This proposed coupe would replace the outdated Hawk. It was designed by Brooks Stevens and built in Italy by Sibona-Bassano. Stevens called this replacement 'Sceptre'.

Note the odd hubcaps.

 

For several reasons Studebaker had to close down its South Bend, Indiana production plant in December 1963.

Some production was replaced to their production facilities in Hamilton, Ontario (Canada). In March 1966 also this factory had to close its doors.

 

Imagine what kind of cars Studebaker could had offer us if it hadn't gone bankrupt. Master designers Raymond Loewy and especially Brooks Stevens had various plans and ideas for future Studebaker cars.

With a minimum of financial space Brooks Stevens was able to renew the Lark series on a spectacular way. He worked together with the Italian coach-builder Sibona-Bassano to realize his plans.

 

4736 cc V8 engine.

Production Studebaker Hawk Series: Autumn 1955-1964.

Production Hawk Gran Turismo: Autumn 1961-1964.

 

Source: www.indieauto.org/2021/12/10/1965-studebaker-lark-concept....

 

Screenshot, Halfweg, July 19, 2024.

 

© 2024 Sander Toonen Halfweg | All Rights Reserved

Replaced with full size image on 15 October 2006

Replacing an earlier scanned print with a better version 17-Jul-21 (DeNoise AI).

 

"Chatham Historic Dockyard" - UK World Tail Livery.

 

This livery was originally 'just another world tail' livery. For most people it was either like 'em or hate 'em (I liked 'em!). The UK's Prime Minister of the day, Margaret Thatcher, most definitely disliked them and drooped her handkerchief over the tail of a large model on the BA stand at a Conservative Conference to show what she felt, in front of the World's media. After that they were gradually repainted into the Chatham Historic Dockyard livery which then became the standard BA livery.

 

First flown with the Boeing test registration N6005C, this aircraft was delivered to British Airways as G-BNWH in Oct-90. After 24 years in service the aircraft was permanently retired at Victorville, CA, USA in Aug-14.

(for ODC) old farm machinery rusting in the field

Dont get me wrong but he is replacing his G string as i play guitar my-self.

Yesterday was a busy day.

 

I replaced the batteries in my solar power system, four big lead-acid deep cycle units. The swap went perfectly, my design for the system included three circuit breakers, one to isolate the solar panels, the other the battery.

 

Now I have to get the old batteries off the hill in my back yard and into the garage. The company I bough the new units from delivered them to my house (great) and will pick up the old units (better). What a deal.

 

After I was done connecting the batteries (24 volts four in series) I threw the breakers to connect to the panels and watched the voltage rise up. Then I connected the batteries up to the inverter and all was good. I hope to be good with these new batteries for a decade or so.

 

After the batteries it was off to yoga, a substitute teacher who was harder than usual.

 

Then back home the clouds looked interesting so I went to the beach. The sunset never took off and those darn clouds that looked so thick evaporated in the 45 minute drive to the beach. But not every sunset has to be a world beater and it had a quiet beauty.

 

I'm getting better at getting sand out from my tripod legs....

 

Cheers.

2006 Thomas C2

Replaced Bus 120s Route

History

 

The Cleveland Point Lighthouse was the second light to be erected on this site, replacing an earlier beacon established in 1847.

This lighthouse was built in 1864 and though being the the typical timber framed Queensland lighthouse is unusual because it is hexagonal rather than round and is clad with weather boards instead of the metal cladding common elsewhere in this state.

It was built to accommodate Cleveland, once a thriving port in the middle of last century.

 

In 1872 the existing lens was replaced with the one from the Moreton Island light.

Two red sectors were installed in 1920 to indicate shoals off Peel Island, Cleveland Point, Banana Island and Raby Bay.

In 1934, the lighthouse was converted from kerosene to electric power. At this time the City Electric Light Company Limited became the responsible authority for the light.

The first local experiments in the use of laser beams as navigational aids were carried out from this lighthouse in 1969.

The light's second keeper, James Troy 1877-1927, holds the Australian record for being the longest serving lightkeeper at one lighthouse.

In 1976, the lighthouse was moved to a new location 30 metres to make way for a new beacon. Here it stood until renovated by the Redlands Shire Council in 1978.

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 19-Jul-17.

 

Pulling off Runway 05L after an aborted takeoff , causing an aircraft on approach to 'go around' (I have no idea why!). It then rejoined the departure queue and eventually departed

 

This aircraft was delivered to American Airlines as N384AA in Aug-93. It was fitted with Blended Winglets at Tulsa, OK, USA in Feb-14. After 26 years in service with American the aircraft was withdrawn and stored at Roswell, NM, USA in Nov-19.

 

It was sold to CAM Cargo Aircraft Management Inc in Jan-20 and ferried to Tel Aviv, Israel in Feb-20 for cargo conversion. It was converted to freighter configuration with a main deck cargo door in Jul-20 and returned CAM in early Aug-20 when it was re-registered N.3.4.9.C.M.

 

It was due to be leased to ATI Air Transport International as N.4.7.9.A.Z and operated for Amazon Prime Air. However, the lease didn't happen and the aircraft was leased to AmeriJet International Airlines in late Sep-20. Current, updated 18-Jul-21.

Replaced the trans-dark blue facade from my original model with the trans-light blue found in the LEGO Architecture set.

You’d be forgiven for thinking Westernman an old boat.

 

Hirta was replaced by Westernman, built in North America (1997) to a design drawn up by my friend Nigel Irens. Nigel is best known for his world-beating fast multihulls, but I remember him back in the late 1960s when he and I were impoverished sailors living aboard our old gaffers on the Hamble River, hoping the harbour master wouldn’t notice us and come looking for his dues. Her name, by the way, comes from the term used for the paid hands aboard the 19th century pilot cutters from the Bristol Channel. Often known as ‘Westernmen’, they kept the sea while their pilots steamed up-Channel then down again on the ships that paid all their wages. I sold her after 13 years of ownership and it took me a year of looking before I bought a new boat. She’s a Mason 44, an American design. Al Mason was a student of the great John Alden and they both had an eye for a pretty boat.

 

published by "Tom Cunliffe"

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 03-Mar-20.

 

First flown as a B767-3T9ER in Apr-87 with the Boeing test registration N767PW, this aircraft was the Pratt & Whitney engine test-bed. In Mar-88, after the test programme was completed, it was re-designated as a B767-3Z9ER and re-registered N6009F. It was delivered to Lauda Air (Austria) as OE-LAU in Apr-88. It was wet-leased to Vietnam Airlines between Au/Sep-89. The aircraft was transferred to a Lauda subsidiary, Lauda Air Italy SpA in Dec-97 and returned to Lauda Air in Nov-00. It was wet-leased to Royal Nepal Airlines between Dec-00/Jun-01, and to Air Atlanta Icelandic between Jun/Oct-01. The aircraft was sold to FIT Aero Iceland as G-VKNG in Sep-04 and immediately leased to Air Atlanta Icelandic. It was transferred to subsidiary, Air Atlanta Europe and sub-leased to Excel Airways in Nov-04. Excel Airways was renamed XL Airways UK in Nov-06. It was returned to FIT Aero Iceland in Sep-08 and sold to Wells Fargo Bank Northwest as N763BK three days later and stored at Toronto, Canada, It was leased to Ryan International Airlines in Feb-09 and they bought it in Aug-09. They sold it to their own Holding Company, Ryan 763BK LLC in Nov-11 and leased it back. The aircraft was withdrawn from service and stored at Marana, AZ, USA in Aug-12. Ryan International ceased operations in Jan-13 and it was returned to Ryan 763BK LLC. It remained stored at Manana and was repossessed by the Barrington Bank & Trust Company in Feb-13. By then it was 26 years old and was permanently retired in Sep-13. It was last noted at Marana in the parts recovery area in Oct-13.

replaced my clutch liner

This Kroger Superstore opened at University Mall in 1974, replacing an earlier store downtown. It may have had a SupeRx Drugs next door. If it did, it was long-gone before I saw the store in the late 1980s. In any event, the original store was expanded twice; once in the 1980s, and once again in the mid 1990s. The present exterior dates from around 1995 and has changed little in 15 years.

 

University Mall is a shopping center in Blacksburg, Virginia adjacent to the Virginia Tech campus at the intersection of Prices Fork Road and University City Boulevard. Opened in 1974, the original enclosed mall contained about 250,000 square feet of retail space and was anchored by Woolco and Roanoke-based Heironimus, with Kroger on an outparcel across the street.

 

During the 1970s and much of the 1980s, this was the hottest retail address in the New River Valley. The center featured a strong mix of regional and local tenants including Mills Fabric, Ritz Camera, H&M Shoes, John Norman (menswear), Sidney’s, The Sickle Moon, Dana (all three were women’s apparel stores), Printer’s Ink bookstore and Peoples Drug. Even Woolco’s closure in 1983 didn’t cripple the place; Roses quickly moved in to replace it.

 

What did take this place down was the opening of the New River Valley Mall in neighboring Christansburg in 1988. Though the anchors stayed in place, the small shops inside the mall largely closed or moved.

 

In the early 1990s, both anchors folded and Virginia Tech took over their spaces for various university services and a branch of the University Bookstore. During this time, People Drug became Revco and then CVS and the mall interior slowly filled back in with various local businesses.

 

In 2004, the mall was sold to a group of local businessmen and plans were made to eventually donate the property to the Virginia Tech Foundation, the mall’s primary tenant. During this time, the interior of the mall received its only renovation. Its tile and concrete floors were carpeted. The globes of its pole lights were changed, and the mall was painted. Two large mobiles were placed over its pair of fountains, which have were thoroughly cleaned. On the exterior, the south end of the mall was expanded and heavily renovated with a parking garage and multistory office building added next to the intersection of Prices Fork Road and University City Boulevard, along with an outparcel for Panera Bread.

 

Though the center is almost fully tenanted now, the interior mall remains a well-preserved relic of 1970s retail design. Many storefronts are still original and substantially all of the interior décor from 1974 is still here. Even the CVS is still here, largely unchanged from its days as a Peoples Drug.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a slightly better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 07-Sep-25. A very murky day at Hong Kong, some heat haze, a very yellowed negative and taken through glass... what could possibly go wrong!

 

First flown in Nov-82 with the McDonnell Douglas test registration N1004S, this aircraft was originally ordered by PSA Pacific Southwest Airlines as N947PS but the order was cancelled and it was stored at Long Beach, CA, USA.

 

It was delivered to CAAC - Civil Aviation Administration of China as B-2101 in Dec-83. It was transferred to China Eastern Airlines in May-88. In Apr-99 the aircraft was sold to GECAS and leased back to China Eastern.

 

It was returned to GECAS as N816NK in May-00 and stored at Nimes, France. It was transferred to Aviation Financial Services Inc in Sep-01 and leased to Spirit Airlines, USA in Oct-01 for 10 years.

 

However, the aircraft was returned to AFS Inc in Sep-04 and permanently retired. It was stored (where? - possibly Fort Lauderdale). It was eventually broken up but the registration wasn't cancelled until Jul-17.

Kangaroo Flat.

The splitting of main roads from Gawler to Mallala and Gawler to Wasleys was an obvious place for a small settlement to arise. A general store emerged here and in 1854 Reverend Keen got the Bible Christians to build a chapel here. The land for the church had been donated by a local Anglican family the Ebsary family. The cairn here notes that the present church was built in 1866 presumably replacing the very basic 1854 church. This simple structure with two Gothic windows each side is typical of Bible Christian churches of this era. A cemetery is attached with eight local families represented on the burial register. Zion church was another of the biblical names used for churches built during Reverend Keen’s period of service. Presumably when the settlers arrived this was a region of many kangaroos. A private school operated here in the little chapel from 1874 to 1878 when a stone government school was built nearby. That school closed in 1970. The church closed in 1966 and became a music school for Roseworthy Agricultural College but it is now in a poor state of repair. The family names on the few graves here are repeated in the dirt roads of this district- Nottle, Leak, Oates etc. In the late 1870s over 50 children were attending state school in Kangaroo Flat.

 

Originally built as Penn Central 7868, then transitioned to Conrail 7868, now we're seeing this Geep as Norfolk Southern 2923. Since retired form the NS active roster, the GP38-2 worked for three railroads, and never missed a step.

Frederiksborg Castle (or Frederiksborg Slot in Danish) is a palatial complex in Hillerød, Denmark. It was built as a royal residence for King Christian IV of Denmark-Norway in the early 17th century, replacing an older castle acquired by Frederick II and becoming the largest Renaissance residence in Scandinavia. The main four-story building with its three wings was completed around 1610, but work continued on the chapel until 1618. The entire complex was finished around 1620. On three islets in the Slotssøen (castle lake), Frederiksborg is adjoined by a large formal garden in the Baroque style.

 

After a serious fire in 1859, the castle was rebuilt on the basis of old plans and paintings. Thanks to public support and the brewer J.C. Jacobsen, its apartments were fully restored and reopened to the public as the Danish Museum of National History in 1882. Open throughout the year, the museum contains the largest collection of portrait paintings in Denmark. It also provides visitors with an opportunity to visit several of the castle's state rooms including the restored Valdemar Room and Great Hall as well as the Chapel and the Audience Chamber which were both largely spared by the fire and contain sumptuous decorations.

 

Information from: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederiksborg_Castle

 

Hillerød is a lovely Danish town with a population of 36,043 in 2023, located in the center of North Zealand approximately 19 miles (30 kilometers) to the north of Copenhagen. Hillerød is the administrative center of Hillerød Municipality and also the administrative seat of Region Hovedstaden (or the Capital Region of Denmark), one of the five regions of the country. It is most known for its large Renaissance castle, Frederiksborg Castle, now home to the Museum of National History. Hillerød station is the terminus of one of the radials of the S-train network as well as several local railway lines. The town is surrounded by the former royal forests of Gribskov to the north and Store Dyrehave to the south.

 

Information from: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiller%C3%B8d

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 12-Mar-17 + DeNoise AI 28-Oct-22.

 

First flown with the Airbus test registration F-WWKK, this aircraft was delivered to Cathay Pacific Airways as VR-HLH in Jan-96. It was re-registered B-HLH in Oct-97 when Hong Kong became an autonomous region of China.

 

The aircraft became a casualty of the COVID-19 Pandemic and was permanently retired at Ciudad Real Central Airport, Spain in Sep-20.

Winter is coming - dark weather is replaced by frosty days and nights - frost bright days

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

The Temco Model 63 "Buckskin" trainer was designed by Texas Engineering & Manufacturing Company (TEMCO) as a private venture to replace the US Navy's piston-engine, land-based Beech Model B45 'Mentor' primary trainers in the mid 1960ies, but with better performance and more likeliness to modern jet fighters.

The Model 63’s forerunner, the Temco Model 51, had been initially proposed to the US Air Force in response to an Air Force competition for a jet-powered primary trainer, which was eventually won by the Cessna T-37 Tweet. A small number of the Model 51 were built and put into service, powered by a Continental Motors J69-T-9 (a license-built Turbomeca Marboré) jet engine and officially designated TT-1 ‘Pinto, but only saw a limited career.

 

Like the Pinto, the Model 63 was a mid-wing, tricycle landing gear trainer with an enclosed cockpit. What made the Model 63 unusual was a pull/push tandem engine arrangement, similar to the Cessna 336/337 that was under development at the same time. The Temco Model 63 was driven by two small Turbomeca Bastan IV turboprop engines, each developing 650 shp (485 kW).

 

The rationale behind this layout were the compact dimensions, actually, the aircraft was not bigger than the single engine TT-1. Studies undertaken during the early design stages had shown that a classic layout with wing-mounted engines would have necessitated a considerably higher wing span and a longer fuselage, too. Another benefit was the improved safety of two engines, esp. during envisioned long navigation flights over the open sea, and the Bastan engines gave the Model 63 the ability to fly safely even with one of the engines shut down.

 

Compared with the TT-1’s small jet engine, the propellers gave the Model 63 a better responsiveness to pilot input and the turboprop engines offered a very good fuel economy, while enabling almost the same performance as the single jet precursor. Furthermore, the two engines gave instructors the option to simulate different flight regimes, while the tandem arrangement helped avoid torque and asymmetrical thrust issues. Besides, the T2T was equipped with many of the same features found in contemporary operational jets, including ejection seats, liquid oxygen equipment, speed brakes, along with typical flight controls and instrument panels.

 

Anyway, the unusual layout came at a price: it necessitated a totally different tail section with twin tail booms and a single, high stabilizer connecting them at the tips of the fins. Despite familiar outlines, only parts of the TT's outer wings and the cockpit could be used on the Model 63 - the rest had to be re-designed and/or strengthened, so that the aircraft's overall weight became markedly higher than the TT's. Despite this drawback, officials became interested enough in the turboprop trainer program to procure a pre-series for trials and direct comparison with jet- and piston-engine alternatives.

 

The aircraft received the official designation T2T. Like the Pinto, the T2T was intended as a primary trainer, so it carried no internal armament but could be outfitted with wing tip tanks and had two underwing hardpoints for 500 lb each, placed outside of the strengthened landing gear. These hardpoints were reserved for auxiliary tanks, cargo boxes, smoke generators or camera pods.

 

The first XT2T maiden flight took place in summer 1959. Flight characteristics were considered good, and, compared with the earlier TT-1, the machine was not as underpowered (which was a problem during landing abortions and touch-and-go manoeuvers). After initial tests with two more prototypes in summer 1960, a batch of five YT2T-1 pre-production aircraft, which were updated to the intended serial production standard and incorporated some minor modifications, was ordered and directly sent to the Naval Air Test Center (NATC) Patuxent River.

 

Results were generally positive, so that a further batch of 24 aircraft were produced as T2T-1s between 1962 and 1963. These aircraft served in the Air Training Command at Pensacola, Florida and used in a training program demonstration testing the feasibility of using jet- and turboprop-powered trainer for primary flight training.

 

The tests were not conclusive, though, and no further T2Ts ordered. The 'Buckskin', how the aircraft was christened unofficially, was pleasant to fly and offered very good performance. But the aircraft was – esp. for its limited role – complex. Maintenance costs were high, and the authorities were never really happy about the French engines on board of the home-grown trainer type.

 

The US Navy liked the turboprop engine, though, but wanted a less complex aircraft. This eventually materialized in the early Seventies with the T-34C Turbo-Mentor. After a production hiatus of almost 15 years, the Beech Model 45 returned, powered by a Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-25 turboprop engine. Mentor production restarted in 1975 for deliveries of T-34Cs to the USN and of the T-34C-1 armed version for export customers in 1977, this version featuring four underwing hardpoints. Since the late 1970s, T-34Cs have been used by the Naval Air Training Command to train numerous Naval Aviators and Naval Flight Officers for the U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Coast Guard, and numerous NATO and Allied nations - and the small T2T fleet was phased out by 1979.

  

General characteristics:

Crew: two

Length: 32 ft 7 in (9.93 m)

Wingspan (incl. tip tanks): 29 ft 10 in (9.09 m)

Height: 8 ft 1 1/2 in (2.48 m)

Wing area: 150 sq ft (13.9 m2)

Empty weight: 2,848 lb (1,292 kg)

Loaded weight: 5,400 lb (2,448 kg)

 

Powerplant:

2× Turbomeca Bastan IV turboprop engines, rated at 650 shp (485 kW) each

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 345 mph (300 knots, 556 km/h) at 15,000 ft (4,600 m)

Never exceed speed: 518 mph (450 knots, 834 km/h)

Cruise speed: 247 mph (215 knots, 398 km/h) at 25,000 ft (7,600 m)

Stall speed: 69 mph (60 knots, 111 km/hr)

Endurance: 2.5 hr

Service ceiling: 30,000 ft (9,145 m)

Rate of climb: 1,900 ft/min (9.7 m/s)

 

Armament:

2x underwing hardpoints for a total load of up to 1.000 lb (454 kg)

2x optional wing tip tanks

  

The kit and its assembly:

The final entry for the 2016 "In the Navy" Group Build at whatifmodelers.com, and a close call since I started work on this conversion only 5 days before the GB's deadline!

 

The original inspiration was the photoshopped picture of a private TT-1 in all-blue USN markings, created by artist "Stéphane Beaumort" in 2010 (check this illustration originally posted at AviaDesign: aviadesign.online.fr/images/temco-buckskin2.jpg).

 

A slightly bizarre aircraft with the tandem propellers and the twin tail booms, and IMHO with some fishy details in the CG rendition, e.g. including the idea of driving both propellers with a single engine through shafts and gearboxes. But the concept looked overall feasible and Special Hobby offers a very nice TT-1 Pinto kit, which I was able to procure from Poland an short notice. As a bonus, this kit comes with markings for this specific, blue aircraft (“13/S”), actually a re-constructed, privately owned machine.

 

The Special Hobby kit became the basis for my personal interpretation of the T2T, and it underwent some conversions, being outfitted with a variety of donation parts:

- The front engine once was a cut-away Merlin from a Hobby Boss Hawker Hurricane

- The tail booms and fins come from a Revell Focke Wulf Flitzer

- The stabilizer was created from two Hobby Boss He 162 tail elements

- Propellers come from a vintage, box scale Revell Convair Tradewind

- In order to attach them, styrene tubes were implanted and the props mounted on metal axis’

- The front wheel also belongs to a Hobby Boss He 162, longer than the OOB parts

- The main wheels are bigger, from a Matchbox Folland Gnat

 

Work started with the central fuselage, the added front engine and conversions for the rear pusher engine. Once the wings were in place and the propeller diameter clear, attachment points for the tail booms were scratched from styrene tube and added to the wings' upper sides (leaving the lower surface free, so that the OOB landing gear could be used). Then the tail booms and the tailored stabilizer were mounted, as well as the wing tip tanks.

 

The landing gear came next; the main struts and covers were used, but slightly bigger wheels chosen from the scrap box. For the front wheel well, a "hole" had to be dug out of the massive new nose section (consisting of 2C putty and lead beads) - the OOB covers were used, though, and a longer and more massive front wheel was mounted.

 

Sounds simple and conclusive, but things evolved gradually and the job involved a lot of body work - under dire time pressure. The fact that the kit fell from my workbench after day #2 and hit the floor in a nasty angle, so that the tails suffered severely and needed repair, did not help either...

Another issue became the canopy. I am not certain where the problem lies, but the canopy turned out to be 2mm too short for the fuselage? Could be the result of the massive rhinoplasty with the added front engine, but I am also a bit worried about the position of the cockpit tubs – when I mounted them, the appeared to be in the correct position, but once the fuselage was closed both seat positions appear to be too far to the back – even though the dashboards seem to be correct?

  

Painting and markings:

I used the CG drawing as benchmark, also because the Special Hobby kit came with the right decal set for an all-blue USN livery, which historically was about to be changed in the late Fifties to brighter schemes.

 

The interior surfaces, both cockpit and the landing gear, were painted in a very light gray (FS 36495, Humbrol 147), just as on the real world TT-1. All outside surfaces became Sea Blue FS 35042 (ModelMaster). Very simple, and some panel shading with was done for a more dramatic look on the otherwise uniform airframe.

 

The silver leading edges on wings and stabilizer, as well as the yellow canopy framing, were created from decal strips. The propeller spinners became, as a small highlight, bright red, and some of the OOB sheet’s red trim for “13/S” were used, too. No more weathering was done, and, finally, everything sealed under a coat of gloss acrylic varnish, except for the propeller blades and the black anti-glare panel, which became matt.

  

An odd creation, and taking into account the four and a half days time frame from sprues to beauty pics (including background research and text), as well as the body work involved in the building process with the new front engine and the tail booms, I am quite happy with the result. Could have been better, sure, but it was finished in time, just as planned/hoped for. ;)

 

Anyway, the T2T looks interesting; my build slightly differs from the benchmark CG renditions, but remains true to Stéphane Beaumort’s basic idea. Cheers!

The Lamborghini Huracán (Spanish for "hurricane") is a sports car manufactured by Italian automotive manufacturer Lamborghini replacing the previous V10 offering, the Gallardo. The Huracán was revealed online in December 2013, then made its worldwide debut at the 2014 Geneva Auto Show, and was released in the market in the second quarter of 2014.

 

The Huracán received a mid-cycle update in 2019, now being called the Huracán Evo. It now shares its engine and some of the technology with the Performante variant.

 

The updated version of the Huracán has a more aggressive design language, the new front bumper has integrated aeroblades for improved downforce along with the rear styling inspired by the Performanté variant, having the same rear diffuser, exhaust pipe position and radiators. A new ducktail spoiler improves downforce by 5 times as compared to the outgoing model.

 

Huracán STO (2021–present)

 

Huracan STO Rear

The Huracán STO (Super Trofeo Omologato) is a track focused variant of the Huracan. It is completely different from other Huracan variants. The STO has a taller rear wing with a roof snorkel for engine cooling. There is a shark fin aerodynamic device connecting the roof snorkel with the rear wing. The engine cover is reminiscent of the Lamborghini Super Trofeo Evo race cars. The entire hood opens to reveal a small compartment for storing racing equipment, the body is made of 75% carbon fibre, the engine and the power output of the STO is the same as the Huracan Perfomante and the Huracan Evo but it has Rear-wheel drive with Rear Wheel Steering system, it has CCMR Brakes inspired from the Formula 1. The STO comes with three new modes: STO for road driving, TROFEO for fast lap times on dry tarmac, and PIOGGIA for wet weather driving. The bucket seats on the interior feature racing harnesses.

Built in 1922 in the Classical Revival style, the old Covington Train Station was built to serve the Chesapeake & Ohio and Louisville & Nashville railroads, and replaced an earlier wood-frame structure located in the vicinity of the intersection of 8th Street and Russell Street, approximately one block to the north.

The building features a red tile roof, large glass and metal canopy over the front door, four ionic-style white terra cotta pilasters, and white terra-cotta trim. In front of the building, the brick-paved Harvey Court, once used to load and unload passengers, has been remarkably well-preserved, though it has since been cut off from its original connection to the intersection at nearby Pike Street.

Inside, the building features a large passenger waiting hall in the center with three tall arched bays on either side, allowing in ample natural light, and two wings to the north and south of this space, which housed offices and a waiting room for people of color.

To the rear, the building is adjacent to the concrete railroad viaduct built between 1927 and 1929, which features a passenger concourse under the tracks, which is presently in a state of partial dilapidation after a long period of disuse and lack of proper maintenance.

The building served as the local passenger train depot until the late 1960s, upon which passenger service ceased in Covington due to declining ridership. The building sat abandoned until the 1980s, by which point it was in an advanced state of deterioration. The building was saved from demolition, and adaptively reused as a multi-tenant office building known as Covington Station.

The building was once neighbored by several other structures to the south along Russell Street and Harvey Court, including the four-story Greek Revival-style Elliston House Hotel, and several Italianate and Greek Revival-style brick townhouses, which were abandoned and demolished in the 1980s, during the zenith of the city's decline.

Replacing an earlier digital photo with a better version 12-Jun-20.

 

First flown with the Boeing test registration N1786B, this aircraft was delivered to Boullioun Aviation Services and leased to Midway Airlines (USA) as N314ML in Jan-01. Midway ceased operations on '9/11', 11-Sep-01.

 

The aircraft was returned to the lessor and stored at Goodyear, AZ, USA later the same month. It was leased to the resurrected Midway Airlines in Dec-01 and repossessed by the lessor in Jul-02.

 

The aircraft was leased to Rio-Sul Servicios Linhas Aereas (Brasil) as PR-SAH in Aug-02 and returned to the lessor as N271CH in Mar-03. It was leased to Air-Berlin as D-ABAA in May-03 and returned to the lessor in May-11.

 

It was fitted with blended winglets in May-11 before being leased to Yakutia Airlines (Russia) as VQ-BLT in Jun-11. The aircraft returned to the lessor as N271AG in Jan-15 and was stored at Victorville, CA, USA.

 

It was sold to Southwest Airlines in Feb-16 and after maintenance, cabin refit and painting at Seattle-Everett it was re-registered N7882B in May-16 prior to service entry.

 

The aircraft was temporarily stored at Seattle-Everett in late Mar-20, due to the COVID-19 Pandemic. It returned to service in Mar-22. The aircraft was permanently retired at Coolidge, AZ, USA in Jan-25

MG MGA Roadster (1955-59) Engine 1489 cc S4 OHV

Engine 1489cc BMC B Series S4

Production 58.750

Registration Number UXD 862 (London)

MG SET

www.flickr.com/photos/45676495@N05/sets/72157623797586658...

 

The MGA replaced the MG TF 1500 Midget and represented a complete styling break from MG's earlier sports cars. Designed in house by Syd Enever and officially launched at the 1955 Frankfurt Motor Show. Although Syd Enever's new design radically changed the appearance of MG Sportscars, by replacing generations of the traditional sit-up-and-beg shape for a modern all enveloping body line with integral head lights, it was actually based on a design by Enever of a one of streamlined body for George Philips' 1951 TD Le Mans. It was a body-on-frame design, and suspension was independent with coil springs and wishbones at the front and a rigid axle with semi-elliptic springs at the rear. Steering was by rack and pinion. The car was available with either wire-spoked or steel-disc road wheels.

 

A prototype was built and shown to the BMC chairman Leonard Lord. He turned down the idea of producing the new car as he had just signed a deal with Donald Healey to produce Austin-Healey cars two weeks before. Falling sales of the traditional MG models caused a change of heart, and the car, initially to be called the UA-series, was brought back. As it was so different from the older MG models it was called the MGA (first of a new line), Rather than the originally intended XPAG unit, the car was fitted with the new straight-4 BMC B Series engine from the MG Magnette saloon. MG Magnette saloon, coupled to a four-speed gearbox. Unlike the coupe, the convertible had no exterior door handles.

 

The 1489 cc engine fitted with twin H4 type SU Carburettors produced 68 hp at launch, but was soon up-rated to Lockheed hydraulic drum brakes were used on all wheels.

 

In 1958 a high performance Twin Cam model was added to the model range with an output of 108bhp and with four wheel Dunlop disc brakes along with Dunlop peg drive knock-off steel wheels similar to wheels used on racing Jaguars.

 

In May 1959 the standard cars also received an updated engine, now at 1588 cc producing 79.5 bhp, these later cars were known as the MGA 1600 and 1600 Deluxe and had front disc brakes but retained the drum rear brakes

 

Diolch am 99,018,662 o olygiadau gwych, mae pob un ohonynt yn cael eu gwerthfawrogi'n fawr.

 

Thanks for 99,018,1662amazing views, every one is greatly appreciated.

 

Shot 09.10.2022, at Bicester Heritage, Autumn Scramble, Bicester Aerodrome, Bicester, Oxon 166-286

  

Pictures made in 1995 whilst I was a student at SVA in NYC in the neighbourhood of my grandparent's house in Caldwell, NJ in America.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 19-Jan-24. The negative was very badly 'yellowed', sadly I haven't been able to remove it all.

 

This aircraft was delivered to the GPA Group Ltd (later to become GECAS) and leased to Cayman Airways as VR-CAB in Oct-89. It was returned to the lessor in Feb-92 and leased to Istanbul Airlines as TC-ACA the following month.

 

Istanbul Airlines ceased operations in Aug-00 and the aircraft was repossessed by the lessor, re-registered N519AP and stored at Fayetteville, AR, USA in Sep-00.

 

It was due to be leased to Royal Airlines, (Canada) in Mar-01 but the lease wasn't taken up. It was leased to Skynet Airlines (skynet,aero) as EI-CZK in Jan-03. Skynet ceased operations in May-04 and the aircraft was returned to the lessor and stored.

 

In Jul-04 it was leased to Transaero Airlines (Russia). Transaero ceased operations in Oct-15 and the aircraft returned to the lessor and was stored at Moscow-Vnukovo. It was sold to LG Aviation Inc as N826LG in Feb-17 and remained in storage at Vnukovo.

 

The aircraft was ferried to Greenville-Donaldson Centre, SC, USA for further storage in Oct-17. It was sold to FX Aviation Capital in Apr-18, then sold to CF Aviation Trust in Jul-18 and re-registered N422CF in Aug-18. it remains stored at Greenville-Donaldson, SC, USA.

 

It was sold to TVPX Trust Services in Nov-19. Now over 34 years old, the aircraft has been stored for more than 8 years and I don't think it will be flying again. Permanently retired? Updated 19-Jan-24.

architecture from the street series. west los angeles, ca.

*replaced with revised edit*

 

Smoo Cave is a large combined sea cave and freshwater cave in Durness in Sutherland, Scottish Highlands.

The cave itself is impressive, though the set up had a bit too much of a touristy feel for my liking .

Replaced and left to rot

RV 489 - March 2011.

For a couple years I worked as a roofer, and having roof top delivery of materials is a life saver. I included as many details as I could on the roof, but the rest of the house is a bit lacking.

Still, not bad for my first diorama.

 

There is one big mistake being made in this diorama, and whoever spots it gets an imaginary cookie!

Furniture Room Makeover Design Ideas Renovating room by replacing some of the old furniture with new ones, you can use the services of a renovation, but if you do not intend to use it, you can find some information that can help you to renovate your room. furniture When you renovate your room, you have to adjust the size of the room with furniture you want to put in it. If you think you've got room furniture suite, then you must adjust the character of the room, a family with which you want to put furniture in it. makeover The following is some information on the renovation of furniture in your room. Good luck! design ideas Furniture Room Makeover Design Ideas youtu.be/EY2Y5_Qrjxw

This replaced the Zamperla zap 50 car. Unfortunately kids were climbing all of it and it fell down and broke so now there's a city fun bus in that location

Replacing skies is kind of one of my favorite challenges to (realistically) accomplish lately, and I'm pretty happy with how this one turned out! I'm also glad I took a second to think about the direction of the light and flip the replacement sky to match. These things need consideration.

  

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via Instagram kotaserang.net/1TQhA6p, When the sunset has come, no candle can replace it. #repost Photo by : @dilhamnandi . . #serang #kotaserang #pulautiga #sunset #island #karangantu #holiday #weekend #senja #Banten #indonesia. . kotaserang.net/1BFtNAa , May 29, 2016 at 07:46PM When the sunset has come, no candle can replace it. #repost Photo by : @dilhamnandi . . #serang #kotaserang #pulautiga #sunset #island #karangantu #holiday #weekend #senja #Banten #indonesia. . kotaserang.net/1BFtNAa #KotaSerangDotCom #KotaSerang Original Post: kotaserang.net/1TQhA6p Link Gambar: kotaserang.net/1qUjvLG By: www.kotaserang.net

Replacing and earlier scanned photo with a better version 26-Aug-18.

 

First flown in Feb-77 with the Boeing test registration N8280V, the aircraft was stored at the Boeing factory at Everett, WA, USA until it was delivered to British Airways as G-BDXB in Jun-77. It was wet-leased to Nigeria Airways in Nov-99 repainted in their full livery, returning to British Airways in Aug-00. The aircraft was retired and stored at Kemble, UK in Oct-01 after 24 years in service. In Dec-01 it was sold to 'Snapdragon Ltd' and remained at Kemble until it was ferried to Xiamen, China sometime in 2003 and became an instructional airframe. It was noted still stored at Xiamen in Nov-16, still in basic British Airways livery and in very poor condition.

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 18-Feb-22 (DeNoise AI).

 

First flown in Mar-89 with the Short Brothers test registration G-BPKX, this aircraft was transferred to Shorts Aircraft Delivery Inc as N754CN later that month.

 

It was sold to State Street Bank & Trust Co in Apr-89 and leased to Business Express (USA) in Aug-89 and re-registered N829BE in Oct-89. It was returned to the lessor in Mar-94 and stored at Opa Locka, FL, USA.

 

The aircraft remained stored for over two years until it was leased to Gulfstream International Airlines in Jun-96. It was re-registered N263GA in Nov-96. It was repossessed by the lessor in Aug-97 and stored at Melbourne, FL, USA in Dec-97.

 

It was leased to FedEx Federal Express in Feb-99 and converted to a small parcel freighter (window blanks only) before being transferred to Express Airlines Germany as D-CFXA in Jun-99 and operated on behalf of FedEx.

 

The aircraft was returned to the lessor as N263GA in Dec-02 and stored. It was sold to Falcon Leasing (USA) in Nov-04 and leased to Air Cargo Carriers. It was returned to the lessor in Aug-07, re-registered N972AA and leased to Alliance Air Carriers.

 

The aircraft was sold to AFAB Capital LLC (USA) and leased again to Air Cargo Carriers in Dec-20. Now 35 years old, it's still in service. Updated 18-Feb-24.

Bonhams : the Zoute Sale

Estimated : € 40.000 - 80.000

Sold for € 43.700

 

Zoute Grand Prix 2019

Knokke - Zoute

België - Belgium

October 2019

 

A 'modern classic' if ever there was one, Porsche's long-running 911 arrived in 1964, replacing the 356 and providing the Stuttgart manufacturer with a product worthy of comparison with the finest sports cars from Britain and Italy. The 356's rear-engined layout was retained but the 911 switched to unitary construction for the bodyshell and dropped the 356's VW-based suspension in favour of a more modern McPherson strut and trailing arm arrangement. In its first incarnation, the 911's single-overhead-camshaft, air-cooled flat six displaced 1,991cc and produced 130bhp. Although widely acclaimed, the 911 was necessarily expensive, a shortcoming that Porsche addressed by offering the 912 which, though outwardly identical, was powered by the 356's 1.6-litre four-cylinder engine. As installed in the 912 the latter produced 90bhp, some 40 horsepower less than the 911's six, but this deficit was offset by significantly reduced weight, resulting in a better-balanced car with greatly improved road manners. The 911 gearbox was used, offering a choice of four or five speeds. Despite being down on power, the 912 had a respectable top speed of 191km/h. Porsche officially began production of the 912 on April 5, 1965 with a little over 30,000 produced (all on the original short-wheelbase chassis) between 1965 and 1968, and today the 912 is a relative rarity when compared with its better-known sibling.

 

This desirable early matching-numbers Porsche 912 was sold new in the beginning of 1966 in the USA via Porsche Car Pacific of Burlingame, California. Being one of the early 1966 examples produced it features the typical and desirable early series 3-clock dashboard, the Enamel badged wheels and thin engine support. We are advised that the body of this car with chassis prefix '35' was produced by the Porsche factory itself where the vast majority was produced by Karmann.

 

Its first owner was Mr George Papageorge of San Jose (later Nipomo), California, who would keep the car until 2013 when it was sold to the current owner who unfortunately passed away and was never able to drive this car meaning this effectively is a '1 registered owner from new' car. A copy of the original Porsche Kardex is on file together with a State of California Certificate of Title and the 2013 bill of sale. EU duties have been paid. Still in its original (professionally repainted) colour scheme of Bahama Yellow with black (original) interior, this remarkably original Porsche 912 has led an easy life, as a single look will confirm. Even the carpets in the passenger compartment and boot appear original, and we are advised that there are no signs of welding or accident damage. The odometer reading is circa 51,000 miles. We are advised by the vendor that the engine starts instantly and runs well, while the transmission is said to be in good working order. In addition to the aforementioned documentation, the car also comes with its original jack, service book, factory options book, and Blaupunkt radio instructions.

Palazzo del Provveditore, commonly known as the Venetian Palace, was a royal palace in Famagusta, originally built by the Lusignan Kings of Cyprus. It was later modified and used as the governor's official residence during the Venetian rule. The central sections of the palace have been completely destroyed, with only its grand facade and back courtyard walls being left.

 

Lusignan kings used Famagusta as their second place of residence, in addition to Nicosia. The exact year when the palace was first built remains uncertain, however, most resources have adopted the years 1300-1302, reported by Genoese official Lamberto di Sambuceto, who used the term "palace of the King of Cyprus" (Latin: domini regis Cipri) to refer to the building. The king responsible for its construction is also uncertain. Camille Enlart has proposed Henry II.

 

The Venetians greatly renovated the palace, along with the city's walls and other public spaces. The front facade and the back of the palace was completely changed. Architecturally, the Gothic features were replaced with Italian Renaissance architecture. This occurred in the 16th century, and the precise dates given by Selton and Hazard are 1552-1554.

 

Most sources hold that the central sections were destroyed during the Siege of Famagusta in 1571, despite Ottoman descriptions of the palace in 1571 making no mention of any destruction. Structures of the palace were used as military barracks, a prison and a site for military drills during the Ottoman rule, leading to the building losing its importance in the urban fabric. There is no indication of any restoration during this time. During the British rule, the building was used as a prison and police headquarters for some time. In mid-20th century, the remaining structures were evacuated, parts converted into the Namık Kemal Dungeon Museum and the courtyard used for display of military equipment. Some modern cannons, cannonballs and "pieces of a large granite column" are currently displayed in the courtyard.

 

The palace is a rare example of Renaissance architecture in Cyprus. The surviving parts are the front facade, with its three arches and a coat of arms on the middle arch, an "arm" attached to this to the southeast, a chapel and an L-shaped wall at the very back of the courtyard. The arch at the front was made from material from Salamis: both the columns and the stones originate from there.

 

Behind the facade are a number of arches that run parallel to it and are very plain in comparison. It has been proposed that these are remnants of the original Lusignan palace. In the "arm" attached are small rooms facing the courtyard that have been used as prisons or arsenals and shops accessible from the street in the ground floor, an Ottoman-era structure used by the Department of Antiquities and some structures built in mid-20th century. Cross vaults and walls thicker than a metre in some of the shops indicate elements that predate the Venetian rule in these structures.

 

There is evidence that the chapel has been modified over time. The chapel had been used as a museum up to 1974 and had been restored between 1930 and 1950. The L-shaped walls date to the Venetian era. Enlart has proposed that parts of this may have surrounded a great hall.

 

Not much is known about the destroyed parts of the palace. Work by the Department of Antiquities has shown the presence of cisterns. Engravings and the account of a 15th-century traveler indicate that the palace had two floors, even though the current entrance only has one floor. In an engraving dated to 1571, a balcony was shown in the front of the palace.

 

Famagusta is a city on the east coast of the de facto state Northern Cyprus. It is located east of Nicosia and possesses the deepest harbour of the island. During the Middle Ages (especially under the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice), Famagusta was the island's most important port city and a gateway to trade with the ports of the Levant, from where the Silk Road merchants carried their goods to Western Europe. The old walled city and parts of the modern city are de facto part of Northern Cyprus as the capital of the Gazimağusa District.

 

The city was known as Arsinoe or Arsinoë (Greek: Ἀρσινόη, Arsinóē) in antiquity, after Ptolemy II of Egypt's sister and wife Arsinoe II.

 

By the 3rd century, the city appears as Ammochostos (Greek: Ἀμμόχωστος or Αμμόχωστος, Ammókhōstos, "Hidden in Sand") in the Stadiasmus Maris Magni.[5] This name is still used in modern Greek with the pronunciation [aˈmːoxostos], while it developed into Latin Fama Augusta, French Famagouste, Italian Famagosta, and English Famagusta during the medieval period. Its informal modern Turkish name Mağusa (Turkish pronunciation: [maˈusa]) came from the same source. Since 1974, it has formally been known to Turkey and Northern Cyprus as Gazimağusa ([ɡaːzimaˈusa]), from the addition of the title gazi, meaning "veteran" or "one who has faught in a holy war".

 

In the early medieval period, the city was also known as New Justiniana (Greek: Νέα Ἰουστινιανία, Néa Ioustinianía) in appreciation for the patronage of the Byzantine emperor Justinian, whose wife Theodora was born there.

 

The old town of Famagusta has also been nicknamed "the City of 365 Churches" from the legend that, at its peak, it boasted a church for every day of the year.

 

The city was founded around 274 BC, after the serious damage to Salamis by an earthquake, by Ptolemy II Philadelphus and named "Arsinoe" after his sister.[6] Arsinoe was described as a "fishing town" by Strabo in his Geographica in the first century BC. In essence, Famagusta was the successor of the most famous and most important ancient city of Cyprus, Salamis. According to Greek mythology, Salamis was founded after the end of the Trojan War by Teucros, the son of Telamon and brother of Aedes, from the Greek island of Salamis.

 

The city experienced great prosperity much later, during the time of the Byzantine emperor Justinian. To honor the city, from which his wife Theodora came, Justinian enriched it with many buildings, while the inhabitants named it New Justiniania to express their gratitude. In AD 647, when the neighboring cities were destroyed by Arab raiding, the inhabitants of these cities moved to Famagusta, as a result of which the city's population increased significantly and the city experienced another boom.

 

Later, when Jerusalem was occupied by the Arabs, the Christian population fled to Famagusta, as a result of which the city became an important Christian center, but also one of the most important commercial centers in the eastern Mediterranean.

 

The turning point for Famagusta was 1192 with the onset of Lusignan rule. It was during this period that Famagusta developed as a fully-fledged town. It increased in importance to the Eastern Mediterranean due to its natural harbour and the walls that protected its inner town. Its population began to increase. This development accelerated in the 13th century as the town became a centre of commerce for both the East and West. An influx of Christian refugees fleeing the downfall of Acre (1291) in Palestine transformed it from a tiny village into one of the richest cities in Christendom.

 

In 1372 the port was seized by Genoa and in 1489 by Venice. This commercial activity turned Famagusta into a place where merchants and ship owners led lives of luxury. By the mid-14th century, Famagusta was said to have the richest citizens in the world. The belief that people's wealth could be measured by the churches they built inspired these merchants to have churches built in varying styles. These churches, which still exist, were the reason Famagusta came to be known as "the district of churches". The development of the town focused on the social lives of the wealthy people and was centred upon the Lusignan palace, the cathedral, the Square and the harbour.

 

In 1570–1571, Famagusta was the last stronghold in Venetian Cyprus to hold out against the Turks under Mustafa Pasha. It resisted a siege of thirteen months and a terrible bombardment, until at last the garrison surrendered. The Ottoman forces had lost 50,000 men, including Mustafa Pasha's son. Although the surrender terms had stipulated that the Venetian forces be allowed to return home, the Venetian commander, Marco Antonio Bragadin, was flayed alive, his lieutenant Tiepolo was hanged, and many other Christians were killed.

 

With the advent of the Ottoman rule, Latins lost their privileged status in Famagusta and were expelled from the city. Greek Cypriots natives were at first allowed to own and buy property in the city, but were banished from the walled city in 1573–74 and had to settle outside in the area that later developed into Varosha. Turkish families from Anatolia were resettled in the walled city but could not fill the buildings that previously hosted a population of 10,000. This caused a drastic decrease in the population of Famagusta. Merchants from Famagusta, who mostly consisted of Latins that had been expelled, resettled in Larnaca and as Larnaca flourished, Famagusta lost its importance as a trade centre. Over time, Varosha developed into a prosperous agricultural town thanks to its location away from the marshes, whilst the walled city remained dilapidated.

 

In the walled city, some buildings were repurposed to serve the interests of the Muslim population: the Cathedral of St. Nicholas was converted to a mosque (now known as Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque), a bazaar was developed, public baths, fountains and a theological school were built to accommodate the inhabitants' needs. Dead end streets, an Ottoman urban characteristic, was imported to the city and a communal spirit developed in which a small number of two-storey houses inhabited by the small upper class co-existed with the widespread one-storey houses.

 

With the British takeover, Famagusta regained its significance as a port and an economic centre and its development was specifically targeted in British plans. As soon as the British took over the island, a Famagusta Development Act was passed that aimed at the reconstruction and redevelopment of the city's streets and dilapidated buildings as well as better hygiene. The port was developed and expanded between 1903 and 1906 and Cyprus Government Railway, with its terminus in Famagusta, started construction in 1904. Whilst Larnaca continued to be used as the main port of the island for some time, after Famagusta's use as a military base in World War I trade significantly shifted to Famagusta. The city outside the walls grew at an accelerated rate, with development being centred around Varosha. Varosha became the administrative centre as the British moved their headquarters and residences there and tourism grew significantly in the last years of the British rule. Pottery and production of citrus and potatoes also significantly grew in the city outside the walls, whilst agriculture within the walled city declined to non-existence.

 

New residential areas were built to accommodate the increasing population towards the end of the British rule,[11] and by 1960, Famagusta was a modern port city extending far beyond Varosha and the walled city.

 

The British period saw a significant demographic shift in the city. In 1881, Christians constituted 60% of the city's population while Muslims were at 40%. By 1960, the Turkish Cypriot population had dropped to 17.5% of the overall population, while the Greek Cypriot population had risen to 70%. The city was also the site for one of the British internment camps for nearly 50,000 Jewish survivors of the Holocaust trying to emigrate to Palestine.

 

From independence in 1960 to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus of 1974, Famagusta developed toward the south west of Varosha as a well-known entertainment and tourist centre. The contribution of Famagusta to the country's economic activity by 1974 far exceeded its proportional dimensions within the country. Whilst its population was only about 7% of the total of the country, Famagusta by 1974 accounted for over 10% of the total industrial employment and production of Cyprus, concentrating mainly on light industry compatible with its activity as a tourist resort and turning out high-quality products ranging from food, beverages and tobacco to clothing, footwear, plastics, light machinery and transport equipment. It contributed 19.3% of the business units and employed 21.3% of the total number of persons engaged in commerce on the island. It acted as the main tourist destination of Cyprus, hosting 31.5% of the hotels and 45% of Cyprus' total bed capacity. Varosha acted as the main touristic and business quarters.

 

In this period, the urbanisation of Famagusta slowed down and the development of the rural areas accelerated. Therefore, economic growth was shared between the city of Famagusta and the district, which had a balanced agricultural economy, with citrus, potatoes, tobacco and wheat as main products. Famagusta maintained good communications with this hinterland. The city's port remained the island's main seaport and in 1961, it was expanded to double its capacity in order to accommodate the growing volume of exports and imports. The port handled 42.7% of Cypriot exports, 48.6% of imports and 49% of passenger traffic.

 

There has not been an official census since 1960 but the population of the town in 1974 was estimated to be around 39,000 not counting about 12,000–15,000 persons commuting daily from the surrounding villages and suburbs to work in Famagusta. The number of people staying in the city would swell to about 90,000–100,000 during the peak summer tourist period, with the influx of tourists from numerous European countries, mainly Britain, France, Germany and the Scandinavian countries. The majority of the city population were Greek Cypriots (26,500), with 8,500 Turkish Cypriots and 4,000 people from other ethnic groups.

 

During the second phase of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 14 August 1974 the Mesaoria plain was overrun by Turkish tanks and Famagusta was bombed by Turkish aircraft. It took two days for the Turkish Army to occupy the city, prior to which Famagusta's entire Greek Cypriot population had fled into surrounding fields. As a result of Turkish airstrikes dozens of civilians died, including tourists.

 

Unlike other parts of the Turkish-controlled areas of Cyprus, the Varosha suburb of Famagusta was fenced off by the Turkish army immediately after being captured and remained fenced off until October 2020, when the TRNC reopened some streets to visitors. Some Greek Cypriots who had fled Varosha have been allowed to view the town and journalists have been allowed in.

 

UN Security Council resolution 550 (1984) considers any attempts to settle any part of Famagusta by people other than its inhabitants as inadmissible and calls for the transfer of this area to the administration of the UN. The UN's Security Council resolution 789 (1992) also urges that with a view to the implementation of resolution 550 (1984), the area at present under the control of the United Nations Peace-keeping Force in Cyprus be extended to include Varosha.

 

Famagusta's historic city centre is surrounded by the fortifications of Famagusta, which have a roughly rectangular shape, built mainly by the Venetians in the 15th and 16th centuries, though some sections of the walls have been dated earlier times, as far as 1211.

 

Some important landmarks and visitor attractions in the old city are:

The Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque

The Othello Castle

Palazzo del Provveditore - the Venetian palace of the governor, built on the site of the former Lusignan royal palace

St. Francis' Church

Sinan Pasha Mosque

Church of St. George of the Greeks

Church of St. George of the Latins

Twin Churches

Nestorian Church (of St George the Exiler)

Namık Kemal Dungeon

Agios Ioannis Church

Venetian House

Akkule Masjid

Mustafa Pasha Mosque

Ganchvor monastery

 

In an October 2010 report titled Saving Our Vanishing Heritage, Global Heritage Fund listed Famagusta, a "maritime ancient city of crusader kings", among the 12 sites most "On the Verge" of irreparable loss and destruction, citing insufficient management and development pressures.

 

Famagusta is an important commercial hub of Northern Cyprus. The main economic activities in the city are tourism, education, construction and industrial production. It has a 115-acre free port, which is the most important seaport of Northern Cyprus for travel and commerce. The port is an important source of income and employment for the city, though its volume of trade is restricted by the embargo against Northern Cyprus. Its historical sites, including the walled city, Salamis, the Othello Castle and the St Barnabas Church, as well as the sandy beaches surrounding it make it a tourist attraction; efforts are also underway to make the city more attractive for international congresses. The Eastern Mediterranean University is also an important employer and supplies significant income and activity, as well as opportunities for the construction sector. The university also raises a qualified workforce that stimulates the city's industry and makes communications industry viable. The city has two industrial zones: the Large Industrial Zone and the Little Industrial Zone. The city is also home to a fishing port, but inadequate infrastructure of the port restricts the growth of this sector. The industry in the city has traditionally been concentrated on processing agricultural products.

 

Historically, the port was the primary source of income and employment for the city, especially right after 1974. However, it gradually lost some of its importance to the economy as the share of its employees in the population of Famagusta diminished due to various reasons. However, it still is the primary port for commerce in Northern Cyprus, with more than half of ships that came to Northern Cyprus in 2013 coming to Famagusta. It is the second most popular seaport for passengers, after Kyrenia, with around 20,000 passengers using the port in 2013.

 

The mayor-in-exile of Famagusta is Simos Ioannou. Süleyman Uluçay heads the Turkish Cypriot municipal administration of Famagusta, which remains legal as a communal-based body under the constitutional system of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Since 1974, Greek Cypriots submitted a number of proposals within the context of bicommunal discussions for the return of Varosha to UN administration, allowing the return of its previous inhabitants, requesting also the opening of Famagusta harbour for use by both communities. Varosha would have been returned to Greek Cypriot control as part of the 2004 Annan Plan but the plan had been rejected by a majority(3/4) of Greek Cypriot voters.

 

The walled city of Famagusta contains many unique buildings. Famagusta has a walled city popular with tourists.

 

Every year, the International Famagusta Art and Culture Festival is organized in Famagusta. Concerts, dance shows and theater plays take place during the festival.

 

A growth in tourism and the city's university have fueled the development of Famagusta's vibrant nightlife. Nightlife in the city is especially active on Wednesday, Friday and Saturday nights and in the hotter months of the year, starting from April. Larger hotels in the city have casinos that cater to their customers. Salamis Road is an area of Famagusta with a heavy concentration of bars frequented by students and locals.

 

Famagusta's Othello Castle is the setting for Shakespeare's play Othello. The city was also the setting for Victoria Hislop's 2015 novel The Sunrise, and Michael Paraskos's 2016 novel In Search of Sixpence. The city is the birthplace of the eponymous hero of the Renaissance proto-novel Fortunatus.

 

Famagusta was home to many Greek Cypriot sport teams that left the city because of the Turkish invasion and still bear their original names. Most notable football clubs originally from the city are Anorthosis Famagusta FC and Nea Salamis Famagusta FC, both of the Cypriot First Division, which are now based in Larnaca. Usually Anorthosis Famagusta fans are politically right wing where Nea Salamis fans are left wing.

 

Famagusta is represented by Mağusa Türk Gücü in the Turkish Cypriot First Division. Dr. Fazıl Küçük Stadium is the largest football stadium in Famagusta. Many Turkish Cypriot sport teams that left Southern Cyprus because of the Cypriot intercommunal violence are based in Famagusta.

 

Famagusta is represented by DAÜ Sports Club and Magem Sports Club in North Cyprus First Volleyball Division. Gazimağusa Türk Maarif Koleji represents Famagusta in the North Cyprus High School Volleyball League.

 

Famagusta has a modern volleyball stadium called the Mağusa Arena.

 

The Eastern Mediterranean University was founded in the city in 1979. The Istanbul Technical University founded a campus in the city in 2010.

 

The Cyprus College of Art was founded in Famagusta by the Cypriot artist Stass Paraskos in 1969, before moving to Paphos in 1972 after protests from local hoteliers that the presence of art students in the city was putting off holidaymakers.

 

Famagusta has three general hospitals. Gazimağusa Devlet Hastahanesi, a state hospital, is the biggest hospital in city. Gazimağusa Tıp Merkezi and Gazimağusa Yaşam Hastahanesi are private hospitals.

 

Personalities

Saint Barnabas, born and died in Salamis, Famagusta

Chris Achilleos, illustrator of the book versions on the BBC children's series Doctor Who

Beran Bertuğ, former Governor of Famagusta, first Cypriot woman to hold this position

Marios Constantinou, former international Cypriot football midfielder and current manager.

Eleftheria Eleftheriou, Cypriot singer.

Derviş Eroğlu, former President of Northern Cyprus

Alexis Galanos, 7th President of the House of Representatives and Famagusta mayor-in-exile (2006-2019) (Republic of Cyprus)

Xanthos Hadjisoteriou, Cypriot painter

Oz Karahan, political activist, President of the Union of Cypriots

Oktay Kayalp, former Turkish Cypriot Famagusta mayor (Northern Cyprus)

Harry Luke British diplomat

Angelos Misos, former international footballer

Costas Montis was an influential and prolific Greek Cypriot poet, novelist, and playwright born in Famagusta.

Hal Ozsan, actor (Dawson's Creek, Kyle XY)

Dimitris Papadakis, a Greek Cypriot politician, who served as a Member of the European Parliament.

Ṣubḥ-i-Azal, Persian religious leader, lived and died in exile in Famagusta

Touker Suleyman (born Türker Süleyman), British Turkish Cypriot fashion retail entrepreneur, investor and reality television personality.

Alexia Vassiliou, singer, left here as a refugee when the town was invaded.

George Vasiliou, former President of Cyprus

Vamik Volkan, Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry

Derviş Zaim, film director

 

Famagusta is twinned with:

İzmir, Turkey (since 1974)

Corfu, Greece (since 1994)

Patras, Greece (since 1994)

Antalya, Turkey (since 1997)

Salamina (city), Greece (since 1998)

Struga, North Macedonia

Athens, Greece (since 2005)

Mersin, Turkey

 

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

 

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

 

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

 

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

 

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

 

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

 

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

 

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

 

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

 

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

 

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

 

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

 

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

 

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

 

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

 

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

 

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

 

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

 

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

 

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

 

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

 

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

 

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

 

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

 

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

 

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

 

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

 

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

 

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

 

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

 

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

 

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

 

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

 

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

 

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

 

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

 

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

 

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

 

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

 

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

 

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

 

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

 

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

 

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

Ships unloading their cargo into carts on the beach at St Aubin were vulnerable to attack by pirates coming into the bay. This was a particular problem in the 16th century when pirate vessels from Brittany and Belgium roamed the Channel and sailed into island waters looking for easy prey. A bulwark (earth work) with two guns was constructed on shore, giving the area the name, Bulwarks, it still has today, and then a tower was constructed on the offshore rocky islet to house four more gunners.

 

A century later in the Civil War the Parliamentarians turned it into a stronger fortress, by building a bulwark on it, and when the Royalists regained possession they replaced this with granite ramparts and added a storey to the tower. In the 18th century, and again in the 19th, the fort was rebuilt twice, but in peaceful Victorian times it was let as a summer residence. In the Second World War the Germans strengthened the fort with turret guns and concrete casemates.

 

Jetty built

As trade grew at St Aubin the demand grew for better harbour facilities and King Charles II ordered a pier to be built, paid for by import dues. The States wanted it to run out from the shore to the south of where today's southern pier lies, but time slipped by without work starting and the Governor, Sir Thomas Morgan, decided to take charge and ordered a pier to be built out from the fort in 1675.

 

Who was St Aubin?

When the Société Jersiaise visited Saint Aubin's Fort on 14 August 1934, and were generously entertained there by the tenant, Mr Lionel Cox, I had to confess when addressing our members that I knew nothing of the Saint whose name was attached to the Fort, to the bay in which the fort stands and to the haven and village which the fort protects.

 

I could find no mention of Saint Aubin in the Cartulaire des Iles Anglo-Normandes; nor, as far as I knew, did our society possess any records showing that an ecclesiastical building or establishment, bearing Saint Aubin's name, had ever existed in Jersey before the year 1737, when Mr Peter Meade made his survey.

 

Our Honorary Librarian, the Rev G R Balleine, however, has recently found a reasonable solution of the mystery.

 

Writing in The Pilot for November 1946, he dealt with the question "Who was Saint Aubin?" and came to the conclusion that our Saint Aubin must have been the Saint Aubin, Bishop of Angers, who had died in the year 550.

 

This holy man acquired such merit during his lifetime, as well as during his miraculous reappearance at a critical moment some four centuries later, that his patronage is still claimed by no fewer than 60 villages in France - six of which lie within the diocese of Coutances.

 

In the face of this, we may rule out Saint Alban of England as a rival claimant to the patronage of our fort, bay, port and village.

 

Islet

The islet of Saint Aubin is a flattish reef composed of very ancient indurated shale or mudstone which, though easily smashed, is useless for building purposes. At low tide this reef lies high-and-dry on the sands when it resembles in plan an indented oblong measuring about three hundred yards from east to west and about two hundred yards from north to south.

 

A thin sandy soil supporting a sparse and hardy vegetation probably covered much of the upper parts of the reef when its only inhabitants were gulls, terns, oyster-catchers and pipits.

 

Its importance to man, however, lies in the fact that it forms a natural breakwater to a strand, and it is from this fact, which must have been early appreciated, that Saint Aubin's village gradually developed from a mere huddle of poor fishermen's huts into a small but thriving town of solid buildings.

  

From a 1545 map of Jersey in the British Museum

1542-1643

To enquire fully into the causes which led to the reformation of the defences of Jersey and the setting up of our small tower would necessitate the making of a survey of the military situation in western Europe covering the period in which the development of the firearm was revolutionising the art of war.

 

In the never-ending contest of projectile versus protection, the projectile, for the time being, was obtaining the mastery. Mediaeval castles were crumbling under the shock of its blows, and the knight who, trusting in the impenetrability of his armour, had heretofore waded cheerfully into the thick of the fray, was now beginning to loiter without intent on its outskirts.

 

Though Henry VIII relied on the bow, the bill and the lance to win his land battles, he early realised that ordnance had its uses in certain circumstances; and seeing that the coasts of his southern counties so frequently suffered from French descents, he decided to protect their most vulnerable ports by erecting a number of small round forts armed with cannon.

 

These forts were not devised to withstand sieges. They were intended merely to delay or hold up an enemy while the local forces were concentrating. Here then was the raison d'être of Saint Aubin's Tower.

 

Like its English brethren, our tower was one storey high and provided with embrasures for ordnance. Its roof parapet, however, may not have been crenellated for the use of arquebusiers.

 

Unlike them, moreover, only its southern side was rounded for the deflection of projectiles, possibly in the belief that it was only from that direction that cannon-shot would strike it. It differed also in its masonry.

 

Here in Jersey was no limestone that could be sawn into neat and convenient blocks. Local produce in the shape of sea-stones, or rough angular fragments of red granite, had to be carted out from the shore along the sandbank formed by the tide-meet, or floated out in boats and barges at high water and delivered to the masons at work on the reef.

 

The ancient masonry, mellowed by age, still forms the lower half of the present tower. That of the upper half, which was added in later centuries, is colder in tone and composed mostly of grey Mont Mado granite, cut and fitted with mathematical accuracy.

 

Edward Seymour

It was during the governorship (1537-50) of Sir Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, later Duke of Somerset and Lord Protector of the Realm, that a determined effort was made to render Jersey immune from invasion by strengthening the defences and organising its manpower for war.

 

As a preliminary move towards the attainment of this object, the Earl, who had ever in mind the prosperity and safety of his island, wrote a letter on 23 December 1541 to the Jurats and inhabitants of Jersey and directed his Lieutenant, Henry Cornish, to deliver it to the States.

 

As the King's Majesty had been pleased to summon his High Court of Parliament to assemble at Westminster on 10 January 1542, the Earl willed and required the inhabitants of Jersey to elect and send over two of their most discreet and experienced persons to represent the island as burgesses in this Parliament.

 

The letter, however, was not delivered to the States until 16 January, the very day on which Parliament was due to assemble.

 

Though the action, if any, taken by the States on this occasion is not recorded, it is evident from the records of their three ensuing meetings that defence measures, including the purchase by each parish of 20 francs worth of gunpowder, occupied the attention of the members.

 

Parish committees

At their last meeting during the year 1542, they directed each parish to appoint a committee of three or four delegates to advise them as to what should be done for the common weal and safety of the island.

 

The Lieutenant of the Castle, the Bailiff, the Jurats and the States of Jersey then issued orders, with the advice and approval of the members of the parish committees; firstly, that the completion of the building of St Aubin's Tower should be accomplished with all diligence; secondly that each parish should raise voluntary subscriptions to cover all expenses; and thirdly that an account of the moneys so raised, or promised, should be rendered to the Royal Court within the next few days.

 

Governor's letter

Thus we gather that by the end of 1542, not only was St Aubin's Tower said to be approaching completion; but also that the people of Jersey were beginning to realise that the English government expected them to pay the whole or most of the cost arising from the reorganisation of the defences of their island. Some of them in fact, were already refusing or withholding payment, with a result that the exasperated governor eventually saw fit to despatch the following extraordinary letter:

 

"To my loving friends the Bailiff, Jurats and Curates of the Isle of Jersey and to every of them. After my hearty commendations. Whereas I am informed that divers of the inhabitants of the Isle there, neither regarding their duties of allegiance nor yet their own wealth, commodities, nor safeguard, do show themselves rather like brute beasts than men in refusing to be contributors, according to their rates and abilities, to such sums of money and other charges as from time to time have been thought requisite by the grave and discreet persons of the same, to be levied and employed for the defence of the whole country.

”I, not a little marvelling at the same, their folly and obstinacy for reformation: and due punishment from henceforth to be had on like offenders: have thought good to will and require you and nevertheless to charge and command you that ye, condescending together, not only devise what is to be done for the safeguard thereof and for the encounter and repulse of the enemies, if they should attempt to annoy the same; but also according to your former orders do establish, at the charge of the whole country, four sufficient and able men to be and remain continually at St Aubin's Tower, being appointed with ordnance and munition for the preservation thereof and the better defence of the said country.

”And you, together with my Lieutenant, are to tax and rate what and how much every parish shall bear from time to time, according to their abilities, as well for the payment of wages to the said four men as all other necessary charges. Willing and charging you also that after such taxation and order taken by you (in case any person do obstinately refuse and withstand the accomplishment thereof) that upon probation and conviction of the same misdemeanour by sufficient testimony before you, the Bailiff and Jurats, then to convict him or them, so offending, to straight ward; there to remain till he shall have contented and paid the same taxation and also received such further punishment as may be a terror to others that perchance might show themselves like offenders.

”Also that you forthwith consult together, and dividing the Isle into sundry quarters for the better preservation thereof, Appointing to every quarter one special man to be Captain of the same: and all the inhabitants within the precinct thereof to resort to such place as ye shall, by beacons or other tokens, perceive the enemy approach. And so joining together under his and their leadings, to set forth in their best array as the said Captain and Captains shall appoint them to withstand the malice of the enemies from time to time as occasion shall require; for I have given my said Lieutenant in commandment, as to his duty doth appertain, not upon any such occasion to depart from his charge, but continually to remain in and upon the same that he may render a good accompt thereof."

The Earl then continues in the same circumlocutionary manner to state his instructions for the purchase and distribution of powder and munitions.

 

"And thus; not doubting your conformities in all the premises, and the rather for that the same doth and shall redound chiefly to your own wealth, benefits and surety, I bid you heartily farewell.

Your loving friend

Edward Hertford

At London, the xxxth of January 1546.

 

Other fortifications

Lest it should appear from statements already made that St Aubin's Tower was the only or most important fortification which had engaged the attention of the Tudor military reformers, I must make it clear that such was not the case. The great stronghold in the east of the island, Gorey Castle, was still "the King's Castle in the island of Jersey" and still retained the prestige and glamour it had acquired during the preceeding three and a half centuries.

 

Its towers and battlements, however, had not been designed to accommodate cannons and moreover, and as usual, were badly in need of repair. Further, and what was now more serious, they were dominated by Le Mont Saint Nicolas opposite.

 

The conversion of Mont Orgueil Castle into an uptodate fortress proved to be a very slow and very expensive business. Being also of doubtful tactical advantage, it was very nearly abandoned before it was completed. In fact it was only through the good offices of Sir Walter Ralegh, Governor of Jersey from 1600 to 1603, that it was saved from demolition.

 

Meanwhile engineer Paul Ivy, on the Islet of Saint Helier, had perfected the work which became known to the people of Jersey as Le Chateau de l'Islet or Le Neuf Chateau. Ralegh for his part "ventured to christen it Fort Isabella bellissima", Elizabeth being then in her 71st year.

 

Growth in trade

The expansion of sea-borne trade brought ships in increasing numbers to St Aubin's Bay, either for commercial purposes or for temporary refuge in foul weather. Vessels which came to trade floated into the havens of St Helier or St Aubin on the flood and lay aground on the sands when the tide ebbed. Their cargoes were then discharged into carts,

 

Weather-bound ships, or those awaiting cargoes, anchored in the roads midway between Elizabeth Castle and Noirmont promontory.

 

Of the two ports in St Aubin's Bay, that of St Aubin, during the 16th and 17th centuries, was undoubtedly the busier and consequently the maintenance of the garrison and armament of the Tower should not have been neglected.

 

Three of the "four sufficient and able men" who, in conformity with the Govcrnor's letter of 30 January 1546, had evidently been chosen to garrison St Aubin’s Tower, were withdrawn by an order of the Lieut-Governor and the States, dated 30 June of the same year. The fourth man, William Howell, was to be left in charge of the place and receive the same pay as he had formerly been given.

 

The artillery, powder and other gear appertaining to the tower, were to be listed and removed to Edouard Dumaresq's house, now known as La Haule Manor. No reasons were given for this move; but it is possible that the tower was unfit for human habitation and that exposure to the sea air was detrimental alike to the guns and their ammunition.

 

Financial worries

The raising of money for the maintenance of guns and gunners was a source of continual trouble to the parish Constables who, though backed by the authority of the States, often found it exceedingly difficult to prise from the pockets of their parishioners the sums due from them for this purpose. The behaviour of these tax-dodgers was described by the Constables as "pernicious contumacy”.

 

If the Constables entirely failed to effect an extraction, things went hard with them, as the following record shows:-

 

"March the 8th, 1550. With regard to matters connected with St Aubin's Tower and the payment of its gunners, the States authorise Jurats Edward Dumaresq and Laurens Hamptonne to supervise the business and imprison in the Castle any Constable who fails to produce the sums that are due."

In 1553 the States ordered the parishes to subscribe £12, (English), to put the artillery of the island in a serviceable condition and to build a house in Saint Aubin where the guns of that district could be stored.

 

Nine years later it was recorded that a house of this nature had been built on the property of one Francois Becquet at the village wharf or ‘’Docque’’. Becquet had orders to hand over the key of the house to "the gunners of the Castle and island if in wartime they were sent to St Aubin's haven for the defence of the country".

 

Parish commitment

In 1573 the States required each parish to maintain at its own charges two men daily at St Aubin’s haven to look after the guns, their pay being fixed at six 'sterlings' a day. At the outbreak of war, or on an emergency, two extra men were to be entertained at the same rate; but it had to be understood that in times of profound peace these men would not be required. It must not be supposed that military activities were confined solely to the gunners during this period; for the recently formed parish companies were also being stung into action from time time to time by the States. The men of these companies, who were known as companions, were ordered, weather permitting to discharge their hackbuts, bows and arbalists every Sunday. The careless companion who failed to participate in this martial exercise, however, was liable to be fined five sous by his constable.

 

In spite of threats and penalties it is evident that the officials who were responsible for carrying out the numerous orders issued by the States from 1540 onwards, preferred evasion to obedience. They too, without a doubt, believed in the old army adage : "It is better to incur a slight reprimand than to perform an arduous duty".

 

As the century grew older, war clouds began to gather, and by 1587 it was an open secret that Spain had determined on the conquest of England and was mobilising "the richest spoils of Mexico and the stoutest hearts in Spain" to attain that object. The spirited action of Sir Francis Drake along the Spanish coasts delayed the departure of the Armada but did not prevent it; and the States of Jersey, assembling on 22 January 1588, announced that "on account of the rumours of preparations for war which are taking place on all sides, it is found expedient and necessary to repair all the fortifications round the coast and to establish others at threatened spots. On each of the islets of Saint Helier and Saint Aubin a platform or battery was to be sited to bear upon the anchorages."

 

Special arrangements were made to raise money for the wages of the workers and the cost of the work and if this did not suffice, the States were to raise more.

 

In addition, the States were of opinion that muskets, demi-culverins or sakers should be provided and the work was to be accomplished at top speed.

 

Invasion fears

Though the Armada, hounded along by the English fleet, had passed up-Channel to its doom towards the end of July 1588; the States still felt that it was beyond their powers to cope with the dangers of the situation and at their meeting of 24 March 1590, passed the following resolution :-

 

"On account of the wars, commotions and rebellions which exist in the towns and provinces of neighbouring nations and give rise to infinite dangers, plunderings and pillages, the States of this Island have found it expedient and necessary to represent to Her Majesty, our Sovereign Lady the Queen, and to her noble and discreet Council, our lack of armament and defences, and to implore her aid, so that a suitable remedy may be found alike for the benefit of Her Majesty's service, and the safety, welfare and advantage of this Island."

Sir Philippe de Carteret, Seigneur of St Ouen, and Hugh Lempriere were deputed to deliver this petition to the Council.

 

Probably aware that years would pass - actually seven years passed - before their petition was answered, the States determined that their order of 22 January 1588 should be carried out, at any rate in so far as St Aubin's Tower was concerned.

 

"As to the reparations on St Aubin's islet", they said, "six parishes in the first instance will assist. One day's labour under the direction and command of the Seigneur de Saint Ouen will be required of every person in the parishes of St Ouen, St Brelade, St Lawrence, St Peter, St Mary and St John. And because the delivery of stone to that place is difficult, the States order that each of the boats belonging to St Aubin's haven shall carry one load of stone thereto. Every foreign vessel which arrives will also have to transport one boat-load to the Islet, or in default shall suffer either the loss of their goods and apparel, or such other punishment as the Seigneur de Saint Ouen shall inflict. Carters who absent themselves will be fined three groats, and labourers one groat."

Though the nature of the work performed at the tower under these trying conditions is not known, planks formed part of it, "as per" Adrian Valpy's bill, paid by the States on 12 May 1591.

 

Attack warnings

Between 1597 and 1603 no less than eight official warnings of possible attacks by roving fleets of Spanish, Dunkirk, or Italian galleys reached our harassed States from London, and on each of these alarming occasions the grave and discreet persons who composed that busy body issued new orders for the defence of their never-ready island.

 

When Sir Walter Raleigh, the Governor, announced that he was about to visit Jersey and enquire into the manpower and armament of the island, the States on the eve of his arrival, decided that as St Aubin's Tower was a place of importance in wartime and an outpost fronting the enemy, it should not be without a good guard. They therefore appointed four men of the parish of Saint Peter and four of Saint Brelade to keep watch and ward there, under the gunner, until further orders. Two of the men from each parish were to be arquebusiers.

 

Panic at the approach of a General's Inspection is evidently no new thing and sometimes resembles a panic produced by the threat of invasion. For example, the invasion scare of 30 August 1600 resulted in the sudden despatch to our tower of six men each from St Brelade and St Peter and two from St Ouen.

 

Captain Rainsford

Rumours of invasion, especially during the unsuccessful wars with France and Spain between the years 1625 and 1628, continued to alarm the island, worry the States and supply the tower with temporary garrisons. Nevertheless, obstruction on the part of the Constables, reminiscent of that vilified by Hertford in January 1546, continucd - as is shown by the following abstract taken from "The Calendar of State Papers. Domestic. Charles 1. Addenda.":

 

"8 July 1630, Jersey. Captain Francis Rainsford to the Privy Council. Losses experienced by the inhabitants of Jersey from the Biscay men-of-war infesting the coast. Measures adopted for their protection. The difficulties which have arisen to prevent their execution. Regulations for the setting of the watches. Upon this disobedience of the inhabitants to my instructions, and their neglect of His Majesty's service and their own security, I sent a warrant for the constables and called the constable of St Lawrence to give an account why he neglected the service and slighted my commands, but I could receive no other satisfaction from him but that he was bound to maintain the privileges of his parish, and contested with me that they were not bound to do any duty at the tower, neither would they now begin.

Upon this stubborn and mutinous reply I committed him to the Castle as an example to deter others. But ... upon his confinement, most of his parish, with all the constables and some of the justices, came to visit him as a martyr and one who had unjustly suffered for the maintenance of their privileges and liberty."

 

Rainsford was Lieut-Governor of Jersey until 1633.

 

Summary of defences

Before passing on to the next chapter, it will be as well to offer a summary of the reformation of the island’s defences carried out during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary and Elizabeth, and under the successive governorships of Edward Seymour (1537-1550), Sir Anthony Paulet (1550-1571), Sir Hugh Paulet (1571-1588), Sir Amyas Paulet (1590-1600), Sir Walter Ralegh (1600-1603), and Sir John Peyton (1603-1630):

 

Gorey Castle: Transformed unsatisfactorily from an ancient bow-and-arrow stronghold into a fire-arm fortress. Insufficiently garrisoned.

Elizabeth Castle. An entirely new fort. Insufficiently garrisoned.

Saint Aubin's Tower. Inadequately armed and garrisoned and deficient in magazines, stores and water supply.

Coast defence Bulwarks or redoubts. One at Bouley Bay. One at Saint Ouen's Bay. One at Saint Aubin and one at Bel Royal. Each, except the last, armed with one saker which generally lay on the ground owing to the decay of its carriage.

Regular Garrison from England. About 50 men distributed between the two castles and of no great military value.

Local Troops consisting of 12 Parish Companies of about one hundred men each. Indifferently armed and trained. Later organised into groups of four parishes. Each parish possessed two light field guns, the last survivor of which stands neglected on German cart wheels at the foot of Beaumont Hill.

Alarm precautions : Beacons and tocsin, and the firing of cannon.

1643-1651

During the first eight months of the Civil War in Jersey the Parliamentary party had the upper hand and were blockading their opponents in Elizabeth and Gorey Castles.

 

Saint Aubin's Tower, now 100 years old, made its first acquaintance with war when two Parliamentary frigates chased a Royalist privateer into St Aubin's Bay. The crew of the privateer, after seizing the tower, overset its three small guns and having smashed their carriages, sailed across to Elizabeth Castle, where they lay safely at anchor under the protection of the castle ordnance.

 

A few days later, Sir Philip de Carteret, the Royalist commander, having satisfied himself that the Parliamentary frigates had gone for good, caused the broken carriages and one of the guns to be brought over to his Castle lest they should be removed by his enemies ashore.

 

For the next four months the tower, being of no tactical use to either side, remained unoccupied and unarmed. In the meanwhile the local Parliamentary party, finding themselves unequal to the task of capturing the castles, sought aid from London.

 

Military commander wanted

Their delegate to Westminster, Jean Herault, had instructions to tell Parliament that though they required no English troops to help them, their own being of excellent quality, they did need a military Lieut-Governor to direct operations. If, moreover, he brought with him some cannon, small arms and ammunition, they would raise no objections.

 

The answer to this request arrived at St Aubin on 26 August 1643, in the persons of Major Leonard Lydcott, his bride, his mother-in-law, his father, his brother, three captains, three lieutenants, half-a-dozen soldiers and some male and female servants.

 

"And there", writes Jean Chevalier, "you have the train which came with Lydcott to conquer the Castles of Jersey". "If he had brought three hundred men with him", he adds, "they would have had the island under their thumbs and would have kept possession of it - as Lydcott was shortly to discover for himself."

 

The new Lieut-Governor was in command of the island for nearly three months and many events of importance in the history of Jersey took place during that period. As far, however, as our tower is directly concerned, we can only claim one of them which was thus and tersely recorded by Jean Chevalier:-

 

"About now, (9 October 1643), St Aubin's Tower was repaired and surrounded with bulwarks. The watch-house also was repaired and the two cannons remounted. A lieutenant named Brand was placed in command by the Lieut-Governor and a garrison of local soldiers was installed to defend it for the Parliament in case it should be attacked. It was intended also to use it as a prison for "refractories" , otherwise, Royalists.

 

Conversion to fort

By the building of this outer line of defence, the place became a fort, and a fort it has remained ever since. The watch-house was presumably the small building on the roof of the Tower shown in the drawing.

 

"Barely a month after St Aubin's Tower had been promoted to the status of fort, the Parliamentary front in Jersey began to crack. Lydcott, now fully aware of the unreliability of the local troops and of the mischievous influence exercised by their bigoted spiritual leaders, had despatched his brother to seek reinforcements from England, and none had arrived.

 

It was the desertion of four of his English officers and the arrival at the castles of men and supplies sent from Saint Malo by Captain George Carteret, that finally convinced Lydcott and his civilian colleagues that the game was up. And so, when the news of the capture of St Aubin's Fort reached them they emulated the action of the Boojum and "softly and suddenly vanished away ".

 

The capture of the fort was accomplished by a number of Saint Breladais royalists who, on the afternoon of 21 November, drifted in to the tower by ones and twos to gossip with the garrison while Brand was dining ashore. At a given signal tbese men pounced upon and mastered their unwary hosts and then mounting to the roof of the tower, discharged their matchlocks into the air to let Elizabeth Castle and their friends on land know that their ruse had succeeded.

 

Brand, at his dinner, had barely time to draw his sword, when an inrush of men overwhelmed and disarmed him. He was then led back, a prisoner, to the post from which he had so improperly absented himself; after which, he and his captured garrison were transferred to Elizabeth Castle, where they were detained for a time and then set free.

 

Royalist rule

The short-lived ascendancy of the Parliamentary party was succeeded by eight years of Royalist rule under the vigorous Sir George Carteret, Bailiff and Lieut-Governor, who, aware that one day he would have to face the might of Republican England, did all he could while time permitted, to make the island impregnable.

 

By parochial musters and inspections; by watch and ward duties round the coastline; and by occasional sham fights and grand reviews, he tried to instill into his unwilling fellow-countrymen some elementary knowledge of a subject which Chevalier politely calls "the Military Art".

 

The backbone of Sir George's little army, however, was composed of regular troops, horse and foot, of many nationalIties. These men remained faithful to him after the disaster in St Ouen's Bay and formed the garrison of Elizabeth Castle which eventually was forced to surrender on 15 December 1651. Meanwhile, to balance his budget and pay for his regulars, Sir George resorted to many irregular expedients, among the most lucrative of which figured his fleet of piratical frigates, based on the haven of Saint Aubin.

 

To ensure the safety of the ships as well as that of their prizes and the loot stored inthe village cellars, the strengthening and rearming of Saint Aubin's Fort should have become a matter of prime importance. As early as February 1645 the States had made an official visit to the place and decided that something ought to be done.

 

Thirteen months later, as nothing had been done, Sir George reintroduced the subject and stated that the tower must be repaired and new batteries built round about it. In agreeing to this demand, the States decreed that the island should bear the cost of the work and that each parish "tresor" should contribute ten ecus thereto, the ecu being half-a-crown.

 

Charles II

On the evening of 16 April 1646, the Proud Black Eagle and two other ships from the Scilly Isles sailed quietly into Saint Aubin’s Bay, bearing the 16-year-old Prince Charles and some 300 of his nobles, gentry and followers. If ever it were necessary for Sir George to complete the long neglected defences of Jersey, this was the moment; for in addition to being responsible for the safety of His Sacred Majesty’s island he was now also responsible for the safety of His Sacred Majesty's Sacred Son.

 

Once again therefore, it was decided to do something at Saint Aubin's Fort; and with the encouragement of the Prince, who subscribed fifty pistoles and promised more, work recommenced.

 

Moreover the Prince and his Council, unwilling that the island should bear the cost, ordered that the money raised from the parishes should be refunded, if it had been received.

 

Chevalier's journal

On 12 May 1646 the Prince with his lords and captains paid a visit to the place and after that, says Chevalier,

 

"Many men, at ten sous a day, were set to work there. The tower was repaired and the rock on its eastern side was scarped for the insertion of a new door. The old door, which was on its western side and, in wartime would have been exposed to cannon fire from the shore, was blocked up. Other work was done inside. The bulwarks round about were repaired and cannons were mounted in them. The tower was heightened and its lower embrasures closed, so that a storeroom and magazine might be constructed within. Other embrasures for guns were made higher up. A mass of earth was carted to the works and stones were collected on the spot. Lime also was provided for the building of the tower. The Prince's fifty pistoles were expended ere the work was scarce commenced, nevertheless much material had been carried there."

In 1647, Chevalier refers back to this work and to the Act of 15 March 1645, which had authorized it:

 

"In virtue of the Act" he writes, "labourers, carts and wagons were sent to Saint Aubin's Tower to make bulwarks there. The carts fetched earth from Saint Lawrence's marsh, and stone was quarried on the spot. In this manner the making of a strong structure was intended. All the old buildings which had been set up there in Mr Lydcott's time were dismantled."

In and after May, however, those parishes which were subject to the ‘’Douvres du Chateau’’ were ordered to work there, seeing that they had not performed this obligation in 1643, when Sir Philip de Carteret was blockaded in Elizabeth Castle by the islanders.

 

In spite of the building operations recorded off and on since 1643, it would be rash to assume that Saint Aubin's Fort was really completed in 1647.

 

Workers criticised

To believe that, indeed, would be to believe that the islanders' will to work had changed for the better since 1636, when Sir Philip de Carteret, directing the work in Elizabeth Castle, wrote the following memorable words: "The slothfulness of the workmen and the backwardness of the labourers doth impose upon me an intolerable pains and trouble."

 

Continuing with Chevalier s account of the works in progress during 1647. we note

 

The height of the Tower was increased by two brace and that a stone pillar was built within it to support the roof

John Dean was appointed Captain of the Fort and went to live in the tower in a room specially prepared for him

Another room in the tower was specially fitted to serve as a magazine

The garrison was increased and more cannons mounted, planks having been supplied for their platforms.

Sir George also had procured from Granville an alarm bell, weighing 47 pounds, to hang in the watch-house on the top of the tower.

 

Chevalier then remarks that though the tower was strongly situated, it would not be able to withstand a long siege. "Sea water in plenty was there, it is true", he says, "but for those who preferred fresh drinking water, there was none, other than that stored in barrels. And if an enemy held the land, the tower would have to be succoured by sea from Elizabeth Castle, under cover of darkness, an operation fraught with danger because boats, launched by the enemy, would most surely interfere with it."

 

In view of all this it seems hard to accept Chevalier's statement, under date of 24 July 1650, that "in this year also Sir George commenced to enclose within walls of masonry the area in which Saint Aubin's Tower stands. The work was supervised by Captain Sausmarez of Guernsey, who was in command of the said Tower".

 

English and Irish garrison

The garrison of the tower during that summer, and while the masons were still at work, was composed of English and Irish troops. When news came of Cromwell's victory at Dunbar, however, the strength of the garrison was increased by a dozen local soldiers - one being furnished by each parish and paid at the rate of fifty sous a week.

 

As time went on the news from England worsened and on 25 July 1651 Sir George informed the States that he had received a despatch from the Duke of York and Lord Jermyn, in Paris, that an expeditionary force was being assembled in England for the invasion of Jersey. The Duke offered to raise a body of 300 French and Swiss troops and send them over to reinforce the garrison of the island. The States, scenting more taxation, rejected this offer. They had enough young men of their own. All they now needed was a number of regular officers to train them.

 

In August, two precautionary measures were taken against the corning storm. Five ships were ordered to bring supplies and munitions from Saint Malo and a day of fast, prayer and intercession was appointed for Sunday the tenth. Everyone was to be present in church that day from ten in the morning until four in the afternoon singing psalms, praying and listening to sermons.

 

As if distrustful of the efficacy of this latter performance, Sir George also ordered his sea-scouts to patrol the coasts of Sark and Guernsey to watch for the approach of the enemy. Out again on 3 October, they again reported "no enemy in sight". Meanwhile the works at Saint Aubin's Fort had been completed and armed with twelve guns. Its garrison remained at full strength.

 

States declaration

On 10 October Sir George took yet another precaution. He ordered every member of the States to sign a declaration that they would defend the island on the King's behalf to the last drop of their blood. He also requested every well-to-do person in Jersey to bake biscuits, so that when the invasion carne, rich and poor would share and share alike.

 

In the night of 20/21 October 1651 the Parliamentary forces landed in Saint Ouen's Bay. The Militia, who had long been tired of the whole business, disbanded themselves, while Sir George and his regulars, after fighting a short rearguard action, withdrew to Elizabeth Castle.

 

A few hours later Saint Aubin's Fort was abandoned to the enemy, for its local men had mutinied saying that the place was untenable through lack of food and water. Its regulars then took to their boats and made for Elizabeth Castle.

 

Sir George’s privateers

As the chief object of the Fort was to protect the vessels which lay in the haven, some reference to the ships and their crews which made Saint Aubin their base, must be made.

 

It was during the years 1643 to 1651 that the port rose from poverty to affluence mainly through the nefarious operations of Sir George Carteret's privateers, which were known to some as ships of the Royal Navy and to others as "The Jersey Pyrates ".

 

The doings of this flotilla provided Sir George and other adventurers with much wealth, and Jean Chevalier with a great deal of copy for his Journal. They also inspired our godly journalist frequently to quote the Jewish scriptures and moralise on the iniquities committed by his fellow men and the calamitous nature of the times.

 

The fortunes of the flotilla fluctuated, of course, from time to time; but by following a policy of attacking the weak and avoiding the strong, the pirates succeeded in bringing many a valuable prize in to Saint Aubin, where Sir George's Court of Admiralty adjudged them to be lawful prizes, or otherwise.

 

It is from the existence of this Court that a house in Saint Aubin still bears the name of The Old Court House - - which has given rise to the belief that the village was once the seat of the Royal Court and therefore the capital of the island.

 

When a ship and her cargo bad been judged a lawful prize, an auction sale - after being advertised with tap of drum in Saint Helier - would be held in Saint Aubin, and thither would congregate on the appointed day many a local merchant and foreign speculator.

 

One of the most valuable prizes ever taken appears to have been a Parliamentary supply ship on her way from Loudon to Londonderry in February, 1647.

 

Though only of 90 tons burden, she was reckoned to be worth £15,000. Here is a list of her cargo:

 

30 barrels of gunpowder: 500 muskets, 500 pistols, 500 carbines, 500 swords and shoulder belts: 500 ready-made suits of clothes, 36 bales of cloth, saddles, boots, bridles and spurs, two small bronze cannons, 450 pairs of shoes, 500 linen shirts, socks, a quantity of red coats, five cases of surgical instruments, musket cases, wheat, a good quantity of peas, sacks of rice, barrels of butter, cheese, sun-dried raisins, chestnuts and other commodities.

As a rule, only one or two privateers at a time sallied forth in search of prey, but on 18 July 1650, no less than six, convoying two supply boats, set off to provision Castle Cornet. As these six small vessels bore names which were famous or infamous in those days, I give them herewith:

 

The Raceboat of 14 guns: The Francois of 18: the Patrice of 14 : the Pierre of 19: the Marie of 10 and the Lady of four. It is interesting to note that the Lady was adventured or financed by Sir George's lady and her friends.

 

Jersey pirates?

Turning now to the officers and crews of the privateers, I take the opportunity of pointing out that the phrase "Jersey pirates" is misleading, seeing that there were very few Jerseymen amongst them. It would, in fact, be more accurate to call them Royalist pirates operating from Jersey.

 

Of the score of captains mentioned by Chevalier, about a dozen were Englishmen who bore typical English names. The rest were Flemings, Ostenders, Dunkirkers and the like.

 

The crews were a rough lot of rascals of many nationalities, who were merciless and cruel in their treatment of prisoners, and never failed to squander in riotous living the shares they received when their prizes were sold. The excessive intake of strong liquor by men such as these led to many a breach of the public peace in the taverns of Saint Aubin and the occasional shedding of blood in its streets.

 

Manual Clement

The Royalist Lieutenant who succeeded the unwary Brand in the command of Saint Aubin’s Fort was a genltleman most inappropriately named Manuel Clement. This officer had distinguished himself in Sir Philip de Carteret's first sortie from Elizabeth Castle and had also been a member of the party which had captured Saint Aubin's Tower in November 1643.

 

On the afternoon of 7 December 1646, this Manuel Clement and one Michael Jenkinson, the master mriner of Sir George's galley, sat carousing in a tavern, and being well primed with strong drink, very naturally fell into a dispute over the bill.

 

Jenkinson, in his anger, flung his money on the table and made for the door saying he would pay no more. Clement, drawing his sword, rushed after him and shouted "Come back. Come back !” But dusk was falling and Jenkinson, having far to go, took no notice of this invitation, whereon Clement ran him through without more ado and left him dead in the gutter.

 

As there were no witnesses of this brutal deed, Clement would have been wise to hold his tongue; but he needs must return to the tavern and blab.

 

And so, on his own confession, the Constable and his centeniers seized him for murder and led him away to the prison criminal in Gorey Castle, there to await his trial. Chevalier states that Clement, in spite of his good record, would certainly have paid the penalty; but the ways of the law in those days were somewhat slow and by 6 March of the following year, Clement still awaited trial. The night of 6 March 1647 was a very dark one, and into it Clement the murderer privily withdrew. Nor, though all the ports were watched, was he ever seen again.

 

Janson Garet

The Clement-Jenkinson affair, however, was not the first of its kind; for one of an even more gruesome nature had already taken place some six weeks earlier. This was a stabbing affray between a big powerful Fleming named Janson Garet and a half-breed Portuguese named Andre Laurens.

 

I shall spare the reader the horrible details of this business and merely state that the Fleming was killed by the half-breed who, however, received such terrible injuries that three months elapsed before he could be brought to trial. The jury of 24 then found that he had acted in self-defence and he was acquitted. Later he was expelled from the island.

 

1680 military report

This sumptuously-bound and attractive report, which is preserved in the Department of Manuscripts, British Museum, is entitled :

 

"The present state of Guernsey with a short accompt of Jersey, and the forts belonging to the said islands. By Colonell George Legge, Lieutennant Generall of His Majesty's Ordnance. Anno Domini MDCLXXX.

Although Legge, as senior officer, takes the credit for this achievement, Master Gunner Thomas Phillips supplied the plans and illustrations, and Captain Richard Leake was responsible for details of armaments and criticisms of their state and efficacy.

 

Of Phillips' illustrations it may be said that their artistic merit is more to be admired than their military accuracy, especially in regard to his plans, from which he omits the references so carefully prepared by Leake.

 

Phillips' largest drawing in the Jersey series is a panorama of Saint Aubin's bay which measures 54 by 20 inches. His illustration of Saint Aubin's Fort, measures 11½ by 19 inches.

 

The English of the report also has its attractions, as the following three examples show:

 

”Some short observations upon the Island of Jersey for ye better intelligence of the Mapp of the said Island and more particulerly about the landing places. For the landing of an enemy there is a shoare about the middle of the said bay called St Laurence Bulworks where there might be something done towards the preventing It is in that Bay of St Aubins that Sir Thomas Morgan did undertake to build a Peere adjoining to the Tower of St Aubins which is almost finished, where vessells that drawes about 8 foot comes in a little more than halfe flood ".

The second deals with Saint Aubin's Fort itself, introducing the subject thus:

 

”An Accompt of the Ordnance and Carriages of St Alban's Fort in His Majesty's Island of Jersey taken by "Captain Richard Leake Master Gunner of England, by Order of the Honoble Colonell George Legge with ye Opinion of ye said Capt Leake what Alteration or Addition may be at the same".

The Accompt ends with these words:

 

"St Albans Fort is in indifferent repaire the walls being built with Stone and Loome and Pointed with Lime and Sand Mortar is of no great Strength but is only for defending ye vessells in the New Peere under the said Forts Command. Without the Fort upon the Rocks there is required a Battery to be made for the Command of the Bay between Elizabeth Castle and the said St Alban's Fort."

(This Battery was later known as the Eastward Battery).

 

In Leake's description of the Fort's armament, the type, length, weight, and position of each piece is given together with the nature and condition of its carriage (stand carriage or ship's carriage).

 

In a separate column, Leake recommends certain alterations in the armament of each platform or battery, but as Phillips omitted to note on his plan the positions of these platforms, I must leave the reader to place them for himself.

 

Here is a list of them:

 

Facing the Towne. Flanking the Peere. Flanking the Road comeing in to the Peere. Faceing the Gate. Flanking the Gate coming in. Faceing the Road. Flanking the Peere and the Towne. Flanking the Point coming into the Road."

The Towne is Saint Aubin's village, and the Road the anchorage.

 

The Fort's ordnance was all of iron, and consisted of the following pieces:

 

Four demi-culverins averaging 9 feet in length and rather over a ton in weight. Seven sakers 7 feet long and 15 cwt in weight. One falcon of 14 cwt and of 4 feet in length, and one three-pounder, 7 feet long and 11 cwt in weight. Total 13 guns.

Leake states that two of the demi-culverins and nine carriages were unserviceable. An account of Phillips' services and death will be found in ‘’The Dictionary of National Biography’’.

 

Fort pier

The construction of a pier at Saint Aubin's Fort had been under consideration for quite half a century before any active work was begun.

 

By 1680 its core or foundation had been made, thanks to the energy and initiative of Sir Thomas Morgan, Governor of Jersey from 1665 to 1679. Morgan had arranged for the financing and planning of the undertaking in 1673 and for the prosecution of the work in case of his death.

 

Though small jetties may have existed previously elsewhere along the coasts, no building on such a huge scale had ever before been attempted in Jersey.

 

I quote Lieut-Bailiff Jean Poingdcstre on the subject:

 

"I should here alsoe mention ye Peere which is making at ye Fort of St Albins, a peece for Eternity; if you consider ye breadth materialls and workemanshipp. It will be time enough to give an accompt of it, when by God's favour it shall be finished."

As Poingdestre died in 1691, nine years before the pier was finished, his accompt was never written.

 

Dumaresq survey

Jurat Philip Dumaresq in his A Survey of the Island of Jersey 1685, writes:

 

"There is a Peere almost finished adjoining to the North-East point of this small Island; which will be about thirty feet high at the head, some three hundred feet long and above thirty broad: Here all the shipping of the Island resort, it being the principal Harbour: the conveniency whereof has occasioned a small Town, called St Aubin to be built (consisting of about four-score houses) that daily increases, and would much more, but that the same high hill that commands the said fort, hinders it."

The line of wharfs or quays along the north edge of the islet had been partly built by 1742 and was completed by the end of the century.

 

It is interesting to compare the rough masonry of the pier with the well-cut blocks of later date at the head of the slipway.

 

The east screen wall had been built, therefore, before 1680. The west screen wall was erected early in the eighteenth century.

 

These walls served to protect the shipping in the fort harbour from the weather, as well as to screen it from an enemy in the roads.

 

Georgian fort

During the Georgian period, England and France were embroiled in no less than five major wars, each of which had some indirect effect on the efficiency of the Militia, the growth of the fortifications and the strength of the regular garrison of the island.

 

First there was the War of the Austrian Succession, 1741 to 1748. Then the Seven Years War, 1756 to 1763. Then the War of 1778 to 1783, in which France helped the revolting American Colonies to gain their independence; and lastly the great French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars which raged, with occasional breathers, from 1793 to 1815.

 

As if aware that trouble was brewing, the Board of Ordnance decided in 1730 to repair, and if necessary rebuild, the fortifications of Jersey. The record of the reception given by the States to the board's engineer on 25 August 1730, runs as follows:

 

”John Henry Bastide, Gentleman officer and engineer engaged for the reparation of this Island’ s fortresses by the Lords Commissioner of the ordnance of our Sovereign Lord the King of Great Britain, etc., has this day read to the States certain directions given him by the Lords Commissioner concerning the repairing of the Bulwarks and Guard Houses round this Island and the mounting in them of the Cannons and their carriages, etc, which the Lords Commissioner intend to send over when Mr Bastide certifies that the reparations have been completed.

” The States having considered the matter, resolved to issue the necessary orders immediately. At the same time, they desired Mr Bastide to convey to Milords their gratitude and thanks. They also desired Mr Bastide to inform Milords that they were about to give effect to their resolution."

Bastide must have been on duty in the archipelago for a dozen years or more. The chief memorial of his skill and industry is his work in Elizabeth Castle which, though altered in parts by the reformers of 1838, and savaged here and there by the Germans, still survives in some of the bastions and curtain walls of the Lower Ward.

 

The western sally port with its fine brick arch (1734) is his, as is also the east sally port of 173I, which leads downward from the north-cast corner of the Barrack Square.

 

The work carried out by him in Saint Aubin's Fort is, with the exception of King George II's Gateway, not so conspicuous owing to the reconstructions and alterations made between 1837 and 1840. It may, however, be detected in the southern defences, notably in the truncated sentry turret at the tip of the central bastion. Three of these turrets have survived intact in Elizabeth Castle.

 

1742 plan

The 1742 plan represents the fort as it was when Bastide had finished his work there. If compared with Phillips 1680 plan, it will be seen that the enclosure marked "Gardens" is now (1742) occupied by a Suttling House or Canteen.

 

The building west of the guard house, meanwhile, has disappeared. The 13 gun embrasures along the walls probably occupy the same positions that they occupied in 1680. The Barracks in the 1742 plan is another name for the ancient Tower.

 

Between 1737 and 1739 Bastide made plans of Castle Cornet and Alderney. He also made a series of panoramic sketches which eventually, as copper engravings, was published by J Tinney at the Golden Lion in Fleet Street, under the title of ‘’A General and Particular Prospectus of the Islands of Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Arm and Jethou, drawn on the spot by J Bastide and finished by C Lempriere’’.

 

At the moment the most interesting of these to us is the engraving described as the"Prospect of the Fort. Harbour and Town of St Aubins in Jersey". As in the case of all the others, it is signed “J Bastide, Delin: C Lernpriere, Perfecit and W H Toms, Sculp".

 

The engraving bears the following note:

 

"St Aubin's Fort and Peer where a 6th Rate just floats at a dead neep and 200 Tun Ships at all times."

While acknowledging the skill of the perfecter and engraver, I cannot but wonder if all the details of the original sketch were faithfully reproduced by them. The question is raised in connection with the fort's tower, the top of which appears in the engraving to project as if resting on corbels. I can fmd no proof that an architectural feature of this kind ever existed there.

 

Saint Aubin's Fort, in spite of the warlike nature of the times, now drops out of the news. Its garrisons no doubt grumbled from time to time at the inadequate water supply and want of accommodation but, on the other hand, they must have found consolation and relaxation in observing the movements of the ships which crowded the harbour, or in sharing with the matelots some of the simple pleasures in which 'Jack ashore' has ever delighted.

 

The armament of the Fort in 1801 was stated to be six 24-pounders; seven 6-pounders and one 8-inch howitzer.

 

1838 to 1940

Extract from the Inspector General of Fortifications' observations upon Lt-Colonel Oldfield’s plans and Sections for the Repair and Reform of St Aubyn's Fort, Jersey :-

 

"The position of St Aubyn's Fort is a favorable point in the defence of the Bay of St Heliers, both on account of its bearing on the most sheltered part of the anchorage and the collateral aid it affords for the defence of the shore where landing might be attempted. It moreover effectually covers the little Harbor of St Aubyns from desultory attack. The existing work is, however, of a very imperfect construction, small capacity and low Profile, which defects could not be wholly remedied but at a considerable expense. - 1 January 1838.”

The application of steam power to shipping had a profound effect on the tactical situation of Jersey; for whereas formerly the fate of an invasion hung on the state of the wind and tides, an invader could now act, within reason, independently of the forces of nature. To meet these changed conditions, the coastal defence of the island was strengthened in the third decade of the 19th century by modifying or perfecting the already existing fortifications, and by creating entirely new ones.

 

Among those in the first category were Elizabeth Castle, Saint Aubin's Fort, and the old Martello towers; whilst in the second was the chain of small forts which extends along the north coast from Rozel in the east to Plemont in the west.

 

The chief features of the new constructions, with the exception of those inserted in the Martellos, was the mounting of guns on traversing platforms, designed to command sea approaches and anchorages; and the provision of loopholed curtain walls, designed to dominate by musketry fire the immediate land and shore approaches to the forts themselves.

 

The changes carried out in Saint Aubin's Fort may therefore be summed up under those two heads: the mounting of guns on traversing platforms mainly to command the anchorage or roads in Saint Aubin's Bay; and the provision of loopholes from which a concentrated flanking musketry fire could be directed agamst all attempted coup-de-main and escalade.

 

The new system, as applied to our fort, demanded a stronger garrison; and a stronger garrison, in turn, demanded more barrack accommodation and extra water tanks and magazines.

 

Structural changes

Many of these structural changes may easily be detected by anyone who visits the fort today; for the newer masonry, which consists largely of neatly fitted blocks of grey Mont Mado granite, contrasts sharply with the ancient rubble of the Tudors, the irregular stonework of the Stuarts and the red granite courses of George II's engineers.

 

In spite of German alterations, the 1838-1840 work is still specially noticeable in the three gun positions which form the southern front of the fort and in the two gun positions in the north-west and north-east angles, the last named being directly above the fort's gateway.

 

It will also be seen in the upper part of the tower and in the four surviving machicoulis galleries, which project from its parapet. Originally there were seven of them, but later, when it was decided to place a heavy traversing gun on the roof of the tower, three of them were destroyed. The stumps of their corbels are still visible in the surface of the wall.

 

Another very important reform was the reconstruction of all the interior arrangements in the Tower. A massive central pillar of Mont Mado granite was made to support the new floors and roof. In the basement, which was excavated to hold a tank for 14 hogsheads of water and a magazine for 90 barrels of powder, it is four and a half feet thick.

 

In the room above it is four feet thick, and in the top room three feet six inches. Ladders and trap-doors provide means of communication from basement to roof. From base to top the pillar measures about 23 feet. The tower walls were cased with brick nine inches thick - an addition which gave to the eastern wall of the tower an average thickness of six feet three inches, and to the western wall a thickness of five feet.

 

The south wall or apse of the tower now became six feet thick, while the north wall became seven. Each loophole in these walls was provided with a glazed oaken frame. Other improvements in the tower were the provision of a reconstructed entrance door and the installation of a fireplace.

 

It was estimated that under war conditions the tower would be able to accommodate 30 men, a number which might suffice "to work the six guns proposed to be mounted in the lower emplacements, but would form a very inadequate garrison for a post having such a large contour to defend."

 

Extra accommodation

Extra accommodation for a garrison on a war footing had therefore to be provided within the area of the lower work, as distinct from the tower. As, however, the fort was abandoned as obsolete long before any war occurred, this accommodation was never required.

 

One of the chief disabilities from which the old contour, or enceinte, suffered was its want of elevation and this, of course, exposed it to the danger of escalade. To remedy this, the height of the parapets had to be raised where possible and the rock at the foot of the walls subjected to further escarpment.

 

The officers responsible for the repair and partial reform of Saint Aubin's Fort during the years 1838-1840 were:

 

F W Mulcaster, Inspector General of Fortifications.

J. Oldfield. Lt-Col CRE Jersey, and his successor

H G Jones, Major CRE Jersey.

A record of their work will be found on the keystone of the interior arch of the fort gateway. The stone bears the words: "The defences of this Fort reformed in the year 1839."

 

840 report

I close this part with a copy of the report by Lt-Col F English, RE, dated 9 November, 1840.

 

Present state

In good repair. The reform of its defence was completed m March 1840. The Keep and Lower Platform are in a state to receive the Armament. The former is loopholed and has Machicoulis.

 

Situation

About 500 yards from the beach at the Town of St Aubin and 1450 yards from Tower No 3 (Beaumont). The Fort is constructed on a rock 22 feet above high water mark, isolated at half tide. It is exposed to the high ground westward above St Aubin, and towards Le Boue at the distance of 700 to 1,000 yards.

 

Object of the work

One of the fortified posts for the protection of the shipping taking shelter in the Great Roads, or St Aubin's Bay. It commands the entrance, pier, harbour and the west shore from St Aubin's Town to Point Le Boue, and to within 7 or 800 yards of Noirmont Tower.

 

Armament

Five 24 Prs, and three 8-inch Mortars have been proposed as the Armament. They are not on the spot.

 

Bomb-proof cover

In the keep for one officer and 30 men, and in the old magazine of the lower works for ten men if not required for Ammunition.

 

Magazine

Dry: one in the keep for 90 Barrels and that in the lower work will contain 160 Barrels.

 

Water

The tank in the tower will contain 4476 gallons.

 

Proposed additions

The parapets require to be strengthened at some points. The breastwork for two guns to the eastward to be converted into a battery for two heavy guns, on traversing platforms, well scarped and flanked, and enclosed in the rear by a loopholed wall. The wall in the rear of the battery (proposed to be loopholed), belongs to the States.

 

The main entrance is somewhat exposed to the sea side. It is proposed to enclose it in front by a strong loopholed wall in the form of a demi-bastion, which will contribute to the defence of the gateway, give a flank to the shore, where the landing from boats is perfectly easy and protect the communication with the eastern battery.

 

Barracks

Bombproof, for three officers and 100 men. The expense of this addition will be £368 and £840 for the new Barrack.

 

1840-1940

The story of our fort during this period is easily told, for within 40 years of its great reform its armament had been withdrawn and its garrison had dwindled to a caretaker. When the caretaker in turn was relieved of his duties, a succession of private individuals leased the place from the War Office and finally it was acquired by the States of Jersey.

 

Its last tenant before the outbreak of the Second World War was Mr Lionel Cox who, during the course of many years, converted it into a summer 'plaisance' of real charm.

 

1940-1948

In their five years tenure, the Herrenvolk transformed Jersey into a fortress of enormous strength. They not only constructed their defence works in positions never before occupied by exponents of "The Military Art", but they also made use of all the tactical sites which in times past had played their part in the war story of the island.

 

Saint Aubin's Fort, of course, was one of these, and here the Germans moved in with their concrete, guns, ammunition, barbed wire, mines, telephones, electrical plant and the thousand and one other appliances which soldiers now consider necessary for the proper conduct and prosecution of their profession.

 

Being unable to describe in suitable terms the work executed by the Germans in our fort, I applied to Major J C M Manley, RA for help, and the very next day received the welcome and valuable information which now follow :

 

Fig 1 on the 1948 plan - Ferro-concrete strong point containing air-conditioned barracks for a mortar detachment. The position of the mortar is a concrete emplacement at the western end of the building and is reached by a short flight of steps which gives access from the men's quarters. Passages also lead out onto the quay area as well as through the wall of the north-west bastion into the interior of the fort. Exits and quarters are protected by steel blast-pr

As Leyland Nationals got replaced by influxes of new vehicles into The Shires fleet in the mid-1990's the best remaining examples were shunted around to other garages to get a few more months out of them. MNH 574V was one of the last batch of MK1 Nationals purchased by United Counties and had been a long term Luton Garage vehicle, but was moved over to Stevenage in it's final months as can be seen here from this shot which was taken in 1997. The vehicle carries it's new 1997 fleet number on the offside front panel but still carries 'Luton Bus' fleetnames on the cove panel. According to DVLA Vehicle Check, the vehicle was last on the road in July 1997 which would likely be only a month or two after this shot.

 

Scanned from an acquired negative.

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

Following good performance from the pioneering diesel-hydraulic locomotive the DB Class V 80, the Deutsche Bundesbahn planned in 1953 to build several types of new diesel locomotive, primarily to replace steam powered locomotives.These were: V 60, and V 65, both shunters, the V 65.2, also for shunting as well as light freight trains, the heavy DB Class V 200, for express passenger trains, and the universal V 160 for both freight and passenger work on the main network.

 

The new V 160 class was a central piece in this line-up, because it would replace important steam-powered engines such as the BR 03, BR 23, BR 38.10 (former Prussian P 8 class), BR 39 (ex P 10), BR 50, BR 57 (ex G 10) and BR 78 (ex T 18). Steam heating for passenger coaches was necessary, and a top speed of 120 km/h was specified. Initially, a 1,600 hp powerplant, consisting of two engines of the same type as in the light V 80 was planned, the first newly developed diesel locomotive built for main line service by the Deutsche Bundesbahn (but only built in 10 examples). This dual engine arrangement had already been successfully introduced in the heavy V 200, which was initially powered by two 1,000 hp diesel engines. However, it was soon realized, that, if a single, high-powered engine could be used, weight, complexity and therefore maintenance and other costs would be considerably reduced. The V 160’s design was modified accordingly and a single MTU V16 four-stroke diesel engine was chosen. Both two-axle bogies were powered via drive shafts from a two speed hydraulic drive from Voith, which offered a compromise between the requested high speed for light passenger trains and the alternative reduced second gear with lower top speed, but much higher torque, for freight train service. Gears could only be switched when the locomotive was standing still, though.

 

In the spring of 1956, V 160 development began at Krupp. Welded steel components along with other lightweight materials were used to keep the axle load well below 20t, so that the V 160 could be safely operated on secondary lines. However, in the main production series of locomotives, some of the lighter weight welded construction was abandoned in favor of less expensively produced components - leading to an increase in axle weight from ~18.5 to ~20t, which was still acceptable but lowered overall production costs. This was furthermore not regarded as a major problem since the DB perspectively started to abandon branch lines, switching to more economical diesel multiple units or giving them up altogether towards the Seventies.

 

The first V 160 unit was delivered on 6 August 1960, with eight more following by 1962 from both Krupp and Henschel. These prototype units, due to their rounded, “busty” front end, were later to become unusual amongst the entire V 160 family and earned them the nickname “Lollo” (in allusion to Gina Lollobrigida). A final prototype V 160 010, the tenth, was manufactured by Henschel in 1963 and the first to feature the serial locomotives’ angled front end, which was inspired by the design of the super-heavy V 320 Henschel prototype.

 

Despite the single main engine, the V 160 was still a complex locomotive. In addition to the main engine, the V 160 featured a small, independent auxiliary diesel engine, driving a generator providing the 110 V electrical supply for lighting as well as driving an electric air compressor for the brakes. The steam heating apparatus, sourced from Hagenuk and powered by fuel oil, took up one end of the locomotive, between the engine and drivers cabin. It had the capacity to satisfactorily heat 10 coaches when the outside temperature was -10°C. For passenger train service, most V 160 locomotives were also equipped for push-pull operation, as well as for multiple working, controlled via a 36 pin control cable and respective sockets on the locomotives front ends.

 

The prototypes performed well, and volume production began, numbers V 160 011 to V 160 224 being built between 1964 and 1968 by Krupp, Henschel, KHD, Krauss-Maffei and MaK. The first V 160/216 locomotives entered service on the Hamburg to Lübeck line, working push-pull double decked passenger trains, replacing the BR 38.10 and BR 78 steam engines. The engines were also used on freight workings as well. On push-pull passenger working, the locomotives were sometimes found in the middle of the train - which facilitated easier separation of carriages en route.

 

By the time the 156th example was under completion, the Deutsche Bundesbahn changed its numbering system. From then on, the V 160 class were re-designated as Class (Baureihe = BR) 216, with the individual unit numbering continuing as before. Over the next decade, because of changing requirements – mostly in terms of increased power, speed as well as the requirement for electrical passenger heating – a number of related classes sprang up, the BR 210, 215, 217, 218 and 219. Although some were a little longer and carried additional components (e.g. an auxiliary jet engine), all of them were essentially based on the original V 160 and more than 800 machines of all types were eventually built.

 

Since the 1990s, the Bundesbahn’s BR 216 locomotives scope of work started to shift more on freight than on passenger trains because of the lack of steam-heated passenger stock. From 2000 onwards, the Deutsche Bahn AG’s BR 216 fleet was phased out, with the last locomotive being decommissioned in 2004.

Several locomotives were sold to private operators like rail construction companies and remained in frequent use, and some retired BR 216s were re-built and offered for sale, too. The first in the series of rebuilt Class 216s was called type “DH 1504” and created in 1998 by the firm 'On Rail'. Despite only little external changes, the result was an almost completely new locomotive, only the transmission, bogies and frame were saved from the original locomotive. The original V16 diesel engine with 1,370 kW (1.900 hp), was replaced with a lighter but more powerful 1500 kW (2,085 hp) V12 four-stroke diesel engine, also from MTU. On customer demand, a new electric Webasto heating system could be installed instead of the original steam heating system, making the DH 1504 capable of operating modern passenger trains, and for this purpose the units were also fitted for multiple working as well as for remote control operation (e.g. for shunting). Another option was additional ballast, so that the axle load could be kept at 20 tons for better traction. Otherwise, 18 t axle load was standard for the revamped DH 1504.

 

Since 1998, 6 of these locomotives were re-built for private operators in Germany. By late 2019, three DH 1504 locomotives were in the use of the Osthannoversche Eisenbahnen (OHE), two work for the Niederrheinische Verkehrsbetriebe (NIAG) and one for the Mindener Kreisbahnen (MKB). However, the biggest sales success for OnRail’s modernized BR 216 was the export to Poland, where the PKP (Polskie Koleje Państwowe, Polish State Railways). After its privatization in 2001, the PKP was looking for a low-cost replacement for its last ST-43 Class diesel electric freight locomotives of Romanian origin, which dated back to the 1960ies. Twenty DH 1504 locomotives for mixed duties were built by OnRail between 2001 and 2005 and entered PKP service as Class SU-29 (spalinowa uniwersalna = mixed-traffic diesel locomotive with hydraulic transmission and multiple-unit control). Their initial primary field of duty was the cross-border freight traffic on the east-west relation on the PKP “Polskie line Kolejowe”, the so-called “Niederschlesische Gütermagistrale”. Since 2005, this route had been expanded, electrified and became double-railed, so that the SU-29s gradually took over more and more passenger train duties on non-electrified major lines. The SU-29 machines are expected to remain in PKP service beyond 2030.

  

General characteristics:

Gauge: 1,435 mm (4 ft 8½ in) standard gauge

UIC axle arrangement: B´B´

Overall length: 16,800 mm (52 ft 57⁄8 in)

Pivot distance: 8,600 mm

Bogie distance: 2,800 mm

Wheel diameter (when new): 1000 mm

Fuel supply: 3,800 l

Service weight: 80 t

 

Engine:

MTU 4000R20 V12diesel engine with 1500 kW (2,085 hp) at 1,800 RPM

 

Gearbox:

Voith L821rs 2-speed gearbox

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 120 km/h (75 mph) or 80 km/h (50 mph)

Torque: 235,2 kN

 

The kit and its assembly:

Well, this is a rather unusual what-if “build”, since this not a model kit as such but rather the conversion of a readymade H0 gauge model railway locomotive for the “Back into service” group build at whatifmodelers.com in late 2019.

 

The inspiration was not original, though: some time ago I stumbled across a gift set from the former East-German manufacturer Piko, apparently for the Polish market. It contained a set of double deck passenger wagons, and a (highly simplified, toy-like) German BR 216 in PKP markings. It was called SU-29 and carried a very crude and garish green livery with yellow front ends – inspired by real world PKP diesel locomotives, but… wrong. I found this so bizarre that it stuck in my mind. When I dug a little further, my surprise even grew when I found out that there were other national adaptations of this simple Piko BR 216 (e .g. for Denmark) and that Piko’s competitor Roco offered a similar BR 215 in PKP colors, too! This time, the fictional locomotive was designated SU-47 (which cannot be since this would indicate a locomotive with electric power transmission – poor job!), and it also wore a bright green livery with yellow front markings. Bizarre… And the PKP does NOT operate any BR 216 at all?!

 

However, with the GB topic in mind, I decided to create my own interpretation of this interesting topic – apparently, there’s a market for whiffy model locomotives? The basis became a 2nd hand Märklin 3075 (a BR 216 in the original red DB livery), not a big investment since this is a very common item.

In order to easy painting, the locomotive was disassembled into its major sections and the body stripped of any paint in a one-week bath in oven cleaner foam, a very mild and effective method.

 

The heavy metal chassis was not modified, it just received a visual update (see below).

 

The upper body underwent some cosmetic surgery, though, but nothing dramatic or structural, since the DH 1504 described above only differs in minor external details from the original BR 216. I decided to modify the front ends, especially the lights: Locomotives in PKP service tend to have VERY large lamps, and I tried to incorporate this characteristic feature through masks that were added over the original light conductors, scratched from styrene tube material.

In the course of this facial surgery, the molded handles at the lower front corners were lost. They were later replaced with three-dimensional silver wire, mounted into small holes that were drilled into the hull at the appropriate positions. Fiddly stuff, but I think the effort was worth it.

 

The original vent grills between the lower lamps were sanded away and covers for the multiple working cable adapters on the front ends added – scratched with small styrene profile bits.

For a cleaner, modern look, I removed the original decorative aluminum profile frame around the upper row of cooling louvers. The roof was modified, too: beyond the bigger headlight fairing, the exhaust for the auxiliary diesel engine was removed, as well as the chimney for the old steam heating system. The diesel engine’s exhaust pipes were lengthened (inspired by similar devices carried by DB BR 218), so that the fumes would be deviated away from the locomotive’s hull and the following wagons. Horns and a blade antenna for each driver’s cabin were added, too.

  

Painting and markings:

Both Piko and Roco V 160s in PKP markings look garish – righteously, though, since PKP locomotives used to carry for many years very striking colors, primarily a dark green body with a light green/teal contrast area on the flanks and yellow quick recognition front markings. However, I did not find any of the two model designs convincing, since they rather looked like a simple toy (Piko) or just wrong (Roco, with a surreal grass green contrast tone instead of the pale teal).

 

I rather went for something inspired by real world locomotives, like the PKP’s SU- and SP-45s. The basic design is an upper body with a dark green base (Humbrol 76, Uniform Green) and a pale green-grey area around the upper row of louvres (an individual mix of Humbrol 96 and 78). The kink under the front windows was used for waterline reference, the front section under the windows (in the dark green base) was painted in bright yellow (Humbrol 69) as a high-viz contrast, a typical feature of PKP locomotives. The chassis received a grey-green frame (somewhat visually stretching the locomotive) with bright red (Humbrol 19) headstocks, a nice color contrast to the green body and the yellow bib.

Silver 1.5mm decal stripes (TL Modellbau) were used to create a thin cheatline along and around the whole lower section. At some time I considered another cheatline between the light and dark green, but eventually ignored this idea because it would have looked too retro. The locomotive’s roof became medium grey (Revell 47).

 

The running gear and the tanks between the bogies were painted in very dark grey (Humbrol 67, similar to the original DB livery in RAL 7021) and weathered with a light black ink wash, some thinned Burnt Umbra (simulating dust and rust) plus some light dry-brushing with dark grey that emphasized the surface details. This used look was also taken to the upper body of the locomotive with watercolours (Grey, Black and some Sienna and Burnt Umbra) for a more natural look of daily service – rather subtle, and I emphasized the louvres, esp. on the light background, where they tended to disappear.

 

Individual markings consist of single decal letters in silver and white in various sizes (also TL Modellbau) for the locomotive’s registration code as well as of H0 scale catenary warnings from Nothaft Hobbybedarf, plus some generic stencils from various model decal sheets (incl. Cyrillic stencils from an 1:72 MiG-21 decal sheet…).

 

For a uniform finish I gave the locomotive an overall coat of matt acrylic varnish from the rattle can – it still has a slightly sheen finish and matches well the look of Märklin’s standard rolling stock.

  

A different kind of what-if project, but this has not been my first H0 scale locomotive conversion. The fictional PKP SU-29 looks a bit weird, with the garish paint scheme and the oversized headlights, but this strangeness makes this model IMHO quite convincing. The model is fully functional, even the light works well in the enlarged headlight fairings. Maybe I’ll sell it, since I do not have the appropriate model railway set at hand to effectively use it (which is also the reason for the rather limited scope of pictures of the finished item). And I am curious what people might be willing to pay for such a unique, fictional item?

 

Replacing an earlier photo from 2017 with a better version 02-Oct-20.

 

Operated on behalf of TAP Express by Portugalia Airlines.

 

Named: "Faro".

 

Embraer don't allocate test registrations when the aircraft is being delivered to a Brazilian airline. This aircraft was delivered to Air Lease Corporation and leased to TRiP Linhas Aereas as PP-PJO in Aug-11. TRiP was merged into Azul Linhas Aereas Brazileiras in May-12. The aircraft was stored in Apr-15. It was sub-leased to Portugalia Airlines as CS-TPQ and is operated on behalf of TAP Express. Current, updated (Oct-20).

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 25-Feb-25.

 

First flown in Mar-88 with the British Aerospace (Avro) test registration G-5-099, this aircraft was delivered to Trident Aviation Leasing and leased to Loganair as G-OLCA in Jul-88.

 

It was wet-leased to British Airways for three months between May / Jul-90 and wet-leased to NortJet (a Spanish charter airline) for four months between Sep / Nov-90. It was also wet-leased to AirSur (Spain) between Dec-90 / Feb-91.

 

The aircraft was returned to British Aerospace Asset Management in Nov-91 and stored until it was leased to Air UK for three months between Jan / Mar-92. A few days later it was leased to LAR Transregional (Portugal) and returned to the lessor in Oct-92.

 

It was immediately leased to Malmo Aviation (Sweden) and returned to the lessor in Feb-93. The aircraft was leased to Jersey European Airways in Mar-93 and was re-registered G-JEAJ in Sep-93. It was wet-leased to Malmo Aviation in Mar-98 and returned to Jersey European the following month.

 

In Jun-00 Jersey European was renamed British European Airways (the original British European [BEA] was merged with BOAC to form British Airways in 1974). This British European was renamed FlyBe Airlines in Jul-02.

 

The aircraft was returned to the lessor and stored at Kemble, UK in Oct-06. It was ferried to Bacau, Romania in Mar-07 and converted to B.Ae 146-200QT standard with the addition of a main deck cargo door.

 

It was due to be leased to Amerer Air (Austria) as OE-IAA but the lease wasn't taken up and the aircraft was ferried to Southend, UK, in Jun-08 for further storage. It returned to Bacau in Dec-08 and returned to long-term storage. Converting it to a freighter appears to have been a waste of money as it was broken up at Bacau, Romania in 2015. Updated 25-Jan-23.

Replacing a digital photo with a better version 29-Dec-22.

 

'Real Norwegian Edvard Munch' tail livery.

 

This aircraft was delivered to a leasing company and leased to Air Caledonie International (Aircalin) as F-ODGX in Jun-89. It was returned to the lessor in May-04.

 

It was immediately sold to Airwork (New Zealand) Ltd as ZK-PLU and leased to Palau Micronesia Air in Jul-04. Unfortunately it didn't stay long and was returned to Airwork (NZ) Ltd at the end of Dec-04 and stored at Christchurch, New Zealand in Jan-05.

 

The aircraft was leased to Norwegian Air Shuttle as LN-KKS in Apr-05. It returned to the lessor in May-12 and was permanently retired at Stuttgart, AR, USA. The registration was cancelled the same month.

 

I also have a shot of this with Aircalin at ...

www.flickr.com/photos/kenfielding/6237485227

Replacing an earlier scanned photo with a better version 11-Aug-18, plus Topaz DeNoise AI 22-Aug-26.

 

This aircraft was delivered to Irish Aerospace Ltd and leased to AeroCancun (Mexico) as XA-RPH in Nov-89. It was sub-leased to Oasis International Airlines (Spain), initially with the temporary Spanish registration EC-733 in May-91. It was re-registered EC-FFF in Aug-91.

 

The aircraft was returned to AeroCancun as XA-RPH in in Dec-91. It was wet-leased to Oasis International again between Jul/Oct-92. In May-94 it was wet-leased to Oasis International again. In Aug-94 AeroCancun returned the aircraft to the lessor and it was leased direct to Oasis International and re-registered EI-CKM.

 

It was returned to the lessor in Dec-94 and leased to Aero Lloyd (Germany) two weeks later. The German registration D-ALLW was assigned but not taken up and the lease continued as EI-CKM. The aircraft returned to the lessor in Mar-95 and was leased to Sunway Airlines (Turkey) as TC-INC in Apr-95.

 

It returned to the lessor as EI-CKM in Jul-97 and was stored. In Mar-98 the aircraft was leased to Meridiana SpA (Italy). Meridiana was merged with Eurofly to form MeridianaFly in Feb-10. It continued in service until it was retired and returned to the lessor in Nov-11.

 

It was stored at Marana, AZ, USA. The aircraft was permanently retired and sold to Pennant Aviation as N597SC in Mar-12 for parting out. It was last noted still at Marana in Nov-12.