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Patan (Sanskrit: पाटन Pātan, Newar: यल Yala), officially Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City, is the third largest city of Nepal after Kathmandu and Pokhara and it is located in the south-central part of Kathmandu Valley. Patan is also known as Manigal. It is best known for its rich cultural heritage, particularly its tradition of arts and crafts. It is called city of festival and feast, fine ancient art, making of metallic and stone carving statue. At the time of the 2011 Nepal census it had a population of 226,728 in 54,748 individual households. The city received extensive damage from an earthquake on 25 April 2015.
GEOGRAPHY
Patan is on the elevated tract of land in Kathmandu Valley on the south side of the Bagmati River, which separates it from the city of Kathmandu on the northern and western side. The Nakkhu Khola acts as the boundary on the southern side. It was developed on relatively thin layers of deposited clay and gravel in the central part of a dried ancient lake known as the Nagdaha.
It is the third largest city of the country, after Kathmandu, and Pokhara.
The city has an area of 15.43 square kilometres and is divided into 22 municipal wards. It is bounded by:
East: Imadol VDC and Harisiddhi VDC
West: Kirtipur Municipality and Kathmandu Metropolitan City (KMC)
North: Kathmandu Metropolitan City (KMC)
South: Saibu VDC, Sunakothi VDC and Dhapakhel VDC
CLIMATE
Climate is characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfa" (Humid Subtropical Climate).
HISTORY
Lalitpur is believed to have been founded in the third century BC by the Kirat dynasty and later expanded by Licchavis in the sixth century. It was further expanded by the Mallas during the medieval period.
There are many legends about its name. The most popular one is the legend of the God Rato Machhindranath, who was brought to the valley from Kamaru Kamachhya, located in Assam, India, by a group of three people representing the three kingdoms centered in the Kathmandu Valley.
One of them was called Lalit, a farmer who carried God Rato Machhindranath to the valley all the way from Assam, India. The purpose of bringing the God Rato Machhindranath to the valley was to overcome the worst drought there. There was a strong belief that the God Rato Machhindranath would bring rain in the valley. It was due to Lalit's effort that the God Rato Machhindranath was settled in Lalitpur. Many believe that the name of the town is kept after his name Lalit and pur meaning township.
In May, a chariot festival honoring the deity known as Bunga Dyah Jatra is held in Patan. It is the longest and one of the most important religious celebrations in Patan.
During the month-long festival, an image of Rato Machhendanath is placed on a tall chariot and pulled through the city streets in stages.
Lalitpur said to have been founded by King Veer Deva in 299 AD, but there is unanimity among scholars that Patan was a well established and developed town since ancient times. Several historical records including many other legends indicate that Patan is the oldest of all the cities of Kathmandu Valley. According to a very old Kirat chronicle, Patan was founded by Kirat rulers long before the Licchavi rulers came into the political scene in Kathmandu Valley. According to that chronicle, the earliest known capital of Kirat rulers was Thankot. Kathmandu, the present capital was most possibly removed from Thankot to Patan after the Kirati King Yalamber came into power sometimes around second century AD.
One of the most used and typical Newar names of Patan is Yala. It is said that King Yalamber or Yellung Hang named this city after himself, and ever since this ancient city was known as Yala.
In 1768, Lalitpur was annexed to the Gorkha Kingdom by Prithvi Narayan Shah in the Battle of Lalitpur.
HISTORICAL MONUMENTS
The city was initially designed in the shape of the Buddhist Dharma-Chakra (Wheel of Righteousness). The four thurs or mounds on the perimeter of Patan are ascribed around, one at each corner of its cardinal points, which are popularly known as Asoka Stupas. Legend has it that Emperor Asoka (the legendary King of India) visited with his daughter Charumati to Kathmandu in 250 BC and erected five Asoka Stupas, four in the surrounding and one at the middle of the Patan. The size and shape of these stupas seem to breathe their antiquity in a real sense. There are more than 1,200 Buddhist monuments of various shapes and sizes scattered in and around the city.
The most important monument of the city is Patan Durbar Square, which has been listed by UNESCO as one of seven Monument Zones that make up the Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Site. The seven monument zones were included in the World Heritage List in 1979 as one integrated site. The monument zones are declared as protected and preserved according to the Monuments Preservation Act of 1956. The Square was heavily damaged on 25 April 2015 by an earthquake.
Patan City was planned in Vihars and Bahils. Out of 295 Vihars and Bahils of the valley 56% of them are in Patan. The water conduits, stone spouts, Jaladroni (water tanks), artistic gate ways, Hindu temples and Buddhist Vihars adorn the city. The in built cultural heritage like the royal palace, with intricately carved doors and windows and beautiful courtyards adorned with exquisite icons enhance the beauty of the city. Such art pieces are found in stone, metal, terracotta ivory and other objects. All these artifacts exhibit artistic excellence of the craftsmen and the whole city looks like an open museum.
ECONOMY
A substantial portion of the population is engaged in trades, notably in traditional handicrafts and small scale cottage industries, and some residents work in agriculture. Lalitpur has produced the highest number of renowned artists and finest craftsmen ever recorded in the history of Nepali art.
Patan has maintained a culture of craftwork even in the face of rapid urbanization and many social and political upheavals.
The city is less urbanized than Kathmandu, north of the Bagmati river, but is home to many workshops, stores, restaurants, hotels, schools, embassies and other important sectors of the Kathmandu Valley economy.
Buddha Air has its headquarters in Jawalakhel, near Patan.
EDUCATION
POSTSECONDARY EDUCATION
Patan is home to Pulchowk Engineering Campus, one of the oldest and most reputed colleges affiliated with the Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University. Patan Academy of Health Sciences is the only medical university in the city with Patan Hospital as its primary teaching hospital, and there is another medical school - KIST Medical College in Lalitpur. Other instituitions of higher learning in Patan include Kathmandu University School of Management (KUSOM) and Patan Multiple Campus.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION
The city is served by a number of private and public instituitions providing education from primary until secondary level. Among all, the largest and reputed schools are Adarsha Vidya Mandir, St. Xavier's School, St. Mary's, Little Angels School, Graded English Medium School, Rato Bangala School, DAV Sushil Kedia, Adarsha Kanya Niketan, The British School, Adarsha Saral Madhyamik Vidyalay and Gyanodaya Bal Batika School.
LIBRARIES
Nepal National Library which was established in 1957 AD was moved to Patan from Singha Durbar in 2061 AD. It is at Harihar Bhawan. Madan Puraskar Pustakalaya which awards the Madan Puraskar and Jagadamba Shree Puraskar literary prizes is in the city.
PLACES OF INTEREST
Patan is renowned as a very artistic city. Most of the Nepalese art is devoted to Gods, and there are an abundance of temples and viharas. Notable places of interest include:
Patan Durbar Square: The palace square and residence of the Malla rulers of Patan state which now houses a museum.
Patan Dhoka: One of the historical entrances to the old city.
Bhaskerdev Samskarita Hiranyabarna Mahavihara: A Buddhist temple known locally as Golden Temple.
Mahabouddha Temple: Also known as 1000 Buddha Temple modeled liked the Mahabodhi temple in Bodh Gaya.
Kumbheswor Temple: A Shiva temple with two ponds whose water is believed to come from Gosaikunda.
Ratnakar Mahavihar: Also known as Ha Baha, the viahara complex is the official residence of the Kumari of Patan.
Krishna Mandir: One of the most beautiful stone temples of Nepal built by King Siddhinarsingh Malla in the 16th century.
Park Gallery: an artist run space founded in 1970.
TRANSPORTATION
AIRPORTS
ROADS
Walking is the easiest method of transportation within the city as the core is densely populated. In terms of motor transport, Kathmandu Valley Ring Road which encircles the central part of the valley is a strategic road in the city. Connection to Kathmandu over the Bagmati River is provided by a host of road and pedestrian bridges. The most trafficked and important bridge connecting to the centre of Kathmandu is Thapathali Bridge. Since pedestrians and vehicles often have to share the same road, traffic congestion is a major problem in Patan. Efforts are being made to widen roads to make them more suitable to vehicular traffic.
PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION
Private companies operate a number of routes connecting Patan with other places in the valley. Buses, micro-buses and electric tempos are the most common forms of public transport seen in the city. Lalitpur Yatayat buses connects the touristic Thamel area of Kathmandu with buses stopping at Patan Dhoka, a five-minute walk to Patan Durbar Square. Lagankhel Bus Park is the central transport hub.
MEDIA
To Promote local culture Patan has one FM radio station Radio Sagarmatha - 102.4 MHz which is a Community radio station.
LANGUAGE
The original native language of Patan is Nepal Bhasa's Lalitpur dialect. Though due to the migration form other places to Patan, other languages like Nepali, Tamang, etc. are also spoken.
WIKIPEDIA
Developed originally by British Leyland in order to claw back a hold on the American market, the Rover Sterling/800 range was to become the company's top of the range model, replacing the 10 year old Rover SD1.
The Sterling is similar in many ways to the Honda Legend, but was not the first BL car to use a Japanese model as a spiritual template, being preceded by the Triumph Acclaim and the Rover 200.
The original styling of the Sterling was based largely on that of the SD1 with the sweeping light clusters that were curved around the front of the body. This was later revised with the inclusion of a grille as seen on this example here.
In total, 371,000 Sterling/800's were built, an estimated 33,000 being sold in the United States as simply the 'Sterling'.
The cars sadly were not a major success in the United States, and were pulled out of the market in 1991, but the Sterling/800 in Europe remained highly popular and continued in production until the introduction of the Rover 75 in 1998.
Today there are still plenty of Sterlings and 800's to be found on the roads of Britain, and even in the United States the Sterling derivatives have garnered a cult following due to their obscure nature, and that they were the last truly British cars to be sold in the USA outside of companies under foreign ownership such as Jaguar, Rolls Royce and Bentley.
I developed two rolls of film on my own in my room for the first time in about three years. The photos came out underdeveloped and strangely tinted but I love the results so much.
U.S. Army Soldier shakes hands with a small Afghan boy during Task Force Iron Grey’s visit to the refugee camp out side Mehtar Lam City, Laghman Province, Afghanistan. The goal of the visit is to distribute 1000 radios among local refugees in an attempt to bring them closer to the Afghan government. June 2, 2010.(U.S. Army photo by Spc. Victor Egorov/ Released)(100502-A-5983E-128)
This last of 4 images shows the original view (more or less). I love the light in this one. Ben Stack is now obliterated by the clouds and Handa Island on the far right is looking amazing.
Rollei 35 SE | Zeiss Sonnar 2,8/40
Fujifilm Neopan Acros 100
This was my first attempt in developing black and white film! A great learning experience!
Sometimes the how you develop a shot has more impact than the shot itself.
This was originally a throw-away test shot I took last spring [original here www.flickr.com/photos/david_hicks/4639103940/] with Justin [JustinVL]. Bland. Boring. But with a different processing treatment is takes on a whole new meaning.
The faux movie poster pokes fun at Justin's oft-used Elinchrom Qudra with Octobox setup(which also provides the lighting - check out the catch lights!)
Developed using 60 minute stand in Caffenol CL:
9.6g washing soda
6g vitamin C
42g iodized salt
24g instant coffee
600mL water
Ilford Fixer
Shanghai GP3 100 (type 120) film shot on Moskva 5, 6x9 format.
Scanned on Epson V600 @ 3200dpi
Zürich (/ˈzjʊərɪk/ ZURE-ik, German: [ˈtsyːrɪç;) is the largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zürich. It is located in north-central Switzerland, at the northwestern tip of Lake Zürich. As of January 2023 the municipality had 443,037 inhabitants, the urban area 1.315 million (2009), and the Zürich metropolitan area 1.83 million (2011). Zürich is a hub for railways, roads, and air traffic. Both Zurich Airport and Zürich's main railway station are the largest and busiest in the country.
Permanently settled for over 2,000 years, Zürich was founded by the Romans, who called it Turicum. However, early settlements have been found dating back more than 6,400 years (although this only indicates human presence in the area and not the presence of a town that early). During the Middle Ages, Zürich gained the independent and privileged status of imperial immediacy and, in 1519, became a primary centre of the Protestant Reformation in Europe under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli.
The official language of Zürich is German,[a] but the main spoken language is Zürich German, the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect.
Many museums and art galleries can be found in the city, including the Swiss National Museum and Kunsthaus. Schauspielhaus Zürich is generally considered to be one of the most important theatres in the German-speaking world.
As one of Switzerland's primary financial centres, Zürich is home to many financial institutions and banking companies.
History
Early history
Settlements of the Neolithic and Bronze Age were found around Lake Zürich. Traces of pre-Roman Celtic, La Tène settlements were discovered near the Lindenhof, a morainic hill dominating the SE - NW waterway constituted by Lake Zurich and the river Limmat. In Roman times, during the conquest of the alpine region in 15 BC, the Romans built a castellum on the Lindenhof. Later here was erected Turicum (a toponym of clear Celtic origin), a tax-collecting point for goods trafficked on the Limmat, which constituted part of the border between Gallia Belgica (from AD 90 Germania Superior) and Raetia: this customs point developed later into a vicus. After Emperor Constantine's reforms in AD 318, the border between Gaul and Italy (two of the four praetorian prefectures of the Roman Empire) was located east of Turicum, crossing the river Linth between Lake Walen and Lake Zürich, where a castle and garrison looked over Turicum's safety. The earliest written record of the town dates from the 2nd century, with a tombstone referring to it as the Statio Turicensis Quadragesima Galliarum ("Zürich post for collecting the 2.5% value tax of the Galliae"), discovered at the Lindenhof.
In the 5th century, the Germanic Alemanni tribe settled in the Swiss Plateau. The Roman castle remained standing until the 7th century. A Carolingian castle, built on the site of the Roman castle by the grandson of Charlemagne, Louis the German, is mentioned in 835 (in Castro Turicino iuxta fluvium Lindemaci). Louis also founded the Fraumünster abbey in 853 for his daughter Hildegard. He endowed the Benedictine convent with the lands of Zürich, Uri, and the Albis forest, and granted the convent immunity, placing it under his direct authority. In 1045, King Henry III granted the convent the right to hold markets, collect tolls, and mint coins, and thus effectively made the abbess the ruler of the city.
Zürich gained Imperial immediacy (Reichsunmittelbar, becoming an Imperial free city) in 1218 with the extinction of the main line of the Zähringer family and attained a status comparable to statehood. During the 1230s, a city wall was built, enclosing 38 hectares, when the earliest stone houses on the Rennweg were built as well. The Carolingian castle was used as a quarry, as it had started to fall into ruin.
Emperor Frederick II promoted the abbess of the Fraumünster to the rank of a duchess in 1234. The abbess nominated the mayor, and she frequently delegated the minting of coins to citizens of the city. The political power of the convent slowly waned in the 14th century, beginning with the establishment of the Zunftordnung (guild laws) in 1336 by Rudolf Brun, who also became the first independent mayor, i.e. not nominated by the abbess.
An important event in the early 14th century was the completion of the Manesse Codex, a key source of medieval German poetry. The famous illuminated manuscript – described as "the most beautifully illumined German manuscript in centuries;" – was commissioned by the Manesse family of Zürich, copied and illustrated in the city at some time between 1304 and 1340. Producing such a work was a highly expensive prestige project, requiring several years of work by highly skilled scribes and miniature painters, and it testifies to the increasing wealth and pride of Zürich citizens in this period. The work contains 6 songs by Süsskind von Trimberg, who may have been a Jew, since the work itself contains reflections on medieval Jewish life, though little is known about him.
The first mention of Jews in Zürich was in 1273. Sources show that there was a synagogue in Zürich in the 13th century, implying the existence of a Jewish community. With the rise of the Black Death in 1349, Zürich, like most other Swiss cities, responded by persecuting and burning the local Jews, marking the end of the first Jewish community there. The second Jewish community of Zürich formed towards the end of the 14th century, was short-lived, and Jews were expulsed and banned from the city from 1423 until the 19th century.
Archaeological findings
A woman who died in about 200 BC was found buried in a carved tree trunk during a construction project at the Kern school complex in March 2017 in Aussersihl. Archaeologists revealed that she was approximately 40 years old when she died and likely carried out little physical labor when she was alive. A sheepskin coat, a belt chain, a fancy wool dress, a scarf, and a pendant made of glass and amber beads were also discovered with the woman.
Old Swiss Confederacy
On 1 May 1351, the citizens of Zürich had to swear allegiance before representatives of the cantons of Lucerne, Schwyz, Uri and Unterwalden, the other members of the Swiss Confederacy. Thus, Zürich became the fifth member of the Confederacy, which was at that time a loose confederation of de facto independent states. Zürich was the presiding canton of the Diet from 1468 to 1519. This authority was the executive council and lawmaking body of the confederacy, from the Middle Ages until the establishment of the Swiss federal state in 1848. Zürich was temporarily expelled from the confederacy in 1440 due to a war with the other member states over the territory of Toggenburg (the Old Zürich War). Neither side had attained significant victory when peace was agreed upon in 1446, and Zürich was readmitted to the confederation in 1450.
Zwingli started the Swiss Reformation at the time when he was the main preacher at the Grossmünster in 1519. The Zürich Bible was printed by Christoph Froschauer in 1531. The Reformation resulted in major changes in state matters and civil life in Zürich, spreading also to several other cantons. Several cantons remained Catholic and became the basis of serious conflicts that eventually led to the outbreak of the Wars of Kappel.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Council of Zürich adopted an isolationist attitude, resulting in a second ring of imposing fortifications built in 1624. The Thirty Years' War which raged across Europe motivated the city to build these walls. The fortifications required a lot of resources, which were taken from subject territories without reaching any agreement. The following revolts were crushed brutally. In 1648, Zürich proclaimed itself a republic, shedding its former status of a free imperial city. In this time the political system of Zürich was an oligarchy (Patriziat): the dominant families of the city were the following ones: Bonstetten, Brun, Bürkli, Escher vom Glas, Escher vom Luchs, Hirzel, Jori (or von Jori), Kilchsperger, Landenberg, Manesse, Meiss, Meyer von Knonau, Mülner, von Orelli.
The Helvetic Revolution of 1798 saw the fall of the Ancien Régime. Zürich lost control of the land and its economic privileges, and the city and the canton separated their possessions between 1803 and 1805. In 1839, the city had to yield to the demands of its urban subjects, following the Züriputsch of 6 September. Most of the ramparts built in the 17th century were torn down, without ever having been besieged, to allay rural concerns over the city's hegemony. The Treaty of Zürich between Austria, France, and Sardinia was signed in 1859.
Modern history
Zürich was the Federal capital for 1839–40, and consequently, the victory of the Conservative party there in 1839 caused a great stir throughout Switzerland. But when in 1845 the Radicals regained power at Zürich, which was again the Federal capital for 1845–46, Zürich took the lead in opposing the Sonderbund cantons. Following the Sonderbund War and the formation of the Swiss Federal State, Zürich voted in favor of the Federal constitutions of 1848 and 1874. The enormous immigration from the country districts into the town from the 1830s onwards created an industrial class which, though "settled" in the town, did not possess the privileges of burghership, and consequently had no share in the municipal government. First of all in 1860 the town schools, hitherto open to "settlers" only on paying high fees, were made accessible to all, next in 1875 ten years' residence ipso facto conferred the right of burghership, and in 1893 the eleven outlying districts were incorporated within the town proper.
When Jews began to settle in Zürich following their equality in 1862, the Israelitische Cultusgemeinde Zürich was founded.
Extensive developments took place during the 19th century. From 1847, the Spanisch-Brötli-Bahn, the first railway on Swiss territory, connected Zürich with Baden, putting the Zürich Hauptbahnhof at the origin of the Swiss rail network. The present building of the Hauptbahnhof (the main railway station) dates to 1871. Zürich's Bahnhofstrasse (Station Street) was laid out in 1867, and the Zürich Stock Exchange was founded in 1877. Industrialisation led to migration into the cities and to rapid population growth, particularly in the suburbs of Zürich.
The Quaianlagen are an important milestone in the development of the modern city of Zürich, as the construction of the new lakefront transformed Zürich from a small medieval town on the rivers Limmat and Sihl to a modern city on the Zürichsee shore, under the guidance of the city engineer Arnold Bürkli.
In 1893, the twelve outlying districts were incorporated into Zürich, including Aussersihl, the workman's quarter on the left bank of the Sihl, and additional land was reclaimed from Lake Zürich.
In 1934, eight additional districts in the north and west of Zürich were incorporated.
Zürich was accidentally bombed during World War II. As persecuted Jews sought refuge in Switzerland, the SIG (Schweizerischer Israelitischer Gemeindebund, Israelite Community of Switzerland) raised financial resources. The Central Committee for Refugee Aid, created in 1933, was located in Zürich.
The canton of Zürich did not recognize the Jewish religious communities as legal entities (and therefore as equal to national churches) until 2005.
Geography
Zürich is situated at 408 m (1,339 ft) above sea level on the lower (northern) end of Lake Zürich (Zürichsee) about 30 km (19 mi) north of the Alps, nestling between the wooded hills on the west and east side. The Old Town stretches on both sides of the Limmat, which flows from the lake, running northwards at first and then gradually turning into a curve to the west. The geographic (and historic) centre of the city is the Lindenhof, a small natural hill on the west bank of the Limmat, about 700 m (2,300 ft) north of where the river issues from Lake Zürich. Today the incorporated city stretches somewhat beyond the natural confines of the hills and includes some districts to the northeast in the Glatt Valley (Glattal) and to the north in the Limmat Valley (Limmattal). The boundaries of the older city are easy to recognize by the Schanzengraben canal. This artificial watercourse has been used for the construction of the third fortress in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Quality of living
Zürich often performs very well in international rankings, some of which are mentioned below:
Monocle's 2012 "Quality of Life Survey" ranked Zürich first on a list of the top 25 cities in the world "to make a base within". In 2019 Zürich was ranked among the ten most liveable cities in the world by Mercer together with Geneva and Basel.
In fDi Magazine's "Global Cities of the Future 2021/22" report, Zürich placed 16th in the overall rankings (all categories). In the category "Mid-sized and small cities", Zürich was 2nd overall, behind Wroclaw, having also placed 2nd in the subcategory "Human capital and lifestyle" and 3rd under "Business friendliness". In the category "FDI strategy, overall" (relating to foreign direct investment), Zürich ranked 9th, behind such cities as New York, Montreal (1st and 2nd) and Dubai (at number 8).
Main sites
Most of Zürich's sites are located within the area on either side of the Limmat, between the Main railway station and Lake Zürich. The churches and houses of the old town are clustered here, as are the most expensive shops along the famous Bahnhofstrasse. The Lindenhof in the old town is the historical site of the Roman castle, and the later Carolingian Imperial Palace.
(Wikpedia)
Grimmenturm (lit. 'Tower of the grim', referring to Johann Bilgeri the younger, nicknamed 'the grim') is a medieval tower and restaurant situated at Neumarkt in Zurich's District 1, Switzerland.
Location
The Grimmenturm building is situated at Neumarkt (Spiegelgasse 31, 8001 Zürich) in the Altstadt of Zürich on the right shore of the Limmat river. It houses the restaurant Neumarkt in one of the attached buildings towards Neumarkt.
History
The tower was probably built by the Zürich family Bilgeri (residential since 1256) between 1250 and 1280 AD as a residential tower. First mentioned in the year 1324 as tower of the Pilgrin family, it was one of about 30 residential towers that existed in the European Middle Ages in Zürich. Even before 1300 a housing was attached to the north-western side. Although the building was for decades used by the Bilgeri family as their home, it has not their name, as a building; also used as residential tower, the so-called Bilgeriturm is located just 20 meters in the north. Grimmenturm's name was given by another member of the same family, Johann Bilgeri the younger and its nickname "Grimm" or "Grimme". Even the nickname Grimm (same meaning in English and in German) was apparently so common that it even was mentioned in official documents, such as in a parchment from the year 1330[1] . On 12 July 1336 Rudolf Brun, mayor of the city of Zürich, defeated his political opponents, the former members of the Rat (council) of Zürich, of which around 12 members found refuge by count Johann I in Rapperswil. The document, sealed by the Princess Abbess of Fraumünster, the abbot of the Einsiedeln Abbey and the Propst von Zürich (Grossmünster), listed among others the names of Heinr. Bilgeri im Markt, Niclaus Bilgeri, Rudolf Bilgeri and Joh. Bilgeri der jüngere zum Steinbock to be banned at least two years from the city of Zürich.
In 1350 Sister Elsbeth Reinger handed over her house and paddock, located at the Neumarkt between the houses of Waser and Heinrich von Rapperswil to establish a hospital. Johann Pilgrim, der Grimme left over the tower together with residential buildings to the hospital for accommodation and nursing sisters, and so a monastic community was established. In occasion of the Reformation in Zürich, the nunnery was abolished in 1524, and the building was used as wine cellar and granary. The next 300 years the building served as a vicarage and accommodation building, and in 1962 it passed over to the city government of Zürich.
Architecture
Being part of the former second, even first fortification of the medieval city of Zürich, the building has an extremely irregular, octagonal floor plan, consisting of three former separate buildings. On its northeast facade a lounge corner with Gothic pointed arch windows is installed. The so-called Zum Langen Keller (Rindermarkt 26, 8001 Zürich) residential building was attached to the northwestern side of the tower even before 1300. From 1837 to 1839 the building was renewed. In the late 19th century, the property was in private hands and was once more widely rebuilt: The clock and bell were removed, on the south and north side new windows and a new roof were installed. The original clock tower was installed in 1541, in 1865 renewed and between 1964 and 1966 it was rebuilt as a distinctive clock tower.
Cultural heritage
The building is listed in the Swiss inventory of cultural property of national and regional significance as a Class B object of regional importance.
(Wikipedia)
Zürich (zürichdeutsch Züri [ˈt͡sʏ̞rɪ, ˈt͡sʏrɪ, ˈt͡sy̞rɪ],[6] französisch Zurich [zyʁik], italienisch Zurigo [tsuˈriːɡo, dzu-], Rumantsch Grischun Turitg) ist eine schweizerische Stadt, politische Gemeinde sowie Hauptort des gleichnamigen Kantons.
Die Stadt Zürich ist mit 427'721 Einwohnern (Stand 31. Dezember 2022) die grösste Stadt der Schweiz und weist eine Bevölkerungsdichte von 4655 Einwohnern pro Quadratkilometer auf. Das Umland ist dicht besiedelt, so dass in der Agglomeration Zürich etwa 1,3 Millionen und in der Metropolitanregion Zürich etwa 1,83 Millionen Menschen leben. Der Bezirk Zürich ist mit dem Stadtgebiet identisch.
Die Stadt liegt im östlichen Schweizer Mittelland, an der Limmat am Ausfluss des Zürichsees. Ihre Einwohner werden Zürcher genannt (bzw. Stadtzürcher zur Differenzierung von den übrigen Einwohnern des Kantons).
Das aus der römischen Siedlung Turicum entstandene Zürich wurde 1262 freie Reichsstadt und 1351 Mitglied der Eidgenossenschaft. Die Stadt des Reformators Huldrych Zwingli wurde 1519 zum zweitwichtigsten (nach Wittenberg) Zentrum der Reformation. Bis heute gilt sie als Ausgangspunkt der weltweiten reformierten Kirche und der Täufer. Die Stadt erlebte im Industriezeitalter ihren Aufstieg zur heutigen Wirtschaftsmetropole der Schweiz.
Mit ihrem Hauptbahnhof, dem grössten Bahnhof der Schweiz, und dem Flughafen (auf dem Gebiet der Gemeinde Kloten) ist die Stadt Zürich ein kontinentaler Verkehrsknotenpunkt. Aufgrund der ansässigen Grossbanken (u. a. UBS, der Zürcher Kantonalbank und Credit Suisse) und Versicherungen (Zurich Insurance Group und Swiss Re) ist sie ein internationaler Finanzplatz und der grösste Finanzplatz der Schweiz, gefolgt von Genf und Lugano. Daneben beherbergt die Stadt mit der Eidgenössischen Technischen Hochschule Zürich und der Universität Zürich die zwei grössten universitären Hochschulen der Schweiz. Trotz der vergleichsweise geringen Einwohnerzahl wird Zürich zu den Weltstädten gezählt. Zürich ist das wichtigste Zentrum der Schweizer Medien- und Kreativbranche. Mit seiner Lage am Zürichsee, seiner gut erhaltenen mittelalterlichen Altstadt und einem vielseitigen Kulturangebot und Nachtleben ist es zudem ein Zentrum des Tourismus.
Seit Jahren wird Zürich neben Basel und Genf als eine der Städte mit der weltweit höchsten Lebensqualität und zugleich neben Genf mit den höchsten Lebenshaltungskosten weltweit gelistet. Zürich ist nach Monaco und Genf die Stadt mit der dritthöchsten Millionärsdichte weltweit.
Geografie
Zürich liegt auf 408 m ü. M. am unteren (nördlichen) Ende des Zürichsees im Tal der Limmat und im unteren Tal der Sihl, eingebettet zwischen den Höhen von Uetliberg im Westen und Zürichberg im Osten. Die Limmat entspringt dem See, während die westlich des Sees fliessende Sihl nördlich der Zürcher Altstadt beim Platzspitz in die Limmat mündet. Die Altstadt erstreckt sich beidseits der Limmat, die zunächst nordwärts fliesst und dann in einem Bogen allmählich nach Westen abbiegt.
Die einstige Stadt reichte nicht bis zur Sihl, sondern hatte als westliche Abgrenzung den im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert angelegten Schanzengraben. Damals wurde Wasser aus dem See abgeleitet und in einem Graben ausserhalb der Bastionen und Bollwerke zur Limmat geführt. Noch früher erstreckte sich die Stadt im Westen nur bis zum Fröschengraben, der ungefähr parallel zur Limmat verlief. Dieser Graben wurde 1864 zugeschüttet, um Raum für den Bau der Bahnhofstrasse zu schaffen, die vom heutigen Paradeplatz bis zum Rennweg dem Verlauf des einstigen Grabens folgt.
Geschichte
Frühgeschichte, Mittelalter und ältere Neuzeit
Im Unterschied zu den meisten anderen Schweizer Grossstädten stieg Zürich im Frühmittelalter in den Rang einer Stadt auf. In Turīcum gab es zwar bereits zur Römerzeit eine Zollstation, ein hadrianisches Heiligtum auf dem Grossen Hafner im untersten Seebecken beim Ausfluss der Limmat und ein Kastell, die zugehörige Siedlung kann aber noch nicht als Stadt bezeichnet werden. Das frühmittelalterliche, alemannische Zürich war eng verbunden mit dem Herzogtum Schwaben und zwei bedeutenden geistlichen Stiftungen der deutschen Könige, dem Grossmünster und dem Fraumünster, die dem Kult um die Stadtpatrone Felix und Regula geweiht waren. Nach dem Zerfall der zentralen Gewalt im Herzogtum Schwaben und dem Aussterben der Zähringer 1218 konnte sich Zürich den Status der Reichsunmittelbarkeit sichern; 1262 wurde auch die Reichsfreiheit der Bürgerschaft ausdrücklich bestätigt. Der Titel einer Reichsstadt bedeutete de facto die Unabhängigkeit der Stadt. De jure löste sich Zürich jedoch erst 1648 von der Oberhoheit des Kaisers des Heiligen Römischen Reiches.
Im Spätmittelalter erwarb und eroberte Zürich in seinem Umland bedeutende Territorien, die der Stadt bis 1798 politisch untergeordnet waren (siehe Territoriale Entwicklung Zürichs). Im Innern wurden die Geschicke Zürichs seit der Zunftrevolution durch Bürgermeister Rudolf Brun im Jahr 1336 durch den Stadtadel und die Handwerkervereinigungen (Zünfte) gemeinsam geleitet (Brunsche Zunftverfassung). Brun war auch verantwortlich für den Überfall von Rapperswil. 1351 schloss sich Zürich zur Sicherung seiner Unabhängigkeit gegen das aufstrebende süddeutsche Adelsgeschlecht der Habsburger der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft an und wurde zusammen mit Bern zum Vorort dieses Staatenbundes.
Der wohl bis heute wichtigste Beitrag Zürichs zur Weltgeschichte war die Reformation von Huldrych Zwingli. Unter seiner geistigen Führung wurde seit 1519 Zürich zum reformierten Rom an der Limmat. Die Zürcher Bibel, eine der ersten deutschen Bibelübersetzungen, entstand in der Prophezei unter Zwingli, Leo Jud und weiteren Mitarbeitern 1524 bis 1525 und wurde vom Zürcher Buchdrucker Christoph Froschauer zuerst in Teilen und später als ganze Bibel herausgegeben.
Die Täuferbewegung nahm ihren Ausgangspunkt ab 1523 in Zürich unter Führung von Konrad Grebel, Felix Manz, Jörg Blaurock, Balthasar Hubmaier und weiteren Personen, die sich von Zwingli trennten und kurz darauf verfolgt und gefangen genommen wurden. Im Januar 1527 wurde Felix Manz in der Limmat ertränkt, viele Täufer flüchteten nach Schaffhausen oder ins Zürcher Oberland.
Heinrich Bullinger 1531–1575 und Rudolf Gwalther 1575–1586 konsolidierten als Antistes und Nachfolger von Zwingli die Reformation in Zürich und pflegten zahlreiche Kontakte europaweit. Während ihrer Zeit wurden viele evangelische Flüchtlinge aus dem Tessin, Italien, Frankreich und England aufgenommen. Diese trugen in der Folge durch Handwerk, Produktion noch unbekannter Textilien und Handel wesentlich zum wirtschaftlichen Gedeihen Zürichs bei.[38][39][40]
Zur Zeit der Hexenverfolgungen wurden in Zürich von 1487 bis 1701 Hexenprozesse gegen 79 Personen geführt. Im Hexenprozess 1701 wurden acht Menschen aus Wasterkingen wegen angeblicher Hexerei verurteilt. Regierungspräsident Markus Notter und Kirchenratspräsident Ruedi Reich verurteilten 2001 diese Justizmorde.
18. und 19. Jahrhundert
Das Zürich des 18. Jahrhunderts galt als «das grösste Rätsel deutscher Geistesgeschichte». Trotz relativ geringer Bevölkerungszahl entwickelte sich rund um Johann Jakob Bodmer neben dem wissenschaftlichen auch ein literarisches Zürich mit entscheidenden Beiträgen zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte.
Mit dem Untergang der freien Republik der Stadt Zürich nach dem Einmarsch der Franzosen in die Schweiz ging die Stadt zusammen mit dem ehemaligen Untertanenland im neuen Kanton Zürich auf, dessen Hauptort sie wurde. Im beginnenden 19. Jahrhundert kam es zwar zu einer Restauration der städtischen Vorherrschaft im Kanton, die jedoch von kurzer Dauer war.
Der Aufstieg Zürichs zum wirtschaftlichen Zentrum der Schweiz begann bereits mit der Textilindustrie im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert. Unter der politischen und wirtschaftlichen Führung der Liberalen, insbesondere von Alfred Escher, wurde die führende Rolle Zürichs ab 1846 durch die Gründung von zahlreichen Banken und Versicherungen auch auf den Finanz- und Dienstleistungssektor ausgedehnt. Seit dem Niedergang der Zürcher Industrie in der Nachkriegszeit hat die Bedeutung dieses Sektors noch zugenommen.
In den Jahren 1855 und 1867 starben in der Stadt Zürich in Folge prekärer hygienischer Verhältnisse in vielen Wohnungen ca. 500 Menschen an Cholera. 1867 wurde mit dem Bau einer Kanalisation begonnen. 1884 brach Typhus aus.
In der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts begann ein bis in die 1970er Jahre andauernder Bauboom, der Zürich von einer Kleinstadt zur Grossstadt mit all ihren Problemen wachsen liess. Das stürmische Wachstum beschränkte sich zuerst auf einen Um- und Neubau des Zentrums und erfasste zunehmend die umliegenden ländlichen Gemeinden. In zwei Eingemeindungswellen wurden 1893 und 1934 20 Landgemeinden mit der alten Stadtgemeinde zusammengefasst. Die Errichtung eines «Millionenzürich» scheiterte jedoch bis heute. Während nämlich ursprünglich die Finanzstärke der Stadt bzw. die leeren Kassen der Vororte Motor der freiwilligen Stadterweiterungen waren, sind heute die verbleibenden Vororte finanziell eher besser gestellt als die Stadt. Dies schlägt sich insbesondere in den Steuersätzen nieder.
Zwei ausgeprägte Wachstumswellen in den Jahren 1888–1910 sowie 1950–1970 entstanden durch Zuzüger aus dem Ausland. Im Jahr 1912 waren die Bewohner Zürichs zu einem Drittel Ausländer, und Zürich war wie ein grosser Teil der Deutschschweiz im Vorfeld des Ersten Weltkriegs deutschfreundlich, wobei Hochdeutsch zu sprechen in gehobenen Kreisen zum guten Ton gehörte.
20. Jahrhundert
In der ersten Hälfte des 20. Jahrhunderts stand Zürich politisch im Bann der Arbeiterbewegung. Schon vor dem Landesstreik 1918 war in Zürich die Konfrontation zwischen Bürgertum und Arbeiterschaft besonders heftig ausgefallen, da Zürich grosse Industriebetriebe mit tausenden von Arbeitern aufwies und zugleich eine Hochburg des Grossbürgertums war. Als 1928 die Sozialdemokratische Partei unter der Führung von David Farbstein erstmals eine absolute Mehrheit in Stadtrat (Exekutive) und Gemeinderat (Legislative) erlangte, wurde in der Zwischenkriegszeit das Rote Zürich zu einem Aushängeschild für die Regierungsfähigkeit der Sozialdemokratie. Trotzdem wurde gerade in Zürich 1939 die als Landi bekannt gewordene Landesausstellung zu einem Symbol für den Zusammenhalt und den Widerstandswillen der Schweiz im Zeichen der Geistigen Landesverteidigung gegen Hitlerdeutschland. Schliesslich wurde 1943 der Zürcher Stadtpräsident Ernst Nobs als erster Sozialdemokrat in den Bundesrat gewählt. In der Nachkriegszeit blieb Zürich Sammelbecken und Bühne für Protestbewegungen, wie 1968 anlässlich der Globus-Krawalle und 1980 für die Jugendunruhen. Noch heute ist der 1. Mai in Zürich jährlich von Auseinandersetzungen des autonomen «Schwarzen Blockes» mit der Polizei gekennzeichnet.
Ein Problem der Stadt war lange auch die offene Drogenszene. In der Mitte der 1980er Jahre wurde der Platzspitz weltweit als Needlepark bekannt. Er wurde am 5. Februar 1992 zwangsgeräumt und abgeriegelt, daraufhin verschob sich die Drogenszene an den stillgelegten Bahnhof Letten.
Das Areal des stillgelegten Bahnhofs Letten bot ab 1992 die Kulisse für die grösste offene Drogenszene Europas. Mehrere tausend Drogenabhängige aus dem In- und Ausland lebten hier oder besorgten sich ihren Stoff. Hundertschaften von Polizisten nahmen des Öfteren in der Anwesenheit von Kamerateams Razzien vor und versuchten so den Markt auszutrocknen. Diese Versuche blieben erfolglos und so wurde der Letten am 14. Februar 1995 polizeilich geräumt. Auswärtige Drogenabhängige wurden grösstenteils an ihre Herkunftsgemeinden respektive Wohnortgemeinden zurückgeführt, ausländische Abhängige zwangsausgeschafft. Die Reste der Drogenszene verlagerten sich zunehmend ins Gebiet entlang der Langstrasse. Zur Entschärfung der Situation trug dabei sehr stark der Versuch der staatlichen Heroinabgabe bei, so dass sich nicht umgehend eine neue Szene bildete. Heute ist die staatliche, ärztlich kontrollierte Drogenabgabe gesetzlich verankert und vom Volk per Referendum abgesegnet.
Die Langstrasse ist ein Zentrum des Zürcher Nachtlebens. Seit der Auflösung der offenen Drogenszenen wurde das Viertel zur Jahrtausendwende hin zum Zentrum des Drogenhandels. Die Kriminalitätsrate im Langstrassenquartier ist zwar weiterhin verhältnismässig hoch, jedoch verbesserte sich die Situation aufgrund verschiedener Projekte der öffentlichen Hand. Heute hat sich die Situation stabilisiert und der Stadtteil ist zu einer festen Grösse im Kultur- und Nachtleben Zürichs geworden. Nach wie vor ist die Stadt Anziehungspunkt für Drogenkonsumenten aus den benachbarten Kantonen.
Gegenwart
In den 1980er Jahren war Zürich in einem Teufelskreis zwischen der Nachfrage nach mehr Bürofläche in der Innenstadt, der Stadtflucht und der drohenden Verslumung ganzer Stadtkreise wegen der Drogenprobleme gefangen. Massnahmen zur Attraktivitätssteigerung der Innenstadt wie die Verkehrsbefreiung des Niederdorfs konnten nicht verhindern, dass die Innenstadt Zürichs immer unattraktiver wurde. Veränderungen schienen unmöglich – 1986 brachte die damalige Baudirektorin Ursula Koch mit ihrem berühmtgewordenen Satz «Zürich ist gebaut» die Perspektivlosigkeit der Politik in Bezug auf die weitere Zukunft Zürichs zum Ausdruck. Erst Mitte der 1990er Jahre konnte die Blockade überwunden werden, zuerst durch eine neue Bau- und Zonenordnung 1996 und die Liberalisierung des Gastgewerbegesetzes 1997. Besonders letzteres wirkte enorm belebend auf das Nachtleben Zürichs und liess innerhalb kürzester Zeit unzählige neue und innovative Restaurants, Bars und Diskotheken aus dem Boden schiessen. 1998 konnte unter dem neuen Baudirektor Elmar Ledergerber (von 2002 bis April 2009 Stadtpräsident) die jahrelang nur langsam vorankommende Neugestaltung der Industriebrachen in Zürich-West und in Oerlikon beschleunigt werden, so dass sich bis heute an beiden Standorten trendige und moderne neue Stadtquartiere entwickeln konnten. Bis 2020 entsteht westlich des Hauptbahnhofs das neue Quartier Europaallee.
Im Tourismusbereich trat Zürich in den 2000er Jahren (bis 2011) mit dem Zusatz «Downtown Switzerland» auf.
Wirtschaft
Zürich gilt als das Wirtschaftszentrum der Schweiz. Der gesamte Wirtschaftsraum in und um Zürich wird auch als Greater Zurich Area bezeichnet. International zeichnet er sich insbesondere durch tiefe Steuersätze und eine hohe Lebensqualität aus, weshalb einige internationale Konzerne einen Sitz in Zürich haben. 2018 waren 5,4 % der Bevölkerung Millionäre (gerechnet in US-Dollar). Zürich ist damit, hinter Monaco und Genf, die Stadt mit der dritthöchsten Millionärsdichte weltweit. Aufgrund ihrer internationalen wirtschaftlichen Bedeutung wird die Stadt Zürich oft zu den Global- bzw. Weltstädten gezählt.
Die Wirtschaft ist sehr stark auf den Dienstleistungssektor ausgerichtet, in dem knapp 90 % der Zürcher Beschäftigten tätig sind. Im Industriesektor sind rund 10 % tätig und in der Landwirtschaft sind es heute weniger als 1 %. Bei einer erwerbstätigen Wohnbevölkerung von 200'110 (Stand: Volkszählung 2000) weist die Stadt 318'543 Arbeitsplätze vor. Die Mehrheit der Beschäftigten (56 %) waren Pendler aus anderen Gemeinden. Neben den rund 178'000 Zupendelnden gibt es rund 39'000 aus der Stadt Wegpendelnde.
Der wichtigste Wirtschaftszweig in Zürich ist der Finanzdienstleistungssektor, der am Paradeplatz sein Zentrum hat. Die beiden bis 2023 selbständigen Grossbanken UBS, die weltweit grösste Vermögensverwalterin, und Credit Suisse, die Schweizerische Nationalbank, die Zürcher Kantonalbank, die traditionsreiche Privatbank Julius Bär sowie etliche kleinere Bankinstitute haben ihren Sitz in der Stadt. Auch über 100 Auslandbanken sind in Zürich vertreten. Auf dem Bankenplatz Zürich sind rund 45'000 Personen beschäftigt, knapp die Hälfte aller Bankangestellten der Schweiz. Eine grosse Bedeutung hat das Privatkundengeschäft, da über 25 % der weltweit grenzüberschreitend angelegten Vermögenswerte in Zürich verwaltet werden (schweizweit sind es rund ein Drittel). Die schweizerische Post betrieb von 1920 bis 1996 in Zürich ein Rohrpostsystem, zu deren diskreten Kunden auch die Banken zählten. Auch die Börse SIX Swiss Exchange spielt international eine wesentliche Rolle und verstärkt die Bedeutung des Finanzplatzes Zürich. Sie gehört zu den technologisch führenden Börsen der Welt. Im Weiteren repräsentiert Zürich weltweit den drittgrössten Versicherungsmarkt. Swiss Re, eine der weltweit grössten Rückversicherungen, und Swiss Life, der grösste Lebensversicherungskonzern der Schweiz, haben ihre Hauptsitze in Zürich. Eine weitere Versicherungsgesellschaft von internationaler Bedeutung ist die Zurich Insurance Group. Der gesamte Finanzdienstleistungssektor generiert nahezu 50 % der Steuereinnahmen der Stadt Zürich.
Als zweitwichtigster Wirtschaftszweig folgen die unternehmensbezogenen Dienstleistungen wie Rechts- und Unternehmensberatung, Informatik oder Immobilienverwaltung. Zu erwähnen ist etwa das Unternehmen IBM Schweiz, das in Rüschlikon ein bedeutendes Forschungslabor betreibt. Seit 2004 betreibt zudem Google in Zürich das europäische Forschungszentrum. Auf dem ehemaligen Areal der Hürlimann AG wurde der zweitgrösste Standort des Unternehmens nach Mountain View eingerichtet.
Infolge des Strukturwandels hat die Bedeutung der produzierenden Industrie und der Bauwirtschaft abgenommen. Allerdings haben immer noch bedeutende Industriefirmen Niederlassungen in der Stadt Zürich, so zum Beispiel Siemens. Der Elektrotechnikkonzern ABB hat zudem seinen Hauptsitz in Zürich.
Aus den übrigen Wirtschaftszweigen sind insbesondere zu erwähnen: der grösste Schweizer Detailhandelskonzern Migros, der weltgrösste Schokoladenproduzent Barry Callebaut, die beiden grössten Automobilhändler AMAG-Gruppe und Emil Frey Gruppe, sowie der grösste Schweizer Reisekonzern Kuoni.
Nicht zuletzt dank der kulturellen Vielfalt in Zürich ist auch der Tourismus in den letzten Jahren ein bedeutender Wirtschaftsfaktor geworden. Jedes Jahr empfängt die Stadt Zürich rund neun Millionen Tagestouristen sowie zwei Millionen Übernachtungsgäste, von denen sich eine Mehrheit auch geschäftlich in Zürich aufhält.
Lebensqualität
Zürich galt bis zum Jahr 2008 siebenmal in Folge als Stadt mit der höchsten Lebensqualität weltweit. In der Studie «Worldwide Quality of Living Survey» («Studie zur weltweiten Lebensqualität») untersuchte die renommierte Beratungsfirma Mercer 215 Grossstädte anhand von 39 Kriterien, darunter Freizeit, Erholung, Sicherheit, Sauberkeit, politische und ökonomische Stabilität, sowie medizinische Versorgung. Seit 2009 rangiert Zürich neu an zweiter Stelle hinter Wien. Zudem wird Zürich als eine der Städte mit den weltweit höchsten Lebenshaltungskosten gelistet.
In einer Studie der Globalization and World Cities Research Group an der britischen Universität Loughborough landete Zürich in der Kategorie der Beta-Weltstädte auf dem ersten Rang, zusammen mit San Francisco, Sydney und Toronto.
Zürich besitzt die Auszeichnung Energiestadt Gold für eine nachhaltige Energiepolitik. Die offiziellen Gebäude im Eigentum der Stadt Zürich werden in der Regel nach Minergie gebaut.
Um die Lebensqualität für Geringverdiener im Hinblick auf den Wohnungsmarkt zu verbessern, hat die Stadt Zürich die Stiftungen Wohnungen für kinderreiche Familien und Alterswohnungen der Stadt Zürich gegründet.
Kunst, Kultur und Tourismus
Allgemeine Sehenswürdigkeiten
Die meisten Sehenswürdigkeiten Zürichs sind in und um die Altstadt gruppiert und deswegen am einfachsten zu Fuss oder mit kurzen Fahrten in Tram oder Bus erreichbar. Neben Gebäuden und Denkmälern ist auch die Lage Zürichs am Zürichsee einen Blick wert. Am Bellevue oder am Bürkliplatz bietet sich bei gutem Wetter ein schöner Blick auf den See und die Alpen. Beide Seeufer mit ihren Promenaden und Parkanlagen sind dann jeweils Anziehungspunkte für viele Einheimische und Touristen.
Der Zürcher Hausberg Uetliberg ist mit der Sihltal-Zürich-Uetliberg-Bahn (SZU) zu erreichen, die ab dem Hauptbahnhof verkehrt.
(Wikipedia)
Der Grimmenturm ist ein mittelalterlicher Wohnturm im Quartier Rathaus (Kreis 1) der Schweizer Stadt Zürich.
Geschichte
Der Grimmenturm wurde ursprünglich von der Familie Bilgeri nach dem Jahr 1250, vermutlich um 1280 als Wohnturm erstellt. Urkundlich erwähnt wurde er erstmals im Jahre 1324.
16. Jahrhundert
Zuerst und bis nach 1551 war im Grimmenturm das 1533 geschaffene «Obmannamt» untergebracht. Nach der Reformation in der Stadtrepublik war es eines der wichtigsten Ämter. Es hatte den Überschuss zu verwalten, welcher aus den Erträgen der aufgehobenen Klöster hervorging.[2]
20./21. Jahrhundert
Zu zeitgenössischen Bewohnern zählt (Stand 2019) seit 1986 der Schweizer Filmemacher Fredi M. Murer.
(Wikipedia)
Developing funnel cloud over the Gulf of Mexico 6:30 am. It never materialized into anything more than this (that I saw).
Hart.
The Hundred of Hart, which was declared in 1864, was named after John Hart a state politician from 1857 to 1873. The Hundred was not surveyed until 1873 and farmers moved into the district after that time. A small settlement emerged at Hart and the only town to develop in the Hundred was at Brinkworth in 1894. The train line reached Hart in 1894 and the small tin shed which served as the siding and station closed in 1969.
The story of the tiny settlement of Hart is inextricably linked with the Scottish born Robert McEwin. He migrated to Melbourne in the late 1830s and came to SA to visit his brother George McEwin at Glen Ewin estate near Houghton in 1851. Robert married Cecelia Lyell in Melbourne in 1852 and one of his sons, Alexander McEwin returned to settle in SA in 1884 by taking up land at Hart and east of Hart where the McEwin homestead was named Carlton Hill. This was a fortuitous time as the new railway extension from Blyth to Georgetown was being considered and the settlement of Hart was lucky enough to obtain a railway siding in 1892. One of Alexander’s sons was to later become Sir Lyell McEwin a state politician (1934-1975) and the government Health Minister for most of this time. Sir Lyell was educated at the small Hart state school and later at Balaklava. He used to catch the daily train at 8 am to Balaklava getting home on the 8:20 pm train at night – a very long day for any school boy. One of Sir Lyell McEwin’s sisters Annie, who married Harold Snow from Stirling died early in 1921 and the Presbyterian Church at Hart is a memorial church to her mainly funded by the Alexander McEwin and Harold Snow families. Annie Snow died in 1921 and the church opened in 1923. Presbyterian Church services at Hart had begun in 1896 in the district hall which was also used as the school room. From 1923 the services moved to the adjoining new Presbyterian Church on land donated by Neil Crawford next door. The Hart Presbyterian church opened in 1923 and finally closed in 1976. It is now a private residence.
Next door to the church was the Hart hall. It was built of local limestone with lime mortar from the McEwin property lime burning kilns. This hall was erected in 1895. As soon as it was opened it was used for the church, the school and for country dances. In 1923 a new sandstone state school was opened near the Hart railway siding. The last classes of the Hart school were held in 1941. That 1923 stone school became the club rooms for the tennis courts. The “town” of Hart at the junction of six roads was declared in 1877 but no town ever really developed. The settlement did however have a school, an unofficial Post Office, a general store, the Presbyterian Church and the railway siding. The McEwin family built the general store and residence around 1908 as a community service. This still remains near the railway siding. One of the other early settlers of Hart was James Maitland who took up land in 1865 when the Hundred was established. He named his property Anama but later renamed it Anama Park. James Maitland later established a Clydesdale Horse stud on his Anama Park property and it became the longest operating Clydesdale Stud for many years. But as tractors took over ploughing the Clydesdales were no longer needed on farms. Charles Hawker had an Anama estate near Bungaree and that is still in the hands of members of the Hawker family. The little railway siding at Hart was originally known as Anama siding in the 1890s. The Post Office conducted in the general store in Hart was known as Anama Post Office until 1915. The Post Office closed in 1970. The general store closed a few years before the post service ended. Hart’s ongoing contribution to the state and to farming knowledge is the annual Hart Agricultural Field Day held in September of each year. The field days were established in 1982 and still operate with a round 700 attendees each year.
How can we use open data to develop services that support communities to buy cheaper energy, use it more efficiently or potentially make their own?
This challenge invited teams including businesses, startups, social enterprises, community groups, academics, students and special interest groups to collaborate and compete with each other to use open data to build services that support communities to either:
- Group buy their energy and save money;
- Undertake community based energy efficiency interventions;
- Start to generate their own energy.
In 1997, the PA-46 was developed from the very successful PA-36 'Nove' as a special climate conditions version - namely for the use in desert regions. Tests and tactical reports from Africa had shown that Earth Defense Forces were in dire need for a more climate-resilient powered armor than the standard PA-36s and PA-58s, which suffered heavily under dust and extremely high temperatures.
Field modifications and enhancement packages were hastily developed, but these proved to be unsuitable for the battlefield. The biggest problem was overheating and fine dust getting anywhere, especially into the engines and the joints of the legs.
As a consequence, the PA-46 was to be a complete package for tropic and subtropic climate and harsh conditions like low air pressure in great heights. While being based on the PA-36 hull, the 'Nettai' became an independant PA development and finally received its own designation, PA-46. As a PA-36 evolution, Its bulky hull offered enough space for additional installments like a heavy duty heat exchanger, various dust filters, a dust-repelling system based on compressed air (ducted from enhanced and dust-proof engines), an enhanced sensor package and an improved climate control for the pilot.
Basically, the duty profile of the PA-36 was to be kept, which included the PA's ability to make a jet-assisted jump of at least 820m at 85 km/h and keep a ground running speed of 28km/h. In order to keep up with this profile and the additional systems running in the backgorund, more powerful engines had to be installed, raising the power output from 34ps to 42ps. As a side effect, dry weight rose dramatically so that the PA-46's suspension had to be augmented, too. All in all, the PA-46's weight even outclassed the beefed-up PA-36K 'Berlon', but the PA-46 was ordered into production since no short-term alternative was in sight for troop introduction in 1999, where this special profile PA was desperately needed.
Around 140 specimen of the PA-46 were built and mainly used on the African continent and in Middel East Asia. While the original PA-46 was not delivered with internal wepaons, it was compatible with the full weapon range of the PA-36, what made the PA-46 very versatile. Weapon field packs like the simple HR-670 'Wrist Racate' (a set of six single 70mm 'Thunder Crush' artillery missile launchers) were other frequent additions, as well as modified and sometimes improvised communication systems.
Despite its sheer weight and bulk which limited its use, the PA-46 became a reliable weapon in the Northern and Middle African conflict theatre against Idelian forces and saw frequent use until 2013, when it was retired or used to retrofit PA-36 units with spare parts.
Mikasa, Hokkaido.
Pearl 2, Hexar 75mm F3.5, negative ISO 160, developed almost normally, scanned with Plustek OpticFilm 120 + VueScan at 5200 dpi, edited with GIMP.
Bigger sizes: www.flickr.com/photos/threepinner/45817467231/sizes/l> up to 8000 x 6205 pixels compatible.
Learn DIY development and upgrade to film !
Extreme conditions: periodic clouds, light pollution from the streets LED lamps, a lens developed to a small sensor attached in a camera with larger sensor, producing strong vignetting (1-inch sensor lens in an APS-C Fuji's camera), severe post-processing crop and so forth.
In the previous test with this lens the result is very bad in my opinion but in that time I didn't do a good review.
In Adobe Camera RAW the histogram was in the extreme right side in the base ISO 200 (exposure to the right) although the aperture two f-stops closed (from f/0.95 to f/2) and 8 seconds exposure time.
Of course, a lot of light came from urban area, including that one reflected by the clouds.
In the stacking process I have utilized only 25 frames without calibration ones.
The image result was clean!
The severe crop have solved the problem about the strong vignetting - the area of the sensor where no light is present - and star aberrations near the borders no compromising the image quality significantly.
The base ISO provided better star colors and we can distinguish the orange and blue stars in the image.
Conclusions:
Schneider-Kreuznach Xenon 25mm f/0.95 is a "jewel" in terms of optics.
The only flaw is not related to the lens but to the camera sensor size unespecific to it.
Probably I will have better results in a camera with 1-inch sensor size ou smaller (2/3 inch for example).
Lens distorsion is very low compared to other ones with the same or similar focal length.
Star aberrations have the same pattern of the urban lights at night street photography. In fact, aesthetically is very bad in f/0.95 even at the center of the image. In an one-inch sensor this condition won't be different. Unusable!
Targets as Barnard's Looping is very difficult in these climate conditions and urban area with severe light pollution.
Probably in a darker area, distant from the urban center, the colors of this nebula would can be bring in the post-processing easily.
Veredict: Wonderful lens in the specific sensor to which it was developed.
Brief history of the Renaissance Phoenix Downtown Hotel
Renaissance Phoenix Downtown Hotel has gone through many name changes and renovations all under just a few ownership changes. The Adams Hotel was demolished in 1973 to make room for the new $27 million Adams Hotel. It was developed and constructed on the site of the previous Adams Hotel in a combined venture of PIC Realty and the Vita Cos owned by Phoenix lawyer Albert B. Spector Sr.
It was designed by the firm of Schwenn & Clark and is most noted for its hundreds of eyebrow windows over a line of three-story arches at the base level. Its iconic curved windows block out up to 70% of the heat from the sun.
Ralph Hitz Jr., the former Managing Director of the Hotel Muehlebach in Kansas City, Mo was the first general manager of the new Adams Hotel. Hitz thought things were not what they used to be at the 700-room Muehlbach which was slipping into shoddiness. Back in the 30's and 40's, the Muehlebach was the center of action in Kansas City. The last hotel Hitz managed before his retirement in 1994 was the Crowne Plaza in downtown Kansas City Missouri. He died in 1998. Andee Mena was the Adams Hotel opening Chef, he came from Chicago's Continental Plaza Hotel.
Seven months after the 538-room Adams Hotel opened in 1975, the Vita Cos. filed for protection from creditors in Bankruptcy Court and the hotel was placed in receivership. The court appointed receiver was Ed Caliendo and Daniel J. Palaschak the general manager. The primary creditor of the Adams Hotel was Prudential with a mortgage lien of $15.4 million plus accrued interest. Spector Sr. was in a perilous financial condition at the time and entered into a $1 million transaction with PIC Realty Corp (Prudential). The deal was to provide some immediate cash for the cash flow problems at the new hotel. Prudential claimed the $1 million dollar transaction represented a purchase of Spector Sr.'s equity in the hotel. In August 1976 the court voided the equity transfer between PIC Realty (Prudential) and Spector Sr. but the bankruptcy hearings continued for over 5 years. In 1980 a $33 million dollar offer for the hotel was scuttled due to the bankruptcy. The prospective New York buyers were Jason Jacobs, of Delsu Financial Corporation, and Charles Allen of Allen and Co.
Some five years later PIC Realty became sole owner of the hotel in Feb 1981 at the conclusion of the bankruptcy of the Vita Cos. The settlement provided $1.8 million in payments to 141 creditors and a $290,000 payment to the Vita Cos. At that time PIC Realty signed Hilton Hotel Corporation to a 25-year contract and implemented the name change from Adams Hotel to the Phoenix Hilton. Hilton brought in Andre Schaefer from the Anchorage Westward Hilton to be the general manager. Hilton Hotels Corp would spend $4 million on a 2 year upgrade program. The hotel's food and beverage outlets, the Old Bar lounge, the Citrus Grove restaurant and the Sandpaper restaurant were re-done along with the public areas, meeting rooms and guest rooms.
Albert B. Spector Sr. died May, 1980 at his apartment at the Arizona Biltmore Estates at the age of 65. His company purchased the Adams Hotel in 1973 and razed it in order to build the new 19 story hotel which opened April 1, 1975. He also owned the Flame Restaurant in downtown Phoenix (34 W Adams St.).
In 1986 the Phoenix Hilton was acquired by a limited partnership headed by Mark Cohn of Greater Capital Real Estate Corporation of Burlingame, California from Prudential Insurance Co. of America. The acquisition price was $16,250,000. The hotel would become a franchised Hilton rather than a company-operated Hilton. Greater Capital Real Estate at that time also owned hotels in Chicago, San Francisco, Palm Springs and Tahiti. The hotel became the Omni Adams in 1991 after operating for 4 years 1986-1991, as the Sheraton Phoenix.
In 1993 Mark Cohn dropped the Omni Adams name and signed an agreement with Holiday Inn Worldwide to be the first Holiday Inn Crowne Plaza in Arizona. As part of the name change there was a $4.5 million renovation to all areas of the hotel. The hotel had a $109 average room rate prior to the renovation. A subsidiary of Holiday Inns provided the renovation loan. It is noted that Omni Hotels had desired to part ways with Cohn due to very late and unpaid bills.
In July 1999 Steve Cohn sued the city of Phoenix when the city voted to guarantee an $83 million loan for a 700 room Marriott Hotel and a guarantee on a $35 million loan for a 350-room Embassy Suites. Cohn thought the measures required city voter approval. A judge ruled in Cohn's favor and the two tax payer subsidized hotels were never built.
In 2003 the hotel joined the Wyndham brand as part of a 10-year franchise agreement between the property’s owners, Phoenix Hospitality LLC and Wyndham International. The hotel was renamed the Wyndham Phoenix.
Steve Cohn, Mark Cohn's brother, and the entity Phoenix Hospitality became owner of what was then the Phoenix Crowne Plaza Hotel in December of 1999. In May of 2003, the property was licensed as the Wyndham Phoenix. Steve Cohn served in the capacity of the property's Managing Director under both brand affiliations for Phoenix Hospitality. He continued as the property's Managing Director when the property was transferred to Phoenix Hotel Ventures in February 2007 and continued in that position until December 2011 when the hotel converted to a Renaissance Hotel and Marriott became the hotel manager. At that time, Steve Cohn and the entity PHXhotel LLC assumed the role of owner and asset manager.
In 2015 Steve Cohn CEO of PHXHotel, LLC, owner of the Renaissance Phoenix Downtown hotel, committed $10 million to improve Adams Street in accordance with the Adams Street Activation Study completed in 2013 via a City contract with the Gensler & Associates architectural firm. The design includes enhanced streetscape, shade, lighting and signage, provisions for new food and beverage, accommodations for special events and the relocation of the Renaissance Hotel’s main entrance to First Street. Without using one cent of public funds, the project includes a renovated façade, an expanded lobby, an improved arrival experience and open-air food and beverage venues with a priority for experienced local operators. The work will transform Adams Street into an engaging pedestrian friendly experience. At the October 28, 2015 City Council meeting, Mayor Greg Stanton thanked the Renaissance Phoenix Downtown Hotel for investing in the city. “This block is the front door to visitors from all over the country and the globe connecting our Convention Center to the rest of downtown,” said Stanton. The project is expected to finish in late 2017.
Paige Lund was appointed general manager in 2012. She is a 1993 graduate of Northern Arizona University School of Hotel & Restaurant Management.
What's hotel brand loyalty? Seven hotel brands in 40 plus years.
1973 - Adams Hotel demolished
1975 - Adams Hotel opens
1981 - Phoenix Hilton
1986 - Sheraton Phoenix
1991 - Omni Adams Hotel
1993 - Crown Plaza Phoenix - Downtown
2003 - Wyndham Phoenix
2009 - Renaissance Phoenix - Downtown
Compiled by Dick Johnson, February, 2017
MARS IN MUMBAI
Prototypes of change developed for the BMW Guggenheim Lab
Informal settlements dominate much of the world’s emerging cityscape. The tense social and spatial conditions they bring forth render most urban strategies ineffective. Neither top-down planning, defined by a technocratic approach of ever larger infrastructure, nor bottom-up efforts, in the form of increasingly sophisticated community level projects, seem able to meet the challenges at the scale the developing metropolis demands. Can micro-scale interventions be designed to achieve citywide strategies?
This conceptual divide is further exacerbated in Mumbai, where slums that make up two-thirds of the population cut through the entire island city in a sharp spatial divide. Attempts to address the dire challenges from, water security to pollution and severe congestion, are limited to either the formal or informal settlements. MARS Architects has produced a vision for a United Mumbai, the starting point for incorporating informal settlements as fully integrated parts of the formal city.
Over the coming weeks, stakeholder meetings will be held at the Guggenheim Lab Mumbai to discuss our ten proposed technologies, from wall systems to transport systems. Follow us as an expanding system of architectural interventions turns slums into sustainable settlements, which in turn become the backbone of a United Mumbai.
PART 1: SPI MODEL
The foundation of this project is an in-depth study of Mumbai’s population density. Not merely mapping Mumbai’s infamous conditions in abstract terms but introducing a new methodology that better represents the experience on the ground. The new metric, called the Stacked Population Index (SPI), measures the density of people per amount of available floor surface. Suddenly the true extents of Mumbai’s informal settlements can be observed: a yellow forest of towering densities covers the entire urban landscape. The harsh reality; the city accommodates two thirds of its population on less than a quarter of its residential surface, and yet urban plans for Mumbai mostly ignore their existence.
Follow the project: MARS Architects Facebook page
Event details: BMW GUGGENHEIM LAB
It may be a “developing” country (although I never liked the term), but did you know that Costa Rica developed the concept of carbon credits?! Pretty innovative for such a small country with such limited financial resources!
Costa Rica continues to be an innovative leader in the area of sustainable tourism and ecotourism. The title of the Second International Conference hosted in San Jose, Costa Rica earlier this month says it all! Planet, People, Peace…
For the second time, CANAECO the Ecotourism Chamber of Costa Rica, hosted the International Conference: Planet, People, Peace from November 1 to 3, 2010 in San José, Costa Rica. In efforts to promote the country’s model of sustainable tourism and learn from experts around the world, the Conference attracted speakers from:
* Kenya, such as Joseph Ole Shuel, the Director of II N’gwesi Masai Community Lodge,
* USA, such as Alex Major, the Founder and Executive Director of the Green Flight Foundation; and Erika Harms, the Senior Advisor on Tourism at the United Nations Foundation,
* Canada, such as Deidre Campbell, the CEO of the Tartan Group,
* England, such as Richard Denman, the Certification expert appointed for the World Ecotourism Summit by the World Tourism Organization and UNEP,
* Guatemala, such as Oscar Cac from the AK Tenamit Indigenous Community development Organization,
* …and oh so many more!
Others, like Hitesh Mehta (a landscape architect and world designer of ecolodges), were effectively mingling with unsuspecting participants, attending companies, organizations, and professionals, who may be unaware of the “star factor” that they may discover in stopping to chat or sharing a meal. That was the wonderful aspect of this conference! Networking with international experts, indigenous community members, and business professionals was never so effortless and real. I mean you could really share your passion and talk about real issues… maybe because the Costa Rican culture provided the perfect backdrop of friendly atmosphere to an otherwise professional event. Where else do you see professionals kiss and hug when accepting a gift on the stage?!
The format and organization of the conference encouraged an active participation and exploration, including the option of translation for English speakers like myself. Guest speakers and discussion panels on the stage were joined by interesting inquires and comments from the floor, while the stands outside of the conference room continually generated a buzz of excitement.
Coming out of this significant event and having made so many wonderful and important connections, I realised on a deeper level the achievement in sustainable tourism by this little brave country. Costa Rica has been both a pioneer and an innovator and this is why it is recognized by the world as the leader in sustainable tourism. This important intrinsic aspect is ingrained in the country’s culture, government and policies, and eagerly embraced by businesses that love and cherish their little piece of paradise and the pure life (pura vida) that it offers. This is very smart of Costa Rica, because tourists continue to increase their concern about the natural environment and they are consistently choosing tourist destinations using these models of sustainability. As a result, the conference reinforced the innovative Costa Rican model, creating a responsible destination where tourists can contribute to solutions and sustainable tourism.
The next step for Costa Rica? The country may be reinventing itself yet again by changing the seal from Sustainable Tourism to Carbon Neutral, thanks to the Costa Rican national airline Nature Air, the only fully sustainable airline, among others. And perhaps in the near future the country will even become “carbon negative” – another first for Costa Rica!
“No camera will store as much as your heart” – this is certainly true about Costa Rica.
Article from Agnes Nowaczek
Source www.mynatour.org/econews/planet-people-peace-conference-i...
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Near Karurusu-onsen, 2km walk needed from the major road, few people visit this privately owned lake in Noboribetsu, Hokkaido.
Fuji-Holga 120S ( www.flickr.com/photos/threepinner/22015924430/ ), EBC Fujinon S 75mm F3.4, negative ISO 100 expired, developing time shortened.
Bigger sizes: www.flickr.com/photos/threepinner/22399216613/sizes/l up to 6849 x 6803.
To develop the park began in 1976, the 200th anniversary year of American independence, to celebrate the relationship between the two freedom-loving countries, Israel and the US. The forest developed and extended an existing woodland planted in the region in the 1950s by new immigrants from the surrounding area and nearby Beit Shemesh, who had arrived soon after the founding of the State of Israel.
White Sands Missile Range Museum
Three Navy fleet air defense missiles - Talos, Terrier and Tartar (the 3Ts) - resulted from work begun under the Bumblebee Program started in 1945 to develop a supersonic, radar guided, ramjet propelled missile, launched by a solid propellant booster rocket.
Named for a Greek demigod who protected the island of Crete, Talos was designed for long-range fleet protection and required deployment aboard large cruiser platforms.
Of the 3Ts, only Talos employed a liquid fuel ramjet sustainer engine that required a booster to develop the necessary speed for the ramjet to function. Initially, Talos used beam-rider guidance, but soon added semi-active homing for all but nuclear warhead equipped versions.
Semi-active homing is achieved by use of interferometer antennas mounted on the cowl at the front of the missile (any Talos without the characteristic four nose antennas is either a nuclear or test round).
The initial range capability of Talos was 10 nautical miles, which eventually was increased to 130 nautical miles. Talos evolved into a versatile weapon with both semi-active homing, anti-radiation, broad electronic counter-counter measures and anti-ship capability.
Talos testing began at China Lake, CA, but was soon moved to White Sands Proving Ground with the first firing on 10 July 1951. With construction of the Desert Ship at LC-35 in 1954 and its Deckhouse duplicating a ship's missile handling and launching facilities, testing of Talos continued until 1972 when the last tactical missile was fired on 12 December. From the commissioning of USS Galveston in May 1958 to the decommissioning of USS Oklahoma City in September 1980, Talos missiles protected the fleet for 22 years. Even after Talos missiles were retired from the fleet, they continued to fly as both Low Altitude Supersonic Targets (LAST) and as Vandal targets.
Talos holds the record for the most firings of any missile at WSMR: 528 between 1951 and 1973
Characteristics
Length 32 ft.
Diameter 30 in.
Wingspan 110 in.
Tailspan 82 in.
Weight (w/o Booster) 3600 lb
Weight (with booster) 7720 lb
Ceiling 70,000 ft
Range 130 nautical miles
Velocity Mach 2.5
First fired 1951
I recently developed an ancient roll of Tri-X "found film" that came from a camera I got somewhere, but no longer remember which one it was. The film has a lot of base fog, but I did get images from it that were relatively acceptable. All of them were taken at what looks like a family picnic, and everyone was wearing checkered short-sleeve shirts. It must have been a family joke. These two women were drinking Blatz beer, and the time period is late 1950s to early 1960s. You can read the blog post and see more images here: randomphoto.blogspot.com/2010/12/checkered-past.html
Starting to develop/scan my own film. This was the first roll I did last week. An old roll that I developed pretty much as an experiment. Boy did I make a mess of it...dust, scratches, wrinkles, dents, hair, waterspots, etc...etc... Still, that being said, I like things that are rough looking. AE-1 + Tri-X
◆ Showa touring bicycle golden age
Ho Isuzu Silk Perfect quick we are maintaining the normal state
1970 silk Perfect Quick PR10-4
Head double head (micro-adjustable) the bicycle KATAKURA was developed has become a safety-oriented design that does not degrade the small
Of 輸行 bag of useful role back supporters and split expression for is a unique configuration that no such in France vehicles (spring spring screw) mud frequently used are are quick lever
Very It was easier decomposition and have elaborate its own ingenuity to head mechanism was a car with popular than it extremely orthodox parts structure black and as HanawaKo-sha orange I was there is
Sports car is a firm design and accurately parts configuration, especially until about the early 1970s and 1980s, I think that as the mass production manufacturer of sports cars were in the highest level
It is safe it will be sold to run the frame centering for just in case
It is durable with no abnormalities stubborn you came back in today finished centered
The head lamp mounted on the front fork part, you can see the influence of the Alps Quick ace of the day
70s that this bike has been made, the cycling car really in minor areas, silk as a manufacturer in the minor field, had to flagship luxury Mania Cars
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◆ No frame unevenness, distortion
◆ tire: Because I tire a different front and rear mounted
(Will two new services)
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