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I’ve posted this image not out of pride, but out of shame from having visited Seaworld a few years ago, and as a tribute to these magnificent creatures.
I’ve just watched fascinating and disturbing documentary called Blackfish, about how killer whales are mistreated by Seaworld and similar parks. Many former Seaworld trainers were interviewed.
Killer whales are highly intelligent and emotionally developed animals, with a matriarchal society and a fierce commitment to their young. Killer whales from different parts of the world are essentially different nations with their own languages.
When Seaworld thrusts different killer whales together, they cannot understand each other and, coupled to being in basically a bathtub all their lives, become aggressive and disturbed. They bite each other, leaving teeth marks all over their bodies, as you can see on this killer whale above. Also, in captivity, their dorsal fin is often bowed over, as you can see above; this has not been seen in the wild.
No human has ever been harmed by a killer whale in the wild, but several have been killed by them in captivity.
Their young are often taken away from them, which leaves the mother distraught and grief-stricken.
Seaworld tells people that they only live to around 25-30 years in the wild. Actually they live to around a 100 years in the wild. They also tell people that they do not make the killer whales do anything that they do not want to do. In fact they enforce the routines with punishment – not feeding them unless they get it right.
Keeping an animal in captivity for conservation and education is one thing. Exploiting a highly intelligent creature for circus entertainment is entirely different. I can only apologise to the killer whales at Seaworld San Diego for my participation and consumption of this exploitation.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the landmark in Paris, France. For other uses, see Eiffel Tower (disambiguation).
"300-metre tower" and "Tour Eiffel" redirect here. For other tall towers, see List of tallest towers. For other uses, see Tour Eiffel (disambiguation).
Eiffel Tower
Tour Eiffel (French)
Seen from the Champ de Mars
MapWikimedia | © OpenStreetMap
Record height
Tallest in the world from 1889 to 1930[I]
Preceded byWashington Monument
Surpassed byChrysler Building
General information
TypeObservation tower
Broadcasting tower
Location7th arrondissement, Paris, France
Coordinates48°51′29.6″N 2°17′40.2″E
Construction started28 January 1887; 137 years ago
Completed31 March 1889; 135 years ago[1]
Opening15 May 1889; 135 years ago[1]
OwnerCity of Paris, France
ManagementSociété d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SETE)
Height
Architectural300 m (984 ft)[2]
Tip330 m (1,083 ft)
Top floor276 m (906 ft)[2]
Technical details
Floor count4 (3 accessible, 1 residual)[3]
Lifts/elevators8[4]
Design and construction
Architect(s)Stephen Sauvestre
Structural engineerMaurice Koechlin
Émile Nouguier
Main contractorCompagnie des Etablissements Eiffel
Website
toureiffel.paris/en
References
I. ^ "Eiffel Tower". Emporis. Archived from the original on 22 April 2016.
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Part ofParis, Banks of the Seine
CriteriaCultural: i, ii, iv
Reference600
Inscription1991 (15th Session)
The Eiffel Tower (/ˈaɪfəl/ ⓘ EYE-fəl; French: Tour Eiffel [tuʁ ɛfɛl] ⓘ) is a wrought-iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower from 1887 to 1889.
Locally nicknamed "La dame de fer" (French for "Iron Lady"), it was constructed as the centerpiece of the 1889 World's Fair, and to crown the centennial anniversary of the French Revolution. Although initially criticised by some of France's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, it has since become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world.[5] The tower received 5,889,000 visitors in 2022.[6] The Eiffel Tower is the most visited monument with an entrance fee in the world:[7] 6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. It was designated a monument historique in 1964, and was named part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site ("Paris, Banks of the Seine") in 1991.[8]
The tower is 330 metres (1,083 ft) tall,[9] about the same height as an 81-storey building, and the tallest structure in Paris. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres (410 ft) on each side. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become the tallest human-made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930. It was the first structure in the world to surpass both the 200-metre and 300-metre mark in height. Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest free-standing structure in France after the Millau Viaduct.
The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top level's upper platform is 276 m (906 ft) above the ground—the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second, making the entire ascent a 600 step climb. Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift. On this top, third level is a private apartment built for Gustave Eiffel's private use. He decorated it with furniture by Jean Lachaise and invited friends such as Thomas Edison.
History
Origin
The design of the Eiffel Tower is attributed to Maurice Koechlin and Émile Nouguier, two senior engineers working for the Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel. It was envisioned after discussion about a suitable centerpiece for the proposed 1889 Exposition Universelle, a world's fair to celebrate the centennial of the French Revolution. In May 1884, working at home, Koechlin made a sketch of their idea, described by him as "a great pylon, consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and coming together at the top, joined together by metal trusses at regular intervals".[10] Eiffel initially showed little enthusiasm, but he did approve further study, and the two engineers then asked Stephen Sauvestre, the head of the company's architectural department, to contribute to the design. Sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments.[citation needed]
First drawing of the Eiffel Tower by Maurice Koechlin including size comparison with other Parisian landmarks such as Notre Dame de Paris, the Statue of Liberty, and the Vendôme Column
The new version gained Eiffel's support: he bought the rights to the patent on the design which Koechlin, Nouguier, and Sauvestre had taken out, and the design was put on display at the Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884 under the company name. On 30 March 1885, Eiffel presented his plans to the Société des Ingénieurs Civils; after discussing the technical problems and emphasising the practical uses of the tower, he finished his talk by saying the tower would symbolise
[n]ot only the art of the modern engineer, but also the century of Industry and Science in which we are living, and for which the way was prepared by the great scientific movement of the eighteenth century and by the Revolution of 1789, to which this monument will be built as an expression of France's gratitude.[11]
Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade. A budget for the exposition was passed and, on 1 May, Lockroy announced an alteration to the terms of the open competition being held for a centrepiece to the exposition, which effectively made the selection of Eiffel's design a foregone conclusion, as entries had to include a study for a 300 m (980 ft) four-sided metal tower on the Champ de Mars.[11] (A 300-metre tower was then considered a herculean engineering effort.) On 12 May, a commission was set up to examine Eiffel's scheme and its rivals, which, a month later, decided that all the proposals except Eiffel's were either impractical or lacking in details.[citation needed]
After some debate about the exact location of the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. Eiffel signed it acting in his own capacity rather than as the representative of his company, the contract granting him 1.5 million francs toward the construction costs: less than a quarter of the estimated 6.5 million francs. Eiffel was to receive all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition and for the next 20 years. He later established a separate company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself.[12]
A French bank, the Crédit Industriel et Commercial (CIC), helped finance the construction of the Eiffel Tower. During the period of the tower's construction, the CIC was acquiring funds from predatory loans to the National Bank of Haiti, some of which went towards the financing of the tower. These loans were connected to an indemnity controversy that saw France force Haiti's government to financially compensate French slaveowners for lost income as a result of the Haitian Revolution, and required Haiti to pay the CIC and its partner nearly half of all taxes collected on exports, "effectively choking off the nation's primary source of income". According to The New York Times, "[at] a time when the [CIC] was helping finance one of the world's best-known landmarks, the Eiffel Tower, as a monument to French liberty, it was choking Haiti's economy, taking much of the young nation's income back to Paris and impairing its ability to start schools, hospitals and the other building blocks of an independent country."[13]
Artists' protest
Caricature of Gustave Eiffel comparing the Eiffel tower to the Pyramids, published in Le Temps, 14 February 1887
The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and those who objected on artistic grounds. Prior to the Eiffel Tower's construction, no structure had ever been constructed to a height of 300 m, or even 200 m for that matter,[14] and many people believed it was impossible. These objections were an expression of a long-standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering. It came to a head as work began at the Champ de Mars: a "Committee of Three Hundred" (one member for each metre of the tower's height) was formed, led by the prominent architect Charles Garnier and including some of the most important figures of the arts, such as William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet. A petition called "Artists against the Eiffel Tower" was sent to the Minister of Works and Commissioner for the Exposition, Adolphe Alphand, and it was published by Le Temps on 14 February 1887:
We, writers, painters, sculptors, architects and passionate devotees of the hitherto untouched beauty of Paris, protest with all our strength, with all our indignation in the name of slighted French taste, against the erection ... of this useless and monstrous Eiffel Tower ... To bring our arguments home, imagine for a moment a giddy, ridiculous tower dominating Paris like a gigantic black smokestack, crushing under its barbaric bulk Notre Dame, the Tour Saint-Jacques, the Louvre, the Dome of les Invalides, the Arc de Triomphe, all of our humiliated monuments will disappear in this ghastly dream. And for twenty years ... we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the hateful column of bolted sheet metal.[15][16]
A 1918 calligram by Guillaume Apollinaire: Salut monde dont je suis la langue éloquente que sa bouche Ô Paris tire et tirera toujours aux allemands ("Hello world, of which I am the eloquent tongue which your mouth, O Paris, will forever stick out at the Germans").
Gustave Eiffel responded to these criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids: "My tower will be the tallest edifice ever erected by man. Will it not also be grandiose in its way? And why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris?"[17] These criticisms were also dealt with by Édouard Lockroy in a letter of support written to Alphand, sardonically saying,[18] "Judging by the stately swell of the rhythms, the beauty of the metaphors, the elegance of its delicate and precise style, one can tell this protest is the result of collaboration of the most famous writers and poets of our time", and he explained that the protest was irrelevant since the project had been decided upon months before, and construction on the tower was already under way.
Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, and had raised no objection. Eiffel pointed out to a journalist that it was premature to judge the effect of the tower solely on the basis of the drawings, that the Champ de Mars was distant enough from the monuments mentioned in the protest for there to be little risk of the tower overwhelming them, and putting the aesthetic argument for the tower: "Do not the laws of natural forces always conform to the secret laws of harmony?"[19]
Some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built; others remained unconvinced.[20] Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the tower's restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible.[21]
By 1918, it had become a symbol of Paris and of France after Guillaume Apollinaire wrote a nationalist poem in the shape of the tower (a calligram) to express his feelings about the war against Germany.[22] Today, it is widely considered to be a remarkable piece of structural art, and is often featured in films and literature.
Construction
Foundations of the Eiffel Tower, photographed in 1887
Work on the foundations started on 28 January 1887.[23] Those for the east and south legs were straightforward, with each leg resting on four 2 m (6.6 ft) concrete slabs, one for each of the principal girders of each leg. The west and north legs, being closer to the river Seine, were more complicated: each slab needed two piles installed by using compressed-air caissons 15 m (49 ft) long and 6 m (20 ft) in diameter driven to a depth of 22 m (72 ft)[24] to support the concrete slabs, which were 6 m (20 ft) thick. Each of these slabs supported a block of limestone with an inclined top to bear a supporting shoe for the ironwork.
Each shoe was anchored to the stonework by a pair of bolts 10 cm (4 in) in diameter and 7.5 m (25 ft) long. The foundations were completed on 30 June, and the erection of the ironwork began. The visible work on-site was complemented by the enormous amount of exacting preparatory work that took place behind the scenes: the drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detailed drawings of the 18,038 different parts needed.[25] The task of drawing the components was complicated by the complex angles involved in the design and the degree of precision required: the position of rivet holes was specified to within 1 mm (0.04 in) and angles worked out to one second of arc.[26] The finished components, some already riveted together into sub-assemblies, arrived on horse-drawn carts from a factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois-Perret and were first bolted together, with the bolts being replaced with rivets as construction progressed. No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any part did not fit, it was sent back to the factory for alteration. In all, 18,038 pieces were joined using 2.5 million rivets.[23]
At first, the legs were constructed as cantilevers, but about halfway to the first level construction was paused to create a substantial timber scaffold. This renewed concerns about the structural integrity of the tower, and sensational headlines such as "Eiffel Suicide!" and "Gustave Eiffel Has Gone Mad: He Has Been Confined in an Asylum" appeared in the tabloid press.[27] Multiple famous artists of that time, Charles Garnier and Alexander Dumas, thought poorly of the newly made tower. Charles Garnier thought it was a "truly tragic street lamp". Alexander Dumas said that it was like "Odius shadow of the odious column built of rivets and iron plates extending like a black blot". There were multiple protests over the style and the reasoning of placing it in the middle of Paris.[28] At this stage, a small "creeper" crane designed to move up the tower was installed in each leg. They made use of the guides for the lifts which were to be fitted in the four legs. The critical stage of joining the legs at the first level was completed by the end of March 1888.[23] Although the metalwork had been prepared with the utmost attention to detail, provision had been made to carry out small adjustments to precisely align the legs; hydraulic jacks were fitted to the shoes at the base of each leg, capable of exerting a force of 800 tonnes, and the legs were intentionally constructed at a slightly steeper angle than necessary, being supported by sandboxes on the scaffold. Although construction involved 300 on-site employees,[23] due to Eiffel's safety precautions and the use of movable gangways, guardrails and screens, only one person died.[29]
18 July 1887: The start of the erection of the metalwork
18 July 1887:
The start of the erection of the metalwork
7 December 1887: Construction of the legs with scaffolding
7 December 1887:
Construction of the legs with scaffolding
20 March 1888: Completion of the first level
20 March 1888:
Completion of the first level
15 May 1888: Start of construction on the second stage
15 May 1888:
Start of construction on the second stage
21 August 1888: Completion of the second level
21 August 1888:
Completion of the second level
26 December 1888: Construction of the upper stage
26 December 1888:
Construction of the upper stage
15 March 1889: Construction of the cupola
15 March 1889:
Construction of the cupola
Inauguration and the 1889 exposition
View of the 1889 World's Fair
The main structural work was completed at the end of March 1889 and, on 31 March, Eiffel celebrated by leading a group of government officials, accompanied by representatives of the press, to the top of the tower.[20] Because the lifts were not yet in operation, the ascent was made by foot, and took over an hour, with Eiffel stopping frequently to explain various features. Most of the party chose to stop at the lower levels, but a few, including the structural engineer, Émile Nouguier, the head of construction, Jean Compagnon, the President of the City Council, and reporters from Le Figaro and Le Monde Illustré, completed the ascent. At 2:35 pm, Eiffel hoisted a large Tricolour to the accompaniment of a 25-gun salute fired at the first level.[30]
There was still work to be done, particularly on the lifts and facilities, and the tower was not opened to the public until nine days after the opening of the exposition on 6 May; even then, the lifts had not been completed. The tower was an instant success with the public, and nearly 30,000 visitors made the 1,710-step climb to the top before the lifts entered service on 26 May.[31] Tickets cost 2 francs for the first level, 3 for the second, and 5 for the top, with half-price admission on Sundays,[32] and by the end of the exhibition there had been 1,896,987 visitors.[5]
After dark, the tower was lit by hundreds of gas lamps, and a beacon sent out three beams of red, white and blue light. Two searchlights mounted on a circular rail were used to illuminate various buildings of the exposition. The daily opening and closing of the exposition were announced by a cannon at the top.[33]
Illumination of the tower at night during the exposition; painted by Georges Garen [fr], 1889
On the second level, the French newspaper Le Figaro had an office and a printing press, where a special souvenir edition, Le Figaro de la Tour, was made.[34]
At the top, there was a post office where visitors could send letters and postcards as a memento of their visit. Graffitists were also catered for: sheets of paper were mounted on the walls each day for visitors to record their impressions of the tower. Gustave Eiffel described the collection of responses as "truly curious".[35]
Famous visitors to the tower included the Prince of Wales, Sarah Bernhardt, "Buffalo Bill" Cody (his Wild West show was an attraction at the exposition) and Thomas Edison.[31] Eiffel invited Edison to his private apartment at the top of the tower, where Edison presented him with one of his phonographs, a new invention and one of the many highlights of the exposition.[36] Edison signed the guestbook with this message:
To M Eiffel the Engineer the brave builder of so gigantic and original specimen of modern Engineering from one who has the greatest respect and admiration for all Engineers including the Great Engineer the Bon Dieu, Thomas Edison.
Eiffel made use of his apartment at the top of the tower to carry out meteorological observations, and also used the tower to perform experiments on the action of air resistance on falling bodies.[37]
Subsequent events
Duration: 43 seconds.0:43
Panoramic view during ascent of the Eiffel Tower by the Lumière brothers, 1898
Eiffel had a permit for the tower to stand for 20 years. It was to be dismantled in 1909, when its ownership would revert to the City of Paris. The city had planned to tear it down (part of the original contest rules for designing a tower was that it should be easy to dismantle) but as the tower proved to be valuable for many innovations in the early 20th century, particularly radio telegraphy, it was allowed to remain after the expiry of the permit, and from 1910 it also became part of the International Time Service.[38]
For the 1900 Exposition Universelle, the lifts in the east and west legs were replaced by lifts running as far as the second level constructed by the French firm Fives-Lille. These had a compensating mechanism to keep the floor level as the angle of ascent changed at the first level, and were driven by a similar hydraulic mechanism as the Otis lifts, although this was situated at the base of the tower. Hydraulic pressure was provided by pressurised accumulators located near this mechanism.[39] At the same time the lift in the north pillar was removed and replaced by a staircase to the first level. The layout of both first and second levels was modified, with the space available for visitors on the second level. The original lift in the south pillar was removed 13 years later.[citation needed]
Santos-Dumont No. 5; 13 July 1901
On 19 October 1901, Alberto Santos-Dumont, flying his No.6 airship, won a 100,000-franc prize offered by Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe for the first person to make a flight from St. Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back in less than half an hour.[40]
In 1910, Father Theodor Wulf measured radiant energy at the top and bottom of the tower. He found more at the top than expected, incidentally discovering what are known today as cosmic rays.[41] Two years later, on 4 February 1912, Austrian tailor Franz Reichelt died after jumping from the first level of the tower (a height of 57 m) to demonstrate his parachute design.[42] In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, a radio transmitter located in the tower jammed German radio communications, seriously hindering their advance on Paris and contributing to the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne.[43]
During World War I, the Eiffel Tower's wireless station played a crucial role in intercepting enemy communications from Berlin. In 1914, French forces successfully launched a counter-attack during the Battle of the Marne after gaining critical intelligence on the German Army's movements. In 1917, the station intercepted a coded message between Germany and Spain that referenced 'Operative H-21.' This information contributed to the arrest, conviction, and execution of Mata Hari, the famous spy accused of working for Germany.[44]
From 1925 to 1934, illuminated signs for Citroën adorned three of the tower's sides, making it the tallest advertising space in the world at the time.[45] In April 1935, the tower was used to make experimental low-resolution television transmissions, using a shortwave transmitter of 200 watts power. On 17 November, an improved 180-line transmitter was installed.[46]
The Eiffel Tower has been a subject of art, as in this cubist painting by Robert Delaunay (1911)
On two separate but related occasions in 1925, the con artist Victor Lustig "sold" the tower for scrap metal.[47] A year later, in February 1926, pilot Leon Collet was killed trying to fly under the tower. His aircraft became entangled in an aerial belonging to a wireless station.[48] A bust of Gustave Eiffel by Antoine Bourdelle was unveiled at the base of the north leg on 2 May 1929.[49] In 1930, the tower lost the title of the world's tallest structure when the Chrysler Building in New York City was completed.[50] In 1938, the decorative arcade around the first level was removed.[51]
Upon the German occupation of Paris in 1940, the lift cables were cut by the French. The tower was restricted to German visitors during the occupation and the lifts were not repaired until 1946.[52] In 1940, German soldiers had to climb the tower to hoist a swastika-centered Reichskriegsflagge,[53] but the flag was so large it blew away just a few hours later, and was replaced by a smaller one.[54] When visiting Paris, Hitler chose to stay on the ground. When the Allies were nearing Paris in August 1944, Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz, the military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city. Von Choltitz disobeyed the order.[55] On 25 August, before the Germans had been driven out of Paris, the German flag was replaced with a Tricolour by two men from the French Naval Museum, who narrowly beat three men led by Lucien Sarniguet, who had lowered the Tricolour on 13 June 1940 when Paris fell to the Germans.[52]
A fire started in the television transmitter on 3 January 1956, damaging the top of the tower. Repairs took a year, and in 1957, the present radio aerial was added to the top.[56] In 1964, the Eiffel Tower was officially declared to be a historical monument by the Minister of Cultural Affairs, André Malraux.[57] A year later, an additional lift system was installed in the north pillar.[58]
According to interviews, in 1967, Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau negotiated a secret agreement with Charles de Gaulle for the tower to be dismantled and temporarily relocated to Montreal to serve as a landmark and tourist attraction during Expo 67. The plan was allegedly vetoed by the company operating the tower out of fear that the French government could refuse permission for the tower to be restored in its original location.[59]
In 1982, the original lifts between the second and third levels were replaced after 97 years in service. These had been closed to the public between November and March because the water in the hydraulic drive tended to freeze. The new cars operate in pairs, with one counterbalancing the other, and perform the journey in one stage, reducing the journey time from eight minutes to less than two minutes. At the same time, two new emergency staircases were installed, replacing the original spiral staircases. In 1983, the south pillar was fitted with an electrically driven Otis lift to serve the Jules Verne restaurant.[60] The Fives-Lille lifts in the east and west legs, fitted in 1899, were extensively refurbished in 1986. The cars were replaced, and a computer system was installed to completely automate the lifts. The motive power was moved from the water hydraulic system to a new electrically driven oil-filled hydraulic system, and the original water hydraulics were retained solely as a counterbalance system.[58] A service lift was added to the south pillar for moving small loads and maintenance personnel three years later.[citation needed]
Robert Moriarty flew a Beechcraft Bonanza under the tower on 31 March 1984.[61] In 1987, A. J. Hackett made one of his first bungee jumps from the top of the Eiffel Tower, using a special cord he had helped develop. Hackett was arrested by the police.[62] On 27 October 1991, Thierry Devaux, along with mountain guide Hervé Calvayrac, performed a series of acrobatic figures while bungee jumping from the second floor of the tower. Facing the Champ de Mars, Devaux used an electric winch between figures to go back up to the second floor. When firemen arrived, he stopped after the sixth jump.[63]
The tower is the focal point for New Year's Eve and Bastille Day (as in this image from 2013) celebrations.
For its "Countdown to the Year 2000" celebration on 31 December 1999, flashing lights and high-powered searchlights were installed on the tower. During the last three minutes of the year, the lights were turned on starting from the base of the tower and continuing to the top to welcome 2000 with a huge fireworks show. An exhibition above a cafeteria on the first floor commemorates this event. The searchlights on top of the tower made it a beacon in Paris's night sky, and 20,000 flashing bulbs gave the tower a sparkly appearance for five minutes every hour on the hour.[64]
The lights sparkled blue for several nights to herald the new millennium on 31 December 2000. The sparkly lighting continued for 18 months until July 2001. The sparkling lights were turned on again on 21 June 2003, and the display was planned to last for 10 years before they needed replacing.[65]
The tower received its 200,000,000th guest on 28 November 2002.[66] The tower has operated at its maximum capacity of about 7 million visitors per year since 2003.[67] In 2004, the Eiffel Tower began hosting a seasonal ice rink on the first level.[68] A glass floor was installed on the first level during the 2014 refurbishment.[69]
Design
Material
The Eiffel Tower from below
The puddle iron (wrought iron) of the Eiffel Tower weighs 7,300 tonnes,[70] and the addition of lifts, shops and antennae have brought the total weight to approximately 10,100 tonnes.[71] As a demonstration of the economy of design, if the 7,300 tonnes of metal in the structure were melted down, it would fill the square base, 125 metres (410 ft) on each side, to a depth of only 6.25 cm (2.46 in) assuming the density of the metal to be 7.8 tonnes per cubic metre.[72] Additionally, a cubic box surrounding the tower (324 m × 125 m × 125 m) would contain 6,200 tonnes of air, weighing almost as much as the iron itself. Depending on the ambient temperature, the top of the tower may shift away from the sun by up to 18 cm (7 in) due to thermal expansion of the metal on the side facing the sun.[73]
Wind and weather considerations
Lightning striking the Eiffel Tower in 1902
When it was built, Eiffel was accused of trying to create something artistic with no regard to the principles of engineering. However, Eiffel and his team were experienced bridge builders. In an interview with the newspaper Le Temps published on 14 February 1887, Eiffel said:
Is it not true that the very conditions which give strength also conform to the hidden rules of harmony? ... Now to what phenomenon did I have to give primary concern in designing the Tower? It was wind resistance. Well then! I hold that the curvature of the monument's four outer edges, which is as mathematical calculation dictated it should be ... will give a great impression of strength and beauty, for it will reveal to the eyes of the observer the boldness of the design as a whole.[74]
He used graphical methods to determine the strength of the tower and empirical evidence to account for the effects of wind, rather than a mathematical formula. Close examination of the tower reveals a basically exponential shape.[75] All parts of the tower were overdesigned to ensure maximum resistance to wind forces. The top half was assumed to have no gaps in the latticework.[76] After it was completed, some have put forward various mathematical hypotheses in an attempt to explain the success of the design. A one devised in 2004 after letters sent by Eiffel to the French Society of Civil Engineers in 1885 were translated into English described it as a non-linear integral equation based on counteracting the wind pressure on any point of the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that point.[75]
The Eiffel Tower sways by up to 9 cm (3.5 in) in the wind.[77]
Floors
Ground floor
Base of the Eiffel Tower
The four columns of the tower each house access stairs and elevators to the first two floors, while at the south column only the elevator to the second floor restaurant is publicly accessible.
1st floor
Original restaurants at the 1st floor, as viewed from inside the tower
The first floor is publicly accessible by elevator or stairs. When originally built, the first level contained three restaurants—one French, one Russian and one Flemish—and an "Anglo-American Bar". After the exposition closed, the Flemish restaurant was converted to a 250-seat theatre. Today there is the Le 58 Tour Eiffel restaurant and other facilities.
A promenade 2.6-metre (8 ft 6 in) wide ran around the outside of the first level
2nd floor
The second floor is publicly accessible by elevator or stairs and has a restaurant called Le Jules Verne, a gourmet restaurant with its own lift going up from the south column to the second level. This restaurant has one star in the Michelin Red Guide. It was run by the multi-Michelin star chef Alain Ducasse from 2007 to 2017.[78] As of May 2019, it is managed by three-star chef Frédéric Anton.[79] It owes its name to the famous science-fiction writer Jules Verne.
3rd floor
The third floor is the top floor, publicly accessible by elevator.
Originally there were laboratories for various experiments, and a small apartment reserved for Gustave Eiffel to entertain guests, which is now open to the public, complete with period decorations and lifelike mannequins of Eiffel and some of his notable guests.[80]
Gustave Eiffel's apartment at the third floor
From 1937 until 1981, there was a restaurant near the top of the tower. It was removed due to structural considerations; engineers had determined it was too heavy and was causing the tower to sag.[81] This restaurant was sold to an American restaurateur and transported to New York and then New Orleans. It was rebuilt on the edge of New Orleans' Garden District as a restaurant and later event hall.[82] Today there is a champagne bar.
Lifts
The arrangement of the lifts has been changed several times during the tower's history. Given the elasticity of the cables and the time taken to align the cars with the landings, each lift, in normal service, takes an average of 8 minutes and 50 seconds to do the round trip, spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at each level. The average journey time between levels is 1 minute. The original hydraulic mechanism is on public display in a small museum at the base of the east and west legs. Because the mechanism requires frequent lubrication and maintenance, public access is often restricted. The rope mechanism of the north tower can be seen as visitors exit the lift.[citation needed]
The Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape lifts during construction
Equipping the tower with adequate and safe passenger lifts was a major concern of the government commission overseeing the Exposition. Although some visitors could be expected to climb to the first level, or even the second, lifts had to be the main means of ascent.[83]
Constructing lifts to reach the first level was done by making the legs wide enough at the bottom and so nearly straight that they could contain a straight track. A contract was given to the French company Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape for two lifts to be fitted in the east and west legs.[84] Roux, Combaluzier & Lepape used a pair of endless chains with rigid, articulated links to which the car was attached. Lead weights on some links of the upper or return sections of the chains counterbalanced most of the car's weight. The car was pushed up from below, not pulled up from above: to prevent the chain buckling, it was enclosed in a conduit. At the bottom of the run, the chains passed around 3.9 m (12 ft 10 in) diameter sprockets. Smaller sprockets at the top guided the chains.[84]
The Otis lifts originally fitted in the north and south legs.
Installing lifts to the second level was more of a challenge because a straight track was impossible. No French company wanted to undertake the work. The European branch of Otis Brothers & Company submitted a proposal, but this was rejected: the fair's charter ruled out the use of any foreign material in the construction of the tower. The deadline for bids was extended, but still no French companies put themselves forward, and eventually the contract was given to Otis in July 1887.[39] Otis were confident they would eventually be given the contract and had already started creating designs.[85]
The car was divided into two superimposed compartments, each holding 25 passengers, with the lift operator occupying an exterior platform on the first level. Motive power was provided by an inclined hydraulic ram 12.67 m (41 ft 7 in) long and 96.5 cm (38.0 in) in diameter in the tower leg with a stroke of 10.83 m (35 ft 6 in): this moved a carriage carrying six sheaves. Five fixed sheaves were mounted higher up the leg, producing an arrangement similar to a block and tackle but acting in reverse, multiplying the stroke of the piston rather than the force generated. The hydraulic pressure in the driving cylinder was produced by a large open reservoir on the second level. After being exhausted from the cylinder, the water was pumped back up to the reservoir by two pumps in the machinery room at the base of the south leg. This reservoir also provided power to the lifts to the first level.[86]
The original lifts for the journey between the second and third levels were supplied by Léon Edoux. A pair of 81 m (266 ft) hydraulic rams were mounted on the second level, reaching nearly halfway up to the third level. One lift car was mounted on top of these rams: cables ran from the top of this car up to sheaves on the third level and back down to a second car. Each car travelled only half the distance between the second and third levels and passengers were required to change lifts halfway by means of a short gangway. The 10-ton cars each held 65 passengers.[87]
Engraved names
Main article: List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower
Names engraved on the tower
Gustave Eiffel engraved on the building of the tower the names of 72 French scientists, engineers and mathematicians as a recognition of their contributions. Eiffel chose this "invocation of science" because of his concern over the artists' protest. At the beginning of the 20th century, the engravings were painted over, but they were restored in 1986–87 by the Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, a company operating the tower.[88]
Aesthetics
Some original architectural details
The tower is painted in three shades: lighter at the top, getting progressively darker towards the bottom to complement the Parisian sky.[89] It was originally reddish brown; this changed in 1968 to a bronze colour known as "Eiffel Tower Brown".[90] In what is expected to be a temporary change, the tower was painted gold in commemoration of the 2024 Summer Olympics in Paris.[91][92]
Following the 2024 Summer Olympics held in Paris, Mayor Anne Hidalgo proposed keeping the Olympic rings on the tower permanently. The rings, which measure 95 feet (29 m) wide and 43 feet (13 m) high, were initially installed for the Games and were scheduled for removal after the Paralympics. Hidalgo's decision faced criticism from the Eiffel family and some residents concerned about altering the protected monument. The original 30-ton rings would be replaced with lighter versions for long-term display.[93]
The only non-structural elements are the four decorative grill-work arches, added in Sauvestre's sketches, which served to make the tower look more substantial and to make a more impressive entrance to the exposition.[94]
A pop-culture movie cliché is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the tower.[95] In reality, since zoning restrictions limit the height of most buildings in Paris to seven storeys, only a small number of tall buildings have a clear view of the tower.[96]
Bird's-eye view of the Eiffel Tower
Maintenance
Maintenance of the tower includes applying 60 tons of paint every 7 years to prevent it from rusting. The tower has been completely repainted at least 19 times since it was built, with the most recent being in 2010. Lead paint was still being used as recently as 2001 when the practice was stopped out of concern for the environment.[65][97][98]
Communications
Top of the Eiffel Tower with antennas
The tower has been used for making radio transmissions since the beginning of the 20th century. Until the 1950s, sets of aerial wires ran from the cupola to anchors on the Avenue de Suffren and Champ de Mars. These were connected to longwave transmitters in small bunkers. In 1909, a permanent underground radio centre was built near the south pillar, which still exists today. On 20 November 1913, the Paris Observatory, using the Eiffel Tower as an aerial, exchanged wireless signals with the United States Naval Observatory, which used an aerial in Arlington County, Virginia. The object of the transmissions was to measure the difference in longitude between Paris and Washington, D.C.[99] Today, radio and digital television signals are transmitted from the Eiffel Tower.
FM radio
FrequencykWService
87.8 MHz10France Inter
89.0 MHz10RFI Paris
89.9 MHz6TSF Jazz
90.4 MHz10Nostalgie
90.9 MHz4Chante France
Digital television
A television antenna was first installed on the tower in 1957, increasing its height by 18.7 m (61 ft). Work carried out in 2000 added a further 5.3 m (17 ft), giving the current height of 324 m (1,063 ft).[65] Analogue television signals from the Eiffel Tower ceased on 8 March 2011.
FrequencyVHFUHFkWService
182.25 MHz6—100Canal+
479.25 MHz—22500France 2
503.25 MHz—25500TF1
527.25 MHz—28500France 3
543.25 MHz—30100France 5
567.25 MHz—33100M6
Dimensions
Current dimensions of the tower
Height changes
The pinnacle height of the Eiffel Tower has changed multiple times over the years as described in the chart below.[100]
FromToHeight (m)Height (ft)Type of additionRemarks
18891956312.271,025FlagpoleArchitectural height of 300 m (980 ft) Tallest freestanding structure in the world until surpassed by the Chrysler Building in 1930. Tallest tower in the world until surpassed by the KCTV Broadcast Tower in 1956.
19571991320.751,052AntennaBroadcast antenna added in 1957 which made it the tallest tower in the world until the Tokyo Tower was completed the following year in 1958.
19911994317.961,043Antenna change
19942000318.71,046Antenna change
200020223241,063Antenna change
2022Current3301,083Antenna changeDigital radio antenna hoisted on March 15, 2022.[101]
Panorama of Paris from the Tour Eiffel
Panorama of Paris and its suburbs from the top of the Eiffel Tower
Taller structures
The Eiffel Tower was the world's tallest structure when completed in 1889, a distinction it retained until 1929 when the Chrysler Building in New York City was topped out. [102] The tower also lost its standing as the world's tallest tower to the Tokyo Tower in 1958 but retains its status as the tallest freestanding (non-guyed) structure in France.
Lattice towers taller than the Eiffel Tower
Further information: List of tallest towers in the world, Lattice tower, and Observation deck
NamePinnacle heightYearCountryTownRemarks
Tokyo Skytree634 m (2,080 ft)2011JapanTokyo
Kyiv TV Tower385 m (1,263 ft)1973UkraineKyiv
Dragon Tower336 m (1,102 ft)2000ChinaHarbin
Tokyo Tower333 m (1,093 ft)1958JapanTokyo
WITI TV Tower329.4 m (1,081 ft)1962United StatesShorewood, Wisconsin
St. Petersburg TV Tower326 m (1,070 ft)1962RussiaSaint Petersburg
Structures in France taller than the Eiffel Tower
Further information: List of tallest structures in France
NamePinnacle heightYearStructure typeTownRemarks
Longwave transmitter Allouis350 m (1,150 ft)1974Guyed mastAllouis
HWU transmitter350 m (1,150 ft)1971Guyed mastRosnayMilitary VLF transmitter; multiple masts
Viaduc de Millau343 m (1,125 ft)2004Bridge pillarMillau
TV Mast Niort-Maisonnay330 m (1,080 ft)1978Guyed mastNiort
Transmitter Le Mans-Mayet342 m (1,122 ft)1993Guyed mastMayet
La Regine transmitter330 m (1,080 ft)1973Guyed mastSaissacMilitary VLF transmitter
Transmitter Roumoules330 m (1,080 ft)1974Guyed mastRoumoulesSpare transmission mast for longwave; insulated against ground
Tourism
Transport
The nearest Paris Métro station is Bir-Hakeim and the nearest RER station is Champ de Mars-Tour Eiffel.[103] The tower itself is located at the intersection of the quai Branly and the Pont d'Iéna.
Popularity
Number of visitors per year between 1889 and 2004
More than 300 million people have visited the tower since it was completed in 1889.[104][5] In 2015, there were 6.91 million visitors.[105] The tower is the most-visited paid monument in the world.[7] An average of 25,000 people ascend the tower every day (which can result in long queues).[106]
Illumination copyright
Further information: Freedom of panorama § France
The Eiffel Tower illuminated in 2012
The tower and its image have been in the public domain since 1993, 70 years after Eiffel's death. [107] In June 1990, a French court ruled that a special lighting display on the tower in 1989 to mark the tower's 100th anniversary was an "original visual creation" protected by copyright. The Court of Cassation, France's judicial court of last resort, upheld the ruling in March 1992.[108] The Société d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SETE) now considers any illumination of the tower to be a separate work of art that falls under copyright.[109] As a result, the SNTE alleges that it is illegal to publish contemporary photographs of the lit tower at night without permission in France and some other countries for commercial use.[110][111] For this reason, it is often rare to find images or videos of the lit tower at night on stock image sites,[112] and media outlets rarely broadcast images or videos of it.[113]
The imposition of copyright has been controversial. The Director of Documentation for what was then called the Société Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SNTE), Stéphane Dieu, commented in 2005: "It is really just a way to manage commercial use of the image, so that it isn't used in ways [of which] we don't approve".[114] SNTE made over €1 million from copyright fees in 2002.[115] However, it could also be used to restrict the publication of tourist photographs of the tower at night, as well as hindering non-profit and semi-commercial publication of images of the illuminated tower.[116]
The copyright claim itself has never been tested in courts to date, according to a 2014 article in the Art Law Journal, and there has never been an attempt to track down millions of people who have posted and shared their images of the illuminated tower on the Internet worldwide. However, the article adds that commercial uses of such images, like in a magazine, on a film poster, or on product packaging, may require prior permission.[117]
French doctrine and jurisprudence allows pictures incorporating a copyrighted work as long as their presence is incidental or accessory to the subject being represented,[118] a reasoning akin to the de minimis rule. Therefore, SETE may be unable to claim copyright on photographs of Paris which happen to include the lit tower.
Replicas
Main article: List of Eiffel Tower replicas
Replica at the Paris Las Vegas Hotel, Nevada, United States
As one of the most famous landmarks in the world, the Eiffel Tower has been the inspiration for the creation of many replicas and similar towers. An early example is Blackpool Tower in England. The mayor of Blackpool, Sir John Bickerstaffe, was so impressed on seeing the Eiffel Tower at the 1889 exposition that he commissioned a similar tower to be built in his town. It opened in 1894 and is 158.1 m (519 ft) tall.[119] Tokyo Tower in Japan, built as a communications tower in 1958, was also inspired by the Eiffel Tower.[120] Well known is the Petřín Lookout Tower in Prague too. [121]
There are various scale models of the tower in the United States, including a half-scale version at the Paris Las Vegas, Nevada, one in Paris, Texas built in 1993, and two 1:3 scale models at Kings Island, located in Mason, Ohio, and Kings Dominion, Virginia, amusement parks opened in 1972 and 1975 respectively. Two 1:3 scale models can be found in China, one in Durango, Mexico that was donated by the local French community, and several across Europe.[122]
In 2011, the TV show Pricing the Priceless on the National Geographic Channel speculated that a full-size replica of the tower would cost approximately US$480 million to build.[123] This would be more than ten times the cost of the original (nearly 8 million in 1890 francs; around US$40 million in 2018 dollars).
See also
flagFrance portal
List of tallest buildings and structures in the Paris region
List of tallest buildings and structures
List of tourist attractions in Paris
List of tallest towers
List of tallest freestanding structures
List of tallest freestanding steel structures
List of tallest structures built before the 20th century
List of transmission sites
List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower
Lattice tower
Eiffel Tower,1909–1928 painting series by Robert Delaunay
Please don't use my images on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit permission - rr.restifo@gmail.com. © All rights reserved.
----------------------------------------
Da/from www.facebook.com/iononmilasciofregare/info/?tab=page_info:
IO NON MI LASCIO FREGARE
#iononmilasciofregare
Questo appello nasce dalla volontà di ricordare cosa è successo il 19 novembre 2015 a Verona...un appello che abbiamo scritto a più mani in maniera ANONIMA e che vuole essere una "chiamata alle armi" per amici artisti di buona volontà.
IN BREVE
Presso il Museo Civico di Castelvecchio sono state trafugate 17 opere di grandissimo valore: Tintoretto, Mantegna, Rubens solo per citare alcuni autori, in pratica un piccolo museo per intero (le foto delle opere rubate le trovate nel nostro album a questo indirizzo: www.facebook.com/media/set/?set=a.1064799210228843.107374....)
L’operazione è durata quasi un’ora e mezza ed è stata condotta con molta tranquillità. Un vero scandalo! Poche le parole spese dai media in seguito all’accaduto, le Istituzioni hanno messo in scena il solito scaricabarili e la raccolta firme on-line ha avuto poco seguito.
Ma un pezzettino di quelle straordinarie opere è anche MIO, è ANCHE VOSTRO! Io rivoglio il nostro pezzettino di MANTEGNA, TINTORETTO, BELLINI, etc! Non so se ve ne siete accorti ma si stanno rubando il passato e soprattutto IL FUTURO!
Io non ci sto, noi non ci stiamo! Portiamo un segnale fuori, per le strade e in rete per tenere viva l’attenzione su questo caso letteralmente scomparso, senza lasciare traccia.
Ci rivolgiamo quindi agli amici artisti: quello che sappiamo fare è dipingere, non perdiamo tempo, facciamolo. L'idea che ci è venuta è di adottare ognuno di noi una delle 17 opere e di realizzare un murale (ma anche un poster o una qualsiasi installazione urbana) reinterpretando a modo nostro il lavoro originale. Sfrutteremo l'interesse dei media per l'arte urbana per poter denunciare ad alta voce insieme questo incredibile furto!
Vi chiediamo di farlo liberamente, ognuno con i propri mezzi, ognuno con le proprie capacità,
Siete invitati a partecipare tutti e di farlo in maniera ANONIMA senza firmare le opere che lascerete nelle nostre città, per far parlare direttamente i vari TINTORETTO, MANTEGNA, PISANIELLO ETC, coinvolgendo chi volete (le realtà che oggi hanno a disposizione spazi non mancano, quindi destinatarie di questo messaggio e di certo non abbiamo niente da insegnarvi su come si può fare arte per strada...).
Quando avete fatto mandateci le foto a questo indirizzo:
iononmilasciofregare@gmail.com
o postatele su questa pagina
www.facebook.com/iononmilasciofregare/
sarà nostra cura farle girare il più possibile perchè #iononmifacciofregare
Ecco la lista dei nostri 17 capolavori da adottare:
1 Antonio Pisano detto Pisanello, Madonna col bambino
2 Jacopo Bellini, San Girolamo penitente
3 Andrea Mantegna, Sacra Famiglia
4 Giovanni Francesco Caroto, Ritratto di giovane con disegno infantile
5 Giovanni Francesco Caroto, Ritratto di giovane monaco benedettino
6 Jacopo Tintoretto, Madonna allattante
7 Jacopo Tintoretto, Trasporto dell’arca dell’alleanza
8 Jacopo Tintoretto, Banchetto di Baltassar
9 Jacopo Tintoretto, Sansone
10 Jacopo Tintoretto, Giudizio di Salomone
11 Cerchia di Jacopo Tintoretto, Ritratto maschile
12 Domenico Tintoretto, Ritratto di Marco Pasqualigo
13 Bottega di Domenico Tintoretto, Ritratto di ammiraglio veneziano
14 Peter Paul Rubens, Dama delle licnidi
15 Hans de Jode, Paesaggio
16 Hans de Jode, Porto di mare
17 Giovanni Benini, Ritratto di Girolamo Pompei
-----------------------------------------
(eng)
I WON'T GET SCREWED OVER
# Iononmilasciofregare
This call arises from the desire to remember what happened on Nov. 19, 2015 in Verona, a call that we have written many hands in an ANONYMOUS way and that wants to be a "call of duty" for artist friends and people of good will.
THE FACT
17 works of great value were stolen from the Museum of Castelvecchio: Tintoretto, Mantegna, Rubens just to mention a few painters, basically a real small museum (photos of stolen works can be found in our album to this address: https: //www.facebook.com/media/set/....)
The operation lasted nearly an hour and a half and it was carried out with extreme calm. A real scandal! A few words spoken by the media after the incident, the institutions have staged the usual buck and the online sensibilization campaign has had little success.
A part of those extraordinary works is also MINE, is also YOURS! I want back our piece of MANTEGNA, TINTORETTO, BELLINI, etc! I do not know if you are aware of that but they are stealing our past and our FUTURE!
I do not accept it, do you? Let's transmit a signal on the streets and in the internet to keep attention focused on this case that risks to disappear without a trace.
We appeal to artist friends: what we do is painting, do not waste time, let's do it. The idea is to take each of us one of the 17 works and create a mural (or a poster or any urban installation) reinterpreting our own way the original work. Let's exploit the media interest in street art to denounce loud together this incredible theft!
We ask you to do it freely, each with their own means, each with their own abilities,
You are all invited to attend and do it in an ANONYMOUS way, without signing the works that you will leave in our cities, to speak directly to TINTORETTO, MANTEGNA, PISANELLO, etc, involving those who want to participate.
Once you did it, please send photos to this address:
iononmilasciofregare@gmail.com
or post them on this page
www.facebook.com/iononmilasciofregare/
We will spread them as much as possible, because:
I WON'T GET SCREWED OVER
Exploitant : Transdev STRAV
Réseau : Marne et Seine
Ligne : B
Lieu : Créteil – Préfecture du Val de Marne (Créteil, F-94)
Lien TC Infos : tc-infos.fr/id/26917
Cimenterie de Dannes du groupe Holcim.
L'une des plus petites du groupe mais aussi la plus ancienne.1881.
Le groupe Holcim est présent dans 70 pays pour 90 000 employés.
Une partie de l'exploitation est mise en réserve afin d'assurer la pérennité d'espèces de plantes inféodées au milieu calcaire.
Le genévrier (juniperus communis),le très rare Sisymbre couché(disparu de Belgique,Pays-Bas et Allemagne),l'orchis abeille,l'orchis homme pendu.
LA PRÉPARATION DU CRU
De la matière première à la farine
FORMULATION DU CRU
L’étude du gisement des matières premières permet de
définir la composition exacte du cru avec les besoins en
ajouts qu’exige le procédé de fabrication.
La qualité et la régularité requises pour les matières
premières assurent, au final, la qualité de ciment
recherchée.
Le ciment nécessite des teneurs proportionnées des
différents composants : chaux, silice, alumine et oxyde
ferrique. Le composant principal du mélange est le
calcaire, riche en carbonate de calcium. L’ argile est
utilisée comme composant d’appoint.
LA PREHOMOGENEISATION.
Après concassage des blocs extraits de la carrière, on
mélange, de façon aussi homogène que possible, leurs
différents composants et les ajouts déterminés lors de la
formulation. C’est la phase de préhomogénéisation.
BROYAGE DU CRU
Le broyage procède par fragmentations successives des
grains jusqu’à obtenir des grains de faible dimension pour
faciliter leur cuisson. L’échange thermique et les réactions
chimiques sont en effet d’autant plus intenses lors de la
cuisson que les surfaces de contact entre les grains de
matière et les gaz sont importantes.
L'HOMOGENEISATION.
Ultime étape avant la cuisson, l’homogénéisation, par un
brassage intime, confère à la matière crue une
composition chimique stable. De cette stabilité dépend
la régularité des propriétés du clinker.
LE PRECHAUFFAGE
L’opération commence par l’évaporation de l’eau que le
mélange cru contient et se poursuit par la décarbonatation.
Le préchauffage se fait dans une série de cyclones,
disposés verticalement sur plusieurs étages, appelée
" préchau ffeur". La matière froide, introduite dans la
partie supérieure, se réchauffe au contact des gaz. D’étage
en étage, elle arrive partiellement décarbonatée, jusqu’à
l’étage inférieur, à la température d’environ 800°c.
LA PRECALCINATION.
Elle se fait dans le précalcinateur placé entre le
préchauffeur et le four. La décarbonatation commencée dans
le préchauffeur se fait pour l’essentiel dans le précalcinateur
et se termine dans le four. Cette opération, qui s’effectue
à des températures entre 650 et 900°, permet de libérer le
gaz carbonique pour obtenir la chaux nécessaire à la
fabrication de clinker.
LA CLINKERISATION.
Cette opération a lieu dans le four. Portés à haute
température, entre 1450 et 1550°, la chaux, l’alumine, la
silice et l’oxyde de fer, apportés par les matières premiéres ,
se combinent entre eux pour former les nouveaux
composés chimiques qui entrent dans la composition
minéralogique du clinker.
Après refroidissement, le clinker se présente sous la form
de granules d’environ 2 cm de diamètre.
LE BROYAGE CIMENT.
DU CLINKER AU PRODUIT FINI.
Le ciment est obtenu par broyage de clinker, de gypse,
d’ajouts et d’additifs secondaires.
LE BROYAGE.
Comme pour le cru, le broyage procède par
fragmentations successives des grains pour augmenter
la réactivité du clinker en augmentant la surface de
contact. Ce traitement développe les propriétés
hydrauliques du ciment.
LE GYPSE
Additionné à toutes les classes de ciment, le gypse opère
comme régulateur du temps de prise du ciment
lorsqu’on le mélange à l’eau.
Il assure l’ouvrabilité du ciment, c’est-à-dire la possibilité
de manipuler le mortier et le béton avant leur
durcissement.
LES AJOUTS
Les ajouts déterminent les propriétés et certaines des
qualités d’usage des ciments. Parmi ceux-ci, on trouve la
pouzzolane, le laitier, la fumée de silice, les schistes calcinés
et le calcaire. Le calcaire est l’additif le plus généralement
utilisé.
On détermine la nature et les proportions des ajouts en
fonction du type de ciment et de la classe de résistance
recherchés.
Le ciment est livré en sac ou en vrac
map.jg-laurent.com/map.php?ci=false&mklon=1.626534461...]itineraire, carte et photo satellite
MOIS DE MARIE - Mai - Dikée.
Continuons les investigations rocambolesques et parfois périlleuses , de l'édification à Monton, d'une Dame monumentale sur la colline du dit village.
Nous avons découvert le vaillant sculpteur décidé à oeuvrer avec sa belle personnalité et un talent indéniables.
Voyons ce qu'il se passa dans les carrières de pierres nécessaires à la construction du monument.
On choisit un noble et beau matériau se trouvant dans les carrières de Beaucaire.
Belloc, le sculpteur, se rendit lui-même dans la petite ville du midi, sise sur le Rhône.
Il se mit au travail sur place. Notons que les arènes de Nîme, furent bâties avec la même pierre.
Et pour le chemin d'accès à la cime, qu'en était-il ? Il fallait bien sûr, le rendre carrossable. Rude tâche, car rien n'existait à l'époque de la construction du monument.
Aucune voie d'accès allant à la jolie colline !
Un froid dimanche d'hiver, le curé du village lança un vibrant appel aux gens de bonnes volonté. Tout à coup, l'un d'eux entonna ce chant, venu directement du coeur et inspiré de l'invitation du curé :
Pellons, piochons !
Et bientôt nous verrons
Notre Dame au Puy Monton.
Toute l'assemblée reprit le demi cantique, à caractère populaire.
A la fin de la semaine, le chemin était tracé, et achevé, un véritable exploit pour l'époque, qui rappelons-le, ne connaissait pas le bulldozer !
Vaillance et ardeur des ouvriers de Marie !
Ah quand la Dame encourage et soutient le noble labeur des hommes de la terre, des ouvriers du peu.
Puis du côté de la carrière à 351 kms, Belloc termina son travail. Et l'on achemina la statue par voie de chemin de fer, jusqu'à la gare la plus proche, les Martres-de-Veyre.
Nouvel appel au peuple.
Il fallait acheminer le chargement !
Nouvelle réponse.
Des chars à boeufs descendirent du village pour aller chercher les précieux morceaux.
Avec les impayables mises en scène auvergnates bien ancrées depuis la nuit des temps, lors des processions et fêtes de Marie : cornes de boeufs enrubannées, fanions, voitures parées de fleurs fraîches, enfants costumés en anges et qui escortent la tête de la vierge et celle de l'enfant Jésus. Un genre particulier d'apparat, qui a pu, pourra encore, lors de processions de hauts lieux mariaux, en faire ricaner plus d'un !!!
Mais on le sait, l'Auvergnat véritable aime la Vierge qu'il honore depuis les temps fort anciens, avec une foi robuste, saine, et simple, profonde. Comment ne pas l'admirer ! Et peut-être l'imiter !!!!
A Monton, c'est fut tout un peuple qui a travaillé, participé de l'oeuvre commune, avec le même élan que au temps des cathédrales, lors de leur édification par des milliers de gens, toutes conditions confondues.
Non sans peine, tout le monde atteint la cime de la colline. Et bientôt la Dame se dresse sur sa chapelle piédestal.
Imaginons le spectacle grandiose.
On était à la fin octobre 1868. Il ne restait plus qu'à ôter les échafaudages.
Une tempête surgit subitement.
Les grosses pièces de bois s'effondrent arrachant au passage un bras de la Vierge.
Le voilà à terre cassé de surcroît.
Consternation générale. Cri de douleur et de stupéfaction parcourant la foule.
Sans compter la dépense imprévue et considérable !
Mais après tant d'ardeur et d'efforts à édifier leur chère Dame, les villageois ne se découragèrent point. On quêta à nouveau.
L'artiste refit le bras ; on reconstruisit l'échafaudage, et ENFIN, dans sa blancheur toute neuve et immaculée, La Vierge de Monton dominait la ronde colline...
Elle était éclatante.
Et ne brille-t-elle pas aujourd'hui de son éclatante lumière ?
Suite demain.
Exploitant : Transdev Les Cars d'Orsay
Réseau : Albatrans
Ligne : Express 91-06C
Lieu : Université Paris-Saclay (Orsay, F-91)
Cela fait maintenant onze jours que les 91 concurrents de la Route du Rhum ont quitté Saint-Malo. La route est encore longue pour certains.
Il n'y a pas de Malouins (ou assimilés, de Cancale à Saint-Lunaire) en catégorie Ultime, mais deux en Multi50, dont Loïc Féquet, poussé à l'abandon sur casse d'un flotteur de Maître Jacques.
Le « survivant », Gilles Lamiré, progressait, hier après midi, à bonne vitesse sur Rennes métropole - Saint-Malo Agglo, 300 milles derrière le leader Erwan Le Roux, tandis qu'Yves Le Blévec revient sur lui comme un bolide (près de vingt noeuds), mais avec un retard d'une centaine de milles à rattraper.
En monocoque Imoca, Louis Burton, sur Vallée Bureau, pointe cinquième, à moins de 1 000 milles de l'arrivée, mais à 450 milles de Gabart, avec un classement qui ne devrait pas changer.
Après les abandons de Bob Escoffier (hélitreuillé), Benjamin Hardouin et Nils Boyer, en catégorie Rhum (20 inscrits), il ne reste plus aujourd'hui que Jean-Paul Froc, bien accroché à sa sixième place sur le petit trimaran jaune Groupe Berto... à plus de 2 000 milles du but.
Quand au Guadeloupéen, ex-Malouin, Luc Coquelin, il tient bon à la quatorzième et dernière place, à 1 100 milles du retour au bercail.
La belle classe des 40 pieds
Malgré l'abandon de onze concurrents, la Class40 conserve 32 bateaux en compétition. Chapeau pour les cinq Malouins qui ne lâchent pas prise, tous bizuts, positionnés, hier, de la dix-huitième place à la tête de la course.
Ce groupe de monocoques de 12 m est apparu, il y a trois éditions, en 2006. Il mobilise actuellement une quinzaine d'architectes navals et des skippers très expérimentés : onze viennent de l'exigeante classe Mini, trois de la classe Imoca (Vendée globe), et dix sont des quinquagénaires qui ont roulé leur bosse.
Dans cette flotte, il faut distinguer cinq « vintage » qui désignent les modèles les plus anciens, dont le potentiel de vitesse des carènes n'a rien à voir avec celle des 13 bateaux neufs, sortis de chantier en 2013 et 2014. C'est d'ailleurs pourquoi le « vintage » mieux classé sera récompensé de 2 000 €, par l'association des Class40.
Maxime Sorel, en « vintage »
C'est l'occasion de saluer la belle performance de Maxime Sorel, sur VandB Ms Sailing Team, en tête des « vintage », mais qui a les nerfs à vif à cause d'une météo permettant aux retardataires de revenir sur lui. Mais il faut de toute façon trouver le passage au travers d'une bulle anticyclonique pour retrouver ensuite du vent. Il risque donc d'y avoir des « passages à niveau » selon les évolutions d'un vent irrégulier.
Sa place de dix-huitième est d'autant plus belle qu'il a un bateau plus typé pour serrer le vent que pour le portant.
Devant lui, Emmanuel Hamez (Teranga) et Paul Hignard (Bruneau) n'ont qu'une poignée de milles d'avance, alors qu'ils ont des bateaux neufs de 2013 et 2011. Pour Hignard, un Mach40 qui a remporté en 2011 le mondial de la classe, et second en 2012.
Valentin Lemarchand est également joliment accroché à la onzième place sur Maison Tirel Guérin, plan verdier de 2010.
Thibaut Vauchel Camus (Solidaires en peloton) réalise une performance exceptionnelle, en lutte devant avec deux cadors : Alex Pella et Kito de Pavant. Là encore, grande incertitude, avec une épuisante lutte de virements pour exploiter une mince veine de vent. Son expérience de fin régatier est un précieux atout. (OF)
Exploitant : Transdev TVO
Réseau : R'Bus (Argenteuil)
Ligne : 1
Lieu : Gare d'Argenteuil (Argenteuil, F-95)
Lien TC Infos : tc-infos.fr/id/27846
WASHINGTON, DC: National Center for Missing & Exploited (NCMEC) 2022 Hope Gala, Oct. 20, 2022
The National Center for Missing & Exploited Children’s (NCMEC) Hope Gala held on Oct. 20, 2022 at the District Pier at The Wharf, Washington, D.C. The event is a celebration of the inspiring work being done globally to protect children. We recognized leaders in child safety, honor survivors, and remember the families and victims who are still seeking justice and safety. Claire Edkins /NCMEC
Children across Greater Manchester have watched a compelling play warning them about criminal exploitation from county lines organised crime groups.
Greater Manchester’s Programme Challenger – a joint partnership to tackle serious and organised crime together – funded Rochdale-based theatre company Breaking Barriers to deliver the series ‘Crossing the Line’ to children in year six at 50 primary schools.
Over a month the play was rolled out to schools in Bury, Salford, Stockport, Tameside and Trafford for children to learn how to spot the signs of exploitation to prevent and protect them from criminal gangs seeking to recruit them as drug mules.
The production explores grooming through a monologue from an 18-year-old man and his younger brother aged 15. He talks about the criminal gang members trying to give him gifts in return for running their drug errands.
‘Crossing the Line’ also incorporated discussions with the children to teach them about healthy choices and relationships, learning to say no, how to handle pressure from older people as well as educate children on where to go for help and advice if they have concerns.
One of the pupils who watched the play said: “The play has helped me see how criminal gangs can manipulate you by trying to make you feel special and part of their family, then force you to do things for them.
“It has taught me to never join a gang as it could harm your future and instead to stay in school, get a good education and job.
“If someone finds themselves in this situation, they should speak to anyone they can trust, such as their mum or dad, a teacher, the police or even Childline.”
A county line is the advertisement of class A drugs via a mobile phone, known as a ‘graft line’, the drugs are then moved by dealers from one area to another as well as to other places across the country.
The organised crime groups will often exploit children to transport the drugs and money profited from its supply.
Detective Chief Inspector Claire McGuire, from Programme Challenger’s Organised Crime Coordination Unit, said: “Young and vulnerable children are sadly targeted and groomed by county lines criminal networks to be recruited to travel across the country to deliver drugs and money.
“They can find themselves in situations that often seem impossible to get out of which can have a detrimental impact on their life and their future.
It’s therefore imperative we intervene as soon as possible, inform children early on to prevent this from happening and protect them from the harm caused by organised criminality.
“Breaking Barriers work is a creative way to grab a child’s attention, it educates and engages with them on the signs to look out for and where to turn to for help and advice. The feedback we have had from them, and the teachers has been brilliant.”
Deputy Mayor for Policing, Crime, Criminal Justice and Fire, Bev Hughes, said: “We must educate children early on the signs of criminal exploitation and this work is vital in doing that.
It’s great to see such a creative play being used to deliver an important message and schools have been a wonderful support with this.
Lots of young people across Greater Manchester are now more aware of the signs of criminal exploitation and know help and support is available to them.”
Parvez Qadir, Director of Breaking Barriers, said: “Crossing the Line tackles difficult themes around grooming and exploitation used by criminal gangs to control young people to travel their drugs for them. Using the power of creativity,
I wrote the piece to tour in schools to educate, inform and offer safe pathways for young people out of child criminal exploitation.
“The facilitated workshop is a safe place for difficult questions for young people, teachers and parents to discuss those
themes.
I hope “Crossing the Line” can educate young people to make safe and healthier choices.”
Here's my pal Peter Case
onstage at Safari Sam's on
Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood
in August. Playing with his old band
The Plimsouls, with whom he scored
a major hit many moons ago called
A Million Miles Away, he was electric and
alive and great.
There's a new album out - a tribute to his
songs performed by others - called
"A Case for Case: A Tribute to the songs of Peter Case," and it features Dave Alvin among others. Good when
good songwriters get the attention they deserve.
He's a fine musician, a great songwriter,
and one of the good guys.
Mojo the British Transport Police dog at the ready.
Police and partner agencies have been focusing on young people who run away or go missing from home and those that may exploit them during a week of action that began across Greater Manchester on Monday 14 March.
The focus of the campaign during this year’s week of action has been raising awareness around the strong link between child sexual exploitation and children who go missing.
Going missing can mean bunking off school, staying out overnight, or running away from home for a few days or longer. Whatever the context, the reality is that 95% children at risk from child sexual exploitation have gone missing at least once.
GMP Assistant Chief Constable Rob Potts said: “The statistics speak for themselves – there is a clear correlation between young people at risk of child sexual exploitation and their inclination to run away or go missing.
“More often than not, the young people who do run away do so regularly. This not only places a significant strain on policing but also increases the chances of that person coming to harm.
“Young people are often unaware of the dangers that are posed when they stay away from home without telling anyone and we urge them to keep in touch somehow, whether that’s through a friend, relative or anyone you trust.
“If you have concerns about your child’s whereabouts or don’t know where they are, please contact the police. With our partners in Project Phoenix we are doing all we can to work with these young people to get to the root of the problem, and keep them safe.
“Child sexual exploitation is a horrific crime and we will continue to work hard to both locate and protect those vulnerable to abuse, working with missing children on their return to break the cycle. Officers are patrolling around the clock, and will take robust action to tackle anyone who seeks to exploit these young people.”
Greater Manchester Mayor and Police and Crime Commissioner Tony Lloyd said: “Greater Manchester is leading the fight against child sexual exploitation. We’re engaging with local people to raise awareness of the abuse and how to spot the signs, and partner agencies are working together to tackle the issue, bring perpetrators to justice, and provide much-needed support to victims and those at risk, including children who run away or go missing.
“Child sexual exploitation is child sex abuse, plain and simple. We must come down heavily on those who exploit and manipulate vulnerable children for their own sexual pleasure, and arm our young people with the means to keep safe and recognise unhealthy, abusive relationships.”
Paul Maher, Greater Manchester Area Manager at The Children’s Society, which works with children and young people who go missing or are at risk of going missing, said: “Children and young people who go missing are among the most vulnerable children in our society.
“Some may be running from neglect and abuse, family breakdown or drug and alcohol misuse by their parents - while others go missing under the influence of predatory adults seeking to exploit them.
“Whatever the reason for them going missing, we know these children are at particular risk of being sexually exploited or falling victim to other types of harm. Our research has shown that around a quarter are either hurt or harmed in some way.
“That is why it is vital they receive more support at an early stage to help address the issues that cause them to go missing and protect them from the risks of sexual exploitation or becoming a victim of other crimes.”
The week of activity is the latest from Project Phoenix’s ‘It’s Not Okay’ campaign, and will be publicising resources and support related to child sexual exploitation.
‘It’s Not Okay’ was created as part of Project Phoenix, the Greater Manchester response to tackling child sexual exploitation - a collaboration of public and third sector partners throughout Greater Manchester working together to protect young people.
Since the campaign launched in September 2014, public awareness and understanding of child sexual exploitation in Greater Manchester has increased considerably amongst young people and parents and carers, as well as professionals.
In the 18 months since the launch of the ‘It’s Not Okay’ campaign, Project Phoenix has undertaken substantial work with schools, healthcare providers and support services to ensure that vulnerable young people are helped at every stage - from prevention through to support and rehabilitation.
Regular weeks of awareness-raising have included direct engagement with young people and those who care for them; police targeting and disruption, dedicated days of publicity focusing on key trends and close collaboration across Greater Manchester authorities means that hundreds more young people are being identified, educated and safeguarded than ever before. Visit www.itsnotokay.co.uk to find out more.
For more information about Policing in Greater Manchester please visit our website. www.gmp.police.uk
To report crime call police on 101 the national non-emergency number.
You can also call anonymously with information about crime to Crimestoppers on 0800 555 111.
Crimestoppers is an independent charity who will not want your name, just your information. Your call will not be traced or recorded and you do not have to go to court or give a statement.
The foundations of an old church on Exploits Islands, Notre Dame Bay, Newfoundland, Canada. The community was resettled in the 1960s and many of the buildings have since fallen. These foundations always seemed vaguely like standing stones to me.....
Digital Media Technical Exploitation Instructor Christopher Esposito leads a class on computer forensic examination to US Army ROTC Cadets during the NFSTC@FIU 2018 Biometrics Internship. Photo by Michelle Chernicoff
Hope in the City Luncheon 2009 - Benefitting the Salvation Army's Anti-Human Sexual Trafficking Program.
Presenting Sponsor: Telus
Media Sponsor: CTV
Attendee Gift Sponsor: Daniel Le Chocolat Belge
proudly supported by Ron Sombilon Gallery
About the Hope in the City Luncheon
Funds raised during this event will support The Salvation Army’s initiative to combat human trafficking.
Sexual human trafficking occurs when individuals (primarily women and children) are sold and bought for the purpose of sexual exploitation.
These actions are accomplished through force, deception, abduction and abuse of power.
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Exploitant : Transdev Montesson La Boucle
Réseau : Bus en Seine
Ligne : 7
Lieu : Gare de Sartrouville (Sartrouville, F-78)
My old 1984 Alembic Series II "Exploiter" bass. The height-adjustable nut seen here. Someone at Alembic should have been given the Nobel Prize for the design of this nut.
I had this bass built in the summer of 1984. The only options (besides the walnut/maple/purple heart construction) were graphite rods in the neck and a neck shaped like a Rickenbacker 4001 that I'd been very comfortable playing. This is still the most musical bass I've ever owned, but it also weighs so much that it's seen relatively little use.
Le Château de Josselin est situé à Josselin, commune française du département du Morbihan en Bretagne.
Guéthénoc, vicomte de Porhoët, de Rohan et de Guéméné, membre de la famille des comtes de Rennes, aurait construit un premier château vers l'an 1008. Il exploitait un site de haute valeur militaire et commerciale comprenant un surplomb rocheux dominant en à-pic la rivière Oust. L'existence depuis le IXe siècle d'un pèlerinage à la Basilique Notre-Dame du Roncier (tous les huit septembre) ajoute beaucoup à la richesse des habitants et de leurs seigneurs. Ce pélerinage est d'ailleurs le plus important du Morbihan, après celui de Sainte-Anne-d'Auray.
En 1154, Eudon de Porhoët, beau-père, régent et tuteur du jeune duc de Bretagne, Conan IV, rassemble des seigneurs bretons pour priver son beau-fils de ses droits. Il sera défait par Henri II Plantagenêt, roi d'Angleterre et nouveau duc d'Anjou, auprès duquel s'était réfugié Conan IV. Henri II viendra en personne diriger la démolition du château et faire semer du sel dans les ruines.
Détail de la statue équestre d'Olivier de Clisson
Olivier V de Clisson, qui acquiert la seigneurie en 1370, reconstruit une imposante citadelle munie de huit tours et d'un donjon de 90 mètres. Il marie sa fille, Béatrix, à Alain VIII de Rohan, héritier des vicomtes de Rohan, dont le château était à une vingtaine de kilomètres.
En 1488, le duc de Bretagne François II prend le château et le démolit partiellement. Sa fille, Anne de Bretagne, le restitue à Jean II de Rohan, arrière-petit-fils d'Olivier de Clisson.
Celui-ci le transforme et construit dans l'enceinte un logis de plaisance avec une très belle façade de granit sculpté qui est un des premiers exemples de la Renaissance en France, car il avait fait venir des artistes et ouvriers italiens. Par reconnaissance, il fait sculpter de nombreux A surmontés d'une cordelière, emblème de la Duchesse-Reine.
Bannis de Josselin du fait de leur adhésion au protestantisme, les Rohan doivent laisser le gouverneur de Bretagne, le duc de Mercœur, faire de leur château une base pour la Ligue opposée au nouveau roi Henri IV.
En 1603, lors de l'érection de la vicomté de Rohan en duché-pairie par le roi Henri IV, Henri II de Rohan transfère le siège de son pouvoir au château de Pontivy. Le cardinal de Richelieu fait démanteler en 1629 le donjon et quatre et tours et annonce au duc Henri II, chef des insurgés protestants: « Monseigneur, je viens de jeter une bonne boule dans votre jeu de quilles ! »
Au XVIIIe siècle, le château n'est plus occupé et il devient prison et entrepôt pendant la Révolution et l'Empire. En 1822, la duchesse de Berry, lors de sa tournée aventureuse, convainc le duc de Rohan de le restaurer.
Il est actuellement toujours habité par le quatorzième duc de Rohan, Josselin de Rohan, sénateur, ancien président de la région Bretagne de 1992 à 2004, membre de l'UMP et fidèle de Jacques Chirac .
On peut visiter la cour et quelques pièces du rez-de-chaussée où sont exposés des meubles anciens (dont la table ayant servi à la signature de l'édit de Nantes), des portraits familiaux, des cadeaux royaux et une statue équestre d'Olivier V de Clisson par Emmanuel Frémiet. Dans les anciennes écuries a été installé le Musée de poupées.
L'imposante citadelle munie de huit tours et d'un donjon de 90 mètres date du XVe siècle a été partiellement détruite et un logis de plaisance avec une très belle façade de granit sculpté, un des premiers exemples de la Renaissance en France le remplace et a été restauré au XIXe siècle.
Le jardin à la française créé au début du XXe siècle par le paysagiste Achille Duchêne s’étend devant la façade Renaissance du château. Les buis et des ifs taillés encadrent les pelouses.
Une roseraie a été aménagée en 2001 sous le direction du paysagiste Louis Benech. Elle comporte 160 rosiers appartenant à 40 variétés différentes
Un parc à l'anglaise lui aussi créé par le paysagiste Achille Duchêne et revu par Louis Benech s'étend au pied des remparts, le long d’un cours d’eau. Ce parc présente des espèces rares d’azalées, de camélias et de nombreux rhododendrons et des arbres centenaires. Il est ouvert au public pour les Journées du Patrimoine et Rendez-vous au jardin .
le chateau de Josselin est très lié à l'alchimie notamment ses cheminées et sa cour extérieure sur le parc.Il s'inscrit dans le patrimoine de Brocéliande qui n'appartient pas qu'aux druides .En effet , il est tout à fait possible de lire de maniere alchimique la vita merlini de G. de Monmouth ainsi que le mythe de Brocéliande lui même.. et si on suit le parcours des salles du chateau on s'aperçoit que ce dernier met en évidence une progression alchimique qui peut se retrouver dans la chevalerie et dans les degrés d'élévation maçonnique , car le corrélat est précisément dans ce savoir acquis par le premier des Josselin .
Source wikipedia
These photos of natural gas drilling were taken in August, 2009 by Attorney Helen Slottje, for www.shaleshock.org
Le 18 septembre 2019 en début de soirée, j'arrive ā Sion par un bus assurant la liaison Avignon-Lyon-Genève-Sion. Alors que je m'apprête à rejoindre mon hôte du soir je profite du paysage que je surplombe. Le coucher de soleil donne ā la ville de Sion un caractère surnaturel, les nuages changent de couleur, les lampadaires s'allument, le château de Tourbillon illumine le paysage. Après avoir fait du couchsurfing -première expérience très positive-, je débute le lendemain mon excursion de deux semaines de balade dans le Val d'Hérens au cœur du Valais. Chargé de mon paquetage d'une dizaine de kilos, j'occupe la matinée de mon premier jour d'excursion par l'achat de produits locaux. Pas question de tomber en panne sèche ā 3000 mètres d'altitudes. Un saucisson, du fromage de la région – l'Étivaz-, du chocolat noir -Ovomaltine « C'est de la dynamite ! »-, des fruits secs et c'est parti. Avant de quitter Sion je profite de l'ambiance du centre ville de bon matin. Un passant solitaire traverse la place de la Planta. Du ciel transparaissent quelques rayons du soleil. Atemporel. En début d'après-midi, l'autobus m'amène ā Thyon-les-collons. Arrivé ā environ 2000 mètres d'altitude, je débute ma marche dans un paysage grandiose. Première impression : la connexion avec le ciel, l'impression d' être au dessus de tout... ou presque. Des nuages au loin m'invitent ā monter plus haut, les cols des montagnes ā les gravir pour y découvrir ce qui s'y cache derrière. Je traverse les steppes et gazons alpins, il y a beau temps. La végétation que je croise est luxuriante, colorée et diversifiée. Je croise peu de touristes.
Durant les trois premiers jours, j'essaye de prendre un rythme. J'essaye d'atteindre en fin de journée les points que je me suis fixé comme but en début de journée. Je n'y parviens pas. Non pas que physiquement je sois éreinté par le dénivelé que je commence ā ressentir dans les cuisses et ischio-jambier, mais par les nombreux arrêts que je m'autorise pour faire des sessions photographiques. Poser ā terre les bâtons de marche, enlever le sac ā dos, sortir l'appareil photo, cadrer, faire la photographie, ranger l'appareil, réajuster les sangles de maintient, remettre le sac sur le dos, s'abaisser et prendre les bâtons de marche. Reprendre la marche. Toute une opération qui au bout d'un temps me fait plutôt jeter ā terre les bâtons, poser un peu ā la va vite le sac ā terre et répéter toutes ces opérations. Mais cette légère contrainte est largement compensée par l'étonnement, l'admiration, l'ébahissement que j'ai d'être face ā un tel paysage. Une faune et une flore sauvage, laissée ā l'état de liberté. C'est un paysage de caractère qui invite ā la plénitude. Quelques rares habitations qui se perdent dans un paysage montagneux. Le voisinage ne semble pas être une question contraignante. Je m'imagine alors le mode de vie que doivent avoir ces gens qui vivent dans ces habitats le temps d'une saison... peut-être ā l'année. Je prends conscience qu'en montagne, la fraîcheur se fait rapidement sentir dès que le soleil n'illumine plus le flanc de montagne sur lequel vous êtes. En septembre, selon ou l'on se trouve, 17h est l'heure à laquelle il est légitime de se soucier de l'endroit du coucher. Le premier jour, je fais l'erreur de tarder dans le choix du lieu du bivouac. À 19h je commence ma recherche. Après une heure et demie je parviens ā trouver un compromis. En sous-bois, sur le flanc d'un sol pentu, je compense alors les aléas du terrains en mettant en boule quelques habits dans la tente. Je dîne - bien grand mot quand la casserole est ā la fois l'outil de cuisson, l'assiette pour le plat principal et le contenant du thé en fin de repas. Ma première nuit est fraîche, l'idée de dormir dans un sous-bois rend l'atmosphère humide, le froid ressenti comme étant davantage prégnant.
Le lendemain je repars en bonne forme. Je continue de longer le fleuve de la Dixence qui se trouve en contrebas du chemin que j'empreinte. Pause ravitaillement pour récupérer ā une source de l'eau et remplir ma gourde de 2 litres. Il n'est pas rare de croiser des troupeaux sur mon chemin mené ou pas par des éleveurs. Au deuxième jour de marche, Thyon-les-collons est ā peine visible. Je croise de-ci, de-là des maisonnettes, des troupeaux sur mon chemin. Le dénivelé se fait plus marqué et le poids du sac se fait davantage sentir sur les épaules. Pause déjeuner. Le paysage se fait de plus en plus montagneux, les roches noires contrastent avec les couleurs ocres, jaunes pétantes des fourrages. Il me faudra trois jours pour arriver au niveau du Lac des Dix (2365m) et de son barrage aux dimensions impressionnantes. D'une hauteur de 235 mètres, long comme deux terrains de football mis bout ā bout, ce barrage est d'une profondeur de 200 mètres ā sa base et d'une quinzaines de mètres ā son point le plus haut. Son poids serait égal ā celui de la grande pyramide de Khéops en Egypte. De telles dimensions permettent au barrage de la Grande Dixence de contenir les 400 millions de m3 d'eau du lac, développant une puissance électrique record de 2000 MW ce qui lui permet d'être considéré comme le plus haut barrage-poids du monde. Un tel spectacle est étonnant. 15 mètres de marche permettent de constater de l'exploit de cette architecture. D'un coté distant de quelques mètres le lac de la Dixence calme et paisible, de l'autre côté la vallée qui s'étend 200 mètres plus bas. À perte de vue des vallons, montagnes, des pics. Au loin, la ville de Sion.
Première nuit ou les étoiles se révèlent avec une pollution lumineuse réduite. La voûte céleste se laisse prendre en photographie en pause lente. Il n'est pas rare durant les quelques nuit que je passe proche d'une forêt, d'un bois ou d'un ruisseau de me réveiller plusieurs fois la nuit, saisi par le froid. La couche supérieure de la tente gèle parfois. Par mégarde je laisse deux habits posés sur la tente pour qu'ils sèchent à l'extérieur. Durant la nuit, les cristaux de glaces se forment et les gèlent entièrement. Les débuts de journées sont fraîches et reculent mon heure de départ. La solution ā défaut d'avoir des moufles pour maintenir les mains au chaud : avoir des chaussettes aux mains. À 10h le soleil réchauffe l'atmosphère, les habits sèchent et je peux faire ma toilette et un petit bain frigorifique dans le Torrent de Chenna ā 10h du matin. La route qui mène au barrage de la Grande Dixence est tortueuse, je n'aurai pas ā l'emprunter, prenant un chemin de terre qui y mène directement. Il me fait passer par une succession de tunnel creusé dans des flancs de montagne. Le soir, sans réseau 4G, je campe ā la pointe du lac de Dix. Seul, sans pollution lumineuse, sonore, humaine. J'ai l'impression d'être en proie ā la nature, à une solitude qui ne fait pas peur, mais ou tout est possible. Le passé ou le futur lointain n'est pas dans mes pensée. Seul le présent et ses alternatives temporelles proches m'occupent l'esprit. Je trouve un lieu où dormir et installe la tente. Rapidement je me lave grâce ā l'eau d'un ruisseau qui coule. Je prépare à manger, déguste face à un paysage qui s'obscurcit. La nuit tombe, des nuages se découpent sur les pics des montagnes. Je m'endors avec le seul bruit du vent qui tapote sur la toile de tente.
4ème journée, je quitte le lac des Dix pour me rendre au col de Riedmatten en passant par le pas de chèvre (2919m). Je me lève ā 5h du matin. Ma première action ? Prendre un petit-déjeuner à base de chocolat, fruits secs variés, fajitas, patte d'amande avec un peu de chocolat aussi. Un petit coup de toilette puis je m'occupe de trier, ranger le matériel pour qu'il tienne dans les 50 litres du sac ā dos. Au fur et à mesure des jours qui passent je dois avouer que cette action répétitive me lasse un peu mais devient un rituel qui marque le début et la fin de la journée. Je débute la marche alors que le soleil se lève sur les pics de montagnes et la vallée au loin. La montée se fait de plus en plus pentue. Je traverse le Torrent de Cheilon. Peu ā peu, le chemin de caillou se transforme en chemin symbolique ou seul les balises en indiquent concrètement la trajectoire. La flore se fait plus rare, le paysage imposant se fait plus abrupte, le dénivelé s'affirme. Je ne m'aide plus seulement de mes jambes mais aussi de mes mains pour gravir. Je m'attarde un temps face au mont Blanc de Cheilon et ā son glacier. Observation contemplative. Arrivé au Col de Riedmatten, je laisse derrière moi les roches, pierres et une flore qui se fait rare pour y découvrir les steppes qui mènent vers le lac de Moiry. Le paysage environnant est entrecoupé de pics et de pentes dans un écrin de nature sauvage. Je vois dans le Glacier de Tsijore Nouve une tête de mort... En début d'après-midi j'entame ma descente vers Arolla (2000m) dominée par le mont Collon en arrière plan. Arrivé ā Arolla, les nuages s'obscurcissent... J'empreinte un pont de singe qui tangue ā chaque pas dans un rebond lancinant. Une sensation amusante qui donne l'impression d’être plus léger, d'avoir le pas hésitant.
Je campe le soir près de la Sage, dans un champs qui en apparence semble appartenir à personne. La nuit fut entrecoupée par une pluie battante et des rafales de vent. Le lendemain je me réveille avec une brume qui se dissipe. Ayant plutôt l'habitude de côtoyer des architectures de béton je quitte la Sage et ses chalets de bois qui semblent venir d'une autre époque. L'objectif que je me fixe ā la mi-journée c'est d'arriver au Lac Bleu, réputé pour se situer dans un écrin de nature sauvage, avec une eau d'une couleur bleu vive - résultant de l'action conjuguée des algues et des argiles glaciaires-. Sur le chemin qui monte au lac, en pleine forêt, alors que je remets une sangle de mon sac à dos, je me fais surprendre par le bond d'un cerf adulte qui fend les fourrages à une vitesse éclair. La scène se déroule face à moi à une trentaine de mètres. Pas un seul bâtiment aux alentours. La nature. Elle m'invite ā un imaginaire digne des films de fantasy comme le Seigneur des Anneaux ou encore à me plonger dans l'ambiance cinématographique d'une période Moyenâgeuse où les croyances et rituels étaient connectés à la nature. Une époque où la démographie humaine était moins importante, où la valeur humaine était autre. Peu de temps m'en faut pour arriver au Lac Bleu. Vu l'heure, je décide de laver et faire sécher au soleil mes vêtements sales. Je mets en place un dispositif d'étendoir assez incongru en utilisant mes bâtons de marche et la table de camping qui se trouve sur une butte en surplombant le lac. 1h. 2h. Le soleil se couvre peu ā peu, malgré des rafales de vent bien présentes, le linge ne sèche pas. 3H, je commence ā me dire que je ne pourrais pas continuer plus loin ma marche de la journée. 19h30. J'installe la tente pour me réchauffer – connaissant la fraicheur des nuits proches d'une source d'eau-. Je décide de faire du feu avec un briquet, quelques brindilles et des branches ramassées de ci de-là. Sans succès. Nuit tombante depuis le lac bleu. Cette nuit fut la plus difficile. Je me réveille plusieurs fois durant la nuit, me réchauffe les doigts en allumant un briquet, entasse mes habits les uns par dessus les autres. À quelques centaines de mètres je traverse ce qui semble être un village abandonné. Une inscription surplombe l'un des chalets : « Le petit chalet ». Le lendemain je prends la route pour les Haudères (1454m), charmant village de vallée où tous les bâtis ou presque sont en bois. Traversant les forêts Valaisannes, je prête l'oreille ā plusieurs coups de feu. En cette basse saison, les chasseurs sont plus présent dans les forêts que les randonneurs. Je fais d'ailleurs la rencontre de trois d'entres eux. Le premier est pris en photographie sur smartphone par sa femme alors qu'il porte ā bout de bras un cerf tel un trophée. Le second lorsque je croise un chasseur porter sur son dos un cerf. Cette rencontre me permets de discuter avec lui sur sa pratique. Je suis notamment étonné de le voir redescendre de si bonne heure (8h) avec déjà un cervidé mort sur le dos. Il m'explique qu'il a tué l'animal la veille, l'a vidé de ses entrailles, a dormi dans une cabane de chasseur et qu'il redescend ā son véhicule pour aller vendre la bête ce matin. Curieux de son arme, il me montre ses cartouches et son viseur d'une précision de plus de 500 mètres. Je le prends en photographie avant que chacun nous reprenions nos routes. À la mi-journée, je décide que je dormirai dans un camping avec plus de confort ā la clef. Avant d'entrer dans les Haudères, je fais la rencontre de plusieurs chalets fleuris nichés sur le flanc de la montagne. Je pourrais presque m'attendre ā ce que Bilbon Sacquet sorte avec un lot de pinte de Gandalf’s Ale, de Bilbo’s Beer ou encore de Frodo’s Lager. Ca n’arrivera pas, mais je m'amuse ā me l'imaginer. Arrivé ā Les Haudères je découvre un centre-village tout fait de bois et de pierres. Deux artères coupent le village d'Est en Ouest et du Nord au Sud. Je passe face au Garage des Alpes, atelier de réparation automobile pour me rendre jusqu’à l'auberge-camping Molignon, endroit ou je dormirai pour la nuit.
À minuit il se met à pleuvoir durant plusieurs heures. De bon matin je croise dans le camping un touriste qui me déconseille de randonner jusqu'au Col de Torrent avec la météo qu'il y a eu la veille. Les sommets sont enneigés. Je décide de me prendre une journée de repos et vais en direction d'Evolène (1371m) pour m'y acheter des moufles afin d'éviter le froid ressenti parfois durant la nuit ou pour éviter le frottement de la paume sur les bâtons de marche. Le lendemain en direction de La Sage je croise les dernières maisons. Alors que je continue mon ascension, derrière moi l'orage semble se profiler sur les Haudères et Evolène. Je continue la marche en espérant que la météo ne se dégrade pas trop. Arrivée dans les nuages.
J'expérimente ma première nuit à 0 degré à 2700 mètres d'altitude sur le flanc de montagne ā 300 mètres du Col de Torrent. Les nuage sont en formation, j'ai la tête dans les nuages. Levé ā 7h du matin je pars en direction le Col de Torrent ā 2916 mètres d'altitude. Le chemin de traverse me mène jusqu'au lac de Moiry (2249m) d'un bleu étonnant et son barrage qui surplombe la vallée. Son barrage voûte situé dans le canton du Valais en Suisse est localisé au-dessus du village de Grimentz. Il a été mis en service en 1958 après 4 ans de construction. Je m'endors près du pas de Lona (2787m) sous une nuit étoilée. Le lendemain matin, c'est la tête dans les nuages et le brouillard que je débute mon excursion matinale avec l'impression d'assister ā un spectacle, un ballet où les nuages glissent cotonneusement sur les flancs de montagne. Quelle sensation de solitude. Dans l'après-midi j'atteins la cabane des Becs de Bosson ā 2983 mètres d'altitude puis la pointe de la Tsevalire ā 3026 mètres. Je finis la journée bien fatigué proche de la Becca de Lovegno à près de 2700m ou j'y passe la nuit. 18h, le soleil se couche derrière les crêtes. Je passe ma nuit la plus fraiche, -2 degré était annoncé par la météo locale. Je ne dors pas bien, me réveille souvent. Mon pantalon, le sac ā dos et tout ce qui peut tenir chaud est empilé au dessus de moi sur le sac de couchage. Durant un court moment, je décide d'allumer le réchaud pour réchauffer mes doigts.
Le lendemain je me repose durant deux heures proche du lac du Louché (2567m), situé dans un écrin de nature marécageux, isolé et préservé de toute activité humaine. Cet endroit est l'un des plus silencieux de toute mon excursion. Pas de bruit. Celui du vent par intermittence. Seul les trainées de condensation d'un avion haut dans le ciel marque la réalité de notre époque et renforce mon extase sonore et visuelle face à un tel lieu. Je prends en photographie la Gentiana Verna, première de la saison qui occupe avec parcimonie les prairies subalpines. Je reprends la marche pour me rendre au Mont-Noble ā près de 2670m. Une fois franchie cette étape je ne cesse de descendre en altitude en passant par Mase (1301m) pour me rendre aux grottes de Combioula qui se trouvent dans les gorges de la Borgne. La source chaude de ces grottes permet de profiter d'une eau à une vingtaine de degrés tout en admirant le paysage environnant. La rivière Borgne qui passe ā quelques mètres est bien plus froide. Le lendemain je me rends direction Hérémence pour y découvrir les pyramides d'Euseigne qui font partie des caractéristiques géologiques impressionnantes du territoire. Je me rends ā Vex (939m). Plus tôt dans la journée j'avais passé un coup de téléphone pour y réserver une nuit en camping.
Arrivé lā-bas, je suis reçu par le gérant. Il a l'allure imposante d'un biker de film américain des années 80. Le bandana autour de la tête, assez petit et trapu, la bedaine en supplément. Débute alors un quiproquo où je lui annonce avoir réservé un emplacement de tente pour la nuit. Lui me dit que non. La fatigue n'aidant pas, j'affirme mon point de vue. Quiproquo qui abouti ā ce que la discussion se dégrade. Je décide de partir promptement, n'ayant pas envie d'avoir à faire à ses chiens. Je me rends compte que l'erreur venais de moi et que le camping en question où j'avais une place de réservée était ā Sion au camping Valcentre (500m). Je repense ā cet épisode ubuesque tout en marchant. En bande dessinée ça aurait fait le gag. 17h. Vite il me faut accélérer le pas pour me rendre sur place. Le coup du sort jouant en ma défaveur ou bien car j'étais désinformé, je prends un chemin balisé pour les randonneurs qui me mène à... un cul de sac ou plutôt à un chemin condamné. Du fait de la chute de pierres il y avait quelques mois de cela, la passerelle qui surplombe La Borgne n'est plus. Voyant l'heure filer, je décide tout de même de traverser la rivière le sac ā dos tenu les bras en l'air. Me croyant libéré de cette histoire d'éboulis de pierres je fais face à deux autres reprises à des culs de sac ou des portions de chemin fragilisés. Je me dépêche de les franchir en prenant un maximum conscience des points d'équilibres qui sont optimum pour ma traversée de ces obstacles. Je quitte la rivière et rejoint les champs de vigne. En fin de journée sur les coups de 19 heures j'arrive au camping de Sion fatigué mais content d'avoir réussi à atteindre mon point d'étape de la journée. Les deux jours qui suivent me permettent de faire des emplettes (surtout des plaquettes de chocolat) et de préparer mon retour en France. Je prends le bus le 4 octobre tout en me disant que je reviendrais un de ces jours parmi ces paysages Suisse afin d'en découvrir davantage.
20160827 - Journée maintenance pour Surprise Partie, le Grand Surprise du Club Var Mer.
Sur le quai autour du bateau, le moindre espace ombragé est exploité.
La société CarPostal a remporté en 2020 la mise au concours des 39 lignes de bus du canton du Jura et ainsi obtenu la concession pour leur exploitation dès décembre 2021. Le cahier des charges de la mise au concours prévoyait que les collectivités publiques puissent imposer une identité visuelle à l’entreprise. Une identité propre aux lignes de bus jurassiennes renforcera le caractère de proximité de l’offre, l’attachement de la clientèle à celle-ci et la distinction par rapport aux autres régions du pays.
Le canton du Jura a désormais défini la marque et l’identité visuelle qui sera déployée dans ce cadre. La marque sera MOBIJU, en référence à l’offre de mobilité qu’elle désigne et à son identité jurassienne. Le logo, qui associe les lettres M et J, aura un fort impact visuel et sera ainsi facilement reconnaissable. L’identité visuelle s’articule autour des couleurs rouge et blanche du drapeau jurassien. Tout en suggérant les lignes du drapeau, le graphisme original évoque la trame d’un territoire composé de quartiers urbains ou de cultures agricoles, vue du ciel. Il peut évoquer également la chaîne de montagnes jurassiennes. Autant de territoires que les bus traversent et relient quotidiennement.
La nouvelle identité visuelle sera déclinée sur les véhicules (en l’adaptant aux différents modèles), mais aussi sur de nombreux autres supports tels que les écriteaux des arrêts de bus, les documents d’information et de promotion imprimés et digitaux ou encore les uniformes du personnel. Elle sera déployée progressivement dès la fin de l’année 2021.
Le réseau MOBIJU se composera de 39 lignes et 392 arrêts desservis par une soixantaine de véhicules. Les bus jurassiens transportent actuellement plus de trois millions de voyageurs par an. La mise au concours des lignes de bus permettra des économies importantes pour les collectivités publiques, alors que l’offre de transports publics augmentera de 7%.
Visite d'une exploitation agricole sur terrain sableux et argileux : coupe et observation du sol. Cours d'écologie, séminaire « Terres » portant sur la reconnaissance des principaux types de sols de parcelles agricoles.
Sonchamp 78-Yvelines France
April 07, 2022— Deputy Administrator Isobel Coleman meets with World Health Organization (WHO) Director-General Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus to discuss global health emergencies in Ukraine and Afghanistan, WHO’s work in humanitarian emergencies, and the U.S. government’s prioritization of and USAID’s commitment to a zero-tolerance stance on sexual exploitation and abuse.
Savhera is an Organic Essential Oils Social Enterprise that provides dignified employment formerly sexually exploited women in India and United States savhera.com/