“O enemy old age, have I only lived so much for this infamy”

 

-

 

Parfois, à un certain moment, le tableau blanc des souvenirs n'est plus que noir.

"Ô vieillesse ennemie, n'ai je donc tant vécu que pour cette infamie"

...alzando lo sguardo, da mare.

 

Qualche scatto senza infamia e senza lode, che pubblico solo per far conoscere questi luoghi. Non sentitevi quindi obbligati a far complimenti. Davvero.

Buenos días, my friends!

 

E depois de um tempinho sem postar fotos dazunhas, venho hj com esse lindo, tesão, bonito e gostosão! kkkkk e dyvoo que todas já conhecem!

 

Então, eu sei q banquei a ~novidadêra~ e usei meio que na semana seguinte q chegou aqui em casa...só que já tem um tempo..é que esse lance de fotos atrasadas na galeria confunde a cabeça da gente! kkkkkk

Quis vir mostrar essa semana pq é o tema do Domingo das Leitoras do TSE é Texturizados! vai que néah?!

 

Dispensa apresentações a despeito do título e tive a sensação que todas comentam...fui passando e achei q nunca mais cobriria a unha toda, já tava morrendo de dó, pq esse veio naquele mini kit ~tico~ com os outros da ~máraya~! nem vou dizer q estranhei a textura apesar de haver me planejado de usar tc msm sendo uma infâmia pros sand só pra ver como ficaria e pro caso de não gostar!

 

And meooodeos q q é isso, minha gentxis, brilha o bicho que é uma beleza! ameeei tanto q ficou uns bons 6 dias nazunhas! tem trocentas fotos! #exagerada tá dificil escolher uma!

E eu nem passei TC! fiquei com dó...rsrsrsrs....

 

O mais engraçado q o último q achei q usaria foi o primeiro só pq aprendi com azamiguinhas q vermelho cai bem na minha pessoa! Thank you, my friends! <3

  

é isso,

 

bjooooooooos

Je vois dans le journal que l'église restaurée de Tréguennec est ouverte pour la dernière fois cet été le dimanche 13 . Il ne faut pas manquer ça .

On y est très bien accueilli par une Dame passionnée . Elle est claire et fort bien restaurée . Je suis par contre surpris par la voûte, les sablières et les entraits peints dans un bleu cassé d'aspect métallisé . C'est tout à fait contemporain … Et l'éventuelle polychromie ancienne en a fait les frais, dont les étoiles de la voûte dont le tort infâme aurait été de dater du XVIIIième …

 

Maitresse-vitre

 

Baie d'Audierne, Finistère, Bretagne, France .

Photographie Leroy Jean-Patrick, tous droits réservés .

  

Vento di poca fortuna a battere le vele

E l’eco della luna sulle nostre ombre nere

Merce senza valore anime da rubare

Ossa di pelle salata un tappeto sopra il mare

 

Nsignami comu si mori, ‘unni m’haiu a ‘mmucciari

dimmi cu quali pedi putissi caminari

suli senza li stiddi nè punti cardinali

cori senza patruni, semu carni pi l’animali

 

(Insegnami come si muore o dove mi devo nascondere,

dimmi con quali piedi potremmo mai camminare

soli senza orientamento

cuori senza padrone siamo carne da macello...)

 

Orfani della stella dei punti cardinali

Siamo meno di niente siamo cibo per animali

Viaggio di solo ritorno speranza disperata

Metodo del futuro salvezza rifiutata

 

Dimmi comu si scappa a stu tintu distinu

ca tra lu mari arriva, ‘un cci basta na manu

forsi chista è la vita ca dura na nuttata

e nni lassa dintra l’occhi spiranza dispirata

 

(Dimmi come si scampa a questo destino infame

che giunge col mare non è sufficiente dare una mano

forse questa è la vita che dura solo una notte

che ci lascia negli occhi solo speranza disperata!)

 

Quello che fa più male in fondo a questa storia

È assistere al silenzio al silenzio della memoria

Partivano i bastimenti per terre assai lontane

Facce coi nostri nomi che cercavano il pane

Non avevamo niente solo le nostre mani

Sulla rotta dell’America eravamo gli africani

 

Ventu di scarsa sorti ciusciava ncapu li varchi

e ‘a vuci di la luna è sulu sciatu di st’umbra scura

ca forsi semu nenti o forsi semu li mani

pi spinciri li mura pi scriviri lu dumani.

 

(Vento di poca fortuna a battere le vele

e l'eco della luna sulle nostre ombre nere

Siamo niente o siamo forse le mani

che devono abbattere le mura e scrivere il domani)

 

Soundtrack, Edoardo De Angelis, “Speranza disperata"

 

Texture: “* Beyond The Deep *" by Pareeerica

En el graffiti de la calle no existe el amor ni el odio estos dos sentimientos hacia un graffitero estan en el mismo rango

 

Festival Volarte, Baños Ecuador

 

www.infame.tk

  

Krishna [1](/ˈkrɪʃnə/; Sanskrit: कृष्ण, Kṛṣṇa in IAST, pronounced [ˈkr̩ʂɳə] ( listen)) is considered the supreme deity, worshipped across many traditions of Hinduism in a variety of different perspectives. Krishna is recognized as the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Lord Vishnu, and one and the same as Lord Vishnu one of the trimurti and as the supreme god in his own right. Krishna is the principal protagonist with Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita also known as the Song of God, which depicts the conversation between the Royal Prince Arjuna and Krishna during the great battle of Kurukshetra 5000 years ago where Arjuna discovers that Krishna is God and then comprehends his nature and will for him and for mankind. In present age Krishna is one of the most widely revered and most popular of all Indian divinities.[2]

Krishna is often described and portrayed as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a flute as in the Bhagavata Purana,[3] or as an elder giving direction and guidance as in the Bhagavad Gita.[4] The stories of Krishna appear across a broad spectrum of Hindu philosophical and theological traditions.[5] They portray him in various perspectives: a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the Supreme Being.[6] The principal scriptures discussing Krishna's story are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana.

Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga (present age), which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[7] Worship of the deity Krishna, either in the form of deity Krishna or in the form of Vasudeva, Bala Krishna or Gopala can be traced to as early as 4th century BC.[8][9] Worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, or the supreme being, known as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. From the 10th century AD, Krishna became a favourite subject in performing arts and regional traditions of devotion developed for forms of Krishna such as Jagannatha in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra and Shrinathji in Rajasthan. Since the 1960s the worship of Krishna has also spread in the Western world, largely due to the International Society for Krishna Consciousness.[10]The name originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning "black", "dark" or "dark blue".[11] The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha in the Vedic tradition, relating to the adjective meaning "darkening".[12] Sometimes it is also translated as "all-attractive", according to members of the Hare Krishna movement.[13]

As a name of Vishnu, Krishna listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama. Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in murtis as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets and titles, which reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are Mohan "enchanter", Govinda, "Finder of the cows" or Gopala, "Protector of the cows", which refer to Krishna's childhood in Braj (in present day Uttar Pradesh).[14][15] Some of the distinct names may be regionally important; for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India.[16]Krishna is easily recognized by his representations. Though his skin color may be depicted as black or dark in some representations, particularly in murtis, in other images such as modern pictorial representations, Krishna is usually shown with a blue skin. He is often shown wearing a silk dhoti and a peacock feather crown. Common depictions show him as a little boy, or as a young man in a characteristically relaxed pose, playing the flute.[17][18] In this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other with a flute raised to his lips, in the Tribhanga posture, accompanied by cows, emphasizing his position as the divine herdsman, Govinda, or with the gopis (milkmaids) i.e. Gopikrishna, stealing butter from neighbouring houses i.e. Navneet Chora or Gokulakrishna, defeating the vicious serpent i.e. Kaliya Damana Krishna, lifting the hill i.e. Giridhara Krishna ..so on and so forth from his childhood / youth events.

A steatite (soapstone) tablet unearthed from Mohenjo-daro, Larkana district, Sindh depicting a young boy uprooting two trees from which are emerging two human figures is an interesting archaeological find for fixing dates associated with Krishna. This image recalls the Yamalarjuna episode of Bhagavata and Harivamsa Purana. In this image, the young boy is Krishna, and the two human beings emerging from the trees are the two cursed gandharvas, identified as Nalakubara and Manigriva. Dr. E.J.H. Mackay, who did the excavation at Mohanjodaro, compares this image with the Yamalarjuna episode. Prof. V.S. Agrawal has also accepted this identification. Thus, it seems that the Indus valley people knew stories related to Krishna. This lone find may not establish Krishna as contemporary with Pre-Indus or Indus times, but, likewise, it cannot be ignored.[19][20]The scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata, notably where he addresses Pandava prince Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita, is another common subject for representation. In these depictions, he is shown as a man, often with supreme God characteristics of Hindu religious art, such as multiple arms or heads, denoting power, and with attributes of Vishnu, such as the chakra or in his two-armed form as a charioteer. Cave paintings dated to 800 BCE in Mirzapur, Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh, show raiding horse-charioteers, one of whom is about to hurl a wheel, and who could potentially be identified as Krishna.[21]

Representations in temples often show Krishna as a man standing in an upright, formal pose. He may be alone, or with associated figures:[22] his brother Balarama and sister Subhadra, or his main queens Rukmini and Satyabhama.

Often, Krishna is pictured with his gopi-consort Radha. Manipuri Vaishnavas do not worship Krishna alone, but as Radha Krishna,[23] a combined image of Krishna and Radha. This is also a characteristic of the schools Rudra[24] and Nimbarka sampradaya,[25] as well as that of Swaminarayan sect. The traditions celebrate Radha Ramana murti, who is viewed by Gaudiyas as a form of Radha Krishna.[26]

Krishna is also depicted and worshipped as a small child (Bala Krishna, Bāla Kṛṣṇa the child Krishna), crawling on his hands and knees or dancing, often with butter or Laddu in his hand being Laddu Gopal.[27][28] Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as Jaganatha of Odisha, Vithoba of Maharashtra,[29] Venkateswara (also Srinivasa or Balaji) in Andhra Pradesh, and Shrinathji in Rajasthan.The earliest text to explicitly provide detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahabharata which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu.[30] Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic that constitute the Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to the warrior-hero Arjuna, on the battlefield. Krishna is already an adult in the epic, although there are allusions to his earlier exploits. The Harivamsa, a later appendix to this epic, contains the earliest detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.

The Rig Veda 1.22.164 sukta 31 mentions a herdsman "who never stumbles".[31] Some Vaishnavite scholars, such as Bhaktivinoda Thakura, claim that this herdsman refers to Krishna.[32] Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar also attempted to show that "the very same Krishna" made an appearance, e.g. as the drapsa ... krishna "black drop" of RV 8.96.13.[33] Some authors have also likened prehistoric depictions of deities to Krishna.

Chandogya Upanishad (3.17.6) composed around 900 BCE[34] mentions Vasudeva Krishna as the son of Devaki and the disciple of Ghora Angirasa, the seer who preached his disciple the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya.’ Having been influenced by the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya’ Krishna in the Bhagavadgita while delivering the discourse to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra discussed about sacrifice, which can be compared to purusha or the individual.[35][36][37][38]

Yāska's Nirukta, an etymological dictionary around 6th century BC, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura, a motif from well known Puranic story about Krishna.[39] Shatapatha Brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka, associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.[40]

Pāṇini, the ancient grammarian and author of Asthadhyayi (probably belonged to 5th century or 6th century BC) mentions a character called Vāsudeva, son of Vasudeva, and also mentions Kaurava and Arjuna which testifies to Vasudeva Krishna, Arjuna and Kauravas being contemporaries.[35][41][42]

Megasthenes (350 – 290 BC) a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to the court of Chandragupta Maurya made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica. Many scholars have suggested that the deity identified as Herakles was Krishna. According to Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo, Megasthenes described an Indian tribe called Sourasenoi, who especially worshipped Herakles in their land, and this land had two cities, Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river, the Jobares. As was common in the ancient period, the Greeks sometimes described foreign gods in terms of their own divinities, and there is a little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged; Herakles to Krishna, or Hari-Krishna: Methora to Mathura, where Krishna was born; Kleisobora to Krishnapura, meaning "the city of Krishna"; and the Jobares to the Yamuna, the famous river in the Krishna story. Quintus Curtius also mentions that when Alexander the Great confronted Porus, Porus's soldiers were carrying an image of Herakles in their vanguard.[43]

The name Krishna occurs in Buddhist writings in the form Kānha, phonetically equivalent to Krishna.[44]

The Ghata-Jâtaka (No. 454) gives an account of Krishna's childhood and subsequent exploits which in many points corresponds with the Brahmanic legends of his life and contains several familiar incidents and names, such as Vâsudeva, Baladeva, Kaṃsa. Yet it presents many peculiarities and is either an independent version or a misrepresentation of a popular story that had wandered far from its home. Jain tradition also shows that these tales were popular and were worked up into different forms, for the Jains have an elaborate system of ancient patriarchs which includes Vâsudevas and Baladevas. Krishna is the ninth of the Black Vâsudevas and is connected with Dvâravatî or Dvârakâ. He will become the twelfth tîrthankara of the next world-period and a similar position will be attained by Devakî, Rohinî, Baladeva and Javakumâra, all members of his family. This is a striking proof of the popularity of the Krishna legend outside the Brahmanic religion.[45]

According to Arthasastra of Kautilya (4th century BCE) Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly monotheistic format.[41]

Around 150 BC, Patanjali in his Mahabhashya quotes a verse: "May the might of Krishna accompanied by Samkarshana increase!" Other verses are mentioned. One verse speaks of "Janardhana with himself as fourth" (Krishna with three companions, the three possibly being Samkarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha). Another verse mentions musical instruments being played at meetings in the temples of Rama (Balarama) and Kesava (Krishna). Patanjali also describes dramatic and mimetic performances (Krishna-Kamsopacharam) representing the killing of Kamsa by Vasudeva.[46][47]

In the 1st century BC, there seems to be evidence for a worship of five Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba) for an inscription has been found at Mora near Mathura, which apparently mentions a son of the great satrap Rajuvula, probably the satrap Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, "probably Vasudeva, and of the "Five Warriors".[48] Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum.[49][50]

Many Puranas tell Krishna's life-story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana, that contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna’s story and teachings are the most theologically venerated by the Vaishnava schools.[51] Roughly one quarter of the Bhagavata Purana is spent extolling his life and philosophy.

Life[edit]

This summary is based on details from the Mahābhārata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana. The scenes from the narrative are set in north India mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Delhi and Gujarat.Based on scriptural details and astrological calculations, the date of Krishna's birth, known as Janmashtami,[52] is 18 July 3228 BCE.[53] He was born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva,[54][55] When Mother Earth became upset by the sin being committed on Earth, she thought of seeking help from Lord Vishnu. She went in the form of a cow to visit Lord Vishnu and ask for help. Lord Vishnu agreed to help her and promised her that he would be born on Earth. On Earth in the Yadava clan, he was yadav according to his birth, a prince named Kansa sent his father Ugrasena (King of Mathura) to prison and became the King himself. One day a loud voice from the sky (Akash Vani in Hindi) prophesied that the 8th son of Kansa's sister (Devaki) would kill Kansa. Out of affection for Devaki, Kansa did not kill her outright. He did, however, send his sister and her husband (Vasudeva) to prison. Lord Vishnu himself later appeared to Devaki and Vasudeva and told them that he himself would be their eighth son and kill Kansa and destroy sin in the world. In the story of Krishna the deity is the agent of conception and also the offspring.[citation needed] Because of his sympathy for the earth, the divine Vishnu himself descended into the womb of Devaki and was born as her son, Vaasudeva (i.e., Krishna).[citation needed] This is occasionally cited as evidence that "virgin birth" tales are fairly common in non-Christian religions around the world.[56][57][58] However, there is nothing in Hindu scriptures to suggest that it was a "virgin" birth. By the time of conception and birth of Krishna, Devaki was married to Vasudeva and had already borne 7 children.[59] Virgin birth in this case should be more accurately understood as divine conception. Kunti the mother of the Pandavas referenced contemporaneously with the story of Krishna in the Mahabharata also has divine conception and virgin birth of Prince Karna.

The Hindu Vishnu Purana relates: "Devaki bore in her womb the lotus-eyed deity...before the birth of Krishna, no one could bear to gaze upon Devaki, from the light that invested her, and those who contemplated her radiance felt their minds disturbed.” This reference to light is reminiscent of the Vedic hymn "To an Unknown Divine," which refers to a Golden Child. According to F. M. Müller, this term means "the golden gem of child" and is an attempt at naming the sun. According to the Vishnu Purana, Krishna is the total incarnation of Lord Vishnu. It clearly describes in the Vishnu Purana that Krishna was born on earth to destroy sin, especially Kansa.

Krishna belonged to the Vrishni clan of Yadavas from Mathura,[60] and was the eighth son born to the princess Devaki, and her husband Vasudeva.

Mathura (in present day Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh) was the capital of the Yadavas, to which Krishna's parents Vasudeva and Devaki belonged. King Kansa, Devaki's brother,[61] had ascended the throne by imprisoning his father, King Ugrasena. Afraid of a prophecy from a divine voice from the heavens that predicted his death at the hands of Devaki's eighth "garbha", Kansa had the couple locked in a prison cell. After Kansa killed the first six children, Devaki apparently had a miscarriage of the seventh. However, in reality, the womb was actually transferred to Rohini secretly. This was how Balarama, Krishna's elder brother, was born. Once again Devaki became pregnant. Now due to the miscarriage, Kansa was in a puzzle regarding 'The Eighth One', but his ministers advised that the divine voice from the heavens emphasised "the eight garbha" and so this is the one. That night Krishna was born in the Abhijit nakshatra and simultanously Ekanamsha was born as Yogamaya in Gokulam to Nanda and Yashoda.

Since Vasudeva knew Krishna's life was in danger, Krishna was secretly taken out of the prison cell to be raised by his foster parents, Yasoda[62] and Nanda, in Gokula (in present day Mathura district). Two of his other siblings also survived, Balarama (Devaki's seventh child, transferred to the womb of Rohini, Vasudeva's first wife) and Subhadra (daughter of Vasudeva and Rohini, born much later than Balarama and Krishna)Nanda was the head of a community of cow-herders, and he settled in Vrindavana. The stories of Krishna's childhood and youth tell how he became a cow herder,[64] his mischievous pranks as Makhan Chor (butter thief) his foiling of attempts to take his life, and his role as a protector of the people of Vrindavana.

Krishna killed the demoness Putana, disguised as a wet nurse, and the tornado demon Trinavarta both sent by Kamsa for Krishna's life. He tamed the serpent Kāliyā, who previously poisoned the waters of Yamuna river, thus leading to the death of the cowherds. In Hindu art, Krishna is often depicted dancing on the multi-hooded Kāliyā.

Krishna lifted the Govardhana hill and taught Indra, the king of the devas, a lesson to protect native people of Brindavana from persecution by Indra and prevent the devastation of the pasture land of Govardhan. Indra had too much pride and was angry when Krishna advised the people of Brindavana to take care of their animals and their environment that provide them with all their necessities, instead of worshipping Indra annually by spending their resources.[65][66] In the view of some, the spiritual movement started by Krishna had something in it which went against the orthodox forms of worship of the Vedic gods such as Indra.[67] In Bhagavat Purana, Krishna says that the rain came from the nearby hill Govardhana, and advised that the people worshiped the hill instead of Indra. This made Indra furious, so he punished them by sending out a great storm. Krishna then lifted Govardhan and held it over the people like an umbrella.

The stories of his play with the gopis (milkmaids) of Brindavana, especially Radha (daughter of Vrishbhanu, one of the original residents of Brindavan) became known as the Rasa lila and were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. These became important as part of the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna.[68]

Krishna’s childhood reinforces the Hindu concept of lila, playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or Rasa-lila is a great example of this. Krishna played his flute and the gopis came immediately from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the Yamuna River, and joined him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there joined him through meditation.[69] The story of Krishna’s battle with Kāliyā also supports this idea in the sense of him dancing on Kāliyā’s many hoods. Even though he is doing battle with the serpent, he is in no real danger and treats it like a game. He is a protector, but he only appears to be a young boy having fun.[70] This idea of having a playful god is very important in Hinduism. The playfulness of Krishna has inspired many celebrations like the Rasa-lila and the Janmashtami : where they make human pyramids to break open handis (clay pots) hung high in the air that spill buttermilk all over the group after being broken by the person at the top. This is meant to be a fun celebration and it gives the participants a sense of unity. Many believe that lila being connected with Krishna gives Hindus a deeper connection to him and thus a deeper connection to Vishnu also; seeing as Krishna is an incarnation of Vishnu. Theologists, like Kristin Johnston Largen, believe that Krishna’s childhood can even inspire other religions to look for lila in deities so that they have a chance to experience a part of their faith that they may not have previously seen.On his return to Mathura as a young man, Krishna overthrew and killed his maternal uncle, Kansa, after quelling several assassination attempts from Kansa's followers. He reinstated Kansa's father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and became a leading prince at the court.[73] During this period, he became a friend of Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom, who were his cousins. Later, he took his Yadava subjects to the city of Dwaraka (in modern Gujarat) and established his own kingdom there.[74]

Krishna married Rukmini, the Vidarbha princess, by abducting her, at her request, from her proposed wedding with Shishupala. He married eight queens—collectively called the Ashtabharya—including Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti, Bhadra and Lakshmana.[75][76] Krishna subsequently married 16,000 or 16,100 maidens who were held captive by the demon Narakasura, to save their honour.[77][78] Krishna killed the demon and released them all. According to social custom of the time, all of the captive women were degraded, and would be unable to marry, as they had been under the Narakasura's control. However Krishna married them to reinstate their status in the society. This symbolic wedding with 16,100 abandoned daughters was more of a mass rehabilitation.[79] In Vaishnava traditions, Krishna's wives are forms of the goddess Lakshmi— consort of Vishnu, or special souls who attained this qualification after many lifetimes of austerity, while his two queens, Rukmani and Satyabhama, are expansions of Lakshmi.[80]

When Yudhisthira was assuming the title of emperor, he had invited all the great kings to the ceremony and while paying his respects to them, he started with Krishna because he considered Krishna to be the greatest of them all. While it was a unanimous feeling amongst most present at the ceremony that Krishna should get the first honours, his cousin Shishupala felt otherwise and started berating Krishna. Due to a vow given to Shishupal's mother, Krishna forgave a hundred verbal abuses by Shishupal, and upon the one hundred and first, he assumed his Virat (universal) form and killed Shishupal with his Chakra. The blind king Dhritarashtra also obtained divine vision to be able to see this form of Krishna during the time when Duryodana tried to capture Krishna when he came as a peace bearer before the great Mahabharat War. Essentially, Shishupala and Dantavakra were both re-incarnations of Vishnu's gate-keepers Jaya and Vijaya, who were cursed to be born on Earth, to be delivered by the Vishnu back to Vaikuntha.Once battle seemed inevitable, Krishna offered both sides the opportunity to choose between having either his army called narayani sena or himself alone, but on the condition that he personally would not raise any weapon. Arjuna, on behalf of the Pandavas, chose to have Krishna on their side, and Duryodhana, Kaurava prince, chose Krishna's army. At the time of the great battle, Krishna acted as Arjuna's charioteer, since this position did not require the wielding of weapons.

Upon arrival at the battlefield, and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart does not allow him to fight and he would rather prefer to renounce the kingdom and put down his Gandiv (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the battle, with the conversation soon extending into a discourse which was later compiled as the Bhagavad Gita.[82]Krishna asked Arjuna, "Have you within no time, forgotten the Kauravas' evil deeds such as not accepting the eldest brother Yudhishtira as King, usurping the entire Kingdom without yielding any portion to the Pandavas, meting out insults and difficulties to Pandavas, attempt to murder the Pandavas in the Barnava lac guest house, publicly attempting to disrobe and disgracing Draupadi. Krishna further exhorted in his famous Bhagavad Gita, "Arjuna, do not engage in philosophical analyses at this point of time like a Pundit. You are aware that Duryodhana and Karna particularly have long harboured jealousy and hatred for you Pandavas and badly want to prove their hegemony. You are aware that Bhishmacharya and your Teachers are tied down to their dharma of protecting the unitarian power of the Kuru throne. Moreover, you Arjuna, are only a mortal appointee to carry out my divine will, since the Kauravas are destined to die either way, due to their heap of sins. Open your eyes O Bhaarata and know that I encompass the Karta, Karma and Kriya, all in myself. There is no scope for contemplation now or remorse later, it is indeed time for war and the world will remember your might and immense powers for time to come. So rise O Arjuna!, tighten up your Gandiva and let all directions shiver till their farthest horizons, by the reverberation of its string."Krishna had a profound effect on the Mahabharata war and its consequences. He had considered the Kurukshetra war to be a last resort after voluntarily acting as a messenger in order to establish peace between the Pandavas and Kauravas. But, once these peace negotiations failed and was embarked into the war, then he became a clever strategist. During the war, upon becoming angry with Arjuna for not fighting in true spirit against his ancestors, Krishna once picked up a carriage wheel in order to use it as a weapon to challenge Bhishma. Upon seeing this, Bhishma dropped his weapons and asked Krishna to kill him. However, Arjuna apologized to Krishna, promising that he would fight with full dedication here/after, and the battle continued. Krishna had directed Yudhisthira and Arjuna to return to Bhishma the boon of "victory" which he had given to Yudhisthira before the war commenced, since he himself was standing in their way to victory. Bhishma understood the message and told them the means through which he would drop his weapons—which was if a woman entered the battlefield. Next day, upon Krishna's directions, Shikhandi (Amba reborn) accompanied Arjuna to the battlefield and thus, Bhishma laid down his arms. This was a decisive moment in the war because Bhishma was the chief commander of the Kaurava army and the most formidable warrior on the battlefield. Krishna aided Arjuna in killing Jayadratha, who had held the other four Pandava brothers at bay while Arjuna's son Abhimanyu entered Drona's Chakravyuha formation—an effort in which he was killed by the simultaneous attack of eight Kaurava warriors. Krishna also caused the downfall of Drona, when he signalled Bhima to kill an elephant called Ashwatthama, the namesake of Drona's son. Pandavas started shouting that Ashwatthama was dead but Drona refused to believe them saying he would believe it only if he heard it from Yudhisthira. Krishna knew that Yudhisthira would never tell a lie, so he devised a clever ploy so that Yudhisthira wouldn't lie and at the same time Drona would be convinced of his son's death. On asked by Drona, Yudhisthira proclaimed

Ashwathama Hatahath, naro va Kunjaro va

i.e. Ashwathama had died but he was nor sure whether it was a Drona's son or an elephant. But as soon as Yudhisthira had uttered the first line, Pandava army on Krishna's direction broke into celebration with drums and conchs, in the din of which Drona could not hear the second part of the Yudhisthira's declaration and assumed that his son indeed was dead. Overcome with grief he laid down his arms, and on Krishna's instruction Dhrishtadyumna beheaded Drona.

When Arjuna was fighting Karna, the latter's chariot's wheels sank into the ground. While Karna was trying to take out the chariot from the grip of the Earth, Krishna reminded Arjuna how Karna and the other Kauravas had broken all rules of battle while simultaneously attacking and killing Abhimanyu, and he convinced Arjuna to do the same in revenge in order to kill Karna. During the final stage of the war, when Duryodhana was going to meet his mother Gandhari for taking her blessings which would convert all parts of his body on which her sight falls to diamond, Krishna tricks him to wearing banana leaves to hide his groin. When Duryodhana meets Gandhari, her vision and blessings fall on his entire body except his groin and thighs, and she becomes unhappy about it because she was not able to convert his entire body to diamond. When Duryodhana was in a mace-fight with Bhima, Bhima's blows had no effect on Duryodhana. Upon this, Krishna reminded Bhima of his vow to kill Duryodhana by hitting him on the thigh, and Bhima did the same to win the war despite it being against the rules of mace-fight (since Duryodhana had himself broken Dharma in all his past acts). Thus, Krishna's unparalleled strategy helped the Pandavas win the Mahabharata war by bringing the downfall of all the chief Kaurava warriors, without lifting any weapon. He also brought back to life Arjuna's grandson Parikshit, who had been attacked by a Brahmastra weapon from Ashwatthama while he was in his mother's womb. Parikshit became the Pandavas' successor.Krishna had eight princely wives, also known as Ashtabharya: Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Nagnajiti, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Bhadra, Lakshmana) and the other 16,100 or 16,000 (number varies in scriptures), who were rescued from Narakasura. They had been forcibly kept in his palace and after Krishna had killed Narakasura, he rescued these women and freed them. Krishna married them all to save them from destruction and infamity. He gave them shelter in his new palace and a respectful place in society. The chief amongst them is Rohini.

The Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Harivamsa list the children of Krishna from the Ashtabharya with some variation; while Rohini's sons are interpreted to represent the unnumbered children of his junior wives. Most well-known among his sons are Pradyumna, the eldest son of Krishna (and Rukmini) and Samba, the son of Jambavati, whose actions led to the destruction of Krishna's clan.According to Mahabharata, the Kurukshetra war resulted in the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. On the night before Duryodhana's death, Lord Krishna visited Gandhari to offer his condolences. Gandhari felt that Krishna knowingly did not put an end to the war, and in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari cursed that Krishna, along with everyone else from the Yadu dynasty, would perish after 36 years. Krishna himself knew and wanted this to happen as he felt that the Yadavas had become very haughty and arrogant (adharmi), so he ended Gandhari's speech by saying "tathastu" (so be it).[83][84][85]

After 36 years passed, a fight broke out between the Yadavas, at a festival, who killed each other. His elder brother, Balarama, then gave up his body using Yoga. Krishna retired into the forest and started meditating under a tree. The Mahabharata also narrates the story of a hunter who becomes an instrument for Krishna's departure from the world. The hunter Jara, mistook Krishna's partly visible left foot for that of a deer, and shot an arrow, wounding him mortally. After he realised the mistake, While still bleeding, Krishna told Jara, "O Jara, you were Bali in your previous birth, killed by myself as Rama in Tretayuga. Here you had a chance to even it and since all acts in this world are done as desired by me, you need not worry for this". Then Krishna, with his physical body[86] ascended back to his eternal abode, Goloka vrindavan and this event marks departure of Krishna from the earth.[87][88][89] The news was conveyed to Hastinapur and Dwaraka by eyewitnesses to this event.[86] The place of this incident is believed to be Bhalka, near Somnath temple.[90][91]

According to Puranic sources,[92] Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[7] Vaishnava teachers such as Ramanujacharya and Gaudiya Vaishnavas held the view that the body of Krishna is completely spiritual and never decays (Achyuta) as this appears to be the perspective of the Bhagavata Purana. Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) exhorted, "Krishna Naama Sankirtan" i.e. the constant chanting of the Krishna's name is the supreme healer in Kali Yuga. It destroys sins and purifies the hearts through Bhakti ensures universal peace.

Krishna never appears to grow old or age at all in the historical depictions of the Puranas despite passing of several decades, but there are grounds for a debate whether this indicates that he has no material body, since battles and other descriptions of the Mahabhārata epic show clear indications that he seems to be subject to the limitations of nature.[93] While battles apparently seem to indicate limitations, Mahabharata also shows in many places where Krishna is not subject to any limitations as through episodes Duryodhana trying to arrest Krishna where his body burst into fire showing all creation within him.[94] Krishna is also explicitly described as without deterioration elsewhere.[95]The worship of Krishna is part of Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu as the Supreme God and venerates His associated avatars, their consorts, and related saints and teachers. Krishna is especially looked upon as a full manifestation of Vishnu, and as one with Vishnu himself.[96] However the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,[97] where Krishna is sometimes considered an independent deity, supreme in his own right.[98] Out of many deities, Krishna is particularly important, and traditions of Vaishnava lines are generally centered either on Vishnu or on Krishna, as supreme. The term Krishnaism has been used to describe the sects of Krishna, reserving the term "Vaishnavism" for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an avatar, rather than as a transcendent Supreme Being.[99]

All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu; while traditions, such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism,[100][101] Vallabha Sampradaya and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, regard Krishna as the Svayam Bhagavan, original form of God.[102][103][104][105][106] Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala of late Vedic period.[107] Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.[108]The deity Krishna-Vasudeva (kṛṣṇa vāsudeva "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism.[8][39] It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of the worship of Krishna in antiquity.[9][109] This tradition is considered as earliest to other traditions that led to amalgamation at a later stage of the historical development. Other traditions are Bhagavatism and the cult of Gopala, that along with the cult of Bala Krishna form the basis of current tradition of monotheistic religion of Krishna.[110][111] Some early scholars would equate it with Bhagavatism,[9] and the founder of this religious tradition is believed to be Krishna, who is the son of Vasudeva, thus his name is Vāsudeva; he is said to be historically part of the Satvata tribe, and according to them his followers called themselves Bhagavatas and this religion had formed by the 2nd century BC (the time of Patanjali), or as early as the 4th century BC according to evidence in Megasthenes and in the Arthasastra of Kautilya, when Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme deity in a strongly monotheistic format, where the supreme being was perfect, eternal and full of grace.[9] In many sources outside of the cult, the devotee or bhakta is defined as Vāsudevaka.[112] The Harivamsa describes intricate relationships between Krishna Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha that would later form a Vaishnava concept of primary quadrupled expansion, or avatar.[113]

Bhakti tradition[edit]

Main article: Bhakti yoga

Bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotional and ecstatic aspects of Hindu religion, particularly among the Vaishnava sects.[100][114] Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of lila, meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the Universe. The lilas of Krishna, with their expressions of personal love that transcend the boundaries of formal reverence, serve as a counterpoint to the actions of another avatar of Vishnu: Rama, "He of the straight and narrow path of maryada, or rules and regulations."[101]

The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil country.[115] A major collection of their works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre.[116][117] [118] Kulasekaraazhvaar's Mukundamala was another notable work of this early stage.

Spread of the Krishna-bhakti movement[edit]

The movement, which started in the 6th-7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs. The religion of Alvar poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions. The movement originated in South India during the seventh-century CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the fifteenth century, it was established in Bengal and northern India[119]While the learned sections of the society well versed in Sanskrit could enjoy works like Gita Govinda or Bilvamangala's Krishna-Karnamritam, the masses sang the songs of the devotee-poets, who composed in the regional languages of India. These songs expressing intense personal devotion were written by devotees from all walks of life. The songs of Meera and Surdas became epitomes of Krishna-devotion in north India.These devotee-poets, like the Alvars before them, were aligned to specific theological schools only loosely, if at all. But by the 11th century AD, Vaishnava Bhakti schools with elaborate theological frameworks around the worship of Krishna were established in north India. Nimbarka (11th century AD), Vallabhacharya (15th century AD) and (Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) (16th century AD) all inspired by the teachings of Madhvacharya (11th century AD) were the founders of the most influential schools. These schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya and Gaudiya Vaishnavism respectively, see Krishna as the supreme God, rather than an avatar, as generally seen.

In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Varkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba,[29] a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century.[6] In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti named Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.[114]In 1965, the Krishna-bhakti movement had spread outside India when its founder, Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, (who was instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) traveled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of the saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In an effort to gain attention, followers chanted the names of God in public locations. This chanting was known as hari-nama sankirtana and helped spread the teaching. Additionally, the practice of distributing prasad or “sanctified food” worked as a catalyst in the dissemination of his works. In the Hare Krishna movement, Prasad was a vegetarian dish that would be first offered to Krishna. The food’s proximity to Krishna added a “spiritual effect,” and was seen to “counteract material contamination affecting the soul.” Sharing this sanctified food with the public, in turn, enabled the movement to gain new recruits and further spread these teachings.[10][120][121]In South India, Vaishnavas usually belong to the Sri Sampradaya[citation needed]. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya have written reverentially about Krishna in most of their works like the Thiruppavai by Andal[122] and Gopala Vimshati by Vedanta Desika.[123] In South India, devotion to Krishna, as an avatar of Vishnu, spread in the face of opposition to Buddhism, Shaktism, and Shaivism and ritualistic Vedic sacrifices. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya like Manavala Mamunigal, Vedanta Desika strongly advocated surrender to Vishnu as the aim of the Vedas. Out of 108 Divya Desams there are 97 Divya Desams in South India.While discussing the origin of Indian theatre, Horwitz talks about the mention of the Krishna story in Patanjali's Mahabhashya (c. 150 BC), where the episodes of slaying of Kamsa (Kamsa Vadha) and "Binding of the heaven storming titan" (Bali Bandha) are described.[124] Bhasa's Balacharitam and Dutavakyam (c. 400 BC) are the only Sanskrit plays centered on Krishna written by a major classical dramatist. The former dwells only on his childhood exploits and the latter is a one-act play based on a single episode from the Mahābhārata when Krishna tries to make peace between the warring cousins.[125]

From the 10th century AD, with the growing bhakti movement, Krishna became a favorite subject of the arts. The songs of the Gita Govinda became popular across India, and had many imitations. The songs composed by the Bhakti poets added to the repository of both folk and classical singing.

The classical Indian dances, especially Odissi and Manipuri, draw heavily on the story. The 'Rasa lila' dances performed in Vrindavan shares elements with Kathak, and the Krisnattam, with some cycles, such as Krishnattam, traditionally restricted to the Guruvayur temple, the precursor of Kathakali.[126]

The Sattriya dance, founded by the Assamese Vaishnava saint Sankardeva, extols the virtues of Krishna. Medieval Maharashtra gave birth to a form of storytelling known as the Hari-Katha, that told Vaishnava tales and teachings through music, dance, and narrative sequences, and the story of Krishna one of them. This tradition spread to Tamil Nadu and other southern states, and is now popular in many places throughout India.

Narayana Tirtha's (17th century AD) Krishna-Lila-Tarangini provided material for the musical plays of the Bhagavata-Mela by telling the tale of Krishna from birth until his marriage to Rukmini. Tyagaraja (18th century AD) wrote a similar piece about Krishna called Nauka-Charitam. The narratives of Krishna from the Puranas are performed in Yakshagana, a performance style native to Karnataka's coastal districts. Many movies in all Indian languages have been made based on these stories. These are of varying quality and usually add various songs, melodrama, and special effects.

In other religions[edit]

Jainism[edit]

Further information: Salakapurusa

The most exalted figures in Jainism are the twenty-four Tirthankaras. Krishna, when he was incorporated into the Jain list of heroic figures, presented a problem with his activities which are not pacifist. The concept of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prati-Vasudeva was used to solve it.[neutrality is disputed] The Jain list of sixty-three Shalakapurshas or notable figures includes, amongst others, the twenty-four Tirthankaras and nine sets of this triad. One of these triads is Krishna as the Vasudeva, Balarama as the Baladeva and Jarasandha as the Prati-Vasudeva. He was a cousin of the twenty-second Tirthankara, Neminatha. The stories of these triads can be found in the Harivamsha of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to Mahābhārata) and the Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita of Hemachandra.[127]

In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a Vasudeva with an elder brother termed the Baladeva. The villain is the Prati-vasudeva. Baladeva is the upholder of the Jain principle of non-violence. However, Vasudeva has to forsake this principle to kill the Prati-Vasudeva and save the world. [128][129]The story of Krishna occurs in the Jataka tales in Buddhism,[130] in the Vaibhav Jataka as a prince and legendary conqueror and king of India.[131] In the Buddhist version, Krishna is called Vasudeva, Kanha and Keshava, and Balarama is his older brother, Baladeva. These details resemble that of the story given in the Bhagavata Purana. Vasudeva, along with his nine other brothers (each son a powerful wrestler) and one elder sister (Anjana) capture all of Jambudvipa (many consider this to be India) after beheading their evil uncle, King Kamsa, and later all other kings of Jambudvipa with his Sudarshana Chakra. Much of the story involving the defeat of Kamsa follows the story given in the Bhagavata Purana.[132]

As depicted in the Mahābhārata, all of the sons are eventually killed due to a curse of sage Kanhadipayana (Veda Vyasa, also known as Krishna Dwaipayana). Krishna himself is eventually speared by a hunter in the foot by mistake, leaving the sole survivor of their family being their sister, Anjanadevi of whom no further mention is made.[133]

Since Jataka tales are given from the perspective of Buddha's previous lives (as well as the previous lives of many of Buddha's followers), Krishna appears as the "Dhammasenapati" or "Chief General of the Dharma" and is usually shown being Buddha's "right-hand man" in Buddhist art and iconography.[134] The Bodhisattva, is born in this tale as one of his youngest brothers named Ghatapandita, and saves Krishna from the grief of losing his son.[131] The 'divine boy' Krishna as an embodiment of wisdom and endearing prankster forms a part of the pantheon of gods in Japanese Buddhism .[135]Bahá'ís believe that Krishna was a "Manifestation of God", or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Muhammad, Jesus, the Báb, and the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh.[Members of the Ahmadiyya Community believe Krishna to be a great prophet of God as described by their founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. This belief is maintained by the Qur'anic Principle that God has sent prophets and messengers to every nation of the world leaving no region without divine guidance (see for instance Quran 10:47 and Quran 16:36).

Ghulam Ahmad also claimed to be the likeness of Krishna as a latter day reviver of religion and morality whose mission was to reconcile man with God.[138] Ahmadis maintain that the Sanskrit term Avatar is synonymous with the term 'prophet' of the Middle Eastern religious tradition as God's intervention with man; as God appoints a man as his vicegerent upon earth. In Lecture Sialkot, Ghulam Ahmed wrote:

Let it be clear that Raja Krishna, according to what has been revealed to me, was such a truly great man that it is hard to find his like among the Rishis and Avatars of the Hindus. He was an Avatar—i.e., Prophet—of his time upon whom the Holy Spirit would descend from God. He was from God, victorious and prosperous. He cleansed the land of the Aryas from sin and was in fact the Prophet of his age whose teaching was later corrupted in numerous ways. He was full of love for God, a friend of virtue and an enemy of evil.[138]

Krishna is also called Murli Dhar. The flute of Krishna means the flute of revelation and not the physical flute. Krishna lived like humans and he was a prophet.[139][140]Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several new religious movements since the 19th century and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in occult texts, along with Greek, Buddhist, biblical and even historical figures.[141] For instance, Édouard Schuré, an influential figure in perennial philosophy and occult movements, considered Krishna a Great Initiate; while Theosophists regard Krishna as an incarnation of Maitreya (one of the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom), the most important spiritual teacher for humanity along with Buddha

Krishna [1](/'kr??n?/; Sanskrit: ?????, K???a in IAST, pronounced ['kr????] ( listen)) is considered the supreme deity, worshipped across many traditions of Hinduism in a variety of different perspectives. Krishna is recognized as the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Lord Vishnu, and one and the same as Lord Vishnu one of the trimurti and as the supreme god in his own right. Krishna is the principal protagonist with Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita also known as the Song of God, which depicts the conversation between the Royal Prince Arjuna and Krishna during the great battle of Kurukshetra 5000 years ago where Arjuna discovers that Krishna is God and then comprehends his nature and will for him and for mankind. In present age Krishna is one of the most widely revered and most popular of all Indian divinities.[2]

Krishna is often described and portrayed as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a flute as in the Bhagavata Purana,[3] or as an elder giving direction and guidance as in the Bhagavad Gita.[4] The stories of Krishna appear across a broad spectrum of Hindu philosophical and theological traditions.[5] They portray him in various perspectives: a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the Supreme Being.[6] The principal scriptures discussing Krishna's story are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana.

Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga (present age), which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[7] Worship of the deity Krishna, either in the form of deity Krishna or in the form of Vasudeva, Bala Krishna or Gopala can be traced to as early as 4th century BC.[8][9] Worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, or the supreme being, known as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. From the 10th century AD, Krishna became a favourite subject in performing arts and regional traditions of devotion developed for forms of Krishna such as Jagannatha in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra and Shrinathji in Rajasthan. Since the 1960s the worship of Krishna has also spread in the Western world, largely due to the International Society for Krishna Consciousness.[10]The name originates from the Sanskrit word K???a, which is primarily an adjective meaning "black", "dark" or "dark blue".[11] The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha in the Vedic tradition, relating to the adjective meaning "darkening".[12] Sometimes it is also translated as "all-attractive", according to members of the Hare Krishna movement.[13]

As a name of Vishnu, Krishna listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama. Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in murtis as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets and titles, which reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are Mohan "enchanter", Govinda, "Finder of the cows" or Gopala, "Protector of the cows", which refer to Krishna's childhood in Braj (in present day Uttar Pradesh).[14][15] Some of the distinct names may be regionally important; for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India.[16]Krishna is easily recognized by his representations. Though his skin color may be depicted as black or dark in some representations, particularly in murtis, in other images such as modern pictorial representations, Krishna is usually shown with a blue skin. He is often shown wearing a silk dhoti and a peacock feather crown. Common depictions show him as a little boy, or as a young man in a characteristically relaxed pose, playing the flute.[17][18] In this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other with a flute raised to his lips, in the Tribhanga posture, accompanied by cows, emphasizing his position as the divine herdsman, Govinda, or with the gopis (milkmaids) i.e. Gopikrishna, stealing butter from neighbouring houses i.e. Navneet Chora or Gokulakrishna, defeating the vicious serpent i.e. Kaliya Damana Krishna, lifting the hill i.e. Giridhara Krishna ..so on and so forth from his childhood / youth events.

A steatite (soapstone) tablet unearthed from Mohenjo-daro, Larkana district, Sindh depicting a young boy uprooting two trees from which are emerging two human figures is an interesting archaeological find for fixing dates associated with Krishna. This image recalls the Yamalarjuna episode of Bhagavata and Harivamsa Purana. In this image, the young boy is Krishna, and the two human beings emerging from the trees are the two cursed gandharvas, identified as Nalakubara and Manigriva. Dr. E.J.H. Mackay, who did the excavation at Mohanjodaro, compares this image with the Yamalarjuna episode. Prof. V.S. Agrawal has also accepted this identification. Thus, it seems that the Indus valley people knew stories related to Krishna. This lone find may not establish Krishna as contemporary with Pre-Indus or Indus times, but, likewise, it cannot be ignored.[19][20]The scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata, notably where he addresses Pandava prince Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita, is another common subject for representation. In these depictions, he is shown as a man, often with supreme God characteristics of Hindu religious art, such as multiple arms or heads, denoting power, and with attributes of Vishnu, such as the chakra or in his two-armed form as a charioteer. Cave paintings dated to 800 BCE in Mirzapur, Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh, show raiding horse-charioteers, one of whom is about to hurl a wheel, and who could potentially be identified as Krishna.[21]

Representations in temples often show Krishna as a man standing in an upright, formal pose. He may be alone, or with associated figures:[22] his brother Balarama and sister Subhadra, or his main queens Rukmini and Satyabhama.

Often, Krishna is pictured with his gopi-consort Radha. Manipuri Vaishnavas do not worship Krishna alone, but as Radha Krishna,[23] a combined image of Krishna and Radha. This is also a characteristic of the schools Rudra[24] and Nimbarka sampradaya,[25] as well as that of Swaminarayan sect. The traditions celebrate Radha Ramana murti, who is viewed by Gaudiyas as a form of Radha Krishna.[26]

Krishna is also depicted and worshipped as a small child (Bala Krishna, Bala K???a the child Krishna), crawling on his hands and knees or dancing, often with butter or Laddu in his hand being Laddu Gopal.[27][28] Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as Jaganatha of Odisha, Vithoba of Maharashtra,[29] Venkateswara (also Srinivasa or Balaji) in Andhra Pradesh, and Shrinathji in Rajasthan.The earliest text to explicitly provide detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahabharata which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu.[30] Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic that constitute the Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to the warrior-hero Arjuna, on the battlefield. Krishna is already an adult in the epic, although there are allusions to his earlier exploits. The Harivamsa, a later appendix to this epic, contains the earliest detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.

The Rig Veda 1.22.164 sukta 31 mentions a herdsman "who never stumbles".[31] Some Vaishnavite scholars, such as Bhaktivinoda Thakura, claim that this herdsman refers to Krishna.[32] Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar also attempted to show that "the very same Krishna" made an appearance, e.g. as the drapsa ... krishna "black drop" of RV 8.96.13.[33] Some authors have also likened prehistoric depictions of deities to Krishna.

Chandogya Upanishad (3.17.6) composed around 900 BCE[34] mentions Vasudeva Krishna as the son of Devaki and the disciple of Ghora Angirasa, the seer who preached his disciple the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya.’ Having been influenced by the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya’ Krishna in the Bhagavadgita while delivering the discourse to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra discussed about sacrifice, which can be compared to purusha or the individual.[35][36][37][38]

Yaska's Nirukta, an etymological dictionary around 6th century BC, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura, a motif from well known Puranic story about Krishna.[39] Shatapatha Brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka, associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.[40]

Pa?ini, the ancient grammarian and author of Asthadhyayi (probably belonged to 5th century or 6th century BC) mentions a character called Vasudeva, son of Vasudeva, and also mentions Kaurava and Arjuna which testifies to Vasudeva Krishna, Arjuna and Kauravas being contemporaries.[35][41][42]

Megasthenes (350 – 290 BC) a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to the court of Chandragupta Maurya made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica. Many scholars have suggested that the deity identified as Herakles was Krishna. According to Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo, Megasthenes described an Indian tribe called Sourasenoi, who especially worshipped Herakles in their land, and this land had two cities, Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river, the Jobares. As was common in the ancient period, the Greeks sometimes described foreign gods in terms of their own divinities, and there is a little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged; Herakles to Krishna, or Hari-Krishna: Methora to Mathura, where Krishna was born; Kleisobora to Krishnapura, meaning "the city of Krishna"; and the Jobares to the Yamuna, the famous river in the Krishna story. Quintus Curtius also mentions that when Alexander the Great confronted Porus, Porus's soldiers were carrying an image of Herakles in their vanguard.[43]

The name Krishna occurs in Buddhist writings in the form Kanha, phonetically equivalent to Krishna.[44]

The Ghata-Jâtaka (No. 454) gives an account of Krishna's childhood and subsequent exploits which in many points corresponds with the Brahmanic legends of his life and contains several familiar incidents and names, such as Vâsudeva, Baladeva, Ka?sa. Yet it presents many peculiarities and is either an independent version or a misrepresentation of a popular story that had wandered far from its home. Jain tradition also shows that these tales were popular and were worked up into different forms, for the Jains have an elaborate system of ancient patriarchs which includes Vâsudevas and Baladevas. Krishna is the ninth of the Black Vâsudevas and is connected with Dvâravatî or Dvârakâ. He will become the twelfth tîrthankara of the next world-period and a similar position will be attained by Devakî, Rohinî, Baladeva and Javakumâra, all members of his family. This is a striking proof of the popularity of the Krishna legend outside the Brahmanic religion.[45]

According to Arthasastra of Kautilya (4th century BCE) Vasudeva was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly monotheistic format.[41]

Around 150 BC, Patanjali in his Mahabhashya quotes a verse: "May the might of Krishna accompanied by Samkarshana increase!" Other verses are mentioned. One verse speaks of "Janardhana with himself as fourth" (Krishna with three companions, the three possibly being Samkarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha). Another verse mentions musical instruments being played at meetings in the temples of Rama (Balarama) and Kesava (Krishna). Patanjali also describes dramatic and mimetic performances (Krishna-Kamsopacharam) representing the killing of Kamsa by Vasudeva.[46][47]

In the 1st century BC, there seems to be evidence for a worship of five Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba) for an inscription has been found at Mora near Mathura, which apparently mentions a son of the great satrap Rajuvula, probably the satrap Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, "probably Vasudeva, and of the "Five Warriors".[48] Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum.[49][50]

Many Puranas tell Krishna's life-story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana, that contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna’s story and teachings are the most theologically venerated by the Vaishnava schools.[51] Roughly one quarter of the Bhagavata Purana is spent extolling his life and philosophy.

Life[edit]

This summary is based on details from the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana. The scenes from the narrative are set in north India mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Delhi and Gujarat.Based on scriptural details and astrological calculations, the date of Krishna's birth, known as Janmashtami,[52] is 18 July 3228 BCE.[53] He was born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva,[54][55] When Mother Earth became upset by the sin being committed on Earth, she thought of seeking help from Lord Vishnu. She went in the form of a cow to visit Lord Vishnu and ask for help. Lord Vishnu agreed to help her and promised her that he would be born on Earth. On Earth in the Yadava clan, he was yadav according to his birth, a prince named Kansa sent his father Ugrasena (King of Mathura) to prison and became the King himself. One day a loud voice from the sky (Akash Vani in Hindi) prophesied that the 8th son of Kansa's sister (Devaki) would kill Kansa. Out of affection for Devaki, Kansa did not kill her outright. He did, however, send his sister and her husband (Vasudeva) to prison. Lord Vishnu himself later appeared to Devaki and Vasudeva and told them that he himself would be their eighth son and kill Kansa and destroy sin in the world. In the story of Krishna the deity is the agent of conception and also the offspring.[citation needed] Because of his sympathy for the earth, the divine Vishnu himself descended into the womb of Devaki and was born as her son, Vaasudeva (i.e., Krishna).[citation needed] This is occasionally cited as evidence that "virgin birth" tales are fairly common in non-Christian religions around the world.[56][57][58] However, there is nothing in Hindu scriptures to suggest that it was a "virgin" birth. By the time of conception and birth of Krishna, Devaki was married to Vasudeva and had already borne 7 children.[59] Virgin birth in this case should be more accurately understood as divine conception. Kunti the mother of the Pandavas referenced contemporaneously with the story of Krishna in the Mahabharata also has divine conception and virgin birth of Prince Karna.

The Hindu Vishnu Purana relates: "Devaki bore in her womb the lotus-eyed deity...before the birth of Krishna, no one could bear to gaze upon Devaki, from the light that invested her, and those who contemplated her radiance felt their minds disturbed.” This reference to light is reminiscent of the Vedic hymn "To an Unknown Divine," which refers to a Golden Child. According to F. M. Müller, this term means "the golden gem of child" and is an attempt at naming the sun. According to the Vishnu Purana, Krishna is the total incarnation of Lord Vishnu. It clearly describes in the Vishnu Purana that Krishna was born on earth to destroy sin, especially Kansa.

Krishna belonged to the Vrishni clan of Yadavas from Mathura,[60] and was the eighth son born to the princess Devaki, and her husband Vasudeva.

Mathura (in present day Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh) was the capital of the Yadavas, to which Krishna's parents Vasudeva and Devaki belonged. King Kansa, Devaki's brother,[61] had ascended the throne by imprisoning his father, King Ugrasena. Afraid of a prophecy from a divine voice from the heavens that predicted his death at the hands of Devaki's eighth "garbha", Kansa had the couple locked in a prison cell. After Kansa killed the first six children, Devaki apparently had a miscarriage of the seventh. However, in reality, the womb was actually transferred to Rohini secretly. This was how Balarama, Krishna's elder brother, was born. Once again Devaki became pregnant. Now due to the miscarriage, Kansa was in a puzzle regarding 'The Eighth One', but his ministers advised that the divine voice from the heavens emphasised "the eight garbha" and so this is the one. That night Krishna was born in the Abhijit nakshatra and simultanously Ekanamsha was born as Yogamaya in Gokulam to Nanda and Yashoda.

Since Vasudeva knew Krishna's life was in danger, Krishna was secretly taken out of the prison cell to be raised by his foster parents, Yasoda[62] and Nanda, in Gokula (in present day Mathura district). Two of his other siblings also survived, Balarama (Devaki's seventh child, transferred to the womb of Rohini, Vasudeva's first wife) and Subhadra (daughter of Vasudeva and Rohini, born much later than Balarama and Krishna)Nanda was the head of a community of cow-herders, and he settled in Vrindavana. The stories of Krishna's childhood and youth tell how he became a cow herder,[64] his mischievous pranks as Makhan Chor (butter thief) his foiling of attempts to take his life, and his role as a protector of the people of Vrindavana.

Krishna killed the demoness Putana, disguised as a wet nurse, and the tornado demon Trinavarta both sent by Kamsa for Krishna's life. He tamed the serpent Kaliya, who previously poisoned the waters of Yamuna river, thus leading to the death of the cowherds. In Hindu art, Krishna is often depicted dancing on the multi-hooded Kaliya.

Krishna lifted the Govardhana hill and taught Indra, the king of the devas, a lesson to protect native people of Brindavana from persecution by Indra and prevent the devastation of the pasture land of Govardhan. Indra had too much pride and was angry when Krishna advised the people of Brindavana to take care of their animals and their environment that provide them with all their necessities, instead of worshipping Indra annually by spending their resources.[65][66] In the view of some, the spiritual movement started by Krishna had something in it which went against the orthodox forms of worship of the Vedic gods such as Indra.[67] In Bhagavat Purana, Krishna says that the rain came from the nearby hill Govardhana, and advised that the people worshiped the hill instead of Indra. This made Indra furious, so he punished them by sending out a great storm. Krishna then lifted Govardhan and held it over the people like an umbrella.

The stories of his play with the gopis (milkmaids) of Brindavana, especially Radha (daughter of Vrishbhanu, one of the original residents of Brindavan) became known as the Rasa lila and were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. These became important as part of the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna.[68]

Krishna’s childhood reinforces the Hindu concept of lila, playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or Rasa-lila is a great example of this. Krishna played his flute and the gopis came immediately from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the Yamuna River, and joined him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there joined him through meditation.[69] The story of Krishna’s battle with Kaliya also supports this idea in the sense of him dancing on Kaliya’s many hoods. Even though he is doing battle with the serpent, he is in no real danger and treats it like a game. He is a protector, but he only appears to be a young boy having fun.[70] This idea of having a playful god is very important in Hinduism. The playfulness of Krishna has inspired many celebrations like the Rasa-lila and the Janmashtami : where they make human pyramids to break open handis (clay pots) hung high in the air that spill buttermilk all over the group after being broken by the person at the top. This is meant to be a fun celebration and it gives the participants a sense of unity. Many believe that lila being connected with Krishna gives Hindus a deeper connection to him and thus a deeper connection to Vishnu also; seeing as Krishna is an incarnation of Vishnu. Theologists, like Kristin Johnston Largen, believe that Krishna’s childhood can even inspire other religions to look for lila in deities so that they have a chance to experience a part of their faith that they may not have previously seen.On his return to Mathura as a young man, Krishna overthrew and killed his maternal uncle, Kansa, after quelling several assassination attempts from Kansa's followers. He reinstated Kansa's father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and became a leading prince at the court.[73] During this period, he became a friend of Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom, who were his cousins. Later, he took his Yadava subjects to the city of Dwaraka (in modern Gujarat) and established his own kingdom there.[74]

Krishna married Rukmini, the Vidarbha princess, by abducting her, at her request, from her proposed wedding with Shishupala. He married eight queens—collectively called the Ashtabharya—including Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti, Bhadra and Lakshmana.[75][76] Krishna subsequently married 16,000 or 16,100 maidens who were held captive by the demon Narakasura, to save their honour.[77][78] Krishna killed the demon and released them all. According to social custom of the time, all of the captive women were degraded, and would be unable to marry, as they had been under the Narakasura's control. However Krishna married them to reinstate their status in the society. This symbolic wedding with 16,100 abandoned daughters was more of a mass rehabilitation.[79] In Vaishnava traditions, Krishna's wives are forms of the goddess Lakshmi— consort of Vishnu, or special souls who attained this qualification after many lifetimes of austerity, while his two queens, Rukmani and Satyabhama, are expansions of Lakshmi.[80]

When Yudhisthira was assuming the title of emperor, he had invited all the great kings to the ceremony and while paying his respects to them, he started with Krishna because he considered Krishna to be the greatest of them all. While it was a unanimous feeling amongst most present at the ceremony that Krishna should get the first honours, his cousin Shishupala felt otherwise and started berating Krishna. Due to a vow given to Shishupal's mother, Krishna forgave a hundred verbal abuses by Shishupal, and upon the one hundred and first, he assumed his Virat (universal) form and killed Shishupal with his Chakra. The blind king Dhritarashtra also obtained divine vision to be able to see this form of Krishna during the time when Duryodana tried to capture Krishna when he came as a peace bearer before the great Mahabharat War. Essentially, Shishupala and Dantavakra were both re-incarnations of Vishnu's gate-keepers Jaya and Vijaya, who were cursed to be born on Earth, to be delivered by the Vishnu back to Vaikuntha.Once battle seemed inevitable, Krishna offered both sides the opportunity to choose between having either his army called narayani sena or himself alone, but on the condition that he personally would not raise any weapon. Arjuna, on behalf of the Pandavas, chose to have Krishna on their side, and Duryodhana, Kaurava prince, chose Krishna's army. At the time of the great battle, Krishna acted as Arjuna's charioteer, since this position did not require the wielding of weapons.

Upon arrival at the battlefield, and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart does not allow him to fight and he would rather prefer to renounce the kingdom and put down his Gandiv (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the battle, with the conversation soon extending into a discourse which was later compiled as the Bhagavad Gita.[82]Krishna asked Arjuna, "Have you within no time, forgotten the Kauravas' evil deeds such as not accepting the eldest brother Yudhishtira as King, usurping the entire Kingdom without yielding any portion to the Pandavas, meting out insults and difficulties to Pandavas, attempt to murder the Pandavas in the Barnava lac guest house, publicly attempting to disrobe and disgracing Draupadi. Krishna further exhorted in his famous Bhagavad Gita, "Arjuna, do not engage in philosophical analyses at this point of time like a Pundit. You are aware that Duryodhana and Karna particularly have long harboured jealousy and hatred for you Pandavas and badly want to prove their hegemony. You are aware that Bhishmacharya and your Teachers are tied down to their dharma of protecting the unitarian power of the Kuru throne. Moreover, you Arjuna, are only a mortal appointee to carry out my divine will, since the Kauravas are destined to die either way, due to their heap of sins. Open your eyes O Bhaarata and know that I encompass the Karta, Karma and Kriya, all in myself. There is no scope for contemplation now or remorse later, it is indeed time for war and the world will remember your might and immense powers for time to come. So rise O Arjuna!, tighten up your Gandiva and let all directions shiver till their farthest horizons, by the reverberation of its string."Krishna had a profound effect on the Mahabharata war and its consequences. He had considered the Kurukshetra war to be a last resort after voluntarily acting as a messenger in order to establish peace between the Pandavas and Kauravas. But, once these peace negotiations failed and was embarked into the war, then he became a clever strategist. During the war, upon becoming angry with Arjuna for not fighting in true spirit against his ancestors, Krishna once picked up a carriage wheel in order to use it as a weapon to challenge Bhishma. Upon seeing this, Bhishma dropped his weapons and asked Krishna to kill him. However, Arjuna apologized to Krishna, promising that he would fight with full dedication here/after, and the battle continued. Krishna had directed Yudhisthira and Arjuna to return to Bhishma the boon of "victory" which he had given to Yudhisthira before the war commenced, since he himself was standing in their way to victory. Bhishma understood the message and told them the means through which he would drop his weapons—which was if a woman entered the battlefield. Next day, upon Krishna's directions, Shikhandi (Amba reborn) accompanied Arjuna to the battlefield and thus, Bhishma laid down his arms. This was a decisive moment in the war because Bhishma was the chief commander of the Kaurava army and the most formidable warrior on the battlefield. Krishna aided Arjuna in killing Jayadratha, who had held the other four Pandava brothers at bay while Arjuna's son Abhimanyu entered Drona's Chakravyuha formation—an effort in which he was killed by the simultaneous attack of eight Kaurava warriors. Krishna also caused the downfall of Drona, when he signalled Bhima to kill an elephant called Ashwatthama, the namesake of Drona's son. Pandavas started shouting that Ashwatthama was dead but Drona refused to believe them saying he would believe it only if he heard it from Yudhisthira. Krishna knew that Yudhisthira would never tell a lie, so he devised a clever ploy so that Yudhisthira wouldn't lie and at the same time Drona would be convinced of his son's death. On asked by Drona, Yudhisthira proclaimed

Ashwathama Hatahath, naro va Kunjaro va

i.e. Ashwathama had died but he was nor sure whether it was a Drona's son or an elephant. But as soon as Yudhisthira had uttered the first line, Pandava army on Krishna's direction broke into celebration with drums and conchs, in the din of which Drona could not hear the second part of the Yudhisthira's declaration and assumed that his son indeed was dead. Overcome with grief he laid down his arms, and on Krishna's instruction Dhrishtadyumna beheaded Drona.

When Arjuna was fighting Karna, the latter's chariot's wheels sank into the ground. While Karna was trying to take out the chariot from the grip of the Earth, Krishna reminded Arjuna how Karna and the other Kauravas had broken all rules of battle while simultaneously attacking and killing Abhimanyu, and he convinced Arjuna to do the same in revenge in order to kill Karna. During the final stage of the war, when Duryodhana was going to meet his mother Gandhari for taking her blessings which would convert all parts of his body on which her sight falls to diamond, Krishna tricks him to wearing banana leaves to hide his groin. When Duryodhana meets Gandhari, her vision and blessings fall on his entire body except his groin and thighs, and she becomes unhappy about it because she was not able to convert his entire body to diamond. When Duryodhana was in a mace-fight with Bhima, Bhima's blows had no effect on Duryodhana. Upon this, Krishna reminded Bhima of his vow to kill Duryodhana by hitting him on the thigh, and Bhima did the same to win the war despite it being against the rules of mace-fight (since Duryodhana had himself broken Dharma in all his past acts). Thus, Krishna's unparalleled strategy helped the Pandavas win the Mahabharata war by bringing the downfall of all the chief Kaurava warriors, without lifting any weapon. He also brought back to life Arjuna's grandson Parikshit, who had been attacked by a Brahmastra weapon from Ashwatthama while he was in his mother's womb. Parikshit became the Pandavas' successor.Krishna had eight princely wives, also known as Ashtabharya: Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Nagnajiti, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Bhadra, Lakshmana) and the other 16,100 or 16,000 (number varies in scriptures), who were rescued from Narakasura. They had been forcibly kept in his palace and after Krishna had killed Narakasura, he rescued these women and freed them. Krishna married them all to save them from destruction and infamity. He gave them shelter in his new palace and a respectful place in society. The chief amongst them is Rohini.

The Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Harivamsa list the children of Krishna from the Ashtabharya with some variation; while Rohini's sons are interpreted to represent the unnumbered children of his junior wives. Most well-known among his sons are Pradyumna, the eldest son of Krishna (and Rukmini) and Samba, the son of Jambavati, whose actions led to the destruction of Krishna's clan.According to Mahabharata, the Kurukshetra war resulted in the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. On the night before Duryodhana's death, Lord Krishna visited Gandhari to offer his condolences. Gandhari felt that Krishna knowingly did not put an end to the war, and in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari cursed that Krishna, along with everyone else from the Yadu dynasty, would perish after 36 years. Krishna himself knew and wanted this to happen as he felt that the Yadavas had become very haughty and arrogant (adharmi), so he ended Gandhari's speech by saying "tathastu" (so be it).[83][84][85]

After 36 years passed, a fight broke out between the Yadavas, at a festival, who killed each other. His elder brother, Balarama, then gave up his body using Yoga. Krishna retired into the forest and started meditating under a tree. The Mahabharata also narrates the story of a hunter who becomes an instrument for Krishna's departure from the world. The hunter Jara, mistook Krishna's partly visible left foot for that of a deer, and shot an arrow, wounding him mortally. After he realised the mistake, While still bleeding, Krishna told Jara, "O Jara, you were Bali in your previous birth, killed by myself as Rama in Tretayuga. Here you had a chance to even it and since all acts in this world are done as desired by me, you need not worry for this". Then Krishna, with his physical body[86] ascended back to his eternal abode, Goloka vrindavan and this event marks departure of Krishna from the earth.[87][88][89] The news was conveyed to Hastinapur and Dwaraka by eyewitnesses to this event.[86] The place of this incident is believed to be Bhalka, near Somnath temple.[90][91]

According to Puranic sources,[92] Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[7] Vaishnava teachers such as Ramanujacharya and Gaudiya Vaishnavas held the view that the body of Krishna is completely spiritual and never decays (Achyuta) as this appears to be the perspective of the Bhagavata Purana. Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) exhorted, "Krishna Naama Sankirtan" i.e. the constant chanting of the Krishna's name is the supreme healer in Kali Yuga. It destroys sins and purifies the hearts through Bhakti ensures universal peace.

Krishna never appears to grow old or age at all in the historical depictions of the Puranas despite passing of several decades, but there are grounds for a debate whether this indicates that he has no material body, since battles and other descriptions of the Mahabharata epic show clear indications that he seems to be subject to the limitations of nature.[93] While battles apparently seem to indicate limitations, Mahabharata also shows in many places where Krishna is not subject to any limitations as through episodes Duryodhana trying to arrest Krishna where his body burst into fire showing all creation within him.[94] Krishna is also explicitly described as without deterioration elsewhere.[95]The worship of Krishna is part of Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu as the Supreme God and venerates His associated avatars, their consorts, and related saints and teachers. Krishna is especially looked upon as a full manifestation of Vishnu, and as one with Vishnu himself.[96] However the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,[97] where Krishna is sometimes considered an independent deity, supreme in his own right.[98] Out of many deities, Krishna is particularly important, and traditions of Vaishnava lines are generally centered either on Vishnu or on Krishna, as supreme. The term Krishnaism has been used to describe the sects of Krishna, reserving the term "Vaishnavism" for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an avatar, rather than as a transcendent Supreme Being.[99]

All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu; while traditions, such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism,[100][101] Vallabha Sampradaya and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, regard Krishna as the Svayam Bhagavan, original form of God.[102][103][104][105][106] Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala of late Vedic period.[107] Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.[108]The deity Krishna-Vasudeva (k???a vasudeva "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism.[8][39] It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of the worship of Krishna in antiquity.[9][109] This tradition is considered as earliest to other traditions that led to amalgamation at a later stage of the historical development. Other traditions are Bhagavatism and the cult of Gopala, that along with the cult of Bala Krishna form the basis of current tradition of monotheistic religion of Krishna.[110][111] Some early scholars would equate it with Bhagavatism,[9] and the founder of this religious tradition is believed to be Krishna, who is the son of Vasudeva, thus his name is Vasudeva; he is said to be historically part of the Satvata tribe, and according to them his followers called themselves Bhagavatas and this religion had formed by the 2nd century BC (the time of Patanjali), or as early as the 4th century BC according to evidence in Megasthenes and in the Arthasastra of Kautilya, when Vasudeva was worshiped as supreme deity in a strongly monotheistic format, where the supreme being was perfect, eternal and full of grace.[9] In many sources outside of the cult, the devotee or bhakta is defined as Vasudevaka.[112] The Harivamsa describes intricate relationships between Krishna Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha that would later form a Vaishnava concept of primary quadrupled expansion, or avatar.[113]

Bhakti tradition[edit]

Main article: Bhakti yoga

Bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotional and ecstatic aspects of Hindu religion, particularly among the Vaishnava sects.[100][114] Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of lila, meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the Universe. The lilas of Krishna, with their expressions of personal love that transcend the boundaries of formal reverence, serve as a counterpoint to the actions of another avatar of Vishnu: Rama, "He of the straight and narrow path of maryada, or rules and regulations."[101]

The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil country.[115] A major collection of their works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre.[116][117] [118] Kulasekaraazhvaar's Mukundamala was another notable work of this early stage.

Spread of the Krishna-bhakti movement[edit]

The movement, which started in the 6th-7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs. The religion of Alvar poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions. The movement originated in South India during the seventh-century CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the fifteenth century, it was established in Bengal and northern India[119]While the learned sections of the society well versed in Sanskrit could enjoy works like Gita Govinda or Bilvamangala's Krishna-Karnamritam, the masses sang the songs of the devotee-poets, who composed in the regional languages of India. These songs expressing intense personal devotion were written by devotees from all walks of life. The songs of Meera and Surdas became epitomes of Krishna-devotion in north India.These devotee-poets, like the Alvars before them, were aligned to specific theological schools only loosely, if at all. But by the 11th century AD, Vaishnava Bhakti schools with elaborate theological frameworks around the worship of Krishna were established in north India. Nimbarka (11th century AD), Vallabhacharya (15th century AD) and (Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) (16th century AD) all inspired by the teachings of Madhvacharya (11th century AD) were the founders of the most influential schools. These schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya and Gaudiya Vaishnavism respectively, see Krishna as the supreme God, rather than an avatar, as generally seen.

In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Varkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba,[29] a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century.[6] In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti named Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.[114]In 1965, the Krishna-bhakti movement had spread outside India when its founder, Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, (who was instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) traveled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of the saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In an effort to gain attention, followers chanted the names of God in public locations. This chanting was known as hari-nama sankirtana and helped spread the teaching. Additionally, the practice of distributing prasad or “sanctified food” worked as a catalyst in the dissemination of his works. In the Hare Krishna movement, Prasad was a vegetarian dish that would be first offered to Krishna. The food’s proximity to Krishna added a “spiritual effect,” and was seen to “counteract material contamination affecting the soul.” Sharing this sanctified food with the public, in turn, enabled the movement to gain new recruits and further spread these teachings.[10][120][121]In South India, Vaishnavas usually belong to the Sri Sampradaya[citation needed]. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya have written reverentially about Krishna in most of their works like the Thiruppavai by Andal[122] and Gopala Vimshati by Vedanta Desika.[123] In South India, devotion to Krishna, as an avatar of Vishnu, spread in the face of opposition to Buddhism, Shaktism, and Shaivism and ritualistic Vedic sacrifices. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya like Manavala Mamunigal, Vedanta Desika strongly advocated surrender to Vishnu as the aim of the Vedas. Out of 108 Divya Desams there are 97 Divya Desams in South India.While discussing the origin of Indian theatre, Horwitz talks about the mention of the Krishna story in Patanjali's Mahabhashya (c. 150 BC), where the episodes of slaying of Kamsa (Kamsa Vadha) and "Binding of the heaven storming titan" (Bali Bandha) are described.[124] Bhasa's Balacharitam and Dutavakyam (c. 400 BC) are the only Sanskrit plays centered on Krishna written by a major classical dramatist. The former dwells only on his childhood exploits and the latter is a one-act play based on a single episode from the Mahabharata when Krishna tries to make peace between the warring cousins.[125]

From the 10th century AD, with the growing bhakti movement, Krishna became a favorite subject of the arts. The songs of the Gita Govinda became popular across India, and had many imitations. The songs composed by the Bhakti poets added to the repository of both folk and classical singing.

The classical Indian dances, especially Odissi and Manipuri, draw heavily on the story. The 'Rasa lila' dances performed in Vrindavan shares elements with Kathak, and the Krisnattam, with some cycles, such as Krishnattam, traditionally restricted to the Guruvayur temple, the precursor of Kathakali.[126]

The Sattriya dance, founded by the Assamese Vaishnava saint Sankardeva, extols the virtues of Krishna. Medieval Maharashtra gave birth to a form of storytelling known as the Hari-Katha, that told Vaishnava tales and teachings through music, dance, and narrative sequences, and the story of Krishna one of them. This tradition spread to Tamil Nadu and other southern states, and is now popular in many places throughout India.

Narayana Tirtha's (17th century AD) Krishna-Lila-Tarangini provided material for the musical plays of the Bhagavata-Mela by telling the tale of Krishna from birth until his marriage to Rukmini. Tyagaraja (18th century AD) wrote a similar piece about Krishna called Nauka-Charitam. The narratives of Krishna from the Puranas are performed in Yakshagana, a performance style native to Karnataka's coastal districts. Many movies in all Indian languages have been made based on these stories. These are of varying quality and usually add various songs, melodrama, and special effects.

In other religions[edit]

Jainism[edit]

Further information: Salakapurusa

The most exalted figures in Jainism are the twenty-four Tirthankaras. Krishna, when he was incorporated into the Jain list of heroic figures, presented a problem with his activities which are not pacifist. The concept of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prati-Vasudeva was used to solve it.[neutrality is disputed] The Jain list of sixty-three Shalakapurshas or notable figures includes, amongst others, the twenty-four Tirthankaras and nine sets of this triad. One of these triads is Krishna as the Vasudeva, Balarama as the Baladeva and Jarasandha as the Prati-Vasudeva. He was a cousin of the twenty-second Tirthankara, Neminatha. The stories of these triads can be found in the Harivamsha of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to Mahabharata) and the Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita of Hemachandra.[127]

In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a Vasudeva with an elder brother termed the Baladeva. The villain is the Prati-vasudeva. Baladeva is the upholder of the Jain principle of non-violence. However, Vasudeva has to forsake this principle to kill the Prati-Vasudeva and save the world. [128][129]The story of Krishna occurs in the Jataka tales in Buddhism,[130] in the Vaibhav Jataka as a prince and legendary conqueror and king of India.[131] In the Buddhist version, Krishna is called Vasudeva, Kanha and Keshava, and Balarama is his older brother, Baladeva. These details resemble that of the story given in the Bhagavata Purana. Vasudeva, along with his nine other brothers (each son a powerful wrestler) and one elder sister (Anjana) capture all of Jambudvipa (many consider this to be India) after beheading their evil uncle, King Kamsa, and later all other kings of Jambudvipa with his Sudarshana Chakra. Much of the story involving the defeat of Kamsa follows the story given in the Bhagavata Purana.[132]

As depicted in the Mahabharata, all of the sons are eventually killed due to a curse of sage Kanhadipayana (Veda Vyasa, also known as Krishna Dwaipayana). Krishna himself is eventually speared by a hunter in the foot by mistake, leaving the sole survivor of their family being their sister, Anjanadevi of whom no further mention is made.[133]

Since Jataka tales are given from the perspective of Buddha's previous lives (as well as the previous lives of many of Buddha's followers), Krishna appears as the "Dhammasenapati" or "Chief General of the Dharma" and is usually shown being Buddha's "right-hand man" in Buddhist art and iconography.[134] The Bodhisattva, is born in this tale as one of his youngest brothers named Ghatapandita, and saves Krishna from the grief of losing his son.[131] The 'divine boy' Krishna as an embodiment of wisdom and endearing prankster forms a part of the pantheon of gods in Japanese Buddhism .[135]Bahá'ís believe that Krishna was a "Manifestation of God", or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Muhammad, Jesus, the Báb, and the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh.[Members of the Ahmadiyya Community believe Krishna to be a great prophet of God as described by their founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. This belief is maintained by the Qur'anic Principle that God has sent prophets and messengers to every nation of the world leaving no region without divine guidance (see for instance Quran 10:47 and Quran 16:36).

Ghulam Ahmad also claimed to be the likeness of Krishna as a latter day reviver of religion and morality whose mission was to reconcile man with God.[138] Ahmadis maintain that the Sanskrit term Avatar is synonymous with the term 'prophet' of the Middle Eastern religious tradition as God's intervention with man; as God appoints a man as his vicegerent upon earth. In Lecture Sialkot, Ghulam Ahmed wrote:

Let it be clear that Raja Krishna, according to what has been revealed to me, was such a truly great man that it is hard to find his like among the Rishis and Avatars of the Hindus. He was an Avatar—i.e., Prophet—of his time upon whom the Holy Spirit would descend from God. He was from God, victorious and prosperous. He cleansed the land of the Aryas from sin and was in fact the Prophet of his age whose teaching was later corrupted in numerous ways. He was full of love for God, a friend of virtue and an enemy of evil.[138]

Krishna is also called Murli Dhar. The flute of Krishna means the flute of revelation and not the physical flute. Krishna lived like humans and he was a prophet.[139][140]Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several new religious movements since the 19th century and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in occult texts, along with Greek, Buddhist, biblical and even historical figures.[141] For instance, Édouard Schuré, an influential figure in perennial philosophy and occult movements, considered Krishna a Great Initiate; while Theosophists regard Krishna as an incarnation of Maitreya (one of the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom), the most important spiritual teacher for humanity along with Buddha

Krishna [1](/ˈkrɪʃnə/; Sanskrit: कृष्ण, Kṛṣṇa in IAST, pronounced [ˈkr̩ʂɳə] ( listen)) is considered the supreme deity, worshipped across many traditions of Hinduism in a variety of different perspectives. Krishna is recognized as the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Lord Vishnu, and one and the same as Lord Vishnu one of the trimurti and as the supreme god in his own right. Krishna is the principal protagonist with Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita also known as the Song of God, which depicts the conversation between the Royal Prince Arjuna and Krishna during the great battle of Kurukshetra 5000 years ago where Arjuna discovers that Krishna is God and then comprehends his nature and will for him and for mankind. In present age Krishna is one of the most widely revered and most popular of all Indian divinities.[2]

Krishna is often described and portrayed as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a flute as in the Bhagavata Purana,[3] or as an elder giving direction and guidance as in the Bhagavad Gita.[4] The stories of Krishna appear across a broad spectrum of Hindu philosophical and theological traditions.[5] They portray him in various perspectives: a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the Supreme Being.[6] The principal scriptures discussing Krishna's story are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana.

Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga (present age), which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[7] Worship of the deity Krishna, either in the form of deity Krishna or in the form of Vasudeva, Bala Krishna or Gopala can be traced to as early as 4th century BC.[8][9] Worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, or the supreme being, known as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. From the 10th century AD, Krishna became a favourite subject in performing arts and regional traditions of devotion developed for forms of Krishna such as Jagannatha in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra and Shrinathji in Rajasthan. Since the 1960s the worship of Krishna has also spread in the Western world, largely due to the International Society for Krishna Consciousness.[10]The name originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning "black", "dark" or "dark blue".[11] The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha in the Vedic tradition, relating to the adjective meaning "darkening".[12] Sometimes it is also translated as "all-attractive", according to members of the Hare Krishna movement.[13]

As a name of Vishnu, Krishna listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama. Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in murtis as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets and titles, which reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are Mohan "enchanter", Govinda, "Finder of the cows" or Gopala, "Protector of the cows", which refer to Krishna's childhood in Braj (in present day Uttar Pradesh).[14][15] Some of the distinct names may be regionally important; for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India.[16]Krishna is easily recognized by his representations. Though his skin color may be depicted as black or dark in some representations, particularly in murtis, in other images such as modern pictorial representations, Krishna is usually shown with a blue skin. He is often shown wearing a silk dhoti and a peacock feather crown. Common depictions show him as a little boy, or as a young man in a characteristically relaxed pose, playing the flute.[17][18] In this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other with a flute raised to his lips, in the Tribhanga posture, accompanied by cows, emphasizing his position as the divine herdsman, Govinda, or with the gopis (milkmaids) i.e. Gopikrishna, stealing butter from neighbouring houses i.e. Navneet Chora or Gokulakrishna, defeating the vicious serpent i.e. Kaliya Damana Krishna, lifting the hill i.e. Giridhara Krishna ..so on and so forth from his childhood / youth events.

A steatite (soapstone) tablet unearthed from Mohenjo-daro, Larkana district, Sindh depicting a young boy uprooting two trees from which are emerging two human figures is an interesting archaeological find for fixing dates associated with Krishna. This image recalls the Yamalarjuna episode of Bhagavata and Harivamsa Purana. In this image, the young boy is Krishna, and the two human beings emerging from the trees are the two cursed gandharvas, identified as Nalakubara and Manigriva. Dr. E.J.H. Mackay, who did the excavation at Mohanjodaro, compares this image with the Yamalarjuna episode. Prof. V.S. Agrawal has also accepted this identification. Thus, it seems that the Indus valley people knew stories related to Krishna. This lone find may not establish Krishna as contemporary with Pre-Indus or Indus times, but, likewise, it cannot be ignored.[19][20]The scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata, notably where he addresses Pandava prince Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita, is another common subject for representation. In these depictions, he is shown as a man, often with supreme God characteristics of Hindu religious art, such as multiple arms or heads, denoting power, and with attributes of Vishnu, such as the chakra or in his two-armed form as a charioteer. Cave paintings dated to 800 BCE in Mirzapur, Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh, show raiding horse-charioteers, one of whom is about to hurl a wheel, and who could potentially be identified as Krishna.[21]

Representations in temples often show Krishna as a man standing in an upright, formal pose. He may be alone, or with associated figures:[22] his brother Balarama and sister Subhadra, or his main queens Rukmini and Satyabhama.

Often, Krishna is pictured with his gopi-consort Radha. Manipuri Vaishnavas do not worship Krishna alone, but as Radha Krishna,[23] a combined image of Krishna and Radha. This is also a characteristic of the schools Rudra[24] and Nimbarka sampradaya,[25] as well as that of Swaminarayan sect. The traditions celebrate Radha Ramana murti, who is viewed by Gaudiyas as a form of Radha Krishna.[26]

Krishna is also depicted and worshipped as a small child (Bala Krishna, Bāla Kṛṣṇa the child Krishna), crawling on his hands and knees or dancing, often with butter or Laddu in his hand being Laddu Gopal.[27][28] Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as Jaganatha of Odisha, Vithoba of Maharashtra,[29] Venkateswara (also Srinivasa or Balaji) in Andhra Pradesh, and Shrinathji in Rajasthan.The earliest text to explicitly provide detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahabharata which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu.[30] Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic that constitute the Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to the warrior-hero Arjuna, on the battlefield. Krishna is already an adult in the epic, although there are allusions to his earlier exploits. The Harivamsa, a later appendix to this epic, contains the earliest detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.

The Rig Veda 1.22.164 sukta 31 mentions a herdsman "who never stumbles".[31] Some Vaishnavite scholars, such as Bhaktivinoda Thakura, claim that this herdsman refers to Krishna.[32] Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar also attempted to show that "the very same Krishna" made an appearance, e.g. as the drapsa ... krishna "black drop" of RV 8.96.13.[33] Some authors have also likened prehistoric depictions of deities to Krishna.

Chandogya Upanishad (3.17.6) composed around 900 BCE[34] mentions Vasudeva Krishna as the son of Devaki and the disciple of Ghora Angirasa, the seer who preached his disciple the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya.’ Having been influenced by the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya’ Krishna in the Bhagavadgita while delivering the discourse to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra discussed about sacrifice, which can be compared to purusha or the individual.[35][36][37][38]

Yāska's Nirukta, an etymological dictionary around 6th century BC, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura, a motif from well known Puranic story about Krishna.[39] Shatapatha Brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka, associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.[40]

Pāṇini, the ancient grammarian and author of Asthadhyayi (probably belonged to 5th century or 6th century BC) mentions a character called Vāsudeva, son of Vasudeva, and also mentions Kaurava and Arjuna which testifies to Vasudeva Krishna, Arjuna and Kauravas being contemporaries.[35][41][42]

Megasthenes (350 – 290 BC) a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to the court of Chandragupta Maurya made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica. Many scholars have suggested that the deity identified as Herakles was Krishna. According to Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo, Megasthenes described an Indian tribe called Sourasenoi, who especially worshipped Herakles in their land, and this land had two cities, Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river, the Jobares. As was common in the ancient period, the Greeks sometimes described foreign gods in terms of their own divinities, and there is a little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged; Herakles to Krishna, or Hari-Krishna: Methora to Mathura, where Krishna was born; Kleisobora to Krishnapura, meaning "the city of Krishna"; and the Jobares to the Yamuna, the famous river in the Krishna story. Quintus Curtius also mentions that when Alexander the Great confronted Porus, Porus's soldiers were carrying an image of Herakles in their vanguard.[43]

The name Krishna occurs in Buddhist writings in the form Kānha, phonetically equivalent to Krishna.[44]

The Ghata-Jâtaka (No. 454) gives an account of Krishna's childhood and subsequent exploits which in many points corresponds with the Brahmanic legends of his life and contains several familiar incidents and names, such as Vâsudeva, Baladeva, Kaṃsa. Yet it presents many peculiarities and is either an independent version or a misrepresentation of a popular story that had wandered far from its home. Jain tradition also shows that these tales were popular and were worked up into different forms, for the Jains have an elaborate system of ancient patriarchs which includes Vâsudevas and Baladevas. Krishna is the ninth of the Black Vâsudevas and is connected with Dvâravatî or Dvârakâ. He will become the twelfth tîrthankara of the next world-period and a similar position will be attained by Devakî, Rohinî, Baladeva and Javakumâra, all members of his family. This is a striking proof of the popularity of the Krishna legend outside the Brahmanic religion.[45]

According to Arthasastra of Kautilya (4th century BCE) Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly monotheistic format.[41]

Around 150 BC, Patanjali in his Mahabhashya quotes a verse: "May the might of Krishna accompanied by Samkarshana increase!" Other verses are mentioned. One verse speaks of "Janardhana with himself as fourth" (Krishna with three companions, the three possibly being Samkarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha). Another verse mentions musical instruments being played at meetings in the temples of Rama (Balarama) and Kesava (Krishna). Patanjali also describes dramatic and mimetic performances (Krishna-Kamsopacharam) representing the killing of Kamsa by Vasudeva.[46][47]

In the 1st century BC, there seems to be evidence for a worship of five Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba) for an inscription has been found at Mora near Mathura, which apparently mentions a son of the great satrap Rajuvula, probably the satrap Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, "probably Vasudeva, and of the "Five Warriors".[48] Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum.[49][50]

Many Puranas tell Krishna's life-story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana, that contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna’s story and teachings are the most theologically venerated by the Vaishnava schools.[51] Roughly one quarter of the Bhagavata Purana is spent extolling his life and philosophy.

Life[edit]

This summary is based on details from the Mahābhārata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana. The scenes from the narrative are set in north India mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Delhi and Gujarat.Based on scriptural details and astrological calculations, the date of Krishna's birth, known as Janmashtami,[52] is 18 July 3228 BCE.[53] He was born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva,[54][55] When Mother Earth became upset by the sin being committed on Earth, she thought of seeking help from Lord Vishnu. She went in the form of a cow to visit Lord Vishnu and ask for help. Lord Vishnu agreed to help her and promised her that he would be born on Earth. On Earth in the Yadava clan, he was yadav according to his birth, a prince named Kansa sent his father Ugrasena (King of Mathura) to prison and became the King himself. One day a loud voice from the sky (Akash Vani in Hindi) prophesied that the 8th son of Kansa's sister (Devaki) would kill Kansa. Out of affection for Devaki, Kansa did not kill her outright. He did, however, send his sister and her husband (Vasudeva) to prison. Lord Vishnu himself later appeared to Devaki and Vasudeva and told them that he himself would be their eighth son and kill Kansa and destroy sin in the world. In the story of Krishna the deity is the agent of conception and also the offspring.[citation needed] Because of his sympathy for the earth, the divine Vishnu himself descended into the womb of Devaki and was born as her son, Vaasudeva (i.e., Krishna).[citation needed] This is occasionally cited as evidence that "virgin birth" tales are fairly common in non-Christian religions around the world.[56][57][58] However, there is nothing in Hindu scriptures to suggest that it was a "virgin" birth. By the time of conception and birth of Krishna, Devaki was married to Vasudeva and had already borne 7 children.[59] Virgin birth in this case should be more accurately understood as divine conception. Kunti the mother of the Pandavas referenced contemporaneously with the story of Krishna in the Mahabharata also has divine conception and virgin birth of Prince Karna.

The Hindu Vishnu Purana relates: "Devaki bore in her womb the lotus-eyed deity...before the birth of Krishna, no one could bear to gaze upon Devaki, from the light that invested her, and those who contemplated her radiance felt their minds disturbed.” This reference to light is reminiscent of the Vedic hymn "To an Unknown Divine," which refers to a Golden Child. According to F. M. Müller, this term means "the golden gem of child" and is an attempt at naming the sun. According to the Vishnu Purana, Krishna is the total incarnation of Lord Vishnu. It clearly describes in the Vishnu Purana that Krishna was born on earth to destroy sin, especially Kansa.

Krishna belonged to the Vrishni clan of Yadavas from Mathura,[60] and was the eighth son born to the princess Devaki, and her husband Vasudeva.

Mathura (in present day Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh) was the capital of the Yadavas, to which Krishna's parents Vasudeva and Devaki belonged. King Kansa, Devaki's brother,[61] had ascended the throne by imprisoning his father, King Ugrasena. Afraid of a prophecy from a divine voice from the heavens that predicted his death at the hands of Devaki's eighth "garbha", Kansa had the couple locked in a prison cell. After Kansa killed the first six children, Devaki apparently had a miscarriage of the seventh. However, in reality, the womb was actually transferred to Rohini secretly. This was how Balarama, Krishna's elder brother, was born. Once again Devaki became pregnant. Now due to the miscarriage, Kansa was in a puzzle regarding 'The Eighth One', but his ministers advised that the divine voice from the heavens emphasised "the eight garbha" and so this is the one. That night Krishna was born in the Abhijit nakshatra and simultanously Ekanamsha was born as Yogamaya in Gokulam to Nanda and Yashoda.

Since Vasudeva knew Krishna's life was in danger, Krishna was secretly taken out of the prison cell to be raised by his foster parents, Yasoda[62] and Nanda, in Gokula (in present day Mathura district). Two of his other siblings also survived, Balarama (Devaki's seventh child, transferred to the womb of Rohini, Vasudeva's first wife) and Subhadra (daughter of Vasudeva and Rohini, born much later than Balarama and Krishna)Nanda was the head of a community of cow-herders, and he settled in Vrindavana. The stories of Krishna's childhood and youth tell how he became a cow herder,[64] his mischievous pranks as Makhan Chor (butter thief) his foiling of attempts to take his life, and his role as a protector of the people of Vrindavana.

Krishna killed the demoness Putana, disguised as a wet nurse, and the tornado demon Trinavarta both sent by Kamsa for Krishna's life. He tamed the serpent Kāliyā, who previously poisoned the waters of Yamuna river, thus leading to the death of the cowherds. In Hindu art, Krishna is often depicted dancing on the multi-hooded Kāliyā.

Krishna lifted the Govardhana hill and taught Indra, the king of the devas, a lesson to protect native people of Brindavana from persecution by Indra and prevent the devastation of the pasture land of Govardhan. Indra had too much pride and was angry when Krishna advised the people of Brindavana to take care of their animals and their environment that provide them with all their necessities, instead of worshipping Indra annually by spending their resources.[65][66] In the view of some, the spiritual movement started by Krishna had something in it which went against the orthodox forms of worship of the Vedic gods such as Indra.[67] In Bhagavat Purana, Krishna says that the rain came from the nearby hill Govardhana, and advised that the people worshiped the hill instead of Indra. This made Indra furious, so he punished them by sending out a great storm. Krishna then lifted Govardhan and held it over the people like an umbrella.

The stories of his play with the gopis (milkmaids) of Brindavana, especially Radha (daughter of Vrishbhanu, one of the original residents of Brindavan) became known as the Rasa lila and were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. These became important as part of the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna.[68]

Krishna’s childhood reinforces the Hindu concept of lila, playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or Rasa-lila is a great example of this. Krishna played his flute and the gopis came immediately from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the Yamuna River, and joined him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there joined him through meditation.[69] The story of Krishna’s battle with Kāliyā also supports this idea in the sense of him dancing on Kāliyā’s many hoods. Even though he is doing battle with the serpent, he is in no real danger and treats it like a game. He is a protector, but he only appears to be a young boy having fun.[70] This idea of having a playful god is very important in Hinduism. The playfulness of Krishna has inspired many celebrations like the Rasa-lila and the Janmashtami : where they make human pyramids to break open handis (clay pots) hung high in the air that spill buttermilk all over the group after being broken by the person at the top. This is meant to be a fun celebration and it gives the participants a sense of unity. Many believe that lila being connected with Krishna gives Hindus a deeper connection to him and thus a deeper connection to Vishnu also; seeing as Krishna is an incarnation of Vishnu. Theologists, like Kristin Johnston Largen, believe that Krishna’s childhood can even inspire other religions to look for lila in deities so that they have a chance to experience a part of their faith that they may not have previously seen.On his return to Mathura as a young man, Krishna overthrew and killed his maternal uncle, Kansa, after quelling several assassination attempts from Kansa's followers. He reinstated Kansa's father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and became a leading prince at the court.[73] During this period, he became a friend of Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom, who were his cousins. Later, he took his Yadava subjects to the city of Dwaraka (in modern Gujarat) and established his own kingdom there.[74]

Krishna married Rukmini, the Vidarbha princess, by abducting her, at her request, from her proposed wedding with Shishupala. He married eight queens—collectively called the Ashtabharya—including Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti, Bhadra and Lakshmana.[75][76] Krishna subsequently married 16,000 or 16,100 maidens who were held captive by the demon Narakasura, to save their honour.[77][78] Krishna killed the demon and released them all. According to social custom of the time, all of the captive women were degraded, and would be unable to marry, as they had been under the Narakasura's control. However Krishna married them to reinstate their status in the society. This symbolic wedding with 16,100 abandoned daughters was more of a mass rehabilitation.[79] In Vaishnava traditions, Krishna's wives are forms of the goddess Lakshmi— consort of Vishnu, or special souls who attained this qualification after many lifetimes of austerity, while his two queens, Rukmani and Satyabhama, are expansions of Lakshmi.[80]

When Yudhisthira was assuming the title of emperor, he had invited all the great kings to the ceremony and while paying his respects to them, he started with Krishna because he considered Krishna to be the greatest of them all. While it was a unanimous feeling amongst most present at the ceremony that Krishna should get the first honours, his cousin Shishupala felt otherwise and started berating Krishna. Due to a vow given to Shishupal's mother, Krishna forgave a hundred verbal abuses by Shishupal, and upon the one hundred and first, he assumed his Virat (universal) form and killed Shishupal with his Chakra. The blind king Dhritarashtra also obtained divine vision to be able to see this form of Krishna during the time when Duryodana tried to capture Krishna when he came as a peace bearer before the great Mahabharat War. Essentially, Shishupala and Dantavakra were both re-incarnations of Vishnu's gate-keepers Jaya and Vijaya, who were cursed to be born on Earth, to be delivered by the Vishnu back to Vaikuntha.Once battle seemed inevitable, Krishna offered both sides the opportunity to choose between having either his army called narayani sena or himself alone, but on the condition that he personally would not raise any weapon. Arjuna, on behalf of the Pandavas, chose to have Krishna on their side, and Duryodhana, Kaurava prince, chose Krishna's army. At the time of the great battle, Krishna acted as Arjuna's charioteer, since this position did not require the wielding of weapons.

Upon arrival at the battlefield, and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart does not allow him to fight and he would rather prefer to renounce the kingdom and put down his Gandiv (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the battle, with the conversation soon extending into a discourse which was later compiled as the Bhagavad Gita.[82]Krishna asked Arjuna, "Have you within no time, forgotten the Kauravas' evil deeds such as not accepting the eldest brother Yudhishtira as King, usurping the entire Kingdom without yielding any portion to the Pandavas, meting out insults and difficulties to Pandavas, attempt to murder the Pandavas in the Barnava lac guest house, publicly attempting to disrobe and disgracing Draupadi. Krishna further exhorted in his famous Bhagavad Gita, "Arjuna, do not engage in philosophical analyses at this point of time like a Pundit. You are aware that Duryodhana and Karna particularly have long harboured jealousy and hatred for you Pandavas and badly want to prove their hegemony. You are aware that Bhishmacharya and your Teachers are tied down to their dharma of protecting the unitarian power of the Kuru throne. Moreover, you Arjuna, are only a mortal appointee to carry out my divine will, since the Kauravas are destined to die either way, due to their heap of sins. Open your eyes O Bhaarata and know that I encompass the Karta, Karma and Kriya, all in myself. There is no scope for contemplation now or remorse later, it is indeed time for war and the world will remember your might and immense powers for time to come. So rise O Arjuna!, tighten up your Gandiva and let all directions shiver till their farthest horizons, by the reverberation of its string."Krishna had a profound effect on the Mahabharata war and its consequences. He had considered the Kurukshetra war to be a last resort after voluntarily acting as a messenger in order to establish peace between the Pandavas and Kauravas. But, once these peace negotiations failed and was embarked into the war, then he became a clever strategist. During the war, upon becoming angry with Arjuna for not fighting in true spirit against his ancestors, Krishna once picked up a carriage wheel in order to use it as a weapon to challenge Bhishma. Upon seeing this, Bhishma dropped his weapons and asked Krishna to kill him. However, Arjuna apologized to Krishna, promising that he would fight with full dedication here/after, and the battle continued. Krishna had directed Yudhisthira and Arjuna to return to Bhishma the boon of "victory" which he had given to Yudhisthira before the war commenced, since he himself was standing in their way to victory. Bhishma understood the message and told them the means through which he would drop his weapons—which was if a woman entered the battlefield. Next day, upon Krishna's directions, Shikhandi (Amba reborn) accompanied Arjuna to the battlefield and thus, Bhishma laid down his arms. This was a decisive moment in the war because Bhishma was the chief commander of the Kaurava army and the most formidable warrior on the battlefield. Krishna aided Arjuna in killing Jayadratha, who had held the other four Pandava brothers at bay while Arjuna's son Abhimanyu entered Drona's Chakravyuha formation—an effort in which he was killed by the simultaneous attack of eight Kaurava warriors. Krishna also caused the downfall of Drona, when he signalled Bhima to kill an elephant called Ashwatthama, the namesake of Drona's son. Pandavas started shouting that Ashwatthama was dead but Drona refused to believe them saying he would believe it only if he heard it from Yudhisthira. Krishna knew that Yudhisthira would never tell a lie, so he devised a clever ploy so that Yudhisthira wouldn't lie and at the same time Drona would be convinced of his son's death. On asked by Drona, Yudhisthira proclaimed

Ashwathama Hatahath, naro va Kunjaro va

i.e. Ashwathama had died but he was nor sure whether it was a Drona's son or an elephant. But as soon as Yudhisthira had uttered the first line, Pandava army on Krishna's direction broke into celebration with drums and conchs, in the din of which Drona could not hear the second part of the Yudhisthira's declaration and assumed that his son indeed was dead. Overcome with grief he laid down his arms, and on Krishna's instruction Dhrishtadyumna beheaded Drona.

When Arjuna was fighting Karna, the latter's chariot's wheels sank into the ground. While Karna was trying to take out the chariot from the grip of the Earth, Krishna reminded Arjuna how Karna and the other Kauravas had broken all rules of battle while simultaneously attacking and killing Abhimanyu, and he convinced Arjuna to do the same in revenge in order to kill Karna. During the final stage of the war, when Duryodhana was going to meet his mother Gandhari for taking her blessings which would convert all parts of his body on which her sight falls to diamond, Krishna tricks him to wearing banana leaves to hide his groin. When Duryodhana meets Gandhari, her vision and blessings fall on his entire body except his groin and thighs, and she becomes unhappy about it because she was not able to convert his entire body to diamond. When Duryodhana was in a mace-fight with Bhima, Bhima's blows had no effect on Duryodhana. Upon this, Krishna reminded Bhima of his vow to kill Duryodhana by hitting him on the thigh, and Bhima did the same to win the war despite it being against the rules of mace-fight (since Duryodhana had himself broken Dharma in all his past acts). Thus, Krishna's unparalleled strategy helped the Pandavas win the Mahabharata war by bringing the downfall of all the chief Kaurava warriors, without lifting any weapon. He also brought back to life Arjuna's grandson Parikshit, who had been attacked by a Brahmastra weapon from Ashwatthama while he was in his mother's womb. Parikshit became the Pandavas' successor.Krishna had eight princely wives, also known as Ashtabharya: Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Nagnajiti, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Bhadra, Lakshmana) and the other 16,100 or 16,000 (number varies in scriptures), who were rescued from Narakasura. They had been forcibly kept in his palace and after Krishna had killed Narakasura, he rescued these women and freed them. Krishna married them all to save them from destruction and infamity. He gave them shelter in his new palace and a respectful place in society. The chief amongst them is Rohini.

The Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Harivamsa list the children of Krishna from the Ashtabharya with some variation; while Rohini's sons are interpreted to represent the unnumbered children of his junior wives. Most well-known among his sons are Pradyumna, the eldest son of Krishna (and Rukmini) and Samba, the son of Jambavati, whose actions led to the destruction of Krishna's clan.According to Mahabharata, the Kurukshetra war resulted in the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. On the night before Duryodhana's death, Lord Krishna visited Gandhari to offer his condolences. Gandhari felt that Krishna knowingly did not put an end to the war, and in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari cursed that Krishna, along with everyone else from the Yadu dynasty, would perish after 36 years. Krishna himself knew and wanted this to happen as he felt that the Yadavas had become very haughty and arrogant (adharmi), so he ended Gandhari's speech by saying "tathastu" (so be it).[83][84][85]

After 36 years passed, a fight broke out between the Yadavas, at a festival, who killed each other. His elder brother, Balarama, then gave up his body using Yoga. Krishna retired into the forest and started meditating under a tree. The Mahabharata also narrates the story of a hunter who becomes an instrument for Krishna's departure from the world. The hunter Jara, mistook Krishna's partly visible left foot for that of a deer, and shot an arrow, wounding him mortally. After he realised the mistake, While still bleeding, Krishna told Jara, "O Jara, you were Bali in your previous birth, killed by myself as Rama in Tretayuga. Here you had a chance to even it and since all acts in this world are done as desired by me, you need not worry for this". Then Krishna, with his physical body[86] ascended back to his eternal abode, Goloka vrindavan and this event marks departure of Krishna from the earth.[87][88][89] The news was conveyed to Hastinapur and Dwaraka by eyewitnesses to this event.[86] The place of this incident is believed to be Bhalka, near Somnath temple.[90][91]

According to Puranic sources,[92] Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[7] Vaishnava teachers such as Ramanujacharya and Gaudiya Vaishnavas held the view that the body of Krishna is completely spiritual and never decays (Achyuta) as this appears to be the perspective of the Bhagavata Purana. Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) exhorted, "Krishna Naama Sankirtan" i.e. the constant chanting of the Krishna's name is the supreme healer in Kali Yuga. It destroys sins and purifies the hearts through Bhakti ensures universal peace.

Krishna never appears to grow old or age at all in the historical depictions of the Puranas despite passing of several decades, but there are grounds for a debate whether this indicates that he has no material body, since battles and other descriptions of the Mahabhārata epic show clear indications that he seems to be subject to the limitations of nature.[93] While battles apparently seem to indicate limitations, Mahabharata also shows in many places where Krishna is not subject to any limitations as through episodes Duryodhana trying to arrest Krishna where his body burst into fire showing all creation within him.[94] Krishna is also explicitly described as without deterioration elsewhere.[95]The worship of Krishna is part of Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu as the Supreme God and venerates His associated avatars, their consorts, and related saints and teachers. Krishna is especially looked upon as a full manifestation of Vishnu, and as one with Vishnu himself.[96] However the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,[97] where Krishna is sometimes considered an independent deity, supreme in his own right.[98] Out of many deities, Krishna is particularly important, and traditions of Vaishnava lines are generally centered either on Vishnu or on Krishna, as supreme. The term Krishnaism has been used to describe the sects of Krishna, reserving the term "Vaishnavism" for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an avatar, rather than as a transcendent Supreme Being.[99]

All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu; while traditions, such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism,[100][101] Vallabha Sampradaya and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, regard Krishna as the Svayam Bhagavan, original form of God.[102][103][104][105][106] Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala of late Vedic period.[107] Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.[108]The deity Krishna-Vasudeva (kṛṣṇa vāsudeva "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism.[8][39] It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of the worship of Krishna in antiquity.[9][109] This tradition is considered as earliest to other traditions that led to amalgamation at a later stage of the historical development. Other traditions are Bhagavatism and the cult of Gopala, that along with the cult of Bala Krishna form the basis of current tradition of monotheistic religion of Krishna.[110][111] Some early scholars would equate it with Bhagavatism,[9] and the founder of this religious tradition is believed to be Krishna, who is the son of Vasudeva, thus his name is Vāsudeva; he is said to be historically part of the Satvata tribe, and according to them his followers called themselves Bhagavatas and this religion had formed by the 2nd century BC (the time of Patanjali), or as early as the 4th century BC according to evidence in Megasthenes and in the Arthasastra of Kautilya, when Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme deity in a strongly monotheistic format, where the supreme being was perfect, eternal and full of grace.[9] In many sources outside of the cult, the devotee or bhakta is defined as Vāsudevaka.[112] The Harivamsa describes intricate relationships between Krishna Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha that would later form a Vaishnava concept of primary quadrupled expansion, or avatar.[113]

Bhakti tradition[edit]

Main article: Bhakti yoga

Bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotional and ecstatic aspects of Hindu religion, particularly among the Vaishnava sects.[100][114] Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of lila, meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the Universe. The lilas of Krishna, with their expressions of personal love that transcend the boundaries of formal reverence, serve as a counterpoint to the actions of another avatar of Vishnu: Rama, "He of the straight and narrow path of maryada, or rules and regulations."[101]

The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil country.[115] A major collection of their works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre.[116][117] [118] Kulasekaraazhvaar's Mukundamala was another notable work of this early stage.

Spread of the Krishna-bhakti movement[edit]

The movement, which started in the 6th-7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs. The religion of Alvar poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions. The movement originated in South India during the seventh-century CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the fifteenth century, it was established in Bengal and northern India[119]While the learned sections of the society well versed in Sanskrit could enjoy works like Gita Govinda or Bilvamangala's Krishna-Karnamritam, the masses sang the songs of the devotee-poets, who composed in the regional languages of India. These songs expressing intense personal devotion were written by devotees from all walks of life. The songs of Meera and Surdas became epitomes of Krishna-devotion in north India.These devotee-poets, like the Alvars before them, were aligned to specific theological schools only loosely, if at all. But by the 11th century AD, Vaishnava Bhakti schools with elaborate theological frameworks around the worship of Krishna were established in north India. Nimbarka (11th century AD), Vallabhacharya (15th century AD) and (Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) (16th century AD) all inspired by the teachings of Madhvacharya (11th century AD) were the founders of the most influential schools. These schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya and Gaudiya Vaishnavism respectively, see Krishna as the supreme God, rather than an avatar, as generally seen.

In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Varkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba,[29] a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century.[6] In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti named Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.[114]In 1965, the Krishna-bhakti movement had spread outside India when its founder, Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, (who was instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) traveled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of the saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In an effort to gain attention, followers chanted the names of God in public locations. This chanting was known as hari-nama sankirtana and helped spread the teaching. Additionally, the practice of distributing prasad or “sanctified food” worked as a catalyst in the dissemination of his works. In the Hare Krishna movement, Prasad was a vegetarian dish that would be first offered to Krishna. The food’s proximity to Krishna added a “spiritual effect,” and was seen to “counteract material contamination affecting the soul.” Sharing this sanctified food with the public, in turn, enabled the movement to gain new recruits and further spread these teachings.[10][120][121]In South India, Vaishnavas usually belong to the Sri Sampradaya[citation needed]. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya have written reverentially about Krishna in most of their works like the Thiruppavai by Andal[122] and Gopala Vimshati by Vedanta Desika.[123] In South India, devotion to Krishna, as an avatar of Vishnu, spread in the face of opposition to Buddhism, Shaktism, and Shaivism and ritualistic Vedic sacrifices. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya like Manavala Mamunigal, Vedanta Desika strongly advocated surrender to Vishnu as the aim of the Vedas. Out of 108 Divya Desams there are 97 Divya Desams in South India.While discussing the origin of Indian theatre, Horwitz talks about the mention of the Krishna story in Patanjali's Mahabhashya (c. 150 BC), where the episodes of slaying of Kamsa (Kamsa Vadha) and "Binding of the heaven storming titan" (Bali Bandha) are described.[124] Bhasa's Balacharitam and Dutavakyam (c. 400 BC) are the only Sanskrit plays centered on Krishna written by a major classical dramatist. The former dwells only on his childhood exploits and the latter is a one-act play based on a single episode from the Mahābhārata when Krishna tries to make peace between the warring cousins.[125]

From the 10th century AD, with the growing bhakti movement, Krishna became a favorite subject of the arts. The songs of the Gita Govinda became popular across India, and had many imitations. The songs composed by the Bhakti poets added to the repository of both folk and classical singing.

The classical Indian dances, especially Odissi and Manipuri, draw heavily on the story. The 'Rasa lila' dances performed in Vrindavan shares elements with Kathak, and the Krisnattam, with some cycles, such as Krishnattam, traditionally restricted to the Guruvayur temple, the precursor of Kathakali.[126]

The Sattriya dance, founded by the Assamese Vaishnava saint Sankardeva, extols the virtues of Krishna. Medieval Maharashtra gave birth to a form of storytelling known as the Hari-Katha, that told Vaishnava tales and teachings through music, dance, and narrative sequences, and the story of Krishna one of them. This tradition spread to Tamil Nadu and other southern states, and is now popular in many places throughout India.

Narayana Tirtha's (17th century AD) Krishna-Lila-Tarangini provided material for the musical plays of the Bhagavata-Mela by telling the tale of Krishna from birth until his marriage to Rukmini. Tyagaraja (18th century AD) wrote a similar piece about Krishna called Nauka-Charitam. The narratives of Krishna from the Puranas are performed in Yakshagana, a performance style native to Karnataka's coastal districts. Many movies in all Indian languages have been made based on these stories. These are of varying quality and usually add various songs, melodrama, and special effects.

In other religions[edit]

Jainism[edit]

Further information: Salakapurusa

The most exalted figures in Jainism are the twenty-four Tirthankaras. Krishna, when he was incorporated into the Jain list of heroic figures, presented a problem with his activities which are not pacifist. The concept of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prati-Vasudeva was used to solve it.[neutrality is disputed] The Jain list of sixty-three Shalakapurshas or notable figures includes, amongst others, the twenty-four Tirthankaras and nine sets of this triad. One of these triads is Krishna as the Vasudeva, Balarama as the Baladeva and Jarasandha as the Prati-Vasudeva. He was a cousin of the twenty-second Tirthankara, Neminatha. The stories of these triads can be found in the Harivamsha of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to Mahābhārata) and the Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita of Hemachandra.[127]

In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a Vasudeva with an elder brother termed the Baladeva. The villain is the Prati-vasudeva. Baladeva is the upholder of the Jain principle of non-violence. However, Vasudeva has to forsake this principle to kill the Prati-Vasudeva and save the world. [128][129]The story of Krishna occurs in the Jataka tales in Buddhism,[130] in the Vaibhav Jataka as a prince and legendary conqueror and king of India.[131] In the Buddhist version, Krishna is called Vasudeva, Kanha and Keshava, and Balarama is his older brother, Baladeva. These details resemble that of the story given in the Bhagavata Purana. Vasudeva, along with his nine other brothers (each son a powerful wrestler) and one elder sister (Anjana) capture all of Jambudvipa (many consider this to be India) after beheading their evil uncle, King Kamsa, and later all other kings of Jambudvipa with his Sudarshana Chakra. Much of the story involving the defeat of Kamsa follows the story given in the Bhagavata Purana.[132]

As depicted in the Mahābhārata, all of the sons are eventually killed due to a curse of sage Kanhadipayana (Veda Vyasa, also known as Krishna Dwaipayana). Krishna himself is eventually speared by a hunter in the foot by mistake, leaving the sole survivor of their family being their sister, Anjanadevi of whom no further mention is made.[133]

Since Jataka tales are given from the perspective of Buddha's previous lives (as well as the previous lives of many of Buddha's followers), Krishna appears as the "Dhammasenapati" or "Chief General of the Dharma" and is usually shown being Buddha's "right-hand man" in Buddhist art and iconography.[134] The Bodhisattva, is born in this tale as one of his youngest brothers named Ghatapandita, and saves Krishna from the grief of losing his son.[131] The 'divine boy' Krishna as an embodiment of wisdom and endearing prankster forms a part of the pantheon of gods in Japanese Buddhism .[135]Bahá'ís believe that Krishna was a "Manifestation of God", or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Muhammad, Jesus, the Báb, and the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh.[Members of the Ahmadiyya Community believe Krishna to be a great prophet of God as described by their founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. This belief is maintained by the Qur'anic Principle that God has sent prophets and messengers to every nation of the world leaving no region without divine guidance (see for instance Quran 10:47 and Quran 16:36).

Ghulam Ahmad also claimed to be the likeness of Krishna as a latter day reviver of religion and morality whose mission was to reconcile man with God.[138] Ahmadis maintain that the Sanskrit term Avatar is synonymous with the term 'prophet' of the Middle Eastern religious tradition as God's intervention with man; as God appoints a man as his vicegerent upon earth. In Lecture Sialkot, Ghulam Ahmed wrote:

Let it be clear that Raja Krishna, according to what has been revealed to me, was such a truly great man that it is hard to find his like among the Rishis and Avatars of the Hindus. He was an Avatar—i.e., Prophet—of his time upon whom the Holy Spirit would descend from God. He was from God, victorious and prosperous. He cleansed the land of the Aryas from sin and was in fact the Prophet of his age whose teaching was later corrupted in numerous ways. He was full of love for God, a friend of virtue and an enemy of evil.[138]

Krishna is also called Murli Dhar. The flute of Krishna means the flute of revelation and not the physical flute. Krishna lived like humans and he was a prophet.[139][140]Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several new religious movements since the 19th century and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in occult texts, along with Greek, Buddhist, biblical and even historical figures.[141] For instance, Édouard Schuré, an influential figure in perennial philosophy and occult movements, considered Krishna a Great Initiate; while Theosophists regard Krishna as an incarnation of Maitreya (one of the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom), the most important spiritual teacher for humanity along with Buddha.[142][143]

Krishna was canonized by Aleister Crowley and is recognized as a saint in the Gnostic Mass of Ordo Templi Orientis.[144][145]

Spleen

 

Quand le ciel bas et lourd pèse comme un couvercle

Sur l'esprit gémissant en proie aux longs ennuis,

Et que de l'horizon embrassant tout le cercle

Il nous verse un jour noir plus triste que les nuits ;

 

Quand la terre est changée en un cachot humide,

Où l'Espérance, comme une chauve-souris,

S'en va battant les murs de son aile timide

Et se cognant la tête à des plafonds pourris ;

 

Quand la pluie étalant ses immenses traînées

D'une vaste prison imite les barreaux,

Et qu'un peuple muet d'infâmes araignées

Vient tendre ses filets au fond de nos cerveaux,

 

Des cloches tout à coup sautent avec furie

Et lancent vers le ciel un affreux hurlement,

Ainsi que des esprits errants et sans patrie

Qui se mettent à geindre opiniâtrement.

 

- Et de longs corbillards, sans tambours ni musique,

Défilent lentement dans mon âme ; l'Espoir,

Vaincu, pleure, et l'Angoisse atroce, despotique,

Sur mon crâne incliné plante son drapeau noir.

 

Charles BAUDELAIRE

(Les fleurs du mal)

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=XVCeF2proGU

Le Voyage

 

I

 

Pour l'enfant, amoureux de cartes et d'estampes,

L'univers est égal à son vaste appétit.

Ah! que le monde est grand à la clarté des lampes!

Aux yeux du souvenir que le monde est petit!

 

Un matin nous partons, le cerveau plein de flamme,

Le coeur gros de rancune et de désirs amers,

Et nous allons, suivant le rythme de la lame,

Berçant notre infini sur le fini des mers:

 

Les uns, joyeux de fuir une patrie infâme;

D'autres, l'horreur de leurs berceaux, et quelques-uns,

Astrologues noyés dans les yeux d'une femme,

La Circé tyrannique aux dangereux parfums.

 

Pour n'être pas changés en bêtes, ils s'enivrent

D'espace et de lumière et de cieux embrasés;

La glace qui les mord, les soleils qui les cuivrent,

Effacent lentement la marque des baisers.

 

Mais les vrais voyageurs sont ceux-là seuls qui partent

Pour partir; coeurs légers, semblables aux ballons,

De leur fatalité jamais ils ne s'écartent,

Et, sans savoir pourquoi, disent toujours: Allons!

 

Ceux-là dont les désirs ont la forme des nues,

Et qui rêvent, ainsi qu'un conscrit le canon,

De vastes voluptés, changeantes, inconnues,

Et dont l'esprit humain n'a jamais su le nom!

 

Charles Baudelaire, Les fleurs du mal, 1861.

 

MÚSICA: Rui Veloso - Auto da Pimenta - País do Gelo

youtu.be/CGEe_3PQjnI

Tras la victoria chilena en Yungay en enero de 1839, la Confederación Perú Boliviana deja de existir. Su creador y líder indiscutido, el Mariscal boliviano Andrés de Santa Cruz, se convierte en un proscrito. Encajando las inevitables traiciones del derrotado, huye y se asila en el Ecuador. Desde ahí observa las bochornosas pugnas entre sus herederos. Perú y Bolivia se desgarran en revoluciones y guerras civiles. Llamado por consecutivos revolucionarios bolivianos, Santa Cruz abandona su exilio y se lanza a la aventura de recuperar el poder. Desembarcado en la caleta de Camarones, tiene la mala suerte de caer en una región que le es adversa. Efectivos peruanos lo encarcelan. Los bolivianos envían una tropa armada, amenazando llevárselo por la fuerza. Los argentinos bajo el general Rosas lo califican de “bandido, salteador, cruel, funesto y criminal sin ejemplo”. Santa Cruz ve con espanto que varios países forcejean para encarcelarlo o llanamente ejecutarlo.

 

El gobierno chileno no se queda atrás. Es tanta la alarma por su reaparición que llega al extremo de organizar y enviar una flota naval para capturarlo. El tironeo por Santa Cruz es internacional y despiadado. En Perú lo trasladan por sucesivas cárceles, no pocas veces con amenazas a su vida. Los bolivianos aguardan para echarle el guante. La flota chilena recorre la costa peruana acechando y desembarca una delegación para negociar su entrega. Chile argumenta que lo más seguro para todos es llevar a Santa Cruz lo más lejos posible, es decir, a nuestro país. Tras una serie de engorrosas y complejas negociaciones, los peruanos ceden la persona del zarandeado mariscal y éste es embarcado en la fragata “Chile”. El 8 de marzo de 1844 llegan con el prisionero al puerto de Valparaíso. A la semana siguiente el Presidente Bulnes manda a fondear al defenestrado caudillo en la ciudad de Chillán.

 

Como acompañante de Santa Cruz es designado el coronel Benjamín Viel, oficial francés veterano de las guerras napoleónicas y que ha seguido su carrera militar al servicio de Chile. Viel es un rubicundo y fornido militar, aficionado a la buena mesa, los mostos y la vida alegre. Por su lado, Andrés de Santa Cruz es un hombre sobrio, enjuto y moreno, de mirada brillante, inteligente y muy seductor. El gobierno chileno supone que Viel, personaje simpático, cosmopolita y expansivo, será buena compañía para Santa Cruz y que además lo vigilará de cerca, evitando cualquier comunicación del boliviano con sus partidarios.

 

Celador y prisionero llegan a Chillán a inicios de abril y se instalan en la mejor casa de la ciudad. Para mayor comodidad del único reo, el gobierno autoriza a Viel a “gastar libremente”, facultad exclusiva suya entre todos los empleados y funcionarios de la República. El coronel, amante de la buena vida, se embala con el permiso. La cocina queda a cargo de un chef francés llevado especialmente desde Valparaíso. Abundan los vinos extranjeros y el champagne. Se gastan 500 pesos mensuales en el condumio, dinero que en aquella época habría bastado para mantener por un año a una familia completa de la elite chillaneja. Santa Cruz es aficionado a la caza y para sustentar el sano ejercicio de ese deporte se le tienen caballos, escopetas y sirvientes.

 

El antiguo protector de la Confederación Perú Boliviana se transforma en una curiosidad, Es visitado con frecuencia por los vecinos importantes y por cuanto ocioso quiera ver al Mariscal en su lujosa cárcel. Incluso se autoriza la venida de un hijo suyo de quince años desde Guayaquil para que lo acompañe. Ahí, entre vianda y copa, Santa Cruz hace recuerdos de sus épocas de gloria, cuando unió al Perú y Bolivia y los hizo soñar con la reconstrucción del imperio inca.

 

Una visita ilustre es la de Ignacio Domeyko, en gira científica por el sur del país. Cuenta Domeyko que la obligada pareja de Santa Cruz y Viel comparten un infierno bien surtido. Santa Cruz, siempre anhelando su antiguo poder y haciendo planes para recuperarlo, se sentía como un Napoleón sudamericano recluido en Santa Elena. Veía entonces a Viel como a Hudson Lowe, el infame carcelero inglés del emperador de los franceses. Este personaje no podía irritar más al sanguíneo Viel. Habiendo sido soldado de Napoleón, caballero de la Legión de Honor condecorado por mano de Bonaparte tras Borodino y declarado enemigo de los ingleses, que lo compararan con el verdugo de su ídolo era una afrenta insufrible. Santa Cruz, que se siente cómodo en el papel del emperador, goza irritando al explosivo oficial. A pesar del espléndido menú, las querellas son continuas y recíprocas, quejándose el uno del otro por la mala suerte que les ha deparado estos desagradables papeles. Cada cual se mantiene, rígidamente, en su correspondiente extremo de la mesa. Jamás se hablan, ni siquiera se miran, si no que utilizan a sus contertulios o a los sirvientes como intermediarios. Incluso cuando la discusión se caldea y vuelan las provocaciones.

 

Domeyko describe una de estas escenas. “Nos sentamos para desayunar y la charla comenzó con cosas triviales. Viel lucía su ingenio francés, Santa Cruz sonreía; hasta el mediodía tomábamos la champaña como si fuera agua…” La conversación se va haciendo espesa y sale a colación el Código Civil que Santa Cruz había redactado para Bolivia. Viel, caballeroso, elogia esta obra. Santa Cruz, pillo y amalditado, se queja de que el actual Presidente de Bolivia le ha cambiado el nombre de “Código de Santa Cruz” y agrega, mirando a Viel de reojo: “Pero fíjense, por favor, que el código actual de Francia se sigue llamando el Código de Napoleón, el emperador Napoleón… – en ese instante Viel saltó de la silla, enrojeció como un tomate y salió del salón”.

Esta rutina de provocaciones mantiene a Viel en una enervada distancia. Santa Cruz la aprovecha para urdir la trama de su liberación. Se le permite escribir a sus parientes y ahí se queja y exagera amargamente “las duras condiciones de su encierro”. Aprovechando estas concesiones, el prisionero se da maña para enviar y recibir correspondencia de sus partidarios en Perú y Bolivia. Obtiene valiosa información política y mantiene vivas las esperanzas de su restauración. Da instrucciones a sus partidarios para que se comuniquen con los representantes de gobiernos amigos que él conoció y favoreció mientras tuvo el poder. Así teje una vasta red, invisible para sus captores chilenos, que le será de enorme utilidad para salir del cautiverio.

 

El primer gobierno que responde a sus maniobras y realiza gestiones por su liberación es el de Ecuador. Por intermedio del canciller ecuatoriano, poseedor del desconcertante nombre de don Benigno Malo, se pide a Chile que permita la salida de Santa Cruz con rumbo a Europa. El gobierno chileno responde que no le tiene confianza, porque éste continua con sus conspiraciones y ánimos de revueltas.

 

En vista de la negativa y explorando la posibilidad de un escape, el hábil caudillo llega al extremo de convencer a un par de padres misioneros del colegio de Chillán para que lo ayuden a huir a través de la cordillera y ya en Argentina, recibir el auxilio de los capitanejos dueños y señores de las pampas.

 

Más fructíferas y seguras son las gestiones internacionales que realizan su familia y partidarios. El 14 de agosto el encargado de negocios inglés en Chile, coronel Walpole, dirige al ministro de Relaciones Exteriores una nota a nombre de su gobierno en que le pide la adopción “de la humana y sabia política de poner en libertad al general Santa Cruz”, y en caso de no ser esto posible, que no se usara con él “ninguna restricción innecesaria”. En esos mismos días el gobierno recibe comunicaciones de su encargado de negocios en Francia, informando que el ministro del Rey, Mr. Guizot, mostraba interés por la suerte de Santa Cruz, dando a entender su deseo de interponer a favor de él la amistad que existía entre los gobiernos chileno y francés. Un mes más tarde llega a Santiago una información aún más alarmante. Ahora es el mismo Rey de Francia, Luis Felipe, quien le ha hablado al representante de Chile en París en favor de Santa Cruz. Al parecer, el ladino prisionero ha instalado en la opinión pública internacional y al más alto nivel, la idea de que efectivamente es un Napoleón encarcelado, víctima del más duro e injusto de los encierros, en una lejana e inhóspita región del planeta.

 

Para Bulnes y sus ministros, una cosa es desechar sin asco la petición de libertad de los ecuatorianos. Otra muy distinta es echarse al bolsillo a los gobiernos de Inglaterra y Francia y aparecer como los ejecutores de una vergonzosa y opresiva iniquidad en contra de una víctima de los vaivenes de la política internacional. Peor aún cuando la joven República de Chile intenta hacerse de una buena reputación en el concierto mundial.

 

Como Perú y Bolivia también están comprometidos con la suerte del protector, hay que ponerse de acuerdo. Luego de muchas cartas, oficios y comunicaciones, en septiembre de 1845 se da inicio a una conferencia en Santiago con la presencia de los representantes de los tres países. La sala del ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores es el tirante escenario de estas negociaciones. Durante un mes se discute el destino de Santa Cruz, a quien, en verdad, ninguno de los tres gobiernos quiere cerca. En octubre se firma un convenio que estipula la liberación del prisionero, pero éste deberá salir de inmediato a Europa y durante seis años le estará prohibido asomar su humanidad por el continente americano. El gobierno de Bolivia se compromete a pagar seis mil pesos anuales para su manutención en el extranjero.

 

Santa Cruz recibe este acuerdo con la mayor satisfacción, afirmando que “Siendo mi deseo más vehemente el dejar de ser objeto de persecuciones en América, y contraerme a la educación de mi familia… me resigno gustoso a trasladarme a Europa, y a no regresar de ella antes de los seis años prefijados a mi ostracismo”. El pacto es ratificado en diciembre. A fines de enero siguiente, Santa Cruz se traslada a Valparaíso.

 

El dictador permanece en el puerto durante tres meses, en espera de familiares que viajarán con él a Europa. Durante este tiempo lo acompaña el infaltable Viel. A esas alturas y con su libertad en la mano, las relaciones entre los protagonistas de esta obligada convivencia de veinte meses, llena de recelos y desconfianzas, se endulza como por encanto. La franqueza simple y espontánea de Viel y la inteligencia práctica de Santa Cruz disipan todo encono. El 20 de abril de 1846, el mariscal y Protector de la Confederación Perú Boliviana y el coronel Benjamín Viel se separaron con un largo abrazo de viejos amigos. Santa Cruz será sepultado en Versalles en 1865. Viel fallecerá en Santiago tres años más tarde.

Texto del historiador Gonzalo Peralta

E' arrivato il momento di decidere da che parte stare.

E' vero che non ci sono soluzioni semplici e che ogni cosa in questo mondo è sempre più complessa.

Ma per affrontare i cambiamenti epocali della storia è necessario avere una posizione, sapere quali sono le priorità per poter prendere delle scelte.

Noi stiamo dalla parte degli uomini scalzi.

Di chi ha bisogno di mettere il proprio corpo in pericolo per poter sperare di vivere o di sopravvivere.

E' difficile poterlo capire se non hai mai dovuto viverlo.

Ma la migrazione assoluta richiede esattamente questo: spogliarsi completamente della propria identità per poter sperare di trovarne un'altra. Abbandonare tutto, mettere il proprio corpo e quello dei tuoi figli dentro ad una barca, ad un tir, ad un tunnel e sperare che arrivi integro al di là, in un ignoto che ti respinge, ma di cui tu hai bisogno.

Sono questi gli uomini scalzi del 21°secolo e noi stiamo con loro.

Le loro ragioni possono essere coperte da decine di infamie, paure, minacce, ma è incivile e disumano non ascoltarle.

 

La Marcia degli Uomini Scalzi parte da queste ragioni e inizia un lungo cammino di civiltà.

E' l'inizio di un percorso di cambiamento che chiede a tutti gli uomini e le donne del mondo globale di capire che non è in alcun modo accettabile fermare e respingere chi è vittima di ingiustizie militari, religiose o economiche che siano. Non è pensabile fermare chi scappa dalle ingiustizie, al contrario aiutarli significa lottare contro quelle ingiustizie.

Dare asilo a chi scappa dalle guerre, significa ripudiare la guerra e costruire la pace.

Dare rifugio a chi scappa dalle discriminazioni religiose, etniche o di genere, significa lottare per i diritti e le libertà di tutte e tutti.

Dare accoglienza a chi fugge dalla povertà, significa non accettare le sempre crescenti disuguaglianze economiche e promuovere una maggiore redistribuzione di ricchezze.

 

"Lo Stato italiano è stato una dittatura feroce che ha messo a ferro e fuoco l'Italia meridionale e le isole, squartando, fucilando, seppellendo vivi i contadini poveri che scrittori salariati tentarono d'infamare col marchio di briganti."

Antonio Gramsci, da L'Ordine Nuovo, 1920

Pra quem reclamava que nunca tinha visto um prisma holográfico nos esmaltes da Sancion Angel, olha ele aí...

Perdoem a piadinha infame, mas eu não resisti, hihihi...

 

De todos os acabamentos existentes no mercado, depois do bom e velho cremoso, o holográfico é sem sombra de dúvida o meu preferido. Como eu não tenho um OMG pra fazer top coat holo, fiquei maravilhada qdo a queridíssima Tiane mostrou que dá pra usar o Diamond como top coat, batizando ele primeiro com algum esmalte transparente (eu usei o extra-brilho da Cora).

 

Agora to muito feliz pq posso sair por aí holografando a vida e ainda usei o Seche vite por cima e não diminuiu na-da a holografia dele.

Ainda não to me entendendo com a posição do sol pra tirar direito as fotos que dependem dele. No verão, o melhor momento era de manhã, mas agora com o outono chegando talvez seja melhor à tarde, pq o esmalte fica um escândalo no sol, mas eu não consigo captar direito pq fica estourando a luz na máquina. Tirei trocentas fotos de vários ângulos, posições, com zoom, sem zoom e nada ficou muitíssimo bom... A foto com flash dos comentários dá pra mostrar bem como fica a holografia dele na luz artificial, to amandoooooo!!!

 

Relevem a unha do indicador menor do que as outras, mas ela tava rachando perto da carne e tive que lixar um pouxo pra não quebrar de vez e fiquei com pena de diminuir todas as unhas. Ao vivo nem dá pra perceber muito, mas na foto, uia...

 

EDIT: Postei essa foto uns minutos atrás e 2 meninas já tinham comentado, aí fui fazer uma edição enquanto falava ao telefone e acabei excluindo a foto sem querer dãããããã... Desculpa tá!!

 

@marciaallves

Argh, je ne fais pas fort en ce moment, je suis tellement prise IRL, que je ne passe plus aucun temps sur MC ou sur Flickr, je ne suis pas au courant de la moindre nouveauté du côté des compagnies et des résineux des uns et des autres, j'espère réussir à revenir plus souvent par ici ! Puis ouais, j'ai encore et toujours la même excuse, mais pas d'inspiration !! Comment ça se faiiiit ? En plus je suis amoureuse, ça devrait aider, non ? (Mais finalement, c'est à lui que j'accorde tout mon temps, voilà la vérité... :3)

Breffeuh, revenons-en à nos moutons, en mars dernier (ouais, ça date un peu), j'ai gagné le premier prix du concours d'écriture organisé par Ehowinn. Et le premier prix : une Mayfair, et la dernière Mayfair en tirage d'artiste (si j'ai bien compris) ! J'ai eu le droit de choisir sa custo de A à Z, de sa couleur de résine (je n'ai pas fait dans l'original, je la voulais simplement en natural un peu pâle) à son makeup en passant par sa wig. Pour dire vrai, c'est la première fois que j'ai une poupée avec un blush tout beau, tout neuf, mes Unoa en ont un aussi, mais comme j'ai acheté leurs corps en seconde main, les blush étaient déjà très abîmés. Ma nouvelle a une jolie manucure, pédicure, une jolie wig avec des petites décos, deux faceplates, normal et sleeping et une paire de pieds à talons en plus des normaux. J'ai été archi gâtée !! Je l'ai reçu juste après le LDoll car Ehowinn a été très prise depuis ce concours et n'a pas eu le temps de la finir avant.

Cette custo, je l'avais prévue de longue date pour une Bellosse (une SD de chez DIM), puis en fait, j'ai fini par ne plus accrocher autant qu'avant à ce moule, mais je tenais à garder le personnage prévu.

C'est donc une princesse, Pimprenelle. Et vous en saurez plus sur son histoire quand elle sera déjà plus clair dans ma tête ! xD

Je suis contente à propos de quelque chose, j'avais acheté pour cette fameuse SD, une superbe robe de chez Musedoll, et je ne l'avais jamais revendue, même en sachant que j'allais passer à une MSD. Du coup, je l'ai quand même essayé sur Pimprenelle, et je suis bluffée, car malgré la finesse et la petitesse de son corps, elle lui va à merveille. :')

Pardonnez les photos d'une médiocre qualité mais le temps au Danemark est infâme depuis mon retour mi-octobre et il n'y a pas un brin de soleil et je n'aime pas le rendu des photos avec les lumières d'intérieur, et ne parlons pas du flash !

Juste deux photos dont je ne suis pas fière (comme trop souvent d'ailleurs) pour vous la présenter.

PUENTE DEL MACHANGARA . QUITO

*Caos en QUITO

 

Defragmentacion de los sentidos ....

 

WWW.INFAME.TK

Fonte dell'immagine: Il Lampo da Levante

 

Condizioni d'Uso: Avviso legale e condizioni per l’uso

  

Mettersi sul cammino della fede in Dio

 

Nel 1991, per grazia di Dio, iniziai a seguire Dio Onnipotente a causa di una malattia. A quel tempo non sapevo nulla della fede in Dio, ma la cosa interessante è che mi piaceva nutrirmi e abbeverarmi delle parole proferite da Dio Onnipotente. Sentivo che le Sue parole erano così buone, e quando cantavo o pregavo ero spesso commosso dallo Spirito Santo al punto da mettermi a piangere. Quella dolcezza nel mio cuore, quel godimento, erano come un evento gioioso che mi fosse capitato. In particolare, nel ritrovarsi assieme durante la grande opera dello Spirito Santo, sentivo come se avessi trasceso la carne e vivessi nel terzo cielo, sentivo che qualsiasi cosa appartenente al mondo era stato gettato al vento. Non riesco a dire quanto ricolmo di gioia, quanto felice, fossi nel mio cuore. Sentivo di essere la persona più felice al mondo. A quel tempo, quindi, pensavo che credere in Dio consistesse soltanto nel gustare la Sua grazia.

 

Più le parole di Dio venivano rilasciate (al tempo venivano continuamente inviate alla Chiesa, passaggio dopo passaggio), più io conoscevo. Allora, non fui più soltanto ricolmo dal godimento della grazia di Dio. Quando vidi “i primogeniti” menzionati nelle Sue parole e imparai che Dio elargisce grandi benedizioni su di essi, cercai di divenire uno di loro, sperando che in futuro avrei potuto regnare con Dio. Più tardi, quando vidi nelle Sue parole che il Suo tempo era prossimo, sentii perfino un’urgenza maggiore e pensai: Ho iniziato a credere in Dio così tardi; sarò forse incapace di guadagnare questa benedizione? Ho bisogno di metterci un maggiore impegno. Così, quando la casa di Dio mi affidò un incarico, reagii in modo attivo: non ebbi paura delle difficoltà e decisi di rinunciare a tutto, così da meritarmi la benedizione di essere un primogenito. In verità, Dio non aveva mai detto esplicitamente nelle Sue parole che potevamo essere primogeniti. Era soltanto perché eravamo ambiziosi e avevamo desideri stravaganti che pensavamo che, avendoci Egli chiamato Suoi figli e avendoci ora elevati, potevamo certamente divenire primogeniti. Questo era il modo in cui credevo di essere divenuto, in modo naturale, un primogenito. Più tardi vidi parole di Dio, che erano state appena rilasciate, che spesso menzionavano “servitore” e vi erano sempre più menzioni del giudizio su di essi. Pensai tra me e me: per fortuna seguo Dio Onnipotente, altrimenti diverrei un servitore. Quando lessi delle benedizioni di Dio e delle promesse per i primogeniti, credetti che una porzione di queste sarebbe stata mia. Quando lessi le Sue parole di conforto e di esortazione per i Suoi primogeniti, sentii anche dunque che erano rivolte a me. Ciò che mi rendeva ancora più contento erano, in particolare, le parole seguenti: “Sicuramente le grandi catastrofi non si abbatteranno sui Miei figli, sui Miei amati. Mi prenderò cura di loro in ogni momento e in ogni secondo. Certamente non subirete quel dolore e quella sofferenza; anzi, servono alla perfezione dei Miei figli e al compimento della Mia parola in loro, affinché possiate riconoscere la Mia onnipotenza, crescere ulteriormente nella vita, farvi carico prima dei fardelli al Mio posto e dedicare tutto il vostro io al completamento del Mio piano di gestione. Dovete essere contenti e felici e gioire per questo. Vi cederò ogni cosa, permettendovi di prendere il controllo. Lo metterò nelle vostre mani. Se un figlio eredita l’intera proprietà del padre, ciò non vale ancor più per voi, Miei figli primogeniti? Siete veramente benedetti. Anziché soffrire per le grandi sciagure, riceverete benedizioni eterne. Che gloria! Che gloria!” (Capitolo 68 di “Discorsi di Cristo al principio” in “La Parola appare nella carne”). Pensavo: Sto sognando? Una manna così incredibile è caduta dal cielo su di me? Non potevo osare di crederci completamente, ma avevo paura che i miei fratelli e le mie sorelle avrebbero detto che la mia fede era troppo piccola, e quindi non osavo non crederci.

 

Un giorno, andai per partecipare con entusiasmo a una riunione e vidi che due capi erano venuti in Chiesa. Quando fui in loro compagnia, mi dissero di essere dei servitori. Rimasi scioccato dal sentire questo, e gli chiesi: “Se voi siete servitori, non siamo tutti qui servitori?”. Essi dissero la verità senza tirarsi indietro: “Quasi tutti noi siamo servitori in Cina”. Ascoltandoli dire questo, il mio cuore sprofondò. Non poteva essere! È la verità? Quando vidi le loro espressioni gravi, addolorate, e vidi che i volti degli altri erano ugualmente molto tetri, non potei crederci. Ma poi cambiai idea e pensai: Come capi, hanno rinunciato alle loro famiglie e carriere, hanno sofferto molto e pagato un prezzo così alto per l’opera di Dio. Ero abbastanza in difetto rispetto a loro, ma se erano servitori, che cos’altro potevo dire? Un servitore è un servitore e così, al tempo, non mi sembrò tanto terribile.

 

Dopo essere andato a casa, presi ancora una volta la parola di Dio e guardai ciò che Dio aveva da dire sui servitori, e vidi questo: “Voi che Mi rendete servizio, ascoltate! Puoi ricevere un po’ della Mia grazia quando Mi rendi servizio. Cioè per un certo tempo conoscerete la Mia opera successiva e le cose che accadranno in futuro, ma non ne godrete affatto. Questa è la Mia grazia. Quando il tuo servizio sarà completo, vattene subito e non indugiare. Coloro che sono i Miei figli primogeniti non devono essere arroganti, ma tu puoi essere orgoglioso, perché vi ho concesso infinite benedizioni. Coloro che sono bersagli di distruzioni non devono attirare tribolazioni su di voi o addolorarsi per il vostro destino; chi ti ha reso un discendente di Satana? Dopo che avrai compiuto il tuo servizio per Me, potrai tornare ancora una volta nel pozzo dell’abisso, perché non Mi sarai più utile, e comincerò a occuparMi di voi con il Mio castigo. Una volta che inizio la Mia opera, non Mi fermo mai; ciò che faccio si compirà, e ciò che compio durerà in eterno. Questo vale per i Miei figli primogeniti, per i Miei figli, per il Mio popolo, e anche per voi. I Miei castighi per voi sono eterni” (Capitolo 86 di “Discorsi di Cristo al principio” in “La Parola appare nella carne”). Non appena lessi queste parole fui assalito da una pena che non avevo mai sentito prima. Chiusi velocemente il libro delle parole di Dio e non osai più guardarlo. In un attimo sentimenti di pesantezza confusione, insoddisfazione affluirono tutti insieme nel mio cuore. Pensai: ieri mi crogiolavo nella felicità, ma oggi sono stato cacciato fuori dalla casa di Dio. Ieri ero figlio di Dio, ma oggi sono divenuto un nemico di Dio, un discendente di Satana. Ieri, le benedizioni infinite di Dio mi aspettavano, ma oggi la mia destinazione è un abisso senza fondo, e io sarò punito per l’eternità. Se Egli non elargisce benedizioni, non importa, ma perché deve ancora castigarmi? Che cosa mai ho fatto di sbagliato? A che scopo avviene tutto ciò? Non volevo confrontarmi con questa realtà; non ero capace di confrontarmi con questo tipo di realtà. Chiudevo gli occhi e non volevo pensarci più. Speravo tanto che fosse soltanto un sogno.

 

Da allora in poi, ogni volta che pensavo a me stesso come un servitore, sentivo un’indicibile pena nel mio cuore, e non osavo leggere di nuovo le parole di Dio. Ma Dio è molto saggio, e le Sue parole, che castigano e mettono a nudo le persone, non sono soltanto permeate di mistero, bensì contengono anche profezie della futura catastrofe e offrono una prospettiva sul Regno e su cose simili. Erano tutte cose che volevo conoscere, quindi non potevo ancora volgere le spalle alle Sue parole. Quando le leggevo, esse, affilate come una spada, trafiggevano ripetutamente il mio cuore, e non potevo far altro che accettare il Suo giudizio e il Suo castigo. Sentivo che la collera maestosa del giudizio di Dio era sopra di me. A parte il dolore, conoscevo l’effettiva verità del mio essere stato corrotto da Satana. Era divenuto chiaro che ero figlio del gran dragone rosso, discendente di Satana, e oggetto di distruzione. Disperato, non osavo più sperare avidamente in qualche benedizione, ed ero disposto ad accettare la predestinazione di Dio riguardo al mio essere un servitore. Quando sentii che potevo mettere il mio cuore nell’essere un servitore, Dio, ancora una volta, predispose un ambiente che portò allo scoperto l’indole corrotta c che era nascosta in me. Un giorno, nel mentre leggevo le parole di Dio, vidi: “Dopo che sarò tornato a Sion, coloro che sono sulla terra continueranno a lodarMi come in passato. Quei servitori leali restano ad aspettare per renderMi servizio, ma il loro compito dovrà giungere al termine. La cosa migliore che possano fare è contemplare il dato di fatto della Mia presenza sulla terra. In quel tempo comincerò a infliggere disastri a coloro che meriteranno le calamità, ma proprio come[a] tutti credono che Io sia un Dio giusto, certamente non punirò quei servitori leali, ed essi riceveranno solo la Mia grazia” (Capitolo 120 di “Discorsi di Cristo al principio” in “La Parola appare nella carne”). Vedendo questo, pensai segretamente tra me e me: non penserò più al diritto di nascita del primogenito e non vorrò più grandi benedizioni. Ora penserò soltanto a divenire un devoto servitore. Questo è il mio unico obiettivo. Per il futuro, non importa che cosa disporrà la casa di Dio per me, io lo farò nel modo più devoto possibile. Non posso assolutamente perdere l’opportunità di essere nuovamente un operatore di servizio. Se non sono nemmeno capace di essere un devoto servitore, ma sono un semplice servitore, dopo aver completato il mio servizio dovrò ritornare nell’abisso senza fondo o nel lago di fuoco e zolfo. In tal caso, perché tutto questo? Non osavo esprimere questo pensiero ad alcuno, ma non potevo sfuggire agli occhi scrutatori di Dio. Lessi le parole di Dio che dicono: “Nessuno può sondare la natura degli uomini tranne Me, ed essi pensano tutti di esserMi leali, non sapendo che la loro lealtà è impura. Queste impurità rovineranno le persone perché sono una macchinazione del gran dragone rosso. Fu smascherato da Me molto tempo fa; Io sono il Dio onnipotente, e non capirei qualcosa di così semplice? Sono in grado di penetrare nel tuo sangue e nella tua carne per vedere le tue intenzioni. Non è difficile per Me sondare la natura dell’uomo, ma le persone cercano di fare le saccenti, pensando che nessuno, tranne loro, conosca le loro intenzioni. Non sanno che il Dio onnipotente esiste nei cieli, nella terra e in tutte le cose?”. (Capitolo 118 di “Discorsi di Cristo al principio” in “La Parola appare nella carne”). “Ora molte persone nutrono una piccola speranza ma, quando essa si trasforma in delusione, diventano restie ad andare avanti e chiedono di tornare indietro. Prima, ho detto che non tengo qui nessuno contro la sua volontà, ma bada a riflettere su quali saranno le conseguenze per te, e questo è un dato di fatto, non una Mia minaccia” (Capitolo 118 di “Discorsi di Cristo al principio” in “La Parola appare nella carne”). Dopo aver letto questo, il cuore batteva forte. Sentivo che Dio veramente scruta ogni meandro dell’essere umano. Noi pensiamo a qualcosa e Dio lo sa; abbiamo segretamente nei nostri cuori qualche piccola speranza e Dio è disgustato. Soltanto a quel tempo ebbi un po’ di riverenza nei confronti di Dio. Decisi che non avrei più condotto transazioni con Dio, bensì avrei agito onestamente come un servitore e obbedito ai Suoi progetti.

 

Solo in seguito giunsi a cogliere che ciò che avevo sperimentato lungo questi tre mesi era la prova dei servitori. La prima opera che Dio ha completato in persone sottoposte a una prova è avvenuta con le Sue parole. Dopo aver subito la prova dei servitori, compresi che Dio non è soltanto misericordioso e benevolo, ma che è un Dio giusto e maestoso che non sopporta le offese dell’umanità. Le sue parole hanno in sé autorità e potenza tali da non poter produrre nell’uomo altro che un cuore di timore. Compresi anche che l’umanità è creazione di Dio, che dovremmo credere in Dio e adorarLo. Ecco ciò che è giusto e opportuno. Non ci dovrebbero essere ragionamenti, condizioni, non ci dovrebbe essere ambizione o desideri eccessivi. Se si crede in Dio al fine di ottenere da Lui qualcosa, questo tipo di fede significa sfruttarLo e ingannarLo. È l’espressione di mancanza di coscienza e ragione. Anche se si crede in Dio ma non si ottiene niente, e in seguito se Ne riceve la punizione, si dovrebbe credere in Lui. L’umanità dovrebbe credere in Dio e ubbidirGli in quanto Lui è Dio. Compresi anche che io, per parte mia, sono un figlio del gran dragone rosso, discendente di Satana e uno di quelli che periranno. Dio è il Signore di tutta la creazione, e quale che sia il modo con cui mi tratta, me lo sono meritato. Tutto ciò è giusto, e dovrei ubbidire senza condizioni ai Suoi progetti e alle Sue disposizioni. Non dovrei tentare di discutere con Lui, e ancor meno dovrei resisterGli. Se ripenso alla mia idiozia che questa prova ha rivelato, vedo di essere stato davvero infame. Volevo soltanto guadagnarmi uno status elevato, grandi benedizioni o addirittura sedere al fianco di Dio e governare con Lui Quando colsi che non mi sarei guadagnato le benedizioni che avevo sospirato ma che, al contrario, avrei dovuto subire la catastrofe, pensai di tradire Dio. Queste prove assolutamente trasparenti mi fecero vedere chiaro che il mio obiettivo nel credere in Dio era di essere benedetto. Stavo evidentemente tentando di condurre transazioni con Dio; ero davvero spudorato, e avevo completamente perso quella ragione che si dovrebbe avere. Se non fosse stato per questa sapienza nell’opera di Dio, che utilizzava la prova dei servitori per conquistarmi, per infrangere la mia aspirazione di guadagnarmi benedizioni, starei ancora correndo giù per il falso cammino di ricerca delle benedizioni. Non avrei certamente capito la mia essenza corrotta e, soprattutto, non avrei accettato obbedientemente il giudizio e il castigo delle parole di Dio. In quel caso, non avrei mai potuto ottenere la salvezza o il perfezionamento.

 

Dopo aver subito la prova dei servitori, pensavo che non avrei più osato credere in Dio e adempiere al mio dovere allo scopo di ottenere benedizioni e pensavo che non avrei più osato compiere azioni al fine di condurre transazioni con Dio. Percepivo che sfruttare e ingannare Dio in questo modo era troppo disprezzabile. Allo stesso tempo, però, avevo una comprensione del fatto che servirsi di questa prova per salvare l’umanità è l’intenzione premurosa di Dio, e sapevo che non c’è alcuna parte di Lui che odi l’uomo. Il Suo amore per l’umanità non è mutato da quando creò il mondo, tanto che, nel mio cuore, avevo l’intenzione di andare in cerca di un sentiero per soddisfare e ripagare l’amore di Dio nella mia futura fede in Lui e nel compimento del mio dovere. Poiché, però, l’intenzione di guadagnarsi benedizioni e contrattare con Dio è troppo radicata nei cuori delle persone, non è possibile liberarsene dopo aver sperimentato una sola prova. Dopo qualche tempo questi fenomeni si mostreranno ancora. Così, per conquistarci e salvarci più profondamente e completamente, Egli suscita su di noi diverse successive prove – la prova dei tempi di castigo, la prova della morte, e la prova dei sette anni. Tra queste prove, quella che patii di più e da cui ottenni maggior frutto fu quella dei sette anni, nel 1999.

 

Nel 1999 fui eletto responsabile della Chiesa. Fu l’anno in cui il Vangelo del Regno venne grandemente ampliato e la casa di Dio richiese che tentassimo di salvare tutti coloro che avevano la possibilità di essere salvati. Quando vidi questa disposizione della casa di Dio pensai che l’opera di Dio si sarebbe compiuta nel 2000. Per guadagnare più anime e ottenere una destinazione migliore per me quando fosse venuto il tempo, mi impegnai nell’opera del Vangelo dalla prima mattina alla notte fonda. Riguardo alla vita della Chiesa, mi limitavo a fare un’apparizione e non lasciarmi coinvolgere. Pur ammettendo che le mie intenzioni erano sbagliate, semplicemente non riuscivo a dominare il mio desiderio di guadagnarmi benedizioni. In quel tempo ero abbastanza impegnato e sentivo che fare qualcosa di diverso dall’opera del Vangelo, fosse pure mangiare e bere la parola di Dio, mi era d’ostacolo. In questo modo mi gettai in un ardore di lavoro, e prima di accorgermene, l’anno era finito. La casa di Dio aveva scelto una persona del posto per aiutare nel lavoro, così tornai alla zona della mia città natale.

 

Immaginavo che quando l’opera di Dio fosse conclusa sarebbe di sicuro giunta la grande catastrofe, così, dopo essere tornato a casa, mi limitavo ad attendervi ogni giorno il disastro, aspettando la fine dell’opera di Dio. Quando vidi che stava giungendo il Capodanno, vi fu una condivisione del responsabile della Chiesa in cui egli sosteneva che è necessario attraversare sette anni di prove. All’udire questo messaggio mi sentii scosso e il mio cuore andò in subbuglio. Non potei fare a meno di iniziare a discutere con Dio: “Mi aspettano altri sette anni – come si può sopravvivere? O Dio, Ti prego di distruggermi. Davvero non posso più sopportare questa sofferenza!”. Il giorno dopo non potevo ancora rialzarmi dalla mia depressione. Pensavo: “Comunque, sono stati sette anni! Domani è un altro giorno: me ne andrò via e mi toglierò questo pensiero dalla testa”. Non appena salii in autobus, sentii che lo Spirito Santo era dentro di me e mi rimproverava: “Quando eri in volenterosa ricerca, avevi pagato il tuo prezzo, e dicesti che avresti amato Dio fino alla fine, che non Lo avresti mai lasciato, che avresti sopportato ogni fatica e condiviso ogni gioia. Eri un ipocrita che si prendeva in giro da solo!”. Di fronte al rimprovero dello Spirito Santo, non potei fare altro che abbassare il capo. Era vero. “Prima, nel fruire della grazia di Dio, Gli avevo rivolto promesse, ma ora che ci sono difficoltà e devo soffrire, voglio tornare nel mio mondo. Le mie promesse, quindi, non sono forse semplici bugie? Dio mi ha dato così tanto amore e adesso, nel trovare un ambiente che non è totalmente come voglio, provo questo grande risentimento, fino al punto di voler volgerGli le spalle. Sono davvero una bestia ingrata, non migliore di un animale!”. A questo pensiero non ero più nello stato d’animo adatto per andare via, ma tornai a casa col cuore gonfio. Pur essendo stato costretto a essere “ubbidiente”, quando pensavo al fatto che mi restavano da passare nell’opera di Dio ancora sette anni, nel mio cuore mi lasciavo andare e, qualunque cosa facessi, non percepivo di dovermi affrettare né preoccupare. Sgobbai ogni giorno nel compiere il mio dovere, come se si trattasse semplicemente di un altro giorno. Questo tipo di condizione negativa e provocatoria mi fece progressivamente sfuggire di mano l’opera dello Spirito Santo e, pur volendo trasformare la mia condizione, non vi riuscivo.

 

Un giorno, mentre mangiavo e bevevo la parola di Dio, vidi le sue parole che dicevano: “Alcune persone, nel cominciare a compiere il loro dovere, erano piene di energia, come se non dovesse mai esaurirsi. Ma come mai nell’andare avanti sembrano perdere quell’energia? Le persone che erano allora e le persone che sono adesso sono come due tipi diversi di persona. Perché sono cambiate? Qual è il motivo? È che la loro fede in Dio ha intrapreso la strada sbagliata prima di imboccare la direzione giusta. Hanno scelto la strada sbagliata. Nella loro ricerca iniziale vi era qualcosa di nascosto che nel momento cruciale è emerso. Che cosa era nascosto? È un’aspettativa di ciò che risiede nel loro cuore mentre credono in Dio, l’aspettativa che il giorno di Dio arriverà presto, cosicché la loro infelicità giungerà al termine; l’aspettativa che Dio sarà trasfigurato e tutte le loro sofferenze finiranno” (“Chi ha perduto l’opera dello Spirito Santo è più a rischio” in “Registrazione dei discorsi di Cristo”). Le parole di Dio mi spinsero a cercare la radice del problema. Emerse che nelle mie occupazioni avevo la speranza nascosta che il giorno di Dio sarebbe venuto presto e che non avrei più sofferto, che avrei raggiunto una buona meta. Fin dal principio le mie attività erano dominate da questa speranza, e quando essa svanì, soffrii e andai in pezzi, al punto di tradire Dio, addirittura di pensare di fuggire con la morte. Solo in quel tempo vidi che avevo seguito per così tanti anni Dio, ma in sostanza non perseguivo il sentiero della verità; avevo sempre tenuto i miei occhi fissi sul giorno di Dio e mi ero messo a contrattare con Lui per ottenere le Sue benedizioni. Anche se allora non potei fare a meno di restare nella famiglia di Dio e non lasciarLo, se non avessi risolto la contaminazione che avevo dentro me, presto o tardi avrei opposto resistenza a Dio e Lo avrei tradito. Dopo aver colto la mia pericolosa situazione, chiesi nel mio cuore a Dio: “Che cosa posso fare per liberarmi dalla contaminazione di questa speranza nel giorno?”. A quel punto ancora una volta lessi le parole di Dio, che recitano: “Lo sapevi che credendo in Dio in Cina, riuscendo a sopportare queste sofferenze e a gioire dell’opera di Dio, gli stranieri davvero vi invidiano tutti? I desideri degli stranieri sono: ‘Anche noi vogliamo sperimentare l’opera di Dio, patiremo qualunque cosa per questo. Anche noi vogliamo ottenere la verità! Anche noi vogliamo ottenere qualche intuizione, acquisire una certa levatura, ma purtroppo non abbiamo questo ambiente’. […] Completare questo gruppo di persone nel paese del gran dragone rosso, facendogli sopportare queste sofferenze, si può dire che sia la più grande elevazione di Dio. Una volta fu detto: ‘Molto tempo fa ho spostato la Mia gloria da Israele verso Est’. Comprendete tutti il significato di questa affermazione ora? Come dovresti percorrere il sentiero in futuro? Come dovresti cercare la verità? Se non cerchi la verità, come puoi ottenere l’opera dello Spirito Santo? Quando avrai perduto l’opera dello Spirito Santo, ti ritroverai nel pericolo maggiore. La sofferenza del presente è insignificante. Sai che cosa farà per voi?” (“Chi ha perduto l’opera dello Spirito Santo è più a rischio” in “Registrazione dei discorsi di Cristo”). Da queste parole di Dio potevo cogliere che nel fatto che le persone oggi siano capaci di soffrire è posto un grande significato, ma non riuscivo a individuare quale fosse effettivamente il senso di quel soffrire. Sapevo soltanto che solo se avessi potuto comprendere il senso della sofferenza sarei stato capace di trasformare autenticamente la mia condizione di speranza nel giorno di Dio. Era un percorso verso la soluzione. Pur non comprendendo in quel tempo il senso della sofferenza, la sola cosa che potevo fare era di perseguire davvero la verità, di cercarla maggiormente, perché solo se avessi ottenuto la verità avrei davvero potuto comprendere il significato della sofferenza, e solo allora avrei potuto liberarmi di questa contaminazione dentro di me.

 

Come se il tempo fosse stato affrettato, battei le palpebre ed eravamo già nel 2009. Quei sette anni se n’erano andati da un po’, senza che me ne rendessi conto. Ero arrivato fino a quel punto e infine percepii che quei sette anni non erano stati lunghi come avevo immaginato. In quei pochi anni, nel giudizio rivelato dalle parole di Dio, nelle rivelazioni delle prove e degli affinamenti di Dio, avevo visto il mio vero volto. Avevo visto che cosa ero: assolutamente un figlio del gran dragone rosso, perché ero pieno dei suoi veleni, come il veleno del “Non alzarti presto se non c’è un vantaggio, il vantaggio ha la meglio in tutto”. Questa è una tipica descrizione della forma del gran dragone rosso. Sotto il dominio di questo veleno, la mia fede in Dio doveva solo essere benedetta. Ciò in cui mi adoperavo per Dio aveva un limite temporale, e desideravo soffrire meno e ottenere grandi benedizioni. Per liberarmi di questo forte proponimento di essere benedetto e di questo atteggiamento di compromesso dentro di me, Dio portò a termine su di me molteplici prove e affinamenti. Solo allora la contaminazione nella mia fede in Dio venne purificata. E, nelle rivelazioni di Dio, colsi che ero pieno dell’indole corrotta di Satana. Ero altezzoso, disonesto, egoista e deprecabile, sconsiderato e distratto. Mi fecero vedere sempre più chiaramente la mia vera natura, vedere che ero stato corrotto troppo profondamente da Satana, che ero il figlio dell’inferno. Che in quel tempo riuscissi a credere in Dio e a seguirLo era davvero la Sua elevazione e grazia, e che io fossi riuscito ad accettare il Suo giudizio e castigo era una benedizione ancora maggiore. La mia gratitudine nei confronti di Dio crebbe, le mie richieste diminuirono, crebbe la mia ubbidienza nei Suoi confronti, diminuì il mio amor proprio. Chiesi soltanto di riuscire a scrollarmi di dosso la mia corrotta indole satanica, di essere una persona che davvero ubbidisce a Dio e Lo adora. Questo piccolo frutto fu ottenuto dopo chissà quanto lavoro di Dio, compreso fin troppo del Suo paziente sforzo. Finché oggi, sperimentando l’opera di Dio, ho finalmente compreso che la salvezza divina dell’umanità davvero non è semplice. Il Suo lavoro è troppo concreto, la Sua opera di trasformazione e salvezza dell’umanità non è semplice come ci si potrebbe immaginare. Così ora non sono più come un bambino ingenuo, che si limita a sperare che il giorno di Dio possa giungere velocemente, ma percepisco sempre che la mia corruzione è troppo profonda, che ho troppo bisogno della salvezza di Dio e di sperimentare il Suo giudizio e castigo, le Sue prove e affinamenti. Ora sono in possesso di un poco della coscienza e ragionevolezza che dovrebbero essere presenti nell’umanità normale e sto sperimentando in modo adeguato l’opera di salvezza dell’umanità da parte di Dio. Alla fine, se posso vivere il modello di una persona autentica e accogliere la gioia di Dio, il mio cuore ne sarà appagato. Adesso, quando mi guardo indietro e penso a che cosa svelai su di me quando mi vennero addosso quei sette anni di prove, sento di essere troppo in debito nei confronti di Dio, di aver troppo ferito il Suo cuore. Se l’opera di Dio si fosse conclusa nel 2000, io, un essere totalmente immondo, di certo sarei stato un bersaglio della distruzione. I sette anni di prove davvero furono per me la tolleranza e la compassione di Dio e, inoltre, furono per me la più vera e reale salvezza di Dio.

 

Una volta uscito da quei sette anni, riflettei su queste parole di Dio che in precedenza non avevo capito: “Lo sapevi che credendo in Dio in Cina, riuscendo a sopportare queste sofferenze e a gioire dell’opera di Dio, gli stranieri davvero vi invidiano tutti? I desideri degli stranieri sono: ‘Anche noi vogliamo sperimentare l’opera di Dio, patiremo qualunque cosa per questo. Anche noi vogliamo ottenere la verità! Anche noi vogliamo ottenere qualche intuizione, acquisire una certa levatura, ma purtroppo non abbiamo questo ambiente’. […] Completare questo gruppo di persone nel paese del gran dragone rosso, facendogli sopportare queste sofferenze, si può dire che sia la più grande elevazione di Dio. Una volta fu detto: ‘Molto tempo fa ho spostato la Mia gloria da Israele verso Est’. Comprendete tutti il significato di questa affermazione ora?” Potevo intendere un poco del significato di queste parole, potevo finalmente percepire che davvero soffrire è denso di significato. Pur patendo mentre sperimentavo queste prove, solo dopo aver sofferto colsi quanto fosse prezioso, quanto apprezzabile ciò che avevo guadagnato. Nello sperimentare queste prove, vidi l’indole giusta dell’Onnipotente e l’onnipotenza e sapienza di Dio. Compresi la benevolenza di Dio e assaporai il profondo, paterno amore di Dio per i Suoi figli. Sperimentai anche l’autorità e il potere delle Sue parole, e colsi la verità della mia stessa corruzione operata da Satana. Vidi le fatiche di Dio nella Sua opera di salvezza, vidi che è santo e venerato e che gli esseri umani sono brutti e disprezzabili. Sperimentai anche come Dio conquista e salva l’umanità, fino a condurla sul sentiero corretto del credere in Lui. Quando ci penso adesso, se Dio non avesse svolto su di me questo duro lavoro di prova dopo prova, non avrei forse mai raggiunto queste comprensioni. Durezze e affinamenti sono di così grande beneficio per la crescita delle persone nelle loro vite! Per loro mezzo si può ottenere il dono più concreto e prezioso nel percorso della fede in Dio: la verità. Dopo aver visto il valore e il significato del soffrire, non sogno più di entrare nel Regno a bordo di una portantina, ma sono disposto a tenere ben piantati i miei piedi per terra e sperimentare l’opera di Dio, per perseguire autenticamente la verità fino a cambiarmi.

 

Avendo sperimentato diversi anni dell’opera di Dio, solo ora sono giunto a un poco di comprensione pratica di queste parole di Dio: “La vera fede in Dio significa fare esperienza delle Sue parole e della Sua opera nella convinzione che Egli ha la sovranità su tutte le cose. In tal modo sarai liberato dalla tua indole corrotta, realizzerai il desiderio di Dio e giungerai a conoscerLo. Solo mediante un percorso simile puoi affermare di credere in Dio” (dall’Introduzione a “La Parola appare nella carne”). Prima di aver sperimentato queste prove da parte di Dio, ero pieno della forte intenzione di essere benedetto e di un atteggiamento da compromesso. Benché sapessi, in linea di principio, che cosa fosse credere in Dio e quale fosse l’obiettivo della fede in Lui, mi concentravo ancora soltanto sull’essere benedetto. Non prestavo assolutamente attenzione alla verità, non puntai a liberarmi della mia disposizione corrotta per soddisfare il volere di Dio o a riconoscere Dio come meta della mia ricerca. Solo allora compresi che quando Dio divenne carne il Suo impegno principale fu di sciogliere l’intenzione dell’umanità di essere benedetta e il suo atteggiamento da compromesso. Ciò perché queste caratteristiche davvero sono le pietre d’inciampo poste tra l’uomo e il suo entrare nel cammino corretto della fede in Dio. Se dentro l’uomo si ospitano questi difetti, egli non perseguirà la verità. Non avrà una metà corretta nel suo impegno, camminerà su un sentiero sbagliato. Si tratta di un sentiero che non è riconosciuto da Dio. Adesso, l’opera di conquista e salvezza da parte di Dio ha distrutto la fortezza di Satana che si trovava dentro di me. Finalmente, non sono più preoccupato, non sono più assorbito dal pensiero di guadagnarmi benedizioni o di patire la catastrofe. Non mi pongo più all’amara ricerca di desideri eccessivi e non mi pongo più a discutere le condizioni o ad avanzare pretese per evitare la catastrofe. Senza questa contaminazione mi sento più leggero, più libero. Posso perseguire con calma e appropriatezza la verità. È questo il frutto generato dalle prove e dagli affinamenti di Dio Onnipotente. È l’opera di processi e affinamenti condotta da Dio Onnipotente che mi ha portato sul sentiero autentico della fede in Dio. D’ora in poi, non importa quali altre prove Dio infligga, non importa quanto grandi siano i dolorosi affinamenti che patirò, ubbidirò e accetterò, e li sperimenterò davvero. Cercherò da essi la verità e conseguirò un’indole libera dalla corruzione per adempiere la volontà di Dio, per ricompensare i molti anni di Suo paziente sforzo.

 

Note a piè di pagina:

 

a. Il testo originale non contiene la frase “proprio come”.

 

Fonte: Il Lampo da Levante

Una doverosa visita nel sancta sanctorum del Meazza, a rendere onore allo spogliatoio dei maiali...

 

Sono trascorsi quasi trent'anni dall'infamata, ma ancora si respira chiara l'aria di serie cadetta di cui queste pareti trasudano...

E' arrivato il momento di decidere da che parte stare.

E' vero che non ci sono soluzioni semplici e che ogni cosa in questo mondo è sempre più complessa.

Ma per affrontare i cambiamenti epocali della storia è necessario avere una posizione, sapere quali sono le priorità per poter prendere delle scelte.

Noi stiamo dalla parte degli uomini scalzi.

Di chi ha bisogno di mettere il proprio corpo in pericolo per poter sperare di vivere o di sopravvivere.

E' difficile poterlo capire se non hai mai dovuto viverlo.

Ma la migrazione assoluta richiede esattamente questo: spogliarsi completamente della propria identità per poter sperare di trovarne un'altra. Abbandonare tutto, mettere il proprio corpo e quello dei tuoi figli dentro ad una barca, ad un tir, ad un tunnel e sperare che arrivi integro al di là, in un ignoto che ti respinge, ma di cui tu hai bisogno.

Sono questi gli uomini scalzi del 21°secolo e noi stiamo con loro.

Le loro ragioni possono essere coperte da decine di infamie, paure, minacce, ma è incivile e disumano non ascoltarle.

 

La Marcia degli Uomini Scalzi parte da queste ragioni e inizia un lungo cammino di civiltà.

E' l'inizio di un percorso di cambiamento che chiede a tutti gli uomini e le donne del mondo globale di capire che non è in alcun modo accettabile fermare e respingere chi è vittima di ingiustizie militari, religiose o economiche che siano. Non è pensabile fermare chi scappa dalle ingiustizie, al contrario aiutarli significa lottare contro quelle ingiustizie.

Dare asilo a chi scappa dalle guerre, significa ripudiare la guerra e costruire la pace.

Dare rifugio a chi scappa dalle discriminazioni religiose, etniche o di genere, significa lottare per i diritti e le libertà di tutte e tutti.

Dare accoglienza a chi fugge dalla povertà, significa non accettare le sempre crescenti disuguaglianze economiche e promuovere una maggiore redistribuzione di ricchezze.

 

TAKE ME TO THE KITTENS!

Push&Cat es la censura en la ciudad. El botón de Flickr LLÉVENME A LOS GATITOS nos sirve para liberar a todos aquellos transeuntes que no desean ver grosería, pornografía y contenidos infames en Salas X, Sex Shops o revistas pornográficas de la urbe. Púlsalo.

Más desinformación en lefthandrotation.blogspot.com/2009/08/acciones-urbanas-ab...

Ventura di Simona intelligente, che è molto brava, molto preparata.

Grande fratello di televisione è andata mia nipota: non pigliata.

Isola famosa veramente, a Sharm El Sheik con la liquidazione.

Salmone con le trofie di sciampagna, sulla barca cainata senza una rata.

Appartamento che ti fai un affare di proprietà mangiata da ucraina.

Machina nuova pagata con pensione per figli iscritti a Alleanza Nazionale.

Di parcheggiat'a Smart: "Prego dottore". Carissimo ingegnere di assessore.

Di condomini, di amministratore: "saluto il consigliere comunale".

Due figli, cane pitbull feroce, palestra "ca senza non ci potrei stare",

integratore teglia cannellone, pistola, porto d'armi regolare.

Di cardinalo embrione rispettato, miracolo di scienza inispiegata.

Il CEPU, il debitino professoro, oggi o domani almeno laureato.

Di discoteca assieme calciatore: "canosco, posso pure presentare".

Di tatuaggio, gin-tonic con limone. Di Briatore e Franchi Califani.

Della chiavata terrestre digitale. Di Vodafone, Gattuso, Walter Veltrone.

Di cinema e cultura eccezionale. Fiorello che si invidia il Panariello.

Di schermo piatto centro commerciale. Di offerta di parabola campione,

che vedo "come muore un italiano". Della Fallaci granda indignazione.

Di Ceppaloni emerito Andreotto, di richiamata fede nei valori.

Della chiagniuta sbirra di Picciuotto, il libro nuovo del brigatisto rotto.

Del giornalista scoop a Nassiriya. Di moda Prada evento. Di "geniale".

Di "sei un grande, mitica emozione!". Di testi di Mogol e Cannavaro.

Chesta è l'Italia, chest so l'Italian: bugiard, votafaccia, sbirr e infam.

Pezzenti coi difetti, cafun e bigotti, si riempiono la bocca col latino

ma si e no s'ann leggiut Topolino.

Chesta è l'Italia, chest so l'Italian: cu cinquant'euro t'i accatt san san

e cu altri cinquanta t'accatt moglie e figlia,

'o nonn, 'a nonna e o riest'ra famiglia.

Chesta è l'Italia, chest so l'Italian: prima fascisti, mo filo-israeliani, anzi filo-sionisti,

"ma tu nun eri comunista?", "ma sai non mi ricordo, non lo so... però credo di no"

Cantiamo Popporoppoppoppò!

Clarinha pediu...e atendi ao seu pedido.

 

Uma foto minha trabalhada pela super amiga Mipobe...

 

Os óculos também são delas...super charmosos!.

 

Que claro apagou as mil rugas, diminui os tamnhos dos poros, passou batom e base....loucuras do fotoshop!!

 

Sinceramente uns 5 anos mais novas...(podem me charmar de "garotinha de 42!!" ).

 

Hehehehhehe ...(para ninguém ter dúvida de que se trata de uma piadinha infame!!)

  

........

 

Atenção: Nessa quinta teremos confraria!!

 

Leggete e capite perché ogni tanto si tira fuori la “Classifica del più stronzo”, così, tanto per esorcizzare quello che capita nella vita quotidiana.

 

Allora, ieri mattina prendo Viale Livio Salinatore come ogni altro giorno per recarmi al lavoro (con comodo, traffico di punta già esaurito). Davanti a me uno di quei giganteschi SUV (Stronz Useless Vehicles) di colore nero. Mette la freccia a sinistra, e si sposta verso il lato della corsia per eseguire la svolta (almeno penso questo, Io piccolo ingenuo automobilista che da 10 anni tira biaste nel traffico urbano, extraurbano ed autostradale). Al ché mi allargo sulla destra per passare, continuando a seguire il normale senso di marcia, per di più a REALI 50 km/h.

Sto per affiancarlo (la strada è estremamente larga, ndr) e il fenomeno senza fermarsi ne rallentare o almeno rimettere una cazzo di freccia a destra decide che di girare a sinistra non gliene può fregar di meno, e neppure di avvisare lo stronzo (sottoscritto) che ha dietro. Mi si fa’ incontro leggiadro come un airone al Vondelpark di Amsterdam, ma dopo che hanno scambiato il mangime con uno zocco di Black Bombay di Baba.

(N.b.: uso il maschile per definire il fenomeno perché anche se fosse una donna si tratta in realtà di un corpo inerme e infame che bighellona per le strade forlivesi, incurante dei mali del mondo - e la lingua italiana a differenza del latino non presenta il genere neutro in maniera grammaticalmente riconoscibile).

 

Per evitare un impatto potenzialmente devastante, mentre suono il clacson con la mano e canto una giaculatoria d’infamie con la mia impareggiabile ugola romagnola, sterzo ulteriormente a destra andando ad impattare con la gomma anteriore destra sul marciapiede. La macchina saltella, ma riesco ad evitare danni peggiori. Io illeso e, per carità, è andata bene.

 

Il fenomeno che d’ora in poi ribattezzeremo “Carne Morta”, a meno che non avesse una benda di titanio sugli occhi e Moka DJ in consolle sul cruscotto in modalità Cocoricò NON può non essersi accorto del fatto che mi stavo schiantando con potenziali conseguenze di gravità rilevante, e in un impeto di coraggio degno di Paride il Troiano Cacasotto butta il sasso sull’acceleratore e inizia a fuggire verso la statale.

 

Ora, non essendo il vostro affezionatissimo Master famoso per la scarsa impulsività, avrete già capito che non sono riuscito a prendere il numero di targa di Carne Morta perché appena rimessa la macchina sull’asfalto amico non ho pensato ad altro che lanciarmi all’inseguimento del merdoso, avendo completamente perso ogni briciolo di razionalità, ma il destino infame ha fatto sì che dopo pochi metri la gomma abbia perso di tono (sarà stato lo sbrego di dieci centimetri?) e il sottoscritto non sia riuscito a far altro che perdere le tracce di Carne Morta e raggiungere lo spiazzo più vicino facendo scintillare la lega del cerchione, invocando la più tremenda giustizia divina e giustamente vendicativa per il mio nuovo nemico.

  

Ebbene, prendendo spunto dal capitolo che il grande Paolo Rossi dedica a Furio Scartezzini ne “Si fa’ presto a dire pirla” (1992), attualizzandolo leggermente per l’occasione, decanterò ora una lirica di insulti in favore di Carne Morta.

Siccome lo so che ognuno di voi ha incontrato nella sua vita, in macchina o a piedi, in centro o in piena campagna, un Carne Morta, ebbene questo è il mio momento di visualizzarlo.

 

La lirica si chiama : Carne Morta,quanto sei infame!

 

Carne Morta, che la sfiga cominci a pedinarti a tal punto che se fanno un campionato mondiale della sfiga, tu arrivi secondo.

 

Carne Morta, che ogni volta che risali in macchina per andare in autostrada, la radio si metta a trasmettere la canzone di Guccini Lunga e diritta correva la strada.

 

Che tutte le volte che incontri delle suore per strada, siano loro a toccarsi. Idem i gatti neri.

 

Che tutte le volte che vai allo stadio la Domenica, ti siedi vicino a un teppista e mentre le telecamere lo inquadrano che lancia un sasso,tu ti metta le dita nel naso. E tutta l'Italia alla sera ti veda a Controcampo

mentre ti stai scaccolando.

 

Che ti vengano in faccia dei foruncoli così sistematici che neanche Rambo... che la mamma quando ti sveglia alla mattina per non spaventarti ti dica:"Ma che belle petunie che hai in faccia".

 

Che la cosa più bella che una donna ti dica nella tua vita sia:"E' stato bellissimo...è stato bellissimo il preambolo,adesso comincia!"

(se sei una donna, che il massimo piacere che un uomo possa farti provare sia quello di farti vedere come si scopa tua madre, aggiungo col mio solito fair-play)

 

Carne Morta, che mentre tu sei bello e tranquillo al bar che leggi un articolo sul morbo del legionario e pensi:" A me che cazzo me ne frega, io vivo in Italia", in quella passa un marocchino che vende accendini e che inciampando finisca con un suo dito nella tua bocca e a te viene un dubbio.

 

Che questo dubbio ti perseguiti.

 

Che ti venga un genococco,ma non un genococco normale,no: un genococco triplo carpiato con frattura della tibia e sinusite all'incontrario e che starnutendo ti schizzi la schiena.

 

Che ti venga il mal dei polli che non so che cazzo sia,ma dà l'idea. Anzi, ora nel 2006 la da’ anche troppo.

 

Carne Morta, che tu per rilassarti vada alla piscina comunale di Forlì, ti tuffi, ti cucchi un eritema da cloro sulla schiena, trenta funghi sui piedi e un tartufo nel culo.

 

Che ti venga un attacco di dissenteria, tipo kamikaze negli intestini, che sei in piazza Saffi che cerchi disperatamente un bar e mentre lo cerchi ti circonda una banda di Hare Krisna che cercano di liberarti l'anima e mentre ti liberano l'anima tu incominci a sudare come una mucca turca sigillata viva nel domopak, e quando alla fine trovi un bar e vai lì e dici:

"Scusi per cortesia,una toilette",il barista ti fa:"Scàpa fùra, bròt drughè".E che quando trovi un water tutto per te i microbi, quelli della pubblicità, ti aspettino dentro con le cerbottane:"Butta giù l'acido,pirla!".

 

Che tu ti faccia un'amante svizzera con un preservativo tedesco (gli unici benedetti dal Papa)...come,quali?Quelli senza punta! Di qui sì...di qui no... ma cos'è,un girocollo?

 

Che ci impieghi tanto tempo per infilartelo che la svizzera ti scacci perché ti è scaduto il permesso di soggiorno.

 

Che torni indietro e alla dogana ti fermi un cane della narcotici strabico che con la coda punta un turco, con gli occhi guarda te, e abbaia nel mezzo.

 

Che la finanza nel dubbio vi arresti tutti e due, che ti metta nella stessa cella del turco, che il turco ti chieda di diventare sua moglie,che tu per sfuggire al turco chieda di cambiare cella; che ti accontentino, Carne Morta, e che ti cambino cella, ma ti mettano in quella di Mike Tyson. Che tu ricordi a Mike Tyson uno che l'aveva picchiato da piccolo; che tu per salvarti chieda a Mike Tyson di diventare lui la tua fidanzata.

 

Che tu muoia e vada in paradiso e che in paradiso si presenti un terrorista dell'Ira. Che al terrorista dell'Ira san Pietro dica:"Ma guardi che lei non può entrare qui!" ....... "Ma io non voglio entrare,siete voi che dovete uscire entro tre minuti.Buonanotte e che Dio vi benedica."

 

Pintando con mi amiga Chela ... en Conocoto ... Proyecto Expansión Mayo del 2009

gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8451116z/f337.plancheconta... Titre : Valère Maxime [Valerius Maximus], Faits et dits mémorables [Facta et dicta memorabilia], traduit par Simon de Hesdin et Nicolas de Gonesse.

Date d'édition : 1400-1425

Type : manuscrit

Langue : Français

Format : Paris. - Écriture bâtarde. Probablement un copiste, malgré les différences de module aux ff. 244-249, 255-266, 315, l. 20-411. Hastes à cadelures. - Décoration :M. Meiss a attribué la décoration du manuscrit à l’atelier du Maître de Virgile (ainsi désigné d’après le Virgile, ms. Florence, Bibl. Laurenziana, Med. Pal. 69), connu dans les ateliers parisiens entre 1390 et la deuxième décade du XVe siècle : cf. Meiss, French Painting in the Time of Jean de Berry. The Limbourgs and Their Contemporaries, p. 408-412. L’artiste travailla à plusieurs reprises pour le duc de Berry : on lui doit notamment l’illustration d’un exemplaire des Bucoliques et de l’Énéide de Virgile (Florence, Bibl. Laurenziana, Med. Pal. 69), d’une copie de la Cité de Dieu (Bruxelles, Bibl. Royale, 9294-95), d’une chronique de la campagne de Richard II en Irlande (Londres, Brit. Museum, Harley 1319). Onze peintures de petit format au début du volume (introduction), du prologue et des livres II-IX. Une peinture au début du chap. VIII du livre III. Légende des peintures : F. 1 (introduction) : Valère Maxime enseignant ; f. 2v (prologue) : jugement ? ; f. 71 (Livre II) : armement d’un chevalier ; procession triomphale ; f. 131v (Livre III) : Caton d’Utique et Poppaedius ; Caton d’Utique et Sylla ; f. 168v (Livre III, début du chap. VIII) : exécution des sénateurs capouans ; f. 173 (Livre IV) :réconciliation ; libéralité ; f. 208 (Livre V) : libération des prisonniers carthaginois ; f. 242 (Livre VI) : viol et suicide de Lucrèce ; f. 267v (Livre VII) : Metellus Macedonicus et sa famille ; f. 302v (Livre VIII) : les Horaces et les Curiaces en présence ; f. 345 (Livre IX) : luxure et cruauté (cf. la base mandragore.bnf.fr). Décoration secondaire : Les bordures offrent des similitudes avec celles des manuscrits datés de 1401-1402. Les riches encadrements de rinceaux de vignettes de certains feuillets du Français 282 (f. 1, 71, 131v, 169, 173) rappellent le travail du peintre Paul de Limbourg sur un autre ouvrage de la librairie de Jean de Berry : les Belles Heures actuellement conservées au Metropolitan Museum of Art de New York, Cloisters (f. 80, Meiss, op. cit., fig. 492). Les petites jarres éparpillées sur la baguette formant l’encadrement le f. 71 du Français 282 se retrouvent à l’identique sur la bordure du f. 191 des Belles Heures (Meiss, op. cit., fig. 409). Oiseaux (f. 1), faune (f. 1), papillon (f. 1), dragon (f. 71, 169) ornent la bordure. Au f. 131v, décor de gobelets d'or. - Au début de l’introduction (f. 1), initiale (8 lignes) ornée de vignettes avec riche bordure marginale (cf. - supra. - ). - Au début du prologue (f. 2), initiale ornée (7 lignes), à prolongement de baguette avec vignettes. - Au début des différents livres, initiales ornées (5 à 7 lignes), à prolongement de rinceaux de vignettes. - Au début des différents chapitres et des paragraphes, initiales ornées (3 lignes), à prolongement de rinceaux de vignettes. Quelques initiales de 4 à 5 lignes. - Pieds de mouche champis, à l’intérieur du texte et dans la marge signalant les notes. - Parchemin. - 411 ff. précédés et suivis d’un feuillet de garde en parchemin. - 390 x 280 mm (justification : 255/260 x 180 mm). - 52 cahiers : 18 (f. 1-8) ; 28 (f. 9-16) ; 38 (f. 17-24) ; 48 (f. 25-32) ; 58 (f. 33-40) ; 68 (f. 41-48) ; 78 (f. 49-56) ; 88 (f. 57-64) ; 98 (f. 65-72) ; 108 (f. 73-80) ; 118 (f. 81-88) ; 128 (f. 89-96) ; 138 (f. 97-104) ; 148 (f. 105-112) ; 158 (f. 113-120) ; 168 (f. 121-128) ; 178 (f. 129-136) ; 188 (f. 137-144) ; 198 (f. 145-152) ; 208 (f. 153-160) ; 218 (f. 161-169) ; 228 (f. 169-176) ; 238 (f. 177-184) ; 248 (f. 185-192) ; 258 (f. 193-200) ; 268 (f. 201-208) ; 278 (f. 209-216) ; 288 (f. 217-224) ; 298 (f. 225-232) ; 308 (f. 233-240) ; 3114 (12+2) (f. 241-254, pas de réclame apparente entre les ff. 241 et 254 ; reliure trop serrée pour faire le décompte des cahiers) ; 328 (f. 255-262) ; 334 (f. 263-266) ; 348 (f. 267-274) ; 358 (f. 275-282) ; 368 (f. 283-290) ; 378 (f. 291-298) ; 388 (f. 299-306) ; 396 (f. 307-312) ; 404 (f. 313-316) ; 418 (f. 317-324) ; 428 (f. 325-332) ; 438 (f. 333-340) ; 448 (f. 341-348) ; 458 (f. 349-356) ; 468 (f. 357-364) ; 478 (f. 365-372) ; 488 (f. 373-380) ; 498 (f. 381-388) ; 508 (f. 389-396) ; 518 (f. 397-404) ; 528 (f. 405-412). Réclames ornées, avec hastes montantes (f. 168v). Une signature de feuillets apparente au f. 376. F. 255-255v : Titres courants indiquant la numérotation des livres disposés en bandeaux sur fond or orné de vignettes : « Incipium I » (f. 2) ; « Liber I » etc. Bordure inférieure du f. 70 déchirée. - Mise en page :. - La traduction du texte de Valère Maxime qui fut commencée, sur l’ordre du roi Charles V, par Simon de Hesdin ( ?-1383), fut interrompue en 1383. Reprise, à l’instigation du duc de Berry, elle fut achevée par Nicolas de Gonesse (v. 1364-ap. 1415) le 28 septembre 1401. Au f. 287v, une annotation marginale indique le changement de traducteur : « Cy commence la translacion que maistre Nicole de Gonesse a faite et ycelle continue jusques a la fin (. - à l’encre bleue. - ) ». - Chez les deux auteurs, la traduction est accompagnée de « gloses encyclopédiques » (cf. Bruckner, dans. - Traduction et adaptation. - , p. 75). - La mise en page reflète l’étroite imbrication du commentaire et du texte en français de Valère Maxime. La transition de l’un à l’autre n’est pas toujours nette : au f. 103v, une note marginale souligne le passage de la traduction au commentaire : « Addicationes du translator sur le premier chapitre du second livre ». Aux ff. 1-106v, la transition est annoncée par les mots : « auctor » et « translator », calligraphiés à l’encre alternativement bleue et or aux ff. 1-106v, avec lettres d’attente (« au » ; « t » ; « tran »). On note le passage du latin en français (« aucteur », « translateur ») et la différence de calligraphie aux ff. 185-411. Aux ff. 107-145v, la transition est indiquée par les seuls pieds de mouche (texte) et lettres ornées (commentaires). Aux ff. 146-173v, les mots « le acteur », « le translateur », écrits à l’encre brune, se repèrent grâce aux pieds de mouche qui les précèdent. Quelques corrections se remarquent au f. 314 : le mot « translateur » a été gratté à plusieurs reprises. - Incipit du texte de Valère Maxime d’un module plus grand du f. 1 au f. 20. Têtes de chapitres, indications indiquant un passage à supprimer à l’encre bleue (f. 250 : passage encadré à l’encre bleue avec l’indication « vacat » ; f. 266v: « Vacat jusques a l’ystoire du .VII. - e. - livre qui est ou premier foillet ensuivant ») : cf. - infra. - Contenu). Incipit des différents livres notés à l’encre bleue ou or dans la traduction de Simon de Hesdin, à l’encre or dans celle de Nicolas de Gonesse. Explicit à l’encre or. - Quelques corrections à l’encre rouge à l’intérieur du texte. Annotations marginales contemporaines du manuscrit, indiquant notamment les sources, le plus souvent introduites dans la marge par des pieds de mouche identiques à ceux du texte. - À partir du f. 287 (début de la traduction de Nicolas de Gonesse), les citations latines sont soulignées à l’encre brune. Apparaissent des « Addicions », inscrites à l’encre dorée, le traducteur ayant inséré dans son texte de nombreux emprunts aux commentaires de Dionigi da Borgo S. Sepolcro et Luca de Penne, ainsi qu’à Boccace (. - De casibus virorum illustrium. - et. - De mulieribus claris. - ), Pierre Comestor, Salluste, Suétone et Plutarque : cf. J. Monfrin, dans. - The Late Middle Ages and the Dawn of Humanism outside Italy. - , Leuven-The Hague, 1972, p. 139. - Annotation (XIX. - e. - s.) : f. 411v. - Réglure à l’encre, peu visible par endroit. - Reliure de maroquin rouge restaurée en 1973, avec armes et chiffre royaux (XVIIe-XVIIIe s.). Tranche dorée. Au dos titre en capitales : « VALERE LE GRAND ». D’après l’inventaire de 1413, le volume était recouvert de velours écarlate (vermeil) et garni de quatre fermoirs d’argent doré aux armes du duc : cf. infra Historique. - F. 1 et 411 : estampilles de la « BIBLIOTHECAE REGIAE » (Ancien Régime, avant 1725), correspondant au modèle Josserand-Bruno, type A, n° 1

Droits : domaine public

Identifiant : ark:/12148/btv1b8451116z

Source : Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département des Manuscrits, Français 282

Description : Le manuscrit contient la traduction des Dits et faits mémorables de Valère Maxime. Commencée en 1375 par Simon de Hesdin pour le roi Charles V (livres I-VII, 4e chapitre : f. 1-287v), elle fut achevée par Nicolas de Gonesse en septembre 1401, pour le duc de Berry (5e chapitre du livre VII-IX : f. 287v-411). Les deux traductions sont accompagnées d’un commentaire qui s’inspire partiellement de celui de Dionigi de Borgo San Sepolcro : cf. A. Valentini, « Entre traduction et commentaire érudit… », La traduction vers le moyen français, 2007, p.355-367. F. 1-v. [Préface]. « La briefté et fragilité de ceste douleureuse vie temporelle et la constance de le inconstance et variableté de fortune …-… en l’onneur et reverance duquel, aprés Dieu, je ay entrepris cest oeuvre a fere ». F. 2-71. [Livre I]. « Urbis Rome et cetera : C’est le commencement du proheme de ce livre pour l’entendement duquel avoir …-… laquelle avoit cinquante coustes de long et avoit afeublé un mantel de pourpre. Et yci fine de ceste (de ceste : répété) matiere et par consequent du premier Livre ». « Icy fine la translacion du premier livre de Valerius Maximus, avec la declaracion d’icellui et addicions plusieurs, faite et compillee l’an mil .CCC. soixante et quinze, par frere Simon de Hesdin, de l’ordre de Saint Jehan de Jherusalem, docteur en theologie ». F. 71-131v. [Livre II]. « Dives et prepo[tens] ». « Translat[or] (à l’encre or) ». « Aprés ce que Valerius a parlé ou premier Livre des choses qui appartiennent au service et honneur des dieux …-… quant ilz devoient rendre sentence aucune, il leur convenoit jurer qu’ilz la rendirent vraye et juste. Et ycy fine la translacion du second Livre de Valerius Maximus, faicte et acomplie par frere Simon de Hesdin, l’an mil .CCC. .LXXVII., le second jour de may ». F. 131v-173. [Livre III]. « En cest tiers Livre a .VIII. chapitles. Le premier est de indole, le secont de force, le tiers de pacience …-… et quant il vit que Phelipe n’en faisoit compte et que la couleur ne lei (sic) contenance ne lui muoit point, Alixandre fut tout asseuré et fut guéri ou quart jour ». « Et icy fine le tiers Livre et commence le quart, et cetera ». F. 173-208. [Livre IV]. « Transgrediatur et cetera : En ceste partie Valerius commence son quart Livre, ouquel il a .VIII. chappitres : le premier de moderacion, le second de ceulx qui furent ennemis et puis redevindrent amis …-… Il n’est plus male chose que de aver, ne il n’est plus chose inique que amer peccune ». « Et ycy fine ce quart Livre ». F. 208-242. [Livre V]. « Cy commence le quint Livre (à l’encre bleue) ». « Translateur ». « Libertati et cetera : Icy commence Valerius son quint Livre, lequel a dix chappitres, selon ce que il appert en la poursuite …-… aussy qu’il ne muert nul qu’il n’ait vescu, aussi ne puet il nulz vivre qu’il n’ait a mourir ». « Et ycy fine le chapitre de tout le quint Livre ». F. 242-266v. |Livre VI]. « Cy commence Valerius le .VI.e Livre (à l’encre or) ». « Unde te virorum et cetera : Cy commence Valerius le .VI.e livre, et est le premier chappitre de chasté, pour laquelle recommander il fait un petit prologue …-… Et pour ce que petis enffans les ont tost perdues et usees, compare il les biens de fortune a celle maniere d’echaussement ». « Et ycy fine le .VI.e livre ». F. 267r-v : fin du 3e chapitre du Livre VI à supprimer : « … on notter que les femmes …-… Icy fine le chapitre de severité et aussi le .VI.e Livre » [déjà copié aux ff. 255r-v].Note explicative : « Vacat jusques a l’ystoyre du .VII.e Livre, qui est ou premier foillet ensuivant (à l’encre bleue) ». F. 267v-302v. [Livre VII]. F. 267v-287v. [Chap. I-IV : traduction de Simon de Hesdin] « Volubilis fortune et cetera : Icy commence le .VII.e Livre, lequel selon mon advis n’a que six chappitres a translater …-… Scipio disoit c’on ne devoit pas seulement donner voye a son ennemi de fouir mais lui aidier a le faire et trouver ». F. 287v-302v. [Chap. V-X : traduction de Nicolas de Gonesse]. « Le Ve chapitre qui est diz Repulses (à l’encre or) ». « Aprés ce que Valerius ou chapitre precedent a parlé des fais soubtis en armes appellés stratigemes …-… c'est-à-dire que a decente dacion doit estre decente accepcion correspondent ». « Et en ce se termine le Xe chapitre de ce VII.e Livre. Aprés s’ensuit le .VIII.e Livre ». F. 302v-345. [Livre VIII]. « Le premier chapitre du .VIII.e Livre qui est des causes pour lesquelles les infames coupables furent absoubz ou condempnés (à l’encre or) ». « Tunc quoque ». « Translateur (à l’encre or) ». « Yci commence le .VIII.e Livre qui contient .XVI. chapitres. Le premier est des causes pour lesquelles aucuns coupables furent absolz ou condempnés …-… et par ce moyen fu Arbogastes desconfit avec sa poissance, et en ce je feray fin de la translacion du .VIII.e Livre de Valere. Cy après s’ensuit le .IX.e ouquel Valerius determine des vices ». F. 345-411. [Livre IX]. « Cy commence le .IX.e Livre qui parle de luxure et de superfluité. Le premier chapitre (à l’encre or) ». « Blandum eciam ». « Translateur (à l’encre bleue) ». « En ceste partie commence le .IX.e Livre de Valerius, qui est des fais et des dis dignes de memoire de la cité de Romme …-… Des exemples dessus dis, il appert assez que ceulz qui par mensongerie ont esté eslevés aus grans et nobles estas en sont decheu aprés ignominieusement et en ce je feray fin de ce livre ». F. 411v. « Par l’aide divine sans laquelle (la : dans l’interligne) nulle chose n’est droitement commencee (e : dans l’interligne) ne profitablement continuee (e : dans l’interligne) ne menee affin, est la translation de Valere le Grant terminee. Laquelle commence tres reverent maistre Symon de Haydin, maistre (maistre : répété à l’encre rouge dans l’interligne) en theologie, re(i)ligieulx des Hospitaliers de Saint Jehan de Jherusalem, qui poursuivi jusques au .VII.e livre ou chapitre des stratagemes, et la lissa des la en avant jusques a la fin du livre. Je, Nicholas de Gonesse, maistre es ars et en theologie, ay poursuivi ladicte translation au mains mal que ay peu, du commendement et ordennance de tres excellent et puissent prince, mon seigneur le duc de Berri et d’Auvergne, conte de Poitou, de Bouloingne et d’Auvergne, et a la requeste de Jacquemin Coureau son tresorier. Et ne doubte point que mon stile de translater n’est ne si bel ne si parfait comme est celui devant. Mais je prie a ceulx qui la liront qu’il le me pardonnent. Car je ne suiz mie si expert es histoires comme il estoit. Et fut finee l’an mil .CCCC. et .I. la veille Saint Michiel l’archange (à l’encre or) ».

Description : Le manuscrit fut offert à Jean de Berry, le 1er janvier 1402, par son trésorier et maître d’hôtel Jacques Coureau. Au f. 411v se lit à la lampe de wood l’ex-libris du duc : « Ce livre est au duc de Berry. – JEHAN ». Le volume figure dans les inventaires de la bibliothèque établis en 1413 et 1416 : 1° inventaire de 1413-1416 : « Item un grant Livre de Valerius Maximus, historié et escript de lettre de court ; et au commancement du second fueillet a escript : Urbis Rome ; couvert de veluiau vermeil, garni de .IIII. fermouers d’argent dorez, esmaillez aux armes de Monseigneur ; lequel sire Jaques Courau lui envoia a estraines le premier jour de janvier l’an mil .CCCC. et .I ». Addition : « Ista pars, cum duabus partibus sequentibus [nos 912-913] reddite fuerunt per dictum Robinetum, ut supra » (Arch., nat. KK 258, n° 911 ; cité par Guiffrey, I, p. 236, n° 911). 2° compte de Jean Lebourne, exécuteur testamentaire du duc de Berry (Bibl. Sainte-Geneviève, ms. 841, n° 1097). Le volume est alors prisé 75 livres tournois. L’incipit indiqué dans l’inventaire de 1413 peut être repéré au f. 2 : « Urbis Rome [et cetera]…» . On perd la trace du manuscrit après la dispersion de la librairie du duc de Berry. Il entra à une date indéterminée dans la bibliothèque royale. La mention d’un exemplaire de « Valère le Grand, françois », notée dans l’inventaire de la fin du XVIe s. (Paris), est trop succincte pour affirmer qu’elle correspond au Français 282. Le volume est, en revanche, répertorié dans les catalogues postérieurs : 1° inventaire de Rigault (1622), n° 313 ; 2° inv. des frères Dupuy (1645), n° 519 ; 3° inventaire de Clément (1682), n° 6911.Cotes inscrites au f. 1 : [Rigault II] « trois cents treize » ; [Dupuy II] 519 ; [Regius] 6911. Inventaire 1622 : « Valere le Grand, traduit de latin en françois, les VII premiers livres par Simon de Hesdin, et les autres par Nicolas de Gonnesse, maitre es arts et de theologie ». Inventaire 1645 : « Valere le Grand, mis en françois par Simon de Hesdin et Nicolas de Gonnesse, avec commentaires ».

Provenance : bnf.fr

O acesso de pedestres, Ponte do Brooklyn:

A ponte de Brooklyn tem uma ampla passarela de pedestres abertos para caminhantes e ciclistas, no centro da ponte e maior do que as pistas de automóveis. Enquanto a ponte sempre permitida a passagem de pedestres em toda a sua extensão, seu papel em permitir que milhares de pessoas a atravessar assume uma importância especial nos momentos de dificuldade, quando os meios usuais de cruzar o rio East tornaram-se indisponíveis.

 

Manhattan Bridge:

A ponte de Manhattan é uma ponte pênsil que cruza o rio East , em Nova Iorque , conectando Lower Manhattan (na Canal Street), com Brooklyn (em Flatbush Avenue Extension). Foi a última das três pontes pênseis construídas em toda a baixa do East River, na sequência do Brooklyn e Williamsburg pontes. A ponte foi aberta ao tráfego em 31 de dezembro de 1909 e foi desenhado por Leon Moisseiff , [1] que mais tarde desenvolveu o infame original Tacoma Narrows Bridge , que abriu e entrou em colapso em 1940.

  

Mais infos:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn_Bridge

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Bridge

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_River

  

EXIF:

Camera: Canon EOS 5D Mark II

Lens: 20 mm

Exposure: Manual exposure, 1/640 sec, f/7.1, ISO 400

    

*Canon 5D Mark II + Canon 16-35mm f/2.8

  

*Copyright © 2008 Naldo Mundim. All rights reserved.

*Reprodução proibida. © Todos os direitos reservados.

*Imagem protegida pela Lei do Direito Autoral Nº 9.610 de 19/02/1998

  

Rue à Berlin (Rosa Straße mit Auto)

ERNST LUDWIG KIRCHNER (1880-1938)

1913

Huile sur toile

Achat, 1939

The Museum of Modern Art, New York

www.moma.org/collection/works/79354

 

Œuvre présentée à l'exposition «Art dégénéré» («Entartete Kunst»), Munich, 1937

 

---------

 

Œuvre présentée dans l'exposition :

« L’art « dégénéré » : Le procès de l’art moderne sous le nazisme », Musée Picasso, Paris

 

Cette manifestation aborde l’exposition de propagande « Entartete Kunst » (Art dégénéré), organisée en 1937 à Munich, montrant plus de 700 œuvres d’une centaine d’artistes, représentants des différents courants de l’art moderne... dans une mise en scène conçue pour provoquer le dégoût du visiteur. C'est le point culminant d’une série d’expositions infamantes mises en place dans plusieurs musées allemands dès 1933 ... pour dénoncer les avant-gardes artistiques comme une menace à la « pureté » allemande.. (Extraits du site de l'exposition)

Storia infame della Fotografia Pornografica

 

« Dans la froide nuit

S’enveloppe autour des peaux flétries

Comme notre patrie, notre Terre Sainte

De sa violente quiétude, ruisselle, comme l’absinthe

 

Elle ne veut

Ni prénom, ni poésies, ni adieux

Juste embrasser encore

Les fragments du corps mort

 

De ce soldat prussien

Ou bien de nos femmes

Par l’intermédiaire infâme

Du papier jaune au matin

 

S’élèveront alors, majestueux marbres et calligraphies !

Pour la victorieuse, la splendide,

Ou pour l’immondice, l’aigrie

 

Terre ! Terre ! Terre fétide !

Ô effroyable angoisse de mes rêves

Ô monstrueuse créature qui donnât de l’argile l’Homme

 

La douce sève en nous, puissant dans nos poumons, son glaive,

Elle a ensevelit tous les hommes !

Elle a volé tous les hommes ! »

ils ont été chassés de la forêt profonde et s'étiolent au bord de la piste poussiéreuse.

les tronçonneuses hurlent et arrachent à vif une culture millénaire.

mais nous pourrons savourer nos barbecues sur des tables exotiques et respirer, tranquilles, portes et fenêtres (en bois exotique !) fermées au monde ...

 

TéLéRAMA :

 

La forêt du Congo à l'heure hache

L'APPEL DE LA FORÊT | Dans le bassin du Congo, l'une des dernières forêts primaires de la planète s'étend sur des millions d'hectares. Un sanctuaire pour la faune et la flore. Un monde intense avec sa ville, Pokola, ses bûcherons, ses Pygmées…

 

Le 06/08/2011 à 00h00

Nicolas Delesalle - Télérama n° 3212-3213

 

Coupe d'un arbre centenaire. Photo : Nicolas Delesalle.

Coupe d'un arbre centenaire. Photo : Nicolas Delesalle.

Appelons-le Sylvestre. Matricule n° 402. C'est un sapelli. Son bois rouge est très résistant. On ne le distingue pas encore. Il faut s'enfoncer sur une sente découpée à la machette dans un enchevêtrement de feuilles géantes et de branches grosses comme des troncs de chêne. On crapahute dans le nord du Congo, près de Pokola, dans l'une des concessions détenues par la Congolaise industrielle du bois (CIB) (concession forestière privée attribuée par l'Etat congolais, propriétaire du sol). Dans ces latitudes, l'été est gras, humide et perpétuel. Marcher sur cet humus, c'est fouler un sol surpeuplé. Ici, les insectes ont des muscles et pas de planning familial. Trois grandes forêts tropicales se partagent la planète. En Amazonie et en Indonésie, où elles sont croquées par pans entiers pour laisser place nette aux culs des vaches ou aux plantations de palmiers à huile. Et puis dans ce bassin du Congo, encore à peu près protégé. La moitié de ce qui existe sur cette Terre vit dans ces forêts essentielles aux équilibres climatiques. Ces puits de carbone emprisonnent 18 % de nos émissions de CO2. Une tonne de bois contient 500 kilos de carbone. Le bassin s'étend sur 162 millions d'hectares. Trois fois la France. Il traverse les frontières de six pays, qui tirent une partie de leurs richesses du commerce du bois.

 

Le mukulungu, viagra naturel

Une nuée de papillons multicolores s'agglutine sur la terre rouge en bord de piste. Un entomologiste tomberait à la renverse. « Quelqu'un a pissé », explique Jérôme Castagné, yeux clairs, casque jaune, solide gaillard à l'accent du Sud-Ouest, responsable commercial à la CIB. Martin, Congolais et chef de l'opération, porte un casque orange. Il chasse les milliers de moutmouts qui lui tournent autour : des abeilles aussi minuscules que des moucherons, qui ne piquent pas mais qui butinent la sueur et le sébum pour en faire du miel. Martin ouvre le chemin et explique que Sylvestre a été repéré voilà un an lors d'une mission de prospection. Un pour cent des arbres du coin ont été inventoriés. Sylvestre a été choisi parce qu'il est beau. Son tronc est droit. Son diamètre de 1,50 mètre et sa taille de 40 mètres en font un spécimen intéressant.

 

Le mukulungu soigne aussi les hémorroïdes

et les problèmes de rein.

 

Martin est capable de reconnaître les 250 essences d'arbres qui s'épanouissent dans cette forêt primaire, même si la CIB ne s'intéresse qu'à une vingtaine d'entre elles. Là où le béotien voit un arbre, Martin voit un iroko, un mukulungu, un wengué ou un ébénier. « En tisane, l'écorce de mukulungu est un Viagra naturel, lâche Jérôme. Un Espagnol qui a voulu essayer est resté sur la béquille pendant deux jours. » Le mukulungu soigne aussi les hémorroïdes et les problèmes de rein. Le mankala est un antibiotique, les femmes s'en servent pour leur toilette intime. Ici, un azobé : les Hollandais en font des écluses. Là, un padouk, qu'on transforme en parquets carminés. Sa sciure sert aussi à nourrir les bêtes. Elle fait rougir la viande. Ici, un moabi. Exploitation interdite. Les éléphants raffolent de ses fruits. Dans leur ventre, les graines accélèrent leur germination, et quand elles retombent dans les fèces, elles sont prêtes à l'éclosion. La faune est indispensable à la forêt car elle dissémine les graines qu'elle dévore et défèque. Une forêt vide est condamnée. Les forestiers suivent un chemin marqué à coups de peinture jaune. Si un arbre est marqué de blanc, pas touche, c'est un « arbre d'avenir », on le coupera plus tard. S'il est marqué d'une croix rose, c'est un arbre sacré pour les Pygmées.

 

Ivres morts

On les a rencontrés dans un village de terre battue, pas d'eau, pas d'électricité, de la misère et des volées de gamins rieurs. Ils habitent à la périphérie d'un village bantou. Les Pygmées, rois de la forêt, les seuls à oser s'y frotter la nuit, qui en connaissent tous les secrets et qui survivent pieds nus là où une paire de boots tombe en lambeaux en un mois... Ils avaient les yeux rouges. Ils étaient habillés de frusques dégueulasses. Ils étaient ivres morts. Les Pygmées travaillent pour les Bantous et sont payés en gnôle infâme, le gnolo-gnolo, mélange fermenté de maïs et de manioc qui vire à l'éthanol. Un esclavage silencieux. Ils sont souvent battus, parfois à mort. « Le Moyen Age, une violence inimaginable », racontait Jean-Dominique Bescond, responsable de l'aménagement à la CIB.

 

Considéré comme une injure,

le mot pygmée (“grand d'une coudée”) est interdit.

On dit “semi-nomades autochtones”.

 

En 2009, un enfant se fait frapper par un chauffeur bantou de la CIB. Révolte. Les Pygmées bloquent la piste. Veulent châtier le chauffeur. Il sera licencié. Il a fallu de longues négociations pour calmer la situation. C'est pareil partout. A tel point qu'en février 2011 l'Etat congolais a fait voter une loi leur garantissant des droits. Considéré comme une injure, le mot pygmée (« grand d'une coudée ») est interdit. On dit « semi-nomades autochtones ». Dans l'ivresse, ces Pygmées-là nous ont emmenés découvrir leur arbre sacré au bout d'un sentier, un « arbre à chenilles », qui leur apporte une dose de protéines importante. Interdiction de s'approcher sans être « initié ». En partant, les représentants de la CIB leur ont laissé de quoi s'acheter du vin de palme. Corruption morale, disent les sociologues. Seule manière de fonctionner ici, répondent les hommes de terrain. « Ils deviennent peu à peu des citoyens congolais, a expliqué Roger Monbandzo, responsable du programme social de la CIB. Ils participent à la gestion des forêts, ils sont dans nos équipes de prospection. Ils s'émancipent, les Bantous s'inquiètent, et peut-être qu'un jour il y aura une révolution. »

 

On avance vers Sylvestre dans la moiteur de la jungle. Les ouvriers se désaltèrent en coupant des lianes à eau. Un coup de machette et le liquide s'écoule du robinet végétal. On passe devant un tali n° 215, 86 centimètres de diamètre, bois dur, terrasse de piscine, ébénisterie. Il ne verra pas la nuit. Ici, un arbre à fourmis, Barteria fistulosa. Il vit en symbiose avec l'insecte. Les femmes pygmées adultères sont attachées à son tronc jusqu'au soir. Il faut dix jours de traitement pour les soigner. Le mâle ne risque rien. Au Congo, ils peuvent avoir quatre épouses. Tiens, un ébénier. Et un autre. On le croyait rarissime. « Des fabricants de guitares Gibson nous ont demandé si on pouvait prélever des pieds. Le ministère a dit oui, dit Jérôme Castagné. Mais celui-là est trop jeune. »

 

« On faisait n'importe quoi »

La CIB n'est pas une exploitation comme les autres. De 1969 au début des années 2000, elle abattait les arbres à la chaîne, sans penser à préserver son capital, sans demander aux Pygmées la position de leurs arbres sacrés. « On faisait n'importe quoi », raconte Camille Ngouabi, responsable du débardage, pour qui tout a changé quand la société s'est mise à suivre un plan d'aménagement drastique pour répondre aux normes édictées par le gouvernement congolais. Et surtout, quand elle a décroché son label FSC (Forest Stewardship Council), le plus exigeant en matière de certification (protection de la biodiversité, investissements sociaux).

 

“Greenpeace pense à la nature

sans penser à l'homme.

L'économie de la région dépend du bois.”

Jean-Dominique Bescond, de la CIB

 

Frappée par la crise, la CIB prélève dorénavant sa matière première parcimonieusement. Refile des GPS simplifiés aux Pygmées pour marquer leurs arbres. Pense déjà à vendre des crédits carbone aux pollueurs occidentaux (tu me donnes de l'argent et je coupe moins d'arbres). Le million d'hectares de la concession est divisé en zones exploitées un an, puis laissées en « jachère » trente ans. Deux arbres seulement sont coupés par hectare. « Peu importe », dit pourtant Greenpeace, qui menace de faire suspendre toute certification dans le bassin du Congo en quittant, par exemple, le FSC dont il est membre. Pour l'ONG, l'exploitation de la forêt tropicale ne peut pas être durable, et les forêts du Congo finiront en plantations de palme. Une partie de la concession de la CIB, particulièrement dégradée, va d'ailleurs servir à faire pousser des cacaoyers. La CIB vit-elle dans la chimère ? « Greenpeace pense à la nature sans penser à l'homme, répond Jean-Dominique Bescond. L'économie de la région dépend du bois. Les écosystèmes ne sont pas si touchés que ça, et 14 % de la forêt est mise sous cloche dans des parcs. »

 

La congolaise industrielle du bois a reçu un é

La congolaise industrielle du bois a reçu un écolabel pour sa gestion durable de la forêt. Photo : Nicolas Delesalle.

 

Pokola, où la CIB s'est établie, est devenu une ville de 12 000 habitants. On y trouve une scierie, une banque, des maisons en brique, le meilleur hôpital du pays, une discothèque, une boulangerie qui cuit 10 000 baguettes par jour dans des fours de l'armée française, une radio, une chaîne de télé, une bibliothèque, une école, un collège et 80 églises. Tout ça construit par la CIB. Cela a un coût : le bois produit ici coûte 30 % plus cher que celui des Chinois, qui exploitent sauvagement les forêts du sud du pays.

 

Soudain un coup de tonnerre. Un arbre, au loin, vient de s'effondrer. Aucun autre son dans la forêt. Pas d'éléphant. Pas de gorille. La faune se terre. Pour nourrir les habitants de Pokola, la CIB importe des zébus du Soudan, mais ces steaks sont plus chers que la viande de brousse. Sur les étals du marché de Pokola, on verra les seuls animaux du voyage : des singes saisis par le feu dans des positions d'épouvante, des bébés crocodiles attendant le couic final, des antilopes, une tortue. Braconnage.

 

Geysers de sciure

Voilà Sylvestre. Il nous toise. Il est né sous Napoléon Bonaparte. Il va tomber sous Petit Piment, le surnom de Nicolas Sarkozy au Congo. Le commis à l'abattage s'approche. Ngaboué. Alfred Ngaboué. Le Mozart de la tronçonneuse. Le meilleur abatteur de la zone. Tout le monde sue. Pas lui. Il charrie à bout de bras une tronçonneuse de vingt kilos. Il repère la branche la plus forte. Elle déterminera l'axe de la chute. D'autres forestiers préparent à la machette une piste de fuite, au cas où. Alfred enfile ses gants. Tout se joue en dix minutes dans la pétarade aiguë de la tronçonneuse. D'abord deux coups précis pour dessiner une mâchoire dans le tronc qui saigne de la sève rouge. L'entaille de direction. Et puis, tout autour, par tronçons précis, dans des geysers de sciure, Alfred arrache Sylvestre à sa vie. Le géant va tomber dans un bruit de Mobylette. « MOSSIKA ! » crie un ouvrier. « Garez vos fesses ! » La tronçonneuse se tait. L'arbre est immobile. « Il part là », chuchote Martin. On se croirait dans un service de réanimation. Stupéfiant pour qui n'a jamais abattu que de l'herbe avec une tondeuse. Et si Sylvestre tombait du mauvais côté ? Ça y est. Sylvestre part. Il s'effondre. Au ralenti. Comme un paquebot qui glisse le long de ses cales au début de sa carrière. Sylvestre finit la sienne dans un craquement sinistre. Ses feuilles tombent comme des lucioles longtemps après sa chute. La souche est poinçonnée. C'est le 3 627 e arbre abattu cette année dans la zone.

 

“Le bois, l'écorce, les feuilles pour la médecine :

il y aurait des débouchés formidables.”

Martin, chef des opérations pour la CIB

 

On marche sur le tronc de Sylvestre. Au bout, les branches sont éclatées. Elles pourriront ici. « Le houppier, on ne l'exploite pas, ça me fait mal, s'énerve Martin. Le bois, l'écorce, les feuilles pour la médecine : il y aurait des débouchés formidables. » L'abattage crée des clairières où poussent des tapis de feuilles qui empêcheront les graines ailées d'autres sapellis de tomber sur le sol. Il n'y aura pas d'autres Sylvestre ici avant longtemps. De toute façon, les plus gros ont déjà été coupés. Et dans trente ans, aucun sapelli de 1,50 mètre de diamètre ne se dressera ici. Il faudrait des siècles. L'Europe s'est débarrassée du loup, l'Amérique du bison, l'Afrique se construit sur les souches de ses sapellis géants.

 

Dans cinq jours, une équipe sciera les branches de Sylvestre pour le transformer en grume droite, présentable. Des bulldozers viendront créer un chemin pour l'extraire de la forêt. Une soixantaine de troncs sont sortis ainsi chaque jour. Un débardeur équipé de pneus grands comme un homme treuillera Sylvestre jusqu'à la piste. Il partira à Pokola. Sera séché, scié en planches, ou laissé à l'état de grume, puis transporté en dix jours jusqu'au port de Douala, au Cameroun. Il remontera l'océan Atlantique et, en Europe, il finira en fenêtre ou en porte.

en URBATORIUM se informa en detalle, esta foto es similar a la de Urbatorium pero es de otra fuente.

 

urbatorium.blogspot.com/2009/01/el-infame-misterio-de-las...

 

"La estatua metálica del Caballo estaba en la entrada Norte, por la calle Merced. Había sido traída de Europa por don Francisco Gandarillas, quien la donó al parque hacia 1874. El pórtico de ladrillos en forma de arco que lo sostenía, medía 6.50 metros de alto por 4.50 de ancho. La obra pertenecía a un modelo del escultor Eugène Louis Lequesne y estaba basada en el aspecto y las proporciones de la figura ecuestre de Nerón de Pompeya.

 

Al ser inaugurado, el paseo tenía sólo dos entradas, siendo la del costado poniente o de la calle de Bretón, aquella custodiada por las estatuas de "Los Guerreros", la principal del cerro. La entrada de Merced, llamada popularmente "Entrada del Caballo" por su figura custodia, era sólo la auxiliar y por largo tiempo no fue autorizada la circulación a través de ella, por lo que constituía la zona del parque donde las visitas eran menos y los paseos tendían a ser más bien rápidos.

 

Quizás por esta razón fue que, en 1901 y durante las remodelaciones de los accesos, el Caballo fue llevado al recinto del Club Hípico, según las investigaciones existentes. Sin embargo, desapareció de este lugar sin dejar huella, no existiendo información sobre dónde fue a parar y por qué volvió a ser movido".

 

No sé paliar mi odio con el crono en movimiento, que pronto se hace tarde le escribí gritando al tiempo, el tiempo pasa, un día más es un día menos, al menos ya no nos hechamos de menos si no nos vemos. Para el que habló mal de mi, pero no me conoció, canciones de amor para corazones con odio, hago bien plantando ... en este jardín bodrio, o estoy loco por hablarles de amor en tiempos de odio. Hay más odio a primera vista que amor platónico, sociedad materialista, el dinero es lo único. Ama con locura el amor no dura pa siempre, nunca digas nunca pero nada es para siempre. Odio ser incapaz de amar en toda regla, aquí dentro tengo paz pero ahí fuera he de dar guerra, me ajusto a la vida pero la vida no es justa, quien yo quiero no me quiere y quien me quiere no me gusta. Odio amarme demasiado pero pa no odiarme me amo, pero por qué no iba a amarme a mi si soy el puto amo, amarse a si mismo no es egoísmo, para poder amar a los demás primero aprendí a amarme a mi mismo, Odio caer, odio tener que levantarme, odio madrugar, odio despertarme tarde, ¿me amas?, a cuantos más con las mismas ganas, volveré a casa, me haré una pa.., me iré a la cama. Niña de papá ama a niño de la calle, papá se encargará de que la relación falle. Aún me miran con odio algunas brujas del vecindario pero recuerdo con nostalgia esos veranos en el barrio. Aquel que ya no sabe desahogarse sin drogarse, acabarán odiándole y acabará odiándose. Sucios de alcohol en la pared del De Vicio miramos sin amor a esas jambas con prejuicios. Odio tu novio, igual que odio tu “i love you”, escribo otro episodio, es obvio no estoy sobrio, voy a odiarte hasta que me ames pa que me ames hasta odiarte, prefiero ser un infame antes de que me ames por mi arte. Esa escoria de ahí del tatuaje de amor a la patria, que mejor no busque bronca con cabrón se sangre fría. No doy clases de amor, escribo frases pa amar, crees que eres el mejor, yo te puedo ganar. Amar para que, ¿para acabar amargado?, somos de los que odian amar pero quieren ser amados. Me quiere, no te quiere, me quiere, no te quiere, arranca hojas del bloc porque es a mi a quien prefieren. Si le saco un palmo al modelo más alto de la cama, no es por fama, es por ganas, creer en lo que amas. No es la disciplina del clima primaveral, mi estimada rima inspirada en la esquina de un bar. Yo escribo por odio, tu amas mi furia, ¿quieres se como yo?, mejor curra o estudia. Te odio gentlemen, me revuelves las tripas, va de rompe corazones y es un alzones que flipas. Si lo nuestro fuera amor te traería bombones, como no es más que sexo compra tu los condones. No sé amar sin condiciones, sin excusas ni prisas, odio las malas caras y sospecho las sonrisas. Nos odian por envidia, y vuestra envidia es vuestro odio, disimula en tu asedio, estoy sonando en la radio. No escribí cartas de amor en cuarto curso, creo, estaba peleando por respeto en el patio de recreo. Soy mortal por tanto, mejor cortar que estar soportando tanto ¿sabes? que ni tu eres mía ni yo soy tuyo, así que, si veo que algo que me inspira huyo, huyo pa que no me mires, pa que no me midas, amor prohibido escribo a escondidas. Si bueno, he tenido amores cortos, he cometido errores tontos, pero creo que aún es pronto...

 

tema viejo, muy bueno *

les pygmées : ils ont été chassés de la forêt profonde et s'étiolent au bord de la piste poussiéreuse.

les tronçonneuses hurlent et arrachent à vif une culture millénaire.

mais nous pourrons savourer nos barbecues sur des tables exotiques et respirer, tranquilles, portes et fenêtres (en bois exotique !) fermées au monde ...

 

TéLéRAMA :

 

La forêt du Congo à l'heure hache

L'APPEL DE LA FORÊT | Dans le bassin du Congo, l'une des dernières forêts primaires de la planète s'étend sur des millions d'hectares. Un sanctuaire pour la faune et la flore. Un monde intense avec sa ville, Pokola, ses bûcherons, ses Pygmées…

 

Le 06/08/2011 à 00h00

Nicolas Delesalle - Télérama n° 3212-3213

 

Appelons-le Sylvestre. Matricule n° 402. C'est un sapelli. Son bois rouge est très résistant. On ne le distingue pas encore. Il faut s'enfoncer sur une sente découpée à la machette dans un enchevêtrement de feuilles géantes et de branches grosses comme des troncs de chêne. On crapahute dans le nord du Congo, près de Pokola, dans l'une des concessions détenues par la Congolaise industrielle du bois (CIB) (concession forestière privée attribuée par l'Etat congolais, propriétaire du sol). Dans ces latitudes, l'été est gras, humide et perpétuel. Marcher sur cet humus, c'est fouler un sol surpeuplé. Ici, les insectes ont des muscles et pas de planning familial. Trois grandes forêts tropicales se partagent la planète. En Amazonie et en Indonésie, où elles sont croquées par pans entiers pour laisser place nette aux culs des vaches ou aux plantations de palmiers à huile. Et puis dans ce bassin du Congo, encore à peu près protégé. La moitié de ce qui existe sur cette Terre vit dans ces forêts essentielles aux équilibres climatiques. Ces puits de carbone emprisonnent 18 % de nos émissions de CO2. Une tonne de bois contient 500 kilos de carbone. Le bassin s'étend sur 162 millions d'hectares. Trois fois la France. Il traverse les frontières de six pays, qui tirent une partie de leurs richesses du commerce du bois.

 

Le mukulungu, viagra naturel

Une nuée de papillons multicolores s'agglutine sur la terre rouge en bord de piste. Un entomologiste tomberait à la renverse. « Quelqu'un a pissé », explique Jérôme Castagné, yeux clairs, casque jaune, solide gaillard à l'accent du Sud-Ouest, responsable commercial à la CIB. Martin, Congolais et chef de l'opération, porte un casque orange. Il chasse les milliers de moutmouts qui lui tournent autour : des abeilles aussi minuscules que des moucherons, qui ne piquent pas mais qui butinent la sueur et le sébum pour en faire du miel. Martin ouvre le chemin et explique que Sylvestre a été repéré voilà un an lors d'une mission de prospection. Un pour cent des arbres du coin ont été inventoriés. Sylvestre a été choisi parce qu'il est beau. Son tronc est droit. Son diamètre de 1,50 mètre et sa taille de 40 mètres en font un spécimen intéressant.

 

Le mukulungu soigne aussi les hémorroïdes

et les problèmes de rein.

 

Martin est capable de reconnaître les 250 essences d'arbres qui s'épanouissent dans cette forêt primaire, même si la CIB ne s'intéresse qu'à une vingtaine d'entre elles. Là où le béotien voit un arbre, Martin voit un iroko, un mukulungu, un wengué ou un ébénier. « En tisane, l'écorce de mukulungu est un Viagra naturel, lâche Jérôme. Un Espagnol qui a voulu essayer est resté sur la béquille pendant deux jours. » Le mukulungu soigne aussi les hémorroïdes et les problèmes de rein. Le mankala est un antibiotique, les femmes s'en servent pour leur toilette intime. Ici, un azobé : les Hollandais en font des écluses. Là, un padouk, qu'on transforme en parquets carminés. Sa sciure sert aussi à nourrir les bêtes. Elle fait rougir la viande. Ici, un moabi. Exploitation interdite. Les éléphants raffolent de ses fruits. Dans leur ventre, les graines accélèrent leur germination, et quand elles retombent dans les fèces, elles sont prêtes à l'éclosion. La faune est indispensable à la forêt car elle dissémine les graines qu'elle dévore et défèque. Une forêt vide est condamnée. Les forestiers suivent un chemin marqué à coups de peinture jaune. Si un arbre est marqué de blanc, pas touche, c'est un « arbre d'avenir », on le coupera plus tard. S'il est marqué d'une croix rose, c'est un arbre sacré pour les Pygmées.

 

Ivres morts

On les a rencontrés dans un village de terre battue, pas d'eau, pas d'électricité, de la misère et des volées de gamins rieurs. Ils habitent à la périphérie d'un village bantou. Les Pygmées, rois de la forêt, les seuls à oser s'y frotter la nuit, qui en connaissent tous les secrets et qui survivent pieds nus là où une paire de boots tombe en lambeaux en un mois... Ils avaient les yeux rouges. Ils étaient habillés de frusques dégueulasses. Ils étaient ivres morts. Les Pygmées travaillent pour les Bantous et sont payés en gnôle infâme, le gnolo-gnolo, mélange fermenté de maïs et de manioc qui vire à l'éthanol. Un esclavage silencieux. Ils sont souvent battus, parfois à mort. « Le Moyen Age, une violence inimaginable », racontait Jean-Dominique Bescond, responsable de l'aménagement à la CIB.

 

Considéré comme une injure,

le mot pygmée (“grand d'une coudée”) est interdit.

On dit “semi-nomades autochtones”.

 

En 2009, un enfant se fait frapper par un chauffeur bantou de la CIB. Révolte. Les Pygmées bloquent la piste. Veulent châtier le chauffeur. Il sera licencié. Il a fallu de longues négociations pour calmer la situation. C'est pareil partout. A tel point qu'en février 2011 l'Etat congolais a fait voter une loi leur garantissant des droits. Considéré comme une injure, le mot pygmée (« grand d'une coudée ») est interdit. On dit « semi-nomades autochtones ». Dans l'ivresse, ces Pygmées-là nous ont emmenés découvrir leur arbre sacré au bout d'un sentier, un « arbre à chenilles », qui leur apporte une dose de protéines importante. Interdiction de s'approcher sans être « initié ». En partant, les représentants de la CIB leur ont laissé de quoi s'acheter du vin de palme. Corruption morale, disent les sociologues. Seule manière de fonctionner ici, répondent les hommes de terrain. « Ils deviennent peu à peu des citoyens congolais, a expliqué Roger Monbandzo, responsable du programme social de la CIB. Ils participent à la gestion des forêts, ils sont dans nos équipes de prospection. Ils s'émancipent, les Bantous s'inquiètent, et peut-être qu'un jour il y aura une révolution. »

 

On avance vers Sylvestre dans la moiteur de la jungle. Les ouvriers se désaltèrent en coupant des lianes à eau. Un coup de machette et le liquide s'écoule du robinet végétal. On passe devant un tali n° 215, 86 centimètres de diamètre, bois dur, terrasse de piscine, ébénisterie. Il ne verra pas la nuit. Ici, un arbre à fourmis, Barteria fistulosa. Il vit en symbiose avec l'insecte. Les femmes pygmées adultères sont attachées à son tronc jusqu'au soir. Il faut dix jours de traitement pour les soigner. Le mâle ne risque rien. Au Congo, ils peuvent avoir quatre épouses. Tiens, un ébénier. Et un autre. On le croyait rarissime. « Des fabricants de guitares Gibson nous ont demandé si on pouvait prélever des pieds. Le ministère a dit oui, dit Jérôme Castagné. Mais celui-là est trop jeune. »

 

« On faisait n'importe quoi »

La CIB n'est pas une exploitation comme les autres. De 1969 au début des années 2000, elle abattait les arbres à la chaîne, sans penser à préserver son capital, sans demander aux Pygmées la position de leurs arbres sacrés. « On faisait n'importe quoi », raconte Camille Ngouabi, responsable du débardage, pour qui tout a changé quand la société s'est mise à suivre un plan d'aménagement drastique pour répondre aux normes édictées par le gouvernement congolais. Et surtout, quand elle a décroché son label FSC (Forest Stewardship Council), le plus exigeant en matière de certification (protection de la biodiversité, investissements sociaux).

 

“Greenpeace pense à la nature

sans penser à l'homme.

L'économie de la région dépend du bois.”

Jean-Dominique Bescond, de la CIB

 

Frappée par la crise, la CIB prélève dorénavant sa matière première parcimonieusement. Refile des GPS simplifiés aux Pygmées pour marquer leurs arbres. Pense déjà à vendre des crédits carbone aux pollueurs occidentaux (tu me donnes de l'argent et je coupe moins d'arbres). Le million d'hectares de la concession est divisé en zones exploitées un an, puis laissées en « jachère » trente ans. Deux arbres seulement sont coupés par hectare. « Peu importe », dit pourtant Greenpeace, qui menace de faire suspendre toute certification dans le bassin du Congo en quittant, par exemple, le FSC dont il est membre. Pour l'ONG, l'exploitation de la forêt tropicale ne peut pas être durable, et les forêts du Congo finiront en plantations de palme. Une partie de la concession de la CIB, particulièrement dégradée, va d'ailleurs servir à faire pousser des cacaoyers. La CIB vit-elle dans la chimère ? « Greenpeace pense à la nature sans penser à l'homme, répond Jean-Dominique Bescond. L'économie de la région dépend du bois. Les écosystèmes ne sont pas si touchés que ça, et 14 % de la forêt est mise sous cloche dans des parcs. »

 

La congolaise industrielle du bois a reçu un é

La congolaise industrielle du bois a reçu un écolabel pour sa gestion durable de la forêt. Photo : Nicolas Delesalle.

 

Pokola, où la CIB s'est établie, est devenu une ville de 12 000 habitants. On y trouve une scierie, une banque, des maisons en brique, le meilleur hôpital du pays, une discothèque, une boulangerie qui cuit 10 000 baguettes par jour dans des fours de l'armée française, une radio, une chaîne de télé, une bibliothèque, une école, un collège et 80 églises. Tout ça construit par la CIB. Cela a un coût : le bois produit ici coûte 30 % plus cher que celui des Chinois, qui exploitent sauvagement les forêts du sud du pays.

 

Soudain un coup de tonnerre. Un arbre, au loin, vient de s'effondrer. Aucun autre son dans la forêt. Pas d'éléphant. Pas de gorille. La faune se terre. Pour nourrir les habitants de Pokola, la CIB importe des zébus du Soudan, mais ces steaks sont plus chers que la viande de brousse. Sur les étals du marché de Pokola, on verra les seuls animaux du voyage : des singes saisis par le feu dans des positions d'épouvante, des bébés crocodiles attendant le couic final, des antilopes, une tortue. Braconnage.

 

Geysers de sciure

Voilà Sylvestre. Il nous toise. Il est né sous Napoléon Bonaparte. Il va tomber sous Petit Piment, le surnom de Nicolas Sarkozy au Congo. Le commis à l'abattage s'approche. Ngaboué. Alfred Ngaboué. Le Mozart de la tronçonneuse. Le meilleur abatteur de la zone. Tout le monde sue. Pas lui. Il charrie à bout de bras une tronçonneuse de vingt kilos. Il repère la branche la plus forte. Elle déterminera l'axe de la chute. D'autres forestiers préparent à la machette une piste de fuite, au cas où. Alfred enfile ses gants. Tout se joue en dix minutes dans la pétarade aiguë de la tronçonneuse. D'abord deux coups précis pour dessiner une mâchoire dans le tronc qui saigne de la sève rouge. L'entaille de direction. Et puis, tout autour, par tronçons précis, dans des geysers de sciure, Alfred arrache Sylvestre à sa vie. Le géant va tomber dans un bruit de Mobylette. « MOSSIKA ! » crie un ouvrier. « Garez vos fesses ! » La tronçonneuse se tait. L'arbre est immobile. « Il part là », chuchote Martin. On se croirait dans un service de réanimation. Stupéfiant pour qui n'a jamais abattu que de l'herbe avec une tondeuse. Et si Sylvestre tombait du mauvais côté ? Ça y est. Sylvestre part. Il s'effondre. Au ralenti. Comme un paquebot qui glisse le long de ses cales au début de sa carrière. Sylvestre finit la sienne dans un craquement sinistre. Ses feuilles tombent comme des lucioles longtemps après sa chute. La souche est poinçonnée. C'est le 3 627 e arbre abattu cette année dans la zone.

 

“Le bois, l'écorce, les feuilles pour la médecine :

il y aurait des débouchés formidables.”

Martin, chef des opérations pour la CIB

 

On marche sur le tronc de Sylvestre. Au bout, les branches sont éclatées. Elles pourriront ici. « Le houppier, on ne l'exploite pas, ça me fait mal, s'énerve Martin. Le bois, l'écorce, les feuilles pour la médecine : il y aurait des débouchés formidables. » L'abattage crée des clairières où poussent des tapis de feuilles qui empêcheront les graines ailées d'autres sapellis de tomber sur le sol. Il n'y aura pas d'autres Sylvestre ici avant longtemps. De toute façon, les plus gros ont déjà été coupés. Et dans trente ans, aucun sapelli de 1,50 mètre de diamètre ne se dressera ici. Il faudrait des siècles. L'Europe s'est débarrassée du loup, l'Amérique du bison, l'Afrique se construit sur les souches de ses sapellis géants.

 

Dans cinq jours, une équipe sciera les branches de Sylvestre pour le transformer en grume droite, présentable. Des bulldozers viendront créer un chemin pour l'extraire de la forêt. Une soixantaine de troncs sont sortis ainsi chaque jour. Un débardeur équipé de pneus grands comme un homme treuillera Sylvestre jusqu'à la piste. Il partira à Pokola. Sera séché, scié en planches, ou laissé à l'état de grume, puis transporté en dix jours jusqu'au port de Douala, au Cameroun. Il remontera l'océan Atlantique et, en Europe, il finira en fenêtre ou en porte.

  

Bamberg-Germania Agosto 2006

 

Cristo in croce sembrava

più infastidito dalle infamie che dai chiodi

 

Maria Catena anche tu

conosci quel nodo che stringe la gola

Quel pianto strozzato da rabbia e amarezza

da colpe che infondo non hai

e stai ancora scontando l'ingiusta condanna

nel triste girone della maldicenza

 

e ti chiedi se più che un dispetto il tuo nome

sia stato un presagio

 

(da "Maria Catena"-Carmen Consoli)

“Bel colpo “ disse Wellington alludendo alla vittoria

“Tre giorni di baldoria di vino e di puttane...

Suonino le campane nella storia d’Inghilterra

Che questa guerra infame se Dio vuole non c’è più..”

Intanto un lampo giallo veloce ed indiscreto

Scattato in contropiede dal sole della sera

Era arrivato agli occhi di Sua Maestà Imperiale

E senza fargli male per un poco lo accecò...

“ Ci mancava pure questa “ sospirò Napoleone

Trafiggendosi la giacca con la mano...

Più lontano la Fortuna raccoglieva margherite

Tra le vite dei soldati in mezzo al prato

“Vittoria“ disse Wellington nel suo perfetto inglese

“Però di quel francese non ci si può fidare...

Pare che nello sguardo abbia polvere da sparo

E nero sangue e grida e qualcosa che non so...“

Napoleone intanto guardava l’orizzonte

La ruga sulla fronte sembrava più profonda

E l’onda della vita lo aveva già stancato

Sul prato senza sole chiuse gli occhi per un po’

E pensò che il nuovo secolo era ancora un ragazzino

Così giovane e già così assassino

E che il giorno era al tramonto e che stava per finire

Qualche cosa che è difficile capire.

 

Soundtrack, Edoardo De Angelis, “Waterloo"

 

background: “The Old Guard - Grande Armee"

 

duke of Wellington: “portrait " by Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830) in wikipedia

 

Napoleone: “Napoléon Bonaparte abdicated in Fontainebleau" by Paul Delaroche (1797-1856) in wikipedia

 

texture: “used canvas 5" by Shadowhouse Creations

"Dans le jardin"

 

Jeanne et Georges sont là. Le noir ciel orageux

Devient rose, et répand l'aurore sur leurs jeux ;

Ô beaux jours ! Le printemps auprès de moi s'empresse ;

Tout verdit ; la forêt est une enchanteresse ;

L'horizon change, ainsi qu'un décor d'opéra ;

Appelez ce doux mois du nom qu'il vous plaira,

C'est mai, c'est floréal ; c'est l'hyménée auguste

De la chose tremblante et de la chose juste,

Du nid et de l'azur, du brin d'herbe et du ciel ;

C'est l'heure où tout se sent vaguement éternel ;

C'est l'éblouissement, c'est l'espoir, c'est l'ivresse ;

La plante est une femme, et mon vers la caresse ;

C'est, grâce aux frais glaïeuls, grâce aux purs liserons,

La vengeance que nous poètes nous tirons

De cet affreux janvier, si laid ; c'est la revanche

Qu'avril contre l'hiver prend avec la pervenche ;

Courage, avril ! Courage, ô mois de mai ! Ciel bleu,

Réchauffe, resplendis, sois beau ! Bravo, bon Dieu !

Ah ! Jamais la saison ne nous fait banqueroute.

L'aube passe en semant des roses sur sa route.

Flamme ! Ombre ! Tout est plein de ténèbres et d'yeux ;

Tout est mystérieux et tout est radieux ;

Qu'est-ce que l'alcyon cherche dans les tempêtes ?

L'amour ; l'antre et le nid ayant les mêmes fêtes,

Je ne vois pas pourquoi l'homme serait honteux

De ce que les lions pensifs ont devant eux,

De l'amour, de l'hymen sacré, de toi, nature !

Tout cachot aboutit à la même ouverture,

La vie ; et toute chaîne, à travers nos douleurs,

Commence par l'airain et finit par les fleurs.

C'est pourquoi nous avons d'abord la haine infâme,

La guerre, les tourments, les fléaux, puis la femme,

La nuit n'ayant pour but que d'amener le jour.

Dieu n'a fait l'univers que pour faire l'amour.

Toujours, comme un poète aime, comme les sages

N'ont pas deux vérités et n'ont pas deux visages,

J'ai laissé la beauté, fier et suprême attrait,

Vaincre, et faire de moi tout ce qu'elle voudrait ;

Je n'ai pas plus caché devant la femme nue

Mes transports, que devant l'étoile sous la nue

Et devant la blancheur du cygne sur les eaux.

Car dans l'azur sans fond les plus profonds oiseaux

Chantent le même chant, et ce chant, c'est la vie.

Sois puissant, je te plains ; sois aimé, je t'envie

 

"Victor Hugo"

sobre la puerta dice "GLORIA A LOS PADRES DE LA PATRIA" Veamos una conclusión avalada por los testimonios de la época, como el que expresó el magistrado que actuó como auditor de guerra en la causa de quienes conspiraron contra la autoridad: “Portales tenía en su mano la suerte o desgracia de toda la república, podía disponer de ella a su antojo, sin la menor contradicción… ¿Y no le parece a usted muy triste, muy precaria, muy miserable la felicidad de un Estado que penda sólo de la voluntad de un hombre?”, le escribió el juez José Antonio Álvarez a Manuel Montt. Agregando, a la vez que reflejando elocuentemente el sentimiento que la muerte del estadista había provocado: “Como hombre, se me partió el alma al ver el cadáver de Portales; derramé sobre él lágrimas muy sinceras…, pero como chileno, bendigo la mano de la Providencia que nos libró en un solo día de traidores infames y de un ministro que amenazaba nuestras libertades”.

  

"LXXVIII - Spleen

 

Quand le ciel bas et lourd pèse comme un couvercle

Sur l'esprit gémissant en proie aux longs ennuis,

Et que de l'horizon embrassant tout le cercle

II nous verse un jour noir plus triste que les nuits;

  

Quand la terre est changée en un cachot humide,

Où l'Espérance, comme une chauve-souris,

S'en va battant les murs de son aile timide

Et se cognant la tête à des plafonds pourris;

  

Quand la pluie étalant ses immenses traînées

D'une vaste prison imite les barreaux,

Et qu'un peuple muet d'infâmes araignées

Vient tendre ses filets au fond de nos cerveaux,

  

Des cloches tout à coup sautent avec furie

Et lancent vers le ciel un affreux hurlement,

Ainsi que des esprits errants et sans patrie

Qui se mettent à geindre opiniâtrement.

  

- Et de longs corbillards, sans tambours ni musique,

Défilent lentement dans mon âme; l'Espoir,

Vaincu, pleure, et l'Angoisse atroce, despotique,

Sur mon crâne incliné plante son drapeau noir."

  

Les Fleurs du mal, Charles Baudelaire

 

Riporto il testo integrale dell'intervento di Marco Travaglio:

 

"Buongiorno a tutti. Mi dispiace, ma dobbiamo ricominciare a parlare di intercettazioni, perché questo è quello che offre il convento e quello che chiedono anche gran parte dei frequentatori del blog di Beppe e del blog nostro – voglioscendere – e di tanti altri che si stanno sintonizzando con noi, il lunedì alle due. Ne parliamo, anche se presto dovremo occuparci anche di altre leggi vergogna, che sono quelle, per esempio, del ritorno all’impunità per le alte cariche (soprattutto di quella bassa) lodo Schifani bis, ma questa – ogni giorno ha la sua pena – la vediamo un’altra volta.

È interessante, ora che finalmente abbiamo un testo che sembrerebbe definitivo per quanto riguarda il cosiddetto disegno di legge Berlusconi-Alfano-Ghedini sulle intercettazioni, capire che cosa succede esattamente. Capire quelli che i telegiornali non solo non ci dicono, ma che addirittura cercano di nasconderci. Mentendo anche sulle parole. Questa non è una legge sulle intercettazioni. È anche una legge sulle intercettazioni. Ma questa è una legge che abolisce di fatto la cronaca giudiziaria per tutta la lunga fase delle indagini, fino all’inizio del processo. Cioè da quando viene commesso un fatto, a quando viene scoperto, a quando viene processata la persona sospettata di averlo commesso, i cittadini non potranno più sapere nulla.

Cominciamo però a vedere il primo versante, cioè quello delle intercettazioni, laddove non saranno più possibili e con quali conseguenze tutto ciò avverrà. Ce l’hanno condita e intortata dicendoci che negli altri paesi ce ne sono meno. Ho sentito ancora ieri qualche demente in televisione, naturalmente ministro, dire che negli Stati Uniti vanno avanti a reprimere i reati con 1.500 intercettazioni all’anno, in un paese che ha il quintuplo della nostra popolazione. Com’è possibile invece che noi abbiamo 125.000 intercettazioni all’anno e ancora non siamo contenti? In realtà, l’abbiamo già visto, noi non abbiamo 125.000 intercettazioni. Noi abbiamo 75.000 decreti per intercettare che riguardano spesso i vari telefoni di una stessa persona. Quindi le persone intercettate, l’altra volta abbiamo detto essendo molto ottimisti 80.000, i magistrati calcolano che siano circa 20-30.000 all’anno. Negli Stati Uniti non sono affatto 1.500. Sono milioni le persone intercettate, soltanto che la non risulta nelle statistiche perché là a intercettare sono l’FBI, la CIA, i vari servizi di sicurezza e le varie polizie locali e federali. Pensate, Giancarlo Caselli soltanto nella procura di Torino ha calcolato che lo 0,2% dei processi che si fanno contiene intercettazioni. Lo 0,2% dei processi. Altro che “tutto intercettato, tutti intercettati”. Comunque. Il fatto che non si possa più intercettare per reati puniti con pene inferiori ai dieci anni o quelli contro la pubblica amministrazione, significa che non potremo più scoprire con le intercettazioni reati di: usura, truffe – anche le truffe scoperte da De Magistris, le ruberie sui fondi Europei, sui fondi regionali; l’Europa sarà contenta di noi – sequestri di persona. Se fosse vera la leggenda secondo cui gli zingari rubano i bambini, ebbene se uno zingaro ruba un bambino quello è un sequestro semplice perché non è a scopo di estorsione e non può più essere scoperto con intercettazioni. Il contrabbando, altra specialità delle mafie come l’usura. Lo sfruttamento della prostituzione. La rapina. Il furto in appartamento...

 

Quante piccole gang o grandi gang di ladri vengono sgominate intercettando? Non si può più. Associazione per delinquere; persino l’associazione per delinquere. Lo scippo. L’incendio. La ricettazione: i ricettatori sono quelli che smaltiscono e diffondono la refurtiva. Bene, nemmeno quello. La calunnia. I reati ambientali: tutti i reati sull’ambiente, discariche, ecc. Salute e sicurezza sul lavoro, per nulla più si potrà intercettare. Reati ovviamente – quelli li sappiamo – reati economico finanziari. Pensate a tutte le turbative di borsa, le frodi fiscali, le frodi sull’IVA che scoperte con le intercettazioni portano lo Stato a recuperare un sacco di evasione. Nulla di nulla. Ricerca dei latitanti, nemmeno. Quando uno mette sotto intercettazione tutti gli amici e i parenti e i possibili favoreggiatori di un latitante e poi sta lì ad aspettare che qualcuno compia un passo falso, non si potrà più fare. Perché? Perché c’è un’altra clausola che dice che l’intercettazione può durare al massimo tre mesi. Dopodichè si staccano gli apparecchi e si va a casa. Quindi se il latitante si fa beccare entro tre mesi, bene, se invece rimane uccel di bosco più di tre mesi, pazienza. Tempo scaduto. Lo Stato si da la scadenza. Mentre il latitante no, ovviamente. Questo vale anche per i sequestri di persona. Voi sapete che quando viene sequestrata una persona, tipo un bambino, si mettono sono osservazione i telefoni della famiglia nella speranza di risalire ai telefoni dei sequestratori e di localizzarli. Bene, anche qui dopo i tre mesi si stacca tutto. Quindi, o l’anonima sequestri ci fa il favore di restituirci gli ostaggi entro e non oltre i novanta giorni, oppure sennò pazienza. Chi si è visto, si è visto. Altra genialata: ci vorranno tre giudici, non più un GIP, tre giudici per decidere su un’intercettazione. Pensate che in Italia il GIP monocratico, cioè lui da solo, può condannare addirittura per omicidio, ti può dare trent’anni per omicidio con rito abbreviato. Bene, da solo potrà condannarti per omicidio, ma non potrà più autorizzare l’intercettazione di un telefonino. Pensate l’assurdità. Ci sono tribunali che hanno dieci giudici in tutto, i quali dovranno fare: in tre il collegio per autorizzare le intercettazioni, poi un quarto dovrà fare il GIP, poi un altro dovrà occuparsi del processo e alla fine non si troveranno più i giudici che potranno occuparsi tutti dello stesso processo e quindi si bloccherà la giustizia nei posti medio-piccoli. Perché? Perché i giudici diventano incompatibili quando hanno deciso una volta su un caso.

I giudici non potranno più parlare. Le due magistrato che hanno fatto arrestare gli scannatori della clinica Santa Rita di Milano hanno fatto una conferenza stampa assieme alla polizia giudiziaria per spiegare ai cittadini che cosa era successo, per metterli in guardia da quello che era successo. D’ora in poi, quando entrerà in vigore questa legge porcata, il fatto che hanno parlato della loro inchiesta nella conferenza stampa fa sì che debbano lasciare l’inchiesta. Non possono proseguirla loro, la devono lasciare a qualcun altro. Se un magistrato parla male di Provenzano, non potrà più indagare su Provenzano. Perché si è già pronunciato. Non sto parlando del giudice che dovrà giudicarlo, sto parlando del pubblico ministero che spiega quali indizi ha raccolto a carico di Provenzano oppure degli scannatori della clinica.

Quindi, non solo i giornalisti non possono più raccontare le inchieste, ma non le possono più raccontare neppure i magistrati, sennò perdono l’inchiesta all’istante. Ma non solo. Se anche il magistrato sta zitto, per conservare la sua inchiesta, c’è modo di farlo fuori lo stesso. Decide l’imputato. Se l’imputato denuncia il suo pubblico ministero, o meglio, se l’indagato denuncia il suo pubblico ministero accusandolo di una fuga di notizie che magari non ha fatto – tipo De Magistris, adesso sta venendo fuori che le fughe di notizie le facevano i suoi superiori per farle ricadere su di lui – facciamo il caso che uno viene denunciato nella procura vicina per avere fatto una fuga di notizie – non si sa se è vero o non è vero – bene, il fatto stesso che sia stato denunciato consente al suo capo di levargli l’inchiesta. Anche se lui non ha fatto niente. Quindi è l’imputato che decide in qualche modo di scegliersi il suo pubblico ministero. Se gli piace perché è morbido, se lo tiene, sennò lo denuncia e il capo gli toglie l’inchiesta.

C’è una "normina", l’avrete forse letta, la “salva-preti”. Dopo la “salva-Previti” adesso abbiamo la “salva-preti” per cui se uno è un cittadino normale, niente, legge normale. Se invece è un sacerdote, per indagare bisogna avvertire il suo vescovo. Dopodichè, se viene indagato un vescovo – ed è capitato anche recentemente – allora bisogna avvertire la Segreteria di Stato vaticana, cioè un ministero estero per processare un cittadino italiano. Un gentile omaggio al Vaticano. Uno dei tanti.

I giornalisti. E veniamo alla parte che non riguarda più i limiti alle intercettazioni, ma riguarda l’abolizione della cronaca giudiziaria e una pesante limitazione alla libertà di stampa e alla libertà dei cittadini di essere informati, al diritto dei cittadini di essere informati. Dunque, dico subito che con questa legge non si potrà più scrivere nulla degli atti giudiziari, quindi non solo delle inchieste, ma anche degli interrogatori, dei verbali, di quello che dice la difesa, di quello che dice l’accusa, dei decreti di perquisizione, degli avvisi di garanzia, dei decreti di custodia cautelare, dei decreti di sequestro, ecc. Niente. Tutti gli atti giudiziari dell’indagine sono non pubblicabili. Attenzione: non sono segreti, sono non pubblicabili. La nostra legge stabilisce che quando il magistrato li consegna all’avvocato e all’indagato, in quel momento cessano di essere segreti e quindi oggi, giustamente se non sono più segreti, i giornalisti li possono pubblicare. Qui non stanno vietandoci di pubblicare roba segreta, perché pubblicare roba segreta è già vietato. Ci stanno vietando di pubblicare roba pubblica. Che è un’altra cosa. Infatti nella legge c’è scritto che non si può più nemmeno parlare, nemmeno nel contenuto e nemmeno per riassunto, degli atti, anche se non sono più coperti da segreto; perché se sono coperti da segreto è già vietato pubblicarli. Quindi stiamo parlando di roba pubblica, roba legittimamente conosciuta dai giornalisti, e quindi dai cittadini. Se uno li pubblica, se un giornalista li pubblica, sono da uno a tre anni di galera. Più un’ammenda che va a mille e rotti euro. “Va beh – uno dirà – ti pigli la multa: mille euro, li avrai?! Sì, certo, non per tutti gli articoli che scrivi, ma non è un danno drammatico essere condannati a pagare una multa fino a mille euro”. Il problema è che qui la pena pecuniaria e la pena detentiva sono associate: te le danno tutte e due assieme. Il minimo della pena detentiva è un anno. Che significa? Significa che con le attenuanti ecc. la prima volta che ti condannano, ti condannano a un minimo di nove mesi e non vai in carcere, perché sapete che in Italia fino a due anni c’è la condizionale, la sospensione condizionale, e fino a tre anni di può chiedere l’affidamento al servizio sociale, come Previti. Viceversa, se uno scrive tre articoli contenenti tre notizie non più segrete, ma che diventano non più pubblicabili, - fate il calcolo – nove per tre, ventisette: sono 27 mesi, il che significa due anni e tre mesi, si va fuori dalla sospensione condizionale e si finisce in carcere o all’affidamento al servizio sociale. E alla quarta condanna si superano i tre anni e si va direttamente in galera. Quindi bastano quattro articoli, a un giornalista capita di scriverne anche uno o due al giorno, oppure basta un libro contenente quattro notizie pubbliche, ma non più pubblicabili, per finire in galera. La galera! In un paese in cui in galera non ci va più nessuno, salvo i poveracci. Bene i giornalisti concretamente rischieranno di andarci per quel meccanismo del minimo di pena, che è molto alto – un anno – e l’associazione obbligatoria con la multa, che non è sostitutiva, ma associata. Allora che cosa succederà? Succederà che nessuno scriverà più niente, a meno che non sia un masochista e voi non saprete più niente. Di tutta la lunga fase delle indagini finché non inizia il processo… Ma se voi mettete insieme i limiti alle intercettazioni – quello che i giudici non potranno più scoprire – e i limiti alla pubblicazione – quello che i cittadini non potranno più sapere – voi avete il quadro di una filosofia che individua esattamente nei due poteri di controllo democratici rispetto al potere politico, i nemici da abbattere, i nemici politici numero uno, i veri criminali del nostro paese, la vera emergenza sicurezza è rappresentata dalla presenza di giornalisti che informano e magistrati che indagano e quindi dagli al giornalista e dagli al magistrato. È una legge liberticida che ha almeno il pregio della chiarezza: individua nei poteri di controllo i nemici del potere e li abbatte.

Il risultato qual è? È che non si potrà più scoprire uno scandalo come quello del SISMI, delle deviazioni dei dossieraggi di Pollari e Pompa. Pensate che hanno trovato a Pompa centinaia di migliaia di dossier su giornalisti, politici, magistrati, ritenuti pericolosi, non per la sicurezza dello stato, mica è Al Qaida, pericolosi per Berlusconi. Questo scandalo non si potrà più scoprire. Un sequestro come quello di Abu Omar non si potrà più scoprire, perché non è stato un sequestro a scopo di estorsione, era un sequestro semplice e quindi punito con pene inferiori ai dieci anni. Non si potrà più scoprire calciopoli, ovviamente. Calciopoli inizia da una ipotesi di frode. Solo dopo si arriva a scoprire l’associazione a delinquere. Quindi, non sarebbero state autorizzate le intercettazioni, quindi non si sarebbe scoperta l’associazione a delinquere. In ogni caso, anche se si fosse scoperta, per assurdo, noi non avremmo potuto scrivere niente e non sapremmo ancora niente ora, perché il processo non è ancora iniziato – il processo di Napoli su calciopoli. Non avremmo scoperto lo scandalo delle scalate bancarie e al Corriere della Sera dei furbetti del quartierino. Perché? Perché i reati finanziari non sono più compresi, quindi i magistrati non avrebbero potuto intercettare, non avrebbero potuto scoprire che Fazio avvertiva segretamente Fiorani di notte e che Fiorani gli mandava i bacetti e che turbavano completamente il mercato perché l’arbitro tifava per una squadra anzi ne faceva parte, era il capitano non giocatore, anzi capitano giocatore. In ogni caso i giornali non avrebbero pubblicato ancora adesso visto che il processo per Antonveneta, Fiorani, per Unipol, BNL e per Ricucci, Rizzoli Corriere della Sera, non è ancora iniziato. Siamo alla fine delle indagini.

La clinica degli orrori. Abbiamo sentito questo – mi dispiace dirlo, ma tecnicamente si chiama così – ignorante, uomo che ignora la materia di cui dovrebbe occuparsi. Questo ignorantissimo ministro “ad personam” Angelino Alfano ridacchiare in televisione e dire: “Ma figuriamoci, un processo di omicidio nella clinica degli orrori, sarebbe possibile anche oggi perché noi l’omicidio l’abbiamo compreso nei reati per cui si può intercettare”. Già. Peccato che l’indagine nella clinica Santa Rita sia partita da intercettazioni disposte per truffa e falso. Due reati puniti con pene sotto i dieci anni, quindi oggi non più “intercettabili”, quindi da lì non si sarebbe più potuto scoprire che questi non solo facevano i falsi delle cartelle cliniche, ma ammazzavano o scannavano la gente. Non si potrebbe più scoprire niente. E in ogni caso, facendo finta che si potesse ancora scoprire, noi non potremmo più raccontarlo e voi non potreste più saperlo.

Pensate che bellezza per i risparmiatori dell’Antonveneta non sapere ancora adesso che quello che li vuole comprare, cioè Fiorani, è uno che mette le mani nei conti dei correnti della Popolare di Lodi. E pensate che bellezza per i correntisti della Popolare di Lodi non sapere che fine fanno i soldi che loro pensano di avere messo al sicuro nella Banca di Lodi. E non potrebbero organizzarsi per denunciare Fiorani. E Fiorani sarebbe ancora lì. Anzi, avrebbe comprato l’Antonveneta se non fosse stato bloccato dalla pubblicazione delle intercettazioni e fatto fuori giustamente dagli organi di vertice della sua banca.

E Fazio sarebbe ancora lì. E Moggi sarebbe ancora lì a truccare i campionati con tutta la sua banda. Perché? Perché non si saprebbe niente e quindi, in base a cosa puoi mandare via uno se non è stato ancora processato e non si sa nemmeno che cosa ha fatto?

Pensate ai malati della clinica che si ritrovano senza uno o due organi, oppure con l’organo al posto sbagliato, il fegato al posto del cervello, la milza al posto del tendine, ecc. che si stanno organizzando in una class action per chiedere i danni a quegli scannatori che li hanno ridotti così, o a i parenti di quelli che sono già morti, che si stanno organizzando per chiedere i danni. Bene non saprebbero nemmeno quello che è successo. Non verrebbe loro nemmeno in mente di chiedere i danni, perché non saprebbero di aver subito i danni e ci sarebbero persone che pensano che i loro congiunti sono morti per una tragica fatalità, perché era giunta la loro ora, mentre invece sono stati massacrati dall’ospedale e poi sono stati pure falsificati i referti nelle loro cartelle cliniche.

Scalfari ieri su Repubblica ricordava che se la mafia è stata condannata la prima volta nella sua storia al maxi processo, è stato perché i giornali hanno raccontato che cosa faceva la prima sezione della Cassazione presieduta da Carnevale che annullava regolarmente le condanne di mafia, per cui per fortuna, su input di Giovanni Falcone, il ministro Martelli chiese al presidente della Cassazione di fare un turno nelle presidenze dei processi di mafia, in modo che non presiedesse solo Carnevale ma anche qualcun altro. Appena Carnevale fu sostituito da un altro, la mafia fu condannata per la prima volta e fu lo scatenamento della vendetta mafiosa, ma intanto abbiamo messo dentro centinaia di mafiosi.

Perché è successo tutto questo? Perché la stampa ha potuto esercitare un controllo su quelle zone d’ombra della magistratura, perché mica i magistrati sono tutti buoni.

Il caso di Rignano Flaminio, cioè un’indagine probabilmente farlocca dove era state accusate ingiustamente delle persone, almeno questo è quello che è emerso finora, lo dobbiamo al fatto che giornali, giornalisti come Bonini, per esempio, di Repubblica, ma anche del Corriere della Sera, hanno svelato la debolezza dell’impianto accusatorio e quindi quando l’informazione fa il suo dovere, esercita un controllo democratico sui magistrati.

Non possiamo lasciare i magistrati indagare per anni senza sapere cosa stanno facendo, magari sbagliano e noi li aiutiamo anche a non sbagliare. Oppure smascheriamo i loro errori, se sono dolosi, e loro sono costretti a fermarsi. Chi lo garantisce questo controllo se adesso non si scrive più niente sulle indagini? Anche le indagini sbagliate partiranno sbagliate e finiranno sbagliate. Avremo più errori giudiziari. Come faremo a sapere come si difende una persona se non potremo pubblicare il suo interrogatorio. Quindi magari, chi si difende ha ragione e chi lo accusa ha torto, ma noi non lo potremo sapere.

Pensate a livello democratico che cosa vuol dire tutto ciò. Gli editori saranno sempre più frenati dal consentire ai giornalisti di pubblicare cose a rischio, perché? Perché a loro volta rischiano una multa fino a 400.000 euro – ogni articolo, fino a 400.000 euro - di e rischiano soprattutto di essere portati a processo non solo come singoli editori, ma anche come società, in base alla legge 231 sulla responsabilità giuridica delle società. Per evitare alla società di finire in tribunale con ripercussioni sulla Borsa, che cosa devono dimostrare gli editori? Di aver adottato tutte le precauzioni all’interno della loro azienda, cioè all’interno del giornale, della televisione o della radio, per impedire la commissione di questo reato di pubblicazione indebita di atti. Che cosa faranno per dimostrare che loro si sono premuniti e non sono responsabili di eventuali violazioni che commettano i loro giornalisti e i loro direttori? Licenzieranno i giornalisti e direttori che non voglio obbedire a questa legge.

In più, ogni volta che un giornalista verrà indagato per pubblicazione indebita di atti, la procura dovrà per leggere mandare la notifica all’Ordine dei Giornalisti che potrà sospendere il giornalista fino a tre mesi. Quindi ogni articolo che scrivi ti sospendono per tre mesi e tu per tre mesi non lavori. Fai quattro articoli e non lavori per un anno. Se l’Ordine ottempererà, ma bisogna vedere se avrà la possibilità di non ottemperare a questa sanzione disciplinare, perché l’ordine è tenuto a rispettare le leggi esistenti.

Voi capite che cosa è stato messo in piedi? È stato messo in piedi un meccanismo di regime – l’altra volta abbiamo parlato di prove tecniche di fascismo – qui siamo stati minimalisti. Qui non stanno facendo prove, lo stanno attuando. Un regime moderno. E per chi fosse nostalgico dei regimi passati, mandano anche l’esercito per le strade, perché si capisca cosa sta succedendo.

Io vi posso dire quello che ho scritto sull’Unità e cioè che io farò disobbedienza civile rispetto a questa legge. Farò obiezione di coscienza. Quindi tutti gli atti che mi capiteranno o che riuscirò a procurarmi – e che farò di tutto per procurarmi come sempre – li pubblicherò. E integrali, e nel contenuto e nel riassunto o come mi gira in quel momento, perché penso che questo sia il mio dovere, altrimenti dovrei cambiare mestiere.

Spero naturalmente che altri, ma sta ricevendo questo appello che abbiamo lanciato dall’Unità e dal blog voglioscendere, moltissime adesioni di moltissimi cronisti giudiziari, penso che bisognerà prepararsi a fare da cavie per essere anche eventualmente arrestati e poter impugnare davanti alla Corte Costituzionale, davanti alla Corte Europea di Giustizia, questa legge veramente infame.

Dopodichè speriamo di riuscire anche per via referendaria a cancellarla. Da questo punto di vista tutte le iniziative che si fanno in questo settore sono le benvenute. Segnalo, per esempio, quella del sito micromega.net, dove Furio Colombo, Giulietti, Pardi e altri invitano i leader dell’opposizione a manifestare.

Se i leader dell’opposizione non vorranno manifestare, cosa abbastanza probabile, bisognerà organizzarsi e quindi, Beppe preparati!

Voi sappiate che questa non è una legge contro i giornalisti, non è un legge sulle intercettazioni, è una legge contro di voi per impedirvi di sapere.

Al cittadino non far sapere quali sono i delitti del potere. Questo è lo slogan di questa legge infame. Passate parola. A lunedì."

 

Postato da Beppe Grillo il 16.06.08 12:30 | Informazione |

  

E esse mês a coisa foi meio exagerada, mas a culpa não foi minha, foi das pessoas que resolveram desapegar de esmaltes lindos e desejados e de presentes de amiga linda :)

Na primeira fileira:

-Comprinhas na Ikesaki - Abraço de Urso (Flávia Alessandra)

Blue Moon e Fases da Lua (Beauty Color), são cores comuns, mas não resisti porque são hipoalergênicos e com precinho muito em conta, que não consigo lembrar agora :(

Meu Par (VipNails) marquinha nova que fiquei curiosa pra testar.

-Presentes maravilhosos, que ganhei da Paty_Net, como sempre ela acertou demais nos mimos, amei tudinho, mas o que me enche de alegria é todo carinho envolvido nesses vidrinhos!!! Obrigada Paty <3<3<3

Alto Astral (Koloss- Holográfico)

Nix (Noite) - Luxor

Purple Storm (Dany Vianna), meu primeiro esmalte da marca!!!

Psicodélica (Jade) - Ela viu o quanto eu fiquei desesperada por um backup desse Jade e me enviou um <3<3

Show de Bola (Risqué) , nem tinha dado bola (trocadilho infâme) pra esse esmalte aí dona Carolinda comentou que viu numa amiga e achou lindo, claro que todas corremos atrás dele e Paty achou por um precinho bem camarada!!!

 

Segunda fileira:

04-Keen Cobalt Blue (Kiko Real Glare - Desapego do Face

Galaxy (Fun Lacquer) - Desapego da Catarina

Esmeralda Crystal e Roxo Crystal (Avon)

 

Terceira fileira:

Black Illusion (L.A. Girl) Desapego da Catarina

Imperial (Picture Polish) Desapego do Face. Primeiro é único da marca tbm.

Fowl Play (Orly) - Desapego do Face.

Amethyst (Dance Legend) Meu primeiro da marca, e foi desapego da Clau

Teal (Nabi) magnético: Desapego do Face. Fiquei doida por esse esmalte por culpa da Carol!

Noir (Zoya) Desapego da Eunice

É isso... bjos

  

Giovanni di Paolo 1400 1482. Sienne. Nativité et annonce aux bergers. Nativity and announced to the shepherd. 1460. Vatican. Prédelle d'un retable.

 

A propos de Derain (Cyprès à cassis) la notice du musée de Grenoble observe : “une construction spatiale par le seul moyen de la couleur...aucun modelé aucune ombre ne viennent souligner les formes qui acquièrent de ce fait une stylisation et une géométrisation qui annoncent le cubisme”.

A propos de Marquet (la Citadelle à Tanger) “Marquet construit l'espace par le seul jeu de la couleur”

Oui. Tout à fait exact. Mais : Outre les fresques romanes et l'art byzantin, c'est très exactement ce que l'on voit chez : Agnolo Gaddi (1350-1396) Gentile da Fabriano (1370-1427), les frères Lorenzetti (14è siècle) Taddeo di Bartolo (1362-1422) Paolo Uccello (1397-1475), Sano di Pietro (1405-1481) Multscher (1400-1467) Giovanni di Paolo(1400-1482) Geertgen tot Sint Jens (1460-1490) et même chez Cranach l'Ancien (1472-1553).

Le cloisonnisme, le synthétisme, le cubisme, les couleurs pures sont partout dans l'Art Siennois, et dans tout l'art européen entre 400 et 1500 et même encore après, particulièrement dans l'est de l'Europe. Ce rapprochement n'est pourtant jamais, ou très rarement, fait. Peut être dans des ouvrages pour spécialistes, auxquels je n'ai pas accès. Mais pas dans des ouvrages pour le grand public, dont je suis. Par contre avec l'art musulman ou l'art africain, sans arrêt. La preuve: le livre du musée de Grenoble contient, au moins, deux mentions de l'art musulman et de l'art africain comme étant aux origines de l'Art Moderne (Derain, “Cyprès à Cassis” et Matisse “la petite mulâtresse). Mais aucune mention de l'art siennois. Et ce n'est pas un cas unique, c'est la règle. Pourquoi ? La réponse est toute simple, et une fois de plus c'est l'idéologie qui est la cause de ce travestissement de l'histoire. Il était inacceptable que les historiens de l'époque des “Lumières” enseignent que les sources esthétiques et techniques de l'Art Moderne pouvaient être à rechercher dans les temps obscurs où sévissait la religion catholique – l'Infâme- ou celle orthodoxe, tout aussi obscurantiste. Donc l'histoire de l'art officielle est allée chercher l'art africain et l'art musulman pour servir de sources idéologiquement plus correctes ! Un peu l'art Japonais, mais moins, ce n'était pas aussi idéologiquement conforme !C'est ainsi que l'on ne nous a pas appris à voir ces rapprochements, et même, que l'on nous a appris à ne pas les voir, ni les dire ou encore moins les écrire. Il ne faut pas en vouloir aux historiens, ils sont contraints, sous la surveillance aussi de leurs chers collègues, qui guettent leur poste, d'enseigner l'histoire correcte à l'époque où ils vivent.

  

About Derain (Cypress in cassis) the book of the Museum of Grenoble observes: "a space construction by the sole means of color... no model no shadow come stress forms who acquire thereby a stylization and a geometry that advertise Cubism".

 

About Marquet (Citadel in Tangier) "Marquet space built by the only color game"

 

Cloisonnism and Synthetism, Cubism, pure colors are all over in Sienese art, and throughout the European art between 400 and 1500 and even after, especially in eastern Europe. This rapprochement is however never, or very rarely done. May be in the works for specialists, which I do not have access. But not in books for the general public, including myself. By cons with Muslim art or African art, constantly. The proof: the book of the museum of Grenoble contains at least two mentions of Muslim art and of African art as to the origins of Modern Art (Derain, "Cypress Cassis" and Matisse "small mulatto). But no mention of Sienese art. And this is not unique, it is the rule.

Why ? The answer is simple, and once again it is the ideology that is the cause of this travesty of history. It was inconceivable that historians of the era of "Enlightenment" teach that the aesthetic and technical sources of Modern Art could be sought in the dark days when the Catholic religion reigned - the Infâme-, or the Orthodox, while as obscurantist. So the official history of art is gone to fetch African art and Islamic art to serve as ideologically more correct sources! A little Japanese art, but least it was not as ideologically compliant! Thus we has not taught us to see these connections, and even, as we were taught not to see, or say, or even less write them. We must not blame the historians, they are forced, as in the surveillance of their colleagues, who watch their posts, to teach the correct history at the time that they live.

   

Krishna is considered the supreme deity, worshipped across many traditions of Hinduism in a variety of different perspectives. Krishna is recognized as the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Lord Vishnu, and one and the same as Lord Vishnu one of the trimurti and as the supreme god in his own right. Krishna is the principal protagonist with Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita also known as the Song of God, which depicts the conversation between the Royal Prince Arjuna and Krishna during the great battle of Kureksetra 5000 years ago where Arjuna discovers that Krishna is God and then comprehends his nature and will for him and for mankind. In present age Krishna is one of the most widely revered and most popular of all Indian divinities.

 

Krishna is often described and portrayed as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a flute as in the Bhagavata Purana, or as an elder giving direction and guidance as in the Bhagavad Gita. The stories of Krishna appear across a broad spectrum of Hindu philosophical and theological traditions. They portray him in various perspectives: a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the Supreme Being. The principal scriptures discussing Krishna's story are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana.

 

Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga (present age), which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE. Worship of the deity Krishna, either in the form of deity Krishna or in the form of Vasudeva, Bala Krishna or Gopala can be traced to as early as 4th century BC. Worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, or the supreme being, known as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. From the 10th century AD, Krishna became a favourite subject in performing arts and regional traditions of devotion developed for forms of Krishna such as Jagannatha in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra and Shrinathji in Rajasthan. Since the 1960s the worship of Krishna has also spread in the Western world, largely due to the International Society for Krishna Consciousness.

 

NAMES AND EPITHETS

The name originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning "black", "dark" or "dark blue". The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha in the Vedic tradition, relating to the adjective meaning "darkening". Sometimes it is also translated as "all-attractive", according to members of the Hare Krishna movement.

 

As a name of Vishnu, Krishna listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama. Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in murtis as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets and titles, which reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are Mohan "enchanter", Govinda, "Finder of the cows" or Gopala, "Protector of the cows", which refer to Krishna's childhood in Braj (in present day Uttar Pradesh). Some of the distinct names may be regionally important; for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India.

 

ICONOGRAPHY

Krishna is easily recognized by his representations. Though his skin color may be depicted as black or dark in some representations, particularly in murtis, in other images such as modern pictorial representations, Krishna is usually shown with a blue skin. He is often shown wearing a silk dhoti and a peacock feather crown. Common depictions show him as a little boy, or as a young man in a characteristically relaxed pose, playing the flute. In this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other with a flute raised to his lips, in the Tribhanga posture, accompanied by cows, emphasizing his position as the divine herdsman, Govinda, or with the gopis (milkmaids) i.e. Gopikrishna, stealing butter from neighbouring houses i.e. Navneet Chora or Gokulakrishna, defeating the vicious serpent i.e. Kaliya Damana Krishna, lifting the hill i.e. Giridhara Krishna ..so on and so forth from his childhood / youth events.

 

A steatite (soapstone) tablet unearthed from Mohenjo-daro, Larkana district, Sindh depicting a young boy uprooting two trees from which are emerging two human figures is an interesting archaeological find for fixing dates associated with Krishna. This image recalls the Yamalarjuna episode of Bhagavata and Harivamsa Purana. In this image, the young boy is Krishna, and the two human beings emerging from the trees are the two cursed gandharvas, identified as Nalakubara and Manigriva. Dr. E.J.H. Mackay, who did the excavation at Mohanjodaro, compares this image with the Yamalarjuna episode. Prof. V.S. Agrawal has also accepted this identification. Thus, it seems that the Indus valley people knew stories related to Krishna. This lone find may not establish Krishna as contemporary with Pre-Indus or Indus times, but, likewise, it cannot be ignored.

 

The scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata, notably where he addresses Pandava prince Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita, is another common subject for representation. In these depictions, he is shown as a man, often with supreme God characteristics of Hindu religious art, such as multiple arms or heads, denoting power, and with attributes of Vishnu, such as the chakra or in his two-armed form as a charioteer. Cave paintings dated to 800 BCE in Mirzapur, Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh, show raiding horse-charioteers, one of whom is about to hurl a wheel, and who could potentially be identified as Krishna.

 

Representations in temples often show Krishna as a man standing in an upright, formal pose. He may be alone, or with associated figures: his brother Balarama and sister Subhadra, or his main queens Rukmini and Satyabhama.

 

Often, Krishna is pictured with his gopi-consort Radha. Manipuri Vaishnavas do not worship Krishna alone, but as Radha Krishna, a combined image of Krishna and Radha. This is also a characteristic of the schools Rudra and Nimbarka sampradaya, as well as that of Swaminarayan sect. The traditions celebrate Radha Ramana murti, who is viewed by Gaudiyas as a form of Radha Krishna.

 

Krishna is also depicted and worshipped as a small child (Bala Krishna, Bāla Kṛṣṇa the child Krishna), crawling on his hands and knees or dancing, often with butter or Laddu in his hand being Laddu Gopal. Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as Jaganatha of Odisha, Vithoba of Maharashtra, Venkateswara (also Srinivasa or Balaji) in Andhra Pradesh, and Shrinathji in Rajasthan.

 

LITERARY SOURCES

The earliest text to explicitly provide detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahabharata which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu. Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic that constitute the Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to the warrior-hero Arjuna, on the battlefield. Krishna is already an adult in the epic, although there are allusions to his earlier exploits. The Harivamsa, a later appendix to this epic, contains the earliest detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.

 

The Rig Veda 1.22.164 sukta 31 mentions a herdsman "who never stumbles". Some Vaishnavite scholars, such as Bhaktivinoda Thakura, claim that this herdsman refers to Krishna. Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar also attempted to show that "the very same Krishna" made an appearance, e.g. as the drapsa ... krishna "black drop" of RV 8.96.13. Some authors have also likened prehistoric depictions of deities to Krishna.

 

Chandogya Upanishad (3.17.6) composed around 900 BCE mentions Vasudeva Krishna as the son of Devaki and the disciple of Ghora Angirasa, the seer who preached his disciple the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya.’ Having been influenced by the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya’ Krishna in the Bhagavadgita while delivering the discourse to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra discussed about sacrifice, which can be compared to purusha or the individual.

 

Yāska's Nirukta, an etymological dictionary around 6th century BC, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura, a motif from well known Puranic story about Krishna. Shatapatha Brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka, associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.

 

Pāṇini, the ancient grammarian and author of Asthadhyayi (probably belonged to 5th century or 6th century BC) mentions a character called Vāsudeva, son of Vasudeva, and also mentions Kaurava and Arjuna which testifies to Vasudeva Krishna, Arjuna and Kauravas being contemporaries.

 

Megasthenes (350 – 290 BC) a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to the court of Chandragupta Maurya made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica. Many scholars have suggested that the deity identified as Herakles was Krishna. According to Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo, Megasthenes described an Indian tribe called Sourasenoi, who especially worshipped Herakles in their land, and this land had two cities, Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river, the Jobares. As was common in the ancient period, the Greeks sometimes described foreign gods in terms of their own divinities, and there is a little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged; Herakles to Krishna, or Hari-Krishna: Methora to Mathura, where Krishna was born; Kleisobora to Krishnapura, meaning "the city of Krishna"; and the Jobares to the Yamuna, the famous river in the Krishna story. Quintus Curtius also mentions that when Alexander the Great confronted Porus, Porus's soldiers were carrying an image of Herakles in their vanguard.

 

The name Krishna occurs in Buddhist writings in the form Kānha, phonetically equivalent to Krishna.

 

The Ghata-Jâtaka (No. 454) gives an account of Krishna's childhood and subsequent exploits which in many points corresponds with the Brahmanic legends of his life and contains several familiar incidents and names, such as Vâsudeva, Baladeva, Kaṃsa. Yet it presents many peculiarities and is either an independent version or a misrepresentation of a popular story that had wandered far from its home. Jain tradition also shows that these tales were popular and were worked up into different forms, for the Jains have an elaborate system of ancient patriarchs which includes Vâsudevas and Baladevas. Krishna is the ninth of the Black Vâsudevas and is connected with Dvâravatî or Dvârakâ. He will become the twelfth tîrthankara of the next world-period and a similar position will be attained by Devakî, Rohinî, Baladeva and Javakumâra, all members of his family. This is a striking proof of the popularity of the Krishna legend outside the Brahmanic religion.

 

According to Arthasastra of Kautilya (4th century BCE) Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly monotheistic format.

 

Around 150 BC, Patanjali in his Mahabhashya quotes a verse: "May the might of Krishna accompanied by Samkarshana increase!" Other verses are mentioned. One verse speaks of "Janardhana with himself as fourth" (Krishna with three companions, the three possibly being Samkarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha). Another verse mentions musical instruments being played at meetings in the temples of Rama (Balarama) and Kesava (Krishna). Patanjali also describes dramatic and mimetic performances (Krishna-Kamsopacharam) representing the killing of Kamsa by Vasudeva.

 

In the 1st century BC, there seems to be evidence for a worship of five Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba) for an inscription has been found at Mora near Mathura, which apparently mentions a son of the great satrap Rajuvula, probably the satrap Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, "probably Vasudeva, and of the "Five Warriors". Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum.

 

Many Puranas tell Krishna's life-story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana, that contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna’s story and teachings are the most theologically venerated by the Vaishnava schools. Roughly one quarter of the Bhagavata Purana is spent extolling his life and philosophy.

 

LIFE

This summary is based on details from the Mahābhārata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana. The scenes from the narrative are set in north India mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Delhi and Gujarat.

 

BIRTH

Based on scriptural details and astrological calculations, the date of Krishna's birth, known as Janmashtami, is 18 July 3228 BCE. He was born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva, When Mother Earth became upset by the sin being committed on Earth, she thought of seeking help from Lord Vishnu. She went in the form of a cow to visit Lord Vishnu and ask for help. Lord Vishnu agreed to help her and promised her that he would be born on Earth. On Earth in the Yadava clan, he was yadav according to his birth, a prince named Kamsa sent his father Ugrasena (King of Mathura) to prison and became the King himself. One day a loud voice from the sky (Akash Vani in Hindi) prophesied that the 8th son of Kamsa's sister (Devaki) would kill Kamsa. Out of affection for Devaki, Kamsa did not kill her outright. He did, however, send his sister and her husband (Vasudeva) to prison. Lord Vishnu himself later appeared to Devaki and Vasudeva and told them that he himself would be their eighth son and kill Kamsa and destroy sin in the world. In the story of Krishna the deity is the agent of conception and also the offspring. Because of his sympathy for the earth, the divine Vishnu himself descended into the womb of Devaki and was born as her son, Vaasudeva (i.e., Krishna).[citation needed] This is occasionally cited as evidence that "virgin birth" tales are fairly common in non-Christian religions around the world. However, there is nothing in Hindu scriptures to suggest that it was a "virgin" birth. By the time of conception and birth of Krishna, Devaki was married to Vasudeva and had already borne 7 children. Virgin birth in this case should be more accurately understood as divine conception. Kunti the mother of the Pandavas referenced contemporaneously with the story of Krishna in the Mahabharata also has divine conception and virgin birth of Prince Karna.

 

The Hindu Vishnu Purana relates: "Devaki bore in her womb the lotus-eyed deity...before the birth of Krishna, no one could bear to gaze upon Devaki, from the light that invested her, and those who contemplated her radiance felt their minds disturbed.” This reference to light is reminiscent of the Vedic hymn "To an Unknown Divine," which refers to a Golden Child. According to F. M. Müller, this term means "the golden gem of child" and is an attempt at naming the sun. According to the Vishnu Purana, Krishna is the total incarnation of Lord Vishnu. It clearly describes in the Vishnu Purana that Krishna was born on earth to destroy sin, especially Kamsa.

 

Krishna belonged to the Vrishni clan of Yadavas from Mathura, and was the eighth son born to the princess Devaki, and her husband Vasudeva.

 

Mathura (in present day Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh) was the capital of the Yadavas, to which Krishna's parents Vasudeva and Devaki belonged. King Kamsa, Devaki's brother, had ascended the throne by imprisoning his father, King Ugrasena. Afraid of a prophecy from a divine voice from the heavens that predicted his death at the hands of Devaki's eighth "garbha", Kamsa had the couple locked in a prison cell. After Kamsa killed the first six children, Devaki apparently had a miscarriage of the seventh. However, in reality, the womb was actually transferred to Rohini secretly. This was how Balarama, Krishna's elder brother, was born. Once again Devaki became pregnant. Now due to the miscarriage, Kamsa was in a puzzle regarding 'The Eighth One', but his ministers advised that the divine voice from the heavens emphasised "the eight garbha" and so this is the one. That night Krishna was born in the Rohini nakshatra and simultaneously the goddess Durga was born as Yogamaya in Gokulam to Nanda and Yashoda.

 

Since Vasudeva knew Krishna's life was in danger, Krishna was secretly taken out of the prison cell to be raised by his foster parents, Yasoda and Nanda, in Gokula (in present day Mathura district). Two of his other siblings also survived, Balarama (Devaki's seventh child, transferred to the womb of Rohini, Vasudeva's first wife) and Subhadra (daughter of Vasudeva and Rohini, born much later than Balarama and Krishna).

 

CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH

Nanda was the head of a community of cow-herders, and he settled in Vrindavana. The stories of Krishna's childhood and youth tell how he became a cow herder, his mischievous pranks as Makhan Chor (butter thief) his foiling of attempts to take his life, and his role as a protector of the people of Vrindavana.

 

Krishna killed the demoness Putana, disguised as a wet nurse, and the tornado demon Trinavarta both sent by Kamsa for Krishna's life. He tamed the serpent Kāliyā, who previously poisoned the waters of Yamuna river, thus leading to the death of the cowherds. In Hindu art, Krishna is often depicted dancing on the multi-hooded Kāliyā.

 

Krishna lifted the Govardhana hill and taught Indra, the king of the devas, a lesson to protect native people of Brindavana from persecution by Indra and prevent the devastation of the pasture land of Govardhan. Indra had too much pride and was angry when Krishna advised the people of Brindavana to take care of their animals and their environment that provide them with all their necessities, instead of worshipping Indra annually by spending their resources. In the view of some, the spiritual movement started by Krishna had something in it which went against the orthodox forms of worship of the Vedic gods such as Indra. In Bhagavat Purana, Krishna says that the rain came from the nearby hill Govardhana, and advised that the people worshiped the hill instead of Indra. This made Indra furious, so he punished them by sending out a great storm. Krishna then lifted Govardhan and held it over the people like an umbrella.

 

The stories of his play with the gopis (milkmaids) of Brindavana, especially Radha (daughter of Vrishbhanu, one of the original residents of Brindavan) became known as the Rasa lila and were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. These became important as part of the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna.

 

Krishna’s childhood reinforces the Hindu concept of lila, playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or Rasa-lila is a great example of this. Krishna played his flute and the gopis came immediately from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the Yamuna River, and joined him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there joined him through meditation. The story of Krishna’s battle with Kāliyā also supports this idea in the sense of him dancing on Kāliyā’s many hoods. Even though he is doing battle with the serpent, he is in no real danger and treats it like a game. He is a protector, but he only appears to be a young boy having fun. This idea of having a playful god is very important in Hinduism. The playfulness of Krishna has inspired many celebrations like the Rasa-lila and the Janmashtami : where they make human pyramids to break open handis (clay pots) hung high in the air that spill buttermilk all over the group after being broken by the person at the top. This is meant to be a fun celebration and it gives the participants a sense of unity. Many believe that lila being connected with Krishna gives Hindus a deeper connection to him and thus a deeper connection to Vishnu also; seeing as Krishna is an incarnation of Vishnu. Theologists, like Kristin Johnston Largen, believe that Krishna’s childhood can even inspire other religions to look for lila in deities so that they have a chance to experience a part of their faith that they may not have previously seen.

 

THE PRINCE

On his return to Mathura as a young man, Krishna overthrew and killed his maternal uncle, Kamsa, after quelling several assassination attempts from Kamsa's followers. He reinstated Kamsa's father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and became a leading prince at the court. During this period, he became a friend of Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom, who were his cousins. Later, he took his Yadava subjects to the city of Dwaraka (in modern Gujarat) and established his own kingdom there.

 

Krishna married Rukmini, the Vidarbha princess, by abducting her, at her request, from her proposed wedding with Shishupala. He married eight queens - collectively called the Ashtabharya - including Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti, Bhadra and Lakshmana. Krishna subsequently married 16,000 or 16,100 maidens who were held captive by the demon Narakasura, to save their honour. Krishna killed the demon and released them all. According to social custom of the time, all of the captive women were degraded, and would be unable to marry, as they had been under the Narakasura's control. However Krishna married them to reinstate their status in the society. This symbolic wedding with 16,100 abandoned daughters was more of a mass rehabilitation. In Vaishnava traditions, Krishna's wives are forms of the goddess Lakshmi - consort of Vishnu, or special souls who attained this qualification after many lifetimes of austerity, while his two queens, Rukmani and Satyabhama, are expansions of Lakshmi.

 

When Yudhisthira was assuming the title of emperor, he had invited all the great kings to the ceremony and while paying his respects to them, he started with Krishna because he considered Krishna to be the greatest of them all. While it was a unanimous feeling amongst most present at the ceremony that Krishna should get the first honours, his cousin Shishupala felt otherwise and started berating Krishna. Due to a vow given to Shishupal's mother, Krishna forgave a hundred verbal abuses by Shishupal, and upon the one hundred and first, he assumed his Virat (universal) form and killed Shishupal with his Chakra. The blind king Dhritarashtra also obtained divine vision to be able to see this form of Krishna during the time when Duryodana tried to capture Krishna when he came as a peace bearer before the great Mahabharat War. Essentially, Shishupala and Dantavakra were both re-incarnations of Vishnu's gate-keepers Jaya and Vijaya, who were cursed to be born on Earth, to be delivered by the Vishnu back to Vaikuntha.

 

KURUKSHETRA WAR AND BHAGAVAD GITA

Once battle seemed inevitable, Krishna offered both sides the opportunity to choose between having either his army called narayani sena or himself alone, but on the condition that he personally would not raise any weapon. Arjuna, on behalf of the Pandavas, chose to have Krishna on their side, and Duryodhana, Kaurava prince, chose Krishna's army. At the time of the great battle, Krishna acted as Arjuna's charioteer, since this position did not require the wielding of weapons.

 

Upon arrival at the battlefield, and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart does not allow him to fight and he would rather prefer to renounce the kingdom and put down his Gandiv (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the battle, with the conversation soon extending into a discourse which was later compiled as the Bhagavad Gita.

 

Krishna asked Arjuna, "Have you within no time, forgotten the Kauravas' evil deeds such as not accepting the eldest brother Yudhishtira as King, usurping the entire Kingdom without yielding any portion to the Pandavas, meting out insults and difficulties to Pandavas, attempt to murder the Pandavas in the Barnava lac guest house, publicly attempting to disrobe and disgracing Draupadi. Krishna further exhorted in his famous Bhagavad Gita, "Arjuna, do not engage in philosophical analyses at this point of time like a Pundit. You are aware that Duryodhana and Karna particularly have long harboured jealousy and hatred for you Pandavas and badly want to prove their hegemony. You are aware that Bhishmacharya and your Teachers are tied down to their dharma of protecting the unitarian power of the Kuru throne. Moreover, you Arjuna, are only a mortal appointee to carry out my divine will, since the Kauravas are destined to die either way, due to their heap of sins. Open your eyes O Bhaarata and know that I encompass the Karta, Karma and Kriya, all in myself. There is no scope for contemplation now or remorse later, it is indeed time for war and the world will remember your might and immense powers for time to come. So rise O Arjuna!, tighten up your Gandiva and let all directions shiver till their farthest horizons, by the reverberation of its string."

 

Krishna had a profound effect on the Mahabharata war and its consequences. He had considered the Kurukshetra war to be a last resort after voluntarily acting as a messenger in order to establish peace between the Pandavas and Kauravas. But, once these peace negotiations failed and was embarked into the war, then he became a clever strategist. During the war, upon becoming angry with Arjuna for not fighting in true spirit against his ancestors, Krishna once picked up a carriage wheel in order to use it as a weapon to challenge Bhishma. Upon seeing this, Bhishma dropped his weapons and asked Krishna to kill him. However, Arjuna apologized to Krishna, promising that he would fight with full dedication here/after, and the battle continued. Krishna had directed Yudhisthira and Arjuna to return to Bhishma the boon of "victory" which he had given to Yudhisthira before the war commenced, since he himself was standing in their way to victory. Bhishma understood the message and told them the means through which he would drop his weapons - which was if a woman entered the battlefield. Next day, upon Krishna's directions, Shikhandi (Amba reborn) accompanied Arjuna to the battlefield and thus, Bhishma laid down his arms. This was a decisive moment in the war because Bhishma was the chief commander of the Kaurava army and the most formidable warrior on the battlefield. Krishna aided Arjuna in killing Jayadratha, who had held the other four Pandava brothers at bay while Arjuna's son Abhimanyu entered Drona's Chakravyuha formation - an effort in which he was killed by the simultaneous attack of eight Kaurava warriors. Krishna also caused the downfall of Drona, when he signalled Bhima to kill an elephant called Ashwatthama, the namesake of Drona's son. Pandavas started shouting that Ashwatthama was dead but Drona refused to believe them saying he would believe it only if he heard it from Yudhisthira. Krishna knew that Yudhisthira would never tell a lie, so he devised a clever ploy so that Yudhisthira wouldn't lie and at the same time Drona would be convinced of his son's death. On asked by Drona, Yudhisthira proclaimed

 

Ashwathama Hatahath, naro va Kunjaro va

 

i.e. Ashwathama had died but he was nor sure whether it was a Drona's son or an elephant. But as soon as Yudhisthira had uttered the first line, Pandava army on Krishna's direction broke into celebration with drums and conchs, in the din of which Drona could not hear the second part of the Yudhisthira's declaration and assumed that his son indeed was dead. Overcome with grief he laid down his arms, and on Krishna's instruction Dhrishtadyumna beheaded Drona.

 

When Arjuna was fighting Karna, the latter's chariot's wheels sank into the ground. While Karna was trying to take out the chariot from the grip of the Earth, Krishna reminded Arjuna how Karna and the other Kauravas had broken all rules of battle while simultaneously attacking and killing Abhimanyu, and he convinced Arjuna to do the same in revenge in order to kill Karna. During the final stage of the war, when Duryodhana was going to meet his mother Gandhari for taking her blessings which would convert all parts of his body on which her sight falls to diamond, Krishna tricks him to wearing banana leaves to hide his groin. When Duryodhana meets Gandhari, her vision and blessings fall on his entire body except his groin and thighs, and she becomes unhappy about it because she was not able to convert his entire body to diamond. When Duryodhana was in a mace-fight with Bhima, Bhima's blows had no effect on Duryodhana. Upon this, Krishna reminded Bhima of his vow to kill Duryodhana by hitting him on the thigh, and Bhima did the same to win the war despite it being against the rules of mace-fight (since Duryodhana had himself broken Dharma in all his past acts). Thus, Krishna's unparalleled strategy helped the Pandavas win the Mahabharata war by bringing the downfall of all the chief Kaurava warriors, without lifting any weapon. He also brought back to life Arjuna's grandson Parikshit, who had been attacked by a Brahmastra weapon from Ashwatthama while he was in his mother's womb. Parikshit became the Pandavas' successor.

 

FAMILY

Krishna had eight princely wives, also known as Ashtabharya: Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Nagnajiti, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Bhadra, Lakshmana) and the other 16,100 or 16,000 (number varies in scriptures), who were rescued from Narakasura. They had been forcibly kept in his palace and after Krishna had killed Narakasura, he rescued these women and freed them. Krishna married them all to save them from destruction and infamity. He gave them shelter in his new palace and a respectful place in society. The chief amongst them is Rohini.

 

The Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Harivamsa list the children of Krishna from the Ashtabharya with some variation; while Rohini's sons are interpreted to represent the unnumbered children of his junior wives. Most well-known among his sons are Pradyumna, the eldest son of Krishna (and Rukmini) and Samba, the son of Jambavati, whose actions led to the destruction of Krishna's clan.

 

LATER LIFE

According to Mahabharata, the Kurukshetra war resulted in the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. On the night before Duryodhana's death, Lord Krishna visited Gandhari to offer his condolences. Gandhari felt that Krishna knowingly did not put an end to the war, and in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari cursed that Krishna, along with everyone else from the Yadu dynasty, would perish after 36 years. Krishna himself knew and wanted this to happen as he felt that the Yadavas had become very haughty and arrogant (adharmi), so he ended Gandhari's speech by saying "tathastu" (so be it).

 

After 36 years passed, a fight broke out between the Yadavas, at a festival, who killed each other. His elder brother, Balarama, then gave up his body using Yoga. Krishna retired into the forest and started meditating under a tree. The Mahabharata also narrates the story of a hunter who becomes an instrument for Krishna's departure from the world. The hunter Jara, mistook Krishna's partly visible left foot for that of a deer, and shot an arrow, wounding him mortally. After he realised the mistake, While still bleeding, Krishna told Jara, "O Jara, you were Bali in your previous birth, killed by myself as Rama in Tretayuga. Here you had a chance to even it and since all acts in this world are done as desired by me, you need not worry for this". Then Krishna, with his physical body ascended back to his eternal abode, Goloka vrindavan and this event marks departure of Krishna from the earth. The news was conveyed to Hastinapur and Dwaraka by eyewitnesses to this event. The place of this incident is believed to be Bhalka, near Somnath temple.

 

According to Puranic sources, Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE. Vaishnava teachers such as Ramanujacharya and Gaudiya Vaishnavas held the view that the body of Krishna is completely spiritual and never decays (Achyuta) as this appears to be the perspective of the Bhagavata Purana. Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) exhorted, "Krishna Naama Sankirtan" i.e. the constant chanting of the Krishna's name is the supreme healer in Kali Yuga. It destroys sins and purifies the hearts through Bhakti ensures universal peace.

 

Krishna never appears to grow old or age at all in the historical depictions of the Puranas despite passing of several decades, but there are grounds for a debate whether this indicates that he has no material body, since battles and other descriptions of the Mahabhārata epic show clear indications that he seems to be subject to the limitations of nature. While battles apparently seem to indicate limitations, Mahabharata also shows in many places where Krishna is not subject to any limitations as through episodes Duryodhana trying to arrest Krishna where his body burst into fire showing all creation within him. Krishna is also explicitly described as without deterioration elsewhere.

 

WORSHIP

VAISHNAVISM

The worship of Krishna is part of Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu as the Supreme God and venerates His associated avatars, their consorts, and related saints and teachers. Krishna is especially looked upon as a full manifestation of Vishnu, and as one with Vishnu himself. However the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse, where Krishna is sometimes considered an independent deity, supreme in his own right. Out of many deities, Krishna is particularly important, and traditions of Vaishnava lines are generally centered either on Vishnu or on Krishna, as supreme. The term Krishnaism has been used to describe the sects of Krishna, reserving the term "Vaishnavism" for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an avatar, rather than as a transcendent Supreme Being.

 

All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu; while traditions, such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Vallabha Sampradaya and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, regard Krishna as the Svayam Bhagavan, original form of God. Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala of late Vedic period. Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.

 

EARLY TRADITIONS

The deity Krishna-Vasudeva (kṛṣṇa vāsudeva "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism. It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of the worship of Krishna in antiquity. This tradition is considered as earliest to other traditions that led to amalgamation at a later stage of the historical development. Other traditions are Bhagavatism and the cult of Gopala, that along with the cult of Bala Krishna form the basis of current tradition of monotheistic religion of Krishna. Some early scholars would equate it with Bhagavatism, and the founder of this religious tradition is believed to be Krishna, who is the son of Vasudeva, thus his name is Vāsudeva; he is said to be historically part of the Satvata tribe, and according to them his followers called themselves Bhagavatas and this religion had formed by the 2nd century BC (the time of Patanjali), or as early as the 4th century BC according to evidence in Megasthenes and in the Arthasastra of Kautilya, when Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme deity in a strongly monotheistic format, where the supreme being was perfect, eternal and full of grace. In many sources outside of the cult, the devotee or bhakta is defined as Vāsudevaka. The Harivamsa describes intricate relationships between Krishna Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha that would later form a Vaishnava concept of primary quadrupled expansion, or avatar.

  

BHAKTI TRADITION

Bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotional and ecstatic aspects of Hindu religion, particularly among the Vaishnava sects. Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of lila, meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the Universe. The lilas of Krishna, with their expressions of personal love that transcend the boundaries of formal reverence, serve as a counterpoint to the actions of another avatar of Vishnu: Rama, "He of the straight and narrow path of maryada, or rules and regulations."

 

The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil country. A major collection of their works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre. Kulasekaraazhvaar's Mukundamala was another notable work of this early stage.

 

SPREAD OF THE KRISHNA-BHAKTI MOVEMENT

The movement, which started in the 6th-7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs. The religion of Alvar poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions. The movement originated in South India during the seventh-century CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the fifteenth century, it was established in Bengal and northern India.

 

While the learned sections of the society well versed in Sanskrit could enjoy works like Gita Govinda or Bilvamangala's Krishna-Karnamritam, the masses sang the songs of the devotee-poets, who composed in the regional languages of India. These songs expressing intense personal devotion were written by devotees from all walks of life. The songs of Meera and Surdas became epitomes of Krishna-devotion in north India.

 

These devotee-poets, like the Alvars before them, were aligned to specific theological schools only loosely, if at all. But by the 11th century AD, Vaishnava Bhakti schools with elaborate theological frameworks around the worship of Krishna were established in north India. Nimbarka (11th century AD), Vallabhacharya (15th century AD) and (Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) (16th century AD) all inspired by the teachings of Madhvacharya (11th century AD) were the founders of the most influential schools. These schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya and Gaudiya Vaishnavism respectively, see Krishna as the supreme God, rather than an avatar, as generally seen.

 

In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Varkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba, a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century. In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti named Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.

 

IN THE WEST

In 1965, the Krishna-bhakti movement had spread outside India when its founder, Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, (who was instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) traveled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of the saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In an effort to gain attention, followers chanted the names of God in public locations. This chanting was known as hari-nama sankirtana and helped spread the teaching. Additionally, the practice of distributing prasad or “sanctified food” worked as a catalyst in the dissemination of his works. In the Hare Krishna movement, Prasad was a vegetarian dish that would be first offered to Krishna. The food’s proximity to Krishna added a “spiritual effect,” and was seen to “counteract material contamination affecting the soul.” Sharing this sanctified food with the public, in turn, enabled the movement to gain new recruits and further spread these teachings.

 

WIKIPEDIA

en gare de valence, une semaine après la fin des éléctions présidentielles. alors que le numéro date d'avant (14 avril - 20 avril). même si ce journal est (je crois) de gauche, il tire la sonnette d'alarme par rapport à ce petit nicolas...

 

un très bon ami à moi m'a envoyé l'article en .pdf, et je l'ai restitué, car c'est assez surprenant, même déroutant...

le texte est assez long, mais j'aimerais que tout les francophones prennent le temps de le lire!

(for non-french speaking people : i'm sorry, i can't translate all this text, maybe try google translator...)

   

Ce que les grands médias n’osent pas ou ne veulent pas dévoiler

 

le vrai sarkozy

 

Glaçant ! Il a dit glaçant.Mais s’il ne l’avait pas dit ? Car enfin, sept jours avant que François Bayrou ne laisse tomber ce glacial jugement, le généticien Axel Kahn avait déjà, dans Marianne, agité le grelot. Ainsi Nicolas Sarkozy, qui, déjà (ceci explique cela), voulait faire repérer chez les marmots de 2 ans les bourgeons de la délinquance, avait pu, dans Philosophie Magazine, déclarer que, selon lui, la pédophilie et le suicide des adolescents étaient d’origine génétique, qu’on était en

quelque sorte biologiquement programmé pour la déviance ou l’autodestruction, que l’action éducative ou sociale n’y pouvait rien, le rachat ou la miséricorde divine non plus – retour terrifiant du concept eugéniste du gène du crime – sans que, pendant dix jours, aucun journal quotidien

ou hebdomadaire, aucune radio ou télévision réagisse. Ainsi, pour ne prendre qu’un exemple, avant la riposte bayrouiste, notre confrère le Monde, que des dérapages de Le Pen qui allaient beaucoup moins loin faisaient immédiatement monter au créneau, n’avait même pas consacré 10 lignes réprobatrices à cette stupéfiante rémanence de l’idéologie socio-biologique de l’extrême droite païenne. Comme s’il était beaucoup plus dangereux de tacler le patron de l’UMP que de stigmatiser le leader du Front national.

 

Comme si Sarkozy faisait peur.

 

Or cette sortie intervenait après l’annonce de la création, en cas de victoire de la droite, d’un « ministère de l’intégration et de l’identité nationale », annonce qui avait littéralement sidéré, et pour cause, la presse allemande, et dont même l’extrême droite autrichienne de Jörg Haider avait

tenu à dénoncer les « nauséeux relents ». Et, surtout, après la série de furieuses philippiques,

telles qu’on n’en avait plus entendu depuis quarante ans, inimaginables dans quelque pays européen civilisé que ce soit, relents de propagande stalinienne des années 50 et de rhétorique fascisante

d’avant-guerre, qui revenaient à décrire les concurrents du leader UMP, qu’ils fussent centristes ou sociaux-démocrates, comme les candidats protégeant les délinquants, le vol et la fraude, donc du crime, les suppôts des voyous, les représentants du parti des malhonnêtes gens et de la dégénérescence morale, l’anti-France enfin, c’est-à-dire l’incarnation de la haute trahison. Or, cela

n’avait nullement empêché que Jean-Louis Borloo, même malheureux comme les pierres, s’aplatissent ; que Simone Veil, fût-ce de la plus mauvaise grâce possible, assure la claque et, dans un premier temps au moins, que les médias, presque tous les grands médias, s’écrasent. Tant le personnage fait peur.

 

Ses Mots pour le dire

 

Pourquoi ? Parce que ses entreprises de séduction envoûtent. Parce qu’il dispose, partout, et surtout dans les médias, d’amis dans la place et très haut placés ? Ou parce qu’on redoute la brutalité de

ses réactions ? La preuve par l’affaire Azouz Begag. La scène se passe en 2006 : le ministre

délégué à l’Egalité des chances, interpellé à propos de quelques fortes saillies du ministre de l’Intérieur, s’excuse : « Je ne m’appelle pas Azouz Sarkozy. » En guise d’agression, on a connu plus destructeur ! Aussitôt, explosion de fureur de Sarkozy qui menace « de casser la gueule de l’insolent » et lui hurle, par saccades rageusement répétitives, qu’il est « un connard, un salaud, qu’il ne veut plus jamais le voir sur son chemin ». On imagine, un instant, Malek Boutih racontant, dans un livre, que Ségolène Royal lui a aboyé à la figure que François Hollande allait « lui casser

la gueule » parce qu’il aurait osé murmurer : « Je ne m’appelle pas Malek Royal. » Aussitôt, invitation sur tous les médias à raconter l’histoire, comme l’ex-socialiste Eric Besson. Là, service minimum. C’est Sarkozy qui a obtenu, comme toujours, le temps de parole. Pour expliquer que ce

n’était là qu’infâme menterie. D’ailleurs, a-t-il expliqué sur iTélé, il « croit n’avoir jamais rencontré Azouz Begag ». Surréaliste ! Depuis deux ans, ils font partie du même gouvernement. On imagine ce que signifierait le fait qu’effectivement, bien que siégeant sur les mêmes bancs et participant

aux mêmes conseils, Sarkozy ait refusé de voir Begag !

 

Pour une fois, cependant, le démenti sarkozyen fait flop.Tout le monde sait, en effet, que les mots que rapporte Azouz Begag sont les siens et pas les pires ; que ces derniers jours, par exemple, il n’a

cessé de traiter de « connards » ses propres conseillers et animateurs de campagne, accusés d’être responsables de la moindre difficulté de campagne. Un article qui le défrise dans Libération ? Il téléphone au propriétaire, qui est un ami : « Vous êtes un journal de merde ! Avec des journalistes

demerde ! » Il refuse, contrairement à Royal et à Bayrou, pourtant très maltraité par Libé, de se rendre dans ce journal pour un entretien avec la rédaction : « Libé n’a qu’à se déplacer ! ». Il considère qu’il n’a pas été reçu à France 3 national avec les honneurs qui lui sont dus. A l’adresse de la direction il hurle : « Si je suis élu, je vous ferai tous virer ! »

 

Insultes…

 

C’est d’« enculés » que se font traiter les confrères d’une radio qui lui ont apparemment tapé sur les nerfs…qu’il a sensibles. Il soupçonne un journaliste d’être favorable à FrançoisBayrou. « Ils couchent ensemble », commente-t-il. Evoquant certains de ses adversaires, il prévient, carnassier :« Je vais tous les niquer. Les niquer ! » Plus macho,tu ouvres un harem. Parlant de Michèle Alliot-

Marie, qu’il soupçonnait, à tort, d’avoir joué un rôle trouble dans l’affaire Clearstream, ne l’appelle-t-il pas « la salope » ? L’économiste et expert financier Patrick Artus critique certaines propositions du candidat UMP. Il reçoit aussitôt un mail de son chef de cabinet « On s’en souviendra ! » Même expérience rapportée par un industriel qui eut le malheur de déplaire : « On se retrouvera. On est pour moi ou contre moi ! » « Je n’ai jamais été confronté, raconte ce patron, à un entourage aussi

agressif, aussi belliqueux. » Pourquoi le préfet Dubois, responsable des relations presse de la Préfecture de police, est-il débarqué du jour au lendemain : parce qu’il aurait ricané des ennuis conjugaux du ministre ! Une enquête télé avait été réalisée dans les Hauts-de-Seine. Elle montrait

l’incroyable pesanteur des pressions (avec carotte et bâton, promesses et chantage) qui se sont exercées sur les élus UDF de ce « Sarkoland » pour qu’ils lâchent Bayrou. L’enquête en question a

été « trappée », comme on dit, sur ordre de la direction. Elle aurait déplu ! Sur une radio, interdiction a été faite à un confrère de rappeler, statistiques à l’appui, que le bilan du ministre en matière de sécurité n’est pas bon. Ça eût dérangé !

 

Il n’a plus besoin d’intervenir

 

Or, comme on ne prête qu’aux riches, on soupçonne systématiquement Sarkozy d’être intervenu. Mais, le plus souvent, ce n’est pas le cas. Ce n’est pas la peine. Il n’a même pas besoin. Quand Paris

Match avait publié un reportage sur les amours new-yorkaises de Cécilia et de son chevalier servant, il avait, effectivement, proclamé à la cantonade qu’il aurait la peau du directeur de la rédaction, Alain Genestar. Mais il en resta là. Mieux : il obligea Arnaud Lagardère à attendre plusieurs mois avant de le virer. Au Journal du dimanche, mieux encore :parce qu’il avait appris qu’on s’apprêtait à virer le directeur de la rédaction du journal, soi-disant pour lui complaire, il n’intervint cette fois, après avoir reçu et sans doute retourné le confrère, que pour exiger qu’il reste en place. Il a même tenu à donner son avis sur la journaliste politique que devrait embaucher une radio et sur le directeur que ne devrait pas engager Libération ! Ne prend-il pas un malin plaisir à lancer aux journalistes qui lui font cortège : « Je connais très bien votre patron. Je sais ce

qui se passe dans votre rédaction. » On s’interroge donc : outre ses très fortes accointances avec les grands patrons des groupes de médias, est ce la crainte qu’il suscite, la peur des représailles s’il est élu, qui expliquent cette relative impunité dont bénéficie Sarkozy quand il tient des propos ou

prend des initiatives qui, venant de Le Pen ou de Ségolène Royal, provoqueraient une irruption réprobatrice dans le landernau ? Pourquoi toutes ces angoisses affichées en privé, peut-être excessives, mais qui ne s’expriment jamais en public : cette star de la télévision évoque, en cas

de victoire du candidat UMP, « un risque de contrôle quasi totalitaire des médias » ; cette consoeur de LCI se dit « terrorisée à l’idée d’une présidence sarkozyste » ; cette journaliste du Figaro, qui connaît bien le candidat, et livre une description effectivement assez dantesque de son caractère.

Mais pas question de se dévoiler. Il fait peur. « Ma rupture avec lui, confie Jean-François Probst, ex-secrétaire général adjoint du RPR des Hauts-de-Seine et collaborateur de Charles Pasqua, c’est

le gaullisme. Je voulais, j’espérais qu’il serait l’homme de rassemblement. Or, il ne cesse de semer la division. Et j’ai passé l’âge de me laisser impressionner par un Hortefeux hystérique. » Mais les autres ?

 

Les confrères étrangers osent,eux !

 

Les confrères étrangers, eux, n’ont évidemment pas ces pudeurs. Le correspondant à Paris d’une radio suédoise interroge tout de go: « Sarkozy ne représente-t-il pas un risque de dictature ? » Un journaliste de la télévision croate qui a suivi le candidat dans ses pérégrinations en dresse un portrait, d’ailleurs exagéré, à faire dresser les cheveux sur la tête. Le Süddeutsche Zeitung de

Munich dépeint « un macho sans scrupule et brutal qui joue avec la peur des gens ». Le Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung lui décerne le prix de « l’homme politique le plus ambitieux et plus impitoyable d’Europe qui n’a pas de vraie conviction, mais s’aligne sur l’humeur du peuple». Le quotidien espagnol El Pais voit en lui un héritier populiste des « régénérationnistes de la droite espagnole de la fin du XIXe siècle ». Le Tageszeitung de Berlin (de gauche, il est vrai) décrit un

George Bush tricolore qui veut imposer en France l’idéologie de la droite néoconservatrice américaine. La presse italienne insiste sur sa proximité avec la droite post fasciste de la péninsule (qui s’est, avec Gianfranco Fini, ouverte à la modernité). Si la presse conservatrice britannique

identifie volontiers, avec admiration, Sarkozy à Mme Thatcher, la plupart des journaux européens, en particulier scandinaves, l’assimilent plutôt à un aventurier néobonapartiste qui représenterait une

grave menace pour la démocratie.

 

La peur de la trappe

 

En France, en revanche, tout se passe comme si ce type d’analyse était indicible. On n’ose pas. On a peur. De quoi ? Des représailles si Petit César l’emporte ? De la trappe qui s’ouvrira aussitôt ? Celle qui s’est ouverte, par exemple, sous les pieds de la députée UMP Nadine Morano. Elue de Lorraine, fervente sarkozyste, talentueuse femme de tempérament, n’ayant pas froid aux yeux, elle faisait partie de la task force du candidat. Et, soudain, à la trappe ! Officiellement, parce qu’un reportage diffusé sur France 3 lui a attribué un rôle un peu ridicule. Mais il se trouve qu’étant l’une des rares à oser s’adresser avec franchise à son héros elle lui avait fait remarquer que, entouré d’une nuée

de courtisans qui passaient leur temps à chanter ses louanges et sa gloire, il était devenu allergique à la moindre remarque critique. Elle s’était en outre inquiétée de sa tendance à s’immerger compulsivement dans les sondages qui lui renvoyaient constamment sa propre image. Résultat :

out ! « Cramée », disent les « bonnes camarades » de la pécheresse. Il fait peur. Eh bien, il est temps de soulever cette chape de plomb. De braver cette conspiration du silence.

 

Catherine Nay entre les lignes

 

Il y a quelques mois, Guillaume Durand consacrait deux heures de son émission « Esprits libres », au livre plutôt hagiographique de Catherine Nay consacré à Nicolas Sarkozy. Les livres hostiles au candidat UMP, assez nombreux, n’ont jamais eu cette chance. Or la lecture de cet ouvrage, honnête malgré tout, laisse une impression étrange. Certes il est censé vanter les qualités du « grand homme » ; mais, en même temps, et au second degré, il en dresse un portrait psychologique extraordinairement préoccupant : celui d’un homme dont l’unique véritable sujet de préoccupation est lui-même, sa propre saga et sa quête obsessionnelle du pouvoir. L’histoire qui le fascine, c’est la sienne ; de l’humanité, il ne retient que sa part ; son ascension, à quoi se réduit son seul idéal, débouche sur l’arrivée au sommet qui constitue son seul rêve. Il ne lit qu’un livre, celui dont son ambition constitue la trame. N’écoute qu’une seule musique, celle qui lui permet sans répit de chanter son épopée. Aucune ouverture sur une autre perspective que celle dont sa personne

dessine l’horizon, sur un autre monde que celui dont il occupe le centre. Analyse-t-il les changements qui se produisent autour de lui, dans la société ? Non... Mais, sans cesse, il revient sur le seul changement qui l’obsède et rythme ses discours :son propre changement, dont il fait comme un ressort. « C’est vrai, explique-t-il à Catherine Nay, j’étais égoïste, dépourvu de toute humanité, inattentif aux autres, dur, brutal… Mais j’ai changé ! » Sans cesse ensuite, au grand désarroi de ceux qui l’idolâtraient quand il était, à l’en croire, si mauvais, il fera l’aveu de tout ce que lui

reprochent ses adversaires pour mieux magnifier l’ampleur des métamorphoses par quoi il se transcende. Quitte à se révéler, à l’usage, plus égotique et plus brutal encore. Au philosophe Michel Onfray il déclare, dans Philosophie Magazine : « Je vais peut-être vous consterner, mais je suis en train de comprendre la gravité des choix que j’ai faits. Jusqu’à présent, je n’avais pas mesuré. »

 

Il n’a pas le droit de le dire

 

Finalement, le livre de Catherine Nay, bien que non suspect de malveillance, ne révèle-t-il pas une certaine folie et des pulsions autocratiques chez cet homme qu’elle qualifie elle-même de «bonapartiste» ? L’hypothèse formulée suscite, aussitôt, une levée de boucliers indignée sur le plateau de l’émission. On n’a pas le droit de dire ça ! Verboten ! Le directeur du Point, Franz-Olivier Giesbert, siffle le hors-jeu. Lequel Giesbert, pourtant, ne se gêne nullement pour déclarer Dominique deVillepin passible de l’asile d’aliénés. Un talentueux éditorialiste de droite convient,

en coulisse, qu’il y a « un vrai problème ! ». Halte là ! On n’a pas le droit de dire ça ! C’est tabou !

Pourtant, sur toutes les ondes. Eric Besson, l’ex-responsable socialiste, a pu expliquer que Ségolène Royal, Bécassine dangereusement allumée, déjà comparée par Brice Hortefeux à Pol Pot, au fasciste

Doriot et à Staline, représente un mixte du maréchal Pétain et du général Franco. Concernant Chirac, Villepin, Le Pen ou José Bové, on peut également tout oser. Ce n’est qu’à propos de Nicolas Sarkozy qu’on n’aurait « pas le droit de dire ça ! ». Mais qu’en revanche il serait loisible, comme Paris Match la semaine dernière, de lui consacrer, sur des pages et des pages, des dithyrambes grotesques dignes de Ceausescu, certains journalistes de ce magazine dussent-ils nous avouer qu’ils en auraient « pleuré de honte », mais qu’on ne peut rien contre un ordre d’en

haut! (L’Express a même fait, sur deux pages, ce titre ubuesque : « Sarkozy : il gardera son calme. »)

 

Et, pourtant, en privé, ils le disent

 

Tous les journalistes politiques savent, même s’ils s’interdisent (ou si on leur interdit) d’en faire état, qu’au sein même du camp dont Sarkozy se réclame on ne cesse de murmurer, de décliner, de conjuguer. Quoi ? Ça ! Lui confier le pouvoir, c’est, déclara Jacques Chirac à ses proches, « comme organiser une barbecue partie en plein été dans l’Estérel ». Claude Chirac a, elle, lâché cette phrase : « J’aurais préféré Juppé. Lui, au moins, c’est un homme d’Etat. » Le ministre libéral François Goulard ne le dissimule pas : « Son égotisme, son obsession du moi lui tient lieu de pensée. La critique équivaut pour lui à une déclaration de guerre qui ne peut se terminer que par la reddition, l’achat ou la mort de l’adversaire. » Sa principale faiblesse ? Son manque total d’humanisme. «Chirac, lui, a le souci des autres, de l’homme. Sarkozy écrase tout sur son passage. Si les Français

savaient vraiment qui il est, il n’y en a pas 5 % qui voteraient pour lui. » Un des plus importants hiérarques de l’UMP, officiellement soutien fervent du candidat (comment faire autrement ?),

renchérit : « Sarkozy, c’est le contraire de l’apaisement. Chirac, vous verrez, on le

regrettera. Lui, il n’a jamais eu de mots violents. » « Attention, met en garde le ministre de l’Agriculture, Dominique Bussereau, on va très vite à la révolte aujourd’hui. » « La France, c’est du cristal », dit, inquiet, Jean-Pierre Raffarin. Dominique deVillepin a mis sa langue dans sa poche. Il n’en pense pas moins… que Sarko « a loupé sa cristallisation » ; que « sa violence intérieure, son déséquilibre personnel, l’empêchent d’atteindre à la hauteur de la présidence ». Les chiraquiens du premier cercle, Henri Cuq (ministre délégué aux Relations avec le Parlement), ou Jérôme Monod, le conseiller, ne veulent pas déroger à la consigne du silence. Mais, en petit comité, les mêmes mots reviennent : « Ce garçon n’est pas mûr. Il n’est pas fini. Il a un compte à régler avec la vie qui le pousse à créer de l’affrontement partout, et non à rassembler. » D’autres brodent : « C’est un enfant qui n’atteindra jamais l’âge adulte. » A quoi Roselyne Bachelot réplique : « Mais tous les hommes sont immatures ! » On ne parle plus, on n’ose plus parler, comme hier – du moins tout fort –, de «malfrat » ou de « petit voyou » (pourtant, ce qu’on l’a entendu !). Mais, dans les coulisses de l’Elysée, on laisse simplement tomber : « On fait confiance au peuple français ! » Et, justement, il y

a encore trois semaines, on se communiquait, en jubilant, les sondages qui indiquaient une montée en puissance de François Bayrou. Non point qu’on l’aime, celui-là, ce « démocrate-chrétien jésuitique» mais, enfin, on ne va pas « laisser la France tomber entre les mains de Catilina », dangereux aventurier populiste romain dénoncé par Cicéron.

 

Comme une bande des «cités»

 

Un député UMP spécialiste des problèmes juridiques, eut le malheur de s’opposer au ministre de l’Intérieur à propos des « peines plancher ». Il est, et reste, sarkozyste. Pourtant, il fait part de son effarement. Cette simple prise de distance lui valut d’être désigné du doigt, menacé de représailles, ostracisé par le clan avec une violence « digne d’une bande des cités ». C’est d’ailleurs un ex-haut responsable du RPR qui raconte : « En septembre 1994, aux journées parlementaires de Colmar,

alors que Balladur était donné gagnant par tous les sondages, on eut affaire à la garde rapprochée de Sarkozy. Elle respirait l’arrogance, elle y allait de toutes les menaces. On disait aux députés restés fidèles à Chirac qu’il allait “leur en cuire”. » L’ancien vice-président du RPR des Hauts-de-Seine

Jean-François Probst confirme : « Sarkozy croit toujours, comme en 1995, qu’il peut intimider les gens. Quand je l’ai rencontré, dans les années 80, il avait déjà ses qualités – énergie, ténacité –, et ses défauts, dont j’imaginais qu’il les corrigerait. Je pensais, notamment, qu’il comblerait son

inculture. Bernique ! Il n’a fait que courir d’une lumière l’autre. Il est fasciné par ce qui brille, les nouveaux riches, le show off, les copains à gourmettes même s’ils trichotent avec les règles communes, Tom Cruise qu’il reçoit à Bercy, ébloui, et fait raccompagner en vaporetto. » Bien sûr, si les chiraquiens maintenus, les derniers villepinistes, les ultimes vrais gaullistes, quelques libéraux ou ex-centristes ralliés à l’UMP confient, à qui veut les entendre (mais les journalistes qui les entendent n’en rapportent rien), que l’hypothèse d’une présidence Sarkozy les terrifie ; qu’il y a «de la graine de dictateur chez cet homme-là » ; que, constamment, « il pète les plombs», de très nombreux élus UMP, les plus nombreux, sont devenus des groupies enthousiastes de l’homme qui

seul peut les faire gagner et dont personne ne nie les formidables qualités de battant. Et le courage. Mais même eux n’étouffent pas totalement leur inquiétude et soulignent volontiers sa violence. «Oui, c’est vrai, reconnaît l’un deux, il antagonise, il clive,il joue les uns contre les autres avec la

plus extrême cruauté. » « Il n’est vraiment totalement humain, confie un autre, que quand il s’agit de lui-même. » « Il a un problème de nerfs, de paranoïa, admettent-ils tous, mais il s’arrange, il mûrit, il se densifie. » Voire…

 

Un lourd secret

 

Donc, il y aurait, s’agissant du caractère de Sarkozy et de son rapport à la démocratie, comme un lourd secret qui, au mieux, préoccupe ses amis, au pis, angoisse ou affole ceux qui savent, un terrible non-dit dont bruissent les milieux politico-journalistiques, mais que les médias s’interdisent,

ou se voient interdire, de dévoiler. Il fait peur ! La gauche elle-même participe de cette occultation. Sans doute s’attaque-t-elle à Sarkozy, parfois même avec outrance et mauvaise foi. Mais que lui reproche-t-elle ? D’être de droite, ou même, stigmatisation suprême, une sorte de « néoconservateur

américain à passeport français », comme le clamait Eric Besson avant de retourner sa veste. Est-ce un crime ? La diabolisation de la différence est aussi contestable venant d’un bord que de l’autre. Le débat démocratique implique qu’il y ait une gauche, un centre, une droite, cette dernière n’étant

pas moins légitime que ses concurrents. De même qu’une partie de l’opinion reproche au PS d’avoir trahi l’idéal socialiste ; de même une autre partie, importante, estime que Jacques Chirac a blousé son électorat en menant une vague politique de « centre gauche » et exige un fort coup de barre à droite. C’est cette aspiration « à droite toute » que Sarkozy incarne avec énergie et talent. Le combattre n’exige nullement qu’on criminalise a priori cette incarnation.

 

Il est de droite, et après ?

 

Oui, Sarkozy, en son tréfonds – et même si on l’a convaincu de ne plus rien en laisser paraître –, est « atlantiste » et entend rompre avec la politique gaulliste d’« orgueilleuse» prise de distance à l’égard des Etats-Unis. Oui, il se réclama de George Bush à l’époque où celui-ci triomphait ;

oui, il est le candidat quasi unanimement soutenu par le CAC 40, le pouvoir financier et la très haute bourgeoisie ; oui, ses convictions en matière économique et sociale en font plus le disciple de

Mme Thatcher que de Philippe Séguin ; oui, il se sent beaucoup plus proche du modèle néolibéral anglo-saxon que du modèle français mixte tel que l’ont façonné les gaullistes, les sociaux-démocrates et les démocrates-chrétiens. Le publicitaire Thierry Saussez, qui lui est tout acquis, explique que « sa manière de faire de la politique renvoie à ce que les patrons et les salariés vivent dans leurs entreprises ». Tout est business. Mais, finalement, en tout cela, il ne se distingue guère des droites européennes qui, comme lui, veulent démanteler l’Etat providence et approuvèrent la guerre de George Bush en Irak. Au demeurant, son pragmatisme, son cynisme même, son «populisme » de tonalité bonapartiste, son intelligence instinctive, ne permettent nullement de le décrire en ultralibéral ou en idéologue illuminé. Enfin, même si sa proximité avec la droite

néofranquiste espagnole ou berlusconienne italienne n’en fait effectivement pas un « modéré », loin de là, et même si la rhétorique agressivement extrémiste qu’il déroule, depuis quelques semaines,

le déporte loin du centre, le qualifier de « facho » ou de « raciste », comme s’y risque l’extrême gauche, est une stupidité. Pourquoi faudrait-il (à condition de ne pas abuser des camouflages logomachiques comme le fait le champion UMP quand il cite Jean Jaurès ou multiplie les envolées « ouvriéristes ») que se situer à droite constitue, en soi, un délit ? On accuse également Sarkozy, ici de soutenir « l’Eglise de Scientologie », et là d’avoir promis à Chirac une amnistie contre son

soutien. Mais il n’existe aucune preuve. Donc, on ne retient pas.

 

Cette vérité interdite

 

Le problème Sarkozy, vérité interdite, est ailleurs. Ce que même la gauche étouffe, pour rester sagement confinée dans la confortable bipolarité d’un débat hémiplégique, c’est ce constat indicible : cet homme, quelque part, est fou ! Et aussi fragile. Et la nature même de sa folie est de celle qui servit de carburant, dans le passé, à bien des apprentis dictateurs. Oh, évidemment, cela se murmure, au point même de faire déjà, au sein de la couche supérieure de la France qui sait, et au

fond des souterrains de la France qui s’en doute, un boucan d’enfer. Les médiateurs savent, les décideurs le pressentent. Mais les uns et les autres ont comme signé un engagement : on ne doit pas, on ne doit sous aucun prétexte, le dire. Etrange atmosphère que celle qui fait que, dans cette campagne électorale, ce qui se dit obsède peu, mais ce qui obsède énormément ne se dit pas ; que ce dont on parle au sein des médias et chez les politiques, les médias, précisément, et les politiques n’en parlent pas ! « Fou », entendons-nous : cela ne rature ni l’intelligence, ni l’intuition, ni

l’énergie, ni les talents du personnage. « Fou » au sens, où, peut-être, de considérables

personnages historiques le furent ou le sont, pour le meilleur mais, le plus souvent, pour le pire. Ecoutons ce que nous confie ce député UMP, issu de l’UDF, officiellement intégré à la meute « de

Sarkozy » : « On dit qu’il est narcissique, égotiste. Les mots sont faibles. Jamais je n’ai rencontré une telle capacité à effacer spontanément du paysage tout, absolument tout, ce qui ne renvoie pas à lui même.Sarko est une sorte d’aveugle au monde extérieur dont le seul regard possible serait tourné vers son monde intérieur. Il se voit, il se voit même constamment, mais il ne voit plus que ça. »

 

Plus fort que lui…

 

Au fond, où est le mystère ? Sarkozy, c’est peut-être une qualité, est transparent. Aux autres et à lui-même. Moins il regarde, plus il se montre, s’affiche, se livre. D’autant, comme le reconnaît un publicitaire qui a travaillé pour lui, qu’il ne sait pas se réfréner, se contraindre. « Il est tellement fort, ajoute-t-il drôlement, qu’il est plus fort que lui. » La raison ne parvient jamais à censurer

son tempérament. Prompt à interdire, il ne sait pas s’interdire. Quelque chose en lui, d’irrépressible, toujours, l’entraîne au-delà. « Sur un vélo, rapporte Michel Drucker qui a souvent pédalé à ses côtés, même quand il s’agit d’une promenade, il se défonce comme s’il devait constamment

battre un record. » Tous ses proches emploient spontanément la même expression : « Il ne peut pas

s’empêcher. » Par exemple, de dire du mal de Chirac, même quand la prudence exigerait qu’il s’en abstienne. Ainsi, en 1994, cettesalve :« L’électroencéphalogramme de la Chiraquie est plat. Ce n’est plus l’Hôtel de Ville, c’est l’antichambre de la morgue. Chirac est mort, il ne manque plus que les

trois dernières pelletées de terre. » Il ne peut pas s’empêcher, non plus, de se livrer à un

jubilatoire jeu de massacre en direction de ceux, de son propre camp, qui ne sont pas

de sa bande ou de sa tribu. « Jamais, peut être, un leader politique n’avait aussi systématiquement

pris son pied – dixit une de ses victimes au sein de l’UMP – à assassiner, les unes après les autres, les personnalités de son propre camp pour, après le carnage, rester seul entouré de ses chaouches. » Après la défaite de 1995, ne s’est-il pas livré, dans le journal les Echos, sous pseudonyme, à une descente en flammes de ses propres comparses : François Fillon ? « Un nul qui n’a aucune idée. » Michel Barnier ? « Le vide fait homme. » Philippe Douste-Blazy ? « La lâcheté faite politicien. » Alain Juppé ? « Un dogmatique rigide. Fabius en pire. » Quant à Villepin, il s’est plu, si l’on en croit Franz-Olivier Giesbert, à lui promettre de finir « pendu au croc d’un boucher ». Vis-à-vis

des autres, fussent-ils des amis politiques, aucune tendresse ! Jamais !

 

Il suffit de l’écouter

 

Sarkozy, il suffit, au demeurant, de le lire ou de l’écouter. De quoi parle-t-il ? De lui. Toujours. Compulsivement. Psychanalytiquement. Que raconte-t-il ? Lui ! Qui prend-il comme témoin ? Lui ! Qui donne-t-il en exemple ? Lui ! Il est, jusqu’au délire parfois, sa propre préférence. Jamais hors «je ». Ce « je » qui, à l’entendre, est forcément « le seul qui », « le premier à », « l’unique capable de », « le meilleur pour ». Comme si l’univers tout entier était devenu un miroir qui ne lui renvoie plus que son reflet, quitte à entretenir constamment chez lui l’angoisse que le miroir lui dise

un jour, comme à la marâtre de Blanche-Neige, qu’il n’est « plus la plus belle ». C’est pourquoi, d’ailleurs – et même ses proches s’en effarent –, il vit constamment immergé dans les enquêtes d’opinion, qui, plusieurs fois par jour, ont pour objet de le rassurer sur l’évolution de son image. Un argument ne passe pas ? On y renonce. Un mot fait tilt ? On le répète à satiété. Une peur s’exprime ? On la caresse dans le sens du poil. Le public veut des expressions de gauche ? On lui en servira. Une musique d’extrême droite ? On la lui jouera. Il a même été jusqu’à faire l’éloge de la violence sociale… des marins pêcheurs. Il commande tellement de sondages qu’il est devenu le meilleur client de certains instituts, qui, du coup, ont quelques scrupules à ne pas satisfaire son

contentement de soi. Il a même réussi à inspirer à l’Ifop des sondages, publiés dans le Figaro, dont les questions quasiment rédigées par son entourage (sur l’affaire de Cachan ou lapolémique avec les juges) ne permettaient pas d’autres réponses que celles qui le plébiscitaient.

 

Il est « le seul qui… »

 

Etrangement, si, constamment confronté à son reflet, il ne cesse d’intervenir pour en

corriger les ombres, sa capacité d’écoute (ou de lecture) est extrêmement faible. Invite-t-il des intellectuels médiatiques à déjeuner au ministère de l’Intérieur que l’un d’eux, Pascal Bruckner (qui

pourtant le soutient), explique que, loin de s’imprégner de leurs analyses, il a pratiquement parlé tout seul. Reçue par lui, la démographe Michèle Tribalat lui écrit : « J’ai pu apprécier votre conception du débat. Vous n’imaginez pas qu’un autre point de vue (que le vôtre) présente un quelconque intérêt. » D’ailleurs, il refuse les débats. Lors de ses prestations télévisées, on s’arrange pour qu’il n’ait jamais de vrais contradicteurs pouvant exercer un droit de suite. Le plus souvent, il choisit, d’ailleurs, lui-même les autres intervenants. Cette abyssale hypertrophie du moi, à l’évidence, entretient chez Sarkozy cette hargne de conquête, de contrôle, cette boulimie de pouvoir exclusif, le conduit à éradiquer toutes les concurrences potentielles et à neutraliser, à étouffer contestations et critiques. Il suffit, d’ailleurs, de l’écouter, mais aussi de le regarder « être » et «faire». Jamais il ne se résout à n’être qu’un membre, fût-ce le premier,d’un collectif. Forcément l’unique, le soleil autour duquel tournent des affidés. D’où sa prédilection pour un entourage de groupies de grandes qualités et de grands talents, à la vie à la mort, « une garde rapprochée »

comme on dit, mais aussi de porte-serviettes et de porte-flingues, de personnages troubles encombrés de casseroles et de transfuges. Avec eux, peu de risques !

 

Double discours

 

Il y a, chez Sarkozy, une incroyable dichotomie du discours (ou plutôt du double discours). Seul peut l’expliquer le fait que le rapport à lui-même est, chez lui, à ce point central que cette centralité de l’ego épuise en elle-même, et donc en lui-même, toute contradiction. Ainsi, au lendemain de ses brutales tentatives de criminalisation de ses concurrents, Bayrou l’ayant épinglé sur l’affaire du déterminisme génétique, il déclare benoîtement : « Un candidat devrait s’abstenir de toute attaque contre ses adversaires ! » Le jour même où il décide de jouer à fond, contre les candidats qui lui sont opposés – et avec quelle violence ! –, la stratégie guerrière de l’affrontement manichéen, il présente un opuscule dans lequel il explique (sous la rubrique « J’ai changé ») qu’il eut, certes,

sa phase brutale, mais qu’il est désormais totalement zen et apaisé. Azouz Begag, dans son récit, rapporte que, lorsqu’il osa critiquer l’emploi du mot « racaille », le ministre de l’Intérieur hurla qu’ils’agissait d’un scandaleux manque de solidarité gouvernementale, qu’il était inconcevable

qu’un ministre critique un collègue. Or, depuis des mois, il avait lui-même déclenché un tir nourri contre Chirac et Villepin, son président de la République et son Premier ministre. D’une façon générale, il en appelle volontiers à une solidarité sans faille des siens, tout son camp devant se mettre à sa disposition, mais, pendant la crise du CPE, alors qu’il avait lui-même, le premier,

préconisé ce type de contrat de travail, non seulement il en pointa soudain l’inanité et exigea son retrait, mais, en outre, il incita l’un des leaders de la révolte estudiantine à « tenir bon ». Il s’agissait, évidemment, d’achever Villepin.

 

Comme on assassine tous les concurrents…

 

A entendre les chiraquiens, même ceux qui se sont ralliés à son panache, c’est lui, Sarkozy, qui, ministre du Budget de Balladur, lança la justice sur la piste du scandale des HLM de Paris après que, dans l’espoir d’un étouffement, l’industriel Poullain, le patron d’une société de revêtement, eut

emmené le dossier à son lieutenant, Brice Hortefeux. Objectif ? Abattre Chirac ! C’est lui encore, prétendent-ils, qui aurait fait révéler, au Canard enchaîné, l’affaire de l’appartement d’Hervé Gaymard, en qui il voyait un adversaire. C’est lui encore qui fit distiller, dans la presse, de quoi faire continuellement rebondir le feuilleton du scandale Clearstream transformé en machine à broyer et achever Dominique de Villepin. Quand, dans un grand meeting parisien, il lança que la victoire du oui au référendum européen permettrait de sortir, enfin, du modèle social français,

n’était-il pas conscient qu’il favorisait de la sorte le camp du non et, par voie de conséquence,

plombait le pauvre Jean-Pierre Raffarin ? Autrement dit, soyez avec moi, moi qui ai profité de toutes les occasions pour être contre vous. En fait Sarkozy vit ses contradictions comme une cohérente unicité de parcours dès lors que c’est lui, l’unique, le point central, qui porte et justifie

cette cohérence. Ainsi, lorsqu’il accuse ses concurrents, de gauche ou centristes, d’être les candidats de la fraude, de la voyoucratie et de la dégénérescence morale, c’est le jour où Tapie, l’un des rares affairistes qui lui manquait encore, se rallie à lui.

 

Faillite morale, dit-il

 

Quelle capacité d’auto-amnistie cela révèle ! Car, enfin, se faire, fût-ce en partie, offrir un luxueux appartement aménagé par le promoteur qu’on a systématiquement favorisé en tant que maire, et dans l’espace dont on a, toujours comme maire, financé l’aménagement, est-ce un exemple

d’attitude hautement morale ? Permettre, après qu’on fut devenu ministre, à son ancien cabinet d’avocats, en partie spécialisé dans les expulsions de locataires après vente à la découpe, de continuer à porter son nom – société Arnault Claude-Nicolas Sarkozy –, ce qui s’avère d’autant

plus intéressant qu’on continue à détenir un gros paquet d’actions et à toucher des dividendes –, est-ce le modèle même du comportement impitoyablement moral ? Publier un livre consacré à l’ancien ministre Georges Mandel qui se révèle, pour partie au moins, être un plagiat coupé collé de la thèse universitaire de Bertrand Favreau, certaines erreurs comprises, est ce la quintessence du moralisme intégral? Est-ce une moralité sans faille qui permit àThierry Gaubert d’organiser son vaste système de gestion arnaqueuse du 1 % logement dans les Hauts-de-Seine à l’ombre des réseaux sarkozystes dont il fut, un temps, l’un des principaux rouages? Est-ce sous le drapeau de la moralité qu’on envoya de gros clients très évasifs au banquier suisse Jacques Heyer qui, d’ailleurs, consuma leur fortune (celle de Didier Schuller en particulier)? Les rapports d’affaires (ou de tentatives d’affaires)

avec l’intermédiaire saoudien Takieddine étaient-ils placés sous le signe de l’intégrisme moral? Le soutien constant apporté aux intérêts du groupe Barrière dans les casinos et les machines à sous ne fut-il dicté que par des considérations moralistes ? Pourquoi, enfin, avoir promis de rendre public son patrimoine et être le seul à s’en être abstenu ?

 

Un système clanique

 

Sarkozy n’est pas du tout un malhonnête homme. Simplement il est, fût-ce à son corps défendant, le pur produit d’un système, celui du RPR des Hauts-de-Seine, dont Florence d’Harcourt, l’ex-députée

gaulliste de Neuilly, a crûment décrit l’irrépressible mafiosisation, renforcée par le déferlement des flux financiers immobiliers générés par le développement du quartier de la Défense, dont Sarkozy tint d’ailleurs à présider l’établissement public. Son suppléant, en tant que parlementaire, fut d’ailleurs le maire de Puteaux, Charles Ceccaldi-Raynaud, puis sa fille qui, bien qu’adjointe à la mairie de Puteaux, bénéficia en même temps d’un emploi fictif à la mairie de Neuilly. Quand Sarkozy voulu récupérer son siège de député, hop !, on la nomma au Conseil économique et social.

Devenu, à tort ou à raison, le symbole d’une certaine «ripouïsation» d’un demi-monde de politiciens locaux, Ceccaldi-Raynaud, petit dirigeant socialiste en Algérie française, dûre gagner précipitamment la métropole à la suite des graves accusations dont il était l’objet, y compris d’avoir toléré des mauvais traitements dans un camp de prisonniers dont il était responsable. En France, élu de la gauche SFIO à Puteaux, il passa à droite et, lors de l’une de ses premières campagnes électorales, ses gros bras tuèrent un militant socialiste et en blessèrent d’autres. Ensuite, il traîna derrière lui tellement de casseroles (dernière affaire : il est mis en examen dans une affaire de marché truqué de chauffage urbain) qu’il devint une sorte de mythe. Sarkozy, ce qui plaide peut-être en faveur de son sens de la fidélité, ne l’a jamais lâché, même quand, ministre des Finances, il aurait pu ou dû. Quand la fille Ceccaldi-Raynaud, députée-maire à son tour, mécontente des critiques d’un journaliste blogueur, laisse publier sur le site de la mairie une lettre laissant supposer une inclinaison infamante, Sarkozy ne moufte toujours pas. Il resta pareillement fidèle à son grand

ami le député-maire de Levallois Patrick Balkany. Quand ce dernier, archétype lui aussi du roi de la magouille affairisto-municipale, employeur à son seul profit du personnel de la mairie, accablé

par la justice et accusé, en prime, de se livrer à des fellations sur menace de revolver, écarté du RPR, est défié par un gaulliste clean, Olivier de Chazeaux, qui soutint Sarkozy ? Patrick Balkany.

C’est-à-dire le délinquant. Notons que les Levalloisiens, par suite d’une gestion que soutient Sarkozy, supportent une dette de 4000 à 6000 € par habitant. C’est, d’ailleurs, le cabinet d’avocats

Sarkozy qui défend, en autres, la mairie de Levallois, laquelle accumule les contentieux.

 

Qui sont ses soutiens ?

 

Faut-il rappeler que ses principaux et premiers supporteurs dans le monde politique ne furent et ne sont pas spécialement vêtus de probité candide : Alain Carignon, Gérard Longuet, Thierry

Mariani, Manuel Aeschlimann (150 procédures, 600 000 € de frais d’avocats par an) et même Christian Estrosi n’ont pas précisément défrayé la chronique à cause de la blancheur immaculée de leur curriculum vitae. Il paraît même que Pierre Bédier en pince désormais pour lui. Quant à son fan-club, qui prétendra qu’il n’est constitué que de parangons de vertu : Doc Gyneco, chargé comme un sherpa, Johnny Hallyday qui répudie la France pour ne plus payer d’impôts, comme Jean-Michel Goudard, l’un de ses principaux conseillers en communication, Antoine Zacharias, le Napoléon des stock-options ? Certes, à l’image de Simone Veil ou de l’écrivainYasmina Reza, de très nombreuses personnalités de grande qualité, représentant tous les milieux et toutes les professions, soutiennent également Sarkozy, y compris certaines en provenance d’une haute intelligentsia réputée de gauche, mais droitisée par leur soutien à la guerre d’Irak. Reste que le profil de ses partisans les plus enthousiastes et les plus engagés, y compris les plus faisandés des ex-

petits marquis mitterrandolâtres, ne font pas nécessairement de Sarkozy (dont il n’est pas question de mettre en doute l’intégrité ou l’allergie à la déviance) le mieux placé pour dépeindre l’ensemble

de ses adversaires en défenseurs de la fraude, de la délinquance et de la décadence morale.

 

« L’identité nationale », parlons-en…

 

Est-il, en revanche, fondé à se proclamer seul défenseur de « l’identité nationale »? Mais qui se déclarait « fier d’être surnommé Sarkozy l’Américain »? Qui affirma, aux Etats-Unis, qu’il se

sentait souvent « un étranger dans son propre pays »? Qui regretta que la France ait brandi

son droit de veto pour s’opposer à la guerre d’Irak? Qui stigmatisa, depuis l’Amérique,

« l’arrogance » dont aurait fait preuve Dominique de Villepin lors de son fameux discours devant le Conseil de sécurité de l’ONU? Qui, avant de confier au chiracoséguiniste Henri Guaino le soin de rédiger ses interventions, opposa sans cesse le ringardisme du « modèle français » à la modernité du modèle anglo-saxon? Nicolas Sarkozy pourrait d’ailleurs largement figurer dans la rubrique « Ils

ont osé le dire », tant ses propos, depuis quinze ans, illustrent éloquemment tout ce qui précède, c’est-à-dire une dichotomie rhétorique qui se cristallise dans l’unicité de son exaltation du moi !

Citons, presque au hasard : « Ilyena combien qui peuvent se permettre d’aller à La Courneuve ? Je suis le seul [toujours le seul !] à être toléré dans ces quartiers. Je suis le seul ! » « J’irai systématiquement, toutes les semaines, dans les quartiers les plus difficiles et j’y resterai le temps

nécessaire » (2005). « Kärcher en septembre, 200 000 adhérents [à l’UMP] en novembre. » «Racaille, le vocable était sans doute un peu faible.» « Vous savez pourquoi je suis tellement

populaire ? Parce que je parle comme les gens » (avril 2004). « Maintenant, dans les réunions

publiques, c’est moi qui fais les questions et les réponses et, à la sortie, les gens ont l’impression qu’on s’est vraiment parlé » (le Figaro, mai 2005). « Les gens qui habitent Neuilly sont ceux qui se sont battus pour prendre plus de responsabilités, pour travailler plus que les autres. » « Si je ne faisais pas attention, tous les jours je serais à la télévision jusqu’à ce que les téléspectateurs en aient la nausée» (1995). « Le rôle du politique est de tout faire pour ne pas exacerber les tensions. Plus

la société est fragile, moins le discours doit être brutal. La meilleure façon de faire avancer la société, c’est de la rassurer, non de l’inquiéter. La réforme doit être comprise comme un ciment, non comme une rupture » (juillet 2006 dans Témoignages). « Je n’aime pas étaler ce qui, finalement, appartient à ma vie privée. » « La France souffre de l’égalitarisme et d’un état de nivellement. » « Dans un monde où la déloyauté est la règle, vous me permettrez d’afficher, de

manière peut-être provocante, ma loyauté envers Jacques Chirac » (juin 1992). « Je refuse tout ce qui est artifice pour façonner à tout prix une image, les photos avec femme et enfants, la success-story, vouloir se faire aimer, poser en tenue décontractée. » On nous dira, ensuite : il faut lui faire

confiance, il faut le croire. Mais où est le filet de sécurité ?

 

Le vrai danger

 

On évoque obsessionnellementle danger Le Pen. Il existe un risque, en effet. Un terrible risque que, comme en 2002, le leader de l’extrême droite déjoue tout les pronostics et porte ainsi un nouveau

coup à notre système démocratique. Mais tout le monde sait que Le Pen, lui, ne sera pas élu président de la République. Heureusement, il ne dispose, lui, contrairement à son adversaire – concurrent de droite (à l’égard duquel il fait preuve d’une certaine indulgence), ni du pouvoir médiatique, ni du pouvoir économique, ni du pouvoir financier. Pouvoirs qui, en revanche, si Sarkozy était élu – et il peut l’être –, ainsi que le pouvoir policier et militaire, seraient concentrés, en même temps que les pouvoirs exécutif et législatif, entre les mêmes mains, lesquelles disposeront, en outre, d’une majorité au Conseil constitutionnel, au CSA et au sein de la plupart

des institutions du pays. Hier, le journal la Tribune trappait un sondage parce qu’il n’était pas favorable à Sarkozy ; une publicité pour Télérama était interdite dans le métro parce qu’elle

était ironique à l’égard de Sarkozy ; un livre était envoyé au rebut, le patron d’un grand magazine également, parce qu’ils avaient importuné Sarkozy ; Yannick Noah était censuré, parce que ses

propos déplaisaient à Sarkozy. Aucun journal, fût-il officiellement de gauche, n’a échappé aux efficaces pressions de Sarkozy. Voter Sarkozy n’est pas un crime. C’est même un droit. Nous ne dirons pas, nous, que ce candidat représente la fraude, la délinquance, l’anti-France et la faillite morale. Nous voudrions simplement qu’on se souvienne plus tard – quitte, ensuite, à nous en demander compte – que nous avons écrit qu’il représente pour la conception que nous nous faisons de la démocratie et de la République un formidable danger. S’il est élu, nous savons que nous pourrions en payer le prix. Nous l’acceptons !.

 

Cari amici in Italia,

 

E' vergognoso! E' tornata l'infame "legge bavaglio" e il Parlamento potrebbe adottarla in qualunque momento: soltanto un enorme grido d'indignazione può fermarla.

 

La coalizione di Berlusconi è in frantumi, ma nel crollo si sta trascinando la sua maggioranza per portare a segno la "legge bavaglio", che minerebbe sensibilmente il potere del nostro sistema giudiziario di combattere il crimine e la corruzione, e imporrebbe sanzioni draconiane contro editori, giornalisti e blogger. L'anno scorso abbiamo combattuto questa legge e abbiamo vinto. Anche questa volta dipende solo da noi: battiamoci con tutte le nostre forze per salvare la nostra democrazia!

 

Il bavaglio potrebbe diventare legge in ogni momento! Mezzo milione di italiani sta chiedendo al Parlamento di respingere la "legge bavaglio" e proteggere così la libertà di stampa: raggiungiamo ora le 750.000 firme! Clicca sotto per firmare e inoltra questa e-mail a tutti quelli che conosci - la petizione sarà consegnata direttamente ai parlamentari durante ogni voto cruciale da ora fino alle prossime due settimane:

 

www.avaaz.org/it/no_bavaglio_2/?tta

 

A fronte di nuovi vergognosi scandali sessuali e episodi di corruzione che hanno colpito il Premier e alcuni membri del governo, incluse accuse di prostituzione minorile e appalti assegnati in cambio di ragazze, il governo di Berlusconi sta facendo di tutto per far passare questa legge, che limiterebbe pericolosamente il potere giudiziario e metterebbe il bavaglio agli editori, i giornalisti e i blogger.

 

L'anno scorso abbiamo costretto il Parlamento a chiudere nel cassetto la "legge bavaglio", grazie a un'enorme mobilitazione pubblica, che ha attirato l'attenzione dei media internazionali e ha aiutato a dividere la coalizione governativa. Ma ora che il suo disastroso mandato sta volgendo al termine, Berlusconi sta disperatamente cercando di proteggere se stesso e i suoi alleati dalle condanne e censurare preventivamente la stampa per fermare nuovi scandali dall'essere pubblicati.

 

Se la "legge bavaglio" passerà, non potremo più raccogliere le prove investigative contro i casi di corruzione e mafia e chiedere conto ai nostri politici, e un fondamento della nostra democrazia sarebbe distrutto. Solo noi possiamo fermare tutto questo! Firma la petizione urgente ora e invita tutti i tuoi amici a farlo:

 

www.avaaz.org/it/no_bavaglio_2/?tta

 

Negli ultimi due anni insieme siamo riusciti a ostacolare i molteplici tentativi di Berlusconi di imporre i bavagli ai media, al sistema giudiziario e a internet, che avrebbero messo in pericolo il cuore della nostra democrazia. Ma ora che questo scandaloso governo è al tramonto, Berlusconi ci sta provando di nuovo. Non possiamo abbassare la guardia proprio ora: siamo noi i guardiani della nostra democrazia. Il complotto del governo è ora all'attacco, e sta a noi dimostrare che continueremo a combattere finché i nostri diritti fondamentali e le nostre libertà siano definitivamente rispettati e protetti.

  

my stream: ilariophoto

Non usate le foto senza il mio permesso, tutti i diritti sono riservati

© All rights reserved (ILY_13301)

Povera patria! Schiacciata dagli abusi del potere

di gente infame, che non sa cos'è il pudore,

si credono potenti e gli va bene quello che fanno;

e tutto gli appartiene.

Tra i governanti, quanti perfetti e inutili buffoni!

 

Da Povera Patria

F. Battiato

1991

Bologna 02 Agosto,

nonostante il buio dell'infamia di chi subdolamente ha ucciso senza motivo anime belle

togliendole ai loro cari e seminando panico senza ragione,

va questo spiraglio di luce che attraversando questa crepa nel muro ne sottolinea

il passaggio alla vita, alla luce. Mai più un altro Due Agosto.

Krishna [1](/'kr??n?/; Sanskrit: ?????, K???a in IAST, pronounced ['kr????] ( listen)) is considered the supreme deity, worshipped across many traditions of Hinduism in a variety of different perspectives. Krishna is recognized as the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Lord Vishnu, and one and the same as Lord Vishnu one of the trimurti and as the supreme god in his own right. Krishna is the principal protagonist with Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita also known as the Song of God, which depicts the conversation between the Royal Prince Arjuna and Krishna during the great battle of Kurukshetra 5000 years ago where Arjuna discovers that Krishna is God and then comprehends his nature and will for him and for mankind. In present age Krishna is one of the most widely revered and most popular of all Indian divinities.[2]

Krishna is often described and portrayed as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a flute as in the Bhagavata Purana,[3] or as an elder giving direction and guidance as in the Bhagavad Gita.[4] The stories of Krishna appear across a broad spectrum of Hindu philosophical and theological traditions.[5] They portray him in various perspectives: a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the Supreme Being.[6] The principal scriptures discussing Krishna's story are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana.

Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga (present age), which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[7] Worship of the deity Krishna, either in the form of deity Krishna or in the form of Vasudeva, Bala Krishna or Gopala can be traced to as early as 4th century BC.[8][9] Worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, or the supreme being, known as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. From the 10th century AD, Krishna became a favourite subject in performing arts and regional traditions of devotion developed for forms of Krishna such as Jagannatha in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra and Shrinathji in Rajasthan. Since the 1960s the worship of Krishna has also spread in the Western world, largely due to the International Society for Krishna Consciousness.[10]The name originates from the Sanskrit word K???a, which is primarily an adjective meaning "black", "dark" or "dark blue".[11] The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha in the Vedic tradition, relating to the adjective meaning "darkening".[12] Sometimes it is also translated as "all-attractive", according to members of the Hare Krishna movement.[13]

As a name of Vishnu, Krishna listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama. Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in murtis as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets and titles, which reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are Mohan "enchanter", Govinda, "Finder of the cows" or Gopala, "Protector of the cows", which refer to Krishna's childhood in Braj (in present day Uttar Pradesh).[14][15] Some of the distinct names may be regionally important; for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India.[16]Krishna is easily recognized by his representations. Though his skin color may be depicted as black or dark in some representations, particularly in murtis, in other images such as modern pictorial representations, Krishna is usually shown with a blue skin. He is often shown wearing a silk dhoti and a peacock feather crown. Common depictions show him as a little boy, or as a young man in a characteristically relaxed pose, playing the flute.[17][18] In this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other with a flute raised to his lips, in the Tribhanga posture, accompanied by cows, emphasizing his position as the divine herdsman, Govinda, or with the gopis (milkmaids) i.e. Gopikrishna, stealing butter from neighbouring houses i.e. Navneet Chora or Gokulakrishna, defeating the vicious serpent i.e. Kaliya Damana Krishna, lifting the hill i.e. Giridhara Krishna ..so on and so forth from his childhood / youth events.

A steatite (soapstone) tablet unearthed from Mohenjo-daro, Larkana district, Sindh depicting a young boy uprooting two trees from which are emerging two human figures is an interesting archaeological find for fixing dates associated with Krishna. This image recalls the Yamalarjuna episode of Bhagavata and Harivamsa Purana. In this image, the young boy is Krishna, and the two human beings emerging from the trees are the two cursed gandharvas, identified as Nalakubara and Manigriva. Dr. E.J.H. Mackay, who did the excavation at Mohanjodaro, compares this image with the Yamalarjuna episode. Prof. V.S. Agrawal has also accepted this identification. Thus, it seems that the Indus valley people knew stories related to Krishna. This lone find may not establish Krishna as contemporary with Pre-Indus or Indus times, but, likewise, it cannot be ignored.[19][20]The scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata, notably where he addresses Pandava prince Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita, is another common subject for representation. In these depictions, he is shown as a man, often with supreme God characteristics of Hindu religious art, such as multiple arms or heads, denoting power, and with attributes of Vishnu, such as the chakra or in his two-armed form as a charioteer. Cave paintings dated to 800 BCE in Mirzapur, Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh, show raiding horse-charioteers, one of whom is about to hurl a wheel, and who could potentially be identified as Krishna.[21]

Representations in temples often show Krishna as a man standing in an upright, formal pose. He may be alone, or with associated figures:[22] his brother Balarama and sister Subhadra, or his main queens Rukmini and Satyabhama.

Often, Krishna is pictured with his gopi-consort Radha. Manipuri Vaishnavas do not worship Krishna alone, but as Radha Krishna,[23] a combined image of Krishna and Radha. This is also a characteristic of the schools Rudra[24] and Nimbarka sampradaya,[25] as well as that of Swaminarayan sect. The traditions celebrate Radha Ramana murti, who is viewed by Gaudiyas as a form of Radha Krishna.[26]

Krishna is also depicted and worshipped as a small child (Bala Krishna, Bala K???a the child Krishna), crawling on his hands and knees or dancing, often with butter or Laddu in his hand being Laddu Gopal.[27][28] Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as Jaganatha of Odisha, Vithoba of Maharashtra,[29] Venkateswara (also Srinivasa or Balaji) in Andhra Pradesh, and Shrinathji in Rajasthan.The earliest text to explicitly provide detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahabharata which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu.[30] Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic that constitute the Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to the warrior-hero Arjuna, on the battlefield. Krishna is already an adult in the epic, although there are allusions to his earlier exploits. The Harivamsa, a later appendix to this epic, contains the earliest detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.

The Rig Veda 1.22.164 sukta 31 mentions a herdsman "who never stumbles".[31] Some Vaishnavite scholars, such as Bhaktivinoda Thakura, claim that this herdsman refers to Krishna.[32] Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar also attempted to show that "the very same Krishna" made an appearance, e.g. as the drapsa ... krishna "black drop" of RV 8.96.13.[33] Some authors have also likened prehistoric depictions of deities to Krishna.

Chandogya Upanishad (3.17.6) composed around 900 BCE[34] mentions Vasudeva Krishna as the son of Devaki and the disciple of Ghora Angirasa, the seer who preached his disciple the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya.’ Having been influenced by the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya’ Krishna in the Bhagavadgita while delivering the discourse to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra discussed about sacrifice, which can be compared to purusha or the individual.[35][36][37][38]

Yaska's Nirukta, an etymological dictionary around 6th century BC, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura, a motif from well known Puranic story about Krishna.[39] Shatapatha Brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka, associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.[40]

Pa?ini, the ancient grammarian and author of Asthadhyayi (probably belonged to 5th century or 6th century BC) mentions a character called Vasudeva, son of Vasudeva, and also mentions Kaurava and Arjuna which testifies to Vasudeva Krishna, Arjuna and Kauravas being contemporaries.[35][41][42]

Megasthenes (350 – 290 BC) a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to the court of Chandragupta Maurya made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica. Many scholars have suggested that the deity identified as Herakles was Krishna. According to Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo, Megasthenes described an Indian tribe called Sourasenoi, who especially worshipped Herakles in their land, and this land had two cities, Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river, the Jobares. As was common in the ancient period, the Greeks sometimes described foreign gods in terms of their own divinities, and there is a little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged; Herakles to Krishna, or Hari-Krishna: Methora to Mathura, where Krishna was born; Kleisobora to Krishnapura, meaning "the city of Krishna"; and the Jobares to the Yamuna, the famous river in the Krishna story. Quintus Curtius also mentions that when Alexander the Great confronted Porus, Porus's soldiers were carrying an image of Herakles in their vanguard.[43]

The name Krishna occurs in Buddhist writings in the form Kanha, phonetically equivalent to Krishna.[44]

The Ghata-Jâtaka (No. 454) gives an account of Krishna's childhood and subsequent exploits which in many points corresponds with the Brahmanic legends of his life and contains several familiar incidents and names, such as Vâsudeva, Baladeva, Ka?sa. Yet it presents many peculiarities and is either an independent version or a misrepresentation of a popular story that had wandered far from its home. Jain tradition also shows that these tales were popular and were worked up into different forms, for the Jains have an elaborate system of ancient patriarchs which includes Vâsudevas and Baladevas. Krishna is the ninth of the Black Vâsudevas and is connected with Dvâravatî or Dvârakâ. He will become the twelfth tîrthankara of the next world-period and a similar position will be attained by Devakî, Rohinî, Baladeva and Javakumâra, all members of his family. This is a striking proof of the popularity of the Krishna legend outside the Brahmanic religion.[45]

According to Arthasastra of Kautilya (4th century BCE) Vasudeva was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly monotheistic format.[41]

Around 150 BC, Patanjali in his Mahabhashya quotes a verse: "May the might of Krishna accompanied by Samkarshana increase!" Other verses are mentioned. One verse speaks of "Janardhana with himself as fourth" (Krishna with three companions, the three possibly being Samkarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha). Another verse mentions musical instruments being played at meetings in the temples of Rama (Balarama) and Kesava (Krishna). Patanjali also describes dramatic and mimetic performances (Krishna-Kamsopacharam) representing the killing of Kamsa by Vasudeva.[46][47]

In the 1st century BC, there seems to be evidence for a worship of five Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba) for an inscription has been found at Mora near Mathura, which apparently mentions a son of the great satrap Rajuvula, probably the satrap Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, "probably Vasudeva, and of the "Five Warriors".[48] Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum.[49][50]

Many Puranas tell Krishna's life-story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana, that contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna’s story and teachings are the most theologically venerated by the Vaishnava schools.[51] Roughly one quarter of the Bhagavata Purana is spent extolling his life and philosophy.

Life[edit]

This summary is based on details from the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana. The scenes from the narrative are set in north India mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Delhi and Gujarat.Based on scriptural details and astrological calculations, the date of Krishna's birth, known as Janmashtami,[52] is 18 July 3228 BCE.[53] He was born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva,[54][55] When Mother Earth became upset by the sin being committed on Earth, she thought of seeking help from Lord Vishnu. She went in the form of a cow to visit Lord Vishnu and ask for help. Lord Vishnu agreed to help her and promised her that he would be born on Earth. On Earth in the Yadava clan, he was yadav according to his birth, a prince named Kansa sent his father Ugrasena (King of Mathura) to prison and became the King himself. One day a loud voice from the sky (Akash Vani in Hindi) prophesied that the 8th son of Kansa's sister (Devaki) would kill Kansa. Out of affection for Devaki, Kansa did not kill her outright. He did, however, send his sister and her husband (Vasudeva) to prison. Lord Vishnu himself later appeared to Devaki and Vasudeva and told them that he himself would be their eighth son and kill Kansa and destroy sin in the world. In the story of Krishna the deity is the agent of conception and also the offspring.[citation needed] Because of his sympathy for the earth, the divine Vishnu himself descended into the womb of Devaki and was born as her son, Vaasudeva (i.e., Krishna).[citation needed] This is occasionally cited as evidence that "virgin birth" tales are fairly common in non-Christian religions around the world.[56][57][58] However, there is nothing in Hindu scriptures to suggest that it was a "virgin" birth. By the time of conception and birth of Krishna, Devaki was married to Vasudeva and had already borne 7 children.[59] Virgin birth in this case should be more accurately understood as divine conception. Kunti the mother of the Pandavas referenced contemporaneously with the story of Krishna in the Mahabharata also has divine conception and virgin birth of Prince Karna.

The Hindu Vishnu Purana relates: "Devaki bore in her womb the lotus-eyed deity...before the birth of Krishna, no one could bear to gaze upon Devaki, from the light that invested her, and those who contemplated her radiance felt their minds disturbed.” This reference to light is reminiscent of the Vedic hymn "To an Unknown Divine," which refers to a Golden Child. According to F. M. Müller, this term means "the golden gem of child" and is an attempt at naming the sun. According to the Vishnu Purana, Krishna is the total incarnation of Lord Vishnu. It clearly describes in the Vishnu Purana that Krishna was born on earth to destroy sin, especially Kansa.

Krishna belonged to the Vrishni clan of Yadavas from Mathura,[60] and was the eighth son born to the princess Devaki, and her husband Vasudeva.

Mathura (in present day Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh) was the capital of the Yadavas, to which Krishna's parents Vasudeva and Devaki belonged. King Kansa, Devaki's brother,[61] had ascended the throne by imprisoning his father, King Ugrasena. Afraid of a prophecy from a divine voice from the heavens that predicted his death at the hands of Devaki's eighth "garbha", Kansa had the couple locked in a prison cell. After Kansa killed the first six children, Devaki apparently had a miscarriage of the seventh. However, in reality, the womb was actually transferred to Rohini secretly. This was how Balarama, Krishna's elder brother, was born. Once again Devaki became pregnant. Now due to the miscarriage, Kansa was in a puzzle regarding 'The Eighth One', but his ministers advised that the divine voice from the heavens emphasised "the eight garbha" and so this is the one. That night Krishna was born in the Abhijit nakshatra and simultanously Ekanamsha was born as Yogamaya in Gokulam to Nanda and Yashoda.

Since Vasudeva knew Krishna's life was in danger, Krishna was secretly taken out of the prison cell to be raised by his foster parents, Yasoda[62] and Nanda, in Gokula (in present day Mathura district). Two of his other siblings also survived, Balarama (Devaki's seventh child, transferred to the womb of Rohini, Vasudeva's first wife) and Subhadra (daughter of Vasudeva and Rohini, born much later than Balarama and Krishna)Nanda was the head of a community of cow-herders, and he settled in Vrindavana. The stories of Krishna's childhood and youth tell how he became a cow herder,[64] his mischievous pranks as Makhan Chor (butter thief) his foiling of attempts to take his life, and his role as a protector of the people of Vrindavana.

Krishna killed the demoness Putana, disguised as a wet nurse, and the tornado demon Trinavarta both sent by Kamsa for Krishna's life. He tamed the serpent Kaliya, who previously poisoned the waters of Yamuna river, thus leading to the death of the cowherds. In Hindu art, Krishna is often depicted dancing on the multi-hooded Kaliya.

Krishna lifted the Govardhana hill and taught Indra, the king of the devas, a lesson to protect native people of Brindavana from persecution by Indra and prevent the devastation of the pasture land of Govardhan. Indra had too much pride and was angry when Krishna advised the people of Brindavana to take care of their animals and their environment that provide them with all their necessities, instead of worshipping Indra annually by spending their resources.[65][66] In the view of some, the spiritual movement started by Krishna had something in it which went against the orthodox forms of worship of the Vedic gods such as Indra.[67] In Bhagavat Purana, Krishna says that the rain came from the nearby hill Govardhana, and advised that the people worshiped the hill instead of Indra. This made Indra furious, so he punished them by sending out a great storm. Krishna then lifted Govardhan and held it over the people like an umbrella.

The stories of his play with the gopis (milkmaids) of Brindavana, especially Radha (daughter of Vrishbhanu, one of the original residents of Brindavan) became known as the Rasa lila and were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. These became important as part of the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna.[68]

Krishna’s childhood reinforces the Hindu concept of lila, playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or Rasa-lila is a great example of this. Krishna played his flute and the gopis came immediately from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the Yamuna River, and joined him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there joined him through meditation.[69] The story of Krishna’s battle with Kaliya also supports this idea in the sense of him dancing on Kaliya’s many hoods. Even though he is doing battle with the serpent, he is in no real danger and treats it like a game. He is a protector, but he only appears to be a young boy having fun.[70] This idea of having a playful god is very important in Hinduism. The playfulness of Krishna has inspired many celebrations like the Rasa-lila and the Janmashtami : where they make human pyramids to break open handis (clay pots) hung high in the air that spill buttermilk all over the group after being broken by the person at the top. This is meant to be a fun celebration and it gives the participants a sense of unity. Many believe that lila being connected with Krishna gives Hindus a deeper connection to him and thus a deeper connection to Vishnu also; seeing as Krishna is an incarnation of Vishnu. Theologists, like Kristin Johnston Largen, believe that Krishna’s childhood can even inspire other religions to look for lila in deities so that they have a chance to experience a part of their faith that they may not have previously seen.On his return to Mathura as a young man, Krishna overthrew and killed his maternal uncle, Kansa, after quelling several assassination attempts from Kansa's followers. He reinstated Kansa's father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and became a leading prince at the court.[73] During this period, he became a friend of Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom, who were his cousins. Later, he took his Yadava subjects to the city of Dwaraka (in modern Gujarat) and established his own kingdom there.[74]

Krishna married Rukmini, the Vidarbha princess, by abducting her, at her request, from her proposed wedding with Shishupala. He married eight queens—collectively called the Ashtabharya—including Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti, Bhadra and Lakshmana.[75][76] Krishna subsequently married 16,000 or 16,100 maidens who were held captive by the demon Narakasura, to save their honour.[77][78] Krishna killed the demon and released them all. According to social custom of the time, all of the captive women were degraded, and would be unable to marry, as they had been under the Narakasura's control. However Krishna married them to reinstate their status in the society. This symbolic wedding with 16,100 abandoned daughters was more of a mass rehabilitation.[79] In Vaishnava traditions, Krishna's wives are forms of the goddess Lakshmi— consort of Vishnu, or special souls who attained this qualification after many lifetimes of austerity, while his two queens, Rukmani and Satyabhama, are expansions of Lakshmi.[80]

When Yudhisthira was assuming the title of emperor, he had invited all the great kings to the ceremony and while paying his respects to them, he started with Krishna because he considered Krishna to be the greatest of them all. While it was a unanimous feeling amongst most present at the ceremony that Krishna should get the first honours, his cousin Shishupala felt otherwise and started berating Krishna. Due to a vow given to Shishupal's mother, Krishna forgave a hundred verbal abuses by Shishupal, and upon the one hundred and first, he assumed his Virat (universal) form and killed Shishupal with his Chakra. The blind king Dhritarashtra also obtained divine vision to be able to see this form of Krishna during the time when Duryodana tried to capture Krishna when he came as a peace bearer before the great Mahabharat War. Essentially, Shishupala and Dantavakra were both re-incarnations of Vishnu's gate-keepers Jaya and Vijaya, who were cursed to be born on Earth, to be delivered by the Vishnu back to Vaikuntha.Once battle seemed inevitable, Krishna offered both sides the opportunity to choose between having either his army called narayani sena or himself alone, but on the condition that he personally would not raise any weapon. Arjuna, on behalf of the Pandavas, chose to have Krishna on their side, and Duryodhana, Kaurava prince, chose Krishna's army. At the time of the great battle, Krishna acted as Arjuna's charioteer, since this position did not require the wielding of weapons.

Upon arrival at the battlefield, and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart does not allow him to fight and he would rather prefer to renounce the kingdom and put down his Gandiv (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the battle, with the conversation soon extending into a discourse which was later compiled as the Bhagavad Gita.[82]Krishna asked Arjuna, "Have you within no time, forgotten the Kauravas' evil deeds such as not accepting the eldest brother Yudhishtira as King, usurping the entire Kingdom without yielding any portion to the Pandavas, meting out insults and difficulties to Pandavas, attempt to murder the Pandavas in the Barnava lac guest house, publicly attempting to disrobe and disgracing Draupadi. Krishna further exhorted in his famous Bhagavad Gita, "Arjuna, do not engage in philosophical analyses at this point of time like a Pundit. You are aware that Duryodhana and Karna particularly have long harboured jealousy and hatred for you Pandavas and badly want to prove their hegemony. You are aware that Bhishmacharya and your Teachers are tied down to their dharma of protecting the unitarian power of the Kuru throne. Moreover, you Arjuna, are only a mortal appointee to carry out my divine will, since the Kauravas are destined to die either way, due to their heap of sins. Open your eyes O Bhaarata and know that I encompass the Karta, Karma and Kriya, all in myself. There is no scope for contemplation now or remorse later, it is indeed time for war and the world will remember your might and immense powers for time to come. So rise O Arjuna!, tighten up your Gandiva and let all directions shiver till their farthest horizons, by the reverberation of its string."Krishna had a profound effect on the Mahabharata war and its consequences. He had considered the Kurukshetra war to be a last resort after voluntarily acting as a messenger in order to establish peace between the Pandavas and Kauravas. But, once these peace negotiations failed and was embarked into the war, then he became a clever strategist. During the war, upon becoming angry with Arjuna for not fighting in true spirit against his ancestors, Krishna once picked up a carriage wheel in order to use it as a weapon to challenge Bhishma. Upon seeing this, Bhishma dropped his weapons and asked Krishna to kill him. However, Arjuna apologized to Krishna, promising that he would fight with full dedication here/after, and the battle continued. Krishna had directed Yudhisthira and Arjuna to return to Bhishma the boon of "victory" which he had given to Yudhisthira before the war commenced, since he himself was standing in their way to victory. Bhishma understood the message and told them the means through which he would drop his weapons—which was if a woman entered the battlefield. Next day, upon Krishna's directions, Shikhandi (Amba reborn) accompanied Arjuna to the battlefield and thus, Bhishma laid down his arms. This was a decisive moment in the war because Bhishma was the chief commander of the Kaurava army and the most formidable warrior on the battlefield. Krishna aided Arjuna in killing Jayadratha, who had held the other four Pandava brothers at bay while Arjuna's son Abhimanyu entered Drona's Chakravyuha formation—an effort in which he was killed by the simultaneous attack of eight Kaurava warriors. Krishna also caused the downfall of Drona, when he signalled Bhima to kill an elephant called Ashwatthama, the namesake of Drona's son. Pandavas started shouting that Ashwatthama was dead but Drona refused to believe them saying he would believe it only if he heard it from Yudhisthira. Krishna knew that Yudhisthira would never tell a lie, so he devised a clever ploy so that Yudhisthira wouldn't lie and at the same time Drona would be convinced of his son's death. On asked by Drona, Yudhisthira proclaimed

Ashwathama Hatahath, naro va Kunjaro va

i.e. Ashwathama had died but he was nor sure whether it was a Drona's son or an elephant. But as soon as Yudhisthira had uttered the first line, Pandava army on Krishna's direction broke into celebration with drums and conchs, in the din of which Drona could not hear the second part of the Yudhisthira's declaration and assumed that his son indeed was dead. Overcome with grief he laid down his arms, and on Krishna's instruction Dhrishtadyumna beheaded Drona.

When Arjuna was fighting Karna, the latter's chariot's wheels sank into the ground. While Karna was trying to take out the chariot from the grip of the Earth, Krishna reminded Arjuna how Karna and the other Kauravas had broken all rules of battle while simultaneously attacking and killing Abhimanyu, and he convinced Arjuna to do the same in revenge in order to kill Karna. During the final stage of the war, when Duryodhana was going to meet his mother Gandhari for taking her blessings which would convert all parts of his body on which her sight falls to diamond, Krishna tricks him to wearing banana leaves to hide his groin. When Duryodhana meets Gandhari, her vision and blessings fall on his entire body except his groin and thighs, and she becomes unhappy about it because she was not able to convert his entire body to diamond. When Duryodhana was in a mace-fight with Bhima, Bhima's blows had no effect on Duryodhana. Upon this, Krishna reminded Bhima of his vow to kill Duryodhana by hitting him on the thigh, and Bhima did the same to win the war despite it being against the rules of mace-fight (since Duryodhana had himself broken Dharma in all his past acts). Thus, Krishna's unparalleled strategy helped the Pandavas win the Mahabharata war by bringing the downfall of all the chief Kaurava warriors, without lifting any weapon. He also brought back to life Arjuna's grandson Parikshit, who had been attacked by a Brahmastra weapon from Ashwatthama while he was in his mother's womb. Parikshit became the Pandavas' successor.Krishna had eight princely wives, also known as Ashtabharya: Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Nagnajiti, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Bhadra, Lakshmana) and the other 16,100 or 16,000 (number varies in scriptures), who were rescued from Narakasura. They had been forcibly kept in his palace and after Krishna had killed Narakasura, he rescued these women and freed them. Krishna married them all to save them from destruction and infamity. He gave them shelter in his new palace and a respectful place in society. The chief amongst them is Rohini.

The Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Harivamsa list the children of Krishna from the Ashtabharya with some variation; while Rohini's sons are interpreted to represent the unnumbered children of his junior wives. Most well-known among his sons are Pradyumna, the eldest son of Krishna (and Rukmini) and Samba, the son of Jambavati, whose actions led to the destruction of Krishna's clan.According to Mahabharata, the Kurukshetra war resulted in the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. On the night before Duryodhana's death, Lord Krishna visited Gandhari to offer his condolences. Gandhari felt that Krishna knowingly did not put an end to the war, and in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari cursed that Krishna, along with everyone else from the Yadu dynasty, would perish after 36 years. Krishna himself knew and wanted this to happen as he felt that the Yadavas had become very haughty and arrogant (adharmi), so he ended Gandhari's speech by saying "tathastu" (so be it).[83][84][85]

After 36 years passed, a fight broke out between the Yadavas, at a festival, who killed each other. His elder brother, Balarama, then gave up his body using Yoga. Krishna retired into the forest and started meditating under a tree. The Mahabharata also narrates the story of a hunter who becomes an instrument for Krishna's departure from the world. The hunter Jara, mistook Krishna's partly visible left foot for that of a deer, and shot an arrow, wounding him mortally. After he realised the mistake, While still bleeding, Krishna told Jara, "O Jara, you were Bali in your previous birth, killed by myself as Rama in Tretayuga. Here you had a chance to even it and since all acts in this world are done as desired by me, you need not worry for this". Then Krishna, with his physical body[86] ascended back to his eternal abode, Goloka vrindavan and this event marks departure of Krishna from the earth.[87][88][89] The news was conveyed to Hastinapur and Dwaraka by eyewitnesses to this event.[86] The place of this incident is believed to be Bhalka, near Somnath temple.[90][91]

According to Puranic sources,[92] Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[7] Vaishnava teachers such as Ramanujacharya and Gaudiya Vaishnavas held the view that the body of Krishna is completely spiritual and never decays (Achyuta) as this appears to be the perspective of the Bhagavata Purana. Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) exhorted, "Krishna Naama Sankirtan" i.e. the constant chanting of the Krishna's name is the supreme healer in Kali Yuga. It destroys sins and purifies the hearts through Bhakti ensures universal peace.

Krishna never appears to grow old or age at all in the historical depictions of the Puranas despite passing of several decades, but there are grounds for a debate whether this indicates that he has no material body, since battles and other descriptions of the Mahabharata epic show clear indications that he seems to be subject to the limitations of nature.[93] While battles apparently seem to indicate limitations, Mahabharata also shows in many places where Krishna is not subject to any limitations as through episodes Duryodhana trying to arrest Krishna where his body burst into fire showing all creation within him.[94] Krishna is also explicitly described as without deterioration elsewhere.[95]The worship of Krishna is part of Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu as the Supreme God and venerates His associated avatars, their consorts, and related saints and teachers. Krishna is especially looked upon as a full manifestation of Vishnu, and as one with Vishnu himself.[96] However the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,[97] where Krishna is sometimes considered an independent deity, supreme in his own right.[98] Out of many deities, Krishna is particularly important, and traditions of Vaishnava lines are generally centered either on Vishnu or on Krishna, as supreme. The term Krishnaism has been used to describe the sects of Krishna, reserving the term "Vaishnavism" for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an avatar, rather than as a transcendent Supreme Being.[99]

All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu; while traditions, such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism,[100][101] Vallabha Sampradaya and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, regard Krishna as the Svayam Bhagavan, original form of God.[102][103][104][105][106] Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala of late Vedic period.[107] Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.[108]The deity Krishna-Vasudeva (k???a vasudeva "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism.[8][39] It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of the worship of Krishna in antiquity.[9][109] This tradition is considered as earliest to other traditions that led to amalgamation at a later stage of the historical development. Other traditions are Bhagavatism and the cult of Gopala, that along with the cult of Bala Krishna form the basis of current tradition of monotheistic religion of Krishna.[110][111] Some early scholars would equate it with Bhagavatism,[9] and the founder of this religious tradition is believed to be Krishna, who is the son of Vasudeva, thus his name is Vasudeva; he is said to be historically part of the Satvata tribe, and according to them his followers called themselves Bhagavatas and this religion had formed by the 2nd century BC (the time of Patanjali), or as early as the 4th century BC according to evidence in Megasthenes and in the Arthasastra of Kautilya, when Vasudeva was worshiped as supreme deity in a strongly monotheistic format, where the supreme being was perfect, eternal and full of grace.[9] In many sources outside of the cult, the devotee or bhakta is defined as Vasudevaka.[112] The Harivamsa describes intricate relationships between Krishna Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha that would later form a Vaishnava concept of primary quadrupled expansion, or avatar.[113]

Bhakti tradition[edit]

Main article: Bhakti yoga

Bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotional and ecstatic aspects of Hindu religion, particularly among the Vaishnava sects.[100][114] Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of lila, meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the Universe. The lilas of Krishna, with their expressions of personal love that transcend the boundaries of formal reverence, serve as a counterpoint to the actions of another avatar of Vishnu: Rama, "He of the straight and narrow path of maryada, or rules and regulations."[101]

The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil country.[115] A major collection of their works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre.[116][117] [118] Kulasekaraazhvaar's Mukundamala was another notable work of this early stage.

Spread of the Krishna-bhakti movement[edit]

The movement, which started in the 6th-7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs. The religion of Alvar poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions. The movement originated in South India during the seventh-century CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the fifteenth century, it was established in Bengal and northern India[119]While the learned sections of the society well versed in Sanskrit could enjoy works like Gita Govinda or Bilvamangala's Krishna-Karnamritam, the masses sang the songs of the devotee-poets, who composed in the regional languages of India. These songs expressing intense personal devotion were written by devotees from all walks of life. The songs of Meera and Surdas became epitomes of Krishna-devotion in north India.These devotee-poets, like the Alvars before them, were aligned to specific theological schools only loosely, if at all. But by the 11th century AD, Vaishnava Bhakti schools with elaborate theological frameworks around the worship of Krishna were established in north India. Nimbarka (11th century AD), Vallabhacharya (15th century AD) and (Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) (16th century AD) all inspired by the teachings of Madhvacharya (11th century AD) were the founders of the most influential schools. These schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya and Gaudiya Vaishnavism respectively, see Krishna as the supreme God, rather than an avatar, as generally seen.

In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Varkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba,[29] a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century.[6] In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti named Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.[114]In 1965, the Krishna-bhakti movement had spread outside India when its founder, Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, (who was instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) traveled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of the saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In an effort to gain attention, followers chanted the names of God in public locations. This chanting was known as hari-nama sankirtana and helped spread the teaching. Additionally, the practice of distributing prasad or “sanctified food” worked as a catalyst in the dissemination of his works. In the Hare Krishna movement, Prasad was a vegetarian dish that would be first offered to Krishna. The food’s proximity to Krishna added a “spiritual effect,” and was seen to “counteract material contamination affecting the soul.” Sharing this sanctified food with the public, in turn, enabled the movement to gain new recruits and further spread these teachings.[10][120][121]In South India, Vaishnavas usually belong to the Sri Sampradaya[citation needed]. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya have written reverentially about Krishna in most of their works like the Thiruppavai by Andal[122] and Gopala Vimshati by Vedanta Desika.[123] In South India, devotion to Krishna, as an avatar of Vishnu, spread in the face of opposition to Buddhism, Shaktism, and Shaivism and ritualistic Vedic sacrifices. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya like Manavala Mamunigal, Vedanta Desika strongly advocated surrender to Vishnu as the aim of the Vedas. Out of 108 Divya Desams there are 97 Divya Desams in South India.While discussing the origin of Indian theatre, Horwitz talks about the mention of the Krishna story in Patanjali's Mahabhashya (c. 150 BC), where the episodes of slaying of Kamsa (Kamsa Vadha) and "Binding of the heaven storming titan" (Bali Bandha) are described.[124] Bhasa's Balacharitam and Dutavakyam (c. 400 BC) are the only Sanskrit plays centered on Krishna written by a major classical dramatist. The former dwells only on his childhood exploits and the latter is a one-act play based on a single episode from the Mahabharata when Krishna tries to make peace between the warring cousins.[125]

From the 10th century AD, with the growing bhakti movement, Krishna became a favorite subject of the arts. The songs of the Gita Govinda became popular across India, and had many imitations. The songs composed by the Bhakti poets added to the repository of both folk and classical singing.

The classical Indian dances, especially Odissi and Manipuri, draw heavily on the story. The 'Rasa lila' dances performed in Vrindavan shares elements with Kathak, and the Krisnattam, with some cycles, such as Krishnattam, traditionally restricted to the Guruvayur temple, the precursor of Kathakali.[126]

The Sattriya dance, founded by the Assamese Vaishnava saint Sankardeva, extols the virtues of Krishna. Medieval Maharashtra gave birth to a form of storytelling known as the Hari-Katha, that told Vaishnava tales and teachings through music, dance, and narrative sequences, and the story of Krishna one of them. This tradition spread to Tamil Nadu and other southern states, and is now popular in many places throughout India.

Narayana Tirtha's (17th century AD) Krishna-Lila-Tarangini provided material for the musical plays of the Bhagavata-Mela by telling the tale of Krishna from birth until his marriage to Rukmini. Tyagaraja (18th century AD) wrote a similar piece about Krishna called Nauka-Charitam. The narratives of Krishna from the Puranas are performed in Yakshagana, a performance style native to Karnataka's coastal districts. Many movies in all Indian languages have been made based on these stories. These are of varying quality and usually add various songs, melodrama, and special effects.

In other religions[edit]

Jainism[edit]

Further information: Salakapurusa

The most exalted figures in Jainism are the twenty-four Tirthankaras. Krishna, when he was incorporated into the Jain list of heroic figures, presented a problem with his activities which are not pacifist. The concept of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prati-Vasudeva was used to solve it.[neutrality is disputed] The Jain list of sixty-three Shalakapurshas or notable figures includes, amongst others, the twenty-four Tirthankaras and nine sets of this triad. One of these triads is Krishna as the Vasudeva, Balarama as the Baladeva and Jarasandha as the Prati-Vasudeva. He was a cousin of the twenty-second Tirthankara, Neminatha. The stories of these triads can be found in the Harivamsha of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to Mahabharata) and the Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita of Hemachandra.[127]

In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a Vasudeva with an elder brother termed the Baladeva. The villain is the Prati-vasudeva. Baladeva is the upholder of the Jain principle of non-violence. However, Vasudeva has to forsake this principle to kill the Prati-Vasudeva and save the world. [128][129]The story of Krishna occurs in the Jataka tales in Buddhism,[130] in the Vaibhav Jataka as a prince and legendary conqueror and king of India.[131] In the Buddhist version, Krishna is called Vasudeva, Kanha and Keshava, and Balarama is his older brother, Baladeva. These details resemble that of the story given in the Bhagavata Purana. Vasudeva, along with his nine other brothers (each son a powerful wrestler) and one elder sister (Anjana) capture all of Jambudvipa (many consider this to be India) after beheading their evil uncle, King Kamsa, and later all other kings of Jambudvipa with his Sudarshana Chakra. Much of the story involving the defeat of Kamsa follows the story given in the Bhagavata Purana.[132]

As depicted in the Mahabharata, all of the sons are eventually killed due to a curse of sage Kanhadipayana (Veda Vyasa, also known as Krishna Dwaipayana). Krishna himself is eventually speared by a hunter in the foot by mistake, leaving the sole survivor of their family being their sister, Anjanadevi of whom no further mention is made.[133]

Since Jataka tales are given from the perspective of Buddha's previous lives (as well as the previous lives of many of Buddha's followers), Krishna appears as the "Dhammasenapati" or "Chief General of the Dharma" and is usually shown being Buddha's "right-hand man" in Buddhist art and iconography.[134] The Bodhisattva, is born in this tale as one of his youngest brothers named Ghatapandita, and saves Krishna from the grief of losing his son.[131] The 'divine boy' Krishna as an embodiment of wisdom and endearing prankster forms a part of the pantheon of gods in Japanese Buddhism .[135]Bahá'ís believe that Krishna was a "Manifestation of God", or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Muhammad, Jesus, the Báb, and the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh.[Members of the Ahmadiyya Community believe Krishna to be a great prophet of God as described by their founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. This belief is maintained by the Qur'anic Principle that God has sent prophets and messengers to every nation of the world leaving no region without divine guidance (see for instance Quran 10:47 and Quran 16:36).

Ghulam Ahmad also claimed to be the likeness of Krishna as a latter day reviver of religion and morality whose mission was to reconcile man with God.[138] Ahmadis maintain that the Sanskrit term Avatar is synonymous with the term 'prophet' of the Middle Eastern religious tradition as God's intervention with man; as God appoints a man as his vicegerent upon earth. In Lecture Sialkot, Ghulam Ahmed wrote:

Let it be clear that Raja Krishna, according to what has been revealed to me, was such a truly great man that it is hard to find his like among the Rishis and Avatars of the Hindus. He was an Avatar—i.e., Prophet—of his time upon whom the Holy Spirit would descend from God. He was from God, victorious and prosperous. He cleansed the land of the Aryas from sin and was in fact the Prophet of his age whose teaching was later corrupted in numerous ways. He was full of love for God, a friend of virtue and an enemy of evil.[138]

Krishna is also called Murli Dhar. The flute of Krishna means the flute of revelation and not the physical flute. Krishna lived like humans and he was a prophet.[139][140]Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several new religious movements since the 19th century and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in occult texts, along with Greek, Buddhist, biblical and even historical figures.[141] For instance, Édouard Schuré, an influential figure in perennial philosophy and occult movements, considered Krishna a Great Initiate; while Theosophists regard Krishna as an incarnation of Maitreya (one of the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom), the most important spiritual teacher for humanity along with Buddha