered with moss and grass and there is an indistinct outline of a grey stone wall and water body in the background.

 

In the modern era avian life includes the corncrake, red-throated diver, kittiwake, tystie, Atlantic puffin, goldeneye and golden eagle. The eggs of the last breeding pair of white-tailed sea eagle in the UK were taken by an egg collector on Skye in 1916 but the species has recently been re-introduced. The chough last bred on the island in 1900. Mountain hare (apparently absent in the 18th century) and rabbit are now abundant and preyed upon by wild cat and pine marten. The rich fresh water streams contain brown trout, Atlantic salmon and water shrew. Offshore the edible crab and edible oyster are also found, the latter especially in the Sound of Scalpay. There are nationally important horse mussel and brittlestar beds in the sea lochs and in 2012 a bed of 100 million flame shells was found during a survey of Loch Alsh. Grey Seals can be seen off the Southern coast.

 

Heather moor containing ling, bell heather, cross-leaved heath, bog myrtle and fescues is everywhere abundant. The high Black Cuillins weather too slowly to produce soil that sustains a rich plant life, but each of the main peninsulas has an individual flora. The basalt underpinnings of Trotternish produce a diversity of Arctic and alpine plants including alpine pearlwort and mossy cyphal. The low-lying fields of Waternish contain corn marigold and corn spurry. The sea cliffs of Duirinish boast mountain avens and fir clubmoss. Minginish produces fairy flax, cats-ear, and black bog rush. There is a fine example of Brachypodium-rich ash woodland at Tokavaig in Sleat incorporating silver birch, hazel, bird cherry, and hawthorn.

 

The local Biodiversity Action Plan recommends land management measures to control the spread of ragwort and bracken and identifies four non-native, invasive species as threatening native biodiversity: Japanese knotweed, rhododendron, New Zealand flatworm and mink. It also identifies problems of over-grazing resulting in the impoverishment of moorland and upland habitats and a loss of native woodland, caused by the large numbers of red deer and sheep.

 

In 2020 Clan MacLeod chief Hugh MacLeod announced a plan to reintroduce 370,000 native trees along with beaver and red squirrel populations to the clan estates on Skye, to restore a "wet desert" landscape which had depleted from years of overgrazing.

Picture Of Car 14 For The City Of White Plains New York Police Department - 2013 Ford Taurus Police Interceptor - Car 14 (438) Now Without License Plate Readers. It Was Put Into Service During June 2013. It Will Probably Be Replaced WIth A New 2015 Ford Taurus Police Interceptor In The Next Two Weeks. Photo Taken Monday October 19, 2015.

  

IMG9165

 

iPhone 5s

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 26-Nov-18.

 

Built in 1972, ex CCCP-11526 Aeroflot, RA-11526, D2-FDB, LZ-VED Vega Airlines, UP-AN211, now 46 years old and still in service with Cavok Air as UR-CKM. Current (Nov-18).

replaces the previous shot...Okanagan Lake BC Canada

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 30-Aug-22 (DeNoise AI).

 

JAL's 50th Anniversary Pink 'Dream Express' logojet, 'Friends'. Right Side.

 

The Boeing 747-400D was built for the Japanese Domestic market and had no winglets. They didn't do anything for fuel efficiency on short sectors and omitting them saved weight. Only 19 were built for Japan Air Lines and All Nippon Airways, they had a maximum passenger capacity of 660.

 

This aircraft was delivered to JAL Japan Air Lines as JA8904 in Nov-92. When JAS Japan Air System was merged into JAL in Apr-04, they created two divisions, Domestic and International. This aircraft was part of Japan Airlines - Domestic until the Domestic Division was merged into International in Oct-06.

 

It was retired in Jun-10 after almost 18 years in service and sold to AerSale Inc (USA) as N894DB and permanently retired at Roswell, NM, USA. The registration was cancelled in May-15. Updated 30-Aug-22.

HIRSCH Performance Paul

 

この純正ラバーバンド( flic.kr/p/vXfxxh )をオーストリアのHIRSCHってメーカーのレザーバンドに交換。

これ、裏が格子状に溝が入った天然ゴムでなんと300m防水。表はちゃんとしたレザーバンドなんだけど、汗や水に強い優れもの。

日本法人の人と話す機会があったんだけど、「裏が汚れたら古い歯ブラシ使って洗っちゃってくださいw」て言うほどw

*\*This photograph was taken in 1982, before it was demolished and replaced with a multi story apartment building. We rented the two rooms shown, it had no air condition and we were plagued nightly by the mosquitos that loved our european blood. We slept on hammocks covered with nets. The bathroom was at the end of the hall and was shared by two other families. These two rooms became my parents studio as well for my father not being able to find work, started to repair church stained glass windows, cutting, painting and baking the glass in a oven in a shed in the patio. My mother would earn her living drawing and painting soldiers and sailors on leave from a stand with an umbrella with the lottery vendors on Central Avenue and I started my career as a jeweler apprentice at age thirteen. We were blessed 24 hrs. a day with music coming from portable radios that everyone would play at full volume. My mother would make friends with many local artists including Diana Chiarri who became best friends. In short, our family in spite of our meager income was the happiest. Both of my parents having come from tha camps were very liberal allowing me to spend the nights in coffee houses and all kinds of entertainment.

"lagrimas negras" was a popular bald played on the radios at that time. by magic of You-Tube found a recent recording. see and hear bellow for your enjoyment

youtu.be/tozhe0yTAqo

Replaced roof cap taken from a low-headroom BB

Transferred from Somers

Replacing an earlier scanned slide with a better version 02-Dec-15.

 

Delivered to American Airlines in Apr-66 as N5026, this aircraft was only in service for 6 years and was due to be sold to UK start-up Orientair as G-AZMI.

 

However the deal fell through and it was leased to the British Aircraft Corporation instead, for about 10 days in Mar-72 using the temporary British registration G-16-19 before being returned to American Airlines as G-AZMI and stored at Bournemouth, UK.

 

It was sold to British Airways in Apr-74 and registered G-BBME. It was with BA for 14 years until it was retired at Bournemouth in Nov-88. In Jan-90 it was sold to Birmingham European Airways. Birmingham European merged with Brymon Airways in Oct-92 to form Brymon European Airways.

 

They de-merged the following year, in Aug-93, with Brymon Airways separating and operating their Dash 8's for British Airways Express, while the Birmingham European half was renamed Maersk Air UK and operated the One-Elevens, also on behalf of British Airways out of Birmingham.

 

The aircraft was sold in South Africa in Feb-97 to Nationwide Air Charter as ZS-OAG and painted in their full livery with additional SABENA titles. It was finally retired at Lanseria, South Africa, in Mar-98, and broken up there by 2000.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 22-Apr-22 (DeNoise AI).

 

Named: "City of Wangaratta".

 

First flown with the Boeing test registration N6018N, this aircraft was delivered to QANTAS Airways as VH-OGL in Nov-91. After 23 years service it operated the last ever QANTAS Boeing 767 revenue service between Melbourne & Sydney on 27-Dec-14.

 

The aircraft was ferried to Victorville, CA, USA in Jan-15 and stored. It was sold to the BCC Equipment Leasing Corporation (Boeing) as N326BC in Apr-15. It was ferried to Lake Charles, LA, USA in Jun-15 for maintenance, repaint and cabin re-config.

 

It was fitted with blended winglets in Nov-15 and, after some months delay, was leased to WestJet (Canada) as C-FWAD in Jan-16. The aircraft was returned to BCC Equipment Leasing in Sep-20 and sold to Amazon Services as N563AZ 10 days later.

 

In late Sep-20 the aircraft was ferried to Mexico City and stored until it was converted to freighter configuration with a main deck cargo door.

 

The conversion was completed in Apr-21 and Amazon Services leased it to CargoJet Airways (Canada) as C-GAZF in Jun-21. The aircraft is operated on behalf of Amazon Prime Air - Canada. It's now 30.5 years old. Updated 22-Apr-22.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 18-Sep-21 (DeNoise AI).

 

Although still registered N610TF, it already has the fleet number 141 on the nosewheel doors.

 

First flown with the McDonnell Douglas test registration N19B, it was re-registered N54652 the following week for further test flights. The aircraft was delivered to JAL Japan Air Lines (as a 'domestic' DC-10-40D - see note below) as JA8533 in May-76.

 

It served with JAL for 22 years before being sold to Ten Forty Inc as Apr-98 as N610TF. The aircraft was converted to freighter configuration as a DC-10-40(F) in Oct/Nov-98, with main deck cargo door. On completion it was leased to CAC Challenge Air Cargo. It was re-registered N141WE in Apr-99. By late 2000 Challenge Air Cargo had financial problems and the aircraft was stored at Greenwood, MS, USA in Jan-01.

 

In Aug-01 it was transferred to a new company, Centurion Air Cargo. It was returned to the lessor in Aug-03. It was leased to Aeroflot Russian Airlines as VP-BDG the following month. In Mar-07 the aircraft was transferred to their new cargo division, Aeroflot Cargo. It was returned to the lessor in Apr-08 as N141WE and stored at Miami.

 

In Jul-08 the aircraft was leased to Arrow Air Cargo. At the age 0f 33 it was retired and stored at Orlando-Sanford, FL, USA in Aug-09. It was ferried to Marana, AZ, USA in Aug-12 for further storage and was last noted still stored there in Apr-16, complete and with everything 'taped up'.

 

The aircraft was sold to Omega Aerial Refuelling Services in Nov-23 for spares use, Permanently retired at Marana.

 

Note: Japan Air Lines operated two types of DC-10-40, the DC-10-40D used on Japanese domestic services and the DC-10-40I which was used mainly on international services. They were basically the same aircraft, however the DC-10-40D had the centre main undercarriage leg and the centre fuel tank locked out and could be operated at the lower maximum take-off and landing weights of the DC-10-10.

 

Aircraft landing charges are based on the maximum take-off weight of the aircraft (I know that sounds weird, having the landing charge based on the MTOW but that's how it works world-wide!) and using the aircraft as a DC-10-10 gave JAL a considerable saving on landing fees. Some of JAL's DC-10-40D's were converted to 'I' standard during their time with the company and all of the aircraft which were later converted to freighters became DC-10-40(F)'s.

While having fun riding of road yesterday I hearda dull "twunk" from the rear wheel. A spoke had had enough. It was a quick job today before tea to repalce it.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 01-Apr-20.

 

Named: "James Cook".

 

This aircraft was delivered to KLM Royal Dutch Airlines as PH-BTD in Dec-92. It was sold to Privatair (Switzerland) as HB-JJC in Dec-11. It was wet-leased to EC Air (Equatorial Congo Airlines) in Feb-12. The aircraft was withdrawn from service and stored at Brussels in Dec-15. It was sold to EC Air in Jan-18 and re-registered TN-AJX. However, it didn't stay in service for long and was withdrawn from use and stored at Johannesburg in Oct-18. As far as I'm aware, EC Air is no longer operational and the aircraft hasn't flown since. As it's now over 27 years old, I'm assuming it's unlikely to fly again. Updated (Apr-20).

I replaced the previous video with this 720 rez, let's see if it works. Flickr is spotty today

Today 14 wild horses came galloping down our dirt road and made a beeline to our stock tank. OMG, they drank it dry in minutes. So, I got the hose out while talking sweet to them and started filling it back up. They watched intently and then started drinking from the hose gentle spray. Then they made another beeline to the tall grasses near our septic tank field.

I love nature!!!

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 14-May-17, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 06-Jul-23.

 

Operated on behalf of British Airways by Citiexpress.

 

'Youm al Suk'(Market Day), Saudi Arabia World Tail livery.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 06-Mar-18, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 22-Oct-24.

 

Taken into the early morning sun on a misty October morning.

 

With unusual additional 'MyTravelCo' titles. Airtours didn't become MyTravel until May-02.

 

An early A320 (c/n 164), this aircraft was first flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWIE before being delivered to Conair of Scandinavia as OY-CNE in Sep-91. It was wet-leased to Saarland Airlines in Apr-93 (a short-lived airline which was formed in Apr-92 and ceased operations in Dec-93), returning to Conair in Dec-93.

 

In Jan-94 Conair of Scandinavia merged with Scanair to form Premiair Denmark. In 1996 Premiair's major shareholder SLG (Scandinavian Leisure Group) was bought out by Airtours International (UK) and Premiair became part of the Airtours Group. The aircraft was sold to a lessor in Sep-96 and leased back to Premiair.

 

It was returned to the lessor in Mar-97 and the lease was transferred to Airtours International Airways as G-DJAR. Airtours was renamed MyTravel Airways in May-02. The aircraft continued in service with MyTravel until it was returned to the lessor in Jun-04.

 

It was leased to SriLankan Airlines as 4R-ABF the following month. It returned to the lessor as N164CG in May-09 and was stored at Victorville, CA, USA. In Mar-10 the aircraft was leased to Mexicana, retaining it's US registration.

 

Mexicana ceased operations in Aug-10 and the aircraft was repossessed and again stored at Victorville. It was sold to AeroTurbine Inc in Dec-11 and was broken up at Victorville in 2012. The registration was cancelled in Mar-12.

The Paddle Steamer Phantom replaced the smaller ferries on the Circular Quay to Manly run in 1859. This image - dated around 1860 - shows the level of development around Manly Cove at that time. This image has been included to indicate the development at Manly at the time the Huntress was operational on the Manly run.

 

The Phantom was a steel vessel - substantially larger than the smaller wooden ferries such as the Huntress that operated the service a few years beforehand.

 

HUNTRESS

The Huntress was built by Alexander Newton and William Malcolm at Pelican on the Manning River in 1853. She operated out of the Hunter River and Sydney Harbour with some brief periods on the Hawkesbury River before being purchased by New Zealand interests. This section deals with the Australian operations - 1853 -1860. Details of her operation in New Zealand Operation are to be found in New Zealand Operation

 

Other images related the Huntress are found in the Album HUNTRESS

 

SECTION 1. AUSTRALIAN OPERATION (1853 - 1860)

 

Details :

Name: Huntress

Type: Schooner Rigged, Cutter/Paddle Steamer.

Length: 89.1 ft

Beam: 16.2 ft

Draft: 7.6 ft

Engine: 2 x 40 h.p. Steam/Built and installed by G. Russell & Co (Sydney)

Builder: Alexander Newton and William Malcolm

Launched: September 1853, Pelican Shipyards, Manning River, NSW.

Registered: Sydney '147/1853' - '25/9/1853'

Re-Registered: Sydney 25/1857

Tonnage: Suggest 54.45 tons

Propelling Power: 32.01

Official Number: ON 032617

Construction:

-Carvel Planked

-Square Stern

 

Owners:

Australia

1853 -1856 Messrs. J. & A. Brown, of Newcastle.

1856 -1860 Thomas Stephenson Rountree [often incorrectly referred to as Rowntree], of Balmain.

 

New Zealand

1860 -1864 Government of Hawke’s Bay Province, New Zealand (registered Napier) Thomas Henry Fitzgerald. 12th March 1860.

1864 -1866 Donald McLean

1866 -1867 G. Edward Reid, 6th December 1866 (registered Auckland)

1867 -1871 William Souter 10th January 1867

1871 -1872 J. S. MacFarlane & Co.

 

HISTORY:

 

1853

NEW STEAMER. A contract for the building of a new steamboat was finally concluded yesterday by Messrs Malcolm and Newton. The matter has been under consideration for some time past, yet in consequence of some proposed alteration with regard to the vessel, it was only determined yesterday. The dimensions will be about 85 ft. keel, 16 ft. beam, and fore hold 7 ft. She will be built at Messrs. Malcolm and Newton’s yard on the Manning River. Her intended trade has not been given. The Maitland Mercury 5 March 1853.

(The side-wheel paddle-steamer Huntress was the only steamship built at the Pelican shipyard on the Manning River.)

 

MAIDEN VOYAGE

“The Phantom, ketch, has cleared out for the Manning River, taking up with her Captain Malcolm and a crew to bring down the new steamer [Huntress] lately built at that place by Messrs. Newton and Malcolm, the well-known shipwrights. The steamer is intended for the Hunter River trade, to ply between Newcastle and Morpeth, and is also to be used as a tug boat.

The steamer will come from the Manning under canvas to receive her engines, and proceed immediately to her destination. This will be a novel feature on the Hunter, and we congratulate the inhabitants on their new acquisition. The builders’ well-earned fame is sufficient guarantee of the faithfulness and superiority of build in the new boat.” The Maitland Mercury and Hunter General Advertiser - 6 August 1853

 

UNDER CANVAS - THREE MASTS

THE HUNTRESS STEAMER. This vessel arrived here on Sunday, the 25th, from the Manning River, for the purpose of being fitted with her engines, &c., which have been constructed by Mr. G. Russell, and, as a specimen of colonial shipbuilding, is worthy of some attention. She is intended for a tug-boat on the Hunter River, and will at the same time carry goods and passengers. Her dimensions are as follows:-Length of keel 86 feet 6 inches, depth of hold 7 feet 6 inches; draws when loaded 5 feet 10 inches aft, 5 feet 1 inch forward, and will be propelled by two engines of the united power of 80 horses. Her builders, Messrs. Newton and Malcolm (who also built the Scotia), have adhered to the usual American system adopted in their river boats, which allows of deck houses being placed on vessels if required, but at present she is flush fore and aft. She is owned by Messrs. J. and A. Brown, of Newcastle, and came up from the Manning rigged as a three–masted schooner, with a large cargo of grain, and proved an excellent sea-boat. [Captain James Malcolm, the agent, has politely furnished the above particulars.]

The Maitland Mercury - 1 October 1853

 

The same newspaper reported the Huntress arrived, from the Manning {26th September], with 1604 bushels grain, 65 hides, 2 tons bags, 700 felloes, 5000 feet timber, 2 casks beef, casks 2 paunches tallow.

 

CONVERSION TO STEAMER AND TRIALS

The Huntress was converted to a steam tug over a period of around three months; it appears that her central mast was removed leaving one fore and one rear mast [this needs checking]. She made a trial trip down to the Heads on 30th December 1853; she went from Pinchgut to the South Reef in 25 minutes, and from the reef to Millers Point in 31 minutes. On the 6th January 1854 she completed her trials, attaining 11 knots an hour outside the Heads.

 

1854

NEWCASTLE

On January the 24th 1854 the Huntress arrived at Newcastle to take up her new duties as the Newcastle steam-tug. On the 25th January she towed out a schooner on the and then proceeded to Morpeth in around four hours, returning to Newcastle on the 1st February to tow out the Mary Nicholson.

 

HUNTRESS RE-LOCATED TO SYDNEY

After 9 months operation on the Hunter River as a ferry from Morpeth to Newcastle and operating as a steam-tug as needed, Huntress was advertised for sale - firstly by Private Treaty and subsequently by auction. With no sale, she was moved to Sydney in November 1854 where she commenced operation as a charter boat. Almost immediately she commenced operation as a ferry taking passengers to observe the Balmain Regatta The Sydney Morning Herald - 30 November 1854. She was again offered for sale the following January

 

1855

WINDSOR SOJOURN

On the 1st February 1855 Huntress was sent to Windsor as so eloquently described:

"On Friday afternoon last [2nd Feb 1855], shortly before two o'clock, several gun-shots were suddenly heard fired in quick succession from the neighbourhood of Thompson's square, and numbers of men, women, and children might be seen hurrying towards the river. What could be the cause of this consternation, thought we? Nothing more nor less than the anxiously looked for arriving of the Huntress steamer, " walking the waters" of our noble Hawkesbury " like a thing of life!" The Huntress left Sydney the day previous and was twenty-four hours on the water, though actually under steam only thirteen hours and a half, having rested at night. We are informed that the passage might have been, and can be made easily in twelve hours, but this, being the maiden trip, was performed cautiously and under suppressed power. Although fears were entertained that the vessel might have met with some obstruction on the way up, we believe she met with none, having found water deep enough the whole distance. As she hauled alongside the temporary wharf erected by the charterers, it was amusing to observe the eager interest and excitement she occasioned amongst the inhabitants, particularly the young, many of whom, we believe, never beheld such a sight before. Fortunately there were not very many passengers on board, and the captain and managers exhibited much good nature, otherwise the crowds of people, including children, who rushed upon the decks and examined the accommodation and machinery, might have been felt to be very inconvenient. We hail the arrival at our wharf of the little Huntress with much satisfaction, and hope she may prove the harbinger of a more extended system of steam communication upon the Hawkesbury, to be carried out at no distant day, and which will to some extent aid in developing the resources of our important district. At present, the steamer will be used for pleasure and excursion trips only, the first of which will take place on Monday. The Sydney Morning Herald - 6 February 1855.

 

RETURN TO SYDNEY CHARTER FERRY

After a short stay at Windsor she returned to Sydney where she was regularly chartered for ferrying passengers to various events. For a time she was leased to Henry Gilbert Smith, who used her as one of the first ferries on the Sunday Manly run.

 

1856

PADDLE WHEELS IMPROVED

MR. RANKEN’S NEW PADDLE – WHEEL FLOAT’S .

Some interest has lately been caused by an invention which is intended to do away with much of the loss of power, and therefore of speed in the common paddle-wheels and floats now in use in most steamers.

A trial has been made with Mr. Ranken’s improvement in the Huntress, running between Circular Quay and Cremorne, and the result is stated as having been very favourable. Upon this Mr. Ranken applied to the Australian Steam Navigation Company for leave to fit one of their sea-going vessels after the same fashion, for a trial of a hundred miles or so; but by some misunderstanding the two parties have come to issue, and science is disappointed. Whichever may be right, it is a pity that more cannot be known of the capabilities of discovery; anything that can increase speed, husband power or lessen the coal bill in steamboats, is a world wide benefit.

The invention, it seems, is simple, but the most simple efforts, have almost always been the manner in which genius works.

The following is a description, :- Upon the common paddle-wheel float, which strikes the water mostly at an angle of 45 degrees, is fitted an iron binding, and to use a homely simile, very like the turned up edges of a dust pan; this is meant to compress the water more solidly within a space, so that the propelling power may have more grip whereby to send the vessel ahead; but on account of a greater force being required to drive the paddle-wheels fitted like this, every alternate float is unshipped. As we believe, in the case of the Huntress in smooth water, Mr. Ranken’s plan answered as well as could be wished; still it is quite another matter with a ship in a sea-way, it being a question whether or not any such iron binding will ever stand the surging of the wheels in a heavy roll, either ahead or on the beam, which nothing can decide except a fair trial in the open sea. The Sydney Morning Herald - 5 July 1856.

 

1857

SYDNEY HARBOUR

In addition to charters and towing contracts, Huntress was regularly utilised on Sydney Harbour to transport passengers to the gardens at Cremorne every Sunday.

 

RETURN TO WINDSOR

During the winter of 1857, Huntress was sent to Windsor where she transported goods that were then sold by auction in Sydney. "SALES BY AUCTION. REGULAR PRODUCE SALE.

MR. W. PRITCHARD will sell by auction, on the Ground Floor of his New Mart, 70, Sussex-street, late Brierley, Dean, and Co.'s Stores, on WEDNESDAY, at 11 o'clock,

300 bushels of wheat, ex Huntress, from Windsor 300 ditto maize, ditto, ditto .

325 ditto fresh coarse bran, ditto, ditto

Also, several other parcels of maize, wheat, bran, hay, hides, sheepskins, tallow, &c., &c.

At half-past 11.

Chaff cutters, corn shellers, corn measures, &c., &c. 385"

Empire - 7 July 1857

On one of these voyages she encountered a sunken ketch on the Hawkesbury River. "The Huntress (s.), from the Hawkesbury, reports having seen, while coming down the river, a ketch sunk, with masts and sails standing. They found it to be the ketch Traveller, with the usual cargo; the mate of the Huntress made several attempts to tow her, but found she was too heavy, and as compelled to leave her there. It is not known whether the crew were saved or went down with the vessel." The Maitland Mercury - 9 July 1857

 

1858 - 1860

CONVERTED

 

ADVERTISED FOR SALE

Over this period the only activity reported was a regular series of advertisements in 1858 offering Huntress for sale. "Also, the powerful steamer HUNTRESS, 84 tons, and 50 H.P., capable of carrying 60 tons cargo, and 250 passengers on river service. The above vessels now lie for inspection in Waterview Bay. Apply to ROWNTREE [ROUNTREE] and CO., Mort's Dry Dock; or T. S. MORT and CO., Pitt-street. The Sydney Morning Herald - 16 October 1858.

 

CONVERTED TO DREDGE

Few details are available for the years 1858/59 but it appears that Huntress was converted into a dredge but details are unclear. She was reportedly re-measured as 86 gross tons 54 net but this requires confirmation.

 

PURCHASED BY NEW ZEALAND INTERESTS

In 1860 it was confirmed that the Huntress had been purchased by Mr. G. Griffith, as agent for the Provincial Government of Hawkes Bay. "The steamer Huntress, recently the property of Captain Rountree, but since purchased from him by Mr. G. Griffith, the agent in Sydney for the Provincial Government of Hawkes Bay, New Zealand, made a trial trip yesterday prior to her departure. She proceeded down the harbour and a few miles to sea. She averaged fully ten knots under steam, and under canvas was remarkably steady and easy. She is to be used as a steam-dredge for the harbour of Napier, Hawkes Bay, for which she has competent machinery, in addition to an effective set of new get, ordered from England." The Sydney Morning Herald - 27 March 1860.

She departed for Hawkes Bay on March on March 27th 1860.

 

Image Source: Image Collection of the State Library of NSW.

 

GREAT LAKES MANNING RIVER SHIPPING, NSW - Flick Group --> Alphabetical Boat Index --> Boat builders Index --> Tags List

  

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 20-Aug-16, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 07-Nov-24

 

Sadly, slightly blurred and with a bit of heat shimmer!

 

Built as a Boeing 727-22C which was convertible for either passengers or cargo, this aircraft was delivered to United Air Lines as N7416U in Mar-67.

 

It was sold to Air Canada as C-GAGX in Sep-79. In Nov-81 it was sold to Interstate Airlines (USA) as N725PL. The aircraft was transferred to the Air traffic Service Corporation in Jul-82 and leased back to Interstate Airlines.

 

It was sub-leased to DHL Worldwide Express in Mar-84. In Apr-87 DHL bought it and converted it into a full freighter. It was re-registered N705DH in Mar-90.

 

After 35 years in service it was retired and stored at Kingman, AZ, USA in Dec-02. It was broken up there around 2009.

Replacing an earlier photo from Feb-16 with a better version.

 

Repainted in FlyBe's latest livery with additional 'Cancer Research UK - Kids and Teens' special livery overlaid.

 

First flown with the Embraer test registration PT-SGN, this aircraft was delivered to GOAL German Operating Aircraft Leasing and leased to FlyBe Airlines as G-FBEM in Aug-08.

 

It was withdrawn from service and stored at Exeter, UK in Apr-14 and returned to service in Jun-15, the aircraft was repainted in FlyBe's purple livery in Dec-15. It was sold to Propius Leasing in Jul-17 while the lease to FlyBe continued. It was returned to the lessor in Aug-18.

 

The aircraft was leased to Stobart Air as EI-GGB in Dec-18 and returned to the lessor in Nov-19. It was immediately leased to Great Dane Airlines (Denmark) as OY-GDC. In Sep-20 it was wet-leased to Bamboo Airways (Vietnam) in their full livery and returned to Great Dane Airlines in Apr-21.

 

Great Dane ceased operations in Oct-21 and the aircraft was returned to the lessor and stored at Billund, Denmark. It was due to be leased to DAT Danish Air Transport but the lease wasn't taken up.

 

In Sep-23 the aircraft was repainted in full Air Serbia livery and leased to Marathon Airlines (Greece), still as OY-GDC. It was wet-leased to Air Serbia in Oct-23.

 

The aircraft overran the runway on take-off from Belgrade (Serbia) on 18-Feb-24 (see below). It managed to get airborne and returned to Belgrade on a full emergency. The wet-lease was terminated two days later when it was returned to Marathon Airlines.

 

It was stored at Belgrade, returned to the lessor and repaired. It took a while and was completed in Oct-24. The aircraft was leased direct to Air Serbia as YU-ATP a few days later. Current, updated 23-Oct-24.

 

Note: The aircraft overran the runway on take-off at Belgrade while operating a service to Dusseldorf. The crew didn't use the runway full length and maybe miscalculated their take-off weight against the shorter runway length available. The aircraft ran off the end of the runway and collided with an ILS antenna and approach lights. It managed to get airborne and landed safely back at BEG 40mins later The left side of the fuselage, the left wing root and the left tailplane were badly damaged, there was also a fuel leak.

 

aviation-safety.net/wikibase/351783 it's an interesting read!

Class 40 Indian Summer - 2J38

Every day for a week during August 1984, the 19.35 evening DMU working between Blackpool North and Manchester Victoria was replaced with a Class 40 and Mark 1s. The workings were an absolute riot as it was all stations and plenty of thrash. I had two runs behine 40160 that week - here she is looking nice and oily shortly before departure from Blackpool. A vintage Class 120 Swindon DMU can be seen approaching under the fine collection of semaphore signals.

 

Now LIVE on Sound & Vision on SoundCloud - more memories from a mis-spent youth 😎

During the 1980s, whilst travelling around the British Rail network, I made a number of tape recordings to capture the railway scene of the time, many from the front window, some from the platform, using my trusty ghetto-blaster - and now these recordings can finally be heard :)

 

And this working features - visit the track here: soundcloud.com/sound-vision-10193594/the-class-40-indian-...

 

'A day in the life' - log book update:

Tuesday 14th August 1984 - 40160 on 2J38 19.35 Blackpool North - Manchester Victoria vice DMU

 

BLACKPOOL NORTH

Poulton le Fylde

Kirkham & Wesham

PRESTON

Leyland

Chorley

BOLTON

Agecroft Jnct.

Windsor Bridge Jnct.

Salford

MANCHESTER VICTORIA

 

48m all stations ;)

 

Between 1982 and 1984 I spent many happy hours with my friends chasing around the North of England after the remaining Class 40s. At the beginning of 1984, there were still 50 members of the fleet in service, but this had already reduced down to 29 by the time I had 40160 in the middle of August. By the end of the summer timetable, just 25 remained in service, and only 17 of the class survived into 1985, all but 3 being withdrawn over the weekend of 21st/22nd Jan 1985.

 

D200/40122, 40118 and 40012 were kept on just for rail tours, although D200 had a second Indian summer :)

 

My interest in the railways waned permanently with the demise of the Class 50s, initially from the Paddington-Oxford route in 1990, and finally when they retired from the Waterloo-Exeter services in 1992.

 

As well as enjoying the thrash, I managed to record many of the trips and railway scenes encountered on film for posterity. Those days are now long gone, but happily the photos remain for me to reminisce over and share. ;)

 

Taken with a Zenith TTL SLR camera. Scanned from the original negative with no digital restoration

 

You can see a random selection of my railway photos here on Flickriver: www.flickriver.com/photos/themightyhood/random/

 

'Indian Summer' - a period of happiness or success occurring late in life...English Electric Type 4 1958-1984

(Replaced after editing for greater warmth in Nik Color Efex Pro 4.)

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version.

Hagia Sophia

Hagia Sophia (from the Greek: Ἁγία Σοφία, "Holy Wisdom"; Latin: Sancta Sophia or Sancta Sapientia; Turkish: Ayasofya) is a former Orthodox patriarchal basilica, later a mosque, and now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey. From the date of its dedication in 360 until 1453, it served as the Greek Patriarchal cathedral of Constantinople, except between 1204 and 1261, when it was converted to a Roman Catholic cathedral under the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople of the Western Crusader established Latin Empire. The building was a mosque from 29 May 1453 until 1931, when it was secularized. It was opened as a museum on 1 February 1935.

 

The Church was dedicated to the Logos, the second person of the Holy Trinity, its dedication feast taking place on 25 December, the anniversary of the Birth of the incarnation of the Logos in Christ. Although it is sometimes referred to as Sancta Sophia (as though it were named after Saint Sophia), sophia is the phonetic spelling in Latin of the Greek word for wisdom – the full name in Greek being Ναός τῆς Ἁγίας τοῦ Θεοῦ Σοφίας, "Church of the Holy Wisdom of God".

 

Famous in particular for its massive dome, it is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture and is said to have "changed the history of architecture." It was the largest cathedral in the world for nearly a thousand years, until Seville Cathedral was completed in 1520. The current building was originally constructed as a church between 532 and 537 on the orders of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian and was the third Church of the Holy Wisdom to occupy the site, the previous two having both been destroyed by rioters. It was designed by the Greek scientists Isidore of Miletus, a physicist, and Anthemius of Tralles, a mathematician.

 

The church contained a large collection of holy relics and featured, among other things, a 49-foot (15 m) silver iconostasis. It was the seat of the Patriarch of Constantinople and the religious focal point of the Eastern Orthodox Church for nearly one thousand years. It is the church in which Cardinal Humbert in 1054 excommunicated Michael I Cerularius – which is commonly considered the start of the Great Schism.

 

In 1453, Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Turks under Sultan Mehmed II, who subsequently ordered the building converted into a mosque. The bells, altar, iconostasis, and sacrificial vessels were removed and many of the mosaics were plastered over. Islamic features – such as the mihrab, minbar, and four minarets – were added while in the possession of the Ottomans. It remained a mosque until 1931 when it was closed to the public for four years. It was re-opened in 1935 as a museum by the Republic of Turkey.

 

For almost 500 years the principal mosque of Istanbul, Hagia Sophia served as a model for many other Ottoman mosques, such as the Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Blue Mosque of Istanbul), the Şehzade Mosque, the Süleymaniye Mosque, the Rüstem Pasha Mosque and the Kılıç Ali Paşa Mosque.

 

History

 

First church

The first church was known as the Μεγάλη Ἐκκλησία (Megálē Ekklēsíā, "Great Church"), or in Latin "Magna Ecclesia", because of its larger dimensions in comparison to the contemporary churches in the City. Inaugurated on 15 February 360 (during the reign of Constantius II) by the Arian bishop Eudoxius of Antioch, it was built next to the area where the imperial palace was being developed. The nearby Hagia Eirene ("Holy Peace") church was completed earlier and served as cathedral until the Hagia Sophia was completed. Both churches acted together as the principal churches of the Byzantine Empire.

 

Writing in 440, Socrates of Constantinople claimed that the church was built by Constantius II, who was working on it in 346. A tradition which is not older than the 7th – 8th century, reports that the edifice was built by Constantine the Great. Zonaras reconciles the two opinions, writing that Constantius had repaired the edifice consecrated by Eusebius of Nicomedia, after it had collapsed. Since Eusebius was bishop of Constantinople from 339 to 341, and Constantine died in 337, it seems possible that the first church was erected by the latter. The edifice was built as a traditional Latin colonnaded basilica with galleries and a wooden roof. It was preceded by an atrium. It was claimed to be one of the world's most outstanding monuments at the time.

 

The Patriarch of Constantinople John Chrysostom came into a conflict with Empress Aelia Eudoxia, wife of the emperor Arcadius, and was sent into exile on 20 June 404. During the subsequent riots, this first church was largely burned down. Nothing remains of the first church today.

 

Second church

Stone remains of the basilica ordered by Theodosius II, showing the Lamb of God

Marble blocks from the second church

 

A second church was ordered by Theodosius II, who inaugurated it on 10 October 415. The basilica with a wooden roof was built by architect Rufinus. A fire started during the tumult of the Nika Revolt and burned the second Hagia Sophia to the ground on 13–14 January 532

 

Several marble blocks from the second church survive to the present; among them are reliefs depicting 12 lambs representing the 12 apostles. Originally part of a monumental front entrance, they now reside in an excavation pit adjacent to the museum's entrance. Discovered in 1935 beneath the western courtyard by A. M. Schneider, further digging was forsaken for fear of impinging on the integrity of the Hagia Sophia.

 

Third church (current structure)

On 23 February 532, only a few days after the destruction of the second basilica, Emperor Justinian I elected to build a third and entirely different basilica, larger and more majestic than its predecessors.

Construction of church depicted in codex Manasses Chronicle

 

Justinian chose physicist Isidore of Miletus and mathematician Anthemius of Tralles as architects; Anthemius, however, died within the first year of the endeavor. The construction is described in the Byzantine historian Procopius' On Buildings (Peri ktismatōn, Latin: De aedificiis). The emperor had material brought from all over the empire – such as Hellenistic columns from the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, large stones from quarries in porphyry from Egypt, green marble from Thessaly, black stone from the Bosporus region, and yellow stone from Syria. More than ten thousand people were employed. This new church was contemporaneously recognized as a major work of architecture. The theories of Heron of Alexandria may have been utilized to address the challenges presented by building such an expansive dome over so large a space. The emperor, together with the patriarch Eutychius, inaugurated the new basilica on 27 December 537 with much pomp. The mosaics inside the church were, however, only completed under the reign of Emperor Justin II (565–578).

 

Hagia Sophia was the seat of the Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople and a principal setting for Byzantine imperial ceremonies, such as coronations. The basilica also offered asylum to wrongdoers.

 

Earthquakes in August 553 and on 14 December 557 caused cracks in the main dome and eastern half-dome. The main dome collapsed completely during a subsequent earthquake on 7 May 558, destroying the ambon, altar, and ciborium. The crash was due mainly to the too high bearing load and to the enormous shearing load of the dome, which was too flat. These caused the deformation of the piers which sustained the dome. The emperor ordered an immediate restoration. He entrusted it to Isidorus the Younger, nephew of Isidore of Miletus, who used lighter materials and elevated the dome by "30 feet" (about 6.25 metres (20.5 ft)) – giving the building its current interior height of 55.6 metres (182 ft). Moreover, Isidorus changed the dome type, erecting a ribbed dome with pendentives, whose diameter lay between 32.7 and 33.5 m. This reconstruction, giving the church its present 6th-century form, was completed in 562. The Byzantine poet Paul the Silentiary composed a long epic poem (still extant), known as Ekphrasis, for the rededication of the basilica presided over by Patriarch Eutychius on 23 December 562.

 

In 726, the emperor Leo the Isaurian issued a series of edicts against the veneration of images, ordering the army to destroy all icons – ushering in the period of Byzantine iconoclasm. At that time, all religious pictures and statues were removed from the Hagia Sophia. After a brief reprieve under Empress Irene (797–802), the iconoclasts made a comeback. Emperor Theophilus (829–842) was strongly influenced by Islamic art, which forbids graven images. He had a two-winged bronze door with his monograms installed at the southern entrance of the church.

 

The basilica suffered damage, first in a great fire in 859, and again in an earthquake on 8 January 869, that made a half-dome collapse. Emperor Basil I ordered the church repaired.

 

After the great earthquake of 25 October 989, which collapsed the Western dome arch, the Byzantine emperor Basil II asked for the Armenian architect Trdat (Armenian: Տրդատ ճարտարապետ; Latin: Tiridates), creator of the great churches of Ani and Argina, to direct the repairs. He erected again and reinforced the fallen dome arch, and rebuilt the west side of the dome with 15 dome ribs. The extent of the damage required six years of repair and reconstruction; the church was re-opened on 13 May 994. At the end of the reconstruction, the church's decorations were renovated, including the additions of paintings of four immense cherubs, a new depiction of Christ on the dome, and on the apse a new depiction of the Virgin Mary holding Jesus between the apostles Peter and Paul. On the great side arches were painted the prophets and the teachers of the church.

 

In his book De caerimoniis aulae Byzantinae ("Book of Ceremonies"), Emperor Constantine VII (913–919) wrote a detailed account of the ceremonies held in the Hagia Sophia by the emperor and the patriarch.

19th Century marker of the tomb of Enrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice who commanded the Sack of Constantinople in 1204, inside the Hagia Sophia

 

Upon the capture of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade, the church was ransacked and desecrated by the Latin Christians. The Byzantine historian Niketas Choniates described the capture of Constantinople; many reputed relics from the church – such as a stone from the tomb of Jesus, the Virgin Mary's milk, the shroud of Jesus, and bones of several saints – were sent to churches in the West and can be seen there now in various museums. During the Latin occupation of Constantinople (1204–1261) the church became a Roman Catholic cathedral. Baldwin I of Constantinople was crowned emperor on 16 May 1204 in Hagia Sophia, at a ceremony which closely followed Byzantine practices. Enrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice who commanded the sack and invasion of the city by the Latin Crusaders in 1204, is buried inside the church. The tomb inscription carrying his name, which has become a part of the floor decoration, was spat upon by many of the angry Byzantines who recaptured Constantinople in 1261. However, restoration led by the brothers Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati during the period 1847–1849 cast doubt upon the authenticity of the doge's grave; it is more likely a symbolic memorial rather than burial site.

 

After the recapture in 1261 by the Byzantines, the church was in a dilapidated state. In 1317, emperor Andronicus II ordered four new buttresses (Πυραμὶδας, Greek:"Piramídas") to be built in the eastern and northern parts of the church, financing them with the inheritance of his deceased wife, Irene. New cracks developed in the dome after the earthquake of October 1344, and several parts of the building collapsed on 19 May 1346; consequently, the church was closed until 1354, when repairs were undertaken by architects Astras and Peralta.

 

Mosque (1453–1935)

In 1453 Sultan Mehmed laid siege to Constantinople, driven in part by a desire to convert the city to Islam. The Sultan promised his troops three days of unbridled pillage if the city fell, after which he would claim its contents himself. Hagia Sophia was not exempted from the pillage, becoming its focal point as the invaders believed it to contain the greatest treasures of the city. Shortly after the city’s defenses collapsed, pillagers made their way to the Hagia Sophia and battered down its doors. Throughout the siege worshipers participated in the Holy Liturgy and Prayer of the Hours at the Hagia Sophia, and the church formed a refuge for many of those who were unable to contribute to the city’s defense. Trapped in the church, congregants and refugees became booty to be divided amongst the invaders. The building was desecrated and looted, and occupants enslaved or slaughtered; a few of the elderly and infirm were killed, and the remainder chained. Priests continued to perform Christian rites until stopped by the invaders. When the Sultan and his cohort entered the church he insisted it should be at once transformed into a mosque. One of the Ulama then climbed the pulpit and recited the Shahada.

Fountain (Şadırvan) for ritual ablutions

The mihrab located in the apse where the altar used to stand, pointing towards Mecca

 

As written above, immediately after the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II converted Hagia Sophia into the Aya Sofya Mosque. As described by several Western visitors (such as the Córdoban nobleman Pero Tafur and the Florentine Cristoforo Buondelmonti), the church was in a dilapidated state, with several of its doors off; sultan Mehmed II ordered the cleanup of the church and its conversion. He attended the first Friday prayer in the mosque on 1 June 1453. Aya Sofya became the first imperial mosque of Istanbul. To the corresponding Waqf were endowed most of the existing houses in the city and the area of the future Topkapı Palace. Through the imperial charters of 1520 / 926H and 1547 / 954 H shops and parts of the Grand Bazaar and other markets were added to the foundation.Before 1481 a small minaret was erected on the SW corner of the building, above the stair tower. Later, the subsequent sultan, Bayezid II (1481–1512), built another minaret at the NE corner. One of these crashed because of the earthquake of 1509, and around the middle of the 16th century they were both replaced by two diagonally opposite minarets built at the E and W corners of the edifice.

 

In the 16th century the sultan Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566) brought back two colossal candlesticks from his conquest of Hungary. They were placed on either side of the mihrab. During the reign of Selim II (1566–1577), the building started showing signs of fatigue and was extensively strengthened with the addition of structural supports to its exterior by the great Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan, who is also considered one of the world's first earthquake engineers. In addition to strengthening the historic Byzantine structure, Sinan built the two additional large minarets at the western end of the building, the original sultan's loge, and the Türbe (mausoleum) of Selim II to the southeast of the building in 1576-7 / 984 H. In order to do that, one year before parts of the Patriarchate at the S corner of the building were pulled down. Moreover, the golden crescent was mounted on the top of the dome, while a respect zone 35 arşin (about 24 m) wide was imposed around the building, pulling down all the houses which in the meantime had nested around it. Later his türbe hosted also 43 tombs of Ottoman princes. In 1594 / 1004 H Mimar (court architect) Davud Ağa built the türbe of Murad III (1574–1595), where the Sultan and his Valide, Safiye Sultan were later buried. The octagonal mausoleum of their son Mehmed III (1595–1603) and his Valide was built next to it in 1608 / 1017 H by royal architect Dalgiç Mehmet Aĝa. His Son Mustafa I (1617–1618; 1622–1623) let convert the Baptistery into his Türbe.

 

Later additions were the sultan's gallery, a minbar decorated with marble, a dais for a sermon and a loggia for a muezzin.

 

Murad III had also two large alabaster Hellenistic urns transported from Pergamon and placed on two sides of the nave.

 

In 1717, under Sultan Ahmed III (1703–1730), the crumbling plaster of the interior was renovated, contributing indirectly to the preservation of many mosaics, which otherwise would have been destroyed by mosque workers. In fact, it was usual for them to sell mosaics stones – believed to be talismans – to the visitors. Sultan Mahmud I ordered the restoration of the building in 1739 and added a medrese (a Koranic school, now the library of the museum), an Imaret (soup kitchen for distribution to the poor) and a library, and in 1740 a Şadirvan (fountain for ritual ablutions), thus transforming it into a külliye, i.e. a social complex. At the same time a new sultan's gallery and a new mihrab were built inside.

 

The most famous restoration of the Aya Sofya was ordered by Sultan Abdülmecid and completed by eight hundred workers between 1847 and 1849, under the supervision of the Swiss-Italian architect brothers Gaspare and Giuseppe Fossati. The brothers consolidated the dome and vaults, straightened the columns, and revised the decoration of the exterior and the interior of the building. The mosaics in the upper gallery were cleaned. The old chandeliers were replaced by new pendant ones. New gigantic circular-framed disks or medallions were hung on columns. They were inscribed with the names of Allah, the Prophet Muhammad, the first four caliphs Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali, and the two grandchildren of Mohammed: Hassan and Hussain, by the calligrapher Kazasker Mustafa İzzed Effendi (1801–1877). In 1850 the architect Fossati built a new sultan's gallery in a Neo-Byzantine style connected to the royal pavilion behind the mosque. Outside the Aya Sofya, a timekeeper's building and a new madrasah were built. The minarets were altered so that they were of equal height. When the restoration was finished, the mosque was re-opened with ceremonial pomp on 13 July 1849.

 

Source: Wikipedia

 

Camera Nikon D7000

Exposure 1

Aperture f/6.3

Focal Length 10.5 mm

ISO Speed 100

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 11-Nov-17.

 

Built as a freighter, this aircraft was delivered to a lessor and leased to Atlas Air Cargo as N493MC in Oct-98. It was sold to Atlas Air in Nov-16. Current, updated 11-Jul-23.

Birdoswald Roman Fort was known as Banna ("horn" in Celtic) in Roman times, reflecting the geography of the site on a triangular spur of land bounded by cliffs to the south and east commanding a broad meander of the River Irthing in Cumbria below.

 

It lies towards the western end of Hadrian's Wall and is one of the best preserved of the 16 forts along the wall. It is also attached to the longest surviving stretch of Hadrian's Wall.

 

Cumbria County Council were responsible for the management of Birdoswald fort from 1984 until the end of 2004, when English Heritage assumed responsibility.

 

This western part of Hadrian's Wall was originally built using turf starting from 122 AD. The stone fort was built some time after the wall, in the usual playing card shape, with gates to the east, west and south.

 

The fort was occupied by Cohors I Aelia Dacorum and by other Roman auxiliaries from approximately AD 126 to AD 400.

 

The two-mile sector of Hadrian's Wall either side of Birdoswald is also of major interest. It is currently the only known sector of Hadrian's Wall in which the original turf wall was replaced, probably in the 130s, by a stone wall approximately 50 metres further north, to line up with the fort's north wall, instead of at its east and west gates. The reasons for this change are unclear, although David Woolliscroft (Woolliscroft, 2001) has plausibly suggested that it was the result of changing signalling requirements, whilst Stewart Ainsworth of Time Team suggested it was a response to a cliff collapse into the river. At any rate, this remains the only area in which both the walls can be directly compared.

 

As of 2005, it is the only site[citation needed] on Hadrian's Wall at which significant occupation in the post-Roman period has been proven. Excavations between 1987 and 1992 showed an unbroken sequence of occupation on the site of the fort granaries, running from the late Roman period until possibly 500AD. The granaries were replaced by two successive large timber halls, reminiscent of others found in many parts of Britain dating to the fifth and sixth centuries. Tony Wilmott (co-director of the excavations) has suggested that, after the end of Roman rule in Britain, the fort served as the power-base for a local warband descended from the late Roman garrison, possibly deriving legitimacy from their ancestors for several generations.

 

Inside were built the usual stone buildings, a central headquarters building (principia), granaries (horrea), and barracks. Unusually for an auxiliary fort, it also included an exercise building (basilica exercitatoria), perhaps reflecting the difficulties of training soldiers in the exposed site in the north of England.

 

Geophysical surveys detected vici (civilian settlements) of different characters on the eastern, western and northern sides of the fort. A bathhouse was also located in the valley of the River Irthing.

 

Approximately 600 metres east of Birdoswald, at the foot of an escarpment, lie the remains of Willowford bridge which carried Hadrian's Wall across the River Irthing. The westward movement of the river course over the centuries has left the east abutment of the bridge high and dry, while the west abutment has probably been destroyed by erosion. Nevertheless, the much-modified visible remains are highly impressive. Until 1996, these remains were not directly accessible from the fort, but they can now be reached by a footbridge.

 

The fort at Birdoswald was linked by a Roman road, sometimes referred to as the Maiden Way, to the outpost fort of Bewcastle, seven miles to the north. Signals could be relayed between the two forts by means of two signalling towers.

 

The fort has been extensively excavated for over a century, with twentieth century excavations starting in 1911 by F.G. Simpson and continuing with Ian Richmond from 1927 to 1933 .[6] The gateways and walls were then re-excavated under the supervision of Brenda Swinbank and J P Gillam from 1949 to 1950.

 

Extensive geophysical surveys, both magnetometry and earth resistance survey, were conducted by TimeScape Surveys (Alan Biggins & David Taylor, 1999 & 2004) between 1997 -2001. These surveys established that the sub-surface remains in the fort were well preserved.

 

An area between the fort and the escarpment was excavated by Channel 4's archaeological television programme Time Team in January 2000. The excavation detected signs of an extramural settlement (vicus), but the area is liable to erosion and the majority of the vicus could have fallen over the cliffs.

 

In 2021 Newcastle University, Historic England, and English Heritage launched a major new archaeological excavation at the site.

 

Today the fort's site is operated by English Heritage as Birdoswald Roman Fort. The visitor centre features displays and reconstructions of the fort, exhibits about life in Roman Britain, the site's history through the ages, and archaeological discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries. Visitors can walk outside along the excavated remains of the fort.

 

Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.

 

Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.

 

The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.

 

Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.

 

Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.

 

History

Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.

 

The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.

 

The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.

 

Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.

 

Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.

 

Roman invasion

The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.

 

The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.

 

The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.

 

Establishment of Roman rule

After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.

 

On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.

 

While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.

 

There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.

 

In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.

 

For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.

 

Roman military organisation in the north

In 84 AD

In 84 AD

 

In 155 AD

In 155 AD

 

Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall

There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.

 

Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.

 

A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.

 

In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.

 

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.

 

During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.

 

In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.

 

The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.

 

3rd century

The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.

 

Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.

 

The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.

 

Northern campaigns, 208–211

An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.

 

As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.

 

During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.

 

Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.

 

The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.

 

Diocletian's reforms

As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).

 

The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.

 

Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.

 

The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.

 

The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.

 

Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.

 

In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.

 

A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.

 

4th century

Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.

 

In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.

 

As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.

 

Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.

 

End of Roman rule

The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.

 

The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.

 

Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.

 

Sub-Roman Britain

Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.

 

In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.

 

Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.

 

Trade

During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.

 

Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.

 

These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.

 

It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.

 

From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.

 

Economy

Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.

 

The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.

 

By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.

 

Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.

 

Government

Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain

Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.

 

To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.

 

Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.

 

Demographics

Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.

 

Town and country

During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.

 

Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.

 

Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C

 

Alcester (Alauna)

Alchester

Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C

Bath (Aquae Sulis) C

Brough (Petuaria) C

Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)

Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C

Caernarfon (Segontium) C

Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C

Caister-on-Sea C

Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C

Carlisle (Luguvalium) C

Carmarthen (Moridunum) C

Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)

Chester (Deva Victrix) C

Chester-le-Street (Concangis)

Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C

Cirencester (Corinium) C

Colchester (Camulodunum) C

Corbridge (Coria) C

Dorchester (Durnovaria) C

Dover (Portus Dubris)

Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C

Gloucester (Glevum) C

Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)

Ilchester (Lindinis) C

Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C

Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C

London (Londinium) C

Manchester (Mamucium) C

Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)

Northwich (Condate)

St Albans (Verulamium) C

Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C

Towcester (Lactodurum)

Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C

Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C

Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C

York (Eboracum) C

 

Religion

The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.

 

The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.

 

Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.

 

Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).

 

Christianity

It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.

 

The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.

 

A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.

 

Environmental changes

The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas

 

Legacy

During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.

 

Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages). The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe

.

.

 

On November 12th 2015 GETTY IMAGES unveiled plans for a new stills upload platform called ESP (Enterprise Submission Platform), to replace the existing 'Moment portal', and on November 13th I was invited to Beta test the new system prior to it being rolled out to the general public in December. (ESP went live on Tuesday December 15th 2015)

  

***** Selected for sale in the GETTY IMAGES COLLECTION on March 30th 2016

  

CREATIVE RF gty.im/515635772 MOMENT OPEN COLLECTION**

  

This photograph became my 1,842nd frame to be selected for sale in the Getty Images collection and I am very grateful to them for this wonderful opportunity.

  

.

.

  

Photograph taken at an altitude of Three hundred and thirty three metres in the magic of a rainy and misty Golden Hour around sunrise at 05:17am on Monday 25th May 2015 off the A855 close to The Storr, showing The old man of Storr, on the Isle of Skye, Scotland.

  

The Storr (Gaelic: An Stòr), is a rocky hill on the Trotternish Peninsula on the Isle of Skye with a steep rocky eastern face overlooking the Sound of Raasay, contrasting with gentler grassy slopes to the west.The Old Man of Storr rises to 535 metres and is visibile from the main road between Portree and Staffin on the west coast of Skye. Dominating the scene and visible fom many more parts of the islands the Storr is the hill immediately west of the Old Man and rising to 719 metres with xdcramatic cliffs on its eastern flank.

   

.

.

  

Nikon D800 50mm 1/40s f/2.8 iso200 RAW (14-bit) AF-S single point focus. Manual exposure. Centre weighted metering. Auto white balance.Auto Active D-lighting.

  

Nikkor AF-S 24-70mm f/2.8G ED IF. Jessops 77mm UV filter. Nikon MB-D12 battery grip. Two Nikon EN-EL15 batteries.Manfrotto MT057C3 057 Carbon Fiber Tripod 3 Sections (Payload 18kgs). Manfrotto MH057M0-RC4 057 Magnesium Ball Head with RC4 Quick Release (Payload 15kgs). Manfrotto quick release plate 410PL-14.Jessops Tripod bag. Optech Tripod Strap. Digi-Chip Speed Pro 64GB Class 10 UHS-1 SDXC card. Nikon DK-17a magnifying eyepiece. Hoodman HGEC soft eyepiece cup. Optech Tripod Strap. Lowepro Transporter camera strap. Lowepro Vertex 200 AW camera bag. Nikon GP-1 GPS unit.

  

.

.

  

LATITUDE: N 57d 30m 13.87s

LONGITUDE: W 6d 10m 6.62s

ALTITUDE: 333.0m

  

RAW (TIFF) FILE SIZE: 103.00MB

PROCESSED (JPeg) SIZE: 25.77MB

  

.

.

  

PROCESSING POWER:

 

Nikon D800 Firmware versions A 1.10 B 1.10 L 2.009 (Lens distortion control version 2)

 

HP 110-352na Desktop PC with AMD Quad-Core A6-5200 APU processor. AMD Radeon HD8400 graphics. 8 GB DDR3 Memory with 1TB SATA storage. 64-bit Windows 10. Verbatim USB 2.0 1TB desktop hard drive. WD My Passport Ultra 1tb USB3 Portable hard drive. Nikon ViewNX2 Version 2.10.3 64bit. Adobe photoshop Elements 8 Version 8.0 64bit.

   

Replacing an earlier photo from Apr-15 with a better version Apr-17.

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWAJ in Nov-13. Interior fitout and painting at Airbus Hamburg-Finkenwerder was completed in Jun-14 and the aircraft was stored at Finkenwerder until it was delivered to Qatar Airways as A7-APB in Nov-14. Current (May-17).

Tobermory is the capital of, and until 1973 the only burgh on, the Isle of Mull in the Scottish Inner Hebrides. It is located on the east coast of Mishnish, the most northerly part of the island, near the northern entrance of the Sound of Mull. The village was founded as a fishing port in 1788; its layout was based on the designs of Dumfriesshire engineer Thomas Telford. It has a current population of about 1,000.

 

The name Tobermory is derived from the Gaelic Tobar Mhoire, meaning "Mary's well". The name refers to a well located nearby which was dedicated in ancient times to the Virgin Mary.

 

Archaeological excavations have taken place at Baliscate just outside of the town. The site was first noted by Hylda Marsh and Beverley Langhorn as part of the Scotland's Rural Past. In 2009, it was partially excavated by Time Team and a further longer excavation took place in 2012 as part of a community archaeology project through the Mull Museum.

 

The different excavations found that there was a sixth-century agricultural settlement which was either adopted or replaced by a seventh-century Christian community with a chapel and cemetery. In the late 11th or early 12th century, a stone and turf structure was built which was probably a longhouse or hall. Then, in the late 13th or early 14th century, a wattle and turf structure was built over these earlier structures. That then burnt down and was replaced by a new stone and turf structure. It was used from the 16th century to 19th century intermittently. All of which showed that people had been living and working in the Tobermory area for over a thousand years before the village was founded.

 

The site is now a listed monument.

 

Legend has it that the wreck of a Spanish galleon, laden with gold, lies somewhere in the mud at the bottom of Tobermory Bay—although the ship's true identity, and cargo, are in dispute. By some accounts, the Florencia (or Florida, or San Francisco), a member of the defeated Spanish Armada fleeing the English fleet in 1588, anchored in Tobermory to take on provisions. Following a dispute over payment (or possibly, according to local folklore, a spell cast by the witch Dòideag), the ship caught fire and the gunpowder magazine exploded, sinking the vessel. In her hold, reputedly, was £300,000 worth of gold bullion. Other sources claim the vessel was the San Juan de Sicilia (or San Juan de Baptista), which, records indicate, carried troops, not treasure. Whatever the true story, no significant treasure has ever been recovered in Tobermory Bay.

 

Seventeenth-century efforts to salvage the treasure are well-documented. The Duke of Lennox gifted rights to Spanish wrecks near Tobermory to the Marquess of Argyll. In 1666 his son the Earl of Argyll engaged James Maule of Melgum to use diving bells to find treasure, and recover the valuable brass cannon. Maule had learnt diving in Sweden, but raised only two brass guns and an iron cannon, and left after three months. It was later said he had hoped to return, thinking he was the only expert diver. Argyll however raised six cannon by workmen under his direction, and next employed John Saint Clare, or Sinclair, son of the minister of Ormiston, in 1676 and a German sub-contractor Hans Albricht van Treileben, who had worked on the wreck of the Vasa. Next year, the earl transferred the rights to Captain Adolpho E. Smith and Treileben. At this period the fore-part of the wreck was visible above water, and was called the Admiral of Florence. The project was beset with difficulties in 1678; the Admiralty disputed Argyll's rights to the wreck. Captain Adolpho Smith refused to return the diving equipment to William Campbell, captain of the earl's frigate, the Anna of Argyll. The McLean clan fought the divers on land at Tobermory, led by Hector McLean, brother of Lachlan McLean of Torloisk.

 

The largest attempt made to locate the galleon was in 1950 when the then Duke of Argyll signed a contract with the British Admiralty to locate the galleon. Nothing came of the attempt, apart from the development of equipment still used today to locate ancient sunk vessels. Owing to similarities in sailing conditions, in the mid-1800s emigrant sailors created the community of Tobermory, located in Ontario, Canada. This namesake town has twin harbours, known locally as "Big Tub" and "Little Tub", which sheltered ships from the severe storms of Lake Huron.

 

During the Second World War, Tobermory was home to Royal Navy training base HMS Western Isles, under the command of the legendary Vice-Admiral Sir Gilbert Stephenson, the so-called "Terror of Tobermory". His biography was written by broadcaster Richard Baker, who trained under him.

 

Many of the buildings on Main Street, predominantly shops and restaurants, are painted in various bright colours, making it a popular location for television programmes, such as the children's show Balamory. The burgh hosts the Mull Museum, the Tobermory whisky distillery (and from 2005 to 2009 there was also a brewery, the Isle of Mull brewing company) as well as Mull Aquarium, the first catch and release aquarium in Europe. The clock tower on the harbour wall is a noted landmark. The town also contains an arts centre, An Tobar, the management of which was merged with Mull Theatre in 2012 to form the umbrella arts organisation Comar. The theatre remains, based just outside Tobermory in Drumfin, and is used by youth and adult dance and drama groups, hosting a wide variety of performances. Staffa Tours popular boat tours leave from Tobermory to visit the Treshnish Isles and Fingals Cave on Staffa

 

71% of Tobermory residents were born in Scotland, 23% in England and 6% elsewhere.

 

Tobermorite, a calcium silicate hydrate found near Tobermory in 1880, was named after the town.

 

People born in Tobermory include Duncan MacGilp and Janet MacDonald, both past Gold Medal winners at Scotland's Royal National Mòd. Three generations of the town's MacIntyre family have achieved eminence: Colin MacIntyre is a singer-songwriter. His brother is BBC Scotland Sport's Kenny Macintyre; his late father, also called Kenny, was BBC Scotland Political Correspondent, while his grandfather was the so-called 'Bard of Mull', poet Angus MacIntyre.[citation needed] The late accordionist Bobby McLeod lived in the town from his birth in 1925 until his death in 1991, and owned the Mishnish Hotel.[citation needed]. The military surgeon Prof George Ritchie Thomson FRSE was born here in 1865.[citation needed] Another Tobermory native was Donald McLean (1805–1864), who emigrated to Canada before he was twenty and became a fur trader and explorer for the Hudson's Bay Company in the New Caledonia and Columbia Department fur districts, rising to the position of Chief Trader at Thompson's River Post (Fort Kamloops) in the then-Colony of British Columbia. He was the last casualty of the Chilcotin War of 1864; his "halfbreed" sons were known as the Wild McLean Boys and were tried and hanged for murder.

 

Isabella Bird, the Victorian traveller and writer, frequently stayed in the town, where her sister Henrietta had a house. She often assisted the local doctor and, on at least one occasion, served as anaesthetist when he removed a tumour from a local woman. When Henrietta died, she funded the building of the clock tower as a memorial to her sister.

 

The visit of the composer Felix Mendelssohn in 1829, en route to Staffa, is commemorated in the annual Mendelssohn on Mull Festival in early July. Other highlights of the town's calendar include an annual Traditional Music Festival held on the last weekend in April, the local Mòd, which takes place on the second Saturday in September and has established itself as one of the best local Mòds on the circuit, the Mull Fiddler's Rally, also in September, and the traditional Mull Highland Games held every summer.

 

The fictional town of Torbay in Alistair MacLean's novel When Eight Bells Toll was based on Tobermory, and much of the 1971 movie was filmed in the town and other parts of Mull. The writer Saki gave the name to a cat taught to speak English in one of his most famous short stories and two well-loved children's TV series have made use of the town's name. Elisabeth Beresford called one of the Wombles 'Tobermory', and more recently the town played host to its almost-namesake Balamory for three years (2002–2005). Other films made in the area include the 1945 Powell and Pressburger classic I Know Where I'm Going!. In the 44 Scotland Street series by Alexander McCall Smith (1933 - ), volume 7 - titled Bertie Plays the Blues - has baby triplets named Tobermory, Rognvald, and Fergus. In the children's animated feature, Nocturna, the Cat Shepherd's faithful cat, is called Tobermory.

 

Ferries sail between Tobermory and the mainland to Kilchoan on the Ardnamurchan peninsula, but principal access to the island is via ferry between Oban and Craignure. Craignure is around 22 miles (35 kilometres) from Tobermory. This is the main route for visitors to the island. An additional ferry sails between Lochaline on the mainland and Fishnish.

 

The Isle of Mull is the second-largest island of the Inner Hebrides (after Skye) and lies off the west coast of Scotland in the council area of Argyll and Bute.

 

Covering 875.35 square kilometres (338 sq mi), Mull is the fourth-largest island in Scotland and Great Britain. From 2001 to 2020, the population has gradually increased: during 2020 the populace was estimated to be 3,000, in the 2011 census it was approximately 2,800, and in 2001, it was measured at 2,667 people. It has the eighth largest Island population in Scotland. In the summer, these numbers are augmented by an influx of many tourists. Much of the year-round population lives in the colourful main settlement of Tobermory.

 

There are two distilleries on the island: the Tobermory distillery, formerly named Ledaig, produces single malt Scotch whisky and another, opened in 2019 and located in the vicinity of Tiroran, which produces Whitetail Gin. Mull is host to numerous sports competitions, notably the Highland Games competition, held annually in July. The isle is home to four castles, including the towering keep of Moy Castle. On the south coast, a stone circle is located in the settlement of Lochbuie.

 

The Isle of Mull has probably been inhabited since shortly after the end of the last Ice Age, around 11,000 years ago. This is evidenced by radiocarbon dating done in a mesolithic hut at Crieth Dubh on the northwest coast of the island. Later, Bronze Age and Iron Age inhabitants built brochs at Dun Nan Gall and An Sean Chaisteal, and a stone circle at Lochbuie along with numerous burial cairns. Two crannogs there have been dated to the Iron Age.

 

In the 6th century AD, Irish migrants invaded Mull and the surrounding coast and established the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata. The kingdom was divided into a number of regions, each controlled by a different kinship group one of these, the Cenél Loairn, controlled Mull and the adjacent mainland to the east.

 

Dál Riata was a springboard for the Christianisation of the mainland; the pivotal point was in AD 563, when Columba, an Irish missionary, arrived on the island of Iona – just off the southwest point of Mull – and founded a monastery there from which to start evangelising the local population.

 

In the 9th century, Viking invasions led to the destruction of Dál Riata and its replacement by the Norse Kingdom of the Isles, which became part of the kingdom of Norway following Norwegian unification around 872. The Kingdom of the Isles was much more extensive than Dál Riata, encompassing also the Outer Hebrides and Skye. The island kingdom became known as the Suðreyjar, meaning southern isles in Old Norse. The former lands of Dál Riata acquired the geographic description "Argyle" (now "Argyll"): the Gaelic coast.

 

In the late 11th century, Magnus Barefoot, the Norwegian king, launched a military campaign which in 1098 led the king of Scotland to quitclaim to Magnus all claim of sovereign authority over the territory of the Kingdom of the Isles. However, a coup some 60 years later, led by a Norse-Gael named Somerled, detached the whole of the Suðreyjar from Norway and transformed it into an independent kingdom. After Somerled's death in 1164, nominal Norwegian authority was established, but practical control of the realm was divided between Somerled's sons and the heirs of Somerled's brother-in-law, the Crovan Dynasty. His son Dougall received the former territory of the Cenél Loairn, now known as Lorn, of which Mull formed part.

 

Meanwhile, the Crovan dynasty had retained the title "king of the Isles" and control of Lewis, Harris, and the Isle of Man. After a few decades, they acknowledged the English kings as their overlords, so Dougall's heirs (the MacDougalls) complained to Haakon, the Norwegian king, and in 1237 were rewarded by the kingship being split; rule of the Hebrides was transferred to the MacDougall line, and they were made the "kings of the Hebrides". They established the twin castles of Aros (in Mull) and Ardtornish (on the mainland, opposite), which together controlled the Sound of Mull.

 

Throughout the early 13th century, the king of Scots, Alexander II, had aggressively tried to expand his realm into the Suðreyjar, despite Edgar's earlier quitclaim. This led to hostility between Norway and Scotland, which continued under Alexander III. King Haakon IV of Norway died shortly after the indecisive Battle of Largs. In 1266, his more peaceable successor ceded his nominal authority over the Suðreyjar to Alexander III by the Treaty of Perth in return for a very large sum of money. Alexander generally acknowledged the semi-independent authority of Somerled's heirs; the former Suðreyjar had become Scottish crown dependencies rather than parts of Scotland.

 

At the end of the 13th century, a violent dispute arose over the Scottish kingship between King John Balliol and Robert de Bruys. By then, Somerled's descendants had formed into three families: as well as Dougall's heirs (the MacDougalls), there were also the heirs of his nephew Donald (the MacDonalds) and those of Donald's brother (the MacRory or MacRuairi); the MacDougalls backed Balliol, while the MacDonalds and MacRory backed de Bruys. When Robert I defeated his Scots enemies, including the Comyns and MacDougalls, he declared their lands forfeit, dividing them between his friend, Angus Og Macdonald, Lord of the Isles, and Christina MacRory, King Robert's kinswoman. The latter acquired Lorn and some of the smaller Isles, but Angus Og, who fought beside King Robert at Bannockburn, was given the lion's share: The Isles of Islay, Jura, Gigha, Colonsay and Mull, and the mainland territories of Duror, Glencoe, Ardnamurchan, Lochaber, Morvern and Kintyre. After Bannockburn, Alexander Macdonald, Angus Og’s eldest son, then still alive, was granted Mull and Tiree. Angus Og's younger son John of Islay, became Lord of the Isles after his father's and his elder brother's deaths. He first married Amy MacRuairi of Garmoran, the heiress of the MacRory family, thereby consolidating the remains of Somerled's realm.

 

In 1354, though in exile and without control of his ancestral lands, John, the MacDougall heir, quitclaimed any rights he had over Mull to the Lord of the Isles. When Robert's son David II became king, he spent some time in English captivity; after his release, in 1357, he restored MacDougall authority over Lorn, effectively cancelling Robert's grant to the MacRory. The 1354 quitclaim, which seems to have been an attempt to ensure peace in just such an eventuality, took automatic effect, splitting Mull from Lorn and making it subject to the Lordship of the Isles.

 

In 1437, the Lordship was substantially expanded when Alexander, the Lord of the Isles, inherited the rule of Ross maternally. The expansion led the MacDonalds to move their centre of power from Islay to the twin castles of Aros and Ardtornish.

 

In 1462, the most ambitious of the Lords of the Isles, John MacDonald, struck an alliance with Edward IV of England to conquer Scotland. Civil war in England prevented this from taking effect and from being discovered until 1475, when the English court voluntarily revealed its existence. Calls for forfeiture of the Lordship naturally followed, but they were calmed when John quitclaimed most of his mainland territories. However, John's nephew launched a severe raid on Ross, but it ultimately failed. Within two years of the raid, in 1493, James IV of Scotland declared the Lordship of the Isles forfeit, transforming the realm into an intrinsic part of Scotland rather than a dependency.

 

Throughout this time, the descendants of the Cenél Loairn retained their identity; they were now the MacLeans. Now that John MacDonald was exiled, James IV restored the authority of the MacLeans over Mull. An earlier chief of the MacLeans had married the daughter of the first Lord of the Isles and received Duart Castle as the dowry; this now became the stronghold of MacLean control of Mull. The cadet branch of the family constructed a tower house at Moy on the southern side of Mull, while the senior branch retained Duart Castle.

 

Legend has it that the wreck of a Spanish galleon, laden with gold, lies somewhere in the mud at the bottom of Tobermory Bay. By some accounts, the Florencia (or Florida or San Francisco), a ship of the defeated Spanish Armada fleeing the English fleet in 1588, anchored in Tobermory to take on provisions. After a dispute over payment, the ship caught fire and the gunpowder magazine exploded, sinking the vessel. In her hold, reputedly, was £300,000 in gold bullion. Other sources claim the vessel was the San Juan de Sicilia (or San Juan de Baptista), which carried troops, not treasure. According to that account, the island's chief, Lachlan Mor Maclean, struck a deal with the Spanish commander to re-provision and refit the ship in return for military intervention on the side of the MacLeans in their feud with enemies on nearby islands. There have been numerous searches for the wreck and its rumoured treasure from the mid-17th century to the end of the 20th century. No significant treasure has been recovered in Tobermory Bay.

 

Following the Scottish Reformation, the MacLeans became supporters of Protestantism. By the mid-17th century, they had become promoters of conventicles, opposed to king Charles II's repudiation of the Solemn League and Covenant and supporting acts of civil disobedience. Though personally opposed to persecution of such people, Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll, was specifically ordered by the Scottish privy council to suppress conventicles within his lands, which included Lorn. The atmosphere of hostility soon spread to Mull, where opponents of the conventicles felt emboldened, leading to outbreaks of violence between the two religious factions.

 

In 1678, Campbell was specifically instructed to seize Mull and suppress both the violence and conventicles. It took Clan Campbell until 1681 to gain possession of the whole island. Campbell took charge of Duart Castle and ejected the MacLean leadership from Mull; they moved to Cairnburgh Castle in the Treshnish Islands off the north-west of Mull. Campbell's own position was somewhat undermined when he instigated Argyll's Rising against the reign of James VII. The loyalty of subsequent Campbell leaders ensured the Campbells retained possession of Duart (it was only after the Campbells sold it, and it had spent a century under other owners, that the MacLeans were able to recover it by purchase). Under Campbell pressure, shrieval authority was established under the sheriff of Argyll, which they controlled.

 

Following Jacobite insurrections, the Heritable Jurisdictions Act abolished comital authority in Mull and Campbell control of the Argyll sheriffdom; the Campbells could now only assert influence as landlords. Many castles that had been in the hands of the MacLeans (such as Moy) had been slighted by the Campbells or fallen into disrepair, but more comfortable homes were built nearby.

 

During the 18th century, the island was home to a Gaelic Bard, whom Father Charles MacDonald describes only as "The Mull Satirist." The Satirist is said to have been a vocal enemy of the Jacobite Bard Alasdair Mac Mhaighstir Alasdair and to have attacked the latter in many poems that have survived. When the Jacobite poet converted from the Calvinist Church of Scotland to the Roman Catholic Church, the Mull Satirist accused him of doing so, not out of serious conviction, but to curry favour with the exiled House of Stuart.

 

In 1773 the island was visited by Samuel Johnson and James Boswell during their tour of the Western Islands. Farming, fishing, and burning seaweed for kelp ash (used in the manufacture of soap and glass) were the main economic activities on the island until the 19th century. Tobermory was built by the British Fisheries Society in 1788 as a planned settlement to support the fishing industry.

 

The Highland Clearances in the 18th and 19th centuries resulted in people being evicted to make space for sheep and the Highland Potato Famine (1846–1847) encouraged mass emigration. These factors caused the population to decline from 10,000 to less than 4,000 and then to 3,000 by the 20th Century; this had a serious impact on the economy. Despite this, several grand houses were built on Mull in the period, including Torosay Castle.

 

In 1889, counties were formally created in Scotland on shrieval boundaries by a dedicated Local Government Act; Mull therefore became part of the newly created County of Argyll.

 

The whole island became a Restricted Area during World War II. The bay at Tobermory became a naval base commanded from HMS Western Isles. The base and the Restricted Area were under Commodore (later Vice Admiral) Sir Gilbert Stephenson, whose strict discipline and ferocious temper earned him the nickname "The Terror of Tobermory". The base was used to train Escort Groups in anti-submarine warfare. 911 ships passed through the base between 1940 and 1945. Following late 20th century reforms, Mull is now part of the wider area of Argyll and Bute.

 

According to a July 2020 article in Country Life, "The Benmore Estate occupies 32,000 acres of the Isle of Mull" and includes Knock House, a Victorian hunting lodge where tourists can stay. Guests can book rides on the estate boat, the Benmore Lady. Much of the lodge was built by the ninth Duke of Argyll for his wife, one of the daughters of Queen Victoria; they married in 1871. Reports indicate that the Queen stayed there, as did others including Wordsworth, Keats, JM Barrie and Sir Walter Scott.

 

According to the 2011 Scottish census, the Isle of Mull had a usual residents population of 2,800 with 1,271 households. Including the offshore islands, the population of Mull was 2,996.

 

In Mull and the adjacent islands Gaelic had been the traditional language since the early Middle Ages. However, the 20th century in particular saw a reduction in the number of speakers, with a significant fall (20%) in Mull after the Second World War. This was associated with strong emigration and abandonment of the language by the younger generation. In the 1951 census only 10 people said they could not speak English.

 

The following decades saw the beginnings of a revival. Gaelic medium education was introduced in 1996 after a long dispute with the authorities. A Gaelic-medium unit was introduced in Salen Primary School, followed by a second unit at Bunessan Primary School; the language began to be taught in the first two years of secondary school; and Gaelic playgroups were introduced. By 2006 it was found that, though only 10% of the working-age cohort spoke or understood Gaelic, language ability at school age was much higher. There was great local variation in the number of speakers, from around 25% in Craignure (Creag an Iubhair) to 4% in Aros. It has been argued, however, that in terms of language survival, there is reason for optimism in Mull.

 

There is a small amount of farming, aquaculture, and fishing, and Forestry and Land Scotland has several plantations on the island. Tobermory also has one whisky distillery (Tobermory distillery) and from 2005 to 2009 had a brewery (Isle of Mull Brewing Company). Tiroran is home to the island's other distillery (Whitetail Gin) which was established as the isle's first new distillery in over 220 years in 2019.

 

Tourism is definitely significant. The economy began to revive when the construction of Craignure Pier in 1964 started to bring tourists. Tourism is now the mainstay of the island's economy. Ecotourism became popular from the 1990s, and the reintroduction of white-tailed eagles in 2005 became a particular ecotourist attraction. The island is one of the few places to see sea eagles; there were at least 22 pairs as of April 2020.

 

Isle of Mull cheese is Scottish cheddar cheese made from raw cow milk produced on the Isle of Mull.

 

Apart from traversing the Ross of Mull on the way to Iona, visitors typically spend time in Tobermory, visit Glengorm Castle[citation needed] and then enjoy one of the beaches. One report states that "the south-west holds more white beaches, famous for their pink granite skerries and stunning sunsets, that are also perfect for kayaking". Accommodations for tourists include self-catering holiday cottages, a few hotels, and some campsites.

 

Tourism was negatively affected by the COVID-19 pandemic during 2020 and into 2021. A September 2020 report stated that "The Highlands and Islands region has been disproportionately impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic to date, when compared to Scotland and the UK as a whole". The industry required short-term support for "business survival and recovery" and that was expected to continue as the sector was "severely impacted for as long as physical distancing and travel restrictions". A scheme called Island Equivalent was introduced by the Scottish government in early 2021 to financially assist hospitality and retail businesses "affected by Level 3 coronavirus restrictions". Previous schemes in 2020 included the Strategic Framework Business Fund and the Coronavirus Business Support Fund.

 

Tobermory – with just over a thousand people, the largest settlement on Mull – is home to the only whisky distillery on the island.

 

Ferry links to Mull from the mainland include:

The most-used ferry, from Oban to Craignure (approx. 45 minutes),

Kilchoan to Tobermory (approx. 35 minutes)

Lochaline to Fishnish (approx. 15 minutes).

 

Advance bookings are not required for the Kilchoan or Fishnish ferries; access to those two ferry terminals on the mainland side is via single-track roads.

 

There are also ferry links from Fionnphort on Mull to the neighbouring island of Iona and from Oskamull to Ulva. In past years there were direct sailings to Oban (calling at Drimnin, Salen, Lochaline, and Craignure), and to Barra, Coll, and Tiree from Tobermory. During the summer there was also a sailing to Staffa and Iona from Oban that called at Tobermory.

Buses

 

Buses are operated by West Coast Motors Ltd. There are routes from Tobermory to Calgary via Dervaig (Service 494), Tobermory to Craignure via Salen (Service 495), and Craignure to Fionnphort via Bunessan (Service 496). Limited services operate to Lochbuie and Gruline. West Coast Motors also provide guided tours around Mull, Iona, and Staffa, including boat transfers from Oban.

 

A minibus service also operates seasonally from Craignure to Duart Castle.

 

There is also a community-run service from Calgary to Salen via Ulva Ferry.

 

There is a landing strip for private light aircraft near Salen. There was a seaplane that linked Tobermory with Glasgow and Oban. The regular scheduled service terminated in 2009. Loganair operated a scheduled service to Glasgow in the 1960s from Glenforsa airfield, a 780-metre-long (2,560 ft) grass airstrip constructed by the Royal Engineers in 1965 near Salen. The airstrip has been operated since 2014 by Brendan and Allison Walsh, owners of the adjacent Glenforsa Hotel.

Tourist railway

 

The Isle of Mull Railway ran from Craignure to Torosay Castle but closed in 2011.

 

There is one secondary school on the island (Tobermory High School) and six primary schools. Salen Primary School has a Gaelic medium education unit. Secondary pupils (age 11–18) from Iona, Bunessan and Fionnphort in the south-west attend Oban High School, staying in an Oban hostel from Monday to Thursday.

 

Mull was connected to the mainland by a submarine telegraph cable between Oban and Grass Point in 1871. There were telegraph offices at Tobermory, Dervaig, Calgary, Craignure, Pennyghael, Tiroran, Fionnphort, Bunessan, and Iona.

 

The Post Office built an experimental wireless telegraph station on Meall an Inbhire near Tobermory in 1892.

 

In 2014, fibre optic cables for support of high speed internet were laid between Kilchoan (in Ardnamurchan) and Tobermory and between Dunstaffnage (near Oban) and Torosay. In February 2015 additional cables were laid underground between Tobermory and Torosay to complete the link.

 

AM radio, broadcast from Oban, came to the island in 1930 and television in 1954. New AM radio and UHF television transmitters were constructed on Druim Mòr, one mile (1.6 km) west of Torosay Castle, in 1978. Digital transmissions commenced on 15 November 1998 and analogue transmissions ceased on 27 October 2010. The digital transmitters have 22 relays on Mull, surrounding islands, and parts of the mainland, collectively the Torosay Transmitter Group.

 

Mull Theatre is a professional theatre company based in a 2008 theatre production centre on the outskirts of Tobermory. The company commissions plays, tours throughout Scotland and beyond, and runs an education and outreach programme. It started at the "Mull Little Theatre" at Dervaig in 1966 and was the "Smallest Professional Theatre in the World" according to the Guinness World Records. The National Theatre of Scotland were in residence at the Mull Theatre in April 2009.

 

An Tobar ("The Well"), based in Tobermory, is the only publicly funded multidisciplinary arts centre in Argyll. Established in 1997, it is a centre for visual arts, crafts and music. With effect from 1 April 2013, An Tobar and the Mull Theatre were brought together as Comar.

 

The Isle of Mull is a popular destination for naturalists and photographers for seeing some of Britain's more elusive species.

 

Mull has over 800 species of vascular plant (684 native and 171 naturalised) including 33 species of fern, at least 18 species of orchid and 22 native species of tree. There are about 700 species of lichen, 571 liverworts and mosses, and 247 marine algae (seaweeds), making a total of 2,388 species of plant recorded from the island. In addition, more than 2,000 species of fungi have been recorded on Mull: Dennis and Watling write, "When one speaks of the Inner Hebridean fungi one is referring to the floras of Mull and Rhum".

 

The island has 261 different bird species, including the white-tailed eagle, which was reintroduced to the nearby island of Rùm and migrated to Mull, where it now has a stronghold. Basking sharks, minke whales, porpoises, and dolphins are among the sea life nearby.

 

The island is home to a population of otters that live in coastal habitat, hunting during the day. The Mull Otter Group was established for the conservation needs of otters on the Isle of Mull.

 

The island also has several birds of prey, such as hen harriers, golden eagles, and short eared owls, all difficult species to see throughout the rest of the UK. Pine martens have also recently become established on Mull; based on sighting records and from resulting modelling exercises, it is believed the species arrived in 2004 through accidental transportation on timber boats from the mainland. It is unlikely that pine martens have ever been native to the Isle of Mull.

 

The Hebridean Whale and Dolphin Trust was established in 1994 and is a marine conservation charity that takes action through community based research and education. The Trust carries out long-term monitoring programmes on cetaceans in the Hebrides, by collating sightings reported by the public and running live-aboard research expeditions on their sailing yacht, Silurian. The Trust covers the west coast of Scotland, and is based in Tobermory, where it has its main office, Discovery Centre and the mooring of their research vessel.

 

There are also a number of invasive species on the island, including plant species such as Japanese knotweed and animals such as feral cats and American mink that are believed to be causing damage to the indigenous species populations through competition and predation.

 

Lochdon Free Church, built in 1852

 

The Tour of Mull is a road-closing rally around the island every October. It has been sponsored since 2005 by Tunnock's, the Lanarkshire teacake and biscuit manufacturer. A five-year sponsorship deal with Beatson's Building Supplies started in 2015.

 

There are several shipwrecks around the shores that offer scuba diving.

 

There is an Isle of Mull Cycling Club.

 

The Cross at the Castle cyclocross event is held annually at Glengorm Castle near Tobermory and features the World Santacross Championships and the Scottish Singlespeed Cylocross Championships.

 

Mull Runners organise a half marathon and 10K run each August between Craignure and Salen.

 

Rugby is played at Garmony (beside the Craignure to Salen road 6+1⁄2 mi or 10.5 km north of Craignure). The Mull Rugby 7s Competition takes place annually in May at The Isle of Mull R.F.C's rugby club.

 

There are golf courses at Tobermory (Erray Park), Craignure (beside the Craignure to Salen road 1 mi or 1.5 km north of Craignure) and on Iona.

 

Mull Highland Games are held each July in the grounds of Tobermory Golf Club (Erray Park). Events include Heavy Weights, Light Field, and Highland Dance.

 

The swimming pool at the Isle of Mull Hotel, Craignure is open to the paying public.

 

Tobermory has some free tennis courts.

 

Football is played, mainly in the south end. Bunessan F.C. play a number of games during the summer, most notably against arch rivals Iona FC, the island just off the south west end. Bunessan F.C. also hold an annual 5-a-side tournament in July.

 

Following research and community consultation in 1996/97, a development trust was created to identify key goals for the communities of Mull and Iona. Mull & Iona Community Trust was formed in 1997 and published a "Community Regeneration Strategy" for the islands. They purchased the only butcher's shop on the island (closed February 2010), created a community-run Countryside Ranger service, instigated various recycling initiatives, and provide a fundraising and training consultancy.

 

Martyn Bennett (1971–2005), Canadian-Scottish musician, lived on Mull, buried in Calgary Bay cemetery

Peter Bonetti, (1941–2020), English footballer (goalkeeper)

Major General Colin Gubbins, head of Special Operations Executive during World War II

Duncan Livingstone (1877–1964) Scottish Gaelic Bard, born at Torloisk, emigrated to South Africa in 1903. Continued to write Gaelic verse in Pretoria until his death.

Agnes Maxwell MacLeod (1783–1879) poet and minister's wife

Colin MacIntyre (b. 1971), Scottish musician who frequently goes under the name "Mull Historical Society"

Margaret McKellar (1861–1941), medical missionary

John McLean (1799–1890), Canadian-Scottish explorer and one of the chief traders of the Hudson's Bay Company

Norman Maclean (1902–1990), acclaimed Scottish-American author from Missoula, Montana, who explored the alcoholism and gambling addictions of his ancestors, Scottish Gaelic-speaking Presbyterians on the Isle, in the 1976 novella A River Runs Through It and Other Stories

Mary Macleod, 17th-century poet said to have been banished to Mull

Lachlan Macquarie, (1762–1824), Governor of New South Wales, born on the nearby island of Ulva[

Replaced with full size and recropped image on 23 May 2012.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus DeNoise AI 04-Dec-22.

 

I've always found lime green to be one of the most difficult colours to photograph... sometimes it comes out as mustard!

 

First flown with the Boeing test registration N1787B, this aircraft was delivered to ILFC International Lease Finance Corporation and leased to Flying Colours Airlines as G-FCLF in Mar-99.

 

It was repainted in full 'jmc AIR' livery at Southend, UK in Nov-99 prior to the merger of Flying Colours and Caledonian Airways (the ex British Airways version) to form 'jmc AIR' at the end of Mar-00.

 

The name 'jmc AIR' was an Ad-Man's dream but became the Company's nightmare. The travelling public knew Caledonian Airways and Flying Colours. However, no one had a clue what 'jmc' was. Even those of us 'in the trade' looked at each other and said "what?" JMC were the initials of Thomas Cook's son, John Mason Cook, but who knew?

 

jmc AIR didn't do well and in Apr-03 they were reborn as Thomas Cook Airlines UK. The aircraft was leased to Jazz Air (Canada) as C-GJZT in Nov-10 and operated on behalf of Thomas Cook Canada for the winter season, returning to Thomas Cook UK in Apr-11.

 

The aircraft was returned to the lessor in Dec-13 and initially stored at Manchester. It was re-registered VQ-BTB in Jan-14 and leased to Abakhan Avia (Russia) in Feb-14. It was fitted with blended winglets in Mar-14 and was operated on behalf of Royal Flight (Russia).

 

Western sanctions on Russia after their invasion of Ukraine in Feb-22 meant that all leased aircraft in Russia were no longer insured or supported by lessors. This aircraft was impounded and stored at Hurghada, Egypt in Mar-22.

 

It was released to the lessor in Oct-22 and ferried to Shannon, Ireland for storage. In Sep-23 the aircraft was ferried to Goodyear, AZ, USA and sold to AerSale Inc as N835AS. Stored, updated 23-Feb-24.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 23-Mar-18, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 07-Feb-24.

 

'Polar bears in the snow' c/s !! (it was just the same when I'd seen it a year earlier). Operated by Florida West International on behalf of LAN Chile Cargo.

 

This aircraft was delivered to a lessor and leased to United Air Lines as N8096U, a standard DC-8-61, in May-69. It was converted to DC-8-71 standard with CFM.56 engines in Sep-83. United bought it from the lessor in Jun-84, sold it to the GPA Group Ltd in Jan-90 and leased it back.

 

It was returned to the lessor in Aug-90 and converted to DC-8-71(F) standard with a main deck cargo door by Nov-90 and was leased to Southern Air Transport in Mar-91. It was re-registered N872SJ two weeks later.

 

Southern Air returned it to the lessor in Jan-92 and it was stored. The aircraft was leased to Southern Air Transport again in May-92 and returned to the lessor in May-98. It was stored at Miami FL, USA until it was leased to Aircraft International Leasing Lts and sub-leased to Florida West International Airways in Jul-98.

 

It was sub-leased to LAN Chile Cargo in Nov-98 and returned to Florida West in Nov-99. In Mar-02 it was sub-leased to MAS Air Cargo and returned to Florida West and the lessor in Mar-03 when it was stored at Goodyear, AZ, USA.

 

The aircraft was leased to TAMPA Colombia as HK-4294X in Jun-03. It returned to the lessor in Apr-05 and was sold to Murray Air Inc as N872SJ later the same month. Murray Air was renamed National Airlines Dec-08 and the aircraft was re-registered N872CA in Mar-11.

 

The aircraft continued in service until it was permanently retired and stored at Oscoda, MI, USA in Oct-12 after in incredible 43 years in service.

Now replaced with new iPhone 8 copy from the iPad 21/08/25

 

Original shot taken from my stretcher in the tent with my new Pentax SV, probably using Adox KB21 film and processed by Georges camera store in Elizabeth St Sydney where I mailed all my #GSWANullarbor B&W film. They were the best for B&W processing at the time.

 

Still going.. www.georges.com.au/collections/cameras

 

Home page.. www.georges.com.au/#

 

And they still process film.. georgescameras.zendesk.com/hc/en-au

Commentary.

 

Ancient City.

Walled on steep banks by the Romans

in the 3rd. Century A.D.

Originally, seven gates,

Now, only the West Gate remains.

Canterbury Cathedral, the Mother Church

of England, stands imperious.

Founded by Augustine in 597 A.D.

A place of Pilgrimage for over 1,000 years,

following the murders of St. Alphege in 1011,

and Thomas Becket in 1170.

Fleeing Huguenot refugees from the Spanish Netherlands

introduced Silk weaving to complement and then replace

the local Wool production in the 16th. Century.

“The Old Weavers House,” built in 1500, still exists

on St. Peter’s Street, adjacent to the bridge

over a tributary of the River Stour.

Many fine Tudor, Georgian, Regency and Victorian

buildings survive, even though a significant number

were destroyed during World War Two bombing.

The city still celebrates the “Canterbury Tales”

by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th. Century.

The Pilgrims travelling from the Tabard Inn in

Southwark, London, to the Shrine of Thomas Becket

were asked to tell two stories, each way,

to entertain and pass the time, with a free meal,

for the best, on return to the Tabard Inn.

They tell much of the language, customs, attitudes, crimes

and culture of those days.

Canterbury’s incredible history, architecture and Cathedral

make it one of the most popular tourist “hot-spots,” to this day!

 

Replacing an earlier scanned 6"x4" print with a better version 27-Oct-14, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 04-Jan-23.

 

Just returned to GPA Group after short-term lease to Indian Airlines, the aircraft still shows the fuselage livery of it's first operator, the original Frontier Airlines.

 

It was delivered new to Frontier as N7359F in Apr-83. Frontier was merged into Continental Airlines in Oct-86, they continued to operate it in basic Frontier livery until it was returned to the lessor in Sep-88 as EI-BWZ.

 

It was leased to Indian Airlines in Dec-88 as VT-EQI and returned to the lessor in Feb-90, still in basic Frontier livery with an Indian Airlines tail. It was leased to Portuguese charter airline Air Sul at the end of Mar-90 as CS-TMB.

 

Returned to GPA Group in Jan-92, again as EI-BWZ, the aircraft was leased to Air Atlanta Icelandic in May-92 as TF-ABI, and operated on behalf of Cambodia International Airlines and later for Tunisair until it was returned to GPA Group in Sep-93.

 

It was stored until Mar-94 when it was leased to Mandala Airlines, Indonesia, as PK-RIQ. It was retired at Jakarta (CGK) in Dec-05 and stored. It was last noted at Jakarta in 2009 in very poor condition and has probably been broken up.

 

Replacing an earlier photo with a better version 28-May-19.

 

Operating services on behalf of TUI Airways UK (capacity shortage due to the B737 MAX grounding).

 

First flown with the Boeing test registration N1786B, this aircraft was delivered to Tombo Aviation as N8254G in Feb-00 and leased to Sabre Airways as G-LFJB later that month.

 

It was wet-leased to Miami Air in Nov-00. Sabre Airways was renamed Excel Airways in Jan-01 and the aircraft returned to Excel in Apr-01. It was re-registered G-XLAC the day after it returned. It was again wet-leased to Miami Air between Dec-01/Apr-02, Dec-02/May-03 and Dec-03/Apr-04.

 

In Dec-04 it was leased to Miami Air as N904MA and returned to Excel Airways as G-XLAC in Apr-05. This was repeated between Dec-05/Mar-06. At the end of Nov-06 Excel Airways was renamed XL Airways UK. The aircraft was fitted with blended winglets in Oct-07.

 

It was again leased to Miami Air as N904MA between Dec-07/Apr-08, returning as G-XLAC. XL Airways UK ceased operations in Sep-08 and the aircraft was impounded at Manchester. It was released to the lessor a few days later and ferried to Goose Bay, Newfoundland, Canada for short-term storage.

 

At the end of Sep-08 it was re-registered N290AN and ferried to San Jose, Costa Rica in early Oct-08 for further storage. In Feb-09 it was re-registed C-FXGG, leased to the IMP Group and sub-leased to CanJet Airlines.

 

The aircraft returned to the lessor in Jul-14 as EI-FFK and was leased to Meridiana (Italy) two days later. It was returned to the lessor in Aug-18 and was leased to Alba Star Airlines as EC-NAB a week later. Current, updated 17-May-23.

Chinese Bridge - Godmanchester - Huntingdonshire, England.

 

I found another small town by the Great River Ouse, but the trouble with most small towns is they're usually very dark at night.

 

Hard to believe this shot was taken minutes after blue hour has ended, leaving me with hardly any light at all. Neither the bridge nor the cathedral was lit up, and my only light source was that street lamp you see on the right plus maybe some light from the traffic behind those group of houses. I fiddled around with exposure with aperture wide open and higher ISO, until I got something, and here you go - this is what I got on my camera. Quite surprised, and it came out sharp too!

 

This is Godmanchester's landmark, the Chinese Bridge, which is a pedestrian bridge that spans a mill stream on the River Great Ouse. As the name suggests, it is built in Chinese style. The original was constructed in 1827 by architect James Gallier, but it fell into a bad condition and was replaced with a replica by the local council in 1960 and replaced again in 2010.

  

Camera/Lens: Nikon D700; 24-70mm f/2.8;

Exposure: 13 sec. ; Aperture: f/2.8; ISO: 250; Focal Length: 48mm;

Copyright 2010 - Yen Baet - All Rights Reserved.

Do not use any of my images without permission.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 07-Sep-17, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 14-Apr-23.

 

KTHY = Kibris Turk Hava Yollari / Cyprus Turkish Airlines, from Northern Cyprus.

 

Named: "Lefkosa".

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWBC, this aircraft was delivered to THY Turkish Airlines as TC-JCO in Jun-85.

 

It was leased to KTHY Cyprus Turkish Airlines in May-99 and returned to Turkish Airlines in Aug-05. The aircraft was permanently retired at Istanbul (IST), Turkey in Sep-08. It was scrapped there around 2012/13.

 

I also have a photo of this with THY Turkish Airlines at ...

www.flickr.com/photos/kenfielding/5737795052

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 10-Dec-14, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 02-Nov-24.

 

Built as a 'Combi' with a main deck side cargo door (SCD), this aircraft could be used for carrying both passengers and cargo and the main deck.

 

First flown in Aug-86 with the Boeing temporary registration N6055X, 9V-SKN was delivered to Singapore Airlines the same month.

 

It was only in service for 11 years and was stored at Singapore in Jan-97 as Singapore Airlines took delivery of new Boeing 747-400’s.

 

The aircraft was sold to TAAG – Angola Airlines in Jul-97 as D2-TEA and remained in service until it was retired at Johannesburg, South Africa, in Oct-10.

 

It was seen still stored at Johannesburg in Aug-11 without engines and has now presumably been broken up.

 

Note: Singapore Airlines later reused the registration 9V-SKN on an Airbus A380.

 

3D printing has broken free of its novelty nature and is becoming the tool of choice to replace many traditionally complex and labour intensive tasks, thanks in no small part to the capabilities of the various materials now being commonly used.

 

Koenigsegg are currently using 3D printing technology to produce a variable speed turbo charger in stainless steel and currently use these in their production super-cars. These turbos proved difficult to cast using traditional methods, but by utilising an additive manufacturing process, these units are now printed with the internal parts completed within the unit at time of print.

 

NASA have successfully test fired a new 3D printed rocket-engine fuel injector. The injector replaced an earlier unit comprised of 115 different parts. The replacement 3D printed unit has 2 parts and is had only two parts and represents a simplified design which was not available using traditional manufacturing techniques.

 

Anecdotally these examples show how leaders in their respective fields are benefiting from the adoption of additive manufacturing techniques. Laser based 3D printing systems are now capable of working with various metals at commercial levels, including titanium, nickel, stainless steel, and aluminium to name but a few. Many of these metals suffer little in the way of tensile or yield strengths in comparison to the annealed counterparts.

 

When added to the high accuracy nylon available from laser based systems, and the plethora or materials available for use in FDM printing, some customers can find themselves facing a wider choice of materials than they may have expected. Highlights of FDM materials include compositions using carbon-fibre, titanium, cobalt, bronze and wood, as well as more traditional materials such as flexible rubber, low cost PLA and even some fully recycled filaments.

 

 

 

form 3d services ltd was formed in June 2014. we are specialists in additive manufacturing and 3d print solutions.

our goal is to provide high-end, high value outcomes to suit the project requirements of our customers

based in north east scotland, form 3d have nearly 40 years combined experience in the engineering and oil and gas

sectors. combined with our extensive experience in additive manufacturing, we believe this puts us in a strong

position to partner with all industries and educational establishments

through collaboration with our clients we aim to enhance the customer experience and subsequent deliveries by

understanding their business and products, and offering advice on how projects can be best served by the additive

manufacturing industry

options to further augment certain products may include lighting and simulation effects, local web servers via

embedded wi-fi hotspots, or intelligent assessment to allow models to react to changes in their environment

all products are offered a range of plastics and metals and in a variety of finish qualities. parts are protected by

suitable lacquer products where applicable. colours are customer defined and may be chosen to suit model context

or custom mixed to match company branding, as required

Replaced with #GenerativeAI Edit