Model: Brad

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!

 

Some background:

The Heinkel He 276 was a night fighter that served with the German Luftwaffe in the later stages of World War II. Its inception dated back to June 1942 when the RLM requested a multi-purpose combat aircraft, the so-called "Arbeitsflugzeug", that could be adapted to various roles and would replace the Bf 110, Ju 88/188 and Do 217.

 

Heinkel responded with a multitude of designs under the project number P.1065, all of them capable of a speed between 600-700 km/h (373-435 mph) and a ragne form 400-1.000km (248-621 miles) and all driven by piston engines. None of them would enter the hardware stage, though.

 

In parallel, Heinkel also worked on the fast He 219 "Uhu" night fighter, also a psiton-engined design which was a direct response to the RAF's fast Mosquito night bombers which flew so high and fast that they could operate almost unmolested over Germany. Additionally, the Luftwaffe had to cope with more and intense night bomber raids - it became clear that the number of night fighters was not big enough to cope with this threat, let alone the aircraft's capabilities.

 

The He 219 was introduced with high hopes, but the advent of the jet age already signalled that the piston-engined fighetr would become obsolete in a matter of months. As stopgap solutions, 1st generation jet aircraft like the Me 262 or the Ar 234 were in hurry converted to night fighters, but this could not hide that fact that a more potent solution was needed - concerning almost any aspect like range, speed, firepower and radar capability.

 

Plans to augment the He 219 were dropped after intial trials, so that Heinkel decided in September 1944 to develop a completely new aircraft, dedicated to the long range night fighter role. The design team did not start from scratch, though, as the He 219 was already a very good basis to start from, with jigs and tools available for quick production start.

 

The He 276 A-0 was consequently designed around the He 219 structure, even though all wing surfaces were new. The main wings had a laminar profile for higher speeds in excess of 800km/h, the aircraft was to be powered by two Heinkel-Hirth S011 jet engines in nacelles under the wings.

In order to keep the tail surfcaes free from the jet efflux, the He 219's twin fin arrangement was replaced by a single fin with a cruciform stabilizer above the fuselage level. Since the engine nacelles could not take the landing gear anymore, a new arrangement with wells in the lower fuselage waas introduced - overall the He 276 resembled a lot the much smaller Ar 234.

 

The radar system was to be the FuG 240 'Berlin', which was still under development, with a (draggy) "antler" antenna arrangement on the nose plus a rearward-facing warning radar. The rarar was operated by a second crew member who's also control the defensive armament, a tail-mounted FDL 131Z barbette. Main armament were four 30mm MK103 machine cannons in the lower fuselage, each with a muzzle velocity of 860 m/s (2,822 ft/s) and firing HE/M rounds at 380 RPM. Like the He 219 the He 276 was equipped with ejection seats.

 

The first prototype was assembled in record time, and the first flight of the He 276 A-0 took place in August 1945 - only to reveal several shortcomings. One issue was poor directional handling, which could quickly be mended through an enlarged fin surface and a fin fillet, the bigger problem was the unavailability of the HeS011 engine for serial production, and its priority allocation to light fighters.

 

As a consequence, the engine arrangement was literally revised over night - the He 276 was direly needed in frontline service and no more delays were accepted. This lead to the He 276 B series, which would become the production type.

This version was powered by four of the proven Junkers Jumo 109-004D, an uprated version of the Me 262's engine. The engines were mounted in separate nacelles under the wings, even though these were so close to each other that they looked like a double nacelle.

 

A further innovation of the B-series was the introduction of the first radar-guided weapons station - the FDL 131ZR was not visually guided (a task that proved to be almost impossible during night sorties), but rather slaved to the radar system which would automatically align and fire the guns. The radar operator could still override the autamatic guidance, but the system was deemed reliable enough for front line use and it effectively relieved the radar operator.

 

The first production series (B-1) only comprised 10 aircraft, and it was almost immediately replaced by the B-2 which introduced another novelty: the parabolic antenna for the FuG 242 'Schwerin' radar, an improved version of the FuG 240 with longer range and higher sensitivity.

The He 276 B-2 arrived at the Nachtjagdgeschwader in early 1946 and was immediately thrown against Allied bombers and fared surprisingly well.

 

The He 276 was a simple aircraft, which made production and maintenance relatively easy. It also offered enough development and modification potential - many machines received augmented armament and equipment in form of so-called Rüstsätze, which were later integrated into production and earned the aircraft additional 'U-X' suffixes. These included racks for unguided R4M or RZ 65 rockets under the wings, or several 'Schräge Musik' cannon arrangements, which featured two or four oblique-mounted guns in the fuselage, partly coupled with an optical or radar trigger to fire them automatically when flying under a target.

 

The He 276 B-2 was the only version to enter service, though - a planned B-3 upgrade with four reheated Jumo 109s (rated at 1.200 kp each) remained on the drawing board.

  

General characteristics:

Crew: 2

Length (incl. rear antenna): 14.97 m (49 ft 2 in)

Wingspan: 16.56 m (54 ft 3 in)

Height: 5.14 m (16 ft 10 in)

Wing area: 44.4 m² (478 ft²)

Max. takeoff weight: 13,580 kg (29,900 lb)

 

Powerplant:

4× Junkers Jumo 109-004D jet engines, each rated at 1.015 kp

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 916 km/h (494 kn, 568 mph)

Range: 1,540 km (831 nmi, 960 mi)

Ferry range: 2,148 km (1,160 nmi, 1,335 mi)

Service ceiling: 13.300 m (43.564 ft)

 

Armament:

4 × 30 mm MK 103 cannons in a detachable fairing under the fuselage, 220 RPG;

2× 13 mm MG 131 in an FDL 131ZR tail barbette, 450 RPG;

Factory Rüstsatz "U1" with 4× 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 cannons, mounted dorsally as

Schräge Musik (oriented 65° above horizontal), 100 RPG

 

Two hardpoints under the outer wings, capable of carrying 500 kg each

(normally occupied by 300l drop tanks).

 

The kit and its assembly:

This whiffy Luft ’46 aircraft model had two inspirational roots. One was the question what could a jet-powered He 219 night fighter have looked like, the other was the real Heinkel P.1065 ‘Arbeitsflugzeug’ project(s), following the idea what that aircraft might have looked like if it had been ushered into production and service?

It would certainly have relied upon existing components – so the concept for this jet-propelled, dedicated night fighter design was born.

 

The model is a wild kitbash, welded together from the following main ingredients:

• Fuselage of a 1:72 Frog He 219 (Matchbox re-boxing)

• Wings from a 1:100 VEB Plasticart An-24 (NuBee re-boxing)

• Two pairs of 1:72 Revell Me 262 engine nacelles

• Fin and stabilizer from an 1:72 Matchbox Douglas F3D Skyknight

  

Sounds odd? Yes, and it took some surgical work to get these pieces together. The He 219 fuselage was shortened, a 1” plug taken out at the wings’ trailing edge, thereby shortening the wing roots to the An-24’s dimensions, and the tail section cut off. The tail gap was replaced by a scratched FDL 131Z barbette, and new stabilizers from a Matchbox F3D placed on top of the fuselage, far away from the jet efflux.

 

I did not want to open the cockpit, but the canopy offers good visibility into the interior, so I scratched something together - the Frog kit has literally nothing of value to offer, so I added a new floor (also acting as front wheel well), new Me 262 seats, dashboards, an IR sight and something that looks like the upper side of a fuselage tank, plus two crew figures.

 

The wings were clipped, too, and the original An-24 turboprops replaced by two pairs of Me 262 engines in the same place, mounted closely together.

 

This meant that the landing gear had to go elsewhere, so I relocated the main landing gear wells into the lower fuselage, changing it into a narrow Ar 234 or B-66 style arrangement - from AH-64, F-86 and Bv 155 parts.

For this new arrangement the belly was cut open and a Fiat G.91 part from a Revell kit integrated. The covers for the main landing gear were scratched from sytrene sheet.

 

The front wheel strut is OOB, but shortened, and instead of a single, big wheel I used smaller twin wheels, from a Matchbox Canberra PR.9. After 25 years these parts finally found a new destination. ^^

 

The thimble radome is a Pavla resin piece, it actually belongs to a Bristol Beaufighter TF Mk. X, but perfectly fits ins shape and size - and the new nose dramatically changes the He 219 lines!

 

On the fuselage, I finally added four vertical guns as a "Schräge Musik" installation, adding some more purpose to the rather ugly aircraft. A pair of drop tanks (from two Academy Fw 190 kits) and their respective hardpoints (from a Me 262) complete the ordnance.

 

I must admit that the thing is ugly as hell, but on the other side looks very German and purposeful - and the new nose section recalls some similarity with a CF-100 or even a B-57a C-130 or a Transall?

  

Painting and markings:

As a late war German night fighter, almost anything goes. I went for a personal mix of two real night fighter schemes, blended into one: the basis comes from a Me 262 two seater which was finished in an unusual scheme for night duties: upper surfaces in RLM 81 & 83 (Braunviolett and Dunkelgrün), with black (RLM 22) undersides.

 

Since many night fighters received field modifications, and in patricular much lighter upper surfaces, I added an individual RLM 76 treatment (maybe whitewash, though - not certain if it was intended as winter or night cammo) that comes from a Ju 188 night reconnaissance aircraft and which can only be described as original.

 

In an initial step the model received its normal paint scheme (using Humbrol 116 and 155, plus flat black from Modelmaster), the RLM 76 additions (with Modelmaster Authentic enamel paint and some Humbrol 127) were then added, so that the original paint could shine through. Everything done with a soft brush, and the result is IMHO very good.

 

All interior surfaces and the landing gear were painted in dark grey (Humbrol 67) and later slightly dry-painted with medium grey (Humbrol 176) in order to point out details.

 

Decals were puzzled together from various sources, and I kept everything very simple and minimal - just some German insignia, a tactical code and the last digits of the airframe's serial number at the top of the fin.

 

Finally, some soot stains were added with grinded graphite and everything sealed under matt acrylic varnish (Revell).

  

I will admit that the He 276 is an ugly aircraft, with a rather utilarian design. But this actually adds a very German touch to it - and how else could a successos to the He 219 or Ju 88 C look like? ;)

Durga, in Hinduism, a principal form of the Goddess, also known as Devi and Shakti.

 

Photo: Ayon Saha

Shiva, meaning "The Auspicious One"), also known as Mahadeva ("Great God"), is a popular Hindu deity. Shiva is regarded as one of the primary forms of God. He is the Supreme God within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism. He is one of the five primary forms of God in the Smarta tradition, and "the Destroyer" or "the Transformer" among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine.

 

Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome forms. At the highest level Shiva is limitless, transcendent, unchanging and formless. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash, as well as a householder with wife Parvati and his two children, Ganesha and Kartikeya and in fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also regarded as the patron god of yoga and arts.

 

The main iconographical attributes of Shiva are the third eye on his forehead, the snake Vasuki around his neck, the crescent moon adorning, the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair, the trishula as his weapon and the damaru as his instrument.

 

Shiva is usually worshiped in the aniconic form of Lingam. Temples of Lord Shiva are called shivalayam.

 

ETYMOLOGY & OTHER NAMES

The Sanskrit word Shiva (Devanagari: शिव, śiva) comes from Shri Rudram Chamakam of Taittiriya Samhita (TS 4.5, 4.7) of Krishna Yajurveda. The root word śi means auspicious. In simple English transliteration it is written either as Shiva or Siva. The adjective śiva, is used as an attributive epithet not particularly of Rudra, but of several other Vedic deities.

 

The other popular names associated with Shiva are Mahadev, Mahesh, Maheshwar, Shankar, Shambhu, Rudra, Har, Trilochan, Devendra (meaning Chief of the gods) and Trilokinath (meaning Lord of the three realms).

 

The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the God Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect. It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. He is the oldest worshipped Lord of India.

 

The Tamil word Sivan, Tamil: சிவன் ("Fair Skinned") could have been derived from the word sivappu. The word 'sivappu' means "red" in Tamil language but while addressing a person's skin texture in Tamil the word 'Sivappu' is used for being Fair Skinned.

 

Adi Sankara, in his interpretation of the name Shiva, the 27th and 600th name of Vishnu sahasranama, the thousand names of Vishnu interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", or "the One who is not affected by three Gunas of Prakrti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)" or "the One who purifies everyone by the very utterance of His name."Swami Chinmayananda, in his translation of Vishnu sahasranama, further elaborates on that verse: Shiva means "the One who is eternally pure" or "the One who can never have any contamination of the imperfection of Rajas and Tamas".

 

Shiva's role as the primary deity of Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("Great God"; mahā "Great" and deva "god"), Maheśvara ("Great Lord"; mahā "great" and īśvara "lord"), and Parameśvara ("Supreme Lord").

 

There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva. The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradition. Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa. The Shri Rudram Chamakam, also known as the Śatarudriya, is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.

 

The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.

 

ASSIMILATION OF TRADITIONS

The figure of Shiva as we know him today was built up over time, with the ideas of many regional sects being amalgamated into a single figure. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented. According to Vijay Nath:

 

Visnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara."

 

Axel Michaels the Indologist suggests that Shaivism, like Vaishnavism, implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept separate.

 

An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes. The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri. Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself, in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam. Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya and Karttikeya.

 

INDUS VALLEY ORIGINS

Many Indus valley seals show animals but one seal that has attracted attention shows a figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic figure seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position and surrounded by animals was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro Pashupati (lord of cattle), an epithet of the later Hindu gods Shiva and Rudra. Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva and have described the figure as having three faces seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.

 

This claim has been criticised, with some academics like Gavin Flood and John Keay characterizing them as unfounded. Writing in 1997 Doris Srinivasan said that "Not too many recent studies continue to call the seal's figure a 'Proto-Siva'", rejecting thereby Marshall's package of proto-Siva features, including that of three heads. She interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man. According to Iravatham Mahadevan symbols 47 and 48 of his Indus script glossary The Indus Script: Texts, Concordance and Tables (1977), representing seated human-like figures, could describe Hindu deity Murugan, popularly known as Shiva and Parvati's son.

 

INDO-EUROPEAN ORIGINS

Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities, including Purusha, Rudra, Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, and others.

 

RUDRA

Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra, and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.

 

The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700 and 1100 BCE based on linguistic and philological evidence. A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras", a group of storm gods. Furthermore, the Rudram, one of the most sacred hymns of Hinduism found both in the Rig and the Yajur Vedas and addressed to Rudra, invokes him as Shiva in several instances, but the term Shiva is used as an epithet for the gods Indra, Mitra and Agni many times. Since Shiva means pure, the epithet is possibly used to describe a quality of these gods rather than to identify any of them with the God Shiva.

 

The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudhra is not universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:

 

Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: Śarva), and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra. This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages.

 

The word is derived from the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means "to injure" or "to kill", and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name Śarva as "One who can kill the forces of darkness". The names Dhanvin ("Bowman") and Bāṇahasta ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands") also refer to archery.

 

AGNI

Rudra and Agni have a close relationship. The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva. The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra." The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:

 

The fire myth of Rudra-Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.

 

In the Śatarudrīya, some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipañjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities. Agni is said to be a bull, and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned. In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.

 

INDRA

According to Wendy Doniger, the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra. Doniger gives several reasons for his hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3, 6.45.17, and 8.93.3.) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull. In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.

 

The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion, and the Indo-Iranian religion. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Iran. It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements", which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana Culture. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma. According to Anthony,

 

Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna, were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra) probably borrowed from the BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers.

 

LATER VEDIC LITERATURE

Rudra's transformation from an ambiguously characterized deity to a supreme being began in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400-200 BCE), which founded the tradition of Rudra-Shiva worship. Here they are identified as the creators of the cosmos and liberators of souls from the birth-rebirth cycle. The period of 200 BCE to 100 CE also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva, with references to Shaiva ascetics in Patanjali's Mahabhasya and in the Mahabharata.

 

Early historical paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, depict Shiva dancing, Shiva's trident, and his mount Nandi but no other Vedic gods.

 

PURANIC LITERATURE

The Shiva Puranas, particularly the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana, discuss the various forms of Shiva and the cosmology associated with him.

 

TANTRIC LITERATURE

The Tantras, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, regard themselves as Sruti. Among these the Shaiva Agamas, are said to have been revealed by Shiva himself and are foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta.

 

POSITION WITHIN HINDUISM

 

SHAIVISM

Shaivism (Sanskrit: शैव पंथ, śaiva paṁtha) (Kannada: ಶೈವ ಪಂಥ) (Tamil: சைவ சமயம்) is the oldest of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", and also "Saivas" or "Saivites", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. The tantric Shaiva tradition consists of the Kapalikas, Kashmir Shaivism and Shaiva Siddhanta. The Shiva MahaPurana is one of the purāṇas, a genre of Hindu religious texts, dedicated to Shiva. Shaivism is widespread throughout India, Nepal, and Sri Lanka, mostly. Areas notable for the practice of Shaivism include parts of Southeast Asia, especially Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia.

 

PANCHAYATANA PUJA

Panchayatana puja is the system of worship ('puja') in the Smarta sampradaya of Hinduism. It is said to have been introduced by Adi Shankara, the 8th century CE Hindu philosopher. It consists of the worship of five deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Devi, Surya and Ganesha. Depending on the tradition followed by Smarta households, one of these deities is kept in the center and the other four surround it. Worship is offered to all the deities. The five are represented by small murtis, or by five kinds of stones, or by five marks drawn on the floor.

 

TRIMURTI

The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahmā the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Śhiva the destroyer or transformer. These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad" or the "Great Trinity", often addressed as "Brahma-Vishnu-Maheshwara."

 

ICONOGRAPHY AND PROPERTIES

 

ATTRIBUTES

Shiva's form: Shiva has a trident in the right lower arm, and a crescent moon on his head. He is said to be fair like camphor or like an ice clad mountain. He wears five serpents and a garland of skulls as ornaments. Shiva is usually depicted facing the south. His trident, like almost all other forms in Hinduism, can be understood as the symbolism of the unity of three worlds that a human faces - his inside world, his immediate world, and the broader overall world. At the base of the trident, all three forks unite.

 

Third eye: (Trilochana) Shiva is often depicted with a third eye, with which he burned Desire (Kāma) to ashes, called "Tryambakam" (Sanskrit: त्र्यम्बकम् ), which occurs in many scriptural sources. In classical Sanskrit, the word ambaka denotes "an eye", and in the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as three-eyed, so this name is sometimes translated as "having three eyes". However, in Vedic Sanskrit, the word ambā or ambikā means "mother", and this early meaning of the word is the basis for the translation "three mothers". These three mother-goddesses who are collectively called the Ambikās. Other related translations have been based on the idea that the name actually refers to the oblations given to Rudra, which according to some traditions were shared with the goddess Ambikā. It has been mentioned that when Shiva loses his temper, his third eye opens which can destroy most things to ashes.

 

Crescent moon: (The epithets "Chandrasekhara/Chandramouli") - Shiva bears on his head the crescent moon. The epithet Candraśekhara (Sanskrit: चन्द्रशेखर "Having the moon as his crest" - candra = "moon"; śekhara = "crest, crown") refers to this feature. The placement of the moon on his head as a standard iconographic feature dates to the period when Rudra rose to prominence and became the major deity Rudra-Shiva. The origin of this linkage may be due to the identification of the moon with Soma, and there is a hymn in the Rig Veda where Soma and Rudra are jointly implored, and in later literature, Soma and Rudra came to be identified with one another, as were Soma and the moon. The crescent moon is shown on the side of the Lord's head as an ornament. The waxing and waning phenomenon of the moon symbolizes the time cycle through which creation evolves from the beginning to the end.

 

Ashes: (The epithet "Bhasmaanga Raaga") - Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma). The ashes are said to represent the end of all material existence. Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy. These practices associated with cremation grounds are also mentioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism. One epithet for Shiva is "inhabitant of the cremation ground" (Sanskrit: śmaśānavāsin, also spelled Shmashanavasin), referring to this connection.

 

Matted hair: (The epithet "Jataajoota Dhari/Kapardina") - Shiva's distinctive hair style is noted in the epithets Jaṭin, "the one with matted hair", and Kapardin, "endowed with matted hair" or "wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion". A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or, more generally, hair that is shaggy or curly. His hair is said to be like molten gold in color or being yellowish-white.

 

Blue throat: The epithet Nīlakaṇtha (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ; nīla = "blue", kaṇtha = "throat"). Since Shiva drank the Halahala poison churned up from the Samudra Manthan to eliminate its destructive capacity. Shocked by his act, Goddess Parvati strangled his neck and hence managed to stop it in his neck itself and prevent it from spreading all over the universe, supposed to be in Shiva's stomach. However the poison was so potent that it changed the color of his neck to blue. (See Maha Shivaratri.)

 

Sacred Ganges: (The epithet "Gangadhara") Bearer of Ganga. Ganges river flows from the matted hair of Shiva. The Gaṅgā (Ganges), one of the major rivers of the country, is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair. The flow of the Ganges also represents the nectar of immortality.

 

Tiger skin: (The epithet "Krittivasana").He is often shown seated upon a tiger skin, an honour reserved for the most accomplished of Hindu ascetics, the Brahmarishis.

 

Serpents: (The epithet "Nagendra Haara" or 'Vasoki"). Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.

 

Deer: His holding deer on one hand indicates that He has removed the Chanchalata of the mind (i.e., attained maturity and firmness in thought process). A deer jumps from one place to another swiftly, similar to the mind moving from one thought to another.

 

Trident: (Trishula): Shiva's particular weapon is the trident. His Trisul that is held in His right hand represents the three Gunas— Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. That is the emblem of sovereignty. He rules the world through these three Gunas. The Damaru in His left hand represents the Sabda Brahman. It represents OM from which all languages are formed. It is He who formed the Sanskrit language out of the Damaru sound.

 

Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a damaru (ḍamaru). This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "ḍamaru-hand") is used to hold the drum. This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect.

 

Axe: (Parashu):The parashu is the weapon of Lord Shiva who gave it to Parashurama, sixth Avatar of Vishnu, whose name means "Rama with the axe" and also taught him its mastery.

 

Nandī: (The epithet "Nandi Vaahana").Nandī, also known as Nandin, is the name of the bull that serves as Shiva's mount (Sanskrit: vāhana). Shiva's association with cattle is reflected in his name Paśupati, or Pashupati (Sanskrit: पशुपति), translated by Sharma as "lord of cattle" and by Kramrisch as "lord of animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra. Rishabha or the bull represents Dharma Devata. Lord Siva rides on the bull. Bull is his vehicle. This denotes that Lord Siva is the protector of Dharma, is an embodiment of Dharma or righteousness.

 

Gaṇa: The Gaṇas (Devanagari: गण) are attendants of Shiva and live in Kailash. They are often referred to as the bhutaganas, or ghostly hosts, on account of their nature. Generally benign, except when their lord is transgressed against, they are often invoked to intercede with the lord on behalf of the devotee. Ganesha was chosen as their leader by Shiva, hence Ganesha's title gaṇa-īśa or gaṇa-pati, "lord of the gaṇas".

 

Mount Kailāsa: Mount Kailash in the Himalayas is his traditional abode. In Hindu mythology, Mount Kailāsa is conceived as resembling a Linga, representing the center of the universe.

 

Varanasi: Varanasi (Benares) is considered to be the city specially loved by Shiva, and is one of the holiest places of pilgrimage in India. It is referred to, in religious contexts, as Kashi.

 

LINGAM

Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva in the form of a lingam, or linga, is also important. These are depicted in various forms. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column. Shiva means auspiciousness, and linga means a sign or a symbol. Hence, the Shivalinga is regarded as a "symbol of the great God of the universe who is all-auspiciousness". Shiva also means "one in whom the whole creation sleeps after dissolution". Linga also means the same thing—a place where created objects get dissolved during the disintegration of the created universe. Since, according to Hinduism, it is the same god that creates, sustains and withdraws the universe, the Shivalinga represents symbolically God Himself. Some scholars, such as Monier Monier-Williams and Wendy Doniger, also view linga as a phallic symbol, although this interpretation is disputed by others, including Christopher Isherwood, Vivekananda, Swami Sivananda, and S.N. Balagangadhara.

 

JYOTIRLINGA

The worship of the Shiva-Linga originated from the famous hymn in the Atharva-Veda Samhitâ sung in praise of the Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the Soma plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga. In the text Linga Purana, the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.

 

The sacred of all Shiva linga is worshipped as Jyotir linga. Jyoti means Radiance, apart from relating Shiva linga as a phallus symbol, there are also arguments that Shiva linga means 'mark' or a 'sign'. Jyotirlinga means "The Radiant sign of The Almighty". The Jyotirlingas are mentioned in Shiva Purana.

 

SHAKTI

Shiva forms a Tantric couple with Shakti [Tamil : சக்தி ], the embodiment of energy, dynamism, and the motivating force behind all action and existence in the material universe. Shiva is her transcendent masculine aspect, providing the divine ground of all being. Shakti manifests in several female deities. Sati and Parvati are the main consorts of Shiva. She is also referred to as Uma, Durga (Parvata), Kali and Chandika. Kali is the manifestation of Shakti in her dreadful aspect. The name Kali comes from kāla, which means black, time, death, lord of death, Shiva. Since Shiva is called Kāla, the eternal time, Kālī, his consort, also means "Time" or "Death" (as in "time has come"). Various Shakta Hindu cosmologies, as well as Shākta Tantric beliefs, worship her as the ultimate reality or Brahman. She is also revered as Bhavatārini (literally "redeemer of the universe"). Kālī is represented as the consort of Lord Shiva, on whose body she is often seen standing or dancing. Shiva is the masculine force, the power of peace, while Shakti translates to power, and is considered as the feminine force. In the Vaishnava tradition, these realities are portrayed as Vishnu and Laxmi, or Radha and Krishna. These are differences in formulation rather than a fundamental difference in the principles. Both Shiva and Shakti have various forms. Shiva has forms like Yogi Raj (the common image of Himself meditating in the Himalayas), Rudra (a wrathful form) and Natarajar (Shiva's dance are the Lasya - the gentle form of dance, associated with the creation of the world, and the Tandava - the violent and dangerous dance, associated with the destruction of weary worldviews – weary perspectives and lifestyles).

 

THE FIVE MANTRAS

Five is a sacred number for Shiva. One of his most important mantras has five syllables (namaḥ śivāya).

 

Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pañcabrahmans. As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:

 

Sadyojāta

Vāmadeva

Aghora

Tatpuruṣha

Īsāna

 

These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action. Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes. The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:

 

Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.

 

According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad:

 

One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)

 

FORMES AND ROLES

According to Gavin Flood, "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing themes.[168] The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.

 

DESTROYER AND BENEFACTOR

In the Yajurveda, two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrific (Sanskrit: rudra) and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: śiva) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here". In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance. The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names.

 

The name Rudra (Sanskrit: रुद्र) reflects his fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud-, which means "to cry, howl". Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means "wild, of rudra nature", and translates the name Rudra as "the wild one" or "the fierce god". R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible". Hara (Sanskrit: हर) is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys". Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher". Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as Kāla (Sanskrit: काल), "time", and as Mahākāla (Sanskrit: महाकाल), "great time", which ultimately destroys all things. Bhairava (Sanskrit: भैरव), "terrible" or "frightful", is a fierce form associated with annihilation.

 

In contrast, the name Śaṇkara (Sanskrit: शङ्कर), "beneficent" or "conferring happiness" reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Śaṇkara (c. 788 - 820 CE), who is also known as Shankaracharya. The name Śambhu (Sanskrit: शम्भु), "causing happiness", also reflects this benign aspect.

 

ASCETIC AND HOUSEHOLDER

He is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder, roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society.[185] When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating. His epithet Mahāyogi ("the great Yogi: Mahā = "great", Yogi = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga. While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts. Shiva is also depicted as a corpse below Goddess Kali, it represents that Shiva is a corpse without Shakti. He remains inert. While Shiva is the static form, Mahakali or Shakti is the dynamic aspect without whom Shiva is powerless.

 

As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet Umāpati ("The husband of Umā") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, Umākānta and Umādhava, also appear in the sahasranama. Umā in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign Pārvatī. She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari, Durga, Kamakshi and Meenakshi. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe. His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in Southern India (especially in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in Northern India by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.

 

Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini, Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, Shasta - identified with regional deities Ayyappa and Ayyanar - is born. Shiva is also mentioned in some scriptures or folktales to have had daughters like the serpent-goddess Manasa and Ashokasundari. Even the demon Andhaka is sometimes considered a child of Shiva.

 

NATARAJA

he depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Tamil: நடராஜா,Kannada: ನಟರಾಜ, Telugu: నటరాజు, Sanskrit: naṭarāja, "Lord of Dance") is popular. The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama. His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period. In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: nṛtyamūrti) are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular. The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava, which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Lord Śiva does it by the tāṇḍavanṛtya. and Lasya, which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati. Lasya is regarded as the female counterpart of Tandava. The Tandava-Lasya dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.

 

DAKSHINAMURTHY

Dakshinamurthy, or Dakṣiṇāmūrti (Tamil:தட்சிணாமூர்த்தி, Telugu: దక్షిణామూర్తి, Sanskrit: दक्षिणामूर्ति), literally describes a form (mūrti) of Shiva facing south (dakṣiṇa). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the shastras. This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu. Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.

 

ARDANARISHVARA

An iconographic representation of Shiva called (Ardhanārīśvara) shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form (Ardhanārīśvara) is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", not as "half-man, half-woman". According to legend, Lord Shiva is pleased by the difficult austerites performed by the goddess Parvati, grants her the left half of his body. This form of Shiva is quite similar to the Yin-Yang philosophy of Eastern Asia, though Ardhanārīśvara appears to be more ancient.

 

TRIRUPANTAKA

Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, Tripura, of the Asuras. Shiva's name Tripurantaka (Sanskrit: त्रिपुरान्तक, Tripurāntaka), "ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.[216] In this aspect, Shiva is depicted with four arms wielding a bow and arrow, but different from the Pinakapani murti. He holds an axe and a deer on the upper pair of his arms. In the lower pair of the arms, he holds a bow and an arrow respectively. After destroying Tripura, Tripurantaka Shiva smeared his forehead with three strokes of Ashes. This has become a prominent symbol of Shiva and is practiced even today by Shaivites.

 

OTHER FORMS, AVATARS IDENTIFICATIONS

Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations, known as Avatars. Although Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to "ansh" avatars of Shiva, the idea is not universally accepted in Saivism. The Linga Purana speaks of twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars. According to the Svetasvatara Upanishad, he has four avatars.

 

In the Hanuman Chalisa, Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva and this belief is universal. Hanuman is popularly known as “Rudraavtaar” “Rudra” being a name of “Shiva”. Rama– the Vishnu avatar is considered by some to be the eleventh avatar of Rudra (Shiva).

 

Other traditions regard the sage Durvasa, the sage Agastya, the philosopher Adi Shankara, as avatars of Shiva. Other forms of Shiva include Virabhadra and Sharabha.

 

FESTIVALS

Maha Shivratri is a festival celebrated every year on the 13th night or the 14th day of the new moon in the Shukla Paksha of the month of Maagha or Phalguna in the Hindu calendar. This festival is of utmost importance to the devotees of Lord Shiva. Mahashivaratri marks the night when Lord Shiva performed the 'Tandava' and it is the day that Lord Shiva was married to Parvati. The holiday is often celebrated with special prayers and rituals offered up to Shiva, notably the Abhishek. This ritual, practiced throughout the night, is often performed every three hours with water, milk, yogurt, and honey. Bel (aegle marmelos) leaves are often offered up to the Hindu god, as it is considered necessary for a successful life. The offering of the leaves are considered so important that it is believed that someone who offers them without any intentions will be rewarded greatly.

 

BEYOND HINDUISM

 

BUDDHISM

Shiva is mentioned in Buddhist Tantra. Shiva as Upaya and Shakti as Prajna. In cosmologies of buddhist tantra, Shiva is depicted as active, skillful, and more passive.

 

SIKHISM

The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says, "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi." In the same chapter, it also says, "Shiva speaks, the Siddhas speak."

 

In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh have mentioned two avtars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avtar and Parasnath Avtar.

 

OTHERS

The worship of Lord Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the Hephthalite (White Hun) Dynasty, and Kushan Empire. Shaivism was also popular in Sogdiana and Eastern Turkestan as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan. In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread ("Yajnopavita"). He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sodgian dress. In Eastern Turkestan in the Taklamakan Desert. There is a depiction of his four-legged seated cross-legged n a cushioned seat supported by two bulls. Another panel form Dandan-Uilip shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with His Shakti kneeling on her right thigh. It is also noted that Zoroastrian wind god Vayu-Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.

 

Kirant people, a Mongol tribe from Nepal, worship a form of Shiva as one of their major deity, identifying him as the lord of animals. It is also said that the physical form of Shiva as a yogi is derived from Kirants as it is mentioned in Mundhum that Shiva took human form as a child of Kirant. He is also said to give Kirants visions in form of a male deer.

 

In Indonesia, Shiva is also worshiped as Batara Guru. His other name is "Sang Hyang Jagadnata" (king of the universe) and "Sang Hyang Girinata" (king of mountains). In the ancient times, all kingdoms were located on top of mountains. When he was young, before receiving his authority of power, his name was Sang Hyang Manikmaya. He is first of the children who hatched from the eggs laid by Manuk Patiaraja, wife of god Mulajadi na Bolon. This avatar is also worshiped in Malaysia. Shiva's other form in Indonesian Hindu worship is "Maharaja Dewa" (Mahadeva). Both the forms are closely identified with the Sun in local forms of Hinduism or Kebatinan, and even in the genie lore of Muslims. Mostly Shiva is worshipped in the form of a lingam or the phallus.

 

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NON HINDUS

ARE NOT ALLOWED INSIDE THE TEMPLE

 

Lingaraj Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Harihara, a form of Shiva and is one of the oldest temples in Bhubaneswar, the capital of the East Indian state of Odisha (formerly Orissa). The temple is the most prominent landmark of the Bhubaneswar city and one of the major tourist attractions of the state.

 

The Lingaraj temple is the largest temple in Bhubaneswar. The central tower of the temple is 55 m tall. The temple represents the quintessence of the Kalinga Architecture and culminates the medieval stages of the architectural tradition at Bhubaneswar. The temple is believed to be built by the kings from the Somavamsi dynasty, with later additions from the Ganga rulers. The temple is built in the Deula style that has four components namely, vimana (structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), natamandira (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings), each increasing in the height to its predecessor. The temple complex has 50 other shrines and is enclosed by a large compound wall.

 

Bhubaneswar is called the Ekamra Kshetra as the deity of Lingaraj was originally under a mango tree (Ekamra) as noted in Ekamra Purana, a 13th-century Sanskrit treatise. The temple is active in worship practises, unlike most other temples in Bhubaneswar and Shiva is worshipped as Harihara, a combined form of Vishnu and Shiva. The temple has images of Vishnu, possibly because of the rising prominence of Jagannath cult emnating from the Ganga rulers who built the Jagannath Temple in Puri in the 12th century.

 

Lingaraj temple is maintained by the Temple Trust Board and the Archeological Survey of India (ASI). The temple has an average of 6,000 visitors per day and receives lakhs of visitors during festivals. Shivaratri festival is the major festival celebrated in the temple and event during 2012 witnessed 200,000 visitors.

 

HISTORY

Lingaraj means "The king of Lingam", the symbol of Saivism. Shiva was worshipped as Kirtivasa and later as Harihara and is commonly referred as Tribhuvaneshwara (also called Bhubaneswar), the master of three worlds, namely, heaven, earth and netherworld). His consort is called Bhuvaneshvari.

 

The temple is more than 1100 years old, dating back in its present form to the last decade of the eleventh century, though there is evidence that part of the temple was built during the sixth century CE as the temple has been emphasized in some of the seventh century Sanskrit texts. Fergusson believes the temple might have been initiated by Lelat Indra Kesari who reigned from 615 to 657 CE. The Assembly hall (jagamohana), sanctum and temple tower wer built during the eleventh century, while the Hall of offering (bhoga-mandapa) was built during the twelfth century. The natamandira was built by the wife of Salini between 1099 and 1104 CE. By the time the Lingaraj temple was completely constructed, the Jagannath (form of Vishnu) cult had been growing in the region, which historians believe is evidenced by the co-existence of Vishnu and Shiva worship at the temple. The Ganga dynasty kings were ardent followers of Vaishnavism and built the Jagannath Temple at Puri in the 12th century.

 

The temple is believed to be built by the Somavanshi king Jajati Keshari, in 11th century CE. Jajati Keshari had shifted his capital from Jajpur to Bhubaneswar which was referred to as Ekamra Kshetra in the Brahma Purana, an ancient scripture. One of the Somavamsi queens donated a village to the temple and the Brahmins attached to the temple received generous grants. An inscription from the Saka year 1094 (1172 CE) indicates gifts of gold coins to the temple by Rajaraja II. Another inscription of Narasimha I from the 11th century indicates offer of beetel leaves as tambula to the presiding deity. Other stone inscriptions in the temple indicate royal grants from Chodaganga to village people.

 

ARCHITECTURE

The Lingaraj temple is the largest temple in Bhubaneswar. James Ferugsson (1808–86), a noted critic and historian, rated the temple as "one of the finest examples of purely Hindu temple in India". It is enshrined within a spacious compound wall of laterite measuring 160 m by 142 m. The wall is 2.3 m thick and surmounted by a plain slant coping. Alongside the inner face of the boundary wall, there is a terrace to protect the compound wall against outside aggression. The tower is 55 m high and the complex has 150 smaller shrines in its spacious courtyard. Each inch of the 55 m tall tower is sculpted. The door in the gate of the entrance porch is made of sandalwood.

 

The Lingaraja temple faces east and is built of sandstone and laterite. The main entrance is located in the east, while there are small entrances in the north and south. The temple is built in the Deula style that has four components namely, vimana (structure containing the sanctum), jagamohana (assembly hall), natamandira (festival hall) and bhoga-mandapa (hall of offerings). The dance hall was associated with the raising prominence of the devadasi system that existed during the time. The various units from the Hall of offering to the tower of the sanctum increase in height.

 

The bhogamandapa (Hall of offering) measures 13 m by 13 m from the inside, 17.15 m by 17.25 m from the outside and has four doors in each of the sides. The exterior walls of the hall has decorative sculptures of men and beast. The hall has a pyramidal roof made of up several horizontal layers arranged in sets of two with intervening platform. It bears an inverted bell and a kalasa in the top. The natamandira (festival hall) measures 12 m by 12 m from the inside, 15 m by 15 m from the outside, has one main entrance and two side entrances. The side walls of the hall has decortive sculptures displaying women and couples. It has a flat roof sloping in stages. There are thick pylons inside the hall. The jagamohana (assembly hall) measures 11 m by 9.1 m from the inside, 17 m by 15 m from the outside, entrances from south and north and has a 30 metres tall roof. The hall has a pyramidal roof made of up several horizontal layers arranged in sets of two with intervening platform as in the Hall of offering. The facade to the entrances are decorated with perforated windows with lion sitting on hind legs. The inverted bell above second unit is adorned by kalasa and lions. The rekha deula has a 60 m tall pyramidal tower over the sanctum and measures 6.7 m from the inside, 16 m from the outside over the sanctum. It is covered with decorative design and seated lion projecting from the walls. The sanctum is square in shape from the inside. The tower walls are sculpted with female figures in different poses.

 

RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE

Bhubaneswar is called the Ekamra Kshetra as the deity of Lingaraj was originally under a mango tree (Ekamra). Ekamra Purana, a Sanskrit treatise of the 13th century mentions that the presiding deity was not seen as lingam (an aniconic form of Shiva) during the Satya and Treta yugas and only during the Dwapara and Kali yugas, it emerged as a lingam. The lingam in the temple is a natural unshaped stone that rests on a Sakti. Such a lingam is called Krutibasa or Swayambhu and is found in 64 places in different parts of India. With the advent of the Ganga dynasty in the early 12th century, who had Vaishnavaite orientation, a new movement started resulting in the synthesis of Saivism and Vaishnavism. The Ekamra was associated with Vaishanavite gods Krishna and Balaram during the period. It is attributed the raising prominence of Jagannath cult that became predominant during the construction of the temple. The Ganges remodelled the temple and introduced certain Vaishnavite elements like images of Vaishnava Dwarapalas namely Jaya and Prachanda, Jagannatha, Lakshmi Narayan and Garuda were installed. Tulsi leaves, which are favoured by Vishnu, was used along with Bela leaves for the worship of Lingaraj. Lingaraja was thus came to be known as Harihara, a combination of Shiva and Vishnu. The flag of the temple was fixed to a Pinaka bow instead of trident usually found in Shiva temples. The temple priests also changed the mark in their forehead from horizontal to a "U" sign with a dotted middle line. The Ganges also introduced certain fairs like Swing festival, Sun worship and mock quarell between priests after chariot festival, similar to the practises in Jagannath Temple in Puri. The influence of the Ganges dynasty has led to a cosmopolitan culture, that has reduced the status of Lingaraja temple as a distinct Saivite shrine.

 

FESTIVAL & WORSHIP PRACTISES

As per Hindu legend, an underground river originating from the Lingaraj temple fills the Bindusagar Tank (meaning ocean drop) and the water is believed to heal physical and spiritual illness. The water from the tank is thus treated sacred and pilgrims take a holy dip during festive occasions. The central deity of the temple, Lingaraj, is worshipped both as Shiva and Vishnu. The harmony between the two sects of Hinduism, Saivism and Vaishanvism, is seen in this temple where the deity is worshipped as Harihara, a combined form of Vishnu and Shiva.

 

Shivaratri is the main festival celebrated annually in Phalgun month when thousands of devotees visit the temple. Apart from a full day of fasting, bel leaves are offered to Lingaraj on this auspicious day. The main celebrations take place at night when devotees pray all night long. The devout usually break their fast after the Mahadipa (a huge lamp) is lit on the spire of the temple. Every year the chariot festival (Ratha-Yatra) of Lingaraja is celebrated on Ashokashtami. The deity is taken in a chariot to Rameshwar Deula temple. Thousands of devotees follow and pull brightly decorated chariots containing the idols of Lingaraj and his sister Rukmani. This chariot procession stays for five days at the Rameshwar Temple and then will be brought back. This festival commemorates Lord Lingaraj having slayed a demon. Thousands of bol bom pilgrims carry water from river Mahanadi and walk all the way to the temple during the month of Shravana every year. Sunian day is observed from royal times in the month of Bhandra, a day when temple servants, peasants and other holders of temple lands offer loyalty and tribute to Lingaraja. Candan Yatra (Sandalwood ceremony) is a 22-day festival celebrated in the temple when servants of the temple disport themselves in a specially made barge in Bindusagar tank. The deities and servants of the temples are anointed with sandalwood paste to protect from heat. Dances, communal feasts and merrymaking are arranged by the people associated with the temple.

 

The Lingaraja temple is active in worship practises, unlike the other ancient temples of Bhubaneshwar which are not active worship centres. Non Hindus are not allowed inside the temple, but it can be viewed from the viewing platform located outside the temple. The viewing platform and the back of the temple can be reached via a lineway located to the right of the main entrance of the temple. Sanctity of the temple is maitained by disallowing dogs, unbathed visitors, menstruating women and families that encountered birth or death in the preceding 12 days. In case of a foreign tresspass, the temple follows a purification ritual and dumping of prasad (food offering) in a well.

 

RELIGIOUS PRACTICES

The image of Lingaraja is abluted with water (called mahasnana) several times a day and decorated with flowers, sandal paste and cloth. Hemlock or hemlock flowers which are generally offered in other Shiva temples is not allowed in the Lingaraja temple. Bilva leaves (Aegle marmelos) and tulasi (Ocimum sanctum) are used in daily worship. Offerings of cooked rice, curries and sweet-meats are displayed in the bhogamandapa (hall of offering) and the divinity is invoked to accept them amidst scores of chanting of Sanskrit texts. Coconut, ripe plantains and kora-khai are generally offered to Lingaraja by the pilgrims. Bhang beverage is offered to Lingaraja by some devotees especially on the day of Pana Sankranti (Oriya new year).

 

The Lingaraja temple is open from 6 a.m. to about 9 p.m. and is intermittently closed during bhoga (food offering) to the deity. During early morning, lamps in the cella are lit to awaken Lingaraja from his sleep, ablution is performed, followed by adoration and arati (waving of light). The temple is closed at about 12 p.m. until about 3.30 P.M. A ceremony known as Mahasnana (ablution) is performed once the doors are closed, followed by pouring of Panchamrita (a mixture of milk, curdled milk, clarified butter, honey and ghee) upon the deity for purification. At about 1 P.M., a ripe plantain is divided into two, one half is offered to Sun god and the other half to Dwarapala (the guarding deities in the doorway). Between 1.00 and 1.30 P.M. the food offering called Ballabha Bhoga (breakfast containing curdled milk, curd and vegetables) is offered to the deity. The consecrated food is carried to the temple of Parvati and placed before her as an offering, a practice commonly observed by the orthodox Hindu housewives. At about 2 P.M., the Sakala Dhupa (morning's offering of food) takes place. After the food is offered to Lingaraja, the offerings are carried to the temple of Parvati to serve her. An offering called Bhanda Dhupa is carried out at 3.30 P.M. at the hall of offering. This food is later offered by the inmates to the pilgrims as Mahaprasad.

 

A light refreshment known as Ballabha Dhupa is offered to the deity at around 4.30 P.M. At around 5 P.M., Dwipahar Dhupa (mid day meal) is offered. At around 7 P.M., another offering called Palia Badu is placed before the deity. Sandhya arati (waving of lights in the evening) is performed during that time. Another light meal called Sahana Dhupa is offered at around 8:30 P.M. After the meals, the ceremony of waving light (arati) is performed before the deity. At 9.30 P.M, the last service of the day, Bada Singara (the great decoration) is performed when the deity is decorated with flowers and ornaments after which a light food offering is made. A wooden palanquin is laid in the room, incense is lighted, drinking water is served and prepared betel is placed. Panchabaktra Mahadeva comes to the palanquin and returns to his own abode after the arati is performed. This is a bronze image of Mahadeva having five faces and Parvati in his lap. Each of these ceremonies is accompanied by ritual observances and recitations of mantras (Sanskrit texts) specified for each occasion.

 

TEMPLE STAFF & ADMINISTRATION

King Jajati Keshari, believed to be the founder of the Lingaraja temple, deputed Dravidian Brahmins as temple priests over the local Brahmins on account of their increased knowledge of Saivism. The focus was to enhance the temple practises from tribal rites to Sanskritic. While the exact number of castes involved in the nijogas (practises) is not known, Brahmins, tribal worshippers and inmates from Untouchable castes are believed to be part of the setup. Bose (1958) identified 41 services with the involvement of 22 separate castes and Mahaptra (1978) identified 30 services. It is understood from the records that kings and temple managers of different times introduced or discontinued certain services, fairs, offerings and caste-centred core services during their regime. As of 2012, the temple practised 36 different services (nijogas).

 

In modern times, the Lingaraja temple priests are from two communities, namely Brahman Nijog and Badu Nijog. The Badu are non-Brahmin servant groups, whose origin is not ascertained due to unavailability of authentic records, while they are described as Vadu in chapter 62 of the Ekamrapurana. The caste group of Badu is called Niyoga, which elects the officers every year during the Sandalwood festival. Every Badu undergoes three distinct rites, namely, ear-piercing, marriage and god-touching. Historically, the Badus performed five different temple duties - Paliabadu and Pharaka, which were considered important and Pochha, Pahada and Khataseja, which were considered inferior. From 1962, only Paliabadu and Pharaka practises are followed and the others are discontinued. The Badus also carry out ablution and dressing of the images of Siddhaganesh and Gopalini. The temple is maintained by the Temple Trust Board and the Archeological Survey of India (ASI). The temple is guarded by security personnel deputed by the Police Commissioner of Bhubaneswar and security guards appointed by the temple administration. The temple has an average of 6,000 visitors every day and receives lakhs of visitors during festivals. The Shivaratri festival during 2012 witnessed 200,000 visitors. As of 2011, the annual income of Lingaraja temple from hundis (donation boxes) is around INR1.2 million per annum. Another INR4 million is collected annually from other sources like rents from shops, cycle stands and agriculture lands. Starting 2011, the temple charges an amount for six types of religious worship (special pujas) carried out by the devotees.

 

WIKIPEDIA

 

We continue on our journey exploring old dies and forming techniques. We've now discovered that a combination of three types of hammers are required to achieve forming in many of the dies

"Contrapuntal Forms 1950-51" is carved from Irish blue limestone. It was commissioned for the Festival of Britain by the Arts Council and in 1953 was presented to the new town of Harlow where it still (normally) stands.

Violet Ashes Sunset No. 6

 

Image taken in Gawler, South Australia, Australia.

 

Copyright © Violet Ashes 2014.

Canon EOS 450D

All rights reserved.

 

My images may not be reproduced, copied, edited & published in any form without my permission. To purchase hi-res images please visit my DeviantArt site, link below.

 

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1976 - Walter J. Diethelm

Any theories?

by rapierpa

Firoz's true form

Ice forming on coast of Wedgeport, N.S.

 

second rounded form; smoked céramic

antroji apvalaina forma

 

céramique enfumée, env. 20x25cm

 

mon blog inspirations -- įkvėpimai

 

700130 at Farringdon to form the 15:16 to Peterbough on 26th Feb 2018

A visit to the National Trust property that is Penrhyn Castle

 

Penrhyn Castle is a country house in Llandygai, Bangor, Gwynedd, North Wales, in the form of a Norman castle. It was originally a medieval fortified manor house, founded by Ednyfed Fychan. In 1438, Ioan ap Gruffudd was granted a licence to crenellate and he founded the stone castle and added a tower house. Samuel Wyatt reconstructed the property in the 1780s.

 

The present building was created between about 1822 and 1837 to designs by Thomas Hopper, who expanded and transformed the building beyond recognition. However a spiral staircase from the original property can still be seen, and a vaulted basement and other masonry were incorporated into the new structure. Hopper's client was George Hay Dawkins-Pennant, who had inherited the Penrhyn estate on the death of his second cousin, Richard Pennant, who had made his fortune from slavery in Jamaica and local slate quarries. The eldest of George's two daughters, Juliana, married Grenadier Guard, Edward Gordon Douglas, who, on inheriting the estate on George's death in 1845, adopted the hyphenated surname of Douglas-Pennant. The cost of the construction of this vast 'castle' is disputed, and very difficult to work out accurately, as much of the timber came from the family's own forestry, and much of the labour was acquired from within their own workforce at the slate quarry. It cost the Pennant family an estimated £150,000. This is the current equivalent to about £49,500,000.

 

Penrhyn is one of the most admired of the numerous mock castles built in the United Kingdom in the 19th century; Christopher Hussey called it, "the outstanding instance of Norman revival." The castle is a picturesque composition that stretches over 600 feet from a tall donjon containing family rooms, through the main block built around the earlier house, to the service wing and the stables.

 

It is built in a sombre style which allows it to possess something of the medieval fortress air despite the ground-level drawing room windows. Hopper designed all the principal interiors in a rich but restrained Norman style, with much fine plasterwork and wood and stone carving. The castle also has some specially designed Norman-style furniture, including a one-ton slate bed made for Queen Victoria when she visited in 1859.

 

Hugh Napier Douglas-Pennant, 4th Lord Penrhyn, died in 1949, and the castle and estate passed to his niece, Lady Janet Pelham, who, on inheritance, adopted the surname of Douglas-Pennant. In 1951, the castle and 40,000 acres (160 km²) of land were accepted by the treasury in lieu of death duties from Lady Janet. It now belongs to the National Trust and is open to the public. The site received 109,395 visitors in 2017.

  

Grade I Listed Building

 

Penrhyn Castle

  

History

 

The present house, built in the form of a vast Norman castle, was constructed to the design of Thomas Hopper for George Hay Dawkins-Pennant between 1820 and 1837. It has been very little altered since.

 

The original house on the site was a medieval manor house of C14 origin, for which a licence to crenellate was given at an unknown date between 1410 and 1431. This house survived until c1782 when it was remodelled in castellated Gothick style, replete with yellow mathematical tiles, by Samuel Wyatt for Richard Pennant. This house, the great hall of which is incorporated in the present drawing room, was remodelled in c1800, but the vast profits from the Penrhyn slate quarries enabled all the rest to be completely swept away by Hopper's vast neo-Norman fantasy, sited and built so that it could be seen not only from the quarries, but most parts of the surrounding estate, thereby emphasizing the local dominance of the Dawkins-Pennant family. The total cost is unknown but it cannot have been less than the £123,000 claimed by Catherine Sinclair in 1839.

 

Since 1951 the house has belonged to the National Trust, together with over 40,000 acres of the family estates around Ysbyty Ifan and the Ogwen valley.

 

Exterior

 

Country house built in the style of a vast Norman castle with other later medieval influences, so huge (its 70 roofs cover an area of over an acre (0.4ha)) that it almost defies meaningful description. The main components of the house, which is built on a north-south axis with the main elevations to east and west, are the 124ft (37.8m) high keep, based on Castle Hedingham (Essex) containing the family quarters on the south, the central range, protected by a 'barbican' terrace on the east, housing the state apartments, and the rectangular-shaped staff/service buildings and stables to the north. The whole is constructed of local rubblestone with internal brick lining, but all elevations are faced in tooled Anglesey limestone ashlar of the finest quality jointing; flat lead roofs concealed by castellated parapets. Close to, the extreme length of the building (it is about 200 yards (182.88m) long) and the fact that the ground slopes away on all sides mean that almost no complete elevation can be seen. That the most frequent views of the exterior are oblique also offered Hopper the opportunity to deploy his towers for picturesque effect, the relationship between the keep and the other towers and turrets frequently obscuring the distances between them. Another significant external feature of the castle is that it actually looks defensible making it secure at least from Pugin's famous slur of 1841 on contemporary "castles" - "Who would hammer against nailed portals, when he could kick his way through the greenhouse?" Certainly, this could never be achieved at Penrhyn and it looks every inch the impregnable fortress both architect and patron intended it to be.

 

East elevation: to the left is the loosely attached 4-storey keep on battered plinth with 4 tiers of deeply splayed Norman windows, 2 to each face, with chevron decoration and nook-shafts, topped by 4 square corner turrets. The dining room (distinguished by the intersecting tracery above the windows) and breakfast room to the right of the entrance gallery are protected by the long sweep of the machicolated 'barbican' terrace (carriage forecourt), curved in front of the 2 rooms and then running northwards before returning at right-angles to the west to include the gatehouse, which formed the original main entrance to the castle, and ending in a tall rectangular tower with machicolated parapet. To the right of the gatehouse are the recessed buildings of the kitchen court and to the right again the long, largely unbroken outer wall of the stable court, terminated by the square footmen's tower to the left and the rather more exuberant projecting circular dung tower with its spectacularly cantilevered bartizan on the right. From here the wall runs at right-angles to the west incorporating the impressive gatehouse to the stable court.

 

West elevation: beginning at the left is the hexagonal smithy tower, followed by the long run of the stable court, well provided with windows on this side as the stables lie directly behind. At the end of this the wall turns at right-angles to the west, incorporating the narrow circular-turreted gatehouse to the outer court and terminating in the machicolated circular ice tower. From here the wall runs again at a lower height enclosing the remainder of the outer court. It is, of course, the state apartments which make up the chief architectural display on the central part of this elevation, beginning with a strongly articulated but essentially rectangular tower to the left, while both the drawing room and the library have Norman windows leading directly onto the lawns, the latter terminating in a slender machicolated circular corner tower. To the right is the keep, considerably set back on this side.

Interior

 

Only those parts of the castle generally accessible to visitors are recorded in this description. Although not described here much of the furniture and many of the paintings (including family portraits) are also original to the house. Similarly, it should be noted that in the interests of brevity and clarity, not all significant architectural features are itemised in the following description.

 

Entrance gallery: one of the last parts of the castle to be built, this narrow cloister-like passage was added to the main block to heighten the sensation of entering the vast Grand Hall, which is made only partly visible by the deliberate offsetting of the intervening doorways; bronze lamp standards with wolf-heads on stone bases. Grand Hall: entering the columned aisle of this huge space, the visitor stands at a cross-roads between the 3 principal areas of the castle's plan; to the left the passage leads up to the family's private apartments on the 4 floors of the keep, to the right the door at the end leads to the extensive service quarters while ahead lies the sequence of state rooms used for entertaining guests and displayed to the public ever since the castle was built. The hall itself resembles in form, style and scale the transept of a great Norman cathedral, the great clustered columns extending upwards to a "triforium" formed on 2 sides of extraordinary compound arches; stained glass with signs of the zodiac and months of the year as in a book of hours by Thomas Willement (completed 1835). Library: has very much the atmosphere of a gentlemen’s London club with walls, columned arches and ceilings covered in the most lavish ornamentation; superb architectural bookcases and panelled walls are of oak but the arches are plaster grained to match; ornamental bosses and other devices to the rich plaster ceiling refer to the ancestry of the Dawkins and Pennant families, as do the stained glass lunettes above the windows, possibly by David Evans of Shrewsbury; 4 chimneypieces of polished Anglesey "marble", one with a frieze of fantastical carved mummers in the capitals. Drawing room (great hall of the late C18 house and its medieval predecessor): again in a neo-Norman style but the decoration is lighter and the columns more slender, the spirit of the room reflected in the 2000 delicate Maltese gilt crosses to the vaulted ceiling. Ebony room: so called on account of its furniture and "ebonised" chimneypiece and plasterwork, has at its entrance a spiral staircase from the medieval house. Grand Staircase hall: in many ways the greatest architectural achievement at Penrhyn, taking 10 years to complete, the carving in 2 contrasting stones of the highest quality; repeating abstract decorative motifs contrast with the infinitely inventive figurative carving in the newels and capitals; to the top the intricate plaster panels of the domed lantern are formed in exceptionally high relief and display both Norse and Celtic influences. Next to the grand stair is the secondary stair, itself a magnificent structure in grey sandstone with lantern, built immediately next to the grand stair so that family or guests should not meet staff on the same staircase. Reached from the columned aisle of the grand hall are the 2 remaining principal ground-floor rooms, the dining room and the breakfast room, among the last parts of the castle to be completed and clearly intended to be picture galleries as much as dining areas, the stencilled treatment of the walls in the dining room allowing both the provision of an appropriately elaborate "Norman" scheme and a large flat surface for the hanging of paintings; black marble fireplace carved by Richard Westmacott and extremely ornate ceiling with leaf bosses encircled by bands of figurative mouldings derived from the Romanesque church of Kilpeck, Herefordshire. Breakfast room has cambered beam ceiling with oak-grained finish.

 

Grand hall gallery: at the top of the grand staircase is vaulted and continues around the grand hall below to link with the passage to the keep, which at this level (as on the other floors) contains a suite of rooms comprising a sitting room, dressing room, bedroom and small ante-chamber, the room containing the famous slate bed also with a red Mona marble chimneypiece, one of the most spectacular in the castle. Returning to the grand hall gallery and continuing straight on rather than returning to the grand staircase the Lower India room is reached to the right: this contains an Anglesey limestone chimneypiece painted to match the ground colour of the room's Chinese wallpaper. Coming out of this room, the chapel corridor leads to the chapel gallery (used by the family) and the chapel proper below (used by staff), the latter with encaustic tiles probably reused from the old medieval chapel; stained and painted glass by David Evans (c1833).

 

The domestic quarters of the castle are reached along the passage from the breakfast room, which turns at right-angles to the right at the foot of the secondary staircase, the most important areas being the butler's pantry, steward's office, servants' hall, housekeeper's room, still room, housekeeper's store and housemaids' tower, while the kitchen (with its cast-iron range flanked by large and hygienic vertical slabs of Penrhyn slate) is housed on the lower ground floor. From this kitchen court, which also includes a coal store, oil vaults, brushing room, lamp room, pastry room, larder, scullery and laundry are reached the outer court with its soup kitchen, brewhouse and 2-storey ice tower and the much larger stables court which, along with the stables themselves containing their extensive slate-partitioned stalls and loose boxes, incorporates the coach house, covered ride, smithy tower, dung tower with gardeners' messroom above and footmen's tower.

 

Reasons for Listing

 

Included at Grade I as one of the most important large country houses in Wales; a superb example of the relatively short-lived Norman Revival of the early C19 and generally regarded as the masterpiece of its architect, Thomas Hopper.

  

Victorian Kitchens

 

Private stairs (I used flash here).

 

sign

started out as an USS J F Kennedy Hawkeye, then I played.

NOTE: I DID NOT DO THE VAC-FORMING ON THESE PIECES. As I don't have vacuum-forming capabilities, these were sent out to a fellow propmaker named "BlindSquirrel" You can check out his work here: mydumbprojects.blogspot.com/

 

Visor for Guy-Man's helmet, pulled in 1/16" PETG plastic. These will be tinted before installing in the helmet

Playing around with the BW sliders in Lightroom

 

South Africa.

Eastern Cape

Graaff-Reinet

 

Graaff-Reinet Museum or “Reinet House”

The museum houses a fine array of period furniture and kitchen utensils, doll collection, medical and dental collection, haberdashery and clothing collection, wagon and transport collection as well as a blacksmith collection.

www.graaffreinet.co.za/listing/reinet_house

 

Det får bli en mobilbild idag :)

390006, forming 9S55, Virgin West Coast’s 0943 Euston - Glasgow (via Birmingham) climbs past Shap Wells on 20 January 2018.

 

The unit is wearing the latest Virgin "Flowing Silk" livery but only on the Driving Motors. The rest of the train is a neutral colour because the franchise is up for renewal later in the year.

Ilford delta yashica T4

1976 - Walter J. Diethelm

Magdeburg, Germany

Lugar: Finca La Pomarrosa, Barlovento, centro norte de Venezuela.

Place: La Pomarrosa Farm, Barlovento, north centre Venezuela.

 

________________________________________________

 

Sobre este árbol he escrito lo que sigue.

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Decía ese suizo precursor del conocimiento científico de nuestra flora venezolana llamado Henri Pittier que «de una manera general, se aplican los nombres de higuerón e higuerote a las numerosas especies de Ficus, en su mayor parte aún sin describir sistemáticamente, que forman un elemento importante de la flora venezolana y tienen gran aceptación como adorno de los parques y avenidas» (Pittier, 1970 [1926 y 1939], p. 277). En la selva y en la costa barloventeñas se dan muchos de estos árboles, encontrándose entre ellos algunas especies de gran tamaño, de las cuales Pittier mencionaba tres. A dos especies les daba indistintamente el nombre vulgar de higuerote, identificados uno como Ficus gigantea, del cual decía que era un «árbol hasta de 30m.» y también que era una «especie imperfectamente conocida», y el otro como Ficus radula, descrito como «árbol a menudo gigante» (Pittier, 1970 [1926 y 1939], p. 277-278). El tercero era el matapalo (Ficus dendrocida), «árbol elevado... que se cría entre otros árboles y poco a poco los envuelve con sus raíces y tronco, literalmente estrangulándolos, y después de muertos ellos, sigue en su desarrollo hasta alcanzar dimensiones enormes, teniendo a veces una altura de más de 30 metros» (Pittier, 1970 [1926 y 1939], p. 316).

 

Ludwig Scheene, por su parte, en un libro que aspiraba fuese «una complementación al de Henri Pittier» (Schnee, 1984 [1961], p. 8), señalaba que «Higuerote» era un «nombre colectivo para especies de Ficus», dándole tal denominación a tres de ellas, cuales eran el Ficus urbaniana, de 10 a 30 metros de alto, el Ficus velutina, de 5 a 15 metros, y el Ficus glabatra o Chaure blanco, encontrándose todos ellos en la Cordillera de la Costa (Schnee, 1984 [1961], p. 276 y 381). Jesús Hoyos, por último, daba ese nombre también a tres especies, todos de la familia Moraceae, siendo ellos el Coussapoa villosa o pittieri, de unos 10 a 25 metros de alto, el Ficus caballina o longifolia, un arbolito de unos 3 a 6 metros «oriundo de la Guayana venezolana», y el Ficus obtusifolia o Matapalo Higuerote, de 10 a 30 metros de altura (Hoyos, 1987 [1983], p. 232, 236 y 244).

 

Higuerote es también el nombre de un pueblo de la costa de Barlovento que se ha convertido en un centro turístico de cierta importancia. Sobre el origen del topónimo ha habido controversias, ya que algunos lo identificaban con Higoroto, nombre de un indio principal muy hospitalario con los españoles que terminó convertido por éstos en esclavo, hecho acaecido probablemente hacia 1517, durante el auge de los ostrales de Cubagua, para cuya explotación se usó primero a indígenas esclavizados y luego a negros esclavos. El episodio fue relatado por Bartolomé de las Casas en el siguiente texto:

 

«Entre otros saltos que los nuestros hicieron en aquella costa de Tierra Firme, debajo de Cumaná obra de 45 leguas, quiero contar uno, aunque de otra especie, porque fue sin embarazo de requerimientos. Está, donde digo, una provincia, o era un gran pueblo en ella, a la ribera de la mar, en un cabo que entra en la mar y hacen algún puerto, que llamaban el cabo de la Codera. El señor della o del pueblo se llamaba Higoroto, nombre propio de la persona o común de los señores dél. Este señor, aunque infiel, era muy virtuoso y su gente buena y que imitaba, en amar la paz y ser huespedativo, a su señor. El señor y toda su gente tuvo grande amor a los españoles y los recibían y abrigaban en su pueblo y casas como si fueran padres e hijos... era tal Higoroto y su gente, y a los españoles obligaba con tan continuos beneficios, que todos los españoles llamaban aquel pueblo de Higoroto mesón y casa refugio y consuelo de todos los españoles que por allí iban y venían. Acordó un malaventurado hombre de con una insigne obra mostrar el agradecimiento de tanto beneficio; llegó pues aquél allí con un navío y en él su compañía, que debían de no haber hallado aparejo para hacer salto en toda la costa, y por no tornar de vacío saltaron en tierra, y los indios con su señor recibiéronlos y regocijáronlos como a los otros solían. Tornáronse al navío y convidaron mucha gente, hombres y mujeres, grandes y chicos; entran en él seguros como en otros otras veces hacían. Desque los tuvieron dentro, alzaron las velas y viniéronse a la isla de San Juan y vendiólos por esclavos; y a la sazón yo llegué a aquella isla y lo vi, y supe la obra que habían hecho, y cómo mostró al señor Higoroto y a su gente ser los españoles de cuantos beneficios dél recibieron agradecidos. Desta manera dejó destruido aquel pueblo, porque los que no pudo robar se desaparecieron por los montes y valles, huyendo de aquellos peligros, y después al cabo todos perecieron, con las maldades tiránicas de los españoles que fueron a poblar o despoblar a Venezuela... A todos los salteadores y malos cristianos que en aquellos pasos andaban pesó entrañablemente de aquella maldad que aquel pecador con el pueblo de Higoroto hizo, y es de creer que no por la fealdad de la obra tanto, según éstas y otras semejantes a cada paso se hacían, cuanto por haber perdido todos aquel cierto y buen hospedaje que Higoroto y su gente a todos sin diferencia hacían» (Casas, 1986 [1552], Tomo III, pág. 614-615).

 

Otros pensaban que el nombre de Higuerote provenía del árbol en cuestión. La última posición fue asumida por José de Arana, en tanto que la primera la adoptaron, entre otros, Arístides Rojas, Lisandro Alvarado, Luis Alberto Paúl, Miguel Angel Mudarra y Freddy Best González (González, 1969, p. 18 a 21). Sobre el particular, tal vez ambos tuvieran razón, pues si los ficus eran abundantes en la zona, no sería de extrañar que los propios españoles, dado el parecido de estos árboles con las higueras europeas, hubieran bautizado la aldea indígena como el sitio de los higueros y, con el uso, lo hubieran extendido al indio principal. Esta interpretación podría incluso surgir del propio texto de las Casas citado, donde el fraile historiador traslucía cierta duda sobre la cualidad del nombre al decir «Higoroto, nombre propio de la persona o común de los señores dél» (Casas, 1986 [1552], Tomo III, p. 612). También apunta hacia este origen del nombre el hecho de que en Venezuela hay otros poblados que llevan el topónimo de Higuerote ubicados en sitios tan distantes entre sí como el municipio Montes del estado Sucre y el Nirgua del estado Yaracuy, caso este último en que la parroquia se llama también Higuerote, o el municipio Bruzual de Anzoátegui y el municipio Tinaco de Cojedes (Casale, 1997, p. 236-237), sitios que tienen en común, entre otras cosas, la de contar entre su vegetación local con ficus que también portan ese nombre.

 

Cualquiera que fuera el caso, de lo que habría poca o ninguna duda es sobre la presencia de distintas variedades de ficus autóctonos en la costa barloventeña, ya que «estos árboles no son muy exigentes a la clase de suelos una vez desarrollados. Muchas especies crecen en regiones agrestes, rocosas y soleadas» (Hoyos, 1974, p. 140).

 

Sobre estos árboles, a lo ya dicho sobre su nombre común de matapalos se puede agregar «que la semilla de la mayoría... se desarrolla en las ramas o troncos de otros árboles o palmeras, donde crece como semi-parásito» (Hoyos, 1974, p. 140), pudiendo eventualmente llegar a ahogar a la planta huésped, como ya sabemos. El otro nombre común de higuerote se debería, según este autor, a que su fruto «es parecido al higo comestible, pero generalmente no son aprovechables sino por las aves y mamíferos arborícolas» (Hoyos, 1974, p. 140), de modo que donde se encuentran normalmente hay vida animal diversa, como sucede en el caso del árbol de la foto que es visitado con mucha frecuencia por una variedad de aves. Este ejemplar no sé con certeza a cuál especie pertenece, si bien se parece mucho al Coussapoa villosa o pittieri cuya fotografía presenta el ya citado Hoyos (Hoyos, 1987 [1983], p. 232), pero de seguro convendrán conmigo que es muy hermoso, cualquiera que sea el nombre común o científico que se le dé.

 

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Bibliografía citada

 

Best González, Freddy. 1969. «Higuerote». Asamblea Legislativa del Estado Miranda. Los Teques.

 

Casale, Irma. 1997. «La fitotoponimia de los pueblos de Venezuela». Ediciones de la Biblioteca de la Universidad Central de Venezuela. Caracas.

 

Casas, Bartolomé de las. 1986 [1552]. «Historia de las Indias». Tomos I, II y III. Biblioteca Ayacucho. Caracas.

 

Hoyos, Jesús. 1974. «Arboles cultivados de Venezuela». Sociedad de Ciencias Naturales La Salle. Caracas.

 

Hoyos, Jesús. 1987 [1983]. «Guía de árboles de Venezuela». Sociedad de Ciencias Naturales La Salle. Caracas.

 

Pittier, Henri. 1970 [1926 y 1939]. «Manual de las plantas usuales de Venezuela y su suplemento». Fundación Eugenio Mendoza. Caracas.

 

Schnee, Ludwig. 1984 [1961], «Plantas comunes de Venezuela». Ediciones de la Biblioteca de la Universidad Central de Venezuela. Caracas.

________________________________________________

Der Geschichtensammler

 

Er hat schwarze Haare, die bis über seine Schultern reichen, schwarze Rastas - wahrscheinlich hat es auch schon ein paar graue darunter. Seine Haut ist kaffeebraun, die Nase hat die Form eines Pfelilbogens. Er steht alleine an die Wand gelehnt im Café Mokka. Er steht da, alleine seit ich das erste Mal das Mokka betreten habe. Er trägt ein schwarzes Hemd, immer. Sein Alter ist schwer einzuschätzen. Vielleicht ist er 40, vielleicht 50, vielleicht auch älter (oder jünger?)... Aber egal wie alt er ist, so alt war er immer.

Ich betrete das Mokka. Er ist da. Er steht da. Er schaut. Er lacht. Er lächelt. Manchmal bewegen sich seine Lippen. Worte hört man keine. Es ist zu laut. Er raucht. Er beobachtet. Er trinkt etwas und schaut dem Treiben zu. Wie er wohl seine Beobachtungsopfer auswählt? Wenn sie lachen, lacht er mit, für sich alleine. Wenn sie sich streiten, schaut er traurig zu. Ich habe ihn noch nie mit jemandem reden sehen. Ich habe ihn noch nie an einem anderen Ort angetroffen, als in seinen zwei Plätzen im Mokka, Plätze, von denen man zum Eingang sieht. Unscheinbar, als wäre er nicht vorhanden, saugt er die Umgebung in sich auf und verwandelt das Erlebte im Innern in seine eigenen Geschichten. All die Momente der Mokka-Besucher werden zu seinen Momenten, werden zu seiner Geschichte.

Am Samstag war ich alleine im Mokka. Das habe ich früher oft gemacht. Ich bin einfach alleine losgezogen und bin ins Mokka gegangen. Irgendjemanden habe ich da immer getroffen. Am Samstag habe ich das auch wieder einmal gemacht. Ich habe aber niemanden gekannt, niemanden erkannt - ausser ihn. Ich habe ihn gegrüsst. Warum habe ich ihn vorher nie gegrüsst, den Beobachter, den Geschichtensammler in der Ecke? Er hat zurück gegrüsst und gelächelt. Er hat mich erkannt. Er kennt wahrscheinlich alle, die im Mokka ein- und ausgehen. Er kennt die Gesichter. Er kennt viele Geschichten. Er erzählt sie nie, nur sich selber. Er beobachtet, als wäre er Big Brother.

Ich habe mich an die weisse Wand gelehnt - die weisse Wand, die ich am Abend oder am nächsten Tag von der Kleidung wasche, aus dem Halstuch klopfe. Ich habe etwas zu Trinken bestellt und zugeschaut. Ich habe ihm zugeschaut, wie er anderen zuschaut, und ich bin seinem Blick gefolgt: Ein Pärchen, vielleicht 18. Sie war klein. Ihr blondes Haar hatte sie zu einer komplizierten Frisur gesteckt. Sie trug ein rotes Träger-Shirt und Bluejeans. Er war fast einen Kopf grösser als sie. Sein weites T-Shirt hing unförmig über seine Baggyjeans, versteckte aber nicht seine muskulösen Oberarme. Beide hatten ein Bier in der Hand, sie ein Vollmond, er ein grosses Boxer. Sie haben zusammen getanzt, sich verliebt angeschaut und gelacht. Er hat sie im Kreis herum gewirbelt. Die sind bestimmt noch nicht so lange zusammen, so verliebt, wie die einander angucken, habe ich gedacht. Ob sie noch zur Schule gehen? Wahrscheinlich haben sie sich auf dem Gymnasium oder in der Berufsschule kennen gelernt. Sie könnte Friseuse sein, der aufwändigen und perfekten Steckfrisur nach zu urteilen, und er ist wahrscheinlich Schreiner oder Maurer. Auf jeden Fall wird er einen handwerklichen Beruf ausüben, so kräftig wie er gebaut ist. Oder er arbeitet im Büro und treibt sonst viel Sport, aber dann würde er wahrscheinlich nicht so viel Bier trinken. Sie tanzten, sie torkelten ein bisschen. Er flüsterte ihr etwas ins Ohr. Sie schaute auf die Flasche in ihrer Hand, setzte sie an, nahm einen kräftigen Schluck und streckte ihm die leere Flasche hin. Er nahm sie, gab ihr einen Kuss auf die Stirn und verschwand um die Ecke. Einen Kuss auf die Stirn! Das ist süss, habe ich gedacht und bin ein bisschen erschrocken, wie schnell ich in eine fremde Geschichte eingetaucht bin. Ich habe mich zum Geschichtensammler gedreht. Er stand immer noch da, schaute zum blonden Mädchen und lächelte zufrieden vor sich hin. Dann wanderten seine Augen wieder durch die Menge, wahrscheinlich auf der Suche nach einer neuen Geschichte. Dabei kreuzten sich unsere Blicke erneut.

Wer er wohl ist? Wo er wohl herkommt? Was er arbeitet? Vielleicht kommt er aus Tunesien. Er ist vor vielen Jahren in die Schweiz gekommen, aber weil er so schüchtern ist, hat er fast niemanden kennen gelernt und somit auch die Deutsche Sprache nie wirklich gelernt. Aber er ist ohnehin nicht hierher gekommen, weil er Menschen kennen lernen wollte. Ausserdem mag er den Klang einer unverständlichen Sprache, und er mag beobachten und dazu seine eigene Geschichte erfinden. Er ist Dichter oder Schriftsteller. Er geht ins Mokka und lässt sich von den Menschen und ihrem Treiben inspirieren. Er sammelt ihre Geschichten und schreibt zu Hause Bücher auf Französisch oder Arabisch. In seinem Heimatland Tunesien ist er berühmt. Alle verschlingen seine Geschichten und warten schon nach dem Erscheinen seines neusten Werkes wieder auf das nächste. Seine Bücher heissen Zwischen Vollmond und Sonnenaufgang (mit Vollmond meint er natürlich das Bier, aber es ist auch ein wunderbares Wortspiel, findet er) und Boxer (damit meint er das andere Bier und spielt damit auf den Faust von Johann Wolfgang Goethe an. Er scheint Wortspiele zu mögen! Seinerzeit, als er sich entschieden hat, Tunesien zu verlassen, hat er sich auch nicht zuletzt wegen seiner Liebe für Wortspiele für Thun entschieden. Der Klang des Namens hat ihn an die Hauptstadt seines Heimatlandes erinnert, was er lustig fand. Ursprünglich wollte er nämlich nach Zürich gehen - die einzige Stadt, die er in der Schweiz gekannt hat... Er hatte schon gepackt und war auf Wohnungssuche, dann hörte er von einer Stadt, namens Thun. Heute ist er aber froh, hier gelandet zu sein. Er war einmal in Zürich - viel zu gross, viel zu laut, und er hatte irgendwie immer das Gefühl, dass Züri brännt... Warum, weiss er selber nicht...). Er lebt in einer bescheidenen Wohnung. Sie hat nur zwei Zimmer. In einem Zimmer steht ein Bett und an Stelle eines Nachttischchens hat er einige Bücher aufeinander gestapelt. Darauf steht ein dreiarmiger, mit verschiedenfarbigem Wachs übertropfter Kerzenständer, ein Geschenk seiner grossen Liebe - das Einzige, was er aus seinem Heimatland mit nach Thun genommen hat. Drei rote Kerzen stehen darin und daneben liegt eine Zündholzschachtel mit einem Bild der Luzerner Kappelbrücke, ein Zettel und ein Kugelschreiber mit der Aufschrift Swisscom. Im anderen Zimmer stehen ein Tisch und ein Stuhl. Auf dem Stuhl liegen ein hellblaues, abgewetztes Kissen und auf dem Tisch steht eine kleine Lampe, viele weisse und auch beschriebene Blätter, Kugelschreiber und Bücher. Also eigentlich ist nicht nur der Tisch voller Bücher und Blätter, das ganze Zimmer ist überstellt davon. Ich glaube, nicht einmal der Geschichtensammler selber weiss, ob unter den Büchern und Papieren Parkett- oder Teppichboden versteckt ist. Und auch die Wand ist voll gehängt mit Papierstücken voller Kritzeleien und Notizen auf Französisch, Arabisch und einige Worte auf Deutsch - wahrscheinlich seine Ideen. Er hat keinen Fernseher, keinen Computer. In der kleinen Küche steht ein schwarzer Radio mit einer langen Antenne auf dem Kühlschrank, und neben der Eingangstür hängt ein schwarzes Telefon auf einer silbernen Gabel - die einzigen technischen Apparate, die er besitzt. Er ist ein Nostalgiker, deshalb auch das alte Telefon, mit dem er manchmal seine Familie anruft oder mit dem Verlag in Tunis telefoniert.

Wenn er gegen Morgen von seinen Sammeltouren aus dem Mokka nach Hause kommt, trinkt er einen Kaffee, den er sich auf dem Heimweg am Bahnhofbuffet holt, und legt sich dann für einige Stunden aufs Ohr. Er schläft aber nie sehr lange. Er will schreiben. Er kann am besten am Morgen schreiben und seine Wohnung ist ohnehin ziemlich lärmig am Vormittag, weil sich unter ihr eine Bäckerei befindet, die sieben Tage die Woche geöffnet hat. Manchmal verlässt er tagelang seine Wohnung nicht. Er schreibt und schreibt und schreibt. Er vergisst dabei sogar zu essen. Zum Glück hat er eine aufmerksame Nachbarin. Eine alte Dame, der er einmal zwei Koffer in den zweiten Stock geschleppt hat, als er sie im Eingang angetroffen hat. Seit dem mag sie den Geschichtensammler, ausserdem ist er ruhig. Sie hört nie ein Geräusch aus der Wohnung unter ihr, ausser manchmal das Plätschern des Wassers, wenn er duscht. Wenn sie ihn länger nicht mehr antrifft, geht sie manchmal klingeln und bringt ihm einen Berliner oder einen Nussgipfel aus der Bäckerei mit. Er dankt es ihr mit einem freundlichen Lächeln und revanchiert sich dann seinerseits wieder mit Taschen schleppen, wenn er die Dame nach einem Einkauf im Treppenhaus antrifft. Eine wortlose Freundschaft ist mittlerweile zwischen den beiden entstanden.

Im Moment lebt er wieder einmal sehr zurückgezogen. Es ist Weihnachtszeit, und das Mokka ist bis am 26. Dezember geschlossen. Er hat sich mit einigen Packungen Reis und gefrorenem Hammelfleisch eingedeckt. Ausserdem hat ihm die nette alte Dame selbstgemachtes Weihnachtsgebäck vor die Türe gestellt. Er nutzt die Zeit, um an seiner neusten Idee zu schreiben, einem Roman über ein junges Paar, das sich im Mokka (wie könnte es anders sein...) kennen gelernt hat, als sich zwei ihrer Freunde wegen einer Bagatelle blutig geschlagen haben. Eine absurde Geschichte über Gewalt, die eine junge Liebe entflammen lässt. Einen Titel hat er noch keinen. Die Titel findet er normalerweise in seinen Träumen, aber erst wenn er ein Werk zu Ende geschrieben hat. Er träumt etwas, woran er sich später nicht mehr erinnern kann und wacht dann auf, mit einem Satz oder einem Wort im Kopf. Diese schreibt er noch im Halbschlaf auf den Zettel auf seinem Nachttisch aus Büchern und fällt dann einen traumlosen Schlaf, der dann ohne Weiteres bis nach dem Mittag dauern kann. Wenn er also aufschreckt und erstaunt feststellt, dass es schon Nachmittag ist, blickt er sogleich auf den Büchernachttisch neben dem Bett und findet da den Titel seines neusten Buches in seiner Handschrift - und erstaunlicherweise immer auf Deutsch - auf dem Zettel geschrieben.

Er geht nur noch selten nach Tunesien (ab und zu besucht er seine Familie in einem abgelegenen Dorf an der Grenze zur Sahara), nicht des Geldes wegen - davon hätte er genug, weil er ja ein erfolgreicher Geschichtenschreiber ist - aber er mag es nicht, erkannt zu werden. Er will keinen Ruhm, und den Rummel um seine Person mag er auch nicht sonderlich. Er mag es einfach, Geschichten zu erzählen, und er mag die Einsamkeit. Deshalb bleibt er in Thun, wo ihn niemand kennt, und sammelt weiter Geschichten.

Dass mein Glas leer war, bemerkte ich erst, als ein Eiswürfel gegen meine Zähne klatschte. Ich schaute mich um: Immer noch niemand da, den ich kannte - ausser dem jungen Pärchen und dem Geschichtensammler. Das Pärchen war wieder am tanzen, sie mit einem halbvollen Vollmond in der linken Hand und er mit einem Boxer. Der Geschichtensammler stand in seiner Ecke an die Wand gelehnt, eine Zigarette in der Hand und ein zufriedenes Lächeln auf dem Gesicht. Ich habe meine Jacke genommen, habe versucht so gut es ging, die weisse Farbe aus dem Stoff zu klopfen. Im Gehen habe ich ihm zugenickt. Ich weiss nicht, ob er mich noch bemerkt hat, wahrscheinlich war er zu sehr vertieft ins Sammeln von Geschichten für seinen neusten Roman.

 

www.vonfeltenwelten.blogspot.com/

Aríbalo en forma de erizo. FAyenza silicea. Baja época. Din. XXVI

 

Wild or domesticated animals had a vital role in ancient Egypt. The exhibition "Animals and Pharaohs" shows the role and importance of animals in Pharaonic civilization.

 

Consisting of more than four hundred pieces the exhibit reconstructs the relationship between animals and men religious beliefs , nature and culture, from admiration and fear in everyday life, war or in agriculture.

 

Los animales salvajes o domesticados tienen un papel fundamental en el antiguo Egipto. La exposición Animales y faraones muestra la función y la importancia de la figura animal en la civilización faraónica.

 

Formada por más de cuatrocientas piezas, reconstruye la relación que se estableció entre los hombres y los animales, la naturaleza y la cultura, desde la admiración y el temor en la vida cotidiana, en la agricultura, la guerra y las creencias religiosas.

Rapid strata formation in soft sand (field evidence).

Photo of strata formation in soft sand on a beach, created by tidal action of the sea.

Formed in a single, high tidal event. Stunning evidence which displays multiple strata/layers.

 

Why this is so important ....

It has long been assumed, ever since the 17th century, that layers/strata observed in sedimentary rocks were built up gradually, layer upon layer, over many years. It certainly seemed logical at the time, from just looking at rocks, that lower layers would always be older than the layers above them, i.e. that lower layers were always laid down first followed, in time, by successive layers on top.

This was assumed to be true and became known as the superposition principle.

It was also assumed that a layer comprising a different material from a previous layer, represented a change in environmental conditions/factors.

These changes in composition of layers or strata were considered to represent different, geological eras on a global scale, spanning millions of years. This formed the basis for the Geologic Column, which is used to date rocks and also fossils. The evolutionary, 'fossil record' was based on the vast ages and assumed geological eras of the Geologic Column.

There was also circular reasoning applied with the assumed age of 'index' fossils (based on evolutionary beliefs & preconceptions) used to date strata in the Geologic Column. Dating strata from the assumed age of (index) fossils is known as Biostratigraphy.

We now know that, although these assumptions seemed logical, they are not supported by the evidence.

At the time, the mechanics of stratification were not properly known or studied.

 

An additional factor was that this assumed superposition and uniformitarian model became essential, with the wide acceptance of Darwinism, for the long ages required for progressive microbes-to-human evolution. There was no incentive to question or challenge the superposition, uniformitarian model, because the presumed, fossil 'record' had become dependant on it, and any change in the accepted model would present devastating implications for Darwinism.

This had the unfortunate effect of linking the study of geology so closely to Darwinism, that any study independent of Darwinian considerations was effectively stymied. This link of geology with Darwinian preconceptions is known as biostratigraphy.

 

Some other field evidence, in various situations, can be observed here: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/

and also in the links to stunning, experimental evidence, carried out by sedimentologists, given later.

_______________________________________________

GEOLOGIC PRINCIPLES (established by Nicholas Steno in the 17th Century):

What Nicolas Steno believed about strata formation is the basis of the principle of Superposition and the principle of Original Horizontality.

dictionary.sensagent.com/Law_of_superposition/en-en/

“Assuming that all rocks and minerals had once been fluid, Nicolas Steno reasoned that rock strata were formed when particles in a fluid such as water fell to the bottom. This process would leave horizontal layers. Thus Steno's principle of original horizontality states that rock layers form in the horizontal position, and any deviations from this horizontal position are due to the rocks being disturbed later.”)

BEDDING PLANES.

'Bedding plane' describes the surface in between each stratum which are formed during sediment deposition.

science.jrank.org/pages/6533/Strata.html

“Strata form during sediment deposition, that is, the laying down of sediment. Meanwhile, if a change in current speed or sediment grain size occurs or perhaps the sediment supply is cut off, a bedding plane forms. Bedding planes are surfaces that separate one stratum from another. Bedding planes can also form when the upper part of a sediment layer is eroded away before the next episode of deposition. Strata separated by a bedding plane may have different grain sizes, grain compositions, or colours. Sometimes these other traits are better indicators of stratification as bedding planes may be very subtle.”

______________________________________________

 

Several catastrophic events, flash floods, volcanic eruptions etc. have forced Darwinian, influenced geologists to admit to rapid stratification in some instances. However they claim it is a rare phenomenon, which they have known about for many years, and which does nothing to invalidate the Geologic Column, the fossil record, evolutionary timescale, or any of the old assumptions regarding strata formation, sedimentation and the superposition principle. They fail to face up to the fact that rapid stratification is not an extraordinary phenonemon, but rather the prevailing and normal mechanism of sedimentary deposition whenever and wherever there is moving, sediment-laden water. The experimental evidence demonstrates the mechanism and a mass of field evidence in normal (non-catastrophic) conditions shows it is a normal everyday occurrence.

It is clear from the experimental evidence that the usual process of stratification is - that strata are not formed by horizontal layers being laid on top of each other in succession, as was assumed. But by sediment being sorted in the flowing water and laid down diagonally in the direction of flow. See diagram:

www.flickr.com/photos/truth-in-science/39821536092/in/dat...

 

The field evidence (in the image) presented here - of rapid, simultaneous stratification refutes the Superposition Principle and the Principle of Lateral Continuity.

 

We now know, the Superposition Principle only applies on a rare occasion where sedimentary deposits are laid down in still water.

Superposition is required for the long evolutionary timescale, but the evidence shows it is not the general rule, as was once believed. Most sediment is laid down in moving water, where particle segregation is the general rule, resulting in the simultaneous deposition of strata/layers as shown in the photo.

 

See many other examples of rapid stratification (with geological features): www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/

 

Rapid, simultaneous formation of layers/strata, through particle segregation in moving water, is so easily created it has even been described by sedimentologists (working on flume experiments) as a law ...

"Upon filling the tank with water and pouring in sediments, we immediately saw what was to become the rule: The sediments sorted themselves out in very clear layers. This became so common that by the end of two weeks, we jokingly referred to Andrew's law as "It's difficult not to make layers," and Clark's law as "It's easy to make layers." Later on, I proposed the "law" that liquefaction destroys layers, as much to my surprise as that was." Ian Juby, www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/

 

The example in the photo is the result of normal, everyday tidal action formed in a single incident. Where the water current or movement is more turbulent, violent, or catastrophic, great depths (many metres) of stratified sediment can be laid down in a short time. Certainly not the many millions of years assumed by evolutionists.

 

The composition of strata formed in any deposition event. is related to whatever materials are in the sediment mix, not to any particular timescale. Whatever is in the mix will be automatically sorted into strata/layers. It could be sand, or other material added from mud slides, erosion of chalk deposits, coastal erosion, volcanic ash etc. Any organic material (potential fossils), alive or dead, engulfed by, or swept into, a turbulent sediment mix, will also be sorted and buried within the rapidly, forming layers.

 

See many other examples of rapid stratification with geological features: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/

 

Stratified, soft sand deposit. demonstrates the rapid, stratification principle.

Important, field evidence which supports the work of the eminent, sedimentologist Dr Guy Berthault MIAS - Member of the International Association of Sedimentologists.

(Dr Berthault's experiments (www.sedimentology.fr/)

And also the experimental work of Dr M.E. Clark (Professor Emeritus, U of Illinois @ Urbana), Andrew Rodenbeck and Dr. Henry Voss, (www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/)

 

Location: Yaverland, Isle of Wight. Photographed: 14/03/2019

This field evidence demonstrates that multiple strata in sedimentary deposits do not need millions of years to form and can be formed rapidly. This natural example confirms the principle demonstrated by the sedimentation experiments carried out by Dr Guy Berthault and other sedimentologists. It calls into question the standard, multi-million year dating of sedimentary rocks, and the dating of fossils by depth of burial or position in the strata.

Mulltiple strata/layers are evident in this example.

 

Dr Berthault's experiments (www.sedimentology.fr/) and other experiments (www.ianjuby.org/sedimentation/) and field studies of floods and volcanic action show that, rather than being formed by gradual, slow deposition of sucessive layers superimposed upon previous layers, with the strata or layers representing a particular timescale, particle segregation in moving water or airborne particles can form strata or layers very quickly, frequently, in a single event.

youtu.be/wFST2C32hMQ

youtu.be/SE8NtWvNBKI

And, most importantly, lower strata are not older than upper strata, they are the same age, having been created in the same sedimentary episode.

Such field studies confirm experiments which have shown that there is no longer any reason to conclude that strata/layers in sedimentary rocks relate to different geological eras and/or a multi-million year timescale. www.youtube.com/watch?v=5PVnBaqqQw8&feature=share&amp.... they also show that the relative position of fossils in rocks is not indicative of an order of evolutionary succession. Obviously, the uniformitarian principle, on which the geologic column is based, can no longer be considered valid. And the multi-million, year dating of sedimentary rocks and fossils needs to be reassessed. Rapid deposition of stratified sediments also explains the enigma of polystrate fossils, i.e. large fossils that intersect several strata. In some cases, tree trunk fossils are found which intersect the strata of sedimentary rock up to forty feet in depth. upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Lycopsi... They must have been buried in stratified sediment in a short time (certainly not millions, thousands, or even hundreds of years), or they would have rotted away. youtu.be/vnzHU9VsliQ

 

In fact, the vast majority of fossils are found in good, intact condition, which is testament to their rapid burial. You don't get good fossils from gradual burial, because they would be damaged or destroyed by decay, predation or erosion. The existence of so many fossils in sedimentary rock on a global scale is stunning evidence for the rapid depostion of sedimentary rock as the general rule. It is obvious that all rock containing good intact fossils was formed from sediment laid down in a very short time, not millions, or even thousands of years.

 

See set of photos of other examples of rapid stratification: www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157635944904973/

 

Carbon dating of coal should not be possible if it is millions of years old, yet significant amounts of Carbon 14 have been detected in coal and other fossil material, which indicates that it is less than 50,000 years old. www.ldolphin.org/sewell/c14dating.html

 

www.grisda.org/origins/51006.htm

 

Evolutionists confidently cite multi-million year ages for rocks and fossils, but what most people don't realise is that no one actually knows the age of sedimentary rocks or the fossils found within them. So how are evolutionists so sure of the ages they so confidently quote? The astonishing thing is they aren't. Sedimentary rocks cannot be dated by radiometric methods*, and fossils can only be dated to less than 50,000 years with Carbon 14 dating. The method evolutionists use is based entirely on assumptions. Unbelievably, fossils are dated by the assumed age of rocks, and rocks are dated by the assumed age of fossils, that's right ... it is known as circular reasoning.

 

* Regarding the radiometric dating of igneous rocks, which is claimed to be relevant to the dating of sedimentary rocks, in an occasional instance there is an igneous intrusion associated with a sedimentary deposit -

Prof. Aubouin says in his Précis de Géologie: "Each radioactive element disintegrates in a characteristic and constant manner, which depends neither on the physical state (no variation with pressure or temperature or any other external constraint) nor on the chemical state (identical for an oxide or a phosphate)."

"Rocks form when magma crystallizes. Crystallisation depends on pressure and temperature, from which radioactivity is independent. So, there is no relationship between radioactivity and crystallisation.

Consequently, radioactivity doesn't date the formation of rocks. Moreover, daughter elements contained in rocks result mainly from radioactivity in magma where gravity separates the heavier parent element, from the lighter daughter element. Thus radiometric dating has no chronological signification." Dr. Guy Berthault www.sciencevsevolution.org/Berthault.htm

 

Rapid strata formation and rapid erosion at Mount St Helens.

slideplayer.com/slide/5703217/18/images/28/Rapid+Strata+F...

 

Visit the fossil museum:

www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/sets/72157641367196613/

 

Just how good are peer reviews of scientific papers?

www.sciencemag.org/content/342/6154/60.full

www.examiner.com/article/want-to-publish-science-paper-ju...

 

The neo-Darwinian idea that the human genome consists entirely of an accumulation of billions of mutations is, quite obviously, completely bonkers. Nevertheless, it is compulsorily taught in schools and universities as 'science'.

www.flickr.com/photos/truth-in-science/35505679183

 

Dr James Tour - 'The Origin of Life'

youtu.be/B1E4QMn2mxk

  

Re:Form School NYC

NK 1505 A4 1964

 

In the first part of the book, Mr. Alexander discusses the process by which a form is adapted to the context of human needs and demands that has called it into being. He shows that such an adaptive process will be successful only if it proceeds piecemeal instead of all at once. In the second part, Mr. Alexander presents a method by which the designer may bring his full creative imagination into play, and yet avoid the traps of irrelevant preconception. He shows that, whenever a problem is stated, it is possible to ignore existing concepts and to create new concepts, out of the structure of the problem itself, which do correspond correctly to what he calls the subsystems of the adaptive process. By treating each of these subsystems as a separate subproblem, the designer can translate the new concepts into form. The form, because of the process, will be well-adapted to its context, non-arbitrary, and correct.

ossia...forme che si ripetono e capovolgono danzando in una marea di colori...

 

[Soundtrack: Canzone di notte n°2 - Francesco Guccini]

 

E un' altra volta è notte e suono,

non so nemmeno io per che motivo, forse perchè son vivo

e voglio in questo modo dire "sono"

o forse perchè è un modo pure questo per non andare a letto

o forse perchè ancora c'è da bere

e mi riempio il bicchiere..

 

E l' eco si è smorzato appena

delle risate fatte con gli amici, dei brindisi felici

in cui ciascuno chiude la sua pena,

in cui ciascuno non è come adesso da solo con sé stesso

a dir "Dove ho mancato, dov'è stato?",

a dir "Dove ho sbagliato?"

 

Eppure fa piacere a sera

andarsene per strade ed osterie, vino e malinconie,

e due canzoni fatte alla leggera

in cui gridando celi il desiderio che sian presi sul serio

il fatto che sei triste o che t'annoi

e tutti i dubbi tuoi...

 

Ma i moralisti han chiuso i bar

e le morali han chiuso i vostri cuori e spento i vostri ardori:

è bello ritornar "normalità",

è facile tornare con le tante stanche pecore bianche!

Scusate, non mi lego a questa schiera:

morrò pecora nera!

 

Saranno cose già sentite

o scritte sopra un metro un po' stantìo, ma intanto questo è mio

e poi, voi queste cose non le dite,

poi certo per chi non è abituato pensare è sconsigliato,

poi è bene essere un poco diffidente

per chi è un po' differente...

 

Ma adesso avete voi il potere,

adesso avete voi supremazia, diritto e Polizia,

gli dei, i comandamenti ed il dovere,

purtroppo, non so come, siete in tanti e molti qui davanti

ignorano quel tarlo mai sincero

che chiamano "Pensiero"...

 

Però non siate preoccupati,

noi siamo gente che finisce male: galera od ospedale!

Gli anarchici li han sempre bastonati

e il libertario è sempre controllato dal clero, dallo Stato:

non scampa, fra chi veste da parata,

chi veste una risata...

 

O forse non è qui il problema

e ognuno vive dentro ai suoi egoismi vestiti di sofismi

e ognuno costruisce il suo sistema

di piccoli rancori irrazionali, di cosmi personali,

scordando che poi infine tutti avremo

due metri di terreno...

 

E un' altra volta è notte e suono,

non so nemmeno io per che motivo, forse perchè son vivo

o forse per sentirmi meno solo

o forse perchè a notte vivon strani fantasmi e sogni vani

che danno quell' ipocondria ben nota,

poi... la bottiglia è vuota...

Over-complication is a human fallacy. So when I photograph anything, I try to maintain focus and make sure that every form in the frame matters and contributes something to the capture. If it does not belong then I make sure that they are not included.

 

For photographs which there is no time to think (live action), I just shoot and then crop after the fact. But for things which stay put I take my time to compose before clicking the shutter.

 

In digital photography, cropping means lose of resolution and detail, so it is best to do it right at the moment of capture then trying to fix things in Photoshop after the fact. Photoshop is not magic, you know. The best Photoshop jobs do not look like it was ever Photoshopped. And I am not a one of those wizards who can wield magic. So I try to do it right where I can.

 

# SML Data

+ Date: 2013-02-19 13:39:11 GMT+0800

+ Dimensions: 3429 x 5144

+ Exposure: 1/1000 sec at f/5.6

+ Focal Length: 280 mm

+ ISO: 100

+ Flash: Did not fire

+ Camera: Canon EOS 7D

+ Lens: Canon EF 70-200mm f/4L USM + Canon EF 1.4x Extender III

+ GPS: 22°25'0" N 114°13'41" E

+ Location: 中國香港馬鞍山恆安商場 中国香港马鞍山恒安商场 Heng On Shopping Centre, Ma On Shan, Hong Kong, China

+ Serial: SML.20130219.7D.23216.P1.L1

+ Workflow: Photoshop CS6, Lightroom 4

+ Series: 商場 Shopping Malls, 形 Forms

 

“三角形交響樂 Symphonic Triangles No. 3” / 商場建築之形 Shopping Malls Architecture Forms / SML.20130219.7D.23216.P1.L1

/ #商場 #ShoppingMalls #形 #Forms #SMLForms #CCBY #SMLPhotography SMLUniverse #SMLProjects

/ #三角形 #Triangles #中國 #中国 #China #香港 #HongKong #馬鞍山 #MaOnShan #建築 #建筑 #Architecture #城市 #Urban #攝影 #摄影 #photography

..wood form I made from some scape soft-wood to confirm a concept for creation of a camera grip that never passed presentation and ideas because there was newer ideas that did not require optical pin-registrations and vertical/horizontal referencing etcetera

  

comment

1976 - Walter J. Diethelm

Parametric design - the size of the opening transform while different parameters are input... This research can be used in Facade design...

One of the world’s most successful and resilient airlines, Cathay Pacific was formed in September 1946 by Roy Farrell and Sydney de Kantzow, former US Army Air Force and Royal Australian Air Force pilots respectively, who had met while flying cargo flights from India to China during World War II. Using a single war surplus Douglas DC-3, the two pilots flew the airline’s first flight themselves, from Sydney to Shanghai via Manila. The name Cathay Pacific came from Farrell and de Kantzow’s hope that one day their airline would fly from China (Cathay) across the Pacific. Their prediction would be proven accurate.

 

By 1948, Cathay Pacific had acquired another DC-3, and Farrell and de Kantzow put the airline up for sale, with both men retaining 20 percent shares. Cathay Pacific’s controlling interest was bought by the Swire Group, a British-Chinese trading company founded in 1861; the Swire Group today still owns the controlling interest in the airline. Using Douglas DC-4s and DC-6s, Cathay Pacific expanded its routes throughout Southeast Asia and Japan, though it was barred from flying to the People’s Republic of China after the Chinese Revolution ended in 1949. It was able to buy out Hong Kong Airlines in 1959, becoming the Hong Kong Crown Colony flag carrier; in 1964 it entered the jet age with the purchase of Convair 880s.

 

Even further expansion continued, with Chinese service reopened by 1974, service to London by 1980, and nonstop service to Vancouver, Canada in 1983—realizing its founders’ dream of transpacific service. By this time, its fleet was mostly Lockheed L-1011 Tristars (the largest non-American operator of the type) and Boeing 747s, the latter of which was truly a challenge to operate from Cathay Pacific’s headquarters of Hong Kong’s Kai Tak International Airport.

 

If anything could stop Cathay Pacific’s growth, it might be the return of Hong Kong to China, scheduled for 1997. This proved to be less trouble than originally thought, and aside from the removal of the British Union Jack from the tail and changing registrations, Cathay Pacific continued operations as before. It changed its livery to a more modern white over gray fuselage color, removing the three green stripes that had been the company’s trademark to a single dark green stripe and a stylized bird, nicknamed the “Brushwing.” It remained the flag carrier for Hong Kong after 1997, using the city’s flag rather than China’s. Cathay Pacific pioneered a transpolar route from Hong Kong to New York in 1998, which at over 8000 miles is one of the longest in operation, and was both the last airline to depart Kai Tak and the first to arrive at Hong Kong’s new airport, Chep Lap Kok.

 

Cathay Pacific today is one of the world’s most successful and safest airlines (its last fatal accident, a terrorist bombing, occurred in 1972), serving over 160 destinations worldwide. It weathered the 1998 Asian currency crisis and post-9/11 downturn, along with labor problems. Besides its own airline operations, Cathay Pacific also operates a cargo division (the world’s largest) and owns subsidiaries Air Hong Kong and Dragonair. It operates a fleet of mostly Airbus A340s and Boeing 777s.

 

VR-HKG served its entire existence with Cathay Pacific from 1979 to 1997, when it was retired and scrapped at Victorville, California in 1999.