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.. dieses einfachen Werbekugelschreibers haben mir gefallen.
I liked form and design of this simple advertising pen
mémoire2cité - La parenthèse enchantée des maisons-bulles La liberté de penser de la période 1960-1970 a permis la gloire –temporaire– des maisons-bulles à travers le monde, en quantité comme en originalité, de la bulle solitaire au palais labyrinthique par Raphaëlle Saint-Pierre -Les années 1960 ouvrent en France une période de rejet du Mouvement moderne et des logements collectifs rectilignes qui se sont multipliés après la Seconde Guerre mondiale. De nouvelles figures participent à un élan de libération de la forme www.espazium.ch/la-parenthse-enchante-desmaisonsbulles , et parmi eux les architectes Pascal Häusermann, Claude Costy, Antti Lovag ou encore Jean-Louis Chanéac. Liés d’amitié, ils entretiennent des relations intellectuelles sans conflits d’autorité ou de paternité. A la recherche de techniques souples, ils mènent simultanément des essais de construction en voile de béton et en plastique. La bulle est pour eux un choix économique, esthétique ou pratique.
Primitive et futuriste
Coquille de mollusque ou ventre maternel, la bulle évoque les habitats traditionnels ronds : igloo, case, borie provençale, trullo italien. Mais elle correspond aussi aux aspirations d’une société passionnée par la science-fiction et dont la Futuro House (fig. 2) de Matti Suuronen marquera l’apogée en 1968. Aux yeux des créateurs de bâtiments biomorphiques, Antoni Gaudí joue un rôle de précurseur pour avoir transposé en architecture des modèles de structures bio-inspirées. Les édifices des expressionnistes des années 1920 font aussi partie de leurs références, tels la tour Einstein d’Erich Mendelsohn à Potsdam ou le Goetheanum de Rudolf Steiner et son quartier, à Dornach en Suisse.
C’est l’adaptation de la technique du gunitage (lire article p. 20) à l’échelle domestique qui permet l’apparition des premières maisons-bulles. En 1941, l’architecte américain Wallace Neff invente le procédé de construction Airform, économique et ultra-rapide, pour ses Bubble Houses achevées en quarante-huit heures. Un ouvrier projette du béton sur un ballon maintenu à sa base par une dalle et entouré dans sa partie basse par un grillage. Après 24 heures, le ballon est dégonflé. Le voile est couvert d’une isolation puis un nouveau grillage est appliqué sur cette surface et une seconde couche de béton est projetée. Près de 2500 bâtiments ainsi conçus voient le jour dans le monde entier. En 1953, Eliot Noyes construit deux maisons en Floride avec ce procédé (fig. 3). Des projets non réalisés marquent également les esprits. En 1955, l’architecte américain John Maclane Johansen publie les dessins de sa Spray House et un livre sur la technique de construction par gunitage sur coffrage perdu. L’image de la maquette d’une Maison sur la Plage (1956) de Sanford Hohauser (fig. 4), tel un vaisseau extraterrestre posé sur les rochers, est diffusée dans les médias. En 1959, la maquette de l’Endless House de Frederick Kiesler (fig. 1) devient une référence incontournable. Cette maison organique, conçue pour être construite en béton selon un principe de « tension continue », abolit la distinction entre murs, sols et plafonds.
Dans les années 1960, les maisons en voile de béton se multiplient. Au cours de ses recherches sur l’adaptation des modèles de la nature à l’architecture, Vittorio Giorgini imagine la casa Saldarini (1962), à Baratti sur la côte Toscane (fig. 5), dont l’allure fantastique se situe entre la baleine et le dinosaure. En Belgique, la sculpturale maison de Jacques Gillet, dans une forêt en périphérie de Liège (1968), évoque une grotte. Aux Etats-Unis, les maisons-bulles sont souvent liées à la contre-culture, telle la House of the Century à travers laquelle le groupe Ant Farm transpose en dur ses recherches sur les structures gonflables (Texas, 1973). De son côté, l’architecte italien Dante Bini développe une technique économique et rapide pour construire des dômes à partir d’une membrane recouverte d’une fine couche de béton, puis gonflée. Sur plusieurs décennies, environ 1500 Binishells apparaîtront ainsi, comme la maison de Michelangelo Antonioni sur la Costa Nera en Sardaigne.
La recherche de l’économie
En 1959, l’architecte suisse Pascal Häusermann (1936-2011) est le premier en France à construire de ses propres mains une bulle, à Grilly, dans l’Ain. Dans sa demande de permis, il écrit : « La forme et la facture de cette maison découlent des possibilités qu’a le béton de s’adapter à une forme statique. Lorsque cette forme est atteinte, le voile ainsi formé supporte d’être extrêmement mince. Le poids du béton mis en œuvre étant minime, le coffrage peut être réduit à sa plus simple expression, c’est-à-dire incorporé au voile. Le béton, dans cette construction, ne supportant que de faibles contraintes, n’a pas besoin d’une grande homogénéité. Il suffit donc de gicler un mortier sur une trame réceptrice attachée à l’armature principale. » Le désir de trouver l’enveloppe la plus économique possible conduit Häusermann à étudier l’ellipsoïde de révolution. Un seul matériau suffit, son emprise au sol est restreinte et ses fondations sont légères. En revanche, le second œuvre revient plus cher que dans une maison orthogonale, car chaque détail doit être adapté aux courbes. L’année suivante, à Pougny, il parfait son procédé avec des maisons jumelles dotées d’un bandeau vitré à l’équateur (fig. 6). Il s’associe ensuite à son épouse, l’architecte française Claude Costy (née en 1931), avec laquelle il décline l’utilisation du voile de béton dans divers programmes et régions : habitations, motel, clubs de loisirs, etc. En 1968, pour leur propre famille, ils greffent sur les ruines du presbytère de Minzier (Haute-Savoie) une libre composition de bulles et de volumes sculpturaux (fig. 7). A l’intérieur de cette caverne onirique, tout l’aménagement est intégré dans les circonvolutions du béton. Parallèlement, pour aller plus loin que le voile de béton ne le permet dans l’économie et la légèreté, Pascal Häusermann travaille sur des bulles en matière plastique, dont les Domobiles sont les plus abouties (fig. 8). Mais aucune industrialisation ne verra le jour. Après leur séparation en 1972, le couple se répartit les chantiers du centre-ville de Douvaine (Haute-Savoie), dont l’école maternelle de Claude Costy offre un rare exemple de bâtiment public en bulles (fig. 10). Parallèlement, elle dessine la maison de Joël Unal qu’il autoconstruit en Ardèche (fig. 9). Elle en suivra le chantier sur plusieurs décennies, établissant les plans de ferraillage au fur et à mesure. A la fin des années 1970, le gros œuvre est terminé mais Joël Unal s’y consacrera encore jusqu’en 2008, appliquant lui-même le béton à la main et peaufinant son aménagement et son décor. Les différentes bulles reposent directement sur les rochers et s’intègrent au paysage dans un véritable équilibre avec la nature.
De la plante au corps féminin
Dès 1958, Jean-Louis Chanéac (1931-1993) étudie des cellules individuelles, évolutives et mobiles aux formes organiques. Mais il ne trouvera aucun industriel prêt à s’impliquer dans leur préfabrication. En 1968, dans son Manifeste de l’architecture insurrectionnelle, il préconise l’installation de bulles pirates greffées sur les façades des barres et tours pour agrandir les appartements ou posées un peu partout dans les villes. En décembre 1970, après avoir lu ce texte, Marcel Lachat accroche clandestinement une bulle pirate en polyester sur la façade de son immeuble du Grand-Saconnex dans le canton de Genève (lire article p. 16). Construite grâce aux conseils techniques de Pascal Häusermann, cette installation destinée à dénoncer la politique de logement fera grand bruit. Pressentant la fin d’une époque permissive et n’ayant pas trouvé « le cobaye consentant à vivre une expérience d’architecture limite », Jean-Louis Chanéac construit sa maison familiale à Aix-les-Bains en voile de béton entre 1973 et 1977 (fig. 11). Pour ne pas faire de choix formel réfléchi, il décide de travailler à partir de la première vision qui s’impose à son esprit. Ce sera une cosse de haricot, image protectrice ressurgie de son enfance, qui épouse la forme du terrain pentu. Vue du ciel, la maison ressemble à un oiseau. Mi-végétale, mi-animale, cette « architecture correspondant à [ses] fantasmes » évoque également un sexe de femme.
L’habitologie
D’origine finlandaise, Antti Lovag (1920-2014) s’installe dans les Alpes-Maritimes en 1963 et travaille pour l’architecte Jacques Couëlle jusqu’en 1969, notamment sur les maisons-paysages de Castellaras-le-Neuf. « Couëlle m’a donné la liberté. C’est à lui que je dois la certitude que tout est possible », disait Antti Lovag. Grâce à des clients-mécènes, il pourra construire trois palais-bulles. A Tourrettes-sur-Loup, il commence par élever en 1968 un prototype de maison-bulle qu’il habitera ensuite. Maintes fois bloqué par l’administration, le chantier de la maison s’étend par épisodes successifs sur plusieurs décennies. Pour Antti Lovag, « le point de départ c’est le cercle, mais pas le cercle au sens symbolique ou ésotérique. Le cercle en tant qu’évidence. Il structure le comportement de la nature humaine. Nous avons un champ de vision circulaire. La convivialité est un phénomène circulaire. » Fidèle reflet de l’intérieur, à partir duquel tout est conçu, l’extérieur n’offre pas le visage d’une architecture de représentation. Antti Lovag commence par déterminer l’enveloppe globale grâce à des gabarits réglables pour situer les volumes dans l’espace et faciliter la mise en place des fers. Il conçoit des demi-sphères outrepassées intimement liées au terrain, laissant affleurer des rochers à l’intérieur. Les pièces s’agglomèrent les unes aux autres, parfois reliées par des galeries ou quelques marches, afin d’obtenir un espace fluide sans porte. A partir de 1970, Antti Lovag se consacre à deux commandes successives sur des parcelles dominant la Méditerranée, à Théoule-sur-Mer. La première est une maison de vacances de 800 mètres carrés répartis dans une grappe de vingt-six bulles, ponctuées de terrasses, patios, bassins et jardins. La seconde, rachetée par le couturier Pierre Cardin, est un palais labyrinthique de 1200 mètres carrés dont les bulles suivent les courbes de niveau du terrain abrupt (fig. 12). Autour de trois piscines, elles forment une composition proliférante qui ne répond pas à un dessein formel préalable mais à des parcours fonctionnels. Car Antti Lovag ne se considère pas comme un architecte mais comme un « habitologue ». Il soigne le mobilier intégré d’une maison en totale harmonie avec ses habitants : placard-tambour, lit circulaire et rotatif, cheminée mobile, table amovible, cuisine escamotable à rangements pivotants, etc. Coquilles protectrices, ses bulles doivent s’accorder parfaitement aux gestes quotidiens.
Au cours des années 1970, aux contraintes administratives légères succède un nombre croissant d’oppositions culturelles et réglementaires. Les nouvelles lois d’urbanisme françaises musellent la créativité des architectes, confrontés à un durcissement de l’administration puis à un blocage quasi total des permis de construire. Le changement des mentalités bride l’esprit d’innovation et les responsables politiques, locaux comme nationaux, encouragent le règne des pavillons de constructeurs. L’engouement des médias retombe. Depuis les années 1980, les maisons-bulles restent essentiellement le domaine des autoconstructeurs. Ils se lancent grâce au livre de Joël Unal paru en 1981, Pratique du voile de béton en autoconstruction, dans lequel l’auteur fournit des indications techniques très précises, ou en côtoyant Antti Lovag qui, jusque dans les années 2000, continue de former des étudiants et des passionnés, architectes ou non, sur ses chantiers et lors de stages.
Référence
Maisons-bulles : Architectures organiques des années 1960 et 1970
Raphaëlle Saint-Pierre, Editions du Patrimoine, Collection Carnets d’architectes, Paris, 2015
Ha formado parte de la serie desde las primeras versiones, y siempre ha sido el "villano incomprendido". Según el co-creador de la serie Finish Hiroshi el estilo de lucha de Sagat fue desarrollado a partir de películas como Kickboxer interpretada por Jean-Claude Van Damme. Al parecer, el personaje estaría basado en un luchador de Muay Thai apodado Reiba, o "El señor oscuro del Muay Thai", que tuvo una gran rivalidad con Yoshiji Soeno, el maestro de Karate en el que estaría basado Ryu.
Sagat, logró el título de Emperador/Dios del Muay Thai y logro ser un héroe nacional en Tailandia. Debido a su título enfrenta gran cantidad de retos, entre ellos el de un karateka llamado Gou Hibiki con quien sostiene un difícil y brutal combate que le costó el ojo derecho. En ese combate Go perdió la vida. Por ello el hijo de Go , Dan Hibiki, juró venganza.
Sagat organizó el primer World Warrior Tournament para demostrar que no era sólo el luchador de Muay Thai más fuerte sino que también era el más fuerte de todas las disciplinas. En ese Torneo tan sólo un joven luchador fue capaz de alcanzar el último combate, Ryu. En una intensa batalla Sagat logra derrotar a Ryu, Sagat se acerca para tenderle la mano al luchador derrotado y en ese momento Ryu se recupera y ejecuta un Metsu Shoryuken a un Sagat sin guardia que le ocasionó a este una gran cicatriz a lo largo de su pecho.
Adon que había sido entrenado por Sagat, se burló de su maestro por la derrota de este frente a Ryu y le retó a un combate para decidir quien sería el Dios del Muay Thai. La rabia cegó a Sagat y este fue derrotado por su alumno aunque debido al combate Adon pasó cuatro meses en el hospital. Consumido por la rabia y el odio Sagat se unió a la organización criminal conocida como Shadaloo. El poder de Sagat le permitió convertirse en guardaspaldas de M. Bison. Durante su permanencia en Shadaloo, Sagat se reencuentra con Dan Hibiki que busca venganza por la muerte de su padre en el combate contra Sagat. Entonces Sagat comprende que los verdaderos rivales no deben estar cegados por la ira y el odio por lo que se deja perder el combate (aunque Dan no lo cree así) a fin de satisfacer el ánimo de venganza de este. Así mismo Sagat se da cuenta de las verdaderas intenciones de M. Bison. Sin embargo M. Bison lava el cerebro a Ryu, convirtiendolo en evil Ryu, y fuerza a Sagat a enfrentarse a él en un combate de revancha. A pesar de que Sagat no quiere enfrentarse a Ryu, cede ante M. Bison y se enfrenta a él. Pero durante el combate Ryu se libra del control de M. Bison y vuelve a vencer a Sagat. Sagat comprende entonces que las rivalidades deben tener sus límites.
El objetivo de Sagat para el segundo Torneo World Warrior era disputar un combate de revancha limpio frente a Ryu, pero sus esperanzas desaparecen cuando Ryu es eliminado de la competición antes de poder enfrentarse. Tras esto Sagat continúa entrenando su cuerpo y su mente confiando en poder convertirse en el mejor luchador del mundo antes de que sea demasiado viejo para ello.
Sagat cuenta con una gran altura, que le da una buena ventaja en los ataques a larga distancia. Su envergadura le convirte en un poderoso luchador. Sus manos son lo suficientemente grandes como para rodear la cabeza de muchos de sus oponentes.
Siempre fue representado totalmente calvo, salvo en sólo una de las representaciones artísticas oficiales, en la cual aparece con la cabeza totalmente cubierta de pelo.
En la series del Street Fighter II no es representado con la fortaleza muscular con la que aparece en el Street Fighter Alpha.
Sagat lleva un parche de color negro en su dañado ojo derecho, aunque la pérdida de visión periférica y de percepción no le impiden ser un luchador muy peligroso. Debido a las limitaciones técnicas existentes en el momento de la salida al mercado del primer Street Fighter, el parche parece cambiar de ojo cuando el personaje cambia de dirección.
La cicatriz de su pecho es un recuerdo de la derrota frente a Ryu y Sagat no se ocupa de ocultarla. Su vestimenta consiste en un pantalón corto de los utilizados tradicionalmente en el Muay Thai.
Sagat se controla de forma similar a Ken y Ryu pero con algunas diferencias. La principal diferencia es su amplia gama de ataques, sobre todo en cuanto a ataques bajos y patadas horizontales se refiere. En el Street Fighter 2 la alternancia entre ataques de bola de fuego altos y bajos genera confusión en el rival. En los juegos más modernos es menos útil dado que produce menos daño y es más fácil de ser evitada. En el juego Capcom vs. SNK 2 los ataques normales de Sagat, en concreto su puñetazo, producen un alto daño en el rival, por lo que es uno de los personajes más fáciles de controlar en este juego.
++++++ Form Wikipedia +++++
Kalaw (Burmese: ကလောမြို့; Shan: ၵလေႃး [ka lɔ]) is a hill town in the Shan State of Myanmar. It is located in Kalaw Township in Taunggyi District.
Kalaw
ကလောမြို့
Kalaw 21.jpg
Kalaw is located in Myanmar
Kalaw
Location in Myanmar
Coordinates: 20°38′N 96°34′E
Country Myanmar
Division Shan State
Districts Taunggyi District
Township Kalaw Township
Population (2005)
• Religions Buddhism
Time zone MST (UTC+6.30)
OverviewEdit
The town was popular with the British during colonial rule. Kalaw is the main setting of the novel "The Art of Hearing Heartbeats" by Jan-Philipp Sendker.
The hill station is located at an elevation of 1320 metres, 50 km from the Inle lake. Kalaw is famous for hiking and trekking.[1]
Kalaw Train station sign altitude.
Myanmar (Burmese pronunciation: [mjəmà]),[nb 1][8] officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a sovereign state in Southeast Asia. Myanmar is bordered by India and Bangladesh to its west, Thailand and Laos to its east and China to its north and northeast. To its south, about one third of Myanmar's total perimeter of 5,876 km (3,651 mi) forms an uninterrupted coastline of 1,930 km (1,200 mi) along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. The country's 2014 census counted the population to be 51 million people.[9] As of 2017, the population is about 54 million.[10] Myanmar is 676,578 square kilometers (261,228 square miles) in size. Its capital city is Naypyidaw, and its largest city and former capital is Yangon (Rangoon).[1] Myanmar has been a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1997.
Early civilisations in Myanmar included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Burma and the Mon kingdoms in Lower Burma.[11] In the 9th century, the Bamar people entered the upper Irrawaddy valley and, following the establishment of the Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the Burmese language, culture and Theravada Buddhism slowly became dominant in the country. The Pagan Kingdom fell due to the Mongol invasions and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty, the country was for a brief period the largest empire in the history of Mainland Southeast Asia.[12] The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur and Assam as well. The British took over the administration of Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the country became a British colony. Myanmar was granted independence in 1948, as a democratic nation. Following a coup d'état in 1962, it became a military dictatorship.
For most of its independent years, the country has been engrossed in rampant ethnic strife and its myriad ethnic groups have been involved in one of the world's longest-running ongoing civil wars. During this time, the United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systematic human rights violations in the country.[13] In 2011, the military junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election, and a nominally civilian government was installed. This, along with the release of Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners, has improved the country's human rights record and foreign relations, and has led to the easing of trade and other economic sanctions.[14] There is, however, continuing criticism of the government's treatment of ethnic minorities, its response to the ethnic insurgency, and religious clashes.[15] In the landmark 2015 election, Aung San Suu Kyi's party won a majority in both houses. However, the Burmese military remains a powerful force in politics.
Myanmar is a country rich in jade and gems, oil, natural gas and other mineral resources. In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$56.7 billion and its GDP (PPP) at US$221.5 billion.[6] The income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by supporters of the former military government.[16] As of 2016, Myanmar ranks 145 out of 188 countries in human development, according to the Human Development Index.[7]
Etymology
Main article: Names of Myanmar
In 1989, the military government officially changed the English translations of many names dating back to Burma's colonial period or earlier, including that of the country itself: "Burma" became "Myanmar". The renaming remains a contested issue.[17] Many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use "Burma" because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to rename the country.[18]
In April 2016, soon after taking office, Aung San Suu Kyi clarified that foreigners are free to use either name, "because there is nothing in the constitution of our country that says that you must use any term in particular".[19]
The country's official full name is the "Republic of the Union of Myanmar" (ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်, Pyidaunzu Thanmăda Myăma Nainngandaw, pronounced [pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀]). Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form "Union of Burma" instead.[20]
In English, the country is popularly known as either "Burma" or "Myanmar" /ˈmjɑːnˌmɑːr/ (About this sound listen).[8] Both these names are derived from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group. Myanmar is considered to be the literary form of the name of the group, while Burma is derived from "Bamar", the colloquial form of the group's name.[17] Depending on the register used, the pronunciation would be Bama (pronounced [bəmà]) or Myamah (pronounced [mjəmà]).[17] The name Burma has been in use in English since the 18th century.
Burma continues to be used in English by the governments of many countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom.[21][22] Official United States policy retains Burma as the country's name, although the State Department's website lists the country as "Burma (Myanmar)" and Barack Obama has referred to the country by both names.[23] The Czech Republic officially uses Myanmar, although its Ministry of Foreign Affairs mentions both Myanmar and Burma on its website.[24] The United Nations uses Myanmar, as do the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Australia,[25] Russia, Germany,[26] China, India, Bangladesh, Norway,[27] Japan[21] and Switzerland.[28]
Most English-speaking international news media refer to the country by the name Myanmar, including the BBC,[29] CNN,[30] Al Jazeera,[31] Reuters,[32] RT (Russia Today) and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)/Radio Australia.[33]
Myanmar is known with a name deriving from Burma as opposed to Myanmar in Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Greek – Birmania being the local version of Burma in the Spanish language, for example. Myanmar used to be known as "Birmânia" in Portuguese, and as "Birmanie" in French.[34] As in the past, French-language media today consistently use Birmanie.,[35][36]
History
Main article: History of Myanmar
Prehistory
Main articles: Prehistory of Myanmar and Migration period of ancient Burma
Pyu city-states c. 8th century; Pagan is shown for comparison only and is not contemporary.
Archaeological evidence shows that Homo erectus lived in the region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no more erectus finds after 75,000 years ago.[37] The first evidence of Homo sapiens is dated to about 11,000 BC, in a Stone Age culture called the Anyathian with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar. Evidence of neolithic age domestication of plants and animals and the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime between 10,000 and 6,000 BC has been discovered in the form of cave paintings in Padah-Lin Caves.[38]
The Bronze Age arrived circa 1500 BC when people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so.[39] Human remains and artefacts from this era were discovered in Monywa District in the Sagaing Division.[40] The Iron Age began around 500 BC with the emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay.[41] Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements of large villages and small towns that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BC and 200 AD.[42] Iron Age Burmese cultures also had influences from outside sources such as India and Thailand, as seen in their funerary practices concerning child burials. This indicates some form of communication between groups in Myanmar and other places, possibly through trade.[43]
Early city-states
Main articles: Pyu city-states and Mon kingdoms
Around the second century BC the first-known city-states emerged in central Myanmar. The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant, from present-day Yunnan.[44] The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organisation.[45]
By the 9th century, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu came under repeated attacks from Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century the Bamar people founded a small settlement at Bagan. It was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century when it grew in authority and grandeur.[46]
Imperial Burma
Main articles: Pagan Kingdom, Taungoo Dynasty, and Konbaung Dynasty
See also: Ava Kingdom, Hanthawaddy Kingdom, Kingdom of Mrauk U, and Shan States
Pagodas and kyaungs in present-day Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom.
Pagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s when Anawrahta founded the Pagan Kingdom, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer Empire were two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia.[47] The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu, Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century.[48]
Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level, although Tantric, Mahayana, Hinduism, and folk religion remained heavily entrenched. Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions (1277–1301) toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287.[48]
Temples at Mrauk U.
Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competing Shan States came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until the late 14th century when two sizeable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom, emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437.
Early on, Ava fought wars of unification (1385–1424) but could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Having held off Ava, Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava itself, and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555.
Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and the Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture. Burmese literature "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged.[49] Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to the rest of the country.[50] Many splendid temples of Mrauk U were built during this period.
Taungoo and colonialism
Bayinnaung's Empire in 1580.
Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, due to the efforts of Taungoo, a former vassal state of Ava. Taungoo's young, ambitious king Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War (1534–41). His successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na, Manipur, Mong Mao, the Ayutthaya Kingdom, Lan Xang and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule at Thanlyin (Syriam).
The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored a smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Myanmar, Upper Myanmar, Shan states, Lan Na and upper Tenasserim. The Restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features would continue well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley, and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated Meithei raids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty.
A British 1825 lithograph of Shwedagon Pagoda shows British occupation during the First Anglo-Burmese War.
After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War involved one resistance group under Alaungpaya defeating the Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759, he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur, and driven out the French and the British, who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos (1765) and fought and won the Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67) against Ayutthaya and the Sino-Burmese War (1765–69) against Qing China (1765–1769).[51]
With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770, and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in a stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British India.[52]
The breadth of this empire was short lived. Burma lost Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim to the British in the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War. King Mindon Min tried to modernise the kingdom, and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indochina, annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.
Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms, and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females).[53] Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.
British Burma (1824–1948)
Main articles: British rule in Burma and Burma Campaign
Burma in British India
The landing of British forces in Mandalay after the last of the Anglo-Burmese Wars, which resulted in the abdication of the last Burmese monarch, King Thibaw Min.
British troops firing a mortar on the Mawchi road, July 1944.
The eighteenth century saw Burmese rulers, whose country had not previously been of particular interest to European traders, seek to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was the British East India Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next sixty years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises continued until, after three Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1885), Britain proclaimed control over most of Burma.[54] British rule brought social, economic, cultural and administrative changes.
With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January 1886. Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore.
Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralysed Yangon (Rangoon) on occasion all the way until the 1930s.[55] Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions such as the British refusal to remove shoes when they entered pagodas. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement. U Wisara, an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest against a rule that forbade him to wear his Buddhist robes while imprisoned.[56]
Separation of British Burma from British India
On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Great Britain and Ba Maw the first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule and he opposed the participation of Great Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II. He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan formally entered the Second World War, Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan.
A major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II. By March 1942, within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Wingate's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines.[57] A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders, followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943.[58] Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma. Only 1,700 prisoners were taken.[59]
Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army.[60] The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Under Japanese occupation, 170,000 to 250,000 civilians died.[61]
Following World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as a unified state. Aung Zan Wai, Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung, Sir Maung Gyi, Dr. Sein Mya Maung, Myoma U Than Kywe were among the negotiators of the historical Panglong Conference negotiated with Bamar leader General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals[62] assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.[63]
Independence (1948–1962)
Main article: Post-independence Burma, 1948–62
British governor Hubert Elvin Rance and Sao Shwe Thaik at the flag raising ceremony on 4 January 1948 (Independence Day of Burma).
On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities,[64] and multi-party elections were held in 1951–1952, 1956 and 1960.
The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.[65]
In 1961, U Thant, then the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations, a position he held for ten years.[66] Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi (daughter of Aung San), who went on to become winner of the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize.
When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d’état in 1962. Though incorporated in the 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term ‘federalism’ as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration.[67]
Military rule (1962–2011)
On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état, and the government has been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by the general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalised or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism,[68] which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and central planning.
A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system, with the General and other military officers resigning and ruling through the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP).[69] During this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most impoverished countries.[70]
Protesters gathering in central Rangoon, 1988.
There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University, killing 15 students.[68] In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force.[69]
In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising. Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.[71] SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 1989.
In May 1990, the government held free elections for the first time in almost 30 years and the National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won 392 out of a total 492 seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power[72] and continued to rule the nation as SLORC until 1997, and then as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011.
Protesters in Yangon during the 2007 Saffron Revolution with a banner that reads non-violence: national movement in Burmese. In the background is Shwedagon Pagoda.
On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw, meaning "city of the kings".[73]
Cyclone Nargis in southern Myanmar, May 2008.
In August 2007, an increase in the price of diesel and petrol led to the Saffron Revolution led by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government.[74] The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007. The crackdown was harsh, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. The military crackdown against unarmed protesters was widely condemned as part of the international reactions to the Saffron Revolution and led to an increase in economic sanctions against the Burmese Government.
In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated, rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division.[75] It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damage totalled to 10 billion US dollars, and as many as 1 million left homeless.[76] In the critical days following this disaster, Myanmar's isolationist government was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts.[77] Humanitarian aid was requested but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies.[78]
In early August 2009, a conflict known as the Kokang incident broke out in Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including the Han Chinese,[79] Wa, and Kachin.[80][81] During 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan province in neighbouring China.[80][81][82]
Civil wars
Main articles: Internal conflict in Myanmar, Kachin Conflict, Karen conflict, and 2015 Kokang offensive
Civil wars have been a constant feature of Myanmar's socio-political landscape since the attainment of independence in 1948. These wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the areas surrounding the ethnically Bamar central districts of the country serving as the primary geographical setting of conflict. Foreign journalists and visitors require a special travel permit to visit the areas in which Myanmar's civil wars continue.[83]
In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar included the Kachin conflict,[84] between the Pro-Christian Kachin Independence Army and the government;[85] a civil war between the Rohingya Muslims, and the government and non-government groups in Rakhine State;[86] and a conflict between the Shan,[87] Lahu, and Karen[88][89] minority groups, and the government in the eastern half of the country. In addition, al-Qaeda signalled an intention to become involved in Myanmar. In a video released on 3 September 2014, mainly addressed to India, the militant group's leader Ayman al-Zawahiri said al-Qaeda had not forgotten the Muslims of Myanmar and that the group was doing "what they can to rescue you".[90] In response, the military raised its level of alertness, while the Burmese Muslim Association issued a statement saying Muslims would not tolerate any threat to their motherland.[91]
Armed conflict between ethnic Chinese rebels and the Myanmar Armed Forces have resulted in the Kokang offensive in February 2015. The conflict had forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek shelter on the Chinese side of the border.[92] During the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to the ethnic Chinese rebels. Burmese officials have been historically "manipulated" and pressured by the Chinese government throughout Burmese modern history to create closer and binding ties with China, creating a Chinese satellite state in Southeast Asia.[93] However, uncertainties exist as clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups continue.
Democratic reforms
Main article: 2011–12 Burmese political reforms
The goal of the Burmese constitutional referendum of 2008, held on 10 May 2008, is the creation of a "discipline-flourishing democracy". As part of the referendum process, the name of the country was changed from the "Union of Myanmar" to the "Republic of the Union of Myanmar", and general elections were held under the new constitution in 2010. Observer accounts of the 2010 election describe the event as mostly peaceful; however, allegations of polling station irregularities were raised, and the United Nations (UN) and a number of Western countries condemned the elections as fraudulent.[94]
U.S. President Barack Obama and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton with Aung San Suu Kyi and her staff at her home in Yangon, 2012
The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory in the 2010 elections, stating that it had been favoured by 80 percent of the votes; however, the claim was disputed by numerous pro-democracy opposition groups who asserted that the military regime had engaged in rampant fraud.[95][96] One report documented 77 percent as the official turnout rate of the election.[95] The military junta was dissolved on 30 March 2011.
Opinions differ whether the transition to liberal democracy is underway. According to some reports, the military's presence continues as the label "disciplined democracy" suggests. This label asserts that the Burmese military is allowing certain civil liberties while clandestinely institutionalising itself further into Burmese politics. Such an assertion assumes that reforms only occurred when the military was able to safeguard its own interests through the transition—here, "transition" does not refer to a transition to a liberal democracy, but transition to a quasi-military rule.[97]
Since the 2010 election, the government has embarked on a series of reforms to direct the country towards liberal democracy, a mixed economy, and reconciliation, although doubts persist about the motives that underpin such reforms. The series of reforms includes the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the National Human Rights Commission, the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permit labour unions and strikes, a relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of currency practices.[98]
The impact of the post-election reforms has been observed in numerous areas, including ASEAN's approval of Myanmar's bid for the position of ASEAN chair in 2014;[99] the visit by United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in December 2011 for the encouragement of further progress, which was the first visit by a Secretary of State in more than fifty years,[100] during which Clinton met with the Burmese president and former military commander Thein Sein, as well as opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi;[101] and the participation of Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy (NLD) party in the 2012 by-elections, facilitated by the government's abolition of the laws that previously barred the NLD.[102] As of July 2013, about 100[103][104] political prisoners remain imprisoned, while conflict between the Burmese Army and local insurgent groups continues.
Map of Myanmar and its divisions, including Shan State, Kachin State, Rakhine State and Karen State.
In 1 April 2012 by-elections, the NLD won 43 of the 45 available seats; previously an illegal organisation, the NLD had not won a single seat under new constitution. The 2012 by-elections were also the first time that international representatives were allowed to monitor the voting process in Myanmar.[105]
2015 general elections
Main article: Myanmar general election, 2015
General elections were held on 8 November 2015. These were the first openly contested elections held in Myanmar since 1990. The results gave the National League for Democracy an absolute majority of seats in both chambers of the national parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would become president, while NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi is constitutionally barred from the presidency.[106]
The new parliament convened on 1 February 2016[107] and, on 15 March 2016, Htin Kyaw was elected as the first non-military president since the military coup of 1962.[108] On 6 April 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi assumed the newly created role of State Counsellor, a role akin to a Prime Minister.
Geography
Main article: Geography of Myanmar
A map of Myanmar
Myanmar map of Köppen climate classification.
Myanmar has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (262,000 sq mi). It lies between latitudes 9° and 29°N, and longitudes 92° and 102°E. As of February 2011, Myanmar consisted of 14 states and regions, 67 districts, 330 townships, 64 sub-townships, 377 towns, 2,914 Wards, 14,220 village tracts and 68,290 villages.
Myanmar is bordered in the northwest by the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and the Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh states of India. Its north and northeast border is with the Tibet Autonomous Region and Yunnan province for a Sino-Myanmar border total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi). It is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Myanmar has 1,930 km (1,200 mi) of contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one quarter of its total perimeter.[20]
In the north, the Hengduan Mountains form the border with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 metres (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Myanmar.[109] Many mountain ranges, such as the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, the Shan Hills and the Tenasserim Hills exist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas.[110]
The mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are the Irrawaddy, Salween (Thanlwin), and the Sittaung rivers.[111] The Irrawaddy River, Myanmar's longest river, nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi) long, flows into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.[110] The majority of Myanmar's population lives in the Irrawaddy valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.
Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of Myanmar
A clickable map of Burma/Myanmar exhibiting its first-level administrative divisions.
About this image
Myanmar is divided into seven states (ပြည်နယ်) and seven regions (တိုင်းဒေသကြီး), formerly called divisions.[112] Regions are predominantly Bamar (that is, mainly inhabited by the dominant ethnic group). States, in essence, are regions that are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into districts, which are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages.
Climate
Main article: Climate of Myanmar
The limestone landscape of Mon State.
Much of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (196.9 in) of rain annually. Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (98.4 in), while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone in central Myanmar is less than 1,000 mm (39.4 in). The Northern regions of Myanmar are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have an average maximum temperature of 32 °C (89.6 °F).[111]
Environment
Further information: Deforestation in Myanmar
Myanmar continues to perform badly in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall ranking of 153 out of 180 countries in 2016; among the worst in the South Asian region, only ahead of Bangladesh and Afghanistan. The EPI was established in 2001 by the World Economic Forum as a global gauge to measure how well individual countries perform in implementing the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. The environmental areas where Myanmar performs worst (ie. highest ranking) are air quality (174), health impacts of environmental issues (143) and biodiversity and habitat (142). Myanmar performs best (ie. lowest ranking) in environmental impacts of fisheries (21), but with declining fish stocks. Despite several issues, Myanmar also ranks 64 and scores very good (ie. a high percentage of 93.73%) in environmental effects of the agricultural industry because of an excellent management of the nitrogen cycle.[114][115]
Wildlife
Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of the country, including areas of acacia, bamboo, ironwood and Magnolia champaca. Coconut and betel palm and rubber have been introduced. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.[116]
Heavy logging since the new 1995 forestry law went into effect has seriously reduced forest acreage and wildlife habitat.[117] The lands along the coast support all varieties of tropical fruits and once had large areas of mangroves although much of the protective mangroves have disappeared. In much of central Myanmar (the Dry Zone), vegetation is sparse and stunted.
Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers, occur sparsely in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild water buffalo, clouded leopard, wild boars, deer, antelope, and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber industry. Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including parrots, myna, peafowl, red junglefowl, weaverbirds, crows, herons, and barn owl. Among reptile species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.[118] For a list of protected areas, see List of protected areas of Myanmar.
Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Myanmar
Assembly of the Union (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw)
The constitution of Myanmar, its third since independence, was drafted by its military rulers and published in September 2008. The country is governed as a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature (with an executive President accountable to the legislature), with 25% of the legislators appointed by the military and the rest elected in general elections.
Two Large Forms by Henry Moore, Grange Park, Toronto. The Frank Gehry extension to the Art Gallery of Ontario is in the background on the left.
CITYLIFE MASTERPLAN MILÁN
Delimitado por los Viales Spinola, Senofonte, Berengario, Ezio, Belisario, Cassiodoro, Severino Boezio, Duilio y Eginardo, Piazzales Giulio Cesare y Elsa Morante y Piazza Tre Torri. Milán, Milano, Italia
Zonificación
Superficie total: 160.000 M2
Zona Residencial I: 38.000 M2.
Zona Residencial. II: 15.500 M2.
Torres de Oficinas: 32.000 M2.
Parque de las Tres Torres: 15.000 M2.
Desarrollo
Residencial Daniel Libeskind, Via Spinola 2009-13.
Residencial Zaha Hadid, Via Senofonte 2009-13.
Parterres verdes 2010
Estación de Metro Tre Torri 2010-12
Torre Allianz - Torre Isozaki (il dritto, el recto) 2012-15
Parque (primera fase - 25.000 m2) 2013
Parque (segunda fase - 33.000m2) 2013-15
Distrito comercial 2013-18
Torre Generali - Torre Hadid (lo storto, la trenzada) 2014-17
Parque (parte posterior) 2015-16
Torre Libeskind (il curvo, la curva) 2015-18
En 2004 el Estudio Libeskind junto con Zaha Hadid y Arata Isozaki & Associates resultó ganador del concurso para desarrollar el Master Plan para recomponer el tejido urbano existente en el viejo recinto de la Feria de Milán.
El proyecto Citylife situado en el corazón de Milán – en una de las mayores zonas peatonales de Europa- trae al contexto urbano un nuevo modelo para la residencia, el trabajo y el ocio, un área para ser disfrutada a pie o en bicicleta, dejando el tráfico rodado por el subsuelo.
Con un total de 662 viviendas, los dos proyectos residenciales se caracterizan por las formas sinuosas de los volúmenes asimétricos, organizados alrededor de patios.
En el centro del proyecto se encuentra el distrito de negocios formado por tres torres de oficinas entorno a la nueva "Piazza delle Tre Torri" donde se sitúa la nueva estación de Metro: Torre Isozaki (il dritto, el recto), Torre Hadid (lo storto, la trenzada) y la torre Libeskind (il curvo, la curva) - la Torre Isozaki tiene 202 metros de altura con 50 pisos, por lo que estará entre las más altas de Italia. La torre de Hadid tendrá 170 metros de altura, con 44 pisos, y la torre Libeskind alcanzará una altura de 150 metros con cerca de 30 plantas. Entre las tres son capaces de dar cabida a 10.000 personas, sobre un total de aproximadamente 130.000 m2. También son parte del proyecto un museo de arte contemporáneo, una zona comercial con bares y restaurantes, un pabellón de exposiciones, deportes, programas de entretenimiento y la moda.
LAS TORRES
Il Dritto / El Recto / Torre Allianz “Torre sin fin”
Piazza Tre Torri. Milán, Milano, Italia
Arquitecto Arata Isozaki. Arquitecto colaboradora Andrea Maffei. 2012-15
Il Dritto o Torre Allianz es actualmente uno de los edificios más altos de Italia con 207 m y 50 pisos -con la antena alcanza los 247 m -. Ha sido diseñado por el japonés arquitecto Arata Isozaki en colaboración con la arquitecto italiana Andrea Maffei.
La torre está compuesta por 8 módulos de 6 plantas cada uno con una planta larga y delgada de 24 x 61.5m. La elección de estas proporciones se hace para hacer todo el volumen más delgado enfatizando la verticalidad y haciendo que sea estructuralmente provocativa, debido a la forma esbelta y alta. La fachada de cada módulo está compuesta por una unidad de vidrio triple ligeramente curvada hacia el exterior. La sucesión vertical de formas redondeadas crean una sensación de ligera vibración del volumen del edificio a medida que sube hacia arriba. Los alzados laterales son totalmente acristaladas y muestran la serie de 6 ascensores panorámicos que dan servicio a los distintos pisos del edificio.
Lo Storto / La Trenzada / Torre Generali - Torre Hadid
Piazza Tre Torri. Milán, Milano, Italia
Arquitectos Zaha Hadid Architects 2014-17
Lo Storto o Torre Generali alcanzará una altura de 185 m con 44 pisos (+ 3 plantas de sótano), y una superficie total de unos 67.000 m2. Diseñada por la arquitecto anglo-iraquí Zaha Hadid. La geometría de la construcción es la de una forma de trenza, donde tanto la dimensión plantas y su orientación varían a lo largo del eje de la torre.
La estructura es de hormigón. Un núcleo central actúa como refuerzo horizontal principal y elemento resistente. La cimentación está constituida por una losa y pilotes. La base es una gruesa losa de hormigón de 2,5 m, apoyada en 64 pilotes en forma de racimo en los principales puntos de carga. Con el fin de resistir los principales efectos de torsión debidos a la disposición de la columna deformada, los dinteles de las puertas principales del núcleo cuentan con soluciones mixtas de elementos de acero, barras de refuerzo y hormigón. Debido a los efectos específicos de la deformación, se ha llevado a cabo una etapa de análisis altamente sofisticado para contrarrestar posibles efectos negativos, tanto durante la construcción como a largo plazo. El acero forma la base libre para uso comercial que rodea el edificio.
Il Curvo / El Curvo / Torre Libeskind “Esmeralda verde”
Piazza Tre Torri. Milán, Milano, Italia
Arquitecto Estudio Libeskind, Daniel Libeskind. 2015-18
La denominada “Esmeralda Verde” alcanzará una altura de 175 m con 28 pisos y una superficie total de unos 76.000 m2. Situado entre Il Dritto y Lo Storto, Il Curvo se inclinará en dirección de sus homólogos sobre la Piazza Tre Torri.
La cúpula renacentista es el principio básico en el que se inspira Il Curvo. Se reinterpreta a través del movimiento cóncavo de su elevación y culmina en la corona, ambos elementos definen el proyecto. La fachada de la torre curva es sostenible, en vidrio que reflejará el espacio público por debajo y alrededor.
libeskind.com/work/citylife-masterplan/
www.arquitecturaviva.com/es/Info/News/Details/7264
www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/785273/departamentos-cit...
www.zaha-hadid.com/architecture/city-life-milano-resident...
singularesmag.com/citylife-milano-residencial-complex-zah...
www.metalocus.es/es/historic?keys=citylife
www.metalocus.es/es/noticias/residencial-citylife-en-mila...
www.zaha-hadid.com/architecture/citylife-milano/
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CityLife_(Milan)
www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/777520/torre-allianz-ara...
www.metalocus.es/es/noticias/torre-allianz-por-arata-isoz...
She is just so fun to shoot pictures of, everyone should have a corded poodle.
As you can see it is a little hazy, the smoke from the forest fires in Quebec that are over 500 miles away has made it to NH. It is a little hard to breathe, but the good thing is that it is going to make it a little less hot today, probably only in the 70's rather in the 80's, so there is an upside. Firefighters from all over Canada and from New England are in Quebec helping. There are 57 fires in Quebec of them 14 are out of control, I sure hope they get rain, and get them under control soon.
Elogio al movimento.
Le foto non sono state modificate in nessun modo,tranne dei crop e il viraggio in B/N ,per il resto resta tutto originale ,anche il rumore degli iso a 1600
I have to interrupt the preparations for my dinner to take a quick image. I'm always surprised about the creativity of nature.
The first main bridge deck Delta frame was lowered into position on the right hand side Form Traveller of the southern pylon yesterday.The Delta frame can be seen in the center of photo,This will be the anchor point for the first main bridge deck support cable.......Please note ALL pictures on this Photostream are Copyright Protected
Merry-go-round coal trains formed of 36 HAAs, were split & loaded in two rakes, at Wearmouth Colliery near Sunderland. At lunchtime on Tuesday September 21st 1993, 56130 "Wardley Opencast" was attched to the first rake of loaded HAAs, which after attaching the second rake, formed 7J10 to Tyne Central Coal Terminal (for export - today biomass is imported for Lynemouth & Drax). The train departed at 1320 & ran via Ryhope Grange (reverse).
The colliery closed on December 10th that year & was replaced by The Stadium of Light in 1997.
コムメリナ・エレクタ ‘淡桃色花フォーム’
Commelina erecta L., 1753 ‘Light-Pearl-Blue Flower Form’
This name is accepted. 11/15, 2021.
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Family: Commelinaceae (APG IV)
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Author:
Carl von Linnaeus (1707-1778)
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Published In:
Species Plantarum 1: 41. 1753. (1 May 1753) (Sp. Pl.)
Name publication detailView in BotanicusView in Biodiversity Heritage Library
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Annotation:
nom. & typ. cons. prop.
Type-Protolog
Locality:Habitat in Virginia
Type Specimens:
CTP: Herb. Dillenius 63 (OXF-Dill. HE_77-88)
Type discussion:Hassemer, G., D. Iamonico & L. A. Funez. 2018. (2631) Proposal to conserve the name Commelina erecta (Commelinaceae) with a conserved type. Taxon 67(4): 810.
LT: Dillenius, Hort. Eltham. t. 77, f. 88 (1732); ; LT designated by Clarke, Monogr. Phan. 3: ? (1881)
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Distribution:America, Trop. & S. Africa, Arabian Pen.
(12) spa 21 CVI 22 BEN BKN GAM GHA GNB GUI IVO LBR MLI NGA NGR SEN SIE TOG 23 BUR CAF CMN CON GGI RWA ZAI 24 CHA ETH SOM SUD 25 KEN TAN UGA 26 ANG MLW MOZ ZIM 27 BOT CPP NAM NAT OFS SWZ TVL (34) pal 35 SAU YEM (38) jap (40) ban 73 COL WYO 74 ILL IOW KAN MIN MSO NEB OKL SDA WIS 75 INI MIC NWJ NWY PEN RHO WVA 76 ARI 77 NWM TEX 78 ALA ARK DEL FLA GEO KTY LOU MRY MSI NCA SCA TEN VRG WDC 79 MXC MXE MXG MXN MXS MXT 80 BLZ COS ELS GUA HON NIC PAN 81 ARU BAH BER CAY CUB DOM HAI JAM LEE NLA PUE SWC TCI TRT VNA WIN 82 FRG GUY SUR VEN 83 BOL CLM ECU PER 84 BZC BZE BZL BZN BZS 85 AGE AGW clc PAR URU
Lifeform:Hemicr. or tuber geophyte
Original Compiler:R.Govaerts
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Homotypic Names:
Commelina erecta L. var. typica Fernald, Rhodora 42: 438 (1940), not validly publ.
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This name is Accepted by:
Brunel, J.F., Hiepo, P. & Scholz, H. (eds.) (1984). Flore Analytique du Togo Phanérogames: 1-751. GTZ, Eschborn.
Jones, M. (1991). A checklist of Gambian plants: 1-33. Michael Jones, The Gambia College.
Govaerts, R. (1999). World Checklist of Seed Plants 3(1, 2a & 2b): 1-1532. MIM, Deurne.
Sita, P. & Moutsambote, J.-M. (2005). Catalogue des plantes vasculaires du Congo , ed. sept. 2005: 1-158. ORSTOM, Centre de Brazzaville.
Walderley, M.G.L., Shepherd, G.J., Melhem, T.S. & Giulietti, A.M. (eds.) (2005). Flora Fanerogâmica do Estado de São Paulo 4: 1-392. Instituto de Botânica, São Paulo.
Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. & Strong, M.T. (2005). Monocotyledons and Gymnosperms of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium 52: 1-415.
Akoègninou, A., van der Burg, W.J. & van der Maesen, L.J.G. (eds.) (2006). Flore Analytique du Bénin: 1-1034. Backhuys Publishers.
Nelson Sutherland, C.H. (2008). Catálogo de las plantes vasculares de Honduras. Espermatofitas: 1-1576. SERNA/Guaymuras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.
Hokche, O., Berry, P.E. & Huber, O. (eds.) (2008). Nuevo Catálogo de la Flora Vascular de Venezuela: 1-859. Fundación Instituto Botánico de Venezuela.
Figueiredo, E. & Smith, G.F. (2008). Plants of Angola. Strelitzia 22: 1-279. National Botanical Institute, Pretoria.
Idárraga-Piedrahita, A., Ortiz, R.D.C., Callejas Posada, R. & Merello, M. (eds.) (2011). Flora de Antioquia: Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares 2: 1-939. Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín.
Faden, R. (2012). Commelinaceae. Flora of Tropical East Africa: 1-244.
López-Ferrari, A.R., Espejo-Serna, A. & Ceja-Romero, J. (2014). Flora de Veracruz 161: 1-127. Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones sobre Recursos Bióticos, Xalapa, Veracruz.
Velayos, M., Aedo, C., Cabezas, F., de la Estrella, M., Barberá, P. & Fero, M. (eds.) (2014). Flora de Guinea Ecuatorial 11: 1-416. Consejo superior de investigaciones científicas, Real jardín botánico, Madrid.
von Raab-Straube, E. & Raus, T. (eds.) (2015). Euro+Med-Checklist notulae, 4. Willdenowia 45: 119-129.
de Moura Júnior, E.G. & al. (2015). Updated checklist of aquatic macrophytes from Northern Brazil. Acta Amazonica 45: 111-132.
Sarder, N.U. & Hassan, M.A. (eds.) (2018). Vascular flora of Chittagong and the Chittagong Hill Tracts 1: 1-897. Bangladesh National Herbarium, Dhaka.
Hassemer, G. (2018). Taxonomic and geographic notes on the neotropical Commelina (Commelinaceae). Webbia; Raccolta de Scritti Botanici 73: 23-53.
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Nikon D800E
SIGMA MACRO 70mm F2.8 EX DG for Nikon AF Mount
Is feudalism, marketing itself as democracy, the underlying operating system for modern civilization’s social, economic and political systems? This is the hypothesis of those who describe current systems of governance, militarism and global economics as a mutated form of feudalism.
If such assumption were true, it would help to explain why, for over 2,000 years, Western civilizations have perpetuated certain distinct characteristics — such as class systems, extreme wealth inequality, power elites, racism, militarism, prison systems and human trafficking.
It would help to explain why the guiding social systems and cultural programing of modern civilizations appear to be rooted in feudalism — focused on the concentration of power and wealth — and appear not to have changed significantly over time. Feudalism has been continuously “repackaged” and “updated” over time, transforming itself into imperialism, colonialism, industrialism and, most recently, into corporate capitalism and globalization.
Over the past few thousand years, human history has been one long story of empire building, predatory colonialism and military conquest. Even now, the majority of people on our planet are either extremely poor or in debt, while the wealthiest few have absolute control over the way those people live.
Our educational systems use standardized tests to sort, rank and classify children, while indoctrinating them with an incomplete understanding of history and manufacturing obedience. Test scores determine society’s winners and losers, and a child’s future social status will depend on their willingness to follow orders and do as instructed.
Our political systems are set up by those with the greatest wealth, allowing powerful individuals and corporations to make laws and wage wars, occupying offices far away from most “common people”, and ruling over the rest of us.
Our modern military campaigns sent young men off like pawns on chess boards to kill people in faraway countries that have resources our corporations want to control. Expensive weapons systems cost trillions of dollars, while back home there is little money left for the education or health care of our “peasant” classes.
Our prison systems are set up so as to see that poor people who violate laws are locked up in cages. In the United States, more African Americans are currently incarcerated than were forced into slavery 200 years ago.
All around us, we can see the old feudal systems transformed into modern versions of the same archaic patterns, resulting in the same social problems and dysfunctions.
It’s a system kept in place by propaganda that is fed to the masses by the media and schools, telling us that our world is based on “progress,” that we are more advanced and “developed” than primitive tribal cultures of the past. When in truth the feudal paradigm of civilization — focused on the social dominance of others and the acquisition of wealth by a small power elite — is in many ways barbaric, authoritarian and unsustainable.
Crime, war, racism, slavery, addiction, human trafficking, environmental destruction and extreme poverty are all symptoms of an underlying systemic imbalance, of a world where predatory and feudalist systems of social organization still dominate our lives.
Such criticism and understanding is not new. Jesus saw the evils of this system, and spoke out against it. Buddha refused to participate in his father’s kingdom, walking off and choosing to live in poverty instead. From Lao Tsu to Gandhi to Martin Luther King, there have been a chorus of voices that have spoken out across the ages. Albert Einstein wrote about this problem over 60 years ago, describing how modern political, economic and media systems were perpetuating oligarchy and manipulating democratic systems.
As we moved into the modern industrial age, large peaceful social movements have risen up to challenge the system – from the abolitionists and women suffragettes to the civil rights movement, anti-war protests, ecology movement and Occupy Wall Street. The old feudal ways of doing things has created endless misery, destroying Nature’s fragile ecosystems and leading the human race to ruin.
The time has come for our species to grow wiser, evolve our thinking and change the way we live upon this planet.
C. C.
Port Grimaud French Riviera
is a seaside town forms That portion of the town of Grimaud. It is located seven kilometers (4.3 miles) (oven mi (6.4 km)) west of Saint-Tropez and seven kilometers (4.3 miles) south-west of Sainte Maxime. This seaside town Was created by architect Francois Spoerry in the 1960s by-modifying the marshes of the river Giscle on the bay of Saint Tropez. Built with channels in a Venetian Manner, aim with French "Fishermans" style houses Resembling Those in Saint Tropez.
The Mainly traffic free town is popular with boat owners as MOST properties come with Their Own berth. The success of the first stage of the development Meant That Grimaud 2 (Extending the town further Top East) Was completed in the 1970s and then again in Port Grimaud 3 Was in the 90s. The Church of St Francis of Assisi in the hand instead of church contains stained glass by Victor Vasarely.
Located 5 minutes from the harbor is the big campsite "The Praries sea" which HAS 1500 caravan and tent pitches.
Managing exchanges between residents, boaters and visitors
Port Grimaud I hosts many merchants and professionals in its three places: the place des Artisans, the Market Square, instead of six guns. During the summer, the street markets are held every Thursday and Sunday as well as art markets. Thus, as desired by François Spoerry, this condominium is also a space for exchange between land and sea opened to boaters.
In a lakeside town such as Port Grimaud, it is faster to travel by boat than by car or motorbike, so water buses, water checkmarks are available to residents to move into the city.
The Grimaldines shuttles allow to go to Saint-Tropez by sea from June to September.
To ensure harmony between owners, merchants, sailors and visitors, certain rules of living together apply throughout the lakeside village: non-residents are invited to park their vehicles in the parking lot reserved for them at entrance to the city, the visit taking place on foot (bikes are also banned). Proper dress is required, observing the peace of the owners is required as well as respect for the cleanliness of common areas. The display of the machine to passers or neighbors is forbidden. Dogs must be leashed. Also prohibited within the city: rollerblades and skateboards, and picnics and barbecues
The awesome prizes I got as a Runner Up for the Form Your Most Imaginative Voltron Scene Contest. The Voltron set is signed by the designers and graphic designer, plus a winners certificate.
VW MK7 GTI Candy White - Flow Formed V810 Gunmetal 18"
Front / Rear
18x8.5 ET45
225/40/18
sales@velocitymotoring.com
Altes Museum, Berlin, Germany
Beschrijving Deutsch: Antinoos als Agathodemon. Kopflose Marmorstatue vervollständigt mit einem Antinooskopf, 130-138 n. Chr.
English: Antinous as Agathodemon. Headless marble statue completed with an Antinous' head, 130–138 CE.
Français : Antinoüs en Agathodémon. Statue acéphale complétée avec une tête d'Antinoüs, 130-138 ap. J.-C.
Berlin, Pergamon Museum, Antikensammlung Inv. N° Sk 361. Antinoos en Agathodémon. Statue acéphale complétée avec une tête d'Antinoüs ne lui appartenant pas. Acquise du temps de Frédéric II le Grand, vers 1760, auprès de l'atelier du sculpteur Cavaceppi, à Rome, et exposée devant le Nouveau Palais, à Potsdam. Dans l'Altes Museum depuis 1830. «Eine bedeutende Zierde der königlichen preussischen Sammlung» (Konrad Levezow, 1808).
Qu'est ce qu'un Agathodaimon / Agathodémon?
Description : Protecteur mythique d'Alexandrie où un sanctuaire lui était consacré. Il a été perçu en Egypte, hors d'Alexandrie, comme une forme du serpent primordial Kematef ; par cette assimilation, il est devenu le serpent protecteur du foyer en général.
D'une manière générale, l'Egypte a toujours connu ces génies bienveillants, tels Chaï, Bès ou Renenoutet, lesquels sont aussi des entités du panthéon. Le terme est devenu générique et désigne les génies ou entités bienfaisantes ; chaque nome avait le sien. On pensait également que chaque individu avait un bon (Agathodaïmon) et un mauvais (Cacodaïmon) génie, attaché à lui depuis la naissance et qui était à l'origine de ses pulsions. Il avait la forme d'un serpent à tête humaine.
Les Grecs croyait qu'Agathodaïmon était le protecteur des vignes et des champs de maïs, et il l'honorait en buvant un verre de vin après le repas. Ils le représentait comme un serpent et parfois comme un jeune homme tenant une corne d'abondance, un bol et des épis de blé.