Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI.

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration D-AVZG, this aircraft was delivered to SABENA Belgian World Airlines as OO-SUB in Apr-99. SABENA ceased trading in Nov-01 and the aircraft was stored at Brussels, Belgium.

 

It was stored at Brussels for more than 4 years until it was sold to Nouvelair Tunisie as TS-IQB in Mar-05. In Apr-14 the aircraft was sold to a lessor and was originally due to be leased to Onur Air as TC-OEB, however the lease wasn't taken up and it was leased to Germania as D-ASTV later that month.

 

It was painted in an Alltours (German Tour Operator) logojet livery in May-14 and repainted into Germania's standard livery in Mar-15. Germania ceased operations in Feb-19, the aircraft was returned to the lessor and initially stored at Dusseldorf before being flown to Castellon de la Plana - Costa Azahar, Spain in Mar-19 for further storage.

 

It was re-registered OE-IDK in May-19 and permanently retired. It was broken up at Castellon de la Plana in Jan-20

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus DeNoise AI 04-Dec-22.

 

I've always found lime green to be one of the most difficult colours to photograph... sometimes it comes out as mustard!

 

First flown with the Boeing test registration N1787B, this aircraft was delivered to ILFC International Lease Finance Corporation and leased to Flying Colours Airlines as G-FCLF in Mar-99.

 

It was repainted in full 'jmc AIR' livery at Southend, UK in Nov-99 prior to the merger of Flying Colours and Caledonian Airways (the ex British Airways version) to form 'jmc AIR' at the end of Mar-00.

 

The name 'jmc AIR' was an Ad-Man's dream but became the Company's nightmare. The travelling public knew Caledonian Airways and Flying Colours. However, no one had a clue what 'jmc' was. Even those of us 'in the trade' looked at each other and said "what?" JMC were the initials of Thomas Cook's son, John Mason Cook, but who knew?

 

jmc AIR didn't do well and in Apr-03 they were reborn as Thomas Cook Airlines UK. The aircraft was leased to Jazz Air (Canada) as C-GJZT in Nov-10 and operated on behalf of Thomas Cook Canada for the winter season, returning to Thomas Cook UK in Apr-11.

 

The aircraft was returned to the lessor in Dec-13 and initially stored at Manchester. It was re-registered VQ-BTB in Jan-14 and leased to Abakhan Avia (Russia) in Feb-14. It was fitted with blended winglets in Mar-14 and was operated on behalf of Royal Flight (Russia).

 

Western sanctions on Russia after their invasion of Ukraine in Feb-22 meant that all leased aircraft in Russia were no longer insured or supported by lessors. This aircraft was impounded and stored at Hurghada, Egypt in Mar-22.

 

It was released to the lessor in Oct-22 and ferried to Shannon, Ireland for storage. In Sep-23 the aircraft was ferried to Goodyear, AZ, USA and sold to AerSale Inc as N835AS. Stored, updated 23-Feb-24.

Replacing an earlier scanned print with a better version 28-Aug-21 (DeNoiseAI).

 

This aircraft was at Manchester for almost two years before Dan-Air Engineering received maintenance payments and it departed early in 1994.

 

An early build Boeing 747-100 (line no: 51), this aircraft was delivered to JAL Japan Air lines as JA8102 in May-70. It was sold to JAA Japan Asia Airways (a JAL subsidiary) in Dec-82. The aircraft was leased back to JAL in Nov-86 and returned to JAA in May-92. It was sold to Okaka Air as 5N-EDO later the same month. It was stored at Lagos, Nigeria (date unknown) and then leased to Summit Aviation in Jan-98. It was due to be leased to Kabo Air as 5N-BBB but the lease wasn't taken up. The aircraft was withdrawn from use and stored at Tijuana, Mexico (date unknown). It was noted at Tijuana in Jan-03 with most useful parts removed and was broken up there in 2004.

 

Note: There are very few photos of this aircraft online, most of the ones I've seen were taken at Manchester around 1992-94 and a couple at Stansted, UK, when it was 'parked' in 1994. I have no idea how it found it's way to Mexico... There are notes in some databases that say it was sold to Kabo Air (Nigeria) as 5N-BBB in 2012, but that's impossible if it was broken up at Tijuana in 2004. The registration 5N-BBB was used on a Lockheed Tristar in the early 1990's.

Replacing an earlier scanned 6"x4" photo with a better version 17-Mar-22 (DeNoise AI).

 

This aircraft was delivered to ILFC International Lease Finance Corporation and leased to Britannia Airways as G-BYAF in Jan-93. It was wet-leased to Freedom Air International in Dec-95 for the winter season, returning to Britannia in Apr-96.

 

Britannia Airways was renamed Thomson.co.uk in Nov-04. The aircraft was returned to the lessor in May-08 and immediately sold to FedEx Federal Express as N923FD.

 

It was initially stored at Victorville, CA, USA until it was converted to freighter configuration at Singapore-Paya Lebar in Mar-09. Current, updated 17-Mar-22.

replaces the previous shot...Okanagan Lake BC Canada

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 21-Jan-18, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 02-Nov-23.

 

Fleet No: '630'.

 

This aircraft was delivered to Delta Air Lines as N630DL in Nov-87. It was in service with Delta for 25 years before being retired and stored at Marana, AZ, USA in Jul-12. The registration was finally cancelled in May-17.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 09-Apr-17 + DeNoise AI 11-Oct-22.

 

Taken through glass with some slight reflections.

 

This aircraft was delivered to VARIG Brasil as PP-VMA in May-74. It was sold to a lessor in Dec-98 and leased back to VARIG. It was returned to the lessor in Feb-99 after 25 years in service.

 

The aircraft was leased to AVENSA Venezuela as YV-051C the following month. It returned to the lessor as N940PG in Aug-00 and was stored at Rio de Janeiro-Galileo International.

 

It was leased to AVENSA again in Jul-01, this time as YV-069C. The aircraft returned to the lessor in Jan-03 as N940PG. It was leased to SBA Santa Barbara Airlines as YV-1052C in May-03.

 

It was returned to the lessor in Dec-05 and permanently retired at Roswell, NM, USA after 31 years in service.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 23-Apr-14..

 

Crew training at Manchester in late April, 1989 before entering service on 01-May-89.

 

History... This aircraft was delivered to the Rank Leisure Group and leased to Novair International Airways as G-BOPK in Mar-89. It was only in service for 1 year until the company closed down at the end of Mar-90. Sold to a leasing company by The Rank Leisure Group, it was stored until it was leased to Air Europe in Dec-90.

 

Unfortunately, Air Europe ceased operations in Mar-91 and the aircraft was repossessed and again stored until Nov-91 when it was leased to US private airline, Mark Air as N689MA.

 

It was returned to the lessor in May-94 and leased to Futura International the following month with the temporary registration EC-655, becoming EC-FYG in Aug-94. It was sub-leased to AMC Aviation, Egypt during the 1995/96 winter season as SU-SAA. It returned to Futura in May-96 with another temporary registration, EC-309, becoming EC-GHF in July-96.

 

There was a repeat performance with AMC Aviation for the 1996/97 winter season, this time as SU-SAB. By the time it returned to Futura in Mar-97 the Spanish Government had finally done away with temporary registrations and it became EC-GNC.

 

In Oct-98 Futura leased it to Aer Lingus as EI-CRC, they operated it for Ryan International Airlines in the USA until Apr-99 when it was returned to Futura, this time as EC-HCP. At that time Futura were in a partnership with Pegasus Airlines, Turkey and shared a common livery.

 

The Aer Lingus/Ryan International winter season deal was repeated in 1999/2000 as EI-CRC and the aircraft returned to Furura in May-00 with yet another different registration, EC-HME. In Jan-01 it was sub-leased to Transbrazil for 3 months as PT-TDH.

 

On its return in Apr-01 it was returned to the lessor and immediately leased to Aer Lingus, again as EI-CRC, and sub-leased to Futura for the 2001 European summer season. It was again returned to Aer Lingus for the 2001/02 winter season sub-lease to Ryan International. It was sub-leased to Futura again in Apr-02 and re-registered EC-IFN the following week.

 

It was returned to Aer Lingus and the lessor at the end of Apr-03 and leased to Islandsflug as TF-ELD. Islandsflug were merged into Air Atlanta Icelandic in Jan-05. In Feb-05 it was operated for Blue Line, France. It returned to Air Atlanta and the lessor in Nov-05 as N412CT.

 

In Jan-06 it was leased to Aegean Airlines as SX-BGX for 3 years. In Apr-09 it was sold to Jordan Aviation as JY-JAP. The aircraft was wet-leased to Bouraq Air Transport (Libya) Jun-09 and returned to Jordan Aviation in Oct-10. in Apr-16 it was wet-leased to Fly Baghdad (Iraq), returning to Jordan Aviation in Nov-16.

 

The aircraft was wet-leased to Al-Naser Wings (Iraq) in Jan-18 and returned to Jordan Aviation in Jun-18. It was permanently retired at Amman in Jan-20 after 31 years in service.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 08-Sep-23.

 

This aircraft was ordered by Libyan Arab Airlines as a 'Combi' passenger/freighter with a side cargo door (SCD). It was due to be registered 5A-DIK but the order was cancelled prior to delivery.

 

The aircraft first flew in Mar-80 and was stored at Seattle-Everett, WA, USA until it was delivered to VARIG Brasil as PP-VNB in Feb-81. In Dec-82 VARIG sold it to Orient Leasing and leased it back.

 

It was returned to Orient Leasing in Dec-94 and was stored at Rio de Janeiro-Galeao, Brazil. In Feb-96 it was sold to Cathay Pacific Airways as VR-HME. The aircraft was converted to a full freighter configuration by Apr-96 and leased to Cathay's subsidiary, Air Hong Kong.

 

In Oct-97 it was re-registered B-HME when Hong Kong became an autonomous region of China. The aircraft was returned to Cathay Pacific Airways Cargo in Jul-02 and continued in operation until it was retired in Sep-08 and stored at Victorville, CA, USA. It was last noted still at Victorville in May-15.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 09-Sep-21 (DeNoise AI).

 

In the late 1990's this was the 'Chatham Historic Dockyard' United Kingdom 'World Tail'. It became the standard British Airways livery as the 'World Tail' liveries popularity faded.

 

This aircraft was originally ordered for Transavia Holland as PH-TKZ but it wasn't taken up. Then it was due for delivery to British Airways as G-BMRK, however that registration wasn't used and it was delivered, in Caledonian Airways livery, to British Airways as G-BPEE in May-91.

 

It was leased to Caledonian Airways on delivery and returned to British Airways in Nov-94. It re-entered service at the end of Dec-94 after re-painting. The aircraft was withdrawn from service in Nov-09 and was stored at London-Heathrow.

 

It was transferred to London-Gatwick in Jun-10 for further storage. The aircraft was sold to FedEx Federal Express as N949FD in Oct-10 and initially stored at Victorville, CA, USA until it was converted to freighter configuration with a main deck cargo door in in Jul-11. Now almost 30 years old, it continues in service. Current, updated 02-Aug-26.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 06-Oct-17, plus DeNoise SI 26-Feb-23.

 

Delivered to Citicorp Industrial Credit Inc and leased to Braniff Airways as N475BN in Feb-80, this aircraft was repossessed by the lessor in Jul-82 after Braniff ceased operations. It was stored until it was sold to US Air in Dec-83.

 

It was re-registered N783AL in Oct-88. US Air sold it to the Polaris Aircraft Leasing Corporation in Dec-88 and leased it back. It was returned to Polaris in Nov-92 and leased to ATA American Trans Air in Dec-92.

 

It was re-registered N769AT in Mar-93. The aircraft was sold to American Trans Air in Jan-99 (actually the day after this photo was taken!). ATA sold it again in Jun-02, to BATA Leasing, and leased it back.

 

It was returned to the lessor in Mar-03 and stored at Roswell, NM, USA. The aircraft was converted into a freighter with a main deck cargo door in Jun-03 and leased to DHL USA. It was transferred to Astar Air Cargo in Sep-06 and operated on behalf of DHL. The aircraft was permanently retired at Kingman, AZ, USA in Jul-09.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 27-Jul-16, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 01-Jan-23.

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWKM, this aircraft was delivered to LTU International Airways as D-AERS in Apr-97. It was sold to a lessor in Jun-00 and leased back to LTU until it was returned to the lessor in May-01.

 

The aircraft was leased to Skyservice Canada as C-FRAV the following month. Skyservice had a problem with licensing and the aircraft was wet-leased to new Algerian airline Khalifa Airways later in Jun-01 for a joint service with Air Algerie from Paris-Orly / Oran. It was sub-leased to Air Algerie in Jul-02.

 

In Feb-03 Khalifa ceased trading and the aircraft was repossessed by Skyservice. It was stored at Zurich, Switzerland in Mar-03 and returned to the lessor in Jun-03 when it was leased to Corsair as F-GJSV.

 

In Apr-04 it was returned to the lessor and leased to Skyservice Airlines, again as C-FRAV. The aircraft was wet-leased to MyTravel Airways (UK) in Nov-04 for the winter season, returning to Skyservice in Mar-05 when it was wet-leased to LTU International.

 

In May-05 Skyservice returned the aircraft to the lessor. The lease was transferred direct to LTU and the aircraft was re-registered D-AERS again. LTU was taken over by Air Berlin in Mar-07 although the two airlines operated independently until LTU was fully integrated into Air Berlin in Feb-08.

 

The aircraft continued in service with Air Berlin until it was returned to the lessor in Oct-11 and stored at Abu Dhabi (UAE). In Dec-11 it was re-registered EI-ETI and ferried to Chateauroux, France for repaint into I-Fly livery.

 

It was stored at Chateauroux until it was delivered to I-Fly Airlines (Russia) in Apr-12. It was withdrawn from service in Nov-15 and stored at Perpignan (France). At the end of Feb-16 it ferried to St. Athan (Wales, UK) and was permanently retired. The registration was cancelled in Mar-11. Updated 01-Jan-23.

Using Claude prompt

 

Edit the reference photo: replace the white mannequin torso with a live adult professional model, shown from mid-torso up in the same three-quarter angle and framing. She wears a fitted, matte black high-neck leotard that fully covers her chest and torso, for a tasteful, modest, editorial look. She has vibrant natural ginger hair, softly styled and swept back so it doesn’t cover the rope, fair skin with subtle freckles, and a warm, genuine, relaxed smile with her gaze slightly off-camera.

  

Preserve the rope harness exactly as in the reference: the same black and natural jute rope, the same star-shaped pattern across the chest, the same wrap-and-lash details along the horizontal bands, the same knots at the collar, and the same lower band beneath the bust. Do not alter, simplify, or add rope or knots. The rope should sit naturally over the leotard, following the body’s contours with realistic tension, shadows, and fabric compression.

  

Background: a dark, moody, seamless studio backdrop in deep charcoal with a subtle gradient and a faint warm haze, giving strong separation so the black and tan rope stands out. Optional: a soft, out-of-focus warm amber bokeh in the distance.

  

Lighting: cinematic, low-key studio lighting. A large soft key light from the upper left at 45° to sculpt the form and show the rope’s twist and fiber texture. A warm rim light from behind right to outline the shoulders and hair. A subtle cool fill light to keep detail in the black rope. Gentle specular highlights on the jute, with no blown highlights or crushed blacks.

  

Style: cinematic editorial photograph, shot on a full-frame camera with an 85mm f/1.8 lens, shallow depth of field with the rope harness in crisp focus, rich contrast, teal-and-amber color grade, fine film grain, 8K detail, photorealistic skin and fabric texture.

  

Negative prompt

  

altered rope pattern, extra or missing knots, rope merging into hair, bare skin on chest, nudity, distorted hands, extra limbs, plastic skin, mannequin look, harsh flash, flat lighting, cluttered background, text, watermark

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 08-Jun-22.

 

This aircraft was delivered to Swedish Air Lease and leased to Spanair (Spain) with the temporary registration EC-150 in Jul-88, becoming EC-EJQ in Aug-88.

 

It was sold to another lessor in Jun-93 while the lease to Spanair continued. Due to Spanish regulations at the time, a new owner meant a new registration, and the aircraft was re-registered EC-487. It became EC-FTU in Oct-93.

 

The aircraft was returned to the lessor as EI-CNO in Feb-97. The following month it was leased to Nouvelair Tunisie (Tunisia), retaining it's Irish registration. It was returned to the lessor in Dec-04 and parked at Paris-deGaulle.

 

In Jan-05 the aircraft was leased to Blue Air (France) as F-GMLK. Blue Air ceased operations in Oct-10 and the aircraft was returned to the lessor and stored at Marana, AZ, USA.

 

The aircraft was sold to Wells Fargo Bank Northwest as N565MS in Dec-10 and moved to Tucson, AZ, USA for continued storage. It was sold to Falcon Air Express in Jun-11 and was permanently retired. It was used as a spares source. It was last noted at Tucson in May-12 and eventually broken up. Updated 08-Jun-22.

Replacing a photo from Apr-15 with a better version

 

This aircraft was delivered to PIA Pakistan International Airlines as AP-BGK in Feb-04. PIA was banned from flying in European airspace between Jun-20 and Nov-25 after it was revealed that up to a quarter of all pilot licences issued in Pakistan were not valid.

 

'I Love Paris' stickers were applied beneath the flight desk windows in Jan-25. It was changed to 'I Love Manchester' in Nov-25. Current, updated 14-Sep-26.

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 21-Mar-26.

 

Named: "Al Kharrara" (appears on the aircraft just below the flight-deck windows in Arabic).

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWAL in Feb-14. It was originally due for delivery to Qatar Airways as A7-AKC but that registration wasn't used. After fitting out and painting at Hamburg-Finkenwerder it was delivered to Qatar Airways as A7-APC in Dec-14.

 

The aircraft was withdrawn from service in Apr-20 as a consequence of the COVID-19 Pandemic and stored at the old Doha International Airport. It returned to service in Aug-22.

 

It operated the Qatar Airways service to London-Heathrow on 28-Feb-26. The return was cancelled due to the USA and Israel declaring war on Iran and the aircraft was parked at London-Heathrow.

 

It was withdrawn from service and ferried from Heathrow to Teruel, Spain on 20-Mar-26 for long-term storage. Updated 21-Mar-26.

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 08-Jan-23.

 

First flown with the Boeing test registration N1786B, this aircraft was delivered to Pembroke Capital Aircraft and leased to Israir (Israel) as 4X-ABJ in Feb-99. It was returned to the lessor in Nov-00 and sold to Aircraft Financing & Trading BV the following day.

 

It was leased to SunExpress Airlines (Turkey) as TC-SUE in Jan-01. The aircraft was returned to the lessor in Mar-03 and immediately leased to Hamburg International Airlines as D-AHIF.

 

It was wet-leased to Iceland Express between Apr/Sep-03 and wet-leased to Kosova Airlines between approximately May-05/Jun-06. The aircraft was returned to the lessor in Mar-08 and leased to Sterling European Airlines as OY-MRU in Apr-08 in a red livery.

 

Sterling European ceased operations in Oct-08, the aircraft was returned to the lessor and initially stored at Copenhagen Denmark before being moved to Belgrade in Dec-08.

 

It was fitted with blended winglets in Mar-09. From the ashes of Sterling European came Cimber Sterling and the aircraft was leased to them in Apr-09. Sadly, they ceased operations in May-12 and the aircraft was again returned to the lessor and stored at Copenhagen.

 

It was moved to Shannon, Ireland in Jun-12 and remained stored until it was leased to JetTime (Denmark) as OY-JTT in Apr-13. It was wet-leased to British Airways between Mar/Oct-16 and continues in service with JetTime.

 

In Mar-20, due to the COVID-19 Pandemic. the aircraft was parked at Copenhagen (Denmark). It was ferried to Kemble, UK and permanently retired in Apr-20. It was broken up there in Jan-22. Updated 08-Jan-23.

Wells Cathedral is an Anglican cathedral in Wells, Somerset, England, dedicated to St Andrew the Apostle. It is the seat of the Bishop of Bath and Wells, whose cathedra it holds as mother church of the Diocese of Bath and Wells. Built as a Roman Catholic cathedral from around 1175 to replace an earlier church on the site since 705, it became an Anglican cathedral when King Henry VIII split from Rome. It is moderately sized for an English cathedral. Its broad west front and large central tower are dominant features. It has been called "unquestionably one of the most beautiful" and "most poetic" of English cathedrals.

 

Its Gothic architecture is mostly inspired from Early English style of the late 12th to early 13th centuries, lacking the Romanesque work that survives in many other cathedrals. Building began about 1175 at the east end with the choir. Historian John Harvey sees it as Europe's first truly Gothic structure, breaking the last constraints of Romanesque. The stonework of its pointed arcades and fluted piers bears pronounced mouldings and carved capitals in a foliate, "stiff-leaf" style. Its Early English front with 300 sculpted figures is seen as a "supreme triumph of the combined plastic arts in England". The east end retains much ancient stained glass. Unlike many cathedrals of monastic foundation, Wells has many surviving secular buildings linked to its chapter of secular canons, including the Bishop's Palace and the 15th-century residential Vicars' Close It is a Grade I listed building.

 

The earliest remains of a building on the site are of a late-Roman mausoleum, identified during excavations in 1980. An abbey church was built in Wells in 705 by Aldhelm, first bishop of the newly established Diocese of Sherborne during the reign of King Ine of Wessex. It was dedicated to St Andrew and stood at the site of the cathedral's cloisters, where some excavated remains can be seen. The font in the cathedral's south transept is from this church and is the oldest part of the present building. In 766 Cynewulf, King of Wessex, signed a charter endowing the church with eleven hides of land. In 909 the seat of the diocese was moved from Sherborne to Wells.

 

The first bishop of Wells was Athelm (909), who crowned King Æthelstan. Athelm and his nephew Dunstan both became Archbishops of Canterbury. During this period a choir of boys was established to sing the liturgy. Wells Cathedral School, which was established to educate these choirboys, dates its foundation to this point. There is, however, some controversy over this. Following the Norman Conquest, John de Villula moved the seat of the bishop from Wells to Bath in 1090. The church at Wells, no longer a cathedral, had a college of secular clergy.

 

The cathedral is thought to have been conceived and commenced in about 1175 by Reginald Fitz Jocelin, who died in 1191. Although it is clear from its size that from the outset, the church was planned to be the cathedral of the diocese, the seat of the bishop moved between Wells and the abbeys of Glastonbury and Bath, before settling at Wells. In 1197 Reginald's successor, Savaric FitzGeldewin, with the approval of Pope Celestine III, officially moved his seat to Glastonbury Abbey. The title of Bishop of Bath and Glastonbury was used until the Glastonbury claim was abandoned in 1219.

 

Savaric's successor, Jocelin of Wells, again moved the bishop's seat to Bath Abbey, with the title Bishop of Bath. Jocelin was a brother of Hugh (II) of Lincoln and was present at the signing of the Magna Carta. Jocelin continued the building campaign begun by Reginald and was responsible for the Bishop's Palace, the choristers' school, a grammar school, a hospital for travellers and a chapel. He also had a manor house built at Wookey, near Wells. Jocelin saw the church dedicated in 1239 but, despite much lobbying of the Pope by Jocelin's representatives in Rome, did not live to see cathedral status granted. The delay may have been a result of inaction by Pandulf Verraccio, a Roman ecclesiastical politician, papal legate to England and Bishop of Norwich, who was asked by the Pope to investigate the situation but did not respond. Jocelin died at Wells on 19 November 1242 and was buried in the choir of the cathedral; the memorial brass on his tomb is one of the earliest brasses in England. Following his death the monks of Bath unsuccessfully attempted to regain authority over Wells.

 

In 1245 the ongoing dispute over the title of the bishop was resolved by a ruling of Pope Innocent IV, who established the title as the "Bishop of Bath and Wells", which it has remained until this day, with Wells as the principal seat of the bishop. Since the 11th century the church has had a chapter of secular clergy, like the cathedrals of Chichester, Hereford, Lincoln and York. The chapter was endowed with 22 prebends (lands from which finance was drawn) and a provost to manage them. On acquiring cathedral status, in common with other such cathedrals, it had four chief clergy, the dean, precentor, chancellor and sacristan, who were responsible for the spiritual and material care of the cathedral.

 

The building programme, begun by Reginald Fitz Jocelin, Bishop in the 12th century, continued under Jocelin of Wells, who was a canon from 1200, then bishop from 1206. Adam Locke was master mason from about 1192 until 1230. It was designed in the new style with pointed arches, later known as Gothic, which was introduced at about the same time at Canterbury Cathedral. Work was halted between 1209 and 1213 when King John was excommunicated and Jocelin was in exile, but the main parts of the church were complete by the time of the dedication by Jocelin in 1239.

 

By the time the cathedral, including the chapter house, was finished in 1306, it was already too small for the developing liturgy, and unable to accommodate increasingly grand processions of clergy. John Droxford initiated another phase of building under master mason Thomas of Whitney, during which the central tower was heightened and an eight-sided Lady chapel was added at the east end by 1326. Ralph of Shrewsbury followed, continuing the eastward extension of the choir and retrochoir beyond. He oversaw the building of Vicars' Close and the Vicars' Hall, to give the men who were employed to sing in the choir a secure place to live and dine, away from the town and its temptations. He had an uneasy relationship with the citizens of Wells, partly because of his imposition of taxes, and he surrounded his palace with crenellated walls, a moat and a drawbridge.

 

John Harewell raised money for the completion of the west front by William Wynford, who was appointed as master mason in 1365. One of the foremost master masons of his time, Wynford worked for the king at Windsor, Winchester Cathedral and New College, Oxford. At Wells, he designed the western towers of which north-west was not built until the following century. In the 14th century, the central piers of the crossing were found to be sinking under the weight of the crossing tower which had been damaged by an earthquake in the previous century. Strainer arches, sometimes described as scissor arches, were inserted by master mason William Joy to brace and stabilise the piers as a unit.

 

By the reign of Henry VII the cathedral was complete, appearing much as it does today (though the fittings have changed). From 1508 to 1546, the eminent Italian humanist scholar Polydore Vergil was active as the chapter's representative in London. He donated a set of hangings for the choir of the cathedral. While Wells survived the Dissolution of the Monasteries better than the cathedrals of monastic foundation, the abolition of chantries in 1547 resulted in a reduction in its income. Medieval brasses were sold, and a pulpit was placed in the nave for the first time. Between 1551 and 1568, in two periods as dean, William Turner established a herb garden, which was recreated between 2003 and 2010.

 

Elizabeth I gave the chapter and the Vicars Choral a new charter in 1591, creating a new governing body, consisting of a dean and eight residentiary canons with control over the church estates and authority over its affairs, but no longer entitled to elect the dean (that entitlement thenceforward belonged ultimately to the Crown). The stability brought by the new charter ended with the onset of the Civil War and the execution of Charles I. Local fighting damaged the cathedral's stonework, furniture and windows. The dean, Walter Raleigh, a nephew of the explorer Walter Raleigh, was placed under house arrest after the fall of Bridgwater to the Parliamentarians in 1645, first in the rectory at Chedzoy and then in the deanery at Wells. His jailor, the shoe maker and city constable, David Barrett, caught him writing a letter to his wife. When he refused to surrender it, Barrett ran him through with a sword and he died six weeks later, on 10 October 1646. He was buried in an unmarked grave in the choir before the dean's stall. During the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell no dean was appointed and the cathedral fell into disrepair. The bishop went into retirement and some of the clerics were reduced to performing menial tasks.

 

In 1661, after Charles II was restored to the throne, Robert Creighton, the king's chaplain in exile, was appointed dean and was bishop for two years before his death in 1672. His brass lectern, given in thanksgiving, can be seen in the cathedral. He donated the nave's great west window at a cost of £140. Following Creighton's appointment as bishop, the post of dean went to Ralph Bathurst, who had been chaplain to the king, president of Trinity College, Oxford and fellow of the Royal Society. During Bathurst's long tenure the cathedral was restored, but in the Monmouth Rebellion of 1685, Puritan soldiers damaged the west front, tore lead from the roof to make bullets, broke the windows, smashed the organ and furnishings, and for a time stabled their horses in the nave.

 

Restoration began again under Thomas Ken who was appointed by the Crown in 1685 and served until 1691. He was one of seven bishops imprisoned for refusing to sign King James II's "Declaration of Indulgence", which would have enabled Catholics to resume positions of political power, but popular support led to their acquittal. Ken refused to take the oath of allegiance to William III and Mary II because James II had not abdicated and with others, known as the Nonjurors, was put out of office. His successor, Richard Kidder, was killed in the Great Storm of 1703 when two chimney stacks on the palace fell on him and his wife, while they were asleep in bed.

 

By the middle of the 19th century, a major restoration programme was needed. Under Dean Goodenough, the monuments were moved to the cloisters and the remaining medieval paint and whitewash removed in an operation known as "the great scrape". Anthony Salvin took charge of the extensive restoration of the choir. Wooden galleries installed in the 16th century were removed and the stalls were given stone canopies and placed further back within the line of the arcade. The medieval stone pulpitum screen was extended in the centre to support a new organ.

 

In 1933 the Friends of Wells Cathedral were formed to support the cathedral's chapter in the maintenance of the fabric, life and work of the cathedral. The late 20th century saw an extensive restoration programme, particularly of the west front. The stained glass is currently under restoration, with a programme underway to conserve the large 14th-century Jesse Tree window at the eastern terminal of the choir.

 

In January 2014, as part of the Bath film festival, the cathedral hosted a special screening of Martin Scorsese's The Last Temptation of Christ. This provoked some controversy, but the church defended its decision to allow the screening.

 

In 2021, a contemporary sculpture by Anthony Gormley was unveiled on a temporary plinth outside the cathedral.

 

Since the 13th century, Wells Cathedral has been the seat of the Bishop of Bath and Wells. Its governing body, the chapter, is made up of five clerical canons (the dean, the precentor, the canon chancellor, the canon treasurer, and the archdeacon of Wells) and four lay members: the administrator (chief executive), Keeper of the Fabric, Overseer of the Estate and the chairman of the cathedral shop and catering boards. The current bishop of Bath and Wells is Peter Hancock, who was installed in a service in the cathedral on 7 June 2014. John Davies has been Dean of Wells since 2016.

 

Employed staff include the organist and master of choristers, head Verger archivist, librarian and the staff of the shop, café and restaurant. The chapter is advised by specialists such as architects, archaeologists and financial analysts.

 

More than a thousand services are held every year. There are daily services of Matins, Holy Communion and Choral Evensong, as well as major celebrations of Christian festivals such as Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and saints' days. The cathedral is also used for the baptisms, weddings and funerals of those with close connections to it. In July 2009 the cathedral undertook the funeral of Harry Patch, the last British Army veteran of World War I, who died at the age of 111.

 

Three Sunday services are led by the resident choir in school terms and choral services are sung on weekdays. The cathedral hosts visiting choirs and does outreach work with local schools as part of its Chorister Outreach Project. It is also a venue for musical events such as an annual concert by the Somerset Chamber Choir.

 

Each year about 150,000 people attend services and another 300,000 visit as tourists. Entry is free, but visitors are encouraged to make a donation towards the annual running costs of around £1.5 million in 2015.

 

Construction of the cathedral began in about 1175, to the design of an unknown master-mason. Wells is the first cathedral in England to be built, from its foundation, in Gothic style. According to art historian John Harvey, it is the first truly Gothic cathedral in the world, its architects having entirely dispensed with all features that bound the contemporary east end of Canterbury Cathedral and the earlier buildings of France, such as the east end of the Abbey of Saint Denis, to the Romanesque. Unlike these churches, Wells has clustered piers rather than columns and has a gallery of identical pointed arches rather than the typically Romanesque form of paired openings. The style, with its simple lancet arches without tracery and convoluted mouldings, is known as Early English Gothic.

 

From about 1192 to 1230, Adam Lock, the earliest master-mason at Wells for whom a name is known, continued the transept and nave in the same manner as his predecessor. Lock was also the builder of the north porch, to his own design.

 

The Early English west front was commenced around 1230 by Thomas Norreys, with building and sculpture continuing for thirty years. Its south-west tower was begun 100 years later and constructed between 1365 and 1395, and the north-west tower between 1425 and 1435, both in the Perpendicular Gothic style to the design of William Wynford, who also filled many of the cathedral's early English lancet windows with delicate tracery.

 

The undercroft and chapter house were built by unknown architects between 1275 and 1310, the undercroft in the Early English and the chapter house in the Geometric style of Decorated Gothic architecture. In about 1310 work commenced on the Lady Chapel, to the design of Thomas Witney, who also built the central tower from 1315 to 1322 in the Decorated Gothic style. The tower was later braced internally with arches by William Joy. Concurrent with this work, in 1329–45 Joy made alterations and extensions to the choir, joining it to the Lady Chapel with the retrochoir, the latter in the Flowing Decorated style.

 

Later changes include the Perpendicular vault of the tower and construction of Sugar's Chapel, 1475–1490 by William Smyth. Also, Gothic Revival renovations were made to the choir and pulpitum by Benjamin Ferrey and Anthony Salvin, 1842–1857.

 

Wells has a total length of 415 feet (126 m). Like Canterbury, Lincoln and Salisbury cathedrals, it has the distinctly English arrangement of two transepts, with the body of the church divided into distinct parts: nave, choir, and retro-choir, beyond which extends the Lady Chapel. The façade is wide, with its towers extending beyond the transepts on either side. There is a large projecting porch on the north side of the nave forming an entry into the cathedral. To the north-east is the large octagonal chapter house, entered from the north choir aisle by a passage and staircase. To the south of the nave is a large cloister, unusual in that the northern range, that adjacent the cathedral, was never built.

 

In section, the cathedral has the usual arrangement of a large church: a central nave with an aisle on each side, separated by two arcades. The elevation is in three stages, arcade, triforium gallery and clerestory. The nave is 67 feet (20 m) in height, very low compared to the Gothic cathedrals of France. It has a markedly horizontal emphasis, caused by the triforium having a unique form, a series of identical narrow openings, lacking the usual definition of the bays. The triforium is separated from the arcade by a single horizontal string course that runs unbroken the length of the nave. There are no vertical lines linking the three stages, as the shafts supporting the vault rise above the triforium.

 

The exterior of Wells Cathedral presents a relatively tidy and harmonious appearance since the greater part of the building was executed in a single style, Early English Gothic. This is uncommon among English cathedrals where the exterior usually exhibits a plethora of styles. At Wells, later changes in the Perpendicular style were universally applied, such as filling the Early English lancet windows with simple tracery, the construction of a parapet that encircles the roof, and the addition of pinnacles framing each gable, similar to those around the chapter house and on the west front. At the eastern end there is a proliferation of tracery with repeated motifs in the Reticulated style, a stage between Geometric and Flowing Decorated tracery.

 

The west front is 100 feet (30 m) high and 147 feet (45 m) wide, and built of Inferior Oolite of the Middle Jurassic period, which came from the Doulting Stone Quarry, about 8 miles (13 km) to the east. According to the architectural historian Alec Clifton-Taylor, it is "one of the great sights of England".

 

West fronts in general take three distinct forms: those that follow the elevation of the nave and aisles, those that have paired towers at the end of each aisle, framing the nave, and those that screen the form of the building. The west front at Wells has the paired-tower form, unusual in that the towers do not indicate the location of the aisles, but extend well beyond them, screening the dimensions and profile of the building.

 

The west front rises in three distinct stages, each clearly defined by a horizontal course. This horizontal emphasis is counteracted by six strongly projecting buttresses defining the cross-sectional divisions of nave, aisles and towers, and are highly decorated, each having canopied niches containing the largest statues on the façade.

 

At the lowest level of the façade is a plain base, contrasting with and stabilising the ornate arcades that rise above it. The base is penetrated by three doors, which are in stark contrast to the often imposing portals of French Gothic cathedrals. The outer two are of domestic proportion and the central door is ornamented only by a central post, quatrefoil and the fine mouldings of the arch.

 

Above the basement rise two storeys, ornamented with quatrefoils and niches originally holding about four hundred statues, with three hundred surviving until the mid-20th century. Since then, some have been restored or replaced, including the ruined figure of Christ in the gable.

 

The third stages of the flanking towers were both built in the Perpendicular style of the late 14th century, to the design of William Wynford; that on the north-west was not begun until about 1425. The design maintains the general proportions, and continues the strong projection of the buttresses.

 

The finished product has been criticised for its lack of pinnacles, and it is probable that the towers were intended to carry spires which were never built. Despite its lack of spires or pinnacles, the architectural historian Banister Fletcher describes it as "the highest development in English Gothic of this type of façade."

 

The sculptures on the west front at Wells include standing figures, seated figures, half-length angels and narratives in high relief. Many of the figures are life-sized or larger. Together they constitute the finest display of medieval carving in England. The figures and many of the architectural details were painted in bright colours, and the colouring scheme has been deduced from flakes of paint still adhering to some surfaces. The sculptures occupy nine architectural zones stretching horizontally across the entire west front and around the sides and the eastern returns of the towers which extend beyond the aisles. The strongly projecting buttresses have tiers of niches which contain many of the largest figures. Other large figures, including that of Christ, occupy the gable. A single figure stands in one of two later niches high on the northern tower.

 

In 1851 the archaeologist Charles Robert Cockerell published his analysis of the iconography, numbering the nine sculptural divisions from the lowest to the highest. He defined the theme as "a calendar for unlearned men" illustrating the doctrines and history of the Christian faith, its introduction to Britain and its protection by princes and bishops. He likens the arrangement and iconography to the Te Deum.

 

According to Cockerell, the side of the façade that is to the south of the central door is the more sacred and the scheme is divided accordingly. The lowest range of niches each contained a standing figure, of which all but four figures on the west front, two on each side, have been destroyed. More have survived on the northern and eastern sides of the north tower. Cockerell speculates that those to the south of the portal represented prophets and patriarchs of the Old Testament while those to the north represented early missionaries to Britain, of which Augustine of Canterbury, St Birinus, and Benedict Biscop are identifiable by their attributes. In the second zone, above each pair of standing figures, is a quatrefoil containing a half-length angel in relief, some of which have survived. Between the gables of the niches are quatrefoils that contain a series of narratives from the Bible, with the Old Testament stories to the south, above the prophets and patriarchs, and those from the New Testament to the north. A horizontal course runs around the west front dividing the architectural storeys at this point.

 

Above the course, zones four and five, as identified by Cockerell, contain figures which represent the Christian Church in Britain, with the spiritual lords such as bishops, abbots, abbesses and saintly founders of monasteries on the south, while kings, queens and princes occupy the north. Many of the figures survive and many have been identified in the light of their various attributes. There is a hierarchy of size, with the more significant figures larger and enthroned in their niches rather than standing. Immediately beneath the upper course are a series of small niches containing dynamic sculptures of the dead coming forth from their tombs on the Day of Judgement. Although naked, some of the dead are defined as royalty by their crowns and others as bishops by their mitres. Some emerge from their graves with joy and hope, and others with despair.

 

The niches in the lowest zone of the gable contain nine angels, of which Cockerell identifies Michael, Gabriel, Raphael and Uriel. In the next zone are the taller figures of the twelve apostles, some, such as John, Andrew and Bartholomew, clearly identifiable by the attributes that they carry. The uppermost niches of the gable contained the figure of Christ the Judge at the centre, with the Virgin Mary on his right and John the Baptist on his left. The figures all suffered from iconoclasm. A new statue of Jesus was carved for the central niche, but the two side niches now contain cherubim. Christ and the Virgin Mary are also represented by now headless figures in a Coronation of the Virgin in a niche above the central portal. A damaged figure of the Virgin and Christ Child occupies a quatrefoil in the spandrel of the door.

 

The central tower appears to date from the early 13th century. It was substantially reconstructed in the early 14th century during the remodelling of the east end, necessitating the internal bracing of the piers a decade or so later. In the 14th century the tower was given a timber and lead spire which burnt down in 1439. The exterior was then reworked in the Perpendicular style and given the present parapet and pinnacles. Alec Clifton-Taylor describes it as "outstanding even in Somerset, a county famed for the splendour of its church towers".

 

The north porch is described by art historian Nikolaus Pevsner as "sumptuously decorated", and intended as the main entrance. Externally it is simple and rectangular with plain side walls. The entrance is a steeply arched portal framed by rich mouldings of eight shafts with stiff-leaf capitals each encircled by an annular moulding at middle height. Those on the left are figurative, containing images representing the martyrdom of St Edmund the Martyr. The walls are lined with deep niches framed by narrow shafts with capitals and annulets like those of the portal. The path to the north porch is lined by four sculptures in Purbeck stone, each by Mary Spencer Watson, representing the symbols of the Evangelists.

 

The cloisters were built in the late 13th century and largely rebuilt from 1430 to 1508 and have wide openings divided by mullions and transoms, and tracery in the Perpendicular Gothic style. The vault has lierne ribs that form octagons at the centre of each compartment, the joints of each rib having decorative bosses. The eastern range is of two storeys, of which the upper is the library built in the 15th century.

 

Because Wells Cathedral was secular rather than monastic, cloisters were not a practical necessity. They were omitted from several other secular cathedrals but were built here and at Chichester. Explanations for their construction at these two secular cathedrals range from the processional to the aesthetic. As at Chichester, there is no northern range to the cloisters. In monastic cloisters it was the north range, benefiting most from winter sunlight, that was often used as a scriptorium.

 

In 1969, when a large chunk of stone fell from a statue near the main door, it became apparent that there was an urgent need for restoration of the west front. Detailed studies of the stonework and of conservation practices were undertaken under the cathedral architect, Alban D. R. Caroe and a restoration committee formed. The methods selected were those devised by Eve and Robert Baker. W. A. (Bert) Wheeler, clerk of works to the cathedral 1935–1978, had previously experimented with washing and surface treatment of architectural carvings on the building and his techniques were among those tried on the statues.

 

The conservation was carried out between 1974 and 1986, wherever possible using non-invasive procedures such as washing with water and a solution of lime, filling gaps and damaged surfaces with soft mortar to prevent the ingress of water and stabilising statues that were fracturing through corrosion of metal dowels. The surfaces were finished by painting with a thin coat of mortar and silane to resist further erosion and attack by pollutants. The restoration of the façade revealed much paint adhering to the statues and their niches, indicating that it had once been brightly coloured.

 

The particular character of this Early English interior is dependent on the proportions of the simple lancet arches. It is also dependent on the refinement of the architectural details, in particular the mouldings.

 

The arcade, which takes the same form in the nave, choir and transepts, is distinguished by the richness of both mouldings and carvings. Each pier of the arcade has a surface enrichment of 24 slender shafts in eight groups of three, rising beyond the capitals to form the deeply undulating mouldings of the arches. The capitals themselves are remarkable for the vitality of the stylised foliage, in a style known as "stiff-leaf". The liveliness contrasts with the formality of the moulded shafts and the smooth unbroken areas of ashlar masonry in the spandrels. Each capital is different, and some contain small figures illustrating narratives.

 

The vault of the nave rises steeply in a simple quadripartite form, in harmony with the nave arcade. The eastern end of the choir was extended and the whole upper part elaborated in the second quarter of the 14th century by William Joy. The vault has a multiplicity of ribs in a net-like form, which is very different from that of the nave, and is perhaps a recreation in stone of a local type of compartmented wooden roof of which examples remain from the 15th century, including those at St Cuthbert's Church, Wells. The vaults of the aisles of the choir also have a unique pattern.

 

Until the early 14th century, the interior of the cathedral was in a unified style, but it was to undergo two significant changes, to the tower and to the eastern end. Between 1315 and 1322 the central tower was heightened and topped by a spire, which caused the piers that supported it to show signs of stress. In 1338 the mason William Joy employed an unorthodox solution by inserting low arches topped by inverted arches of similar dimensions, forming scissors-like structures. These arches brace the piers of the crossing on three sides, while the easternmost side is braced by a choir screen. The bracing arches are known as "St Andrew's Cross arches", in a reference to the patron saint of the cathedral. They have been described by Wim Swaan – rightly or wrongly – as "brutally massive" and intrusive in an otherwise restrained interior.

 

Wells Cathedral has a square east end to the choir, as is usual, and like several other cathedrals including Salisbury and Lichfield, has a lower Lady Chapel projecting at the eastern end, begun by Thomas Witney in about 1310, possibly before the chapter house was completed. The Lady Chapel seems to have begun as a free-standing structure in the form of an elongated octagon, but the plan changed and it was linked to the eastern end by extension of the choir and construction of a second transept or retrochoir east of the choir, probably by William Joy.

 

The Lady Chapel has a vault of complex and somewhat irregular pattern, as the chapel is not symmetrical about both axes. The main ribs are intersected by additional non-supporting, lierne ribs, which in this case form a star-shaped pattern at the apex of the vault. It is one of the earliest lierne vaults in England. There are five large windows, of which four are filled with fragments of medieval glass. The tracery of the windows is in the style known as Reticulated Gothic, having a pattern of a single repeated shape, in this case a trefoil, giving a "reticulate" or net-like appearance.

 

The retrochoir extends across the east end of the choir and into the east transepts. At its centre the vault is supported by a remarkable structure of angled piers. Two of these are placed as to complete the octagonal shape of the Lady Chapel, a solution described by Francis Bond as "an intuition of Genius". The piers have attached shafts of marble, and, with the vaults that they support, create a vista of great complexity from every angle. The windows of the retrochoir are in the Reticulated style like those of the Lady Chapel, but are fully Flowing Decorated in that the tracery mouldings form ogival curves.

 

The chapter house was begun in the late 13th century and built in two stages, completed about 1310. It is a two-storeyed structure with the main chamber raised on an undercroft. It is entered from a staircase which divides and turns, one branch leading through the upper storey of Chain Gate to Vicars' Close. The Decorated interior is described by Alec Clifton-Taylor as "architecturally the most beautiful in England". It is octagonal, with its ribbed vault supported on a central column. The column is surrounded by shafts of Purbeck Marble, rising to a single continuous rippling foliate capital of stylised oak leaves and acorns, quite different in character from the Early English stiff-leaf foliage. Above the moulding spring 32 ribs of strong profile, giving an effect generally likened to "a great palm tree". The windows are large with Geometric Decorated tracery that is beginning to show an elongation of form, and ogees in the lesser lights that are characteristic of Flowing Decorated tracery. The tracery lights still contain ancient glass. Beneath the windows are 51 stalls, the canopies of which are enlivened by carvings including many heads carved in a light-hearted manner.

 

Wells Cathedral contains one of the most substantial collections of medieval stained glass in England, despite damage by Parliamentary troops in 1642 and 1643. The oldest surviving glass dates from the late 13th century and is in two windows on the west side of the chapter-house staircase. Two windows in the south choir aisle are from 1310 to 1320.

 

The Lady Chapel has five windows, of which four date from 1325 to 1330 and include images of a local saint, Dunstan. The east window was restored to a semblance of its original appearance by Thomas Willement in 1845. The other windows have complete canopies, but the pictorial sections are fragmented.

 

The east window of the choir is a broad, seven-light window dating from 1340 to 1345. It depicts the Tree of Jesse (the genealogy of Christ) and demonstrates the use of silver staining, a new technique that allowed the artist to paint details on the glass in yellow, as well as black. The combination of yellow and green glass and the application of the bright yellow stain gives the window its popular name, the "Golden Window". It is flanked by two windows each side in the clerestory, with large figures of saints, also dated to 1340–45. In 2010 a major conservation programme was undertaken on the Jesse Tree window.

 

The panels in the chapel of St Katherine are attributed to Arnold of Nijmegen and date from about 1520. They were acquired from the destroyed church of Saint-Jean, Rouen, with the last panel having been purchased in 1953.

 

The large triple lancet to the nave west end was glazed at the expense of Dean Creighton at a cost of £140 in 1664. It was repaired in 1813, and the central light was largely replaced to a design by Archibald Keightley Nicholson between 1925 and 1931. The main north and south transept end windows by James Powell and Sons were erected in the early 20th century.

 

The greater part of the stone carving of Wells Cathedral comprises foliate capitals in the stiff-leaf style. They are found ornamenting the piers of the nave, choir and transepts. Stiff-leaf foliage is highly abstract. Though possibly influenced by carvings of acanthus leaves or vine leaves, it cannot be easily identified with any particular plant. Here the carving of the foliage is varied and vigorous, the springing leaves and deep undercuts casting shadows that contrast with the surface of the piers. In the transepts and towards the crossing in the nave the capitals have many small figurative carvings among the leaves. These include a man with toothache and a series of four scenes depicting the "Wages of Sin" in a narrative of fruit stealers who creep into an orchard and are then beaten by the farmer. Another well-known carving is in the north transept aisle: a foliate corbel, on which climbs a lizard, sometimes identified as a salamander, a symbol of eternal life.

 

Carvings in the Decorated Gothic style may be found in the eastern end of the buildings, where there are many carved bosses. In the chapter house, the carvings of the 51 stalls include numerous small heads of great variety, many of them smiling or laughing. A well-known figure is the corbel of the dragon-slaying monk in the chapter house stair. The large continuous capital that encircles the central pillar of the chapter house is markedly different in style to the stiff-leaf of the Early English period. In contrast to the bold projections and undercutting of the earlier work, it has a rippling form and is clearly identifiable as grapevine.

 

The 15th-century cloisters have many small bosses ornamenting the vault. Two in the west cloister, near the gift shop and café, have been called sheela na gigs, i. e. female figures displaying their genitals and variously judged to depict the sin of lust or stem from ancient fertility cults.

 

Wells Cathedral has one of the finest sets of misericords in Britain. Its clergy has a long tradition of singing or reciting from the Book of Psalms each day, along with the customary daily reading of the Holy Office. In medieval times the clergy assembled in the church eight times daily for the canonical hours. As the greater part of the services was recited while standing, many monastic or collegiate churches fitted stalls whose seats tipped up to provide a ledge for the monk or cleric to lean against. These were "misericords" because their installation was an act of mercy. Misericords typically have a carved figurative bracket beneath the ledge framed by two floral motifs known, in heraldic manner, as "supporters".

 

The misericords date from 1330 to 1340. They may have been carved under the direction of Master Carpenter John Strode, although his name is not recorded before 1341. He was assisted by Bartholomew Quarter, who is documented from 1343. They originally numbered 90, of which 65 have survived. Sixty-one are installed in the choir, three are displayed in the cathedral, and one is held by the Victoria and Albert Museum. New stalls were ordered when the eastern end of the choir was extended in the early 14th century. The canons complained that they had borne the cost of the rebuilding and ordered the prebendary clerics to pay for their own stalls. When the newly refurbished choir opened in 1339 many misericords were left unfinished, including one-fifth of the surviving 65. Many of the clerics had not paid, having been called to contribute a total sum of £200. The misericords survived better than the other sections of the stalls, which during the Protestant Reformation had their canopies chopped off and galleries inserted above them. One misericord, showing a boy pulling a thorn from his foot, dates from the 17th century. In 1848 came a complete rearrangement of the choir furniture, and 61 of the misericords were reused in the restructured stalls.

 

The subject matter of the carvings of the central brackets as misericords varies, but many themes recur in different churches. Typically the themes are less unified or directly related to the Bible and Christian theology than small sculptures seen elsewhere within churches, such as bosses. This applies at Wells, where none of the misericord carvings is directly based on a Bible story. The subjects, chosen either by the woodcarver, or perhaps by the one paying for the stall, have no overriding theme. The sole unifying elements are the roundels on each side of the pictorial subject, which all show elaborately carved foliage, in most cases formal and stylised in the later Decorated manner, but with several examples of naturalistic foliage, including roses and bindweed. Many of the subjects carry traditional interpretations. The image of the "Pelican in her Piety" (believed to feed her young on her own blood) is a recognised symbol for Christ's love for the Church. A cat playing with a mouse may represent the Devil snaring a human soul. Other subjects illustrate popular fables or sayings such as "When the fox preaches, look to your geese". Many depict animals, some of which may symbolise a human vice or virtue, or an aspect of faith.

 

Twenty-seven of the carvings depict animals: rabbits, dogs, a puppy biting a cat, a ewe feeding a lamb, monkeys, lions, bats, and the Early Christian motif of two doves drinking from a ewer. Eighteen have mythological subjects, including mermaids, dragons and wyverns. Five are clearly narrative, such as the Fox and the Geese, and the story of Alexander the Great being raised to Heaven by griffins. There are three heads: a bishop in a mitre, an angel, and a woman wearing a veil over hair arranged in coils over each ear. Eleven carvings show human figures, among which are several of remarkable design, conceived by the artist specifically for their purpose of supporting a shelf. One figure lies beneath the seat, supporting the shelf with a cheek, a hand and a foot. Another sits in a contorted manner supporting the weight on his elbow, while a further figure squats with his knees wide apart and a strained look on his face.

 

Some of the cathedral's fittings and monuments are hundreds of years old. The brass lectern in the Lady Chapel dates from 1661 and has a moulded stand and foliate crest. In the north transept chapel is a 17th-century oak screen with columns, formerly used in cow stalls, with artisan Ionic capitals and cornice, set forward over the chest tomb of John Godelee. There is a bound oak chest from the 14th century, which was used to store the chapter seal and key documents. The bishop's throne dates from 1340, and has a panelled, canted front and stone doorway, and a deep nodding cusped ogee canopy above it, with three-stepped statue niches and pinnacles. The throne was restored by Anthony Salvin around 1850. Opposite the throne is a 19th-century octagonal pulpit on a coved base with panelled sides, and steps up from the north aisle. The round font in the south transept is from the former Saxon cathedral and has an arcade of round-headed arches, on a round plinth. The font cover was made in 1635 and is decorated with the heads of putti. The Chapel of St Martin is a memorial to every Somerset man who fell in World War I.

 

The monuments and tombs include Gisa, bishop; † 1088; William of Bitton, bishop; † 1274; William of March, bishop; † 1302; John Droxford; † 1329; John Godelee; † 1333; John Middleton, died †1350; Ralph of Shrewsbury, died †; John Harewell, bishop; † 1386; William Bykonyll; † c. 1448; John Bernard; † 1459; Thomas Beckington; † died 1464; John Gunthorpe; † 1498; John Still; † 1607; Robert Creighton; † 1672; Richard Kidder, bishop; † 1703; George Hooper, bishop; † 1727 and Arthur Harvey, bishop; † 1894.

 

In the north transept is Wells Cathedral clock, an astronomical clock from about 1325 believed to be by Peter Lightfoot, a monk of Glastonbury. Its mechanism, dated between 1386 and 1392, was replaced in the 19th century and the original moved to the Science Museum in London, where it still operates. It is the second oldest surviving clock in England after the Salisbury Cathedral clock.

 

The clock has its original medieval face. Apart from the time on a 24-hour dial, it shows the motion of the Sun and Moon, the phases of the Moon, and the time since the last new Moon. The astronomical dial presents a geocentric or pre-Copernican view, with the Sun and Moon revolving round a central fixed Earth, like that of the clock at Ottery St Mary. The quarters are chimed by a quarter jack: a small automaton known as Jack Blandifers, who hits two bells with hammers and two with his heels. At the striking of the clock, jousting knights appear above the clock face.

 

On the outer wall of the transept, opposite Vicars' Hall, is a second clock face of the same clock, placed there just over seventy years after the interior clock and driven by the same mechanism. The second clock face has two quarter jacks (which strike on the quarter-hour) in the form of knights in armour.

 

In 2010 the official clock-winder retired and was replaced by an electric mechanism.

 

The first record of an organ at this church dates from 1310. A smaller organ, probably for the Lady Chapel, was installed in 1415. In 1620 an organ built by Thomas Dallam was installed at a cost of £398 1s 5d.

 

The 1620 organ was destroyed by parliamentary soldiers in 1643. An organ built in 1662 was enlarged in 1786 and again in 1855. In 1909–1910 an organ was built by Harrison & Harrison of Durham, with the best parts of the old organ retained. It has been serviced by the same company ever since.

 

Since November 1996 the cathedral has also had a portable chamber organ, by the Scottish makers, Lammermuir. It is used regularly to accompany performances of Tudor and baroque music.

 

The first recorded organist of Wells was Walter Bagele (or Vageler) in 1416. The post of organist or assistant organist has been held by more than 60 people since. Peter Stanley Lyons was Master of Choristers at Wells Cathedral, and Director of Music at Wells Cathedral School in 1954–1960. The choral conductor James William Webb-Jones, father of Lyons's wife Bridget (whom he married in the cathedral), was Headmaster of Wells Cathedral School in 1955–1960. Malcolm Archer was the appointed Organist and Master of the Choristers from 1996 to 2004. Matthew Owens was the appointed organist from 2005 to 2019.

 

There has been a choir of boy choristers at Wells since 909. Currently there are 18 boy choristers and a similar number of girl choristers, aged from eight to fourteen. The Vicars Choral was formed in the 12th century and the sung liturgy provided by a traditional cathedral choir of men and boys until the formation of an additional choir of girls in 1994. The boys and girls sing alternately with the Vicars Choral and are educated at Wells Cathedral School.

 

The Vicars Choral currently number twelve men, of whom three are choral scholars. Since 1348 the College of Vicars had its own accommodation in a quadrangle converted in the early 15th century to form Vicar's Close. The Vicars Choral generally perform with the choristers, except on Wednesdays, when they sing alone, allowing them to present a different repertoire, in particular plainsong.

 

In December 2010 Wells Cathedral Choir was rated by Gramophone magazine as "the highest ranking choir with children in the world". It continues to provide music for the liturgy at Sunday and weekday services. The choir has made many recordings and toured frequently, including performances in Beijing and Hong Kong in 2012. Its repertoire ranges from the choral music of the Renaissance to recently commissioned works.

 

The Wells Cathedral Chamber Choir is a mixed adult choir of 25 members, formed in 1986 to sing at the midnight service on Christmas Eve, and invited to sing at several other special services. It now sings for about 30 services a year, when the Cathedral Choir is in recess or on tour, and spends one week a year singing as the "choir in residence" at another cathedral. Although primarily liturgical, the choir's repertoire includes other forms of music, as well as performances at engagements such as weddings and funerals.

 

The cathedral is home to Wells Cathedral Oratorio Society (WCOS), founded in 1896. With around 160 voices, the society gives three concerts a year under the direction of Matthew Owens, Organist and Master of the Choristers at the cathedral. Concerts are normally in early November, December (an annual performance of Handel's Messiah) and late March. It performs with a number of specialist orchestras including: Music for Awhile, Chameleon Arts and La Folia.

 

The bells at Wells Cathedral are the heaviest ring of ten bells in the world, the tenor bell (the 10th and largest), known as Harewell, weighing 56.25 long hundredweight (2,858 kg). They are hung for full-circle ringing in the English style of change ringing. These bells are now hung in the south-west tower, although some were originally hung in the central tower.

 

The library above the eastern cloister was built between 1430 and 1508. Its collection is in three parts: early documents housed in the Muniment Room; the collection predating 1800 housed in the Chained Library; and the post-1800 collection housed in the Reading Room. The chapter's earlier collection was destroyed during the Reformation, so that the present library consists chiefly of early printed books, rather than medieval manuscripts. The earlier books in the Chained Library number 2,800 volumes and give an indication of the variety of interests of the members of the cathedral chapter from the Reformation until 1800. The focus of the collection is predominantly theology, but there are volumes on science, medicine, exploration, and languages. Books of particular interest include Pliny's Natural History printed in 1472, an Atlas of the World by Abraham Ortelius, printed in 1606, and a set of the works by Aristotle that once belonged to Erasmus. The library is open to the public at appointed times in the summer and presents a small exhibition of documents and books.

 

Three early registers of the Dean and Chapter edited by W. H. B. Bird for the Historical Manuscripts Commissioners – Liber Albus I (White Book; R I), Liber Albus II (R III) and Liber Ruber (Red Book; R II, section i) – were published in 1907. They contain with some repetition, a cartulary of possessions of the cathedral, with grants of land back to the 8th century, well before hereditary surnames developed in England, and acts of the Dean and Chapter and surveys of their estates, mostly in Somerset.

 

Adjacent to the cathedral is a large lawned area, Cathedral Green, with three ancient gateways: Brown's Gatehouse, Penniless Porch and Chain Gate. On the green is the 12th-century Old Deanery, largely rebuilt in the late 15th century by Dean Gunthorpe and remodelled by Dean Bathurst in the late 17th century. No longer the dean's residence, it is used as diocesan offices.

 

To the south of the cathedral is the moated Bishop's Palace, begun about 1210 by Jocelin of Wells but dating mostly from the 1230s. In the 15th century Thomas Beckington added a north wing, now the bishop's residence. It was restored and extended by Benjamin Ferrey between 1846 and 1854.

 

To the north of the cathedral and connected to it by the Chain Gate is Vicars' Close, a street planned in the 14th century and claimed to be the oldest purely residential street in Europe, with all but one of its original buildings intact. Buildings in the close include the Vicars Hall and gateway at the south end, and the Vicars Chapel and Library at the north end.

 

The Liberty of St Andrew was the historic liberty and parish that encompassed the cathedral and surrounding lands closely associated with it.

 

The English painter J. M. W. Turner visited Wells in 1795, making sketches of the precinct and a water colour of the west front, now in the Tate gallery. Other artists whose paintings of the cathedral are in national collections are Albert Goodwin, John Syer and Ken Howard.

 

The cathedral served to inspire Ken Follett's 1989 novel The Pillars of the Earth and with a modified central tower, featured as the fictional Kingsbridge Cathedral at the end of the 2010 television adaptation of that novel. The interior of the cathedral was used for a 2007 Doctor Who episode, "The Lazarus Experiment", while the exterior shots were filmed at Southwark Cathedral.

 

An account of the damage to the cathedral during the Monmouth Rebellion is included in Arthur Conan Doyle's 1889 historical novel Micah Clarke.

 

The cathedral provided scenes for the 2019–2020 television series The Spanish Princess.

Replacing an earlier photo with a better version 23-Oct-25.

 

First flown in Jan-91 as F-GKND, this aircraft was delivered to a lessor and leased to TAT Transport Aerien Transregional, France in Mar-91. TAT was renamed TAT European Airlines in Dec-95 and they were merged into Air Liberte in Oct-97.

 

The aircraft was sub-leased to Air Atlantique, France in Oct-98 and returned to Air Liberte in Jul-99. It as leased to Air Open Sky, France in Dec-99 and returned to Air Liberte in Nov-00. It was returned to Gie Prop Bail No:1 in Aug-01 and stored at Dinard, France.

 

In Oct-01 it was leased to Airlinair, France and sub-leased to Air Atlantique in Mar-03. It was returned to Airlinair and the lessor in Mar-04. The aircraft was immediately sold to Swift Air as EC-IVP and converted to freighter configuration by May-04 (cabin conversion only). Current, updated 13-Jun-25.

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 30-Mar-20.

 

'Silver Bullet' livery.

 

First flown as a passenger aircraft with the Boeing test registration N5573B, this aircraft was delivered to Cathay Pacific Airways as VR-HIH in Apr-84.

 

It was converted into freighter configuration with a main deck side cargo door (SCD) in Jun-94 and transferred to Cathay Pacific Airways Cargo.

 

The aircraft was re-registered B-HIH in Jul-97 when Hong Kong became an autonomous region of China. After 25 years in service it was initially stored at Hong Kong in Jun-09.

 

It was sold to Wells Fargo Bank Northwest as N2868R in Aug-09 and ferried to Kemble, UK in Sep-09 where it was permanently retired and broken up in Feb-10.

Replaced 33860 with low power and my first E200 on #120

 

In December 2021 it was announced that this unique batch of 10 buses would transfer to Potteries.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version on 17-Sep-21 (DeNoise AI).

 

The B747 SR was the 'short range' version of the B747-200 built especially for Japanese domestic services.

 

First flown in Sep-81 with the Boeing test registration N5573B, this aircraft was delivered to ANA All Nippon Airways as JA8156 in Dec-81.

 

It served with ANA for 23 years until it was 'traded in' to Boeing in Jul-04 and stored at Goodyear, AZ, USA as N233BA. It never flew again and was sold to Cargo Aircraft LLC for spares at the end that month. It was broken up at Goodyear in Jan/Feb-05.

The Paddle Steamer Phantom replaced the smaller ferries on the Circular Quay to Manly run in 1859. This image - dated around 1860 - shows the level of development around Manly Cove at that time. This image has been included to indicate the development at Manly at the time the Huntress was operational on the Manly run.

 

The Phantom was a steel vessel - substantially larger than the smaller wooden ferries such as the Huntress that operated the service a few years beforehand.

 

HUNTRESS

The Huntress was built by Alexander Newton and William Malcolm at Pelican on the Manning River in 1853. She operated out of the Hunter River and Sydney Harbour with some brief periods on the Hawkesbury River before being purchased by New Zealand interests. This section deals with the Australian operations - 1853 -1860. Details of her operation in New Zealand Operation are to be found in New Zealand Operation

 

Other images related the Huntress are found in the Album HUNTRESS

 

SECTION 1. AUSTRALIAN OPERATION (1853 - 1860)

 

Details :

Name: Huntress

Type: Schooner Rigged, Cutter/Paddle Steamer.

Length: 89.1 ft

Beam: 16.2 ft

Draft: 7.6 ft

Engine: 2 x 40 h.p. Steam/Built and installed by G. Russell & Co (Sydney)

Builder: Alexander Newton and William Malcolm

Launched: September 1853, Pelican Shipyards, Manning River, NSW.

Registered: Sydney '147/1853' - '25/9/1853'

Re-Registered: Sydney 25/1857

Tonnage: Suggest 54.45 tons

Propelling Power: 32.01

Official Number: ON 032617

Construction:

-Carvel Planked

-Square Stern

 

Owners:

Australia

1853 -1856 Messrs. J. & A. Brown, of Newcastle.

1856 -1860 Thomas Stephenson Rountree [often incorrectly referred to as Rowntree], of Balmain.

 

New Zealand

1860 -1864 Government of Hawke’s Bay Province, New Zealand (registered Napier) Thomas Henry Fitzgerald. 12th March 1860.

1864 -1866 Donald McLean

1866 -1867 G. Edward Reid, 6th December 1866 (registered Auckland)

1867 -1871 William Souter 10th January 1867

1871 -1872 J. S. MacFarlane & Co.

 

HISTORY:

 

1853

NEW STEAMER. A contract for the building of a new steamboat was finally concluded yesterday by Messrs Malcolm and Newton. The matter has been under consideration for some time past, yet in consequence of some proposed alteration with regard to the vessel, it was only determined yesterday. The dimensions will be about 85 ft. keel, 16 ft. beam, and fore hold 7 ft. She will be built at Messrs. Malcolm and Newton’s yard on the Manning River. Her intended trade has not been given. The Maitland Mercury 5 March 1853.

(The side-wheel paddle-steamer Huntress was the only steamship built at the Pelican shipyard on the Manning River.)

 

MAIDEN VOYAGE

“The Phantom, ketch, has cleared out for the Manning River, taking up with her Captain Malcolm and a crew to bring down the new steamer [Huntress] lately built at that place by Messrs. Newton and Malcolm, the well-known shipwrights. The steamer is intended for the Hunter River trade, to ply between Newcastle and Morpeth, and is also to be used as a tug boat.

The steamer will come from the Manning under canvas to receive her engines, and proceed immediately to her destination. This will be a novel feature on the Hunter, and we congratulate the inhabitants on their new acquisition. The builders’ well-earned fame is sufficient guarantee of the faithfulness and superiority of build in the new boat.” The Maitland Mercury and Hunter General Advertiser - 6 August 1853

 

UNDER CANVAS - THREE MASTS

THE HUNTRESS STEAMER. This vessel arrived here on Sunday, the 25th, from the Manning River, for the purpose of being fitted with her engines, &c., which have been constructed by Mr. G. Russell, and, as a specimen of colonial shipbuilding, is worthy of some attention. She is intended for a tug-boat on the Hunter River, and will at the same time carry goods and passengers. Her dimensions are as follows:-Length of keel 86 feet 6 inches, depth of hold 7 feet 6 inches; draws when loaded 5 feet 10 inches aft, 5 feet 1 inch forward, and will be propelled by two engines of the united power of 80 horses. Her builders, Messrs. Newton and Malcolm (who also built the Scotia), have adhered to the usual American system adopted in their river boats, which allows of deck houses being placed on vessels if required, but at present she is flush fore and aft. She is owned by Messrs. J. and A. Brown, of Newcastle, and came up from the Manning rigged as a three–masted schooner, with a large cargo of grain, and proved an excellent sea-boat. [Captain James Malcolm, the agent, has politely furnished the above particulars.]

The Maitland Mercury - 1 October 1853

 

The same newspaper reported the Huntress arrived, from the Manning {26th September], with 1604 bushels grain, 65 hides, 2 tons bags, 700 felloes, 5000 feet timber, 2 casks beef, casks 2 paunches tallow.

 

CONVERSION TO STEAMER AND TRIALS

The Huntress was converted to a steam tug over a period of around three months; it appears that her central mast was removed leaving one fore and one rear mast [this needs checking]. She made a trial trip down to the Heads on 30th December 1853; she went from Pinchgut to the South Reef in 25 minutes, and from the reef to Millers Point in 31 minutes. On the 6th January 1854 she completed her trials, attaining 11 knots an hour outside the Heads.

 

1854

NEWCASTLE

On January the 24th 1854 the Huntress arrived at Newcastle to take up her new duties as the Newcastle steam-tug. On the 25th January she towed out a schooner on the and then proceeded to Morpeth in around four hours, returning to Newcastle on the 1st February to tow out the Mary Nicholson.

 

HUNTRESS RE-LOCATED TO SYDNEY

After 9 months operation on the Hunter River as a ferry from Morpeth to Newcastle and operating as a steam-tug as needed, Huntress was advertised for sale - firstly by Private Treaty and subsequently by auction. With no sale, she was moved to Sydney in November 1854 where she commenced operation as a charter boat. Almost immediately she commenced operation as a ferry taking passengers to observe the Balmain Regatta The Sydney Morning Herald - 30 November 1854. She was again offered for sale the following January

 

1855

WINDSOR SOJOURN

On the 1st February 1855 Huntress was sent to Windsor as so eloquently described:

"On Friday afternoon last [2nd Feb 1855], shortly before two o'clock, several gun-shots were suddenly heard fired in quick succession from the neighbourhood of Thompson's square, and numbers of men, women, and children might be seen hurrying towards the river. What could be the cause of this consternation, thought we? Nothing more nor less than the anxiously looked for arriving of the Huntress steamer, " walking the waters" of our noble Hawkesbury " like a thing of life!" The Huntress left Sydney the day previous and was twenty-four hours on the water, though actually under steam only thirteen hours and a half, having rested at night. We are informed that the passage might have been, and can be made easily in twelve hours, but this, being the maiden trip, was performed cautiously and under suppressed power. Although fears were entertained that the vessel might have met with some obstruction on the way up, we believe she met with none, having found water deep enough the whole distance. As she hauled alongside the temporary wharf erected by the charterers, it was amusing to observe the eager interest and excitement she occasioned amongst the inhabitants, particularly the young, many of whom, we believe, never beheld such a sight before. Fortunately there were not very many passengers on board, and the captain and managers exhibited much good nature, otherwise the crowds of people, including children, who rushed upon the decks and examined the accommodation and machinery, might have been felt to be very inconvenient. We hail the arrival at our wharf of the little Huntress with much satisfaction, and hope she may prove the harbinger of a more extended system of steam communication upon the Hawkesbury, to be carried out at no distant day, and which will to some extent aid in developing the resources of our important district. At present, the steamer will be used for pleasure and excursion trips only, the first of which will take place on Monday. The Sydney Morning Herald - 6 February 1855.

 

RETURN TO SYDNEY CHARTER FERRY

After a short stay at Windsor she returned to Sydney where she was regularly chartered for ferrying passengers to various events. For a time she was leased to Henry Gilbert Smith, who used her as one of the first ferries on the Sunday Manly run.

 

1856

PADDLE WHEELS IMPROVED

MR. RANKEN’S NEW PADDLE – WHEEL FLOAT’S .

Some interest has lately been caused by an invention which is intended to do away with much of the loss of power, and therefore of speed in the common paddle-wheels and floats now in use in most steamers.

A trial has been made with Mr. Ranken’s improvement in the Huntress, running between Circular Quay and Cremorne, and the result is stated as having been very favourable. Upon this Mr. Ranken applied to the Australian Steam Navigation Company for leave to fit one of their sea-going vessels after the same fashion, for a trial of a hundred miles or so; but by some misunderstanding the two parties have come to issue, and science is disappointed. Whichever may be right, it is a pity that more cannot be known of the capabilities of discovery; anything that can increase speed, husband power or lessen the coal bill in steamboats, is a world wide benefit.

The invention, it seems, is simple, but the most simple efforts, have almost always been the manner in which genius works.

The following is a description, :- Upon the common paddle-wheel float, which strikes the water mostly at an angle of 45 degrees, is fitted an iron binding, and to use a homely simile, very like the turned up edges of a dust pan; this is meant to compress the water more solidly within a space, so that the propelling power may have more grip whereby to send the vessel ahead; but on account of a greater force being required to drive the paddle-wheels fitted like this, every alternate float is unshipped. As we believe, in the case of the Huntress in smooth water, Mr. Ranken’s plan answered as well as could be wished; still it is quite another matter with a ship in a sea-way, it being a question whether or not any such iron binding will ever stand the surging of the wheels in a heavy roll, either ahead or on the beam, which nothing can decide except a fair trial in the open sea. The Sydney Morning Herald - 5 July 1856.

 

1857

SYDNEY HARBOUR

In addition to charters and towing contracts, Huntress was regularly utilised on Sydney Harbour to transport passengers to the gardens at Cremorne every Sunday.

 

RETURN TO WINDSOR

During the winter of 1857, Huntress was sent to Windsor where she transported goods that were then sold by auction in Sydney. "SALES BY AUCTION. REGULAR PRODUCE SALE.

MR. W. PRITCHARD will sell by auction, on the Ground Floor of his New Mart, 70, Sussex-street, late Brierley, Dean, and Co.'s Stores, on WEDNESDAY, at 11 o'clock,

300 bushels of wheat, ex Huntress, from Windsor 300 ditto maize, ditto, ditto .

325 ditto fresh coarse bran, ditto, ditto

Also, several other parcels of maize, wheat, bran, hay, hides, sheepskins, tallow, &c., &c.

At half-past 11.

Chaff cutters, corn shellers, corn measures, &c., &c. 385"

Empire - 7 July 1857

On one of these voyages she encountered a sunken ketch on the Hawkesbury River. "The Huntress (s.), from the Hawkesbury, reports having seen, while coming down the river, a ketch sunk, with masts and sails standing. They found it to be the ketch Traveller, with the usual cargo; the mate of the Huntress made several attempts to tow her, but found she was too heavy, and as compelled to leave her there. It is not known whether the crew were saved or went down with the vessel." The Maitland Mercury - 9 July 1857

 

1858 - 1860

CONVERTED

 

ADVERTISED FOR SALE

Over this period the only activity reported was a regular series of advertisements in 1858 offering Huntress for sale. "Also, the powerful steamer HUNTRESS, 84 tons, and 50 H.P., capable of carrying 60 tons cargo, and 250 passengers on river service. The above vessels now lie for inspection in Waterview Bay. Apply to ROWNTREE [ROUNTREE] and CO., Mort's Dry Dock; or T. S. MORT and CO., Pitt-street. The Sydney Morning Herald - 16 October 1858.

 

CONVERTED TO DREDGE

Few details are available for the years 1858/59 but it appears that Huntress was converted into a dredge but details are unclear. She was reportedly re-measured as 86 gross tons 54 net but this requires confirmation.

 

PURCHASED BY NEW ZEALAND INTERESTS

In 1860 it was confirmed that the Huntress had been purchased by Mr. G. Griffith, as agent for the Provincial Government of Hawkes Bay. "The steamer Huntress, recently the property of Captain Rountree, but since purchased from him by Mr. G. Griffith, the agent in Sydney for the Provincial Government of Hawkes Bay, New Zealand, made a trial trip yesterday prior to her departure. She proceeded down the harbour and a few miles to sea. She averaged fully ten knots under steam, and under canvas was remarkably steady and easy. She is to be used as a steam-dredge for the harbour of Napier, Hawkes Bay, for which she has competent machinery, in addition to an effective set of new get, ordered from England." The Sydney Morning Herald - 27 March 1860.

She departed for Hawkes Bay on March on March 27th 1860.

 

Image Source: Image Collection of the State Library of NSW.

 

GREAT LAKES MANNING RIVER SHIPPING, NSW - Flick Group --> Alphabetical Boat Index --> Boat builders Index --> Tags List

  

St Mary's Old Church is a roofless ruin in the hamlet of Kilmuir, just outside Dunvegan. The church was built in 1694 -- the date is inscribed on a stone over the north door -- to replace an older medieval church that served as the parish church for the Duirinish region of northern Skye.

 

The original building was a simple rectangle, but a north burial aisle was added in 1839. A 1735 burial enclosure with fine Renaissance carving stands against the west gable.

 

The church stands within a stone-walled burial ground enclosure. Within the burial ground are three medieval grave slabs carved with traditional claymore and foliage symbols. The largest of these stones measures 6'5" long and 20 inches across, tapering to 16.5" at the foot.

 

Interestingly, several chiefs of Clan Macleod are buried here, though the church at Rodel on the Isle of Harris was the principal burial place for clan chiefs. Also buried here are several generations of MacCrimmons, who served as hereditary pipers for Clan Macleod.

 

THE DUNVEGAN

TWO CHURCHES WALK

If you’re planning to explore the local area, Dunvegan village and perhaps the Giant MacAskill museum, then this walk will start you off on the right foot. As it’s only minutes from our doorstep, there’s plenty of time for a leisurely breakfast before you set off. Then head out along the road towards Dunvegan Castle to find the starting point.

 

Take a Hike

The relatively easy walk from the Duirinish Church of Scotland is 2 miles (3 km). It passes through woodland and open moor and can take between 45 minutes – 1 hour depending on how long you stop along the way.

 

The walk starts through the gate to the left of the church and there is an information board giving details of the route.

 

If you’re walking this woodland route in spring or summer then you will be treated to a display of wildflowers. You may miss them, however, if you are distracted by glimpses of Loch Dunvegan through the trees.

 

The walk will take you up to the Millennium Stone, a prominent viewpoint over Dunvegan village. From here there are views across Loch Dunvegan to Macleod’s Tables and The Cuillin Ridge in the distance. Then head downhill to the ruins of St Mary’s Church below.

 

More information about this walk can be found on the Walkhighlands website.

 

The Millennium Stone

This 15-foot (5 metre) high stone was brought up from south Skye. It was erected by the people of the Dunvegan community on 24th June 2000 (Midsummer’s Day) to commemorate the new millennium. This was an impressive feat, using only hand power and rope-techniques. A process that would have been used to build stone circles thousands of years ago.

 

The stone stands proudly on top of a low crag overlooking the village of Dunvegan.

 

St Mary’s Church & Burial Ground

The remains of this post-reformation parish church and burial ground are situated in Kilmuir on the outskirts of Dunvegan village. They have been recognised as a monument of national importance by Historic Environment Scotland.

 

The site has been the focus of religious worship over centuries and there are indications that the church was a medieval foundation. This is seen in the East-West alignment of the church and the existence of three medieval carved grave slabs. Although the parish itself dates to the post-reformation period. The north entrance shows a date of 1694 and the burial enclosure with its balustrade walls dates from 1735.

 

Once the parish church for Duirinish, it was the burial site for a number of the Chiefs of the Clan MacLeod. The most recent was John MacLeod of MacLeod in February 2007. In addition, generations of the MacCrimmons, hereditary pipers to the Clan, are at rest in the graveyard.

 

An early 18th-century ashlar obelisk memorial to Lord Thomas Frazer (father of 11th Lord Lovat, who was executed on Towerhill in 1747), dominates the graveyard. There are also two medieval grave slabs with claymore and leaf design and a third that is extremely worn with only the border visible.

 

Dunvegan is a village on the Isle of Skye in Scotland. It is famous for Dunvegan Castle, seat of the chiefs of Clan MacLeod. Dunvegan is within the parish of Duirinish, and Duirinish Parish Church is at Dunvegan. In 2011 it had a population of 386.

 

In The Norse Influence on Gaelic Scotland (1910), George Henderson suggests that the name Dùn Bheagain derives from Old Gaelic Dùn Bheccáin ([the] fort of Beccán), Beccán being a Gaelic personal name. Dùn Bheagain would not mean 'little fort' as this would be Dùn Beag in Gaelic.

 

Dunvegan sits on the shores of the large Loch Dunvegan, and the Old School Restaurant in the village is noted for its fish, caught freshly from the loch itself. Dunvegan is situated at the junction of the A850, and the A863. The B884 road also has a junction with the A863, at the eastern end of Dunvegan.

 

Dunvegan's permanent population is declining. However, numbers staying in the area during holidays have increased dramatically over the years since 2001.

 

Tourist information used to be situated in the parade of shops at Lochside, but is now available on a seasonal basis at Dunvegan Castle's St Kilda Shop. The Giant MacAskill Museum, which celebrates the life of Angus Mòr MacAskill was established in 1989 and is managed by Peter MacAskill, father of the street trials cycle rider Danny MacAskill.

 

The Isle of Skye, is the largest and northernmost of the major islands in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. The island's peninsulas radiate from a mountainous hub dominated by the Cuillin, the rocky slopes of which provide some of the most dramatic mountain scenery in the country. Although Sgitheanach has been suggested to describe a winged shape, no definitive agreement exists as to the name's origins.

 

The island has been occupied since the Mesolithic period, and over its history has been occupied at various times by Celtic tribes including the Picts and the Gaels, Scandinavian Vikings, and most notably the powerful integrated Norse-Gaels clans of MacLeod and MacDonald. The island was considered to be under Norwegian suzerainty until the 1266 Treaty of Perth, which transferred control over to Scotland. The 18th-century Jacobite risings led to the breaking-up of the clan system and later clearances that replaced entire communities with sheep farms, some of which involved forced emigrations to distant lands. Resident numbers declined from over 20,000 in the early 19th century to just under 9,000 by the closing decade of the 20th century. Skye's population increased by 4% between 1991 and 2001. About a third of the residents were Gaelic speakers in 2001, and although their numbers are in decline, this aspect of island culture remains important.

 

The main industries are tourism, agriculture, fishing, and forestry. Skye is part of the Highland Council local government area. The island's largest settlement is Portree, which is also its capital, known for its picturesque harbour. Links to various nearby islands by ferry are available, and since 1995, to the mainland by a road bridge. The climate is mild, wet, and windy. The abundant wildlife includes the golden eagle, red deer, and Atlantic salmon. The local flora is dominated by heather moor, and nationally important invertebrate populations live on the surrounding sea bed. Skye has provided the locations for various novels and feature films, and is celebrated in poetry and song.

 

A Mesolithic hunter-gatherer site dating to the seventh millennium BC at An Corran in Staffin is one of the oldest archaeological sites in Scotland. Its occupation is probably linked to that of the rock shelter at Sand, Applecross, on the mainland coast of Wester Ross, where tools made of a mudstone from An Corran have been found. Surveys of the area between the two shores of the Inner Sound and Sound of Raasay have revealed 33 sites with potentially Mesolithic deposits. Finds of bloodstone microliths on the foreshore at Orbost on the west coast of the island near Dunvegan also suggest Mesolithic occupation. These tools probably originated from the nearby island of Rùm. Similarly, bloodstone from Rum, and baked mudstone, from the Staffin area, were found at the Mesolithic site of Camas Daraich, also from the seventh millennium BC, on the Point of Sleat, which has led archaeologists to believe that Mesolithic people on Skye would travel fairly significant distances, at least 70 km, both by land and sea.

 

Rubha an Dùnain, an uninhabited peninsula to the south of the Cuillin, has a variety of archaeological sites dating from the Neolithic onwards. A second- or third-millennium BC chambered cairn, an Iron Age promontory fort, and the remains of another prehistoric settlement dating from the Bronze Age are nearby. Loch na h-Airde on the peninsula is linked to the sea by an artificial "Viking" canal that may date from the later period of Norse settlement. Dun Ringill is a ruined Iron Age hill fort on the Strathaird Peninsula, which was further fortified in the Middle Ages and may have become the seat of Clan MacKinnon.

 

The late Iron Age inhabitants of the northern and western Hebrides were probably Pictish, although the historical record is sparse. Three Pictish symbol stones have been found on Skye and a fourth on Raasay. More is known of the kingdom of Dál Riata to the south; Adomnán's life of Columba, written shortly before 697, portrays the saint visiting Skye (where he baptised a pagan leader using an interpreter) and Adomnán himself is thought to have been familiar with the island. The Irish annals record a number of events on Skye in the later seventh and early eighth centuries – mainly concerning the struggles between rival dynasties that formed the background to the Old Irish language romance Scéla Cano meic Gartnáin.

 

Legendary hero Cú Chulainn is said to have trained on the Isle of Skye with warrior woman Scáthach.

 

The Norse held sway throughout the Hebrides from the 9th century until after the Treaty of Perth in 1266. However, apart from placenames, little remains of their presence on Skye in the written or archaeological record. Apart from the name "Skye" itself, all pre-Norse placenames seem to have been obliterated by the Scandinavian settlers. Viking heritage, with Celtic heritage is claimed by Clan MacLeod. Norse tradition is celebrated in the winter fire festival at Dunvegan, during which a replica Viking long boat is set alight.

 

The most powerful clans on Skye in the post–Norse period were Clan MacLeod, originally based in Trotternish, and Clan Macdonald of Sleat. The isle was held by Donald Macdonald, Lord of the Isles’ half-brother, Godfrey, from 1389 until 1401, at which time Skye was declared part of Ross. When the Donald Macdonald, Lord of the Isles, re-gained Ross after the battle of Harlaw in 1411, they added "Earl of Ross" to their lords' titles. Skye came with Ross.

 

Following the disintegration of the Lordship of the Isles, Clan Mackinnon also emerged as an independent clan, whose substantial landholdings in Skye were centred on Strathaird. Clan MacNeacail also have a long association with Trotternish, and in the 16th century many of the MacInnes clan moved to Sleat. The MacDonalds of South Uist were bitter rivals of the MacLeods, and an attempt by the former to murder church-goers at Trumpan in retaliation for a previous massacre on Eigg, resulted in the Battle of the Spoiling Dyke of 1578.

 

After the failure of the Jacobite rebellion of 1745, Flora MacDonald became famous for rescuing Prince Charles Edward Stuart from the Hanoverian troops. Although she was born on South Uist, her story is strongly associated with their escape via Skye, and she is buried at Kilmuir in Trotternish. Samuel Johnson and James Boswell's visit to Skye in 1773 and their meeting with Flora MacDonald in Kilmuir is recorded in Boswell's The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides. Boswell wrote, "To see Dr Samuel Johnson, the great champion of the English Tories, salute Miss Flora MacDonald in the isle of Sky, was a striking sight; for though somewhat congenial in their notions, it was very improbable they should meet here". Johnson's words that Flora MacDonald was "A name that will be mentioned in history, and if courage and fidelity be virtues, mentioned with honour" are written on her gravestone. After this rebellion, the clan system was broken up and Skye became a series of landed estates.

 

Of the island in general, Johnson observed:

 

I never was in any house of the islands, where I did not find books in more languages than one, if I staid long enough to want them, except one from which the family was removed. Literature is not neglected by the higher rank of the Hebrideans. It need not, I suppose, be mentioned, that in countries so little frequented as the islands, there are no houses where travellers are entertained for money. He that wanders about these wilds, either procures recommendations to those whose habitations lie near his way, or, when night and weariness come upon him, takes the chance of general hospitality. If he finds only a cottage he can expect little more than shelter; for the cottagers have little more for themselves but if his good fortune brings him to the residence of a gentleman, he will be glad of a storm to prolong his stay. There is, however, one inn by the sea-side at Sconsor, in Sky, where the post-office is kept.

 

— Samuel Johnson, A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland.

 

Skye has a rich heritage of ancient monuments from this period. Dunvegan Castle has been the seat of Clan MacLeod since the 13th century. It contains the Fairy Flag and is reputed to have been inhabited by a single family for longer than any other house in Scotland. The 18th-century Armadale Castle, once home of Clan Donald of Sleat, was abandoned as a residence in 1925, but now hosts the Clan Donald Centre. Nearby are the ruins of two more MacDonald strongholds, Knock Castle, and Dunscaith Castle (called "Fortress of Shadows"), the legendary home of warrior woman, martial arts instructor (and, according to some sources, Queen) Scáthach. Caisteal Maol, a fortress built in the late 15th century near Kyleakin and once a seat of Clan MacKinnon, is another ruin.

 

In the late 18th century the harvesting of kelp became a significant activity, but from 1822 onward cheap imports led to a collapse of this industry throughout the Hebrides. During the 19th century, the inhabitants of Skye were also devastated by famine and Clearances. Thirty thousand people were evicted between 1840 and 1880 alone, many of them forced to emigrate to the New World. The "Battle of the Braes" involved a demonstration against a lack of access to land and the serving of eviction notices. The incident involved numerous crofters and about 50 police officers. This event was instrumental in the creation of the Napier Commission, which reported in 1884 on the situation in the Highlands. Disturbances continued until the passing of the 1886 Crofters' Act and on one occasion 400 marines were deployed on Skye to maintain order. The ruins of cleared villages can still be seen at Lorgill, Boreraig and Suisnish in Strath Swordale, and Tusdale on Minginish.

 

As with many Scottish islands, Skye's population peaked in the 19th century and then declined under the impact of the Clearances and the military losses in the First World War. From the 19th century until 1975 Skye was part of the county of Inverness-shire, but the crofting economy languished and according to Slesser, "Generations of UK governments have treated the island people contemptuously" --a charge that has been levelled at both Labour and Conservative administrations' policies in the Highlands and Islands. By 1971 the population was less than a third of its peak recorded figure in 1841. However, the number of residents then grew by over 28 percent in the thirty years to 2001. The changing relationship between the residents and the land is evidenced by Robert Carruthers's remark c. 1852, "There is now a village in Portree containing three hundred inhabitants." Even if this estimate is inexact the population of the island's largest settlement has probably increased sixfold or more since then. During the period the total number of island residents has declined by 50 percent or more. The island-wide population increase of 4 percent between 1991 and 2001 occurred against the background of an overall reduction in Scottish island populations of 3 percent for the same period. By 2011 the population had risen a further 8.4% to 10,008 with Scottish island populations as a whole growing by 4% to 103,702.

 

Historically, Skye was overwhelmingly Gaelic-speaking, but this changed between 1921 and 2001. In both the 1901 and 1921 censuses, all Skye parishes were more than 75 percent Gaelic-speaking. By 1971, only Kilmuir parish had more than three-quarters of Gaelic speakers while the rest of Skye ranged between 50 and 74 percent. At that time, Kilmuir was the only area outside the Western Isles that had such a high proportion of Gaelic speakers. In the 2001 census Kilmuir had just under half Gaelic speakers, and overall, Skye had 31 percent, distributed unevenly. The strongest Gaelic areas were in the north and southwest of the island, including Staffin at 61 percent. The weakest areas were in the west and east (e.g. Luib 23 percent and Kylerhea 19 percent). Other areas on Skye ranged between 48 percent and 25 percent.

 

In terms of local government, from 1975 to 1996, Skye, along with the neighbouring mainland area of Lochalsh, constituted a local government district within the Highland administrative area. In 1996 the district was included in the unitary Highland Council, (Comhairle na Gàidhealtachd) based in Inverness and formed one of the new council's area committees. Following the 2007 elections, Skye now forms a four-member ward called Eilean a' Cheò; it is currently represented by two independents, one Scottish National Party, and one Liberal Democrat councillor.

 

Skye is in the Highlands and Islands electoral region and comprises a part of the Skye, Lochaber and Badenoch constituency of the Scottish Parliament, which elects one member under the first past the post basis to represent it. Kate Forbes is the current MSP for the SNP. In addition, Skye forms part of the wider Ross, Skye and Lochaber constituency, which elects one member to the House of Commons in Westminster. The present MP Member of Parliament is Ian Blackford of the Scottish National Party, who took office after the SNP's sweep in the General Election of 2015. Before this, Charles Kennedy, a Liberal Democrat, had represented the area since the 1983 general election.

 

The ruins of an old building sit on top of a prominent hillock that overlooks a pier attended by fishing boats.

Caisteal Maol and fishing boats in Kyleakin harbour

The largest employer on the island and its environs is the public sector, which accounts for about a third of the total workforce, principally in administration, education, and health. The second-largest employer in the area is the distribution, hotels, and restaurants sector, highlighting the importance of tourism. Key attractions include Dunvegan Castle, the Clan Donald Visitor Centre, and The Aros Experience arts and exhibition centre in Portree. There are about a dozen large landowners on Skye, the largest being the public sector, with the Scottish Government owning most of the northern part of the island. Glendale is a community-owned estate in Duirinish, and the Sleat Community Trust, the local development trust, is active in various regeneration projects.

 

Small firms dominate employment in the private sector. The Talisker Distillery, which produces a single malt whisky, is beside Loch Harport on the west coast of the island. Torabhaig distillery located in Teangue opened in 2017 and also produces whisky. Three other whiskies—Mac na Mara ("son of the sea"), Tè Bheag nan Eilean ("wee dram of the isles") and Poit Dhubh ("black pot")—are produced by blender Pràban na Linne ("smugglers den by the Sound of Sleat"), based at Eilean Iarmain. These are marketed using predominantly Gaelic-language labels. The blended whisky branded as "Isle of Skye" is produced not on the island but by the Glengoyne Distillery at Killearn north of Glasgow, though the website of the owners, Ian Macleod Distillers Ltd., boasts a "high proportion of Island malts" and contains advertisements for tourist businesses in the island. There is also an established software presence on Skye, with Portree-based Sitekit having expanded in recent years.

 

Some of the places important to the economy of Skye

Crofting is still important, but although there are about 2,000 crofts on Skye only 100 or so are large enough to enable a crofter to earn a livelihood entirely from the land. In recent years, families have complained about the increasing prices for land that make it difficult for young people to start their own crofts.

 

Cod and herring stocks have declined but commercial fishing remains important, especially fish farming of salmon and crustaceans such as scampi. The west coast of Scotland has a considerable renewable energy potential and the Isle of Skye Renewables Co-op has recently bought a stake in the Ben Aketil wind farm near Dunvegan. There is a thriving arts and crafts sector.

 

The unemployment rate in the area tends to be higher than in the Highlands as a whole, and is seasonal, in part due to the impact of tourism. The population is growing and in common with many other scenic rural areas in Scotland, significant increases are expected in the percentage of the population aged 45 to 64 years.

 

The restrictions required by the worldwide pandemic increased unemployment in the Highlands and Islands in the summer of 2020 to 5.7%; which was significantly higher than the 2.4 percent in 2019. The rates were said to be highest in "Lochaber, Skye and Wester Ross and Argyll and the Islands". A December 2020 report stated that between March (just before the effects of pandemic were noted) and December, the unemployment rate in the region increased by "more than 97%" and suggested that the outlook was even worse for spring 2021.

 

A report published in mid-2020 indicated that visitors to Skye added £211 million in 2019 to the island's economy before travel restrictions were imposed because of the COVID-19 pandemic. The report added that "Skye and Raasay attracted 650,000 visitors [in 2018] and supported 2,850 jobs". The government estimated that tourism in Scotland would decline by over 50% as a result of the pandemic. "Skye is highly vulnerable to the downturn in international visitors that will continue for much of 2020 and beyond", Professor John Lennon of Glasgow Caledonian University told a reporter in July 2020.

 

Tourism in the Highlands and Islands was negatively impacted by the pandemic, the effects of which continued into 2021. A September 2020 report stated that the region "has been disproportionately impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic to date when compared to Scotland and the UK as a whole". The industry required short-term support for "business survival and recovery" and that was expected to continue as the sector was "severely impacted for as long as physical distancing and travel restrictions". A scheme called Island Equivalent was introduced by the Scottish government in early 2021 to financially assist hospitality and retail businesses "affected by Level 3 coronavirus restrictions". Previous schemes in 2020 included the Strategic Framework Business Fund and the Coronavirus Business Support Fund.

 

Before the pandemic, during the summer of 2017, islanders complained about an excessive number of tourists, which was causing overcrowding in popular locations such as Glen Brittle, the Neist Point lighthouse, the Quiraing, and the Old Man of Storr. "Skye is buckling under the weight of increased tourism this year", said the operator of a self-catering cottage; the problem was most significant at "the key iconic destinations, like the Old Man of Storr and the Quiraing", he added. Chris Taylor of VisitScotland sympathised with the concerns and said that the agency was working on a long-term solution. "But the benefits to Skye of bringing in international visitors and increased spending are huge," he added.

 

An article published in 2020 confirmed that (before the pandemic), the Talisker Distillery and Dunvegan Castle were still overcrowded in peak periods; other areas where parking was a problem due to large crowds included "the Old Man of Storr, Kilt Rock, the Quiraing, the Fairy Pools, and Neist Point. This source also stated that Portree was "the busiest place on the island" during peak periods and suggested that some tourists might prefer accommodations in quieter areas such as "Dunvegan, Kyleakin and the Broadford and Breakish area".

 

Skye is linked to the mainland by the Skye Bridge, while ferries sail from Armadale on the island to Mallaig, and from Kylerhea to Glenelg, crossing the Kyle Rhea strait on the MV Glenachulish, the last turntable ferry in the world. Turntable ferries had been common on the west coast of Scotland because they do not require much infrastructure to operate, a boat ramp will suffice. Ferries also run from Uig to Tarbert on Harris and Lochmaddy on North Uist, and from Sconser to Raasay.

 

The Skye Bridge opened in 1995 under a private finance initiative and the high tolls charged (£5.70 each way for summer visitors) met with widespread opposition, spearheaded by the pressure group SKAT (Skye and Kyle Against Tolls). On 21 December 2004, it was announced that the Scottish Executive had purchased the bridge from its owners and the tolls were immediately removed.

 

Bus services run to Inverness and Glasgow, and there are local services on the island, mainly starting from Portree or Broadford. Train services run from Kyle of Lochalsh at the mainland end of the Skye Bridge to Inverness, as well as from Glasgow to Mallaig from where the ferry can be caught to Armadale.

 

The island's airfield at Ashaig, near Broadford, is used by private aircraft and occasionally by NHS Highland and the Scottish Ambulance Service for transferring patients to hospitals on the mainland.

 

The A87 trunk road traverses the island from the Skye Bridge to Uig, linking most of the major settlements. Many of the island's roads have been widened in the past forty years although there are still substantial sections of single-track road.

 

A modern 3 story building with a prominent frontage of numerous windows and constructed from a white material curves gently away from a green lawn in the foreground. In the background there is a tall white tower of a similar construction.

 

Students of Scottish Gaelic travel from all over the world to attend Sabhal Mòr Ostaig, the Scottish Gaelic college based near Kilmore in Sleat. In addition to members of the Church of Scotland and a smaller number of Roman Catholics, many residents of Skye belong to the Free Church of Scotland, known for its strict observance of the Sabbath.

 

Skye has a strong folk music tradition, although in recent years dance and rock music have been growing in popularity on the island. Gaelic folk rock band Runrig started in Skye and former singer Donnie Munro still works on the island. Runrig's second single and a concert staple is entitled Skye, the lyrics being partly in English and partly in Gaelic and they have released other songs such as "Nightfall on Marsco" that were inspired by the island. Ex-Runrig member Blair Douglas, a highly regarded accordionist, and composer in his own right was born on the island and is still based there to this day. Celtic fusion band the Peatbog Faeries are based on Skye. Jethro Tull singer Ian Anderson owned an estate at Strathaird on Skye at one time. Several Tull songs are written about Skye, including Dun Ringil, Broadford Bazaar, and Acres Wild (which contains the lines "Come with me to the Winged Isle, / Northern father's western child..." about the island itself). The Isle of Skye Music Festival featured sets from The Fun Lovin' Criminals and Sparks, but collapsed in 2007. Electronic musician Mylo was born on Skye.

 

The poet Sorley MacLean, a native of the Isle of Raasay, which lies off the island's east coast, lived much of his life on Skye. The island has been immortalised in the traditional song "The Skye Boat Song" and is the notional setting for the novel To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf, although the Skye of the novel bears little relation to the real island. John Buchan's descriptions of Skye, as featured in his Richard Hannay novel Mr Standfast, are more true to life. I Diari di Rubha Hunis is a 2004 Italian language work of non-fiction by Davide Sapienza [it]. The international bestseller, The Ice Twins, by S K Tremayne, published around the world in 2015–2016, is set in southern Skye, especially around the settlement and islands of Isleornsay.

 

Skye has been used as a location for several feature films. The Ashaig aerodrome was used for the opening scenes of the 1980 film Flash Gordon. Stardust, released in 2007 and starring Robert De Niro and Michelle Pfeiffer, featured scenes near Uig, Loch Coruisk and the Quiraing. Another 2007 film, Seachd: The Inaccessible Pinnacle, was shot almost entirely in various locations on the island. The Justin Kurzel adaption of Macbeth starring Michael Fassbender was also filmed on the Island. Some of the opening scenes in Ridley Scott's 2012 feature film Prometheus were shot and set at the Old Man of Storr. In 1973 The Highlands and Islands - a Royal Tour, a documentary about Prince Charles's visit to the Highlands and Islands, directed by Oscar Marzaroli, was shot partly on Skye. Scenes from the Scottish Gaelic-language BBC Alba television series Bannan were filmed on the island.

 

The West Highland Free Press is published at Broadford. This weekly newspaper takes as its motto An Tìr, an Cànan 's na Daoine ("The Land, the Language, and the People"), which reflects its radical, campaigning priorities. The Free Press was founded in 1972 and circulates in Skye, Wester Ross, and the Outer Hebrides. Shinty is a popular sport played throughout the island and Portree-based Skye Camanachd won the Camanachd Cup in 1990. The local radio station Radio Skye is a community based station that broadcast local news and entertainment to the Isle Of Skye and Loch Alsh on 106.2 FM and 102.7 FM.

 

Whilst Skye had unofficial flags in the past, including the popular "Bratach nan Daoine" (Flag of the People) design which represented the Cuillins in sky blue against a white sky symbolising the Gaelic language, land struggle, and the fairy flag of Dunvegan, the Island received its first official flag "Bratach an Eilein" (The Skye Flag) approved by the Lord Lyon after a public vote in August 2020. The design by Calum Alasdair Munro reflects the Island's Gaelic heritage, the Viking heritage, and the history of Flora MacDonald. The flag has a birlinn in the canton, and there are five oars representing the five areas of Skye, Trotternish, Waternish, Duirinish, Minginish, and Sleat. Yellow represents the MacLeods, and Blue the MacDonalds or the MacKinnons.

 

The Hebrides generally lack the biodiversity of mainland Britain, but like most of the larger islands, Skye still has a wide variety of species. Observing the abundance of game birds Martin wrote:

 

There is plenty of land and water fowl in this isle—as hawks, eagles of two kinds (the one grey and of a larger size, the other much less and black, but more destructive to young cattle), black cock, heath-hen, plovers, pigeons, wild geese, ptarmigan, and cranes. Of this latter sort I have seen sixty on the shore in a flock together. The sea fowls are malls of all kinds—coulterneb, guillemot, sea cormorant, &c. The natives observe that the latter, if perfectly black, makes no good broth, nor is its flesh worth eating; but that a cormorant, which hath any white feathers or down, makes good broth, and the flesh of it is good food; and the broth is usually drunk by nurses to increase their milk.

 

— Martin Martin, A Description of The Western Islands of Scotland.

 

Similarly, Samuel Johnson noted that:

 

At the tables where a stranger is received, neither plenty nor delicacy is wanting. A tract of land so thinly inhabited must have much wild-fowl; and I scarcely remember to have seen a dinner without them. The moor-game is every where to be had. That the sea abounds with fish, needs not be told, for it supplies a great part of Europe. The Isle of Sky has stags and roebucks, but no hares. They sell very numerous droves of oxen yearly to England, and therefore cannot be supposed to want beef at home. Sheep and goats are in great numbers, and they have the common domestic fowls."

 

— Samuel Johnson, A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland.

A black sea bird with a black beak, red feet and a prominent white flash on its wing sits on a shaped stone. The stone is partially covered with moss and grass and there is an indistinct outline of a grey stone wall and water body in the background.

 

In the modern era avian life includes the corncrake, red-throated diver, kittiwake, tystie, Atlantic puffin, goldeneye and golden eagle. The eggs of the last breeding pair of white-tailed sea eagle in the UK were taken by an egg collector on Skye in 1916 but the species has recently been re-introduced. The chough last bred on the island in 1900. Mountain hare (apparently absent in the 18th century) and rabbit are now abundant and preyed upon by wild cat and pine marten. The rich fresh water streams contain brown trout, Atlantic salmon and water shrew. Offshore the edible crab and edible oyster are also found, the latter especially in the Sound of Scalpay. There are nationally important horse mussel and brittlestar beds in the sea lochs and in 2012 a bed of 100 million flame shells was found during a survey of Loch Alsh. Grey Seals can be seen off the Southern coast.

 

Heather moor containing ling, bell heather, cross-leaved heath, bog myrtle and fescues is everywhere abundant. The high Black Cuillins weather too slowly to produce soil that sustains a rich plant life, but each of the main peninsulas has an individual flora. The basalt underpinnings of Trotternish produce a diversity of Arctic and alpine plants including alpine pearlwort and mossy cyphal. The low-lying fields of Waternish contain corn marigold and corn spurry. The sea cliffs of Duirinish boast mountain avens and fir clubmoss. Minginish produces fairy flax, cats-ear, and black bog rush. There is a fine example of Brachypodium-rich ash woodland at Tokavaig in Sleat incorporating silver birch, hazel, bird cherry, and hawthorn.

 

The local Biodiversity Action Plan recommends land management measures to control the spread of ragwort and bracken and identifies four non-native, invasive species as threatening native biodiversity: Japanese knotweed, rhododendron, New Zealand flatworm and mink. It also identifies problems of over-grazing resulting in the impoverishment of moorland and upland habitats and a loss of native woodland, caused by the large numbers of red deer and sheep.

 

In 2020 Clan MacLeod chief Hugh MacLeod announced a plan to reintroduce 370,000 native trees along with beaver and red squirrel populations to the clan estates on Skye, to restore a "wet desert" landscape which had depleted from years of overgrazing.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 05-Mar-25.

 

First flown in Jan-01 with the Boeing test registration N6065Y, this aircraft was delivered to Hapag-Lloyd Airlines as D-AHLP in Feb-02. It was sold to a lessor on delivery and leased back to Hapag-Lloyd.

 

It was retro-fitted with blended winglets in early Jun-02.

Hapag-Lloyd was renamed 'hapagfly.com' in Nov-05 and became 'TUIfly,com' in Nov-06. The aircraft was returned to the lessor in May-09 and leased to NordStar Airlines (operated by Airline Tajmir) as VQ-BDN in Jun-09.

 

In Feb-22 after Russia invaded Ukraine and sanctions were placed on Russia, all leased western aircraft were no longer insured to operate.

 

By Russian Presidential Decree, all western leased aircraft became the property of the State and were registered in Russia. This one became RA-73257 in Mar-22. It continues in service. Updated 05-Mar-25.

(Replaced after editing for greater warmth in Nik Color Efex Pro 4.)

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 03-Mar-20.

 

First flown in Nov-97 with the Dornier Luftfahrt GmbH test registration D-CDXR. The aircraft was stored at Oberpfaffenhofen until it was leased to Minerva Airlines (Italy) as D-CPRX in Oct-98. It was operated mostly on behalf of Alitalia. It was wet-leased to Scot Airways in Jun-02 until Minerva ceased operations at the end of Oct-03 when the aircraft was leased direct to Scot Airways. It was re-registered G-CCGS in Mar-04. It was wet-leased to Svenska Directflyg between Apr-09/May-10 and wet-leased to Aer Arann (short-term) between Oct/Dec-10. In Jul-11 the main Director's of Scot Airways sold their interest in the Company back to the Suckling Family and the airline was renamed Suckling Airways (Cambridge) Ltd. It was integrated into Loganair in Apr-13. In Apr-15 Loganair entered a franchise agreement with FlyBe Airlines and the aircraft was repainted in FlyBe's full purple livery. It returned to Loganair in Jul-17 and continued in service until it was permanently retired at Dundee, Scotland, UK in Apr-19.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 11-Nov-17.

 

Built as a freighter, this aircraft was delivered to a lessor and leased to Atlas Air Cargo as N493MC in Oct-98. It was sold to Atlas Air in Nov-16. Current, updated 11-Jul-23.

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 22-Oct-21 (DeNoise AI).

 

Fleet No: "198".

 

Delivered to Delta Air Lines as N198DN in Feb-98, the aircraft was fitted with blended winglets in Feb-11.

 

It was withdrawn from service in Mar-20 and stored at Birmingham, AL, USA due to the COVID-19 Pandemic. The aircraft returned to service in Feb-21. Current, updated 22-Oct-21.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 18-Sep-21 (DeNoise AI).

 

Although still registered N610TF, it already has the fleet number 141 on the nosewheel doors.

 

First flown with the McDonnell Douglas test registration N19B, it was re-registered N54652 the following week for further test flights. The aircraft was delivered to JAL Japan Air Lines (as a 'domestic' DC-10-40D - see note below) as JA8533 in May-76.

 

It served with JAL for 22 years before being sold to Ten Forty Inc as Apr-98 as N610TF. The aircraft was converted to freighter configuration as a DC-10-40(F) in Oct/Nov-98, with main deck cargo door. On completion it was leased to CAC Challenge Air Cargo. It was re-registered N141WE in Apr-99. By late 2000 Challenge Air Cargo had financial problems and the aircraft was stored at Greenwood, MS, USA in Jan-01.

 

In Aug-01 it was transferred to a new company, Centurion Air Cargo. It was returned to the lessor in Aug-03. It was leased to Aeroflot Russian Airlines as VP-BDG the following month. In Mar-07 the aircraft was transferred to their new cargo division, Aeroflot Cargo. It was returned to the lessor in Apr-08 as N141WE and stored at Miami.

 

In Jul-08 the aircraft was leased to Arrow Air Cargo. At the age 0f 33 it was retired and stored at Orlando-Sanford, FL, USA in Aug-09. It was ferried to Marana, AZ, USA in Aug-12 for further storage and was last noted still stored there in Apr-16, complete and with everything 'taped up'.

 

The aircraft was sold to Omega Aerial Refuelling Services in Nov-23 for spares use, Permanently retired at Marana.

 

Note: Japan Air Lines operated two types of DC-10-40, the DC-10-40D used on Japanese domestic services and the DC-10-40I which was used mainly on international services. They were basically the same aircraft, however the DC-10-40D had the centre main undercarriage leg and the centre fuel tank locked out and could be operated at the lower maximum take-off and landing weights of the DC-10-10.

 

Aircraft landing charges are based on the maximum take-off weight of the aircraft (I know that sounds weird, having the landing charge based on the MTOW but that's how it works world-wide!) and using the aircraft as a DC-10-10 gave JAL a considerable saving on landing fees. Some of JAL's DC-10-40D's were converted to 'I' standard during their time with the company and all of the aircraft which were later converted to freighters became DC-10-40(F)'s.

Woordfoto: fietsen

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 02-Mar-20.

 

First flown with the Boeing test registration N1786B, this aircraft was delivered to Boullioun Aviation Services as N747BX in Aug-01 and leased to Air Europa (Spain) as EC-HZS in Sep-01.

 

It was fitted with blended winglets in Sep-02. The aircraft was withdrawn from service and stored at Budapest, Hungary in Nov-13. It was ferried to Lasham, UK in Jan-14 and returned to the lessor as EI-FDZ.

 

It was leased to The Dart Group Plc as G-GDFZ and sub-leased to Jet2.com in Apr-14. It's operated in full Jet2 Holidays livery. Standard blended winglets were replaced by 'Split Scimitar' winglets in Nov-25(?). Current, updated 10-Sep-26.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 24-Apr-18, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 13-Mar24

 

Fleet No: '180'.

 

This aircraft was delivered to Continental Express as N87550 in Mar-96. It was sold to Gulfstream International Airlines in Dec-99 and continued operating for Continental Express.

 

It was sold to a lessor in Dec-00, leased back to Gulfstream International and sub-leased to Continental Express. Continental Express was renamed ExpressJet Airlines.

 

The aircraft was returned to Gulfstream International in Nov-01 and transferred to operations in Florida, which also included some services for Continental.

 

Gulfstream International ceased operations in Dec-11 and some aircraft and routes were transferred to Silver Airways. The aircraft was sold to Sky Jet Quebec as C-GDSG in Jul-12. It was leased to Propair in Apr-15 and returned to Sky Jet Quebec in Jul-15.

 

It's currently operated by Sky Jet with billboard Air Liaison titles. Updated 13-Mar-24.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 21-Aug-21 (DeNoiseAI).

 

Taken on it's return from Air BVI after it had been repossessed.

 

A somewhat unlucky aircraft for some of the airlines operating it, this was an ‘early build’ aircraft (line no:15) originally delivered to Skyways Coach Air in Jun-62 as G-ARMW. It was returned to Hawker Siddeley Aviation in Sep-62 and leased to BKS Air Transport until Oct-64 when it returned to Hawker Siddeley.

 

It was leased to LIAT Leeward Islands Air Transport as VP-LII in Jan-65. It didn’t stay with LIAT long and was returned to Hawker Siddeley as G-ARMW in May-65 and stored for over 2 years.

 

It was leased to BKS Air Transport again, just for two months from Oct/Dec-67 when it was stored until it was sold to Skyways Coach Air in Apr-68. Skyways Coach Air were renamed Skyways International Ltd in Mar-71 and in Apr-72, due to financial problems, they were bought out by Dan-Air.

 

In Oct-85 the aircraft was leased to Air BVI (British Virgin Islands) as VP-LVO. It was repossessed in Apr-90 and returned to Dan-Air as G-ARMW. In Sep-90 it was leased to Aberdeen Airways but repossessed again 3 months later.

 

It was sold to Clewer Aviation in Mar-91 and stored at Southend, UK, for a year until it was re-registered G-ERMV in Mar-92 and leased to Independent Airlines the following month.

 

In Sep-92 it was sold to Necon Air in Nepal as 9N-ACH. It was withdrawn from use approximately 1998 and stored at Kathmandu and finally broken up there around 2007.

 

Note: I also have a photo if this aircraft as G-ARMW with Skyways International just after they had been taken over by Dan-Air in Jun-72 at www.flickr.com/photos/kenfielding/5944627068

Gladstone Roman Catholic Church of St Peter, built to replace the former church of 1881.

 

NEW CATHOLIC CHURCH AT GLADSTONE

Foundation Stone Laid by Bishop Killian

The foundation stone of the new Catholic Church at Gladstone was solemnly blessed and laid by the Most Rev Andrew Killian, DD, Bishop of Port Augusta, at 3 pm on Sunday, April 22, in the presence of a large and representative assembly of Catholics. As well as members of the local congregation, many familiar faces from Georgetown, Laura, Caltowie, Crystal Brook, and the districts adjacent to those towns, were to be seen in attendance.

 

Mass was held in the existing building at 10 a.m., the celebrant being the Rev Father O'Rourke, of Port Pirie, while the local choir, under the leadership of Mr J Hillary, rendered Webb's Mass in G.

 

The dimensions are: body of Church, 60 feet by 30 feet; sanctuary, 18 feet by 18 feet, and vestry, 18 feet by 12 feet. The contractor expects to complete the work five or six months’ time. [Ref: Southern Cross 27-4-1928]

 

NEW ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH Opened at Gladstone

Gladstone, October 22

On Sunday the new Roman Catholic Church at Gladstone, dedicated to St. Peter, was formally opened and blessed by the Right Rev Dr Killian Bishop of the R C Diocese of Port Augusta. The church, which is solidly built, of Gladstone cut stone, is of Gothic type, and will seat 300 people. It was completed to the drawings of Mr Smerdon, architect of Port Pirie, by the contractor (Mr G B Hinks), of Port Pirie, under the very efficient supervision of the clerk of works (Mr Frank Evans).

 

The main entrance is a roomy portico surmounted by choice coloured light windows, and the main building is lofty, very airy, and well lighted by several attractive leadlight windows, some of which were given by generous parishioners. The spacious sanctuary contains an exquisite altar, the work of Pimlott Limited, of Port Pirie. This part of the church contains also a series of beautiful windows which add beauty thereto and provide an abundance of light. The sanctuary is lighted at night by the installation of a floodlight effect. The building and furnishing are a credit to the pastor (Very Rev Monsignor Mulcahy), the parishioners, and the town.

[Ref: Register 24-10-1928]

 

Gladstone, December 19

The Roman Catholic Church here was consecrated and dedicated by the Bishop yesterday.

There were about 300 persons present including a large number of Protestants. The Bishop spoke of the increasing prosperity of the North, and the prosperous state of the Church, there being over seventy in the diocese.

At the close of the services a collection was made. There is a debt of £400 on the building.

[Ref: South Australian Register 20-12-1881]

   

Birdoswald Roman Fort was known as Banna ("horn" in Celtic) in Roman times, reflecting the geography of the site on a triangular spur of land bounded by cliffs to the south and east commanding a broad meander of the River Irthing in Cumbria below.

 

It lies towards the western end of Hadrian's Wall and is one of the best preserved of the 16 forts along the wall. It is also attached to the longest surviving stretch of Hadrian's Wall.

 

Cumbria County Council were responsible for the management of Birdoswald fort from 1984 until the end of 2004, when English Heritage assumed responsibility.

 

This western part of Hadrian's Wall was originally built using turf starting from 122 AD. The stone fort was built some time after the wall, in the usual playing card shape, with gates to the east, west and south.

 

The fort was occupied by Cohors I Aelia Dacorum and by other Roman auxiliaries from approximately AD 126 to AD 400.

 

The two-mile sector of Hadrian's Wall either side of Birdoswald is also of major interest. It is currently the only known sector of Hadrian's Wall in which the original turf wall was replaced, probably in the 130s, by a stone wall approximately 50 metres further north, to line up with the fort's north wall, instead of at its east and west gates. The reasons for this change are unclear, although David Woolliscroft (Woolliscroft, 2001) has plausibly suggested that it was the result of changing signalling requirements, whilst Stewart Ainsworth of Time Team suggested it was a response to a cliff collapse into the river. At any rate, this remains the only area in which both the walls can be directly compared.

 

As of 2005, it is the only site[citation needed] on Hadrian's Wall at which significant occupation in the post-Roman period has been proven. Excavations between 1987 and 1992 showed an unbroken sequence of occupation on the site of the fort granaries, running from the late Roman period until possibly 500AD. The granaries were replaced by two successive large timber halls, reminiscent of others found in many parts of Britain dating to the fifth and sixth centuries. Tony Wilmott (co-director of the excavations) has suggested that, after the end of Roman rule in Britain, the fort served as the power-base for a local warband descended from the late Roman garrison, possibly deriving legitimacy from their ancestors for several generations.

 

Inside were built the usual stone buildings, a central headquarters building (principia), granaries (horrea), and barracks. Unusually for an auxiliary fort, it also included an exercise building (basilica exercitatoria), perhaps reflecting the difficulties of training soldiers in the exposed site in the north of England.

 

Geophysical surveys detected vici (civilian settlements) of different characters on the eastern, western and northern sides of the fort. A bathhouse was also located in the valley of the River Irthing.

 

Approximately 600 metres east of Birdoswald, at the foot of an escarpment, lie the remains of Willowford bridge which carried Hadrian's Wall across the River Irthing. The westward movement of the river course over the centuries has left the east abutment of the bridge high and dry, while the west abutment has probably been destroyed by erosion. Nevertheless, the much-modified visible remains are highly impressive. Until 1996, these remains were not directly accessible from the fort, but they can now be reached by a footbridge.

 

The fort at Birdoswald was linked by a Roman road, sometimes referred to as the Maiden Way, to the outpost fort of Bewcastle, seven miles to the north. Signals could be relayed between the two forts by means of two signalling towers.

 

The fort has been extensively excavated for over a century, with twentieth century excavations starting in 1911 by F.G. Simpson and continuing with Ian Richmond from 1927 to 1933 .[6] The gateways and walls were then re-excavated under the supervision of Brenda Swinbank and J P Gillam from 1949 to 1950.

 

Extensive geophysical surveys, both magnetometry and earth resistance survey, were conducted by TimeScape Surveys (Alan Biggins & David Taylor, 1999 & 2004) between 1997 -2001. These surveys established that the sub-surface remains in the fort were well preserved.

 

An area between the fort and the escarpment was excavated by Channel 4's archaeological television programme Time Team in January 2000. The excavation detected signs of an extramural settlement (vicus), but the area is liable to erosion and the majority of the vicus could have fallen over the cliffs.

 

In 2021 Newcastle University, Historic England, and English Heritage launched a major new archaeological excavation at the site.

 

Today the fort's site is operated by English Heritage as Birdoswald Roman Fort. The visitor centre features displays and reconstructions of the fort, exhibits about life in Roman Britain, the site's history through the ages, and archaeological discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries. Visitors can walk outside along the excavated remains of the fort.

 

Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.

 

Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.

 

The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.

 

Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.

 

Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.

 

History

Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.

 

The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.

 

The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.

 

Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.

 

Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.

 

Roman invasion

The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.

 

The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.

 

The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.

 

Establishment of Roman rule

After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.

 

On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.

 

While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.

 

There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.

 

In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.

 

For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.

 

Roman military organisation in the north

In 84 AD

In 84 AD

 

In 155 AD

In 155 AD

 

Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall

There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.

 

Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.

 

A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.

 

In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.

 

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.

 

During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.

 

In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.

 

The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.

 

3rd century

The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.

 

Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.

 

The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.

 

Northern campaigns, 208–211

An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.

 

As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.

 

During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.

 

Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.

 

The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.

 

Diocletian's reforms

As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).

 

The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.

 

Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.

 

The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.

 

The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.

 

Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.

 

In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.

 

A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.

 

4th century

Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.

 

In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.

 

As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.

 

Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.

 

End of Roman rule

The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.

 

The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.

 

Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.

 

Sub-Roman Britain

Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.

 

In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.

 

Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.

 

Trade

During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.

 

Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.

 

These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.

 

It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.

 

From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.

 

Economy

Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.

 

The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.

 

By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.

 

Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.

 

Government

Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain

Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.

 

To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.

 

Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.

 

Demographics

Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.

 

Town and country

During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.

 

Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.

 

Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C

 

Alcester (Alauna)

Alchester

Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C

Bath (Aquae Sulis) C

Brough (Petuaria) C

Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)

Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C

Caernarfon (Segontium) C

Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C

Caister-on-Sea C

Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C

Carlisle (Luguvalium) C

Carmarthen (Moridunum) C

Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)

Chester (Deva Victrix) C

Chester-le-Street (Concangis)

Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C

Cirencester (Corinium) C

Colchester (Camulodunum) C

Corbridge (Coria) C

Dorchester (Durnovaria) C

Dover (Portus Dubris)

Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C

Gloucester (Glevum) C

Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)

Ilchester (Lindinis) C

Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C

Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C

London (Londinium) C

Manchester (Mamucium) C

Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)

Northwich (Condate)

St Albans (Verulamium) C

Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C

Towcester (Lactodurum)

Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C

Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C

Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C

York (Eboracum) C

 

Religion

The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.

 

The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.

 

Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.

 

Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).

 

Christianity

It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.

 

The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.

 

A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.

 

Environmental changes

The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas

 

Legacy

During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.

 

Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages). The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe

Replacing an earlier photo from Apr-15 with a better version Apr-17.

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWAJ in Nov-13. Interior fitout and painting at Airbus Hamburg-Finkenwerder was completed in Jun-14 and the aircraft was stored at Finkenwerder until it was delivered to Qatar Airways as A7-APB in Nov-14. Current (May-17).

Replacing an earlier scanned slide with a better version 30-Dec-15, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 25-Aug-25.

 

Named: "Srisubhan"

 

Originally built as an A300B4-2C and first flown in Jun-79 with the temporary French registration F-WZET. This aircraft was delivered to Thai International Airways as a standard A300B4-103 in Aug-79 as HS-TGP. It was sold to the Japan Leasing Corporation, re-registered HS-THP and leased back to Thai International in Feb-90.

 

It continued in service until it was returned to Japan Leasing in Dec-99 after 20 years in service. Japan Leasing sold it the same month to Avsa Sarl (Airbus). It was immediately sold on to DHL Airways as N362DH and stored at the British Aircraft Corporation airfield at Bristol-Filton, UK.

 

It was converted to freight configuration(A300B4-103(F)) at Bristol with a main-deck cargo door by Oct-00 and entered service with DHL Worldwide Express. DHL USA were renamed Astar Air Cargo in Jul-03. The aircraft was retired at Kingman, AZ, USA, in Jul-09. It was last noted still at Kingman in Oct-15!

 

However, the story doesn't end there. After a massive 13 years in storage at Kingman it was sold to TVPX Trust Services in Jul-22. It was another eight months before it got airborne and ferried to San Bernardino, CA, USA in Mar-23. A few days later the aircraft was sold to Aerostan, Kyrgyzstan as EX-30005.

 

It was ferried to Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan on delivery in early Apr-23 and then to Jakarta-CGK, Indonesia for extended maintenance. It returned to Bishkek in Aug-23. The aircraft doesn't appear to have flown very often and according to Flightradar24 it last flew in Nov-24. It's now 46 years old and has risen from the dead once, I wonder if it'll return to service again? Miracles can happen!

 

The registration HS-TGP was re-used on a Thai International B747-4D7 in 1994.

replaced 1/30/2012 with new version, 3h21m (newer subs 420s instead of 300s). still need to recover the core of m42.

 

18x300s (1h30m)

 

canon 200 f2.8L @ f/2.8

sbig stt-8300m

astrodon L 5nm filter

G11 + Gemini2

Guiding with PhD + Lodestar + 9x50 finder

 

FOV is 5.33x4.02 degrees. this is the full frame of the KAF8300.

 

processed with pixinsight 1.7

 

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 06-Mar-18, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 22-Oct-24.

 

Taken into the early morning sun on a misty October morning.

 

With unusual additional 'MyTravelCo' titles. Airtours didn't become MyTravel until May-02.

 

An early A320 (c/n 164), this aircraft was first flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWIE before being delivered to Conair of Scandinavia as OY-CNE in Sep-91. It was wet-leased to Saarland Airlines in Apr-93 (a short-lived airline which was formed in Apr-92 and ceased operations in Dec-93), returning to Conair in Dec-93.

 

In Jan-94 Conair of Scandinavia merged with Scanair to form Premiair Denmark. In 1996 Premiair's major shareholder SLG (Scandinavian Leisure Group) was bought out by Airtours International (UK) and Premiair became part of the Airtours Group. The aircraft was sold to a lessor in Sep-96 and leased back to Premiair.

 

It was returned to the lessor in Mar-97 and the lease was transferred to Airtours International Airways as G-DJAR. Airtours was renamed MyTravel Airways in May-02. The aircraft continued in service with MyTravel until it was returned to the lessor in Jun-04.

 

It was leased to SriLankan Airlines as 4R-ABF the following month. It returned to the lessor as N164CG in May-09 and was stored at Victorville, CA, USA. In Mar-10 the aircraft was leased to Mexicana, retaining it's US registration.

 

Mexicana ceased operations in Aug-10 and the aircraft was repossessed and again stored at Victorville. It was sold to AeroTurbine Inc in Dec-11 and was broken up at Victorville in 2012. The registration was cancelled in Mar-12.

Replaced with full size and recropped image on 23 May 2012.

It’s 120 years old and network rail have made the decision that to continue to repair the bridge that takes the traffic from Bradford on Avon to Trowbridge would not be cost effective therefore between October and May they are replacing it with a new one. The road bridge also carries all the utilities over the railway so these must be diverted, then the bridge can be dismantled before a new one is craned in. I’m taking a photo each day and perhaps mix them into a time lapse video.

Blanchetown and Paisley.

This usually bypassed Murray River town is one of the oldest river towns in SA but with two modern bridges across the Murray few ever venture into the old town. It was named after Lady Blanche, wife of our 6th Governor, Sir Richard MacDonnell. Blanchetown replaced an earlier settlement a few kms south of this spot called Moorundie. More of that later. Blanchetown was a very isolated spot being the only settlement between Truro and Wentworth in NSW when it was established. The nearest settlement was Mannum established in 1856 and the earliest town along settled along the Murray was Wellington established in 1840. Blanchetown was surveyed as a government town and laid out in 1855 and like Wellington it had a police presence and a police station from 1859 as there were no other law officials between Wellington and Blanchetown. This was frontier country. The government had decided to act and create a town at this place because of the birth of the River Murray boat trade after 1854 (Captains Randell and Cadell had had their race up the Murray to Wellington with paddle steamers and the Governor of SA Sir Henry Fox in 1853). Suddenly this areas were more attractive to pastoralists and traders. And as noted above the government had commissioned a rail survey and feasibly plan in 1856 for the extension of the railway line from Kapunda to Blanchetown. This was a very preliminary study as the railway line from Adelaide did not reach Gawler until 1857 and although it had been planned earlier the railway did not reach Kapunda until 1860! Despite this drawback the town of Blanchetown progressed because of the river boat trade and the opening up of trade links to the pastoralists up the Darling River beyond the early settlement of Wentworth. But its dreams of being a rail terminus and major port along the Murray never eventuated. Morgan got that prize and consequential wealth in 1878.

 

Blanchetown was created out of Edward John Eyre’s 1839 Moorundie Special Survey of around 4,000 acres. Town lots were first sold in 1857 and the town soon had a hotel (1858), which was the license from Eardley Heywood’s Old Whipstick Inn which was first licensed in 1845 on his Portee Station. In Blanchetown it was named the Heywood arms which was later changed to the Blanchetown Hotel. Later came a Post Office and Telegraph Station (1865), a general store and Police Station. The current Police Station built in 1969 is not in the town but on the main highway near the roadhouse. A proposed Customs house for the river trade to NSW in 1856 never eventuated as it was later built in Morgan. Attempts were made to build paddle steamers in Blanchetown but only two ever completed. But the commercial ferry service across the river (from 1869) bought some business and trade to the town as did the mail and coach service from Truro to Wellington and sheep stations away from the riverbanks via Blanchetown. The government took over the punt service in 1879 as a sop to the town after the opening of the port of Morgan and the town losing its Sub Collector of Customs. In the same year 1879 the state school was built. No early churches were built here despite the growing size of the town. But like later Riverland towns Blanchetown would have been serviced the church paddle steamers. The Methodists had the paddle steamer Glad Tidings from 1894. This was a very appropriate name for a church boat. This was later replaced by the Endeavour in 1909. Once the Riverland towns were established between 1910 and 1920 the church paddle steamers were stopped. The Anglicans had the paddle steamer the Etona which operated up and down the river, including stops at Blanchetown, from 1891 to 1914 conducting baptisms, marriages, masses and even occasional funerals if they were in port when needed. Eventually Blanchetown got a church – the Paisley Lutheran Church on the eastern bank of the Murray which opened in 1903. Paisley was an early area for irrigated fruit orchards at Blanchetown. The Hundred of Paisley was declared in 1860 but it attracted few settlers until irrigation was possible after the completion of Lock One at Blanchetown in 1922. This new Lutheran church at Paisley had its own cemetery but the town cemetery of Blanchetown had opened in 1865. For many years Blanchetown was also serviced by the paddle steamer Pyap which was run by Eudunda Farmers a floating general store between 1908 and 1940.

 

The big event in the history of Blanchetown was the erection of this first lock, number one at Blanchetown from 1915. The Prime Minister of Australia and our state Premier attended, as did many other state and national politicians when the start of work on the lock commenced in 1915. Such was the national importance of this event for all states using the Murray River. But lock number one was not completed until 1922 as the first of around 30 locks to control the flows of the river to ensure it was always navigable for paddle steamers. Alas, by the time the lock at Blanchetown was completed the river boat trade was already dying as motor transport was taking over. But this lock and the others up to Albury all helped with flood control, except in the years of major floods such as 1956. The second bridge across the Murray in SA was opened at Blanchetown in 1963. Unfortunately it was built on unstable land and the pre-stressed concrete bridge began to sink into the river by the early 1990s. It was consequently replaced with the current and second Blanchetown bridge in 1998. South of the road bridge and east of the Lock are 19 recorded Aboriginal canoe trees indicative of the importance of this place to Aboriginal people.

 

Edward John Eyre and Moorundie and Portee Station.

The real importance of Blanchetown lies with the settlement at Moorundie just to its south which began with Edward John Eyre but has now all been swept away by time and Murray River floods. Just the memorial to Moorundie and Eyre remains in Blanchetown. In 1839 explorer Edward John Eyre took out a Special Survey of 4,000 acres of land for £4,000 with Osmond Gilles along the Murray at this spot. He got the money for this from his profit of overlanding cattle to SA in 1838. It was a narrow 12 mile stretch along the banks of the river in an area with substantial river flats. Eyre also took out another Special survey further south with Osmond Gilles at the spot where Mannum now stands along the Murray. Eyre established the first white settlement anywhere in Australia along the Murray in 1842 at Moorundie. A fine sketch of his station homestead, really just a good hut, was drawn by General Edward Frome, the third Survey General of SA from 1839 to 1849 and it is in the Art Gallery of SA. Eyre was out to make money in the colonies hence his decision to be the second person to overland cattle from NSW to SA in 1838 after Charles Bonney and Joseph Hawdon had done the inaugural run earlier in 1838. His overlanding of cattle had shown him the country along the Murray so he knew where he wanted to select his Special Survey. Eyre subdivided part of his land to create the tiny settlement of Sturt (named after his explorer friend who had also overlanded cattle in 1838 to SA) but only one person appears to have joined him there as a land owner! He was one of the Hawker brothers of Bungaree, James Hawker who visited Eyre in December 1842 and purchased one acre of land from him in early 1843 on which to raise pigs. Hawker did not stay for long.

 

After Eyre moved onto his 350 aces of freehold land in 1842 he planted lucerne, corn and wheat on irrigated river flats for fodder for his cattle. He built little weirs and channels to divert some of the river course. He also used a native grass which produced flowers heads similar to millet for his horses. It was this grass the pigs liked and partly explains why James Hawker wanted to raise pigs there. Eyre’s first crop of wheat grew to over six feet high. Eyre was respectful of the local Aboriginals but trouble had erupted with them by other white overlanders especially further up the Murray near the NSW border. Eyre was appointed a Sub Protector of Aborigines in 1841 and a small police presence and barracks were established at his Moorundie station. Eyre’s first houses was made of reeds but his £300 a year salary as Sub Protector of Aborigines allowed him to replace that with a stone house. The front rooms for the house were used as a Courthouse. He also had stone military barracks built. 13 soldiers and a Sergeant from the 96th Regiment were stationed at Moorundie and 3 policemen. With Eyre’s servants and workmen the settlement of Moorundie had 43 residents by October 1841. Eyre had some of his materials and supplies brought up the river from the Murray Mouth so that he would have a couple of boats to use on the Murray. Eyre resigned as Sub Protector of Aborigines in 1843 once white dominance and peace was restored along the Upper Murray. Eyre was restless and soon left his friend Edward Scott to look after Moorundie whilst Eyre went exploring again in 1844. Then a flood in late 1844 swept away Eyre’s small weirs, irrigation channels and the crops. At this point Eyre gave up on trying to farm at Moorundie and returned to England early in 1845. He then disposed of his lands in SA and in NSW where he had land near Queanbeyan. In 1846 he was sent to NZ as Lieutenant Governor with a large salary package before ending up as a very controversial Governor of Jamaica in the 1860s where he brutally suppressed a black rebellion. The ruins of the police barracks and his homestead at Moorundie were finally swept away by the great Murray flood of 1870 which was similar to the flood of 1956. But Eyre’s contribution to the exploration of SA is acknowledged by the many place names bearing his name. His farming efforts were not successful and did not bring him great wealth. Eyre’s friend and assistant E Scott who looked after Eyre’s Moorundie property when Eyre was away or exploring stayed on after Eyre left SA. Scott stayed at Moorundie until 1859 when he moved to property he had acquire at Nor West Bend- Morgan. Between 1854 and 1859 Scott ran a Post Office at Moorundie. A pound keeper operated at Moorundie for some year too and his name which is Nott was recorded in Notts Well near Blanchetown. The pound operated from 1856 to around 1861.

 

Next to Moorundie station J Henderson took out a large leasehold property in 1841 which he named Portee station. This was acquired in 1845 by Eardley Heywood who held Portee station until his death in 1877. After Eyre left Moorundie in 1845 Heywood acquired the land as leased land which he added to his adjacent Portee station. Heywood then controlled the land from Blanchetown to Swan Reach along the Murray. He built a solid stone homestead for Portee near the river but this was swept away in a flood of 1852 so he built another homestead further away from the river atop some cliffs in 1853. It is still the Portee station homestead. Portee grew to 110 square miles of pastoral lease. The old homestead and outbuildings buildings still remain in private hands. For some years in the 1850s a district pound for straying sheep and cattle was operated by William Nott at Moorundie which was by then part of Portee station. In 1845 some of Eyre’s Special Survey lands to the north of Blanchetown (and Portee station) at Roonka were acquired as lease land by Lachlan McBean of Baldon station back near Truro.

 

Heywood arrived in SA in 1842 at age 20 years but with considerable capital. He entered the pastoral industry with a cattle property at Beefacres near Adelaide in 1844 before taking up Portee. He also had houses in Adelaide, Gawler and Goolwa and his own paddle steamer for getting to Goolwa and back. Heywood’s properties were sold in 1879 two years after his death in 1877. His Portee station at that time covered 110 square miles; his Swan Reach and inland Murray Mallee runs covered 330 square miles; and he had 2,475 acres of freehold land at Portee. He also had stations both sides of the Victorian border north of Bordertown. Eardley had married but unfortunately his first wife and three of his five children all died of diphtheria within one week. Eardley Heywood died in North Adelaide and was buried at Gawler where he had donated generously to the St George’s Anglican Church organ fund. His land between Portee and Sandleton was resumed upon his death for closer settlement. Mainly German background settlers took up these marginal lands further north than Swan Reach.

 

The Ford Transit replaced the 1953 Ford FK 1000. In 1961, the model name Transit was introduced at Ford-Germany for this van as Taunus Transit van.

In 1965, a complete new designed van range was presented, simultaneously in Germany and in the UK.

In 1971, the Transit received a bigger bonnet to house a Diesel engine. Later also a V6 petrol engine became an option.

The V4 versions received a new rounded grille.

 

1999 or 2994 cc 6 cylinder petrol or diesel engine.

C. 2620 kg.

Production Ford Transit series: Oct. 1965-present.

Production Ford Transit 1st generation: Oct. 1965-early 1986.

Production Ford Transit 1st series Mk1: Oct. 1965-1971/1971-Aug. 1977.

Production Transit 1st gen. this Mk1 version: 1971-Aug. 1977.

New Belgian reg. number.

 

Photo taken by © Mees.

 

Antwerpen (B), Oud-Berchem, Maloustraat, Febr. 24, 2024.

 

© 2024 Sander Toonen Halfweg | All Rights Reserved.

The C15 was introduced in 1984 to replace the Acadiane. After 21 years of production in 2005 the Berlingo was its successor.

 

I've owned this car till about April 2009. It would't pass the the yearly technical check (MOT, Tüv, CT, APK), due to all kind of small mechanical problems. Although the engine was still perfect, it didn't make sense to put more money it this project. In the end I received only € 135,00 for it.

This striking colour is indeed original. I knew two other yellow C15's in Amsterdam at the time.

I think I took these pics for having plans to put the car for sale.

 

1769cc diesel engine,

905 kg.

Original Dutch license number: Jan. 5, 1993.

It has been exported after I'd sold her.

 

Amsterdam-N., Schoenerstraat, Dec. 14, 2008.

 

© 2008 Sander Toonen Amsterdam | All Rights Reserved

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Replacing an earlier photo from Feb-16 with a better version.

 

Repainted in FlyBe's latest livery with additional 'Cancer Research UK - Kids and Teens' special livery overlaid.

 

First flown with the Embraer test registration PT-SGN, this aircraft was delivered to GOAL German Operating Aircraft Leasing and leased to FlyBe Airlines as G-FBEM in Aug-08.

 

It was withdrawn from service and stored at Exeter, UK in Apr-14 and returned to service in Jun-15, the aircraft was repainted in FlyBe's purple livery in Dec-15. It was sold to Propius Leasing in Jul-17 while the lease to FlyBe continued. It was returned to the lessor in Aug-18.

 

The aircraft was leased to Stobart Air as EI-GGB in Dec-18 and returned to the lessor in Nov-19. It was immediately leased to Great Dane Airlines (Denmark) as OY-GDC. In Sep-20 it was wet-leased to Bamboo Airways (Vietnam) in their full livery and returned to Great Dane Airlines in Apr-21.

 

Great Dane ceased operations in Oct-21 and the aircraft was returned to the lessor and stored at Billund, Denmark. It was due to be leased to DAT Danish Air Transport but the lease wasn't taken up.

 

In Sep-23 the aircraft was repainted in full Air Serbia livery and leased to Marathon Airlines (Greece), still as OY-GDC. It was wet-leased to Air Serbia in Oct-23.

 

The aircraft overran the runway on take-off from Belgrade (Serbia) on 18-Feb-24 (see below). It managed to get airborne and returned to Belgrade on a full emergency. The wet-lease was terminated two days later when it was returned to Marathon Airlines.

 

It was stored at Belgrade, returned to the lessor and repaired. It took a while and was completed in Oct-24. The aircraft was leased direct to Air Serbia as YU-ATP a few days later. Current, updated 23-Oct-24.

 

Note: The aircraft overran the runway on take-off at Belgrade while operating a service to Dusseldorf. The crew didn't use the runway full length and maybe miscalculated their take-off weight against the shorter runway length available. The aircraft ran off the end of the runway and collided with an ILS antenna and approach lights. It managed to get airborne and landed safely back at BEG 40mins later The left side of the fuselage, the left wing root and the left tailplane were badly damaged, there was also a fuel leak.

 

aviation-safety.net/wikibase/351783 it's an interesting read!

Wearing branding for route 499, ARRIVA Kent Thameside 4037 GN09 AWH is seen on Mulberry Road, Painters Ash Estate whilst working route 499. Friday 7th August 2015.

 

From Sunday 9th August route 499 will cease and will be replaced by route 481. This new route starts in Riverview Park and runs via the current 499 route to Coldharbour Road via Denton and Gravesend it then runs down Dene Holm Road tracing the steps of the current route 495 to Hall Road where it then turns left and passes through Waterdales via the current route 498 to Pepper Hill Roundabout where it rejoins the current route 495 via the A2 to Bluewater.

 

This batch of vehicles (4036-4043) is now the last of any significant size in the South East to retain the original ARRIVA livery and with seven out of the eight vehicles wearing branding for route 499 I fully expect that they will be next in line through the paint shop at Maidstone.

 

ADL Dart 4 10.8m - ADL Enviro 200

 

IMG_26700

Replacing an earlier scanned 6"x4" print with a better version 27-Oct-14, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 04-Jan-23.

 

Just returned to GPA Group after short-term lease to Indian Airlines, the aircraft still shows the fuselage livery of it's first operator, the original Frontier Airlines.

 

It was delivered new to Frontier as N7359F in Apr-83. Frontier was merged into Continental Airlines in Oct-86, they continued to operate it in basic Frontier livery until it was returned to the lessor in Sep-88 as EI-BWZ.

 

It was leased to Indian Airlines in Dec-88 as VT-EQI and returned to the lessor in Feb-90, still in basic Frontier livery with an Indian Airlines tail. It was leased to Portuguese charter airline Air Sul at the end of Mar-90 as CS-TMB.

 

Returned to GPA Group in Jan-92, again as EI-BWZ, the aircraft was leased to Air Atlanta Icelandic in May-92 as TF-ABI, and operated on behalf of Cambodia International Airlines and later for Tunisair until it was returned to GPA Group in Sep-93.

 

It was stored until Mar-94 when it was leased to Mandala Airlines, Indonesia, as PK-RIQ. It was retired at Jakarta (CGK) in Dec-05 and stored. It was last noted at Jakarta in 2009 in very poor condition and has probably been broken up.