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X Russe ( nord). fin du 16è. Nativité de la Vierge ( protoévangile de Jacques) Sainte Anne, Saint Joachim. La Vierge est dans les bras d'une servante. Paris. Petit Palais
Russian X (north). late 16th. Nativity of the Virgin (protoévangile of Jacques) Sainte Anne, St. Joachim. Virgo is in the arms of a servant. Paris Petit Palais
Art Siennois ou art Greco-Byzantin : Des arts à propos desquels on peut à l'évidence parler de "cloisonnisme", de "synthétisme" et de couleurs pures.
Sienese art or art Greco-Byzantine: The arts about which one can clearly speak of "Cloisonnism" to "synthetism" and pure colors.
A propos de Derain (Cyprès à cassis) la notice du musée de Grenoble observe : “une construction spatiale par le seul moyen de la couleur...aucun modelé aucune ombre ne viennent souligner les formes qui acquièrent de ce fait une stylisation et une géométrisation qui annoncent le cubisme”.
A propos de Marquet (la Citadelle à Tanger) “Marquet construit l'espace par le seul jeu de la couleur”
Oui. Tout à fait exact. Mais : Outre les fresques romanes et l'art byzantin, c'est très exactement ce que l'on voit chez : Agnolo Gaddi (1350-1396) Gentile da Fabriano (1370-1427), les frères Lorenzetti (14è siècle) Taddeo di Bartolo (1362-1422) Paolo Uccello (1397-1475), Sano di Pietro (1405-1481) Multscher (1400-1467) Giovanni di Paolo(1400-1482) Geertgen tot Sint Jens (1460-1490) et même chez Cranach l'Ancien (1472-1553).
Le cloisonnisme, le synthétisme, le cubisme, les couleurs pures sont partout dans l'Art Siennois, et dans tout l'art européen entre 400 et 1500 et même encore après, particulièrement dans l'est de l'Europe. Ce rapprochement n'est pourtant jamais, ou très rarement, fait. Peut être dans des ouvrages pour spécialistes, auxquels je n'ai pas accès. Mais pas dans des ouvrages pour le grand public, dont je suis. Par contre avec l'art musulman ou l'art africain, sans arrêt. La preuve: le livre du musée de Grenoble contient, au moins, deux mentions de l'art musulman et de l'art africain comme étant aux origines de l'Art Moderne (Derain, “Cyprès à Cassis” et Matisse “la petite mulâtresse). Mais aucune mention de l'art siennois. Et ce n'est pas un cas unique, c'est la règle. Pourquoi ? La réponse est toute simple, et une fois de plus c'est l'idéologie qui est la cause de ce travestissement de l'histoire. Il était inacceptable que les historiens de l'époque des “Lumières” enseignent que les sources esthétiques et techniques de l'Art Moderne pouvaient être à rechercher dans les temps obscurs où sévissait la religion catholique – l'Infâme- ou celle orthodoxe, tout aussi obscurantiste. Donc l'histoire de l'art officielle est allée chercher l'art africain et l'art musulman pour servir de sources idéologiquement plus correctes ! Un peu l'art Japonais, mais moins, ce n'était pas aussi idéologiquement conforme !C'est ainsi que l'on ne nous a pas appris à voir ces rapprochements, et même, que l'on nous a appris à ne pas les voir, ni les dire ou encore moins les écrire. Il ne faut pas en vouloir aux historiens, ils sont contraints, sous la surveillance aussi de leurs chers collègues, qui guettent leur poste, d'enseigner l'histoire correcte à l'époque où ils vivent.
About Derain (Cypress in cassis) the book of the Museum of Grenoble observes: "a space construction by the sole means of color... no model no shadow come stress forms who acquire thereby a stylization and a geometry that advertise Cubism".
About Marquet (Citadel in Tangier) "Marquet space built by the only color game"
Cloisonnism and Synthetism, Cubism, pure colors are all over in Sienese art, and throughout the European art between 400 and 1500 and even after, especially in eastern Europe. This rapprochement is however never, or very rarely done. May be in the works for specialists, which I do not have access. But not in books for the general public, including myself. By cons with Muslim art or African art, constantly. The proof: the book of the museum of Grenoble contains at least two mentions of Muslim art and of African art as to the origins of Modern Art (Derain, "Cypress Cassis" and Matisse "small mulatto). But no mention of Sienese art. And this is not unique, it is the rule.
Why ? The answer is simple, and once again it is the ideology that is the cause of this travesty of history. It was inconceivable that historians of the era of "Enlightenment" teach that the aesthetic and technical sources of Modern Art could be sought in the dark days when the Catholic religion reigned - the Infâme-, or the Orthodox, while as obscurantist. So the official history of art is gone to fetch African art and Islamic art to serve as ideologically more correct sources! A little Japanese art, but least it was not as ideologically compliant! Thus we has not taught us to see these connections, and even, as we were taught not to see, or say, or even less write them. We must not blame the historians, they are forced, as in the surveillance of their colleagues, who watch their posts, to teach the correct history at the time that they live.
Da ragazzo, tra gli altri sport praticati, giocavo a pallavolo…
Discretamente, come il tratto che regola tutti gli aspetti della mia vita; senza panegirico.
Eravamo una decina di scalmanati ragazzi cresciuti assieme accomunati dalla passione per questo sport, avevamo messo insieme questa squadretta e ci barcamenavamo tra sconfitte e vittorie nei campionati provinciali di prima divisione.
In campo, supportati dall’incoscienza dell’età (potevamo avere grossomodo 18 anni) e da un
po’ di fanciullesca demenza non eravamo proprio un esempio di correttezza…
Succedeva ad esempio che “sotto rete” avessimo, come dire, un vasto campionario di infamie da ostentare ai nostri di volta in volta ignari avversari.
Non perché l’esito della partita lo richiedesse o perché avevamo in odio qualcuno di particolare, ma proprio gratis, per l’univoco fatto di essere placidamente dei “cazzoni”…
Si poteva ad esempio dire a qualcuno che aveva le stringhe delle scarpe sciolte, per distrarlo giusto un attimo prima che cominciasse l’azione, oppure provocarlo dicendo che tanto alla fine avremmo vinto noi, tenerlo per la maglia senza essere visti, anche cercare di distrarli con “sorrisi ambigui” (una tattica tra le più divertenti per cui certi di noi si ingegnavano in trovate di volta in volta più audaci e più ridicole…), cose così…
Eravamo dei furfanti patentati…
Unico che si distingueva tra la massa, un po’ per i suoi meriti sportivi (aveva giocato a Todi, in una categoria di molto superiore alla nostra nel periodo della leva) ed un po’ perché leggermente più grande di noi ed in quanto tale più maturo, era Gianni.
Quel giorno giocavamo una partita piuttosto importante contro una squadra con la quale era in auge da sempre una certa rivalità derivante dalla vicinanza geografica dei rispettivi paeselli…
Eravamo sull’uno pari e, dopo un terzo set tiratissimo e punto punto eravamo sul 14 a 13 per loro palla in mano: set ball! (allora i set terminavano a 15…)
Dopo la loro battuta prende vita uno scambio di quelli leggendari che non vorresti mai perdere perché il loro valore và di molto oltre quello del singolo punto, perché vincerlo “gasa”…
Uno dei loro elementi più forti si alza e tira una “bomba” di quelle che ti piegano le mani e nel ricadere però, appoggia male un piede e si fa male in modo palesemente grave al ginocchio che esce di sede in una posizione del tutto anormale tra le sue grida di dolore e le facce schifate degli astanti.
Da questa parte del campo invece, riusciamo a difendere la sua schiacciata e ad appoggiarla al nostro alzatore che, avendo Gianni in prima linea, pensa bene di mettergli una palla alta che lui è bravissimo a gestire.
Dall’altra parte della rete nel frattempo sono tutti fermi, incettati dalle sorti del loro compagno.
Gianni non deve far altro che alzarsi in un balzo ed accompagnare la palla di là per il più facile dei punti…
Invece lui, resosi conto della situazione, quando è al massimo del suo salto, ed avendo a disposizione tutte le soluzioni possibili, afferra la palla tra le mani ed interrompe l’azione permettendo ai sanitari della squadra avversaria l’ingresso in campo…
È un momento surreale nel quale noi non afferriamo da subito il suo gesto sincronizzati come siamo, in ritardo rispetto al normale apparire del buonsenso, la squadra avversaria non si capacita di un gesto tanto nobile e si stringe attorno al proprio capitano, e l’arbitro che vorrebbe premiare il gesto di Gianni ma alla fine assegna malvagiamente il punto ed il set alla squadra avversaria…
Pochi secondi dopo le dogane della mente di tutti emancipano il senso pratico e civico del gesto di Gianni rendendolo manifesto a tutto il palasport… ha inizio un risonante applauso.
Da quel momento per quei dieci ragazzi inizia un’altra storia, un altro modo di vedere le cose…
Barriere vengono abbattute, montagne scalate, scrigni scoperchiati, verità decrittate…tutto in pochi attimi.
Del risultato di quella partita sinceramente non ricordo, il gesto di Gianni invece rimarrà sempre un fedele compagno di viaggio, un caposaldo della mia crescita.
Se esiste una linea sottile tra la vittoria e la sconfitta, c’è anche il momento in cui si può scegliere di affrontare la seconda con classe…
Grazie Gianni.
Grazie a [paololongo48] per il titolo della foto.
Pufff, vaya día ! Madre mía del amor hermoso jaja, estoy tan sumamente agutada que no siento los pies, entre los tacones, que he estado corriendo con ellos por todas partes jugando al escondite, esa era una de mis escenas jajaja, también he tenido que llorar... Hombre se había muerto mi padre y vi a mi madre llorando eso es muy trágico, estoy hecha un cisco ... Esta es una peli de terror basada en hechos reales... Os dejo la historia de Erzebet que es un rato larga jaja yo soy la segunda hija (Úrsula) ahora si os atrevéis a leerlo jajaja l veréis
Nació en una de las familias más antiguas y adineradas de Transilvania: los Erdély. Sus padres, Anna y Jorge Báthory, eran primos. Su abuelo materno fue Esteban Báthory de Somlyó. Su tío materno fue Esteban I Báthory, príncipe de Transilvania y rey polaco entre 1575 y 1586. El escudo de armas de su familia consiste en tres dientes de jabalí de plata sobre un campo de gules. Entre el resto de familiares se encuentran un cardenal y varios príncipes. Su infancia transcurrió en el castillo de Csejte y antes de cumplir los seis años sufría ataques de lo que se puede considerar epilepsia.
A los once años fue prometida con su primo Ferenc Nádasdy, conde (anteriormente barón). A los doce empezaron a vivir juntos en el castillo de él y nunca tuvo buena relación con su suegra, Úrsula. A diferencia de lo que era propio en la época, recibió una buena educación y su cultura sobrepasaba a la de la mayoría de los hombres de entonces. Era excepcional, "hablaba perfectamente el húngaro, el latín y el alemán, mientras que la mayoría de los nobles húngaros no sabían ni deletrear ni escribir [...] hasta el Príncipe de Transilvania era prácticamente analfabeto".
Retrato de la Condesa.
A los quince años, en 1575, se casó con Ferenc, que entonces contaba 20 años de edad. La ceremonia tuvo lugar con gran lujo en el castillo de Varannó (su nombre eslovaco es Vranov nad Toplou); incluso se invitó al emperador Maximiliano II, que no pudo acudir. Fue Ferenc quien adoptó el apellido de soltera de su esposa, mucho más ilustre que el suyo. Se fueron a vivir al castillo de Čachtice, en compañía de su suegra Úrsula y otros miembros de la casa. El joven conde no pasaba mucho tiempo por allí: la mayor parte del tiempo estaba combatiendo en alguna de las muchas guerras de la zona (empalando a sus enemigos), lo que le mereció el apodo de "Caballero Negro de Hungría". Existe un registro epistolar de cómo Ferenc e Isabel intercambiaban información sobre las maneras más apropiadas de castigar a sus sirvientes, esto era normal entre los nobles de la época. Las posesiones de esta pareja de nobles húngaros eran enormes, y se requería además un férreo control sobre la población local, de origen húngaro, rumano y eslovaco.
Ferenc e Isabel apenas se veían debido a las actividades guerreras del primero, así que no fue hasta 1585, diez años después de su matrimonio, que la condesa tuvo a su primera hija, Ana, y en los nueve años siguientes dio también a luz a Úrsula y Catalina. Finalmente, en 1598, alumbró a su único hijo varón, Pablo.
En 4 de enero de 1604, el Caballero Negro de Hungría, como se conocía a Ferenc por su fiereza a la hora de combatir, murió de súbita enfermedad durante una de sus batallas y dejó viuda a Isabel, que contaba con 44 años. Es aquí cuando comienzan, según sus acusadores, sus crímenes. Para empezar, despidió a su muy odiada suegra del castillo, junto con el resto de la parentela Nádasdy; las muchachas a las que ésta protegía en esos momentos fueron llevadas a los sótanos y allí recibieron por fin los castigos que, en opinión de Isabel, se merecían.
Esto dejó a Erzsébet en una situación peculiar. Señora feudal de un importante condado de Transilvania, metida en todas las intrigas políticas de aquellos tiempos convulsos, pero sin ejército con que proteger su poderío. Por la misma época, su primo Gábor I Báthory se convirtió en Príncipe de Transilvania, con el apoyo económico de la riquísima Erzsébet. Gábor (Gabriel) se metió pronto en una guerra contra los alemanes por complejas razones políticas. Esto la ponía en peligro de ser acusada de traición por el Rey Matías II de Hungría. Viuda como era, se vio más vulnerable y aislada que nunca.
Es por esta época que empiezan a escucharse rumores de que algo muy siniestro ocurre en el castillo de Čachtice. A través de un pastor protestante local, llegan historias de que la condesa practica la brujería (explícitamente, la magia roja) y para ello utiliza la sangre de muchachas jóvenes -una típica acusación muy popular en la época, similar a las que se realizaban contra los judíos y disidentes-. Matías ordena a un primo de Isabel, el conde palatino Jorge Thurzó -enemistado con ella-, que tome el lugar con sus soldados y realice una investigación. Dado que la señora de Báthory carecía de fuerza militar propia, no hubo resistencia.
Según la investigación del conde Thurzó, hallaron en el castillo numerosas muchachas torturadas en distintos estados de desangrado, y un montón de cadáveres por los alrededores. En 1612 se inició un juicio en Bitcse (Bytča en eslovaco). Erzsébet se negó a declararse inocente o culpable, y no compareció, acogiéndose a sus derechos nobiliarios. Quienes sí lo hicieron, por la fuerza, fueron sus colaboradores. Juan Ujváry, el mayordomo (conocido como Ficzkó)3 , testificó que en su presencia se habían asesinado como mínimo a 37 "mujeres solteras" de entre once y veintiséis años; a seis de ellas las había reclutado él personalmente para trabajar en el castillo. La acusación se concentró en los asesinatos de jóvenes nobles, pues los de las siervas carecían de importancia. En la sentencia todos fueron declarados culpables, algunos de brujería, otros de asesinato y los demás de cooperación.
Todos los seguidores de Isabel, excepto las brujas, fueron decapitados y sus cadáveres quemados; éste fue el destino de su colaborador Ficzkó. A las brujas Dorotea, Helena y Piroska les arrancaron los dedos con tenazas al rojo vivo "por haberlos empapado en sangre de cristianos" y las quemaron vivas. Erzsi Majorova, una burguesa de la zona acusada de cooperación, también fue ejecutada. Katryna, que con catorce años era la más joven de las ayudantes de Erzsébet, salvó la vida por petición expresa de una superviviente, aunque recibió cien latigazos en el cuerpo.
Pero la ley impedía que Isabel, una noble, fuese procesada. Fue encerrada en su castillo. Tras introducirla en su mazmorra, los albañiles sellaron puertas y ventanas, dejando tan sólo un pequeño orificio para pasar la comida. Finalmente, el rey Matías II pidió su cabeza por las jóvenes aristócratas que supuestamente habían muerto a sus manos, pero su primo el Gran Príncipe de Transilvania, le convenció para que retrasara el cumplimiento de la sentencia de por vida. Así es que la condenaron a cadena perpetua en confinamiento solitario. Esta pena implicaba también la confiscación de todas sus propiedades, lo que Matías venía ambicionando desde tiempo atrás.
El 31 de julio de 1614, Erzsébet, de 54 años, dictó testamento y últimas voluntades a dos sacerdotes de la catedral del arzobispado de Esztergom. Ordenó que lo que quedaba de las posesiones familiares fuese dividido entre sus hijos.
El 21 de agosto de 1614, uno de los carceleros la vio caída en el suelo, boca abajo. La Condesa Isabel Báthory estaba muerta después de haber pasado cuatro largos años emparedada, sin ni siquiera ver la luz del sol. Pretendieron enterrarla en la iglesia de Čachtice, pero los habitantes locales decidieron que era una aberración que la "Señora Infame" fuera enterrada en el pueblo, y además en tierra sagrada. Finalmente, y como era "uno de los últimos descendientes de la línea Ecsed de la familia Báthory" la llevaron a enterrar al pueblo de Ecsed, en el noreste de Hungría, el lugar de procedencia de la poderosa familia. Todos sus documentos fueron sellados durante más de un siglo, y se prohibió hablar de ella en todo el país.
Dos años después, las hijas y el hijo de Isabel fueron finalmente acusados de traición por el apoyo de su madre a la guerra contra los alemanes; Anna Báthory, una prima de la condesa, llegó a sufrir tortura por este motivo en 1618, cuando contaba 24 años, pero sobrevivió. Finalmente la mayor parte de la familia Báthory-Nádasdy huyó a Polonia; algunos retornaron después de 1640. Un nieto sería ejecutado en 1671 por oponerse al emperador alemán.
la secuencia del maquillaje de Paloma en la comida de la fiesta de San Sebastián en Labuerda.
Las condiciones de luz eran infames pero a mi me gustan estas fotos por su espontaneidad
IN CUCINA
Manchi da quasi un anno... Entrare ti faceva paura...
E quando lo hai fatto, il vuoto un tempo implorante,
poi disdegnato, sùbito ti ha preso in odio
e con ostinazione esige che tu sconti
la tua presenza con la tua presenza...
Qui tutto va a tua infamia:
il linoleum, le fascine per accendere il fuoco, la mosca rinsecchita,
la muffa del pane, l'aceto forte delle crepe
e l'acetosella delle macchie e la concia del tempo rattrappito
e le ragnatele che sbavano dai roccoli degli angoli
e giù giù il silenzio, dove brilla
solo nel fondo, proprio lì, la luna...
Ma in mezzo a tutte queste cose (con crudele
certezza, con la più comune e dunque più segreta
e come perpetua certezza) scorgi all'improvviso
una tazza da caffè con tracce di rossetto
dove per l'ultima volta, posandosi, si strinsero
le labbra di chi ti ha lasciato...
Vladimír Holan
Quelques-uns de mes poèmes préférés :
L'horloge
Horloge ! dieu sinistre, effrayant, impassible,
Dont le doigt nous menace et nous dit : " Souviens-toi !
Les vibrantes Douleurs dans ton coeur plein d'effroi
Se planteront bientôt comme dans une cible,
Le plaisir vaporeux fuira vers l'horizon
Ainsi qu'une sylphide au fond de la coulisse ;
Chaque instant te dévore un morceau du délice
A chaque homme accordé pour toute sa saison.
Trois mille six cents fois par heure, la Seconde
Chuchote : Souviens-toi ! - Rapide, avec sa voix
D'insecte, Maintenant dit : Je suis Autrefois,
Et j'ai pompé ta vie avec ma trompe immonde !
Remember ! Souviens-toi, prodigue ! Esto memor !
(Mon gosier de métal parle toutes les langues.)
Les minutes, mortel folâtre, sont des gangues
Qu'il ne faut pas lâcher sans en extraire l'or !
Souviens-toi que le Temps est un joueur avide
Qui gagne sans tricher, à tout coup ! c'est la loi.
Le jour décroît ; la nuit augmente, souviens-toi !
Le gouffre a toujours soif ; la clepsydre se vide.
Tantôt sonnera l'heure où le divin Hasard,
Où l'auguste Vertu, ton épouse encor vierge,
Où le repentir même (oh ! la dernière auberge !),
Où tout te dira : Meurs, vieux lâche ! il est trop tard ! "
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Enivrez-vous
Il faut être toujours ivre, tout est là ; c'est l'unique question. Pour ne pas sentir l'horrible fardeau du temps qui brise vos épaules et vous penche vers la terre, il faut vous enivrer sans trêve.
Mais de quoi ? De vin, de poésie, ou de vertu à votre guise, mais enivrez-vous !
Et si quelquefois, sur les marches d'un palais, sur l'herbe verte d'un fossé, vous vous réveillez, l'ivresse déjà diminuée ou disparue, demandez au vent, à la vague, à l'étoile, à l'oiseau, à l'horloge; à tout ce qui fuit, à tout ce qui gémit, à tout ce qui roule, à tout ce qui chante, à tout ce qui parle, demandez quelle heure il est. Et le vent, la vague, l'étoile, l'oiseau, l'horloge, vous répondront, il est l'heure de s'enivrer ; pour ne pas être les esclaves martyrisés du temps, enivrez-vous, enivrez-vous sans cesse de vin, de poésie, de vertu, à votre guise.
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Une charogne
Rappelez-vous l'objet que nous vîmes, mon âme,
Ce beau matin d'été si doux :
Au détour d'un sentier une charogne infâme
Sur un lit semé de cailloux,
Les jambes en l'air, comme une femme lubrique,
Brûlante et suant les poisons,
Ouvrait d'une façon nonchalante et cynique
Son ventre plein d'exhalaisons.
Le soleil rayonnait sur cette pourriture,
Comme afin de la cuire à point,
Et de rendre au centuple à la grande Nature
Tout ce qu'ensemble elle avait joint ;
Et le ciel regardait la carcasse superbe
Comme une fleur s'épanouir.
La puanteur était si forte, que sur l'herbe
Vous crûtes vous évanouir.
Les mouches bourdonnaient sur ce ventre putride,
D'où sortaient de noirs bataillons
De larves, qui coulaient comme un épais liquide
Le long de ces vivants haillons.
Tout cela descendait, montait comme une vague,
Ou s'élançait en pétillant ;
On eût dit que le corps, enflé d'un souffle vague,
Vivait en se multipliant.
Et ce monde rendait une étrange musique,
Comme l'eau courante et le vent,
Ou le grain qu'un vanneur d'un mouvement rythmique
Agite et tourne dans son van.
Les formes s'effaçaient et n'étaient plus qu'un rêve,
Une ébauche lente à venir,
Sur la toile oubliée, et que l'artiste achève
Seulement par le souvenir.
Derrière les rochers une chienne inquiète
Nous regardait d'un oeil fâché,
Epiant le moment de reprendre au squelette
Le morceau qu'elle avait lâché.
- Et pourtant vous serez semblable à cette ordure,
A cette horrible infection,
Etoile de mes yeux, soleil de ma nature,
Vous, mon ange et ma passion !
Oui ! telle vous serez, ô la reine des grâces,
Après les derniers sacrements,
Quand vous irez, sous l'herbe et les floraisons grasses,
Moisir parmi les ossements.
Alors, ô ma beauté ! dites à la vermine
Qui vous mangera de baisers,
Que j'ai gardé la forme et l'essence divine
De mes amours décomposés !
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L'albatros
Souvent, pour s'amuser, les hommes d'équipage
Prennent des albatros, vastes oiseaux des mers,
Qui suivent, indolents compagnons de voyage,
Le navire glissant sur les gouffres amers.
A peine les ont-ils déposés sur les planches,
Que ces rois de l'azur, maladroits et honteux,
Laissent piteusement leurs grandes ailes blanches
Comme des avirons traîner à côté d'eux.
Ce voyageur ailé, comme il est gauche et veule !
Lui, naguère si beau, qu'il est comique et laid !
L'un agace son bec avec un brûle-gueule,
L'autre mime, en boitant, l'infirme qui volait !
Le Poète est semblable au prince des nuées
Qui hante la tempête et se rit de l'archer ;
Exilé sur le sol au milieu des huées,
Ses ailes de géant l'empêchent de marcher.
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Recueillement
Sois sage, ô ma Douleur, et tiens-toi plus tranquille.
Tu réclamais le Soir ; il descend ; le voici :
Une atmosphère obscure enveloppe la ville,
Aux uns portant la paix, aux autres le souci.
Pendant que des mortels la multitude vile,
Sous le fouet du Plaisir, ce bourreau sans merci,
Va cueillir des remords dans la fête servile,
Ma douleur, donne-moi la main ; viens par ici,
Loin d'eux. Vois se pencher les défuntes Années,
Sur les balcons du ciel, en robes surannées ;
Surgir du fond des eaux le Regret souriant ;
Le Soleil moribond s'endormir sous une arche,
Et, comme un long linceul traînant à l'Orient,
Entends, ma chère, entends la douce Nuit qui marche.
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Vivo en la ciudad mas infame, defome y carente de gracia del planeta... pero eso lo dicen todos, así que no me creas.
" L'abitudine è la più infame delle malattie perché ci fa accettare qualsiasi disgrazia, qualsiasi dolore, qualsiasi morte. (...) La sera in cui avevi rinunciato a tentare di nuovo la fuga era successo ben questo. Era successo cioè quel che non avresti mai creduto possibile: gli spazi aperti e il verde e l'azzurro e la gente non ti mancavano più. (...) E tuttavia esisteva qualcosa che l'abitudine al buio, alla mancanza di spazio, alla monotonia non avevano spento: la tua capacità di sognare, di fantasticare, e di tradurre in versi il dolore, la rabbia, i pensieri. Più il tuo corpo si adeguava, si atrofizzava nella pigrizia, più la tua mente resisteva e la tua immaginazione si scatenava per partorire poesie. Avevi sempre scritto poesie, fin da ragazzo, ma fu in quel periodo che la tua vena creativa esplose: incontenibile. Decine e decine di poesie. Quasi ogni giorno una poesia, magari breve. Le scrivevi anche se Zakarakis ti sequestrava la carta e la penna, perché allora afferravi una lametta che tenevi da parte per questo, ti incidevi il polso sinistro, inzuppavi nella ferita un fiammifero o uno stecchino, e scrivevi col sangue su ciò che capitava: l'involucro di una garza, un pezzetto di stoffa, una scatola vuota di sigarette. Poi aspettavi che Zakarakis ti restituisse la carta, la penna, copiavi con calligrafia minutissima, attento a non sprecare un millimetro di spazio, piegavi il foglio ricavandone strisce sottili, e lo mandavi nel mondo a raccontare la fiaba di un uomo che neanche nell'abitudine cede. Gli stratagemmi erano vari: buttare i nastrini di carta nella spazzatura perché una guardia amica li raccogliesse, infilarli nelle cuciture dei pantaloni che mandavi a casa per lavare, farli scivolare addosso a tua madre quando veniva a trovarti. Prima però imparavi i versi a memoria, onde prevenirne lo smarrimento o la distruzione, e che battibecchi quando Zakarakis pretendeva di leggerli per censurarli o approvarli. "Dove li hai messi? Dammeli! Non lo sai che in carcere il direttore deve censurare qualsiasi scritto?" " Lo so ma non posso darteli, Zakarakis. Li ho chiusi nel mio magazzino." "Quale magazzino?! Voglio vedere il magazzino!" "Eccolo qui, Zakarakis" E indicavi la testa. " Non ci credo, fottuto bugiardo, non ci credo!" Avrebbe dovuto, al contrario, perché in quel magazzino avremmo trovato, anni dopo, tutte le poesie perdute o distrutte: per pubblicarle in un libro che molti pensavano fosse l'inizio di una carriera letteraria."
(Oriana Fallaci - Un uomo)
Martedì 16 febbraio, alle ore 20:00, le Amiche e gli Amici del “Vecchio Circolo” sono invitati per un nuovo appuntamento del Gruppo di lettura!
Gli incontri dedicati ai classici, scelti dai Soci del Circolo della Lettura "Barbara Cosentino", proseguono con un capolavoro indiscusso della letteratura russa: "Il maestro e Margherita" di Mikhail Afanas'evič Bulgakov, pubblicato postumo nel 1967, oltre venticinque anni dopo la sua travagliata stesura definitiva.
Un’opera visionaria e impietosa, permeata di satira graffiante e mistica allegoria, di certo non ortodossa, dove sentieri narrativi e livelli di lettura si stratificano in un complicato dedalo di rimandi e citazioni... Un capolavoro, appunto!
«Seguimi, lettore! Sia recisa la lingua infame al mentitore che ha negato l’esistenza di un amore autentico, fedele ed eterno sulla terra!»
3. L’enorme croce, un vero e proprio Tau di cemento armato, pur ergendosi slanciato verso l’alto, non è più il simbolo della pace e dell’armonia fra l’uomo, il creato e il Creatore. Macchiata dagli scoli delle casseforme, quasi fosse sangue, sta come uno schermo su cui si proietta l’infamia di chi perpetra un massacro, e quasi la vergogna della vittima violata e immolata.
Krishna is considered the supreme deity, worshipped across many traditions of Hinduism in a variety of different perspectives. Krishna is recognized as the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Lord Vishnu, and one and the same as Lord Vishnu one of the trimurti and as the supreme god in his own right. Krishna is the principal protagonist with Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita also known as the Song of God, which depicts the conversation between the Royal Prince Arjuna and Krishna during the great battle of Kureksetra 5000 years ago where Arjuna discovers that Krishna is God and then comprehends his nature and will for him and for mankind. In present age Krishna is one of the most widely revered and most popular of all Indian divinities.
Krishna is often described and portrayed as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a flute as in the Bhagavata Purana, or as an elder giving direction and guidance as in the Bhagavad Gita. The stories of Krishna appear across a broad spectrum of Hindu philosophical and theological traditions. They portray him in various perspectives: a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the Supreme Being. The principal scriptures discussing Krishna's story are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana.
Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga (present age), which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE. Worship of the deity Krishna, either in the form of deity Krishna or in the form of Vasudeva, Bala Krishna or Gopala can be traced to as early as 4th century BC. Worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, or the supreme being, known as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. From the 10th century AD, Krishna became a favourite subject in performing arts and regional traditions of devotion developed for forms of Krishna such as Jagannatha in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra and Shrinathji in Rajasthan. Since the 1960s the worship of Krishna has also spread in the Western world, largely due to the International Society for Krishna Consciousness.
NAMES AND EPITHETS
The name originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning "black", "dark" or "dark blue". The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha in the Vedic tradition, relating to the adjective meaning "darkening". Sometimes it is also translated as "all-attractive", according to members of the Hare Krishna movement.
As a name of Vishnu, Krishna listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama. Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in murtis as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets and titles, which reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are Mohan "enchanter", Govinda, "Finder of the cows" or Gopala, "Protector of the cows", which refer to Krishna's childhood in Braj (in present day Uttar Pradesh). Some of the distinct names may be regionally important; for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India.
ICONOGRAPHY
Krishna is easily recognized by his representations. Though his skin color may be depicted as black or dark in some representations, particularly in murtis, in other images such as modern pictorial representations, Krishna is usually shown with a blue skin. He is often shown wearing a silk dhoti and a peacock feather crown. Common depictions show him as a little boy, or as a young man in a characteristically relaxed pose, playing the flute. In this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other with a flute raised to his lips, in the Tribhanga posture, accompanied by cows, emphasizing his position as the divine herdsman, Govinda, or with the gopis (milkmaids) i.e. Gopikrishna, stealing butter from neighbouring houses i.e. Navneet Chora or Gokulakrishna, defeating the vicious serpent i.e. Kaliya Damana Krishna, lifting the hill i.e. Giridhara Krishna ..so on and so forth from his childhood / youth events.
A steatite (soapstone) tablet unearthed from Mohenjo-daro, Larkana district, Sindh depicting a young boy uprooting two trees from which are emerging two human figures is an interesting archaeological find for fixing dates associated with Krishna. This image recalls the Yamalarjuna episode of Bhagavata and Harivamsa Purana. In this image, the young boy is Krishna, and the two human beings emerging from the trees are the two cursed gandharvas, identified as Nalakubara and Manigriva. Dr. E.J.H. Mackay, who did the excavation at Mohanjodaro, compares this image with the Yamalarjuna episode. Prof. V.S. Agrawal has also accepted this identification. Thus, it seems that the Indus valley people knew stories related to Krishna. This lone find may not establish Krishna as contemporary with Pre-Indus or Indus times, but, likewise, it cannot be ignored.
The scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata, notably where he addresses Pandava prince Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita, is another common subject for representation. In these depictions, he is shown as a man, often with supreme God characteristics of Hindu religious art, such as multiple arms or heads, denoting power, and with attributes of Vishnu, such as the chakra or in his two-armed form as a charioteer. Cave paintings dated to 800 BCE in Mirzapur, Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh, show raiding horse-charioteers, one of whom is about to hurl a wheel, and who could potentially be identified as Krishna.
Representations in temples often show Krishna as a man standing in an upright, formal pose. He may be alone, or with associated figures: his brother Balarama and sister Subhadra, or his main queens Rukmini and Satyabhama.
Often, Krishna is pictured with his gopi-consort Radha. Manipuri Vaishnavas do not worship Krishna alone, but as Radha Krishna, a combined image of Krishna and Radha. This is also a characteristic of the schools Rudra and Nimbarka sampradaya, as well as that of Swaminarayan sect. The traditions celebrate Radha Ramana murti, who is viewed by Gaudiyas as a form of Radha Krishna.
Krishna is also depicted and worshipped as a small child (Bala Krishna, Bāla Kṛṣṇa the child Krishna), crawling on his hands and knees or dancing, often with butter or Laddu in his hand being Laddu Gopal. Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as Jaganatha of Odisha, Vithoba of Maharashtra, Venkateswara (also Srinivasa or Balaji) in Andhra Pradesh, and Shrinathji in Rajasthan.
LITERARY SOURCES
The earliest text to explicitly provide detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahabharata which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu. Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic that constitute the Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to the warrior-hero Arjuna, on the battlefield. Krishna is already an adult in the epic, although there are allusions to his earlier exploits. The Harivamsa, a later appendix to this epic, contains the earliest detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.
The Rig Veda 1.22.164 sukta 31 mentions a herdsman "who never stumbles". Some Vaishnavite scholars, such as Bhaktivinoda Thakura, claim that this herdsman refers to Krishna. Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar also attempted to show that "the very same Krishna" made an appearance, e.g. as the drapsa ... krishna "black drop" of RV 8.96.13. Some authors have also likened prehistoric depictions of deities to Krishna.
Chandogya Upanishad (3.17.6) composed around 900 BCE mentions Vasudeva Krishna as the son of Devaki and the disciple of Ghora Angirasa, the seer who preached his disciple the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya.’ Having been influenced by the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya’ Krishna in the Bhagavadgita while delivering the discourse to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra discussed about sacrifice, which can be compared to purusha or the individual.
Yāska's Nirukta, an etymological dictionary around 6th century BC, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura, a motif from well known Puranic story about Krishna. Shatapatha Brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka, associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.
Pāṇini, the ancient grammarian and author of Asthadhyayi (probably belonged to 5th century or 6th century BC) mentions a character called Vāsudeva, son of Vasudeva, and also mentions Kaurava and Arjuna which testifies to Vasudeva Krishna, Arjuna and Kauravas being contemporaries.
Megasthenes (350 – 290 BC) a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to the court of Chandragupta Maurya made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica. Many scholars have suggested that the deity identified as Herakles was Krishna. According to Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo, Megasthenes described an Indian tribe called Sourasenoi, who especially worshipped Herakles in their land, and this land had two cities, Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river, the Jobares. As was common in the ancient period, the Greeks sometimes described foreign gods in terms of their own divinities, and there is a little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged; Herakles to Krishna, or Hari-Krishna: Methora to Mathura, where Krishna was born; Kleisobora to Krishnapura, meaning "the city of Krishna"; and the Jobares to the Yamuna, the famous river in the Krishna story. Quintus Curtius also mentions that when Alexander the Great confronted Porus, Porus's soldiers were carrying an image of Herakles in their vanguard.
The name Krishna occurs in Buddhist writings in the form Kānha, phonetically equivalent to Krishna.
The Ghata-Jâtaka (No. 454) gives an account of Krishna's childhood and subsequent exploits which in many points corresponds with the Brahmanic legends of his life and contains several familiar incidents and names, such as Vâsudeva, Baladeva, Kaṃsa. Yet it presents many peculiarities and is either an independent version or a misrepresentation of a popular story that had wandered far from its home. Jain tradition also shows that these tales were popular and were worked up into different forms, for the Jains have an elaborate system of ancient patriarchs which includes Vâsudevas and Baladevas. Krishna is the ninth of the Black Vâsudevas and is connected with Dvâravatî or Dvârakâ. He will become the twelfth tîrthankara of the next world-period and a similar position will be attained by Devakî, Rohinî, Baladeva and Javakumâra, all members of his family. This is a striking proof of the popularity of the Krishna legend outside the Brahmanic religion.
According to Arthasastra of Kautilya (4th century BCE) Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly monotheistic format.
Around 150 BC, Patanjali in his Mahabhashya quotes a verse: "May the might of Krishna accompanied by Samkarshana increase!" Other verses are mentioned. One verse speaks of "Janardhana with himself as fourth" (Krishna with three companions, the three possibly being Samkarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha). Another verse mentions musical instruments being played at meetings in the temples of Rama (Balarama) and Kesava (Krishna). Patanjali also describes dramatic and mimetic performances (Krishna-Kamsopacharam) representing the killing of Kamsa by Vasudeva.
In the 1st century BC, there seems to be evidence for a worship of five Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba) for an inscription has been found at Mora near Mathura, which apparently mentions a son of the great satrap Rajuvula, probably the satrap Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, "probably Vasudeva, and of the "Five Warriors". Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum.
Many Puranas tell Krishna's life-story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana, that contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna’s story and teachings are the most theologically venerated by the Vaishnava schools. Roughly one quarter of the Bhagavata Purana is spent extolling his life and philosophy.
LIFE
This summary is based on details from the Mahābhārata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana. The scenes from the narrative are set in north India mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Delhi and Gujarat.
BIRTH
Based on scriptural details and astrological calculations, the date of Krishna's birth, known as Janmashtami, is 18 July 3228 BCE. He was born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva, When Mother Earth became upset by the sin being committed on Earth, she thought of seeking help from Lord Vishnu. She went in the form of a cow to visit Lord Vishnu and ask for help. Lord Vishnu agreed to help her and promised her that he would be born on Earth. On Earth in the Yadava clan, he was yadav according to his birth, a prince named Kamsa sent his father Ugrasena (King of Mathura) to prison and became the King himself. One day a loud voice from the sky (Akash Vani in Hindi) prophesied that the 8th son of Kamsa's sister (Devaki) would kill Kamsa. Out of affection for Devaki, Kamsa did not kill her outright. He did, however, send his sister and her husband (Vasudeva) to prison. Lord Vishnu himself later appeared to Devaki and Vasudeva and told them that he himself would be their eighth son and kill Kamsa and destroy sin in the world. In the story of Krishna the deity is the agent of conception and also the offspring. Because of his sympathy for the earth, the divine Vishnu himself descended into the womb of Devaki and was born as her son, Vaasudeva (i.e., Krishna).[citation needed] This is occasionally cited as evidence that "virgin birth" tales are fairly common in non-Christian religions around the world. However, there is nothing in Hindu scriptures to suggest that it was a "virgin" birth. By the time of conception and birth of Krishna, Devaki was married to Vasudeva and had already borne 7 children. Virgin birth in this case should be more accurately understood as divine conception. Kunti the mother of the Pandavas referenced contemporaneously with the story of Krishna in the Mahabharata also has divine conception and virgin birth of Prince Karna.
The Hindu Vishnu Purana relates: "Devaki bore in her womb the lotus-eyed deity...before the birth of Krishna, no one could bear to gaze upon Devaki, from the light that invested her, and those who contemplated her radiance felt their minds disturbed.” This reference to light is reminiscent of the Vedic hymn "To an Unknown Divine," which refers to a Golden Child. According to F. M. Müller, this term means "the golden gem of child" and is an attempt at naming the sun. According to the Vishnu Purana, Krishna is the total incarnation of Lord Vishnu. It clearly describes in the Vishnu Purana that Krishna was born on earth to destroy sin, especially Kamsa.
Krishna belonged to the Vrishni clan of Yadavas from Mathura, and was the eighth son born to the princess Devaki, and her husband Vasudeva.
Mathura (in present day Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh) was the capital of the Yadavas, to which Krishna's parents Vasudeva and Devaki belonged. King Kamsa, Devaki's brother, had ascended the throne by imprisoning his father, King Ugrasena. Afraid of a prophecy from a divine voice from the heavens that predicted his death at the hands of Devaki's eighth "garbha", Kamsa had the couple locked in a prison cell. After Kamsa killed the first six children, Devaki apparently had a miscarriage of the seventh. However, in reality, the womb was actually transferred to Rohini secretly. This was how Balarama, Krishna's elder brother, was born. Once again Devaki became pregnant. Now due to the miscarriage, Kamsa was in a puzzle regarding 'The Eighth One', but his ministers advised that the divine voice from the heavens emphasised "the eight garbha" and so this is the one. That night Krishna was born in the Rohini nakshatra and simultaneously the goddess Durga was born as Yogamaya in Gokulam to Nanda and Yashoda.
Since Vasudeva knew Krishna's life was in danger, Krishna was secretly taken out of the prison cell to be raised by his foster parents, Yasoda and Nanda, in Gokula (in present day Mathura district). Two of his other siblings also survived, Balarama (Devaki's seventh child, transferred to the womb of Rohini, Vasudeva's first wife) and Subhadra (daughter of Vasudeva and Rohini, born much later than Balarama and Krishna).
CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH
Nanda was the head of a community of cow-herders, and he settled in Vrindavana. The stories of Krishna's childhood and youth tell how he became a cow herder, his mischievous pranks as Makhan Chor (butter thief) his foiling of attempts to take his life, and his role as a protector of the people of Vrindavana.
Krishna killed the demoness Putana, disguised as a wet nurse, and the tornado demon Trinavarta both sent by Kamsa for Krishna's life. He tamed the serpent Kāliyā, who previously poisoned the waters of Yamuna river, thus leading to the death of the cowherds. In Hindu art, Krishna is often depicted dancing on the multi-hooded Kāliyā.
Krishna lifted the Govardhana hill and taught Indra, the king of the devas, a lesson to protect native people of Brindavana from persecution by Indra and prevent the devastation of the pasture land of Govardhan. Indra had too much pride and was angry when Krishna advised the people of Brindavana to take care of their animals and their environment that provide them with all their necessities, instead of worshipping Indra annually by spending their resources. In the view of some, the spiritual movement started by Krishna had something in it which went against the orthodox forms of worship of the Vedic gods such as Indra. In Bhagavat Purana, Krishna says that the rain came from the nearby hill Govardhana, and advised that the people worshiped the hill instead of Indra. This made Indra furious, so he punished them by sending out a great storm. Krishna then lifted Govardhan and held it over the people like an umbrella.
The stories of his play with the gopis (milkmaids) of Brindavana, especially Radha (daughter of Vrishbhanu, one of the original residents of Brindavan) became known as the Rasa lila and were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. These became important as part of the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna.
Krishna’s childhood reinforces the Hindu concept of lila, playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or Rasa-lila is a great example of this. Krishna played his flute and the gopis came immediately from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the Yamuna River, and joined him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there joined him through meditation. The story of Krishna’s battle with Kāliyā also supports this idea in the sense of him dancing on Kāliyā’s many hoods. Even though he is doing battle with the serpent, he is in no real danger and treats it like a game. He is a protector, but he only appears to be a young boy having fun. This idea of having a playful god is very important in Hinduism. The playfulness of Krishna has inspired many celebrations like the Rasa-lila and the Janmashtami : where they make human pyramids to break open handis (clay pots) hung high in the air that spill buttermilk all over the group after being broken by the person at the top. This is meant to be a fun celebration and it gives the participants a sense of unity. Many believe that lila being connected with Krishna gives Hindus a deeper connection to him and thus a deeper connection to Vishnu also; seeing as Krishna is an incarnation of Vishnu. Theologists, like Kristin Johnston Largen, believe that Krishna’s childhood can even inspire other religions to look for lila in deities so that they have a chance to experience a part of their faith that they may not have previously seen.
THE PRINCE
On his return to Mathura as a young man, Krishna overthrew and killed his maternal uncle, Kamsa, after quelling several assassination attempts from Kamsa's followers. He reinstated Kamsa's father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and became a leading prince at the court. During this period, he became a friend of Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom, who were his cousins. Later, he took his Yadava subjects to the city of Dwaraka (in modern Gujarat) and established his own kingdom there.
Krishna married Rukmini, the Vidarbha princess, by abducting her, at her request, from her proposed wedding with Shishupala. He married eight queens - collectively called the Ashtabharya - including Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti, Bhadra and Lakshmana. Krishna subsequently married 16,000 or 16,100 maidens who were held captive by the demon Narakasura, to save their honour. Krishna killed the demon and released them all. According to social custom of the time, all of the captive women were degraded, and would be unable to marry, as they had been under the Narakasura's control. However Krishna married them to reinstate their status in the society. This symbolic wedding with 16,100 abandoned daughters was more of a mass rehabilitation. In Vaishnava traditions, Krishna's wives are forms of the goddess Lakshmi - consort of Vishnu, or special souls who attained this qualification after many lifetimes of austerity, while his two queens, Rukmani and Satyabhama, are expansions of Lakshmi.
When Yudhisthira was assuming the title of emperor, he had invited all the great kings to the ceremony and while paying his respects to them, he started with Krishna because he considered Krishna to be the greatest of them all. While it was a unanimous feeling amongst most present at the ceremony that Krishna should get the first honours, his cousin Shishupala felt otherwise and started berating Krishna. Due to a vow given to Shishupal's mother, Krishna forgave a hundred verbal abuses by Shishupal, and upon the one hundred and first, he assumed his Virat (universal) form and killed Shishupal with his Chakra. The blind king Dhritarashtra also obtained divine vision to be able to see this form of Krishna during the time when Duryodana tried to capture Krishna when he came as a peace bearer before the great Mahabharat War. Essentially, Shishupala and Dantavakra were both re-incarnations of Vishnu's gate-keepers Jaya and Vijaya, who were cursed to be born on Earth, to be delivered by the Vishnu back to Vaikuntha.
KURUKSHETRA WAR AND BHAGAVAD GITA
Once battle seemed inevitable, Krishna offered both sides the opportunity to choose between having either his army called narayani sena or himself alone, but on the condition that he personally would not raise any weapon. Arjuna, on behalf of the Pandavas, chose to have Krishna on their side, and Duryodhana, Kaurava prince, chose Krishna's army. At the time of the great battle, Krishna acted as Arjuna's charioteer, since this position did not require the wielding of weapons.
Upon arrival at the battlefield, and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart does not allow him to fight and he would rather prefer to renounce the kingdom and put down his Gandiv (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the battle, with the conversation soon extending into a discourse which was later compiled as the Bhagavad Gita.
Krishna asked Arjuna, "Have you within no time, forgotten the Kauravas' evil deeds such as not accepting the eldest brother Yudhishtira as King, usurping the entire Kingdom without yielding any portion to the Pandavas, meting out insults and difficulties to Pandavas, attempt to murder the Pandavas in the Barnava lac guest house, publicly attempting to disrobe and disgracing Draupadi. Krishna further exhorted in his famous Bhagavad Gita, "Arjuna, do not engage in philosophical analyses at this point of time like a Pundit. You are aware that Duryodhana and Karna particularly have long harboured jealousy and hatred for you Pandavas and badly want to prove their hegemony. You are aware that Bhishmacharya and your Teachers are tied down to their dharma of protecting the unitarian power of the Kuru throne. Moreover, you Arjuna, are only a mortal appointee to carry out my divine will, since the Kauravas are destined to die either way, due to their heap of sins. Open your eyes O Bhaarata and know that I encompass the Karta, Karma and Kriya, all in myself. There is no scope for contemplation now or remorse later, it is indeed time for war and the world will remember your might and immense powers for time to come. So rise O Arjuna!, tighten up your Gandiva and let all directions shiver till their farthest horizons, by the reverberation of its string."
Krishna had a profound effect on the Mahabharata war and its consequences. He had considered the Kurukshetra war to be a last resort after voluntarily acting as a messenger in order to establish peace between the Pandavas and Kauravas. But, once these peace negotiations failed and was embarked into the war, then he became a clever strategist. During the war, upon becoming angry with Arjuna for not fighting in true spirit against his ancestors, Krishna once picked up a carriage wheel in order to use it as a weapon to challenge Bhishma. Upon seeing this, Bhishma dropped his weapons and asked Krishna to kill him. However, Arjuna apologized to Krishna, promising that he would fight with full dedication here/after, and the battle continued. Krishna had directed Yudhisthira and Arjuna to return to Bhishma the boon of "victory" which he had given to Yudhisthira before the war commenced, since he himself was standing in their way to victory. Bhishma understood the message and told them the means through which he would drop his weapons - which was if a woman entered the battlefield. Next day, upon Krishna's directions, Shikhandi (Amba reborn) accompanied Arjuna to the battlefield and thus, Bhishma laid down his arms. This was a decisive moment in the war because Bhishma was the chief commander of the Kaurava army and the most formidable warrior on the battlefield. Krishna aided Arjuna in killing Jayadratha, who had held the other four Pandava brothers at bay while Arjuna's son Abhimanyu entered Drona's Chakravyuha formation - an effort in which he was killed by the simultaneous attack of eight Kaurava warriors. Krishna also caused the downfall of Drona, when he signalled Bhima to kill an elephant called Ashwatthama, the namesake of Drona's son. Pandavas started shouting that Ashwatthama was dead but Drona refused to believe them saying he would believe it only if he heard it from Yudhisthira. Krishna knew that Yudhisthira would never tell a lie, so he devised a clever ploy so that Yudhisthira wouldn't lie and at the same time Drona would be convinced of his son's death. On asked by Drona, Yudhisthira proclaimed
Ashwathama Hatahath, naro va Kunjaro va
i.e. Ashwathama had died but he was nor sure whether it was a Drona's son or an elephant. But as soon as Yudhisthira had uttered the first line, Pandava army on Krishna's direction broke into celebration with drums and conchs, in the din of which Drona could not hear the second part of the Yudhisthira's declaration and assumed that his son indeed was dead. Overcome with grief he laid down his arms, and on Krishna's instruction Dhrishtadyumna beheaded Drona.
When Arjuna was fighting Karna, the latter's chariot's wheels sank into the ground. While Karna was trying to take out the chariot from the grip of the Earth, Krishna reminded Arjuna how Karna and the other Kauravas had broken all rules of battle while simultaneously attacking and killing Abhimanyu, and he convinced Arjuna to do the same in revenge in order to kill Karna. During the final stage of the war, when Duryodhana was going to meet his mother Gandhari for taking her blessings which would convert all parts of his body on which her sight falls to diamond, Krishna tricks him to wearing banana leaves to hide his groin. When Duryodhana meets Gandhari, her vision and blessings fall on his entire body except his groin and thighs, and she becomes unhappy about it because she was not able to convert his entire body to diamond. When Duryodhana was in a mace-fight with Bhima, Bhima's blows had no effect on Duryodhana. Upon this, Krishna reminded Bhima of his vow to kill Duryodhana by hitting him on the thigh, and Bhima did the same to win the war despite it being against the rules of mace-fight (since Duryodhana had himself broken Dharma in all his past acts). Thus, Krishna's unparalleled strategy helped the Pandavas win the Mahabharata war by bringing the downfall of all the chief Kaurava warriors, without lifting any weapon. He also brought back to life Arjuna's grandson Parikshit, who had been attacked by a Brahmastra weapon from Ashwatthama while he was in his mother's womb. Parikshit became the Pandavas' successor.
FAMILY
Krishna had eight princely wives, also known as Ashtabharya: Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Nagnajiti, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Bhadra, Lakshmana) and the other 16,100 or 16,000 (number varies in scriptures), who were rescued from Narakasura. They had been forcibly kept in his palace and after Krishna had killed Narakasura, he rescued these women and freed them. Krishna married them all to save them from destruction and infamity. He gave them shelter in his new palace and a respectful place in society. The chief amongst them is Rohini.
The Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Harivamsa list the children of Krishna from the Ashtabharya with some variation; while Rohini's sons are interpreted to represent the unnumbered children of his junior wives. Most well-known among his sons are Pradyumna, the eldest son of Krishna (and Rukmini) and Samba, the son of Jambavati, whose actions led to the destruction of Krishna's clan.
LATER LIFE
According to Mahabharata, the Kurukshetra war resulted in the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. On the night before Duryodhana's death, Lord Krishna visited Gandhari to offer his condolences. Gandhari felt that Krishna knowingly did not put an end to the war, and in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari cursed that Krishna, along with everyone else from the Yadu dynasty, would perish after 36 years. Krishna himself knew and wanted this to happen as he felt that the Yadavas had become very haughty and arrogant (adharmi), so he ended Gandhari's speech by saying "tathastu" (so be it).
After 36 years passed, a fight broke out between the Yadavas, at a festival, who killed each other. His elder brother, Balarama, then gave up his body using Yoga. Krishna retired into the forest and started meditating under a tree. The Mahabharata also narrates the story of a hunter who becomes an instrument for Krishna's departure from the world. The hunter Jara, mistook Krishna's partly visible left foot for that of a deer, and shot an arrow, wounding him mortally. After he realised the mistake, While still bleeding, Krishna told Jara, "O Jara, you were Bali in your previous birth, killed by myself as Rama in Tretayuga. Here you had a chance to even it and since all acts in this world are done as desired by me, you need not worry for this". Then Krishna, with his physical body ascended back to his eternal abode, Goloka vrindavan and this event marks departure of Krishna from the earth. The news was conveyed to Hastinapur and Dwaraka by eyewitnesses to this event. The place of this incident is believed to be Bhalka, near Somnath temple.
According to Puranic sources, Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE. Vaishnava teachers such as Ramanujacharya and Gaudiya Vaishnavas held the view that the body of Krishna is completely spiritual and never decays (Achyuta) as this appears to be the perspective of the Bhagavata Purana. Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) exhorted, "Krishna Naama Sankirtan" i.e. the constant chanting of the Krishna's name is the supreme healer in Kali Yuga. It destroys sins and purifies the hearts through Bhakti ensures universal peace.
Krishna never appears to grow old or age at all in the historical depictions of the Puranas despite passing of several decades, but there are grounds for a debate whether this indicates that he has no material body, since battles and other descriptions of the Mahabhārata epic show clear indications that he seems to be subject to the limitations of nature. While battles apparently seem to indicate limitations, Mahabharata also shows in many places where Krishna is not subject to any limitations as through episodes Duryodhana trying to arrest Krishna where his body burst into fire showing all creation within him. Krishna is also explicitly described as without deterioration elsewhere.
WORSHIP
VAISHNAVISM
The worship of Krishna is part of Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu as the Supreme God and venerates His associated avatars, their consorts, and related saints and teachers. Krishna is especially looked upon as a full manifestation of Vishnu, and as one with Vishnu himself. However the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse, where Krishna is sometimes considered an independent deity, supreme in his own right. Out of many deities, Krishna is particularly important, and traditions of Vaishnava lines are generally centered either on Vishnu or on Krishna, as supreme. The term Krishnaism has been used to describe the sects of Krishna, reserving the term "Vaishnavism" for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an avatar, rather than as a transcendent Supreme Being.
All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu; while traditions, such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Vallabha Sampradaya and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, regard Krishna as the Svayam Bhagavan, original form of God. Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala of late Vedic period. Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.
EARLY TRADITIONS
The deity Krishna-Vasudeva (kṛṣṇa vāsudeva "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism. It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of the worship of Krishna in antiquity. This tradition is considered as earliest to other traditions that led to amalgamation at a later stage of the historical development. Other traditions are Bhagavatism and the cult of Gopala, that along with the cult of Bala Krishna form the basis of current tradition of monotheistic religion of Krishna. Some early scholars would equate it with Bhagavatism, and the founder of this religious tradition is believed to be Krishna, who is the son of Vasudeva, thus his name is Vāsudeva; he is said to be historically part of the Satvata tribe, and according to them his followers called themselves Bhagavatas and this religion had formed by the 2nd century BC (the time of Patanjali), or as early as the 4th century BC according to evidence in Megasthenes and in the Arthasastra of Kautilya, when Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme deity in a strongly monotheistic format, where the supreme being was perfect, eternal and full of grace. In many sources outside of the cult, the devotee or bhakta is defined as Vāsudevaka. The Harivamsa describes intricate relationships between Krishna Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha that would later form a Vaishnava concept of primary quadrupled expansion, or avatar.
BHAKTI TRADITION
Bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotional and ecstatic aspects of Hindu religion, particularly among the Vaishnava sects. Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of lila, meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the Universe. The lilas of Krishna, with their expressions of personal love that transcend the boundaries of formal reverence, serve as a counterpoint to the actions of another avatar of Vishnu: Rama, "He of the straight and narrow path of maryada, or rules and regulations."
The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil country. A major collection of their works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre. Kulasekaraazhvaar's Mukundamala was another notable work of this early stage.
SPREAD OF THE KRISHNA-BHAKTI MOVEMENT
The movement, which started in the 6th-7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs. The religion of Alvar poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions. The movement originated in South India during the seventh-century CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the fifteenth century, it was established in Bengal and northern India.
While the learned sections of the society well versed in Sanskrit could enjoy works like Gita Govinda or Bilvamangala's Krishna-Karnamritam, the masses sang the songs of the devotee-poets, who composed in the regional languages of India. These songs expressing intense personal devotion were written by devotees from all walks of life. The songs of Meera and Surdas became epitomes of Krishna-devotion in north India.
These devotee-poets, like the Alvars before them, were aligned to specific theological schools only loosely, if at all. But by the 11th century AD, Vaishnava Bhakti schools with elaborate theological frameworks around the worship of Krishna were established in north India. Nimbarka (11th century AD), Vallabhacharya (15th century AD) and (Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) (16th century AD) all inspired by the teachings of Madhvacharya (11th century AD) were the founders of the most influential schools. These schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya and Gaudiya Vaishnavism respectively, see Krishna as the supreme God, rather than an avatar, as generally seen.
In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Varkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba, a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century. In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti named Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.
IN THE WEST
In 1965, the Krishna-bhakti movement had spread outside India when its founder, Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, (who was instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) traveled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of the saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In an effort to gain attention, followers chanted the names of God in public locations. This chanting was known as hari-nama sankirtana and helped spread the teaching. Additionally, the practice of distributing prasad or “sanctified food” worked as a catalyst in the dissemination of his works. In the Hare Krishna movement, Prasad was a vegetarian dish that would be first offered to Krishna. The food’s proximity to Krishna added a “spiritual effect,” and was seen to “counteract material contamination affecting the soul.” Sharing this sanctified food with the public, in turn, enabled the movement to gain new recruits and further spread these teachings.
WIKIPEDIA
La Basilica di San Lorenzo di Milano è un edificio di culto paleocristiano edificato in età romana e più volte rimaneggiato nel corso dei secoli. Situata in prossimità della porta Ticinese medievale, è una delle chiese più antiche di Milano.
La basilica fu eretta tra la fine del IV e l'inizio del V secolo. Alla sua costruzione, la Basilica era il più grande edificio a pianta centrale dell'Occidente. La dedica del tempio a san Lorenzo martire è attestata solo dal 590, quando Milano era già sotto dominio longobardo. Se per tutto il Medioevo la Basilica rimase un simbolo dell'eredità imperiale romana a Milano, specie dopo la distruzione degli altri resti nel 1154 da parte del Barbarossa, nel Rinascimento il tempio divenne un simbolo dei canoni classici perduti ricercati dagli umanisti, e fu studiata, tra gli altri, dal Bramante e da Leonardo. Verso la metà dell'XI secolo lo spiazzo alle spalle della basilica, denominato Vetra, venne adibito alle esecuzioni capitali: questa prassi durò fino al 1840 ed è stata narrata, tra gli altri, da Alessandro Manzoni nella Storia della colonna infame.
Negli anni trenta del XIX secolo il governo austriaco avviò una riqualificazione della Vetra: le case addossate alla basilica, abitate da conciatori di pelle, vennero abbattute; il canale della Vetra venne coperto e le esecuzioni abolite. Dopo i bombardamenti del 1944-1945, le case distrutte non vennero ricostruite e venne creato il Parco delle Basiliche, da cui si ha un'eccellente vista del complesso. Nel 1934 erano state invece abbattute le case sorte nella corte, con la creazione di una piazza pubblica antistante la basilica.
No nos damos cuenta de cómo nos vigilan las alcachofas porque en el campo normalmente disimulan mirando al cielo. Qué falsas son: sólo les falta sibar. Ahora bien, a poco que te fijes, cada flor (capítulo, dicen los entendidos) es un observador implacable de lo que ocurre a su alrededor. Voy a probarlo.
Se me ocurrió el otro día cortar unos tallos de alcachofa, cada uno con su consiguiente capítulo, para acabar de secarlos con fines decorativos, pues eran ya inútiles para otro uso. Los colgué boca abajo, como mandan los cánones y, cuando a los pocos días fui a ver como estaban, me apercibí de que me tenían controlado en todo momento. Para convencerte, no tienes más que ver en qué actitud tan profesional del espionaje pillé a la de más arriba. Casi todas habían asumido espontáneamente el papel de esas cámaras que últimamente controlan tus movimientos, silenciosamente, en todos los sitios. Claro, me ha sentado fatal, porque una cosa es que seas un presunto delincuente al entrar en un comercio, o al circular con tu coche por las calles de tu ciudad y tengas que ser observado (aunque no sepas por quién, o desde dónde), no vayas a robar algún producto o a cometer una violación infame contra alguna desvalida norma de circulación vial, y otra muy distinta que esa inspección permanente se lleve a cabo en tu casa. Vamos, creo yo. A eso, todavía no hay derecho... ¿o ya sí?
Así están las cosas gobernando el PP. Perdón, ¿he dicho gobernando? Lo siento mucho, me he equivocado. No volverá a ocurrir. Ha sido un lapsus, como una simulación en diferido... se me ha escapado.
Lo dicho, no os fiéis de las alcachofas. Ellas tampoco son lo que parecen.
Da ragazzino giocavo al calcio, parliamo dei tempi delle scuole medie, poi ho lasciato e non mi sono più appassionato se non come tifoso, nemmeno tanto accalorato...
Ero portiere, l’ultimo baluardo prima gli altri potessero dissacrare la nostra porta, l’estremo difensore, quello il quale, laddove gli altri avevano fallito con scivolate ed interventi più o meno scorretti, ci doveva pensare lui.
Avevo delle responsabilità... allora mi pareva il miglior ruolo possibile, quello più importante di tutta la squadra perché se segni un goal ma ne prendi due hai perso e non ce n’è, quindi è importante sì segnare un goal, ma di più non prenderne perché almeno il pareggio è assicurato.
Almeno questa la mia teoria.
Quella volta erano iniziati i giochi della gioventù (una bella iniziativa che non so se oggi sussiste ancora) e giocavamo la prima partita in casa contro il Poggio Mirteto... un paese notoriamente rivale al nostro in ogni ambito sportivo.
Renato (Falcao), Francesco (Cartaccia), Alberto (Belva) erano i nostri punti forti, i tre sui quali puntavamo di più per vincere le partite e poi tutt’intorno una squadretta di ragazzi più o meno “arrangiati” dal professore di educazione fisica fra tutti quelli dell’istituto a formare una squadretta, non certo esaltante, ma almeno sulla carta “rocciosa” e che se la poteva battere.
C’eravamo allenati tanto riuscendo persino a vincere gli egoismi, tipici di quell’età per i quali il pallone agli altri non lo si passa mai, io mi ero allenato a parare i rigori pure se mi buttavo sempre dalla stessa parte perché a sinistra mi veniva naturale mentre a destra beccavo sempre delle gran culate in terra...
Il professore mi aveva spiegato come fare per evitarlo, i compagni di squadra cercavano di aiutarmi tirando sempre da quella parte... eravamo un bel gruppo.
A quella prima partita in casa si arrivò quindi, non dico con grandi aspettative, ma almeno con la giusta sana ansia per la quale non vedi l’ora di cominciare... sugli spalti a gradoni del campo sportivo tutto l’istituto ci guardava, per noi era come una finale di coppa del mondo.
Il primo quarto d’ora di partita fu esaltante... per lo meno io lo ricordo così: con azioni dall’una e dall’altra parte senza grossi pericoli ma con grandi galoppate dei singoli che facevano sembrare si stesse giocando chissà quanto bene, poi uno dei loro entrò in area e venne (così disse l’arbitro) scalciato da dietro (per me il nostro aveva preso la palla): rigore!
Mi salirono i brividi lungo la schiena, un po’ come quando stai sulle montagne russe al primo posto ed imbocchi la discesa, segno evidente di un’adrenalina in aumento pur non avendo idea di che diavolo fosse.
Davanti a me si presentò il loro centravanti, un ragazzetto magrolino e dinoccolato con una folta chioma di capelli ricci, due gambette fini che manco facevano ombra, sulla linea di porta io, col mio ciuffo da una parte e le mani larghe (perché l’avevo visto fare a Schumacher), con la mia divisa orrenda da portiere ed i miei guanti (di lana credo, ma comunque non da portiere!) perché quelli erano l’accessorio primo da avere come distinguo dal resto della squadra.
In mente avevo tutte le parate che avevo visto fare ai vari Zoff, Albertosi, Castellini, Schumacher ecc... immaginavo la gioia di riuscire a respingere un rigore perché in quel momento mi pareva fino impossibile non pararlo, era un’eventualità che neppure consideravo.
Invece il mirtense segnò perché io come solito mi buttai a sinistra e lui tirò una ciabattata a destra, e ci trovammo sotto uno a zero!
La folla però non smise mai di sostenerci ed infatti poco dopo riuscimmo a pareggiare: un’azione strepitosa tra Renato e Cartaccia e quest’ultimo infilò il goal dell’uno pari!
Il primo tempo si chiuse così.
Nel secondo pensavo che sulla scia del goal di Cartaccia, e supportati dalle parole d’incoraggiamento che il professore ci aveva detto negli spogliatoi, avremmo trovato la via per scardinare la loro difesa e portare a casa il risultato facile; anche in questo caso non ponderavo altre eventualità...
Invece pochi minuti dopo l’inizio ci segnarono il secondo goal: arrivò uno al limite dell’area, fece un tiraccio che io al posto di ribattere verso i lati del campo come mi aveva sempre detto il professore, ribattei verso il centro dell’area, ove però stava appostato il malefico centravanti di prima il quale non ebbe a fare altro che ribattere in rete!
Da dietro la porta, mentre i miei compagni stavano rimettendo la palla al centro sentii un mortificante “a portiè, però la palla se ribatte verso i lati, mica verso il centro dell’area”... aveva ragione ovviamente, ma in quel momento capii che il calcio non sarebbe divenuto il mio sport, volevo quasi chiedere il cambio, mi trattenni unicamente perché allora il secondo portiere non l’avevamo.
E mi ruppi un polso.
Poche azioni dopo fecero un contropiede, arrivò un sacramento grande e grosso, (probabilmente un fuori quota che ognuno intrufolava più o meno lecitamente in squadra) fece un tiro fortissimo da appena dentro l’area che io parai buttandomi a sinistra in perfetto stile ma che, non so se per la caduta malandata o la botta stessa del pallone, mi fratturò il polso.
Strano, lì per lì mi sentii un eroe come avessi compiuto chissà quale gesto eroico: avevo parato! Avevo svolto il mio compito da portiere anche a scapito della mia stessa salute, mi ero immolato sacrificando un polso ma avevo impedito agli altri di segnare, la nostra vittoria sarebbe stata impreziosita dal mio gesto...
Invece più tardi in ospedale, quando mi tirarono per rimettere a posto l’osso non mi sentii più tanto eroe e frignai come un poppante, e neppure mi sentii eroe nei giorni appresso a scuola quando quegli infami dei miei amici, una volta sinceratisi delle mie condizioni, presero a chiamarmi “mano di burro”... mondo spietato.
La partita poi la perdemmo tre a uno.
E' arrivato il momento di decidere da che parte stare.
E' vero che non ci sono soluzioni semplici e che ogni cosa in questo mondo è sempre più complessa.
Ma per affrontare i cambiamenti epocali della storia è necessario avere una posizione, sapere quali sono le priorità per poter prendere delle scelte.
Noi stiamo dalla parte degli uomini scalzi.
Di chi ha bisogno di mettere il proprio corpo in pericolo per poter sperare di vivere o di sopravvivere.
E' difficile poterlo capire se non hai mai dovuto viverlo.
Ma la migrazione assoluta richiede esattamente questo: spogliarsi completamente della propria identità per poter sperare di trovarne un'altra. Abbandonare tutto, mettere il proprio corpo e quello dei tuoi figli dentro ad una barca, ad un tir, ad un tunnel e sperare che arrivi integro al di là, in un ignoto che ti respinge, ma di cui tu hai bisogno.
Sono questi gli uomini scalzi del 21°secolo e noi stiamo con loro.
Le loro ragioni possono essere coperte da decine di infamie, paure, minacce, ma è incivile e disumano non ascoltarle.
La Marcia degli Uomini Scalzi parte da queste ragioni e inizia un lungo cammino di civiltà.
E' l'inizio di un percorso di cambiamento che chiede a tutti gli uomini e le donne del mondo globale di capire che non è in alcun modo accettabile fermare e respingere chi è vittima di ingiustizie militari, religiose o economiche che siano. Non è pensabile fermare chi scappa dalle ingiustizie, al contrario aiutarli significa lottare contro quelle ingiustizie.
Dare asilo a chi scappa dalle guerre, significa ripudiare la guerra e costruire la pace.
Dare rifugio a chi scappa dalle discriminazioni religiose, etniche o di genere, significa lottare per i diritti e le libertà di tutte e tutti.
Dare accoglienza a chi fugge dalla povertà, significa non accettare le sempre crescenti disuguaglianze economiche e promuovere una maggiore redistribuzione di ricchezze.
A veces toma, sabiendo mi gran amor al Arte,
La forma de la más seductora de las mujeres,
Y, bajo especiosos pretextos de tedio,
Habitúa mis labios a filtros infames.
Charles Baudelaire
"La destrucción"
Krishna is considered the supreme deity, worshipped across many traditions of Hinduism in a variety of different perspectives. Krishna is recognized as the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Lord Vishnu, and one and the same as Lord Vishnu one of the trimurti and as the supreme god in his own right. Krishna is the principal protagonist with Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita also known as the Song of God, which depicts the conversation between the Royal Prince Arjuna and Krishna during the great battle of Kureksetra 5000 years ago where Arjuna discovers that Krishna is God and then comprehends his nature and will for him and for mankind. In present age Krishna is one of the most widely revered and most popular of all Indian divinities.
Krishna is often described and portrayed as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a flute as in the Bhagavata Purana, or as an elder giving direction and guidance as in the Bhagavad Gita. The stories of Krishna appear across a broad spectrum of Hindu philosophical and theological traditions. They portray him in various perspectives: a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the Supreme Being. The principal scriptures discussing Krishna's story are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana.
Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga (present age), which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE. Worship of the deity Krishna, either in the form of deity Krishna or in the form of Vasudeva, Bala Krishna or Gopala can be traced to as early as 4th century BC. Worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, or the supreme being, known as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. From the 10th century AD, Krishna became a favourite subject in performing arts and regional traditions of devotion developed for forms of Krishna such as Jagannatha in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra and Shrinathji in Rajasthan. Since the 1960s the worship of Krishna has also spread in the Western world, largely due to the International Society for Krishna Consciousness.
NAMES AND EPITHETS
The name originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning "black", "dark" or "dark blue". The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha in the Vedic tradition, relating to the adjective meaning "darkening". Sometimes it is also translated as "all-attractive", according to members of the Hare Krishna movement.
As a name of Vishnu, Krishna listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama. Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in murtis as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets and titles, which reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are Mohan "enchanter", Govinda, "Finder of the cows" or Gopala, "Protector of the cows", which refer to Krishna's childhood in Braj (in present day Uttar Pradesh). Some of the distinct names may be regionally important; for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India.
ICONOGRAPHY
Krishna is easily recognized by his representations. Though his skin color may be depicted as black or dark in some representations, particularly in murtis, in other images such as modern pictorial representations, Krishna is usually shown with a blue skin. He is often shown wearing a silk dhoti and a peacock feather crown. Common depictions show him as a little boy, or as a young man in a characteristically relaxed pose, playing the flute. In this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other with a flute raised to his lips, in the Tribhanga posture, accompanied by cows, emphasizing his position as the divine herdsman, Govinda, or with the gopis (milkmaids) i.e. Gopikrishna, stealing butter from neighbouring houses i.e. Navneet Chora or Gokulakrishna, defeating the vicious serpent i.e. Kaliya Damana Krishna, lifting the hill i.e. Giridhara Krishna ..so on and so forth from his childhood / youth events.
A steatite (soapstone) tablet unearthed from Mohenjo-daro, Larkana district, Sindh depicting a young boy uprooting two trees from which are emerging two human figures is an interesting archaeological find for fixing dates associated with Krishna. This image recalls the Yamalarjuna episode of Bhagavata and Harivamsa Purana. In this image, the young boy is Krishna, and the two human beings emerging from the trees are the two cursed gandharvas, identified as Nalakubara and Manigriva. Dr. E.J.H. Mackay, who did the excavation at Mohanjodaro, compares this image with the Yamalarjuna episode. Prof. V.S. Agrawal has also accepted this identification. Thus, it seems that the Indus valley people knew stories related to Krishna. This lone find may not establish Krishna as contemporary with Pre-Indus or Indus times, but, likewise, it cannot be ignored.
The scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata, notably where he addresses Pandava prince Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita, is another common subject for representation. In these depictions, he is shown as a man, often with supreme God characteristics of Hindu religious art, such as multiple arms or heads, denoting power, and with attributes of Vishnu, such as the chakra or in his two-armed form as a charioteer. Cave paintings dated to 800 BCE in Mirzapur, Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh, show raiding horse-charioteers, one of whom is about to hurl a wheel, and who could potentially be identified as Krishna.
Representations in temples often show Krishna as a man standing in an upright, formal pose. He may be alone, or with associated figures: his brother Balarama and sister Subhadra, or his main queens Rukmini and Satyabhama.
Often, Krishna is pictured with his gopi-consort Radha. Manipuri Vaishnavas do not worship Krishna alone, but as Radha Krishna, a combined image of Krishna and Radha. This is also a characteristic of the schools Rudra and Nimbarka sampradaya, as well as that of Swaminarayan sect. The traditions celebrate Radha Ramana murti, who is viewed by Gaudiyas as a form of Radha Krishna.
Krishna is also depicted and worshipped as a small child (Bala Krishna, Bāla Kṛṣṇa the child Krishna), crawling on his hands and knees or dancing, often with butter or Laddu in his hand being Laddu Gopal. Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as Jaganatha of Odisha, Vithoba of Maharashtra, Venkateswara (also Srinivasa or Balaji) in Andhra Pradesh, and Shrinathji in Rajasthan.
LITERARY SOURCES
The earliest text to explicitly provide detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahabharata which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu. Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic that constitute the Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to the warrior-hero Arjuna, on the battlefield. Krishna is already an adult in the epic, although there are allusions to his earlier exploits. The Harivamsa, a later appendix to this epic, contains the earliest detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.
The Rig Veda 1.22.164 sukta 31 mentions a herdsman "who never stumbles". Some Vaishnavite scholars, such as Bhaktivinoda Thakura, claim that this herdsman refers to Krishna. Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar also attempted to show that "the very same Krishna" made an appearance, e.g. as the drapsa ... krishna "black drop" of RV 8.96.13. Some authors have also likened prehistoric depictions of deities to Krishna.
Chandogya Upanishad (3.17.6) composed around 900 BCE mentions Vasudeva Krishna as the son of Devaki and the disciple of Ghora Angirasa, the seer who preached his disciple the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya.’ Having been influenced by the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya’ Krishna in the Bhagavadgita while delivering the discourse to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra discussed about sacrifice, which can be compared to purusha or the individual.
Yāska's Nirukta, an etymological dictionary around 6th century BC, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura, a motif from well known Puranic story about Krishna. Shatapatha Brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka, associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.
Pāṇini, the ancient grammarian and author of Asthadhyayi (probably belonged to 5th century or 6th century BC) mentions a character called Vāsudeva, son of Vasudeva, and also mentions Kaurava and Arjuna which testifies to Vasudeva Krishna, Arjuna and Kauravas being contemporaries.
Megasthenes (350 – 290 BC) a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to the court of Chandragupta Maurya made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica. Many scholars have suggested that the deity identified as Herakles was Krishna. According to Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo, Megasthenes described an Indian tribe called Sourasenoi, who especially worshipped Herakles in their land, and this land had two cities, Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river, the Jobares. As was common in the ancient period, the Greeks sometimes described foreign gods in terms of their own divinities, and there is a little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged; Herakles to Krishna, or Hari-Krishna: Methora to Mathura, where Krishna was born; Kleisobora to Krishnapura, meaning "the city of Krishna"; and the Jobares to the Yamuna, the famous river in the Krishna story. Quintus Curtius also mentions that when Alexander the Great confronted Porus, Porus's soldiers were carrying an image of Herakles in their vanguard.
The name Krishna occurs in Buddhist writings in the form Kānha, phonetically equivalent to Krishna.
The Ghata-Jâtaka (No. 454) gives an account of Krishna's childhood and subsequent exploits which in many points corresponds with the Brahmanic legends of his life and contains several familiar incidents and names, such as Vâsudeva, Baladeva, Kaṃsa. Yet it presents many peculiarities and is either an independent version or a misrepresentation of a popular story that had wandered far from its home. Jain tradition also shows that these tales were popular and were worked up into different forms, for the Jains have an elaborate system of ancient patriarchs which includes Vâsudevas and Baladevas. Krishna is the ninth of the Black Vâsudevas and is connected with Dvâravatî or Dvârakâ. He will become the twelfth tîrthankara of the next world-period and a similar position will be attained by Devakî, Rohinî, Baladeva and Javakumâra, all members of his family. This is a striking proof of the popularity of the Krishna legend outside the Brahmanic religion.
According to Arthasastra of Kautilya (4th century BCE) Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly monotheistic format.
Around 150 BC, Patanjali in his Mahabhashya quotes a verse: "May the might of Krishna accompanied by Samkarshana increase!" Other verses are mentioned. One verse speaks of "Janardhana with himself as fourth" (Krishna with three companions, the three possibly being Samkarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha). Another verse mentions musical instruments being played at meetings in the temples of Rama (Balarama) and Kesava (Krishna). Patanjali also describes dramatic and mimetic performances (Krishna-Kamsopacharam) representing the killing of Kamsa by Vasudeva.
In the 1st century BC, there seems to be evidence for a worship of five Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba) for an inscription has been found at Mora near Mathura, which apparently mentions a son of the great satrap Rajuvula, probably the satrap Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, "probably Vasudeva, and of the "Five Warriors". Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum.
Many Puranas tell Krishna's life-story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana, that contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna’s story and teachings are the most theologically venerated by the Vaishnava schools. Roughly one quarter of the Bhagavata Purana is spent extolling his life and philosophy.
LIFE
This summary is based on details from the Mahābhārata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana. The scenes from the narrative are set in north India mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Delhi and Gujarat.
BIRTH
Based on scriptural details and astrological calculations, the date of Krishna's birth, known as Janmashtami, is 18 July 3228 BCE. He was born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva, When Mother Earth became upset by the sin being committed on Earth, she thought of seeking help from Lord Vishnu. She went in the form of a cow to visit Lord Vishnu and ask for help. Lord Vishnu agreed to help her and promised her that he would be born on Earth. On Earth in the Yadava clan, he was yadav according to his birth, a prince named Kamsa sent his father Ugrasena (King of Mathura) to prison and became the King himself. One day a loud voice from the sky (Akash Vani in Hindi) prophesied that the 8th son of Kamsa's sister (Devaki) would kill Kamsa. Out of affection for Devaki, Kamsa did not kill her outright. He did, however, send his sister and her husband (Vasudeva) to prison. Lord Vishnu himself later appeared to Devaki and Vasudeva and told them that he himself would be their eighth son and kill Kamsa and destroy sin in the world. In the story of Krishna the deity is the agent of conception and also the offspring. Because of his sympathy for the earth, the divine Vishnu himself descended into the womb of Devaki and was born as her son, Vaasudeva (i.e., Krishna).[citation needed] This is occasionally cited as evidence that "virgin birth" tales are fairly common in non-Christian religions around the world. However, there is nothing in Hindu scriptures to suggest that it was a "virgin" birth. By the time of conception and birth of Krishna, Devaki was married to Vasudeva and had already borne 7 children. Virgin birth in this case should be more accurately understood as divine conception. Kunti the mother of the Pandavas referenced contemporaneously with the story of Krishna in the Mahabharata also has divine conception and virgin birth of Prince Karna.
The Hindu Vishnu Purana relates: "Devaki bore in her womb the lotus-eyed deity...before the birth of Krishna, no one could bear to gaze upon Devaki, from the light that invested her, and those who contemplated her radiance felt their minds disturbed.” This reference to light is reminiscent of the Vedic hymn "To an Unknown Divine," which refers to a Golden Child. According to F. M. Müller, this term means "the golden gem of child" and is an attempt at naming the sun. According to the Vishnu Purana, Krishna is the total incarnation of Lord Vishnu. It clearly describes in the Vishnu Purana that Krishna was born on earth to destroy sin, especially Kamsa.
Krishna belonged to the Vrishni clan of Yadavas from Mathura, and was the eighth son born to the princess Devaki, and her husband Vasudeva.
Mathura (in present day Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh) was the capital of the Yadavas, to which Krishna's parents Vasudeva and Devaki belonged. King Kamsa, Devaki's brother, had ascended the throne by imprisoning his father, King Ugrasena. Afraid of a prophecy from a divine voice from the heavens that predicted his death at the hands of Devaki's eighth "garbha", Kamsa had the couple locked in a prison cell. After Kamsa killed the first six children, Devaki apparently had a miscarriage of the seventh. However, in reality, the womb was actually transferred to Rohini secretly. This was how Balarama, Krishna's elder brother, was born. Once again Devaki became pregnant. Now due to the miscarriage, Kamsa was in a puzzle regarding 'The Eighth One', but his ministers advised that the divine voice from the heavens emphasised "the eight garbha" and so this is the one. That night Krishna was born in the Rohini nakshatra and simultaneously the goddess Durga was born as Yogamaya in Gokulam to Nanda and Yashoda.
Since Vasudeva knew Krishna's life was in danger, Krishna was secretly taken out of the prison cell to be raised by his foster parents, Yasoda and Nanda, in Gokula (in present day Mathura district). Two of his other siblings also survived, Balarama (Devaki's seventh child, transferred to the womb of Rohini, Vasudeva's first wife) and Subhadra (daughter of Vasudeva and Rohini, born much later than Balarama and Krishna).
CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH
Nanda was the head of a community of cow-herders, and he settled in Vrindavana. The stories of Krishna's childhood and youth tell how he became a cow herder, his mischievous pranks as Makhan Chor (butter thief) his foiling of attempts to take his life, and his role as a protector of the people of Vrindavana.
Krishna killed the demoness Putana, disguised as a wet nurse, and the tornado demon Trinavarta both sent by Kamsa for Krishna's life. He tamed the serpent Kāliyā, who previously poisoned the waters of Yamuna river, thus leading to the death of the cowherds. In Hindu art, Krishna is often depicted dancing on the multi-hooded Kāliyā.
Krishna lifted the Govardhana hill and taught Indra, the king of the devas, a lesson to protect native people of Brindavana from persecution by Indra and prevent the devastation of the pasture land of Govardhan. Indra had too much pride and was angry when Krishna advised the people of Brindavana to take care of their animals and their environment that provide them with all their necessities, instead of worshipping Indra annually by spending their resources. In the view of some, the spiritual movement started by Krishna had something in it which went against the orthodox forms of worship of the Vedic gods such as Indra. In Bhagavat Purana, Krishna says that the rain came from the nearby hill Govardhana, and advised that the people worshiped the hill instead of Indra. This made Indra furious, so he punished them by sending out a great storm. Krishna then lifted Govardhan and held it over the people like an umbrella.
The stories of his play with the gopis (milkmaids) of Brindavana, especially Radha (daughter of Vrishbhanu, one of the original residents of Brindavan) became known as the Rasa lila and were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. These became important as part of the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna.
Krishna’s childhood reinforces the Hindu concept of lila, playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or Rasa-lila is a great example of this. Krishna played his flute and the gopis came immediately from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the Yamuna River, and joined him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there joined him through meditation. The story of Krishna’s battle with Kāliyā also supports this idea in the sense of him dancing on Kāliyā’s many hoods. Even though he is doing battle with the serpent, he is in no real danger and treats it like a game. He is a protector, but he only appears to be a young boy having fun. This idea of having a playful god is very important in Hinduism. The playfulness of Krishna has inspired many celebrations like the Rasa-lila and the Janmashtami : where they make human pyramids to break open handis (clay pots) hung high in the air that spill buttermilk all over the group after being broken by the person at the top. This is meant to be a fun celebration and it gives the participants a sense of unity. Many believe that lila being connected with Krishna gives Hindus a deeper connection to him and thus a deeper connection to Vishnu also; seeing as Krishna is an incarnation of Vishnu. Theologists, like Kristin Johnston Largen, believe that Krishna’s childhood can even inspire other religions to look for lila in deities so that they have a chance to experience a part of their faith that they may not have previously seen.
THE PRINCE
On his return to Mathura as a young man, Krishna overthrew and killed his maternal uncle, Kamsa, after quelling several assassination attempts from Kamsa's followers. He reinstated Kamsa's father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and became a leading prince at the court. During this period, he became a friend of Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom, who were his cousins. Later, he took his Yadava subjects to the city of Dwaraka (in modern Gujarat) and established his own kingdom there.
Krishna married Rukmini, the Vidarbha princess, by abducting her, at her request, from her proposed wedding with Shishupala. He married eight queens - collectively called the Ashtabharya - including Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti, Bhadra and Lakshmana. Krishna subsequently married 16,000 or 16,100 maidens who were held captive by the demon Narakasura, to save their honour. Krishna killed the demon and released them all. According to social custom of the time, all of the captive women were degraded, and would be unable to marry, as they had been under the Narakasura's control. However Krishna married them to reinstate their status in the society. This symbolic wedding with 16,100 abandoned daughters was more of a mass rehabilitation. In Vaishnava traditions, Krishna's wives are forms of the goddess Lakshmi - consort of Vishnu, or special souls who attained this qualification after many lifetimes of austerity, while his two queens, Rukmani and Satyabhama, are expansions of Lakshmi.
When Yudhisthira was assuming the title of emperor, he had invited all the great kings to the ceremony and while paying his respects to them, he started with Krishna because he considered Krishna to be the greatest of them all. While it was a unanimous feeling amongst most present at the ceremony that Krishna should get the first honours, his cousin Shishupala felt otherwise and started berating Krishna. Due to a vow given to Shishupal's mother, Krishna forgave a hundred verbal abuses by Shishupal, and upon the one hundred and first, he assumed his Virat (universal) form and killed Shishupal with his Chakra. The blind king Dhritarashtra also obtained divine vision to be able to see this form of Krishna during the time when Duryodana tried to capture Krishna when he came as a peace bearer before the great Mahabharat War. Essentially, Shishupala and Dantavakra were both re-incarnations of Vishnu's gate-keepers Jaya and Vijaya, who were cursed to be born on Earth, to be delivered by the Vishnu back to Vaikuntha.
KURUKSHETRA WAR AND BHAGAVAD GITA
Once battle seemed inevitable, Krishna offered both sides the opportunity to choose between having either his army called narayani sena or himself alone, but on the condition that he personally would not raise any weapon. Arjuna, on behalf of the Pandavas, chose to have Krishna on their side, and Duryodhana, Kaurava prince, chose Krishna's army. At the time of the great battle, Krishna acted as Arjuna's charioteer, since this position did not require the wielding of weapons.
Upon arrival at the battlefield, and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart does not allow him to fight and he would rather prefer to renounce the kingdom and put down his Gandiv (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the battle, with the conversation soon extending into a discourse which was later compiled as the Bhagavad Gita.
Krishna asked Arjuna, "Have you within no time, forgotten the Kauravas' evil deeds such as not accepting the eldest brother Yudhishtira as King, usurping the entire Kingdom without yielding any portion to the Pandavas, meting out insults and difficulties to Pandavas, attempt to murder the Pandavas in the Barnava lac guest house, publicly attempting to disrobe and disgracing Draupadi. Krishna further exhorted in his famous Bhagavad Gita, "Arjuna, do not engage in philosophical analyses at this point of time like a Pundit. You are aware that Duryodhana and Karna particularly have long harboured jealousy and hatred for you Pandavas and badly want to prove their hegemony. You are aware that Bhishmacharya and your Teachers are tied down to their dharma of protecting the unitarian power of the Kuru throne. Moreover, you Arjuna, are only a mortal appointee to carry out my divine will, since the Kauravas are destined to die either way, due to their heap of sins. Open your eyes O Bhaarata and know that I encompass the Karta, Karma and Kriya, all in myself. There is no scope for contemplation now or remorse later, it is indeed time for war and the world will remember your might and immense powers for time to come. So rise O Arjuna!, tighten up your Gandiva and let all directions shiver till their farthest horizons, by the reverberation of its string."
Krishna had a profound effect on the Mahabharata war and its consequences. He had considered the Kurukshetra war to be a last resort after voluntarily acting as a messenger in order to establish peace between the Pandavas and Kauravas. But, once these peace negotiations failed and was embarked into the war, then he became a clever strategist. During the war, upon becoming angry with Arjuna for not fighting in true spirit against his ancestors, Krishna once picked up a carriage wheel in order to use it as a weapon to challenge Bhishma. Upon seeing this, Bhishma dropped his weapons and asked Krishna to kill him. However, Arjuna apologized to Krishna, promising that he would fight with full dedication here/after, and the battle continued. Krishna had directed Yudhisthira and Arjuna to return to Bhishma the boon of "victory" which he had given to Yudhisthira before the war commenced, since he himself was standing in their way to victory. Bhishma understood the message and told them the means through which he would drop his weapons - which was if a woman entered the battlefield. Next day, upon Krishna's directions, Shikhandi (Amba reborn) accompanied Arjuna to the battlefield and thus, Bhishma laid down his arms. This was a decisive moment in the war because Bhishma was the chief commander of the Kaurava army and the most formidable warrior on the battlefield. Krishna aided Arjuna in killing Jayadratha, who had held the other four Pandava brothers at bay while Arjuna's son Abhimanyu entered Drona's Chakravyuha formation - an effort in which he was killed by the simultaneous attack of eight Kaurava warriors. Krishna also caused the downfall of Drona, when he signalled Bhima to kill an elephant called Ashwatthama, the namesake of Drona's son. Pandavas started shouting that Ashwatthama was dead but Drona refused to believe them saying he would believe it only if he heard it from Yudhisthira. Krishna knew that Yudhisthira would never tell a lie, so he devised a clever ploy so that Yudhisthira wouldn't lie and at the same time Drona would be convinced of his son's death. On asked by Drona, Yudhisthira proclaimed
Ashwathama Hatahath, naro va Kunjaro va
i.e. Ashwathama had died but he was nor sure whether it was a Drona's son or an elephant. But as soon as Yudhisthira had uttered the first line, Pandava army on Krishna's direction broke into celebration with drums and conchs, in the din of which Drona could not hear the second part of the Yudhisthira's declaration and assumed that his son indeed was dead. Overcome with grief he laid down his arms, and on Krishna's instruction Dhrishtadyumna beheaded Drona.
When Arjuna was fighting Karna, the latter's chariot's wheels sank into the ground. While Karna was trying to take out the chariot from the grip of the Earth, Krishna reminded Arjuna how Karna and the other Kauravas had broken all rules of battle while simultaneously attacking and killing Abhimanyu, and he convinced Arjuna to do the same in revenge in order to kill Karna. During the final stage of the war, when Duryodhana was going to meet his mother Gandhari for taking her blessings which would convert all parts of his body on which her sight falls to diamond, Krishna tricks him to wearing banana leaves to hide his groin. When Duryodhana meets Gandhari, her vision and blessings fall on his entire body except his groin and thighs, and she becomes unhappy about it because she was not able to convert his entire body to diamond. When Duryodhana was in a mace-fight with Bhima, Bhima's blows had no effect on Duryodhana. Upon this, Krishna reminded Bhima of his vow to kill Duryodhana by hitting him on the thigh, and Bhima did the same to win the war despite it being against the rules of mace-fight (since Duryodhana had himself broken Dharma in all his past acts). Thus, Krishna's unparalleled strategy helped the Pandavas win the Mahabharata war by bringing the downfall of all the chief Kaurava warriors, without lifting any weapon. He also brought back to life Arjuna's grandson Parikshit, who had been attacked by a Brahmastra weapon from Ashwatthama while he was in his mother's womb. Parikshit became the Pandavas' successor.
FAMILY
Krishna had eight princely wives, also known as Ashtabharya: Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Nagnajiti, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Bhadra, Lakshmana) and the other 16,100 or 16,000 (number varies in scriptures), who were rescued from Narakasura. They had been forcibly kept in his palace and after Krishna had killed Narakasura, he rescued these women and freed them. Krishna married them all to save them from destruction and infamity. He gave them shelter in his new palace and a respectful place in society. The chief amongst them is Rohini.
The Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Harivamsa list the children of Krishna from the Ashtabharya with some variation; while Rohini's sons are interpreted to represent the unnumbered children of his junior wives. Most well-known among his sons are Pradyumna, the eldest son of Krishna (and Rukmini) and Samba, the son of Jambavati, whose actions led to the destruction of Krishna's clan.
LATER LIFE
According to Mahabharata, the Kurukshetra war resulted in the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. On the night before Duryodhana's death, Lord Krishna visited Gandhari to offer his condolences. Gandhari felt that Krishna knowingly did not put an end to the war, and in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari cursed that Krishna, along with everyone else from the Yadu dynasty, would perish after 36 years. Krishna himself knew and wanted this to happen as he felt that the Yadavas had become very haughty and arrogant (adharmi), so he ended Gandhari's speech by saying "tathastu" (so be it).
After 36 years passed, a fight broke out between the Yadavas, at a festival, who killed each other. His elder brother, Balarama, then gave up his body using Yoga. Krishna retired into the forest and started meditating under a tree. The Mahabharata also narrates the story of a hunter who becomes an instrument for Krishna's departure from the world. The hunter Jara, mistook Krishna's partly visible left foot for that of a deer, and shot an arrow, wounding him mortally. After he realised the mistake, While still bleeding, Krishna told Jara, "O Jara, you were Bali in your previous birth, killed by myself as Rama in Tretayuga. Here you had a chance to even it and since all acts in this world are done as desired by me, you need not worry for this". Then Krishna, with his physical body ascended back to his eternal abode, Goloka vrindavan and this event marks departure of Krishna from the earth. The news was conveyed to Hastinapur and Dwaraka by eyewitnesses to this event. The place of this incident is believed to be Bhalka, near Somnath temple.
According to Puranic sources, Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE. Vaishnava teachers such as Ramanujacharya and Gaudiya Vaishnavas held the view that the body of Krishna is completely spiritual and never decays (Achyuta) as this appears to be the perspective of the Bhagavata Purana. Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) exhorted, "Krishna Naama Sankirtan" i.e. the constant chanting of the Krishna's name is the supreme healer in Kali Yuga. It destroys sins and purifies the hearts through Bhakti ensures universal peace.
Krishna never appears to grow old or age at all in the historical depictions of the Puranas despite passing of several decades, but there are grounds for a debate whether this indicates that he has no material body, since battles and other descriptions of the Mahabhārata epic show clear indications that he seems to be subject to the limitations of nature. While battles apparently seem to indicate limitations, Mahabharata also shows in many places where Krishna is not subject to any limitations as through episodes Duryodhana trying to arrest Krishna where his body burst into fire showing all creation within him. Krishna is also explicitly described as without deterioration elsewhere.
WORSHIP
VAISHNAVISM
The worship of Krishna is part of Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu as the Supreme God and venerates His associated avatars, their consorts, and related saints and teachers. Krishna is especially looked upon as a full manifestation of Vishnu, and as one with Vishnu himself. However the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse, where Krishna is sometimes considered an independent deity, supreme in his own right. Out of many deities, Krishna is particularly important, and traditions of Vaishnava lines are generally centered either on Vishnu or on Krishna, as supreme. The term Krishnaism has been used to describe the sects of Krishna, reserving the term "Vaishnavism" for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an avatar, rather than as a transcendent Supreme Being.
All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu; while traditions, such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Vallabha Sampradaya and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, regard Krishna as the Svayam Bhagavan, original form of God. Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala of late Vedic period. Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.
EARLY TRADITIONS
The deity Krishna-Vasudeva (kṛṣṇa vāsudeva "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism. It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of the worship of Krishna in antiquity. This tradition is considered as earliest to other traditions that led to amalgamation at a later stage of the historical development. Other traditions are Bhagavatism and the cult of Gopala, that along with the cult of Bala Krishna form the basis of current tradition of monotheistic religion of Krishna. Some early scholars would equate it with Bhagavatism, and the founder of this religious tradition is believed to be Krishna, who is the son of Vasudeva, thus his name is Vāsudeva; he is said to be historically part of the Satvata tribe, and according to them his followers called themselves Bhagavatas and this religion had formed by the 2nd century BC (the time of Patanjali), or as early as the 4th century BC according to evidence in Megasthenes and in the Arthasastra of Kautilya, when Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme deity in a strongly monotheistic format, where the supreme being was perfect, eternal and full of grace. In many sources outside of the cult, the devotee or bhakta is defined as Vāsudevaka. The Harivamsa describes intricate relationships between Krishna Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha that would later form a Vaishnava concept of primary quadrupled expansion, or avatar.
BHAKTI TRADITION
Bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotional and ecstatic aspects of Hindu religion, particularly among the Vaishnava sects. Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of lila, meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the Universe. The lilas of Krishna, with their expressions of personal love that transcend the boundaries of formal reverence, serve as a counterpoint to the actions of another avatar of Vishnu: Rama, "He of the straight and narrow path of maryada, or rules and regulations."
The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil country. A major collection of their works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre. Kulasekaraazhvaar's Mukundamala was another notable work of this early stage.
SPREAD OF THE KRISHNA-BHAKTI MOVEMENT
The movement, which started in the 6th-7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs. The religion of Alvar poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions. The movement originated in South India during the seventh-century CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the fifteenth century, it was established in Bengal and northern India.
While the learned sections of the society well versed in Sanskrit could enjoy works like Gita Govinda or Bilvamangala's Krishna-Karnamritam, the masses sang the songs of the devotee-poets, who composed in the regional languages of India. These songs expressing intense personal devotion were written by devotees from all walks of life. The songs of Meera and Surdas became epitomes of Krishna-devotion in north India.
These devotee-poets, like the Alvars before them, were aligned to specific theological schools only loosely, if at all. But by the 11th century AD, Vaishnava Bhakti schools with elaborate theological frameworks around the worship of Krishna were established in north India. Nimbarka (11th century AD), Vallabhacharya (15th century AD) and (Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) (16th century AD) all inspired by the teachings of Madhvacharya (11th century AD) were the founders of the most influential schools. These schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya and Gaudiya Vaishnavism respectively, see Krishna as the supreme God, rather than an avatar, as generally seen.
In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Varkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba, a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century. In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti named Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.
IN THE WEST
In 1965, the Krishna-bhakti movement had spread outside India when its founder, Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, (who was instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) traveled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of the saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In an effort to gain attention, followers chanted the names of God in public locations. This chanting was known as hari-nama sankirtana and helped spread the teaching. Additionally, the practice of distributing prasad or “sanctified food” worked as a catalyst in the dissemination of his works. In the Hare Krishna movement, Prasad was a vegetarian dish that would be first offered to Krishna. The food’s proximity to Krishna added a “spiritual effect,” and was seen to “counteract material contamination affecting the soul.” Sharing this sanctified food with the public, in turn, enabled the movement to gain new recruits and further spread these teachings.
WIKIPEDIA
Stasimuseum - Campus für Demokratie Berlin
Der Ruheraum von Stasi-Chef Erich Mielke - heute Stasi-Museum.
Hier bekommt die Banalität des Bösen eine besondere visuelle Qualität. Mielkes Arbeitsumfeld, das "Kasino", sein Ruheraum - alles das strahlt eine Piefigkeit und biedere Geschmacklosigkeit sondersgleichen aus und will scheinbar so überhaup nicht zu dieser infamen, niederträchtigen und boshaften Terrorfirma passen.
Sozusagen ein Monster in braunkarierten Filzpantoffeln.
Dazu hängt nach 35 Jahren noch immer der selbe unbeschreibliche DDR-Mief in den Räumen - eine Mischung aus Karbol ,Kohl und Kohlen, Schweiß, Tabakrauch und Mottenpulver.
Der Gestank steckt in den Möbeln, den Gardinen, den Teppichen und der Holzverkleidung und ist in einigen Räumen so intensiv, als wäre der letzte Tschekist grade eben um die Ecke verschwunden. So wie eine alte Eckkneipe oder ein Kuhstall den Geruch nicht loswerden, so müffelt es dort noch immer nach DDR-Amtsstube. Das Parfüm der DDR-Staatsmacht.
Povera patria! Schiacciata dagli abusi del potere
di gente infame, che non sa cos'è il pudore,
si credono potenti e gli va bene quello che fanno;
e tutto gli appartiene.
Tra i governanti, quanti perfetti e inutili buffoni!
Questo paese è devastato dal dolore...
ma non vi danno un po' di dispiacere
quei corpi in terra senza più calore?
Non cambierà, non cambierà,
no cambierà, forse cambierà.
Ma come scusare le iene negli stadi e quelle dei giornali?
Nel fango affonda lo stivale dei maiali.
Me ne vergogno un poco, e mi fa male
vedere un uomo come un animale.
Non cambierà, non cambierà,
sì che cambierà, vedrai che cambierà.
Voglio sperare che il mondo torni a quote più normali
che possa contemplare il cielo e i fiori,
che non si parli più di dittature
se avremo ancora un po' da vivere...
La primavera intanto tarda ad arrivare
« L’art « dégénéré » : le procès de l’art moderne sous le nazisme. » étudie en particulier l’exposition de propagande « Entartete Kunst » (Art dégénéré), organisée en 1937 à Munich, montrant plus de 700 œuvres d’une centaine d’artistes, représentants des différents courants de l’art moderne, d’Otto Dix à Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, de Vassily Kandinsky à Emil Nolde, de Paul Klee à Max Beckmann, dans une mise en scène conçue pour provoquer le dégoût du visiteur.
Point culminant d’une série d’expositions infamantes mises en place dans plusieurs musées dès 1933 (Dresde, Mannheim, Karlsruhe…) pour dénoncer les avant-gardes artistiques comme une menace à la « pureté » allemande, « Entartete Kunst » s’inscrit dans le contexte d’une « purge » méthodique des collections allemandes. Plus de 20 000 œuvres, parmi lesquelles celles de Vincent Van Gogh, Marc Chagall ou de Pablo Picasso, désigné comme artiste « dégénéré » dès les années 1920 aussi bien en France, qu’en Allemagne, sont ainsi retirées, vendues ou détruites.Au centre de cette histoire, le terme de « dégénérescence», émergeant au cours du XIXe siècle dans différentes disciplines (histoire naturelle, médecine, anthropologie, histoire de l’art…) jusqu’à sa cristallisation au cœur de la « vision du monde » national-socialiste, sert de vecteur au déploiement des théories racistes et antisémites au sein de l’histoire de l’art.
Source:
blog.mondediplo.net/vouloir-perdre-vouloir-gagner
Vouloir perdre, vouloir gagner
par Frédéric Lordon, 24 mai 2023
Quand un pouvoir en est à redouter des casseroles, des bouts de papier rouges et des sifflets, c’est qu’il est au bord de tomber. Est-on fondé à se dire. Et pourtant il tient. Il tient parce que des institutions totalement vicieuses le lui permettent. Parce que toute moralité politique, tout ethos démocratique, l’ont abandonné. Parce qu’il est aux mains de forcenés qui n’ont plus aucune idée de limite.
Il tient aussi parce que les conducteurs du mouvement – pour parler clair, l’Intersyndicale – n’ont pas eu le début du commencement d’une analyse de l’adversaire, et persistent dans une stratégie désormais avérée perdante – on n’avait d’ailleurs nul besoin de passer quatre mois à le vérifier : on pouvait le leur dire dès le premier jour. Les stratégies de la décence démocratique, par la seule manifestation paisible du nombre, échouent là où, en face, il n’y a plus que de l’indécence démocratique.
Partie pour perdre
Comme il était clair depuis ce même premier jour à qui n’avait pas envie de se raconter des histoires pour enfants, l’Intersyndicale était partie pour perdre. C’est bien ce qui l’a rendue si sympathique aux yeux des médias. Quand elle se penche sur les forces de gauche, la presse bourgeoise n’a d’yeux et de sentiment que pour celles qui sont de droite ou pour celles qui sont perdantes. C’est une loi absolument générale que la presse bourgeoise est une instance de consécration négative. La chose vaut en matière de littérature, de pensée, d’art, comme en politique : ceux que la presse bourgeoise bénit, par là on connaît leur « valeur », et aussi leur destin — entre innocuité, phagocytose et renégation. La condition nécessaire de l’espoir, d’une perspective, c’est de se diriger vers ceux qu’elle exècre.
"
Lire aussi Sophie Béroud & Martin Thibault, « Du dialogue social à l’épreuve de force », Le Monde diplomatique, avril 2023. "
La presse a d’emblée adulé l’Intersyndicale Berger. Son sort était scellé. Avec Laurent Berger, le conflit social s’était doté d’un étonnant leader. Un leader capable de prononcer une phrase aussi avariée que « La gauche s’est fait piéger dans l’idée que le travail est un lieu d’exploitation et d’aliénation » — à l’époque du capitalisme le plus furieux, le plus destructeur, qui s’est donné pour nouvelle frontière le travail des vieux jusqu’à la mort, et y ajoutera bientôt celui des enfants ! Un leader de conflit qui hait le conflit. Et n’était par conséquent déterminé à aucun affrontement d’aucune autre sorte que symbolique.
Les démonstrations symboliques n’ont d’effet qu’auprès de protagonistes sensibles aux démonstrations symboliques
Tragique erreur : les démonstrations symboliques n’ont d’effet qu’auprès de protagonistes sensibles aux démonstrations symboliques. Et sinon, elles sont grotesquement inefficaces. On pense à ce film où le héros est confronté à un adversaire qui tente de l’impressionner avec une démonstration d’art martiaux supposément intimidante — à ce stade, donc, essentiellement symbolique. Le héros sort un pistolet, boum, par terre le démonstrateur symbolique. Pareil avec Bruce Berger. C’est bien pourquoi on pouvait prédire dès janvier qu’aligner répétitivement des millions de manifestants dans les rues ne conduirait à rien. Les gesticulations, en face, ils s’en foutent.
Le mouvement imperdable
C’était pourtant le mouvement imperdable. Une conjonction comme on n’en avait jamais vue : une réforme inique, indéfendable, un pays exaspéré de la destruction néolibérale, un président haï, un pouvoir d’une brutalité qui indigne le monde entier, des sondages d’opposition à des niveaux inouïs, une colère noire partout, accumulée depuis des années. C’était le mouvement imperdable, et s’il reste aux mains de cette Intersyndicale il sera perdu.
Contrairement à ce qu’on pourrait penser, on ne passe pas sans solution de continuité d’un affect de colère noire, fût-il à l’échelle du pays entier, à un mouvement social gagnant. Il y faut un opérateur de conversion : c’est-à-dire un pôle capable de convertir un affect commun, ici d’une rare intensité, en une force politique effective. C’était la responsabilité de l’Intersyndicale, et c’est son échec. C’était sa responsabilité historique : mettre en forme, stratégiquement, la puissance du nombre pour mettre un coup d’arrêt au néolibéralisme. L’enjeu était même plus grand encore : poser une victoire de gauche, seule à même d’enrayer la dynamique de fascisation à qui toutes les colères profitent autrement. Or, l’Intersyndicale aura été la fabrique de l’impuissance. Elle a certes produit le nombre, mais du nombre vain, du nombre inutile — du nombre qui perd.
"
Lire aussi Pierre Souchon, « “On fait avec ce qu’on a !” », Le Monde diplomatique, avril 2023. "
Et pourtant, le nombre ne se résigne pas à perdre. Les casserolades sont devenues le symbole admirable de cette combativité qui ne désarme pas. Paradoxe (ça n’en est pas un) : on y retrouve bon nombre de syndiqués, de la CGT, de Sud, en cherchant bien on y dégoterait même un peu de CFDT. Les casserolades c’est la vraie Intersyndicale : l’Intersyndicale par le bas. En mieux même : ouverte au monde extra-syndical, activistes d’organisations variées (c’est tout de même Attac qui a lancé le mouvement), citoyens ordinaires. Un laboratoire. Qui illustre cette vérité ambivalente que l’auto-organisation n’a besoin de personne… et cependant qu’elle a aussi besoin d’un pôle.
Pour peu qu’on les regarde avec deux sous de lucidité, en effet, les casserolades, si merveilleuses soient-elles, sont vouées à l’extinction. Pour une raison simple, toujours la même : on « n’y va pas », ou on « n’ira plus », si on se sent seuls à y aller, et surtout s’il n’existe aucun débouché, aucune perspective stratégique de victoire pour soutenir la mobilisation dans le temps. Alors, logiquement, l’effort s’étiole, et les casserolades séparées s’éteignent les unes après les autres.
La faute la plus impardonnable de l’Intersyndicale, c’est de n’avoir à ce point rien fait d’une telle abondance d’énergie politique — c’est d’avoir failli comme pôle de la mise en forme stratégique. La nécessité d’un pôle est une nécessité logique. Sauf à croire aux miracles de la coordination spontanée à grande échelle, seul un pôle peut agréger les multiples puissances locales, autrement vouées à demeurer éparses, en une puissance globale, et ceci en leur proposant une direction stratégique. Une direction que tout le monde regarde et à partir de laquelle, la regardant, tout le monde se coalise réellement, dans une action puissante.
La grève reconductible (solution logique, solution refusée)
La solution polaire, la solution de puissance coalisée était évidente — en fait, il n’y en avait qu’une : la grève, sinon générale, du moins aussi étendue que possible et reconductible. C’est bien ici que se fait connaître et le pouvoir et la responsabilité du pôle : la coordination — encore. Définitivement échaudés par « la grève par procuration » de 2010, qui avait vu certains d’entre eux se lancer pour se retrouver isolés et abandonnés, les secteurs maintenant se regardent les uns les autres en attendant pour bouger une garantie que tous bougeront. Seul un « centre » peut la leur offrir… pourvu qu’il parle. Et même qu’il parle fort, quand il faut venir à bout du souvenir de tant de conflits perdus, de tant de « sorties » pour rien.
Mais le centre est resté muet, ressassant lui-même la complainte de l’inanité des « appels dans le vide ». Les appels en soi, sans doute, à plus forte raison du dehors. Cependant qui appelle ne ferait-il pas une petite différence ? Par exemple lorsque « qui » est une Intersyndicale — plutôt qu’un meeting parisien.
« Solution de papier et d’incantation », persiste malgré tout la « voie institutionnelle » (« on va se faire entendre », « on va être exemplaires, on aura le soutien des médias », « on va parler aux partis », « on va impressionner l’Assemblée »). Interrogée par Mediapart, Sophie Binet déroule à nouveau l’argumentaire automatique du ne-rien-faire : « Il n’y pas de bouton “Grève générale” sur lequel il suffirait d’appuyer », « Les transformations du monde du travail, son atomisation notamment, y font de toute manière obstacle ». Le pire étant que cet argumentaire n’est pas absolument faux. En effet, le monde du travail n’est plus celui du fordisme, et en effet il n’y a nulle part de « bouton ». Mais il y a des conjonctures, qui interdisent de répéter à l’identique les bonnes raisons de la passivité. Or, celle de 2023 est inédite — à l’échelle des trente dernières années. Elle rend à nouveau possibles des choses encore impossibles il y a peu. Au moins elle justifiait d’essayer.
Quand on est un pôle, on sait qu’on fait de la politique. Donc qu’une initiative risque toujours d’échouer. Mais aussi qu’il se présente des situations où le risque en vaut néanmoins la chandelle. C’était le cas. Au moment du 49.3, la colère est portée à un point d’incandescence. La fenêtre s’ouvre. Les énergies sont décuplées, se cherchent des points d’application. Les manifs nocturnes fleurissent spontanément, les rues de Paris sont en flammes, de très belles images qui ne manqueront pas d’impressionner Fitch.
Jamais de telles conditions n’avaient existé pour qu’un appel, lancé depuis le pôle, ait autant de chances d’être entendu. Un appel clair et puissant, résolu, qui dise l’armement des caisses de grève, la nécessité et la possibilité que les énergies salariales se donnent une forme coalisée dans le grand débrayage, qui dise surtout que la grève soutenue, coordonnée à grande échelle, a les plus grandes chances de faire plier le camp d’en-face, que cet effort-là ne sera pas vain comme les journées passées à arpenter.
Mais l’Intersyndicale est Berger. Et Bruce n’ira pas au-delà de la gesticulation symbolique. Car il est bien élevé. Et nous constatons, une fois de plus, à quoi conduit de se soumettre aux médias comme arbitres des élégances : à la défaite. Mais à la défaite avec les félicitations du jury. Alors on peut rentrer content de soi à la maison.
Eh bien non, il n’y a pas de quoi être content. Perdre avec le respect de la bourgeoisie, c’est perdre deux fois : avec les honneurs de la bourgeoisie, en plus d’avoir été défait. Et en ayant oublié Flaubert : « les honneurs déshonorent ».
Une stratégie phasée
On pouvait accorder du bien-fondé à la stratégie de l’Intersyndicale, à la condition qu’elle-même la considérât comme phasée : un premier temps de pure construction du nombre et du capital symbolique était utile. Mais ceci supposait que l’Intersyndicale serait capable de se transcender elle-même et, passé le premier temps de construction, d’entrer dans une deuxième phase, de pivoter, de faire quelque chose du nombre construit. C’était trop demander.
Le moment pourtant lui a été désigné : 16 mars, 49.3. Pour son malheur, l’Histoire, dont on, dit usuellement qu’elle ne repasse pas les plats, pourrait bien rouvrir une fenêtre. Voici la proposition de loi d’abrogation LIOT. Et surtout son devenir probable : votée à l’Assemblée, elle sera rejetée au Sénat, mais avec interruption violente du processus parlementaire par refus de convoquer une commission mixte paritaire. À supposer d’ailleurs qu’elle ne soit pas d’emblée escamotée au prétexte de l’article 40. Dans tous les cas, ce sera un nouveau coup de force, semblable en niveau d’outrage à celui du 49.3. La colère est encore rougeoyante, bienvenue au litre d’alcool à brûler.
Il a toujours mieux valu des unités moindres mais combatives que des unités larges mais désireuses de perdre, en tout cas de ne rien faire de ce qui était requis pour vaincre
Cette loi LIOT, quel fléau pour l’Intersyndicale — qui l’oblige à faire quelque chose là où elle n’a envie de rien faire, qui lui tend des opportunités qu’elle n’a aucun désir de saisir. Car nous savons qu’en l’état, l’Intersyndicale ne fera rien de plus de cette deuxième fenêtre miraculeuse. Sauf à ce qu’elle mute : en se séparant de la CFDT, et en se resserrant comme bloc enfin combatif. Évidemment, pour en trouver les voies, il faudrait rompre avec le fétichisme de « l’unité », c’est-à-dire être capable de ne pas se laisser impressionner par les larmes de crocodile médiatiques, qui ne manqueraient pas de prononcer la fin de tout sitôt le départ de Berger, le doudou de la défaite avec les honneurs. L’« unité », ce talisman mensonger. Il n’y avait pas d’« unité » en 1995. Et 1995 a gagné – pour cette raison même : il a toujours mieux valu des unités moindres mais combatives que des unités larges mais désireuses de perdre, en tout cas de ne rien faire de ce qui était requis pour vaincre (comme d’élargir la revendication à l’indexation des salaires, cet embrayeur irrésistible). L’unité intransitive, l’unité pour l’unité, est un mirage. On comprend que les médias mettent tant d’efforts à nous la rendre si précieuse.
"
Lire aussi Laurent Bonelli, « Brutalisation de l’ordre manifestant », Le Monde diplomatique, mai 2023. "
Ce mouvement imperdable, mais dont les conducteurs ont tout fait pour qu’il perde, n’a donc pas encore perdu. Pour peu que le pôle démissionnaire se restructure en pôle résolu — à remettre la grève à l’ordre du jour. On reste songeur que cette solution ait été aussi obstinément évacuée. N’était-elle pas la seule stratégie de puissance, d’ailleurs doublement préférable puisque son efficacité est établie et qu’elle minimise l’engagement violent — à cet égard, elle est vraiment la dernière station avant l’autoroute insurrectionnelle. Car tous ceux qui ont vu leur énergie absorbée par le vortex de l’impuissance en tireront, ont déjà commencé à en tirer, des conclusions. L’Intersyndicale Berger qui a de la « condamnation de toutes les violences » plein la bouche aurait dû « logiquement » faire un effort non seulement pour considérer la grève dure, mais pour la promouvoir ardemment. Au lieu de répéter bras ballants que « les gens sont très en colère ». Et de les y abandonner sans solution.
On peut supposer que la profondeur des organisations syndicales ne manque pas de militants déterminés, qui observent consternés l’impasse où leurs dirigeants les ont conduits. De la liste, qu’on croyait enfin terminable, des défaites syndicales enfilées comme des perles depuis 2010 (les retraites, déjà), celle de 2023 restera comme une sorte de joyau de la couronne. Le scandale des institutions, c’est le gaspillage qu’elles font du dévouement de leurs membres : tous ces piquets à l’aube, tous ces salaires abandonnés, tous ces coups reçus dans les déblocages, toutes ces intimidations judiciaires. Pour rien ?
Il n’est nullement fatal qu’il en soit ainsi, même encore aujourd’hui. Pendant quatre mois, il faut se souvenir que ce pouvoir a été d’une certaine manière un allié objectif, aussi puissant qu’inattendu, des mobilisations : par le spectacle continu de son infamie et le sentiment de scandale qu’il n’a cessé de nourrir. Ce « naturel » là n’est pas près de faire défaut.
La voie de la grande grève n’est pas fermée pour peu qu’un nouveau pôle vienne à se former, quitte d’ailleurs à ce que ce soit à partir de l’ancien. Un pôle qui soit capable d’analyse. Analyse stratégique de ce qu’il est permis d’espérer comme compromis significatif dans le jeu policé (et frelaté) du « dialogue social » — rien —, et de ce que ce « rien » détermine comme seule issue conséquente : une ligne d’affrontement autre que « symbolique ». Et puis analyse tactique de ce qu’une conjoncture à la fois fluide et inflammatoire peut réserver d’opportunités. Pour que, si venait à s’ouvrir une nouvelle fenêtre, cette fois elle soit prise.
Frédéric Lordon
...alzando lo sguardo, da mare.
Qualche scatto senza infamia e senza lode, che pubblico solo per far conoscere questi luoghi. Non sentitevi quindi obbligati a far complimenti. Davvero.
Buenos días, my friends!
E depois de um tempinho sem postar fotos dazunhas, venho hj com esse lindo, tesão, bonito e gostosão! kkkkk e dyvoo que todas já conhecem!
Então, eu sei q banquei a ~novidadêra~ e usei meio que na semana seguinte q chegou aqui em casa...só que já tem um tempo..é que esse lance de fotos atrasadas na galeria confunde a cabeça da gente! kkkkkk
Quis vir mostrar essa semana pq é o tema do Domingo das Leitoras do TSE é Texturizados! vai que néah?!
Dispensa apresentações a despeito do título e tive a sensação que todas comentam...fui passando e achei q nunca mais cobriria a unha toda, já tava morrendo de dó, pq esse veio naquele mini kit ~tico~ com os outros da ~máraya~! nem vou dizer q estranhei a textura apesar de haver me planejado de usar tc msm sendo uma infâmia pros sand só pra ver como ficaria e pro caso de não gostar!
And meooodeos q q é isso, minha gentxis, brilha o bicho que é uma beleza! ameeei tanto q ficou uns bons 6 dias nazunhas! tem trocentas fotos! #exagerada tá dificil escolher uma!
E eu nem passei TC! fiquei com dó...rsrsrsrs....
O mais engraçado q o último q achei q usaria foi o primeiro só pq aprendi com azamiguinhas q vermelho cai bem na minha pessoa! Thank you, my friends! <3
é isso,
bjooooooooos
Je vois dans le journal que l'église restaurée de Tréguennec est ouverte pour la dernière fois cet été le dimanche 13 . Il ne faut pas manquer ça .
On y est très bien accueilli par une Dame passionnée . Elle est claire et fort bien restaurée . Je suis par contre surpris par la voûte, les sablières et les entraits peints dans un bleu cassé d'aspect métallisé . C'est tout à fait contemporain … Et l'éventuelle polychromie ancienne en a fait les frais, dont les étoiles de la voûte dont le tort infâme aurait été de dater du XVIIIième …
Maitresse-vitre
Baie d'Audierne, Finistère, Bretagne, France .
Photographie Leroy Jean-Patrick, tous droits réservés .
Vento di poca fortuna a battere le vele
E l’eco della luna sulle nostre ombre nere
Merce senza valore anime da rubare
Ossa di pelle salata un tappeto sopra il mare
Nsignami comu si mori, ‘unni m’haiu a ‘mmucciari
dimmi cu quali pedi putissi caminari
suli senza li stiddi nè punti cardinali
cori senza patruni, semu carni pi l’animali
(Insegnami come si muore o dove mi devo nascondere,
dimmi con quali piedi potremmo mai camminare
soli senza orientamento
cuori senza padrone siamo carne da macello...)
Orfani della stella dei punti cardinali
Siamo meno di niente siamo cibo per animali
Viaggio di solo ritorno speranza disperata
Metodo del futuro salvezza rifiutata
Dimmi comu si scappa a stu tintu distinu
ca tra lu mari arriva, ‘un cci basta na manu
forsi chista è la vita ca dura na nuttata
e nni lassa dintra l’occhi spiranza dispirata
(Dimmi come si scampa a questo destino infame
che giunge col mare non è sufficiente dare una mano
forse questa è la vita che dura solo una notte
che ci lascia negli occhi solo speranza disperata!)
Quello che fa più male in fondo a questa storia
È assistere al silenzio al silenzio della memoria
Partivano i bastimenti per terre assai lontane
Facce coi nostri nomi che cercavano il pane
Non avevamo niente solo le nostre mani
Sulla rotta dell’America eravamo gli africani
Ventu di scarsa sorti ciusciava ncapu li varchi
e ‘a vuci di la luna è sulu sciatu di st’umbra scura
ca forsi semu nenti o forsi semu li mani
pi spinciri li mura pi scriviri lu dumani.
(Vento di poca fortuna a battere le vele
e l'eco della luna sulle nostre ombre nere
Siamo niente o siamo forse le mani
che devono abbattere le mura e scrivere il domani)
Soundtrack, Edoardo De Angelis, “Speranza disperata"
Texture: “* Beyond The Deep *" by Pareeerica
Krishna [1](/ˈkrɪʃnə/; Sanskrit: कृष्ण, Kṛṣṇa in IAST, pronounced [ˈkr̩ʂɳə] ( listen)) is considered the supreme deity, worshipped across many traditions of Hinduism in a variety of different perspectives. Krishna is recognized as the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Lord Vishnu, and one and the same as Lord Vishnu one of the trimurti and as the supreme god in his own right. Krishna is the principal protagonist with Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita also known as the Song of God, which depicts the conversation between the Royal Prince Arjuna and Krishna during the great battle of Kurukshetra 5000 years ago where Arjuna discovers that Krishna is God and then comprehends his nature and will for him and for mankind. In present age Krishna is one of the most widely revered and most popular of all Indian divinities.[2]
Krishna is often described and portrayed as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a flute as in the Bhagavata Purana,[3] or as an elder giving direction and guidance as in the Bhagavad Gita.[4] The stories of Krishna appear across a broad spectrum of Hindu philosophical and theological traditions.[5] They portray him in various perspectives: a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the Supreme Being.[6] The principal scriptures discussing Krishna's story are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana.
Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga (present age), which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[7] Worship of the deity Krishna, either in the form of deity Krishna or in the form of Vasudeva, Bala Krishna or Gopala can be traced to as early as 4th century BC.[8][9] Worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, or the supreme being, known as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. From the 10th century AD, Krishna became a favourite subject in performing arts and regional traditions of devotion developed for forms of Krishna such as Jagannatha in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra and Shrinathji in Rajasthan. Since the 1960s the worship of Krishna has also spread in the Western world, largely due to the International Society for Krishna Consciousness.[10]The name originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning "black", "dark" or "dark blue".[11] The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha in the Vedic tradition, relating to the adjective meaning "darkening".[12] Sometimes it is also translated as "all-attractive", according to members of the Hare Krishna movement.[13]
As a name of Vishnu, Krishna listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama. Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in murtis as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets and titles, which reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are Mohan "enchanter", Govinda, "Finder of the cows" or Gopala, "Protector of the cows", which refer to Krishna's childhood in Braj (in present day Uttar Pradesh).[14][15] Some of the distinct names may be regionally important; for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India.[16]Krishna is easily recognized by his representations. Though his skin color may be depicted as black or dark in some representations, particularly in murtis, in other images such as modern pictorial representations, Krishna is usually shown with a blue skin. He is often shown wearing a silk dhoti and a peacock feather crown. Common depictions show him as a little boy, or as a young man in a characteristically relaxed pose, playing the flute.[17][18] In this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other with a flute raised to his lips, in the Tribhanga posture, accompanied by cows, emphasizing his position as the divine herdsman, Govinda, or with the gopis (milkmaids) i.e. Gopikrishna, stealing butter from neighbouring houses i.e. Navneet Chora or Gokulakrishna, defeating the vicious serpent i.e. Kaliya Damana Krishna, lifting the hill i.e. Giridhara Krishna ..so on and so forth from his childhood / youth events.
A steatite (soapstone) tablet unearthed from Mohenjo-daro, Larkana district, Sindh depicting a young boy uprooting two trees from which are emerging two human figures is an interesting archaeological find for fixing dates associated with Krishna. This image recalls the Yamalarjuna episode of Bhagavata and Harivamsa Purana. In this image, the young boy is Krishna, and the two human beings emerging from the trees are the two cursed gandharvas, identified as Nalakubara and Manigriva. Dr. E.J.H. Mackay, who did the excavation at Mohanjodaro, compares this image with the Yamalarjuna episode. Prof. V.S. Agrawal has also accepted this identification. Thus, it seems that the Indus valley people knew stories related to Krishna. This lone find may not establish Krishna as contemporary with Pre-Indus or Indus times, but, likewise, it cannot be ignored.[19][20]The scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata, notably where he addresses Pandava prince Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita, is another common subject for representation. In these depictions, he is shown as a man, often with supreme God characteristics of Hindu religious art, such as multiple arms or heads, denoting power, and with attributes of Vishnu, such as the chakra or in his two-armed form as a charioteer. Cave paintings dated to 800 BCE in Mirzapur, Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh, show raiding horse-charioteers, one of whom is about to hurl a wheel, and who could potentially be identified as Krishna.[21]
Representations in temples often show Krishna as a man standing in an upright, formal pose. He may be alone, or with associated figures:[22] his brother Balarama and sister Subhadra, or his main queens Rukmini and Satyabhama.
Often, Krishna is pictured with his gopi-consort Radha. Manipuri Vaishnavas do not worship Krishna alone, but as Radha Krishna,[23] a combined image of Krishna and Radha. This is also a characteristic of the schools Rudra[24] and Nimbarka sampradaya,[25] as well as that of Swaminarayan sect. The traditions celebrate Radha Ramana murti, who is viewed by Gaudiyas as a form of Radha Krishna.[26]
Krishna is also depicted and worshipped as a small child (Bala Krishna, Bāla Kṛṣṇa the child Krishna), crawling on his hands and knees or dancing, often with butter or Laddu in his hand being Laddu Gopal.[27][28] Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as Jaganatha of Odisha, Vithoba of Maharashtra,[29] Venkateswara (also Srinivasa or Balaji) in Andhra Pradesh, and Shrinathji in Rajasthan.The earliest text to explicitly provide detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahabharata which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu.[30] Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic that constitute the Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to the warrior-hero Arjuna, on the battlefield. Krishna is already an adult in the epic, although there are allusions to his earlier exploits. The Harivamsa, a later appendix to this epic, contains the earliest detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.
The Rig Veda 1.22.164 sukta 31 mentions a herdsman "who never stumbles".[31] Some Vaishnavite scholars, such as Bhaktivinoda Thakura, claim that this herdsman refers to Krishna.[32] Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar also attempted to show that "the very same Krishna" made an appearance, e.g. as the drapsa ... krishna "black drop" of RV 8.96.13.[33] Some authors have also likened prehistoric depictions of deities to Krishna.
Chandogya Upanishad (3.17.6) composed around 900 BCE[34] mentions Vasudeva Krishna as the son of Devaki and the disciple of Ghora Angirasa, the seer who preached his disciple the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya.’ Having been influenced by the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya’ Krishna in the Bhagavadgita while delivering the discourse to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra discussed about sacrifice, which can be compared to purusha or the individual.[35][36][37][38]
Yāska's Nirukta, an etymological dictionary around 6th century BC, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura, a motif from well known Puranic story about Krishna.[39] Shatapatha Brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka, associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.[40]
Pāṇini, the ancient grammarian and author of Asthadhyayi (probably belonged to 5th century or 6th century BC) mentions a character called Vāsudeva, son of Vasudeva, and also mentions Kaurava and Arjuna which testifies to Vasudeva Krishna, Arjuna and Kauravas being contemporaries.[35][41][42]
Megasthenes (350 – 290 BC) a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to the court of Chandragupta Maurya made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica. Many scholars have suggested that the deity identified as Herakles was Krishna. According to Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo, Megasthenes described an Indian tribe called Sourasenoi, who especially worshipped Herakles in their land, and this land had two cities, Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river, the Jobares. As was common in the ancient period, the Greeks sometimes described foreign gods in terms of their own divinities, and there is a little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged; Herakles to Krishna, or Hari-Krishna: Methora to Mathura, where Krishna was born; Kleisobora to Krishnapura, meaning "the city of Krishna"; and the Jobares to the Yamuna, the famous river in the Krishna story. Quintus Curtius also mentions that when Alexander the Great confronted Porus, Porus's soldiers were carrying an image of Herakles in their vanguard.[43]
The name Krishna occurs in Buddhist writings in the form Kānha, phonetically equivalent to Krishna.[44]
The Ghata-Jâtaka (No. 454) gives an account of Krishna's childhood and subsequent exploits which in many points corresponds with the Brahmanic legends of his life and contains several familiar incidents and names, such as Vâsudeva, Baladeva, Kaṃsa. Yet it presents many peculiarities and is either an independent version or a misrepresentation of a popular story that had wandered far from its home. Jain tradition also shows that these tales were popular and were worked up into different forms, for the Jains have an elaborate system of ancient patriarchs which includes Vâsudevas and Baladevas. Krishna is the ninth of the Black Vâsudevas and is connected with Dvâravatî or Dvârakâ. He will become the twelfth tîrthankara of the next world-period and a similar position will be attained by Devakî, Rohinî, Baladeva and Javakumâra, all members of his family. This is a striking proof of the popularity of the Krishna legend outside the Brahmanic religion.[45]
According to Arthasastra of Kautilya (4th century BCE) Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly monotheistic format.[41]
Around 150 BC, Patanjali in his Mahabhashya quotes a verse: "May the might of Krishna accompanied by Samkarshana increase!" Other verses are mentioned. One verse speaks of "Janardhana with himself as fourth" (Krishna with three companions, the three possibly being Samkarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha). Another verse mentions musical instruments being played at meetings in the temples of Rama (Balarama) and Kesava (Krishna). Patanjali also describes dramatic and mimetic performances (Krishna-Kamsopacharam) representing the killing of Kamsa by Vasudeva.[46][47]
In the 1st century BC, there seems to be evidence for a worship of five Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba) for an inscription has been found at Mora near Mathura, which apparently mentions a son of the great satrap Rajuvula, probably the satrap Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, "probably Vasudeva, and of the "Five Warriors".[48] Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum.[49][50]
Many Puranas tell Krishna's life-story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana, that contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna’s story and teachings are the most theologically venerated by the Vaishnava schools.[51] Roughly one quarter of the Bhagavata Purana is spent extolling his life and philosophy.
Life[edit]
This summary is based on details from the Mahābhārata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana. The scenes from the narrative are set in north India mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Delhi and Gujarat.Based on scriptural details and astrological calculations, the date of Krishna's birth, known as Janmashtami,[52] is 18 July 3228 BCE.[53] He was born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva,[54][55] When Mother Earth became upset by the sin being committed on Earth, she thought of seeking help from Lord Vishnu. She went in the form of a cow to visit Lord Vishnu and ask for help. Lord Vishnu agreed to help her and promised her that he would be born on Earth. On Earth in the Yadava clan, he was yadav according to his birth, a prince named Kansa sent his father Ugrasena (King of Mathura) to prison and became the King himself. One day a loud voice from the sky (Akash Vani in Hindi) prophesied that the 8th son of Kansa's sister (Devaki) would kill Kansa. Out of affection for Devaki, Kansa did not kill her outright. He did, however, send his sister and her husband (Vasudeva) to prison. Lord Vishnu himself later appeared to Devaki and Vasudeva and told them that he himself would be their eighth son and kill Kansa and destroy sin in the world. In the story of Krishna the deity is the agent of conception and also the offspring.[citation needed] Because of his sympathy for the earth, the divine Vishnu himself descended into the womb of Devaki and was born as her son, Vaasudeva (i.e., Krishna).[citation needed] This is occasionally cited as evidence that "virgin birth" tales are fairly common in non-Christian religions around the world.[56][57][58] However, there is nothing in Hindu scriptures to suggest that it was a "virgin" birth. By the time of conception and birth of Krishna, Devaki was married to Vasudeva and had already borne 7 children.[59] Virgin birth in this case should be more accurately understood as divine conception. Kunti the mother of the Pandavas referenced contemporaneously with the story of Krishna in the Mahabharata also has divine conception and virgin birth of Prince Karna.
The Hindu Vishnu Purana relates: "Devaki bore in her womb the lotus-eyed deity...before the birth of Krishna, no one could bear to gaze upon Devaki, from the light that invested her, and those who contemplated her radiance felt their minds disturbed.” This reference to light is reminiscent of the Vedic hymn "To an Unknown Divine," which refers to a Golden Child. According to F. M. Müller, this term means "the golden gem of child" and is an attempt at naming the sun. According to the Vishnu Purana, Krishna is the total incarnation of Lord Vishnu. It clearly describes in the Vishnu Purana that Krishna was born on earth to destroy sin, especially Kansa.
Krishna belonged to the Vrishni clan of Yadavas from Mathura,[60] and was the eighth son born to the princess Devaki, and her husband Vasudeva.
Mathura (in present day Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh) was the capital of the Yadavas, to which Krishna's parents Vasudeva and Devaki belonged. King Kansa, Devaki's brother,[61] had ascended the throne by imprisoning his father, King Ugrasena. Afraid of a prophecy from a divine voice from the heavens that predicted his death at the hands of Devaki's eighth "garbha", Kansa had the couple locked in a prison cell. After Kansa killed the first six children, Devaki apparently had a miscarriage of the seventh. However, in reality, the womb was actually transferred to Rohini secretly. This was how Balarama, Krishna's elder brother, was born. Once again Devaki became pregnant. Now due to the miscarriage, Kansa was in a puzzle regarding 'The Eighth One', but his ministers advised that the divine voice from the heavens emphasised "the eight garbha" and so this is the one. That night Krishna was born in the Abhijit nakshatra and simultanously Ekanamsha was born as Yogamaya in Gokulam to Nanda and Yashoda.
Since Vasudeva knew Krishna's life was in danger, Krishna was secretly taken out of the prison cell to be raised by his foster parents, Yasoda[62] and Nanda, in Gokula (in present day Mathura district). Two of his other siblings also survived, Balarama (Devaki's seventh child, transferred to the womb of Rohini, Vasudeva's first wife) and Subhadra (daughter of Vasudeva and Rohini, born much later than Balarama and Krishna)Nanda was the head of a community of cow-herders, and he settled in Vrindavana. The stories of Krishna's childhood and youth tell how he became a cow herder,[64] his mischievous pranks as Makhan Chor (butter thief) his foiling of attempts to take his life, and his role as a protector of the people of Vrindavana.
Krishna killed the demoness Putana, disguised as a wet nurse, and the tornado demon Trinavarta both sent by Kamsa for Krishna's life. He tamed the serpent Kāliyā, who previously poisoned the waters of Yamuna river, thus leading to the death of the cowherds. In Hindu art, Krishna is often depicted dancing on the multi-hooded Kāliyā.
Krishna lifted the Govardhana hill and taught Indra, the king of the devas, a lesson to protect native people of Brindavana from persecution by Indra and prevent the devastation of the pasture land of Govardhan. Indra had too much pride and was angry when Krishna advised the people of Brindavana to take care of their animals and their environment that provide them with all their necessities, instead of worshipping Indra annually by spending their resources.[65][66] In the view of some, the spiritual movement started by Krishna had something in it which went against the orthodox forms of worship of the Vedic gods such as Indra.[67] In Bhagavat Purana, Krishna says that the rain came from the nearby hill Govardhana, and advised that the people worshiped the hill instead of Indra. This made Indra furious, so he punished them by sending out a great storm. Krishna then lifted Govardhan and held it over the people like an umbrella.
The stories of his play with the gopis (milkmaids) of Brindavana, especially Radha (daughter of Vrishbhanu, one of the original residents of Brindavan) became known as the Rasa lila and were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. These became important as part of the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna.[68]
Krishna’s childhood reinforces the Hindu concept of lila, playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or Rasa-lila is a great example of this. Krishna played his flute and the gopis came immediately from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the Yamuna River, and joined him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there joined him through meditation.[69] The story of Krishna’s battle with Kāliyā also supports this idea in the sense of him dancing on Kāliyā’s many hoods. Even though he is doing battle with the serpent, he is in no real danger and treats it like a game. He is a protector, but he only appears to be a young boy having fun.[70] This idea of having a playful god is very important in Hinduism. The playfulness of Krishna has inspired many celebrations like the Rasa-lila and the Janmashtami : where they make human pyramids to break open handis (clay pots) hung high in the air that spill buttermilk all over the group after being broken by the person at the top. This is meant to be a fun celebration and it gives the participants a sense of unity. Many believe that lila being connected with Krishna gives Hindus a deeper connection to him and thus a deeper connection to Vishnu also; seeing as Krishna is an incarnation of Vishnu. Theologists, like Kristin Johnston Largen, believe that Krishna’s childhood can even inspire other religions to look for lila in deities so that they have a chance to experience a part of their faith that they may not have previously seen.On his return to Mathura as a young man, Krishna overthrew and killed his maternal uncle, Kansa, after quelling several assassination attempts from Kansa's followers. He reinstated Kansa's father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and became a leading prince at the court.[73] During this period, he became a friend of Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom, who were his cousins. Later, he took his Yadava subjects to the city of Dwaraka (in modern Gujarat) and established his own kingdom there.[74]
Krishna married Rukmini, the Vidarbha princess, by abducting her, at her request, from her proposed wedding with Shishupala. He married eight queens—collectively called the Ashtabharya—including Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti, Bhadra and Lakshmana.[75][76] Krishna subsequently married 16,000 or 16,100 maidens who were held captive by the demon Narakasura, to save their honour.[77][78] Krishna killed the demon and released them all. According to social custom of the time, all of the captive women were degraded, and would be unable to marry, as they had been under the Narakasura's control. However Krishna married them to reinstate their status in the society. This symbolic wedding with 16,100 abandoned daughters was more of a mass rehabilitation.[79] In Vaishnava traditions, Krishna's wives are forms of the goddess Lakshmi— consort of Vishnu, or special souls who attained this qualification after many lifetimes of austerity, while his two queens, Rukmani and Satyabhama, are expansions of Lakshmi.[80]
When Yudhisthira was assuming the title of emperor, he had invited all the great kings to the ceremony and while paying his respects to them, he started with Krishna because he considered Krishna to be the greatest of them all. While it was a unanimous feeling amongst most present at the ceremony that Krishna should get the first honours, his cousin Shishupala felt otherwise and started berating Krishna. Due to a vow given to Shishupal's mother, Krishna forgave a hundred verbal abuses by Shishupal, and upon the one hundred and first, he assumed his Virat (universal) form and killed Shishupal with his Chakra. The blind king Dhritarashtra also obtained divine vision to be able to see this form of Krishna during the time when Duryodana tried to capture Krishna when he came as a peace bearer before the great Mahabharat War. Essentially, Shishupala and Dantavakra were both re-incarnations of Vishnu's gate-keepers Jaya and Vijaya, who were cursed to be born on Earth, to be delivered by the Vishnu back to Vaikuntha.Once battle seemed inevitable, Krishna offered both sides the opportunity to choose between having either his army called narayani sena or himself alone, but on the condition that he personally would not raise any weapon. Arjuna, on behalf of the Pandavas, chose to have Krishna on their side, and Duryodhana, Kaurava prince, chose Krishna's army. At the time of the great battle, Krishna acted as Arjuna's charioteer, since this position did not require the wielding of weapons.
Upon arrival at the battlefield, and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart does not allow him to fight and he would rather prefer to renounce the kingdom and put down his Gandiv (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the battle, with the conversation soon extending into a discourse which was later compiled as the Bhagavad Gita.[82]Krishna asked Arjuna, "Have you within no time, forgotten the Kauravas' evil deeds such as not accepting the eldest brother Yudhishtira as King, usurping the entire Kingdom without yielding any portion to the Pandavas, meting out insults and difficulties to Pandavas, attempt to murder the Pandavas in the Barnava lac guest house, publicly attempting to disrobe and disgracing Draupadi. Krishna further exhorted in his famous Bhagavad Gita, "Arjuna, do not engage in philosophical analyses at this point of time like a Pundit. You are aware that Duryodhana and Karna particularly have long harboured jealousy and hatred for you Pandavas and badly want to prove their hegemony. You are aware that Bhishmacharya and your Teachers are tied down to their dharma of protecting the unitarian power of the Kuru throne. Moreover, you Arjuna, are only a mortal appointee to carry out my divine will, since the Kauravas are destined to die either way, due to their heap of sins. Open your eyes O Bhaarata and know that I encompass the Karta, Karma and Kriya, all in myself. There is no scope for contemplation now or remorse later, it is indeed time for war and the world will remember your might and immense powers for time to come. So rise O Arjuna!, tighten up your Gandiva and let all directions shiver till their farthest horizons, by the reverberation of its string."Krishna had a profound effect on the Mahabharata war and its consequences. He had considered the Kurukshetra war to be a last resort after voluntarily acting as a messenger in order to establish peace between the Pandavas and Kauravas. But, once these peace negotiations failed and was embarked into the war, then he became a clever strategist. During the war, upon becoming angry with Arjuna for not fighting in true spirit against his ancestors, Krishna once picked up a carriage wheel in order to use it as a weapon to challenge Bhishma. Upon seeing this, Bhishma dropped his weapons and asked Krishna to kill him. However, Arjuna apologized to Krishna, promising that he would fight with full dedication here/after, and the battle continued. Krishna had directed Yudhisthira and Arjuna to return to Bhishma the boon of "victory" which he had given to Yudhisthira before the war commenced, since he himself was standing in their way to victory. Bhishma understood the message and told them the means through which he would drop his weapons—which was if a woman entered the battlefield. Next day, upon Krishna's directions, Shikhandi (Amba reborn) accompanied Arjuna to the battlefield and thus, Bhishma laid down his arms. This was a decisive moment in the war because Bhishma was the chief commander of the Kaurava army and the most formidable warrior on the battlefield. Krishna aided Arjuna in killing Jayadratha, who had held the other four Pandava brothers at bay while Arjuna's son Abhimanyu entered Drona's Chakravyuha formation—an effort in which he was killed by the simultaneous attack of eight Kaurava warriors. Krishna also caused the downfall of Drona, when he signalled Bhima to kill an elephant called Ashwatthama, the namesake of Drona's son. Pandavas started shouting that Ashwatthama was dead but Drona refused to believe them saying he would believe it only if he heard it from Yudhisthira. Krishna knew that Yudhisthira would never tell a lie, so he devised a clever ploy so that Yudhisthira wouldn't lie and at the same time Drona would be convinced of his son's death. On asked by Drona, Yudhisthira proclaimed
Ashwathama Hatahath, naro va Kunjaro va
i.e. Ashwathama had died but he was nor sure whether it was a Drona's son or an elephant. But as soon as Yudhisthira had uttered the first line, Pandava army on Krishna's direction broke into celebration with drums and conchs, in the din of which Drona could not hear the second part of the Yudhisthira's declaration and assumed that his son indeed was dead. Overcome with grief he laid down his arms, and on Krishna's instruction Dhrishtadyumna beheaded Drona.
When Arjuna was fighting Karna, the latter's chariot's wheels sank into the ground. While Karna was trying to take out the chariot from the grip of the Earth, Krishna reminded Arjuna how Karna and the other Kauravas had broken all rules of battle while simultaneously attacking and killing Abhimanyu, and he convinced Arjuna to do the same in revenge in order to kill Karna. During the final stage of the war, when Duryodhana was going to meet his mother Gandhari for taking her blessings which would convert all parts of his body on which her sight falls to diamond, Krishna tricks him to wearing banana leaves to hide his groin. When Duryodhana meets Gandhari, her vision and blessings fall on his entire body except his groin and thighs, and she becomes unhappy about it because she was not able to convert his entire body to diamond. When Duryodhana was in a mace-fight with Bhima, Bhima's blows had no effect on Duryodhana. Upon this, Krishna reminded Bhima of his vow to kill Duryodhana by hitting him on the thigh, and Bhima did the same to win the war despite it being against the rules of mace-fight (since Duryodhana had himself broken Dharma in all his past acts). Thus, Krishna's unparalleled strategy helped the Pandavas win the Mahabharata war by bringing the downfall of all the chief Kaurava warriors, without lifting any weapon. He also brought back to life Arjuna's grandson Parikshit, who had been attacked by a Brahmastra weapon from Ashwatthama while he was in his mother's womb. Parikshit became the Pandavas' successor.Krishna had eight princely wives, also known as Ashtabharya: Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Nagnajiti, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Bhadra, Lakshmana) and the other 16,100 or 16,000 (number varies in scriptures), who were rescued from Narakasura. They had been forcibly kept in his palace and after Krishna had killed Narakasura, he rescued these women and freed them. Krishna married them all to save them from destruction and infamity. He gave them shelter in his new palace and a respectful place in society. The chief amongst them is Rohini.
The Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Harivamsa list the children of Krishna from the Ashtabharya with some variation; while Rohini's sons are interpreted to represent the unnumbered children of his junior wives. Most well-known among his sons are Pradyumna, the eldest son of Krishna (and Rukmini) and Samba, the son of Jambavati, whose actions led to the destruction of Krishna's clan.According to Mahabharata, the Kurukshetra war resulted in the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. On the night before Duryodhana's death, Lord Krishna visited Gandhari to offer his condolences. Gandhari felt that Krishna knowingly did not put an end to the war, and in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari cursed that Krishna, along with everyone else from the Yadu dynasty, would perish after 36 years. Krishna himself knew and wanted this to happen as he felt that the Yadavas had become very haughty and arrogant (adharmi), so he ended Gandhari's speech by saying "tathastu" (so be it).[83][84][85]
After 36 years passed, a fight broke out between the Yadavas, at a festival, who killed each other. His elder brother, Balarama, then gave up his body using Yoga. Krishna retired into the forest and started meditating under a tree. The Mahabharata also narrates the story of a hunter who becomes an instrument for Krishna's departure from the world. The hunter Jara, mistook Krishna's partly visible left foot for that of a deer, and shot an arrow, wounding him mortally. After he realised the mistake, While still bleeding, Krishna told Jara, "O Jara, you were Bali in your previous birth, killed by myself as Rama in Tretayuga. Here you had a chance to even it and since all acts in this world are done as desired by me, you need not worry for this". Then Krishna, with his physical body[86] ascended back to his eternal abode, Goloka vrindavan and this event marks departure of Krishna from the earth.[87][88][89] The news was conveyed to Hastinapur and Dwaraka by eyewitnesses to this event.[86] The place of this incident is believed to be Bhalka, near Somnath temple.[90][91]
According to Puranic sources,[92] Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[7] Vaishnava teachers such as Ramanujacharya and Gaudiya Vaishnavas held the view that the body of Krishna is completely spiritual and never decays (Achyuta) as this appears to be the perspective of the Bhagavata Purana. Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) exhorted, "Krishna Naama Sankirtan" i.e. the constant chanting of the Krishna's name is the supreme healer in Kali Yuga. It destroys sins and purifies the hearts through Bhakti ensures universal peace.
Krishna never appears to grow old or age at all in the historical depictions of the Puranas despite passing of several decades, but there are grounds for a debate whether this indicates that he has no material body, since battles and other descriptions of the Mahabhārata epic show clear indications that he seems to be subject to the limitations of nature.[93] While battles apparently seem to indicate limitations, Mahabharata also shows in many places where Krishna is not subject to any limitations as through episodes Duryodhana trying to arrest Krishna where his body burst into fire showing all creation within him.[94] Krishna is also explicitly described as without deterioration elsewhere.[95]The worship of Krishna is part of Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu as the Supreme God and venerates His associated avatars, their consorts, and related saints and teachers. Krishna is especially looked upon as a full manifestation of Vishnu, and as one with Vishnu himself.[96] However the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,[97] where Krishna is sometimes considered an independent deity, supreme in his own right.[98] Out of many deities, Krishna is particularly important, and traditions of Vaishnava lines are generally centered either on Vishnu or on Krishna, as supreme. The term Krishnaism has been used to describe the sects of Krishna, reserving the term "Vaishnavism" for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an avatar, rather than as a transcendent Supreme Being.[99]
All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu; while traditions, such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism,[100][101] Vallabha Sampradaya and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, regard Krishna as the Svayam Bhagavan, original form of God.[102][103][104][105][106] Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala of late Vedic period.[107] Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.[108]The deity Krishna-Vasudeva (kṛṣṇa vāsudeva "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism.[8][39] It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of the worship of Krishna in antiquity.[9][109] This tradition is considered as earliest to other traditions that led to amalgamation at a later stage of the historical development. Other traditions are Bhagavatism and the cult of Gopala, that along with the cult of Bala Krishna form the basis of current tradition of monotheistic religion of Krishna.[110][111] Some early scholars would equate it with Bhagavatism,[9] and the founder of this religious tradition is believed to be Krishna, who is the son of Vasudeva, thus his name is Vāsudeva; he is said to be historically part of the Satvata tribe, and according to them his followers called themselves Bhagavatas and this religion had formed by the 2nd century BC (the time of Patanjali), or as early as the 4th century BC according to evidence in Megasthenes and in the Arthasastra of Kautilya, when Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme deity in a strongly monotheistic format, where the supreme being was perfect, eternal and full of grace.[9] In many sources outside of the cult, the devotee or bhakta is defined as Vāsudevaka.[112] The Harivamsa describes intricate relationships between Krishna Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha that would later form a Vaishnava concept of primary quadrupled expansion, or avatar.[113]
Bhakti tradition[edit]
Main article: Bhakti yoga
Bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotional and ecstatic aspects of Hindu religion, particularly among the Vaishnava sects.[100][114] Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of lila, meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the Universe. The lilas of Krishna, with their expressions of personal love that transcend the boundaries of formal reverence, serve as a counterpoint to the actions of another avatar of Vishnu: Rama, "He of the straight and narrow path of maryada, or rules and regulations."[101]
The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil country.[115] A major collection of their works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre.[116][117] [118] Kulasekaraazhvaar's Mukundamala was another notable work of this early stage.
Spread of the Krishna-bhakti movement[edit]
The movement, which started in the 6th-7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs. The religion of Alvar poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions. The movement originated in South India during the seventh-century CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the fifteenth century, it was established in Bengal and northern India[119]While the learned sections of the society well versed in Sanskrit could enjoy works like Gita Govinda or Bilvamangala's Krishna-Karnamritam, the masses sang the songs of the devotee-poets, who composed in the regional languages of India. These songs expressing intense personal devotion were written by devotees from all walks of life. The songs of Meera and Surdas became epitomes of Krishna-devotion in north India.These devotee-poets, like the Alvars before them, were aligned to specific theological schools only loosely, if at all. But by the 11th century AD, Vaishnava Bhakti schools with elaborate theological frameworks around the worship of Krishna were established in north India. Nimbarka (11th century AD), Vallabhacharya (15th century AD) and (Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) (16th century AD) all inspired by the teachings of Madhvacharya (11th century AD) were the founders of the most influential schools. These schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya and Gaudiya Vaishnavism respectively, see Krishna as the supreme God, rather than an avatar, as generally seen.
In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Varkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba,[29] a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century.[6] In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti named Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.[114]In 1965, the Krishna-bhakti movement had spread outside India when its founder, Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, (who was instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) traveled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of the saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In an effort to gain attention, followers chanted the names of God in public locations. This chanting was known as hari-nama sankirtana and helped spread the teaching. Additionally, the practice of distributing prasad or “sanctified food” worked as a catalyst in the dissemination of his works. In the Hare Krishna movement, Prasad was a vegetarian dish that would be first offered to Krishna. The food’s proximity to Krishna added a “spiritual effect,” and was seen to “counteract material contamination affecting the soul.” Sharing this sanctified food with the public, in turn, enabled the movement to gain new recruits and further spread these teachings.[10][120][121]In South India, Vaishnavas usually belong to the Sri Sampradaya[citation needed]. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya have written reverentially about Krishna in most of their works like the Thiruppavai by Andal[122] and Gopala Vimshati by Vedanta Desika.[123] In South India, devotion to Krishna, as an avatar of Vishnu, spread in the face of opposition to Buddhism, Shaktism, and Shaivism and ritualistic Vedic sacrifices. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya like Manavala Mamunigal, Vedanta Desika strongly advocated surrender to Vishnu as the aim of the Vedas. Out of 108 Divya Desams there are 97 Divya Desams in South India.While discussing the origin of Indian theatre, Horwitz talks about the mention of the Krishna story in Patanjali's Mahabhashya (c. 150 BC), where the episodes of slaying of Kamsa (Kamsa Vadha) and "Binding of the heaven storming titan" (Bali Bandha) are described.[124] Bhasa's Balacharitam and Dutavakyam (c. 400 BC) are the only Sanskrit plays centered on Krishna written by a major classical dramatist. The former dwells only on his childhood exploits and the latter is a one-act play based on a single episode from the Mahābhārata when Krishna tries to make peace between the warring cousins.[125]
From the 10th century AD, with the growing bhakti movement, Krishna became a favorite subject of the arts. The songs of the Gita Govinda became popular across India, and had many imitations. The songs composed by the Bhakti poets added to the repository of both folk and classical singing.
The classical Indian dances, especially Odissi and Manipuri, draw heavily on the story. The 'Rasa lila' dances performed in Vrindavan shares elements with Kathak, and the Krisnattam, with some cycles, such as Krishnattam, traditionally restricted to the Guruvayur temple, the precursor of Kathakali.[126]
The Sattriya dance, founded by the Assamese Vaishnava saint Sankardeva, extols the virtues of Krishna. Medieval Maharashtra gave birth to a form of storytelling known as the Hari-Katha, that told Vaishnava tales and teachings through music, dance, and narrative sequences, and the story of Krishna one of them. This tradition spread to Tamil Nadu and other southern states, and is now popular in many places throughout India.
Narayana Tirtha's (17th century AD) Krishna-Lila-Tarangini provided material for the musical plays of the Bhagavata-Mela by telling the tale of Krishna from birth until his marriage to Rukmini. Tyagaraja (18th century AD) wrote a similar piece about Krishna called Nauka-Charitam. The narratives of Krishna from the Puranas are performed in Yakshagana, a performance style native to Karnataka's coastal districts. Many movies in all Indian languages have been made based on these stories. These are of varying quality and usually add various songs, melodrama, and special effects.
In other religions[edit]
Jainism[edit]
Further information: Salakapurusa
The most exalted figures in Jainism are the twenty-four Tirthankaras. Krishna, when he was incorporated into the Jain list of heroic figures, presented a problem with his activities which are not pacifist. The concept of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prati-Vasudeva was used to solve it.[neutrality is disputed] The Jain list of sixty-three Shalakapurshas or notable figures includes, amongst others, the twenty-four Tirthankaras and nine sets of this triad. One of these triads is Krishna as the Vasudeva, Balarama as the Baladeva and Jarasandha as the Prati-Vasudeva. He was a cousin of the twenty-second Tirthankara, Neminatha. The stories of these triads can be found in the Harivamsha of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to Mahābhārata) and the Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita of Hemachandra.[127]
In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a Vasudeva with an elder brother termed the Baladeva. The villain is the Prati-vasudeva. Baladeva is the upholder of the Jain principle of non-violence. However, Vasudeva has to forsake this principle to kill the Prati-Vasudeva and save the world. [128][129]The story of Krishna occurs in the Jataka tales in Buddhism,[130] in the Vaibhav Jataka as a prince and legendary conqueror and king of India.[131] In the Buddhist version, Krishna is called Vasudeva, Kanha and Keshava, and Balarama is his older brother, Baladeva. These details resemble that of the story given in the Bhagavata Purana. Vasudeva, along with his nine other brothers (each son a powerful wrestler) and one elder sister (Anjana) capture all of Jambudvipa (many consider this to be India) after beheading their evil uncle, King Kamsa, and later all other kings of Jambudvipa with his Sudarshana Chakra. Much of the story involving the defeat of Kamsa follows the story given in the Bhagavata Purana.[132]
As depicted in the Mahābhārata, all of the sons are eventually killed due to a curse of sage Kanhadipayana (Veda Vyasa, also known as Krishna Dwaipayana). Krishna himself is eventually speared by a hunter in the foot by mistake, leaving the sole survivor of their family being their sister, Anjanadevi of whom no further mention is made.[133]
Since Jataka tales are given from the perspective of Buddha's previous lives (as well as the previous lives of many of Buddha's followers), Krishna appears as the "Dhammasenapati" or "Chief General of the Dharma" and is usually shown being Buddha's "right-hand man" in Buddhist art and iconography.[134] The Bodhisattva, is born in this tale as one of his youngest brothers named Ghatapandita, and saves Krishna from the grief of losing his son.[131] The 'divine boy' Krishna as an embodiment of wisdom and endearing prankster forms a part of the pantheon of gods in Japanese Buddhism .[135]Bahá'ís believe that Krishna was a "Manifestation of God", or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Muhammad, Jesus, the Báb, and the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh.[Members of the Ahmadiyya Community believe Krishna to be a great prophet of God as described by their founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. This belief is maintained by the Qur'anic Principle that God has sent prophets and messengers to every nation of the world leaving no region without divine guidance (see for instance Quran 10:47 and Quran 16:36).
Ghulam Ahmad also claimed to be the likeness of Krishna as a latter day reviver of religion and morality whose mission was to reconcile man with God.[138] Ahmadis maintain that the Sanskrit term Avatar is synonymous with the term 'prophet' of the Middle Eastern religious tradition as God's intervention with man; as God appoints a man as his vicegerent upon earth. In Lecture Sialkot, Ghulam Ahmed wrote:
Let it be clear that Raja Krishna, according to what has been revealed to me, was such a truly great man that it is hard to find his like among the Rishis and Avatars of the Hindus. He was an Avatar—i.e., Prophet—of his time upon whom the Holy Spirit would descend from God. He was from God, victorious and prosperous. He cleansed the land of the Aryas from sin and was in fact the Prophet of his age whose teaching was later corrupted in numerous ways. He was full of love for God, a friend of virtue and an enemy of evil.[138]
Krishna is also called Murli Dhar. The flute of Krishna means the flute of revelation and not the physical flute. Krishna lived like humans and he was a prophet.[139][140]Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several new religious movements since the 19th century and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in occult texts, along with Greek, Buddhist, biblical and even historical figures.[141] For instance, Édouard Schuré, an influential figure in perennial philosophy and occult movements, considered Krishna a Great Initiate; while Theosophists regard Krishna as an incarnation of Maitreya (one of the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom), the most important spiritual teacher for humanity along with Buddha
Krishna [1](/'kr??n?/; Sanskrit: ?????, K???a in IAST, pronounced ['kr????] ( listen)) is considered the supreme deity, worshipped across many traditions of Hinduism in a variety of different perspectives. Krishna is recognized as the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Lord Vishnu, and one and the same as Lord Vishnu one of the trimurti and as the supreme god in his own right. Krishna is the principal protagonist with Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita also known as the Song of God, which depicts the conversation between the Royal Prince Arjuna and Krishna during the great battle of Kurukshetra 5000 years ago where Arjuna discovers that Krishna is God and then comprehends his nature and will for him and for mankind. In present age Krishna is one of the most widely revered and most popular of all Indian divinities.[2]
Krishna is often described and portrayed as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a flute as in the Bhagavata Purana,[3] or as an elder giving direction and guidance as in the Bhagavad Gita.[4] The stories of Krishna appear across a broad spectrum of Hindu philosophical and theological traditions.[5] They portray him in various perspectives: a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the Supreme Being.[6] The principal scriptures discussing Krishna's story are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana.
Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga (present age), which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[7] Worship of the deity Krishna, either in the form of deity Krishna or in the form of Vasudeva, Bala Krishna or Gopala can be traced to as early as 4th century BC.[8][9] Worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, or the supreme being, known as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. From the 10th century AD, Krishna became a favourite subject in performing arts and regional traditions of devotion developed for forms of Krishna such as Jagannatha in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra and Shrinathji in Rajasthan. Since the 1960s the worship of Krishna has also spread in the Western world, largely due to the International Society for Krishna Consciousness.[10]The name originates from the Sanskrit word K???a, which is primarily an adjective meaning "black", "dark" or "dark blue".[11] The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha in the Vedic tradition, relating to the adjective meaning "darkening".[12] Sometimes it is also translated as "all-attractive", according to members of the Hare Krishna movement.[13]
As a name of Vishnu, Krishna listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama. Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in murtis as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets and titles, which reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are Mohan "enchanter", Govinda, "Finder of the cows" or Gopala, "Protector of the cows", which refer to Krishna's childhood in Braj (in present day Uttar Pradesh).[14][15] Some of the distinct names may be regionally important; for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India.[16]Krishna is easily recognized by his representations. Though his skin color may be depicted as black or dark in some representations, particularly in murtis, in other images such as modern pictorial representations, Krishna is usually shown with a blue skin. He is often shown wearing a silk dhoti and a peacock feather crown. Common depictions show him as a little boy, or as a young man in a characteristically relaxed pose, playing the flute.[17][18] In this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other with a flute raised to his lips, in the Tribhanga posture, accompanied by cows, emphasizing his position as the divine herdsman, Govinda, or with the gopis (milkmaids) i.e. Gopikrishna, stealing butter from neighbouring houses i.e. Navneet Chora or Gokulakrishna, defeating the vicious serpent i.e. Kaliya Damana Krishna, lifting the hill i.e. Giridhara Krishna ..so on and so forth from his childhood / youth events.
A steatite (soapstone) tablet unearthed from Mohenjo-daro, Larkana district, Sindh depicting a young boy uprooting two trees from which are emerging two human figures is an interesting archaeological find for fixing dates associated with Krishna. This image recalls the Yamalarjuna episode of Bhagavata and Harivamsa Purana. In this image, the young boy is Krishna, and the two human beings emerging from the trees are the two cursed gandharvas, identified as Nalakubara and Manigriva. Dr. E.J.H. Mackay, who did the excavation at Mohanjodaro, compares this image with the Yamalarjuna episode. Prof. V.S. Agrawal has also accepted this identification. Thus, it seems that the Indus valley people knew stories related to Krishna. This lone find may not establish Krishna as contemporary with Pre-Indus or Indus times, but, likewise, it cannot be ignored.[19][20]The scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata, notably where he addresses Pandava prince Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita, is another common subject for representation. In these depictions, he is shown as a man, often with supreme God characteristics of Hindu religious art, such as multiple arms or heads, denoting power, and with attributes of Vishnu, such as the chakra or in his two-armed form as a charioteer. Cave paintings dated to 800 BCE in Mirzapur, Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh, show raiding horse-charioteers, one of whom is about to hurl a wheel, and who could potentially be identified as Krishna.[21]
Representations in temples often show Krishna as a man standing in an upright, formal pose. He may be alone, or with associated figures:[22] his brother Balarama and sister Subhadra, or his main queens Rukmini and Satyabhama.
Often, Krishna is pictured with his gopi-consort Radha. Manipuri Vaishnavas do not worship Krishna alone, but as Radha Krishna,[23] a combined image of Krishna and Radha. This is also a characteristic of the schools Rudra[24] and Nimbarka sampradaya,[25] as well as that of Swaminarayan sect. The traditions celebrate Radha Ramana murti, who is viewed by Gaudiyas as a form of Radha Krishna.[26]
Krishna is also depicted and worshipped as a small child (Bala Krishna, Bala K???a the child Krishna), crawling on his hands and knees or dancing, often with butter or Laddu in his hand being Laddu Gopal.[27][28] Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as Jaganatha of Odisha, Vithoba of Maharashtra,[29] Venkateswara (also Srinivasa or Balaji) in Andhra Pradesh, and Shrinathji in Rajasthan.The earliest text to explicitly provide detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahabharata which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu.[30] Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic that constitute the Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to the warrior-hero Arjuna, on the battlefield. Krishna is already an adult in the epic, although there are allusions to his earlier exploits. The Harivamsa, a later appendix to this epic, contains the earliest detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.
The Rig Veda 1.22.164 sukta 31 mentions a herdsman "who never stumbles".[31] Some Vaishnavite scholars, such as Bhaktivinoda Thakura, claim that this herdsman refers to Krishna.[32] Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar also attempted to show that "the very same Krishna" made an appearance, e.g. as the drapsa ... krishna "black drop" of RV 8.96.13.[33] Some authors have also likened prehistoric depictions of deities to Krishna.
Chandogya Upanishad (3.17.6) composed around 900 BCE[34] mentions Vasudeva Krishna as the son of Devaki and the disciple of Ghora Angirasa, the seer who preached his disciple the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya.’ Having been influenced by the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya’ Krishna in the Bhagavadgita while delivering the discourse to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra discussed about sacrifice, which can be compared to purusha or the individual.[35][36][37][38]
Yaska's Nirukta, an etymological dictionary around 6th century BC, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura, a motif from well known Puranic story about Krishna.[39] Shatapatha Brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka, associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.[40]
Pa?ini, the ancient grammarian and author of Asthadhyayi (probably belonged to 5th century or 6th century BC) mentions a character called Vasudeva, son of Vasudeva, and also mentions Kaurava and Arjuna which testifies to Vasudeva Krishna, Arjuna and Kauravas being contemporaries.[35][41][42]
Megasthenes (350 – 290 BC) a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to the court of Chandragupta Maurya made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica. Many scholars have suggested that the deity identified as Herakles was Krishna. According to Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo, Megasthenes described an Indian tribe called Sourasenoi, who especially worshipped Herakles in their land, and this land had two cities, Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river, the Jobares. As was common in the ancient period, the Greeks sometimes described foreign gods in terms of their own divinities, and there is a little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged; Herakles to Krishna, or Hari-Krishna: Methora to Mathura, where Krishna was born; Kleisobora to Krishnapura, meaning "the city of Krishna"; and the Jobares to the Yamuna, the famous river in the Krishna story. Quintus Curtius also mentions that when Alexander the Great confronted Porus, Porus's soldiers were carrying an image of Herakles in their vanguard.[43]
The name Krishna occurs in Buddhist writings in the form Kanha, phonetically equivalent to Krishna.[44]
The Ghata-Jâtaka (No. 454) gives an account of Krishna's childhood and subsequent exploits which in many points corresponds with the Brahmanic legends of his life and contains several familiar incidents and names, such as Vâsudeva, Baladeva, Ka?sa. Yet it presents many peculiarities and is either an independent version or a misrepresentation of a popular story that had wandered far from its home. Jain tradition also shows that these tales were popular and were worked up into different forms, for the Jains have an elaborate system of ancient patriarchs which includes Vâsudevas and Baladevas. Krishna is the ninth of the Black Vâsudevas and is connected with Dvâravatî or Dvârakâ. He will become the twelfth tîrthankara of the next world-period and a similar position will be attained by Devakî, Rohinî, Baladeva and Javakumâra, all members of his family. This is a striking proof of the popularity of the Krishna legend outside the Brahmanic religion.[45]
According to Arthasastra of Kautilya (4th century BCE) Vasudeva was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly monotheistic format.[41]
Around 150 BC, Patanjali in his Mahabhashya quotes a verse: "May the might of Krishna accompanied by Samkarshana increase!" Other verses are mentioned. One verse speaks of "Janardhana with himself as fourth" (Krishna with three companions, the three possibly being Samkarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha). Another verse mentions musical instruments being played at meetings in the temples of Rama (Balarama) and Kesava (Krishna). Patanjali also describes dramatic and mimetic performances (Krishna-Kamsopacharam) representing the killing of Kamsa by Vasudeva.[46][47]
In the 1st century BC, there seems to be evidence for a worship of five Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba) for an inscription has been found at Mora near Mathura, which apparently mentions a son of the great satrap Rajuvula, probably the satrap Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, "probably Vasudeva, and of the "Five Warriors".[48] Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum.[49][50]
Many Puranas tell Krishna's life-story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana, that contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna’s story and teachings are the most theologically venerated by the Vaishnava schools.[51] Roughly one quarter of the Bhagavata Purana is spent extolling his life and philosophy.
Life[edit]
This summary is based on details from the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana. The scenes from the narrative are set in north India mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Delhi and Gujarat.Based on scriptural details and astrological calculations, the date of Krishna's birth, known as Janmashtami,[52] is 18 July 3228 BCE.[53] He was born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva,[54][55] When Mother Earth became upset by the sin being committed on Earth, she thought of seeking help from Lord Vishnu. She went in the form of a cow to visit Lord Vishnu and ask for help. Lord Vishnu agreed to help her and promised her that he would be born on Earth. On Earth in the Yadava clan, he was yadav according to his birth, a prince named Kansa sent his father Ugrasena (King of Mathura) to prison and became the King himself. One day a loud voice from the sky (Akash Vani in Hindi) prophesied that the 8th son of Kansa's sister (Devaki) would kill Kansa. Out of affection for Devaki, Kansa did not kill her outright. He did, however, send his sister and her husband (Vasudeva) to prison. Lord Vishnu himself later appeared to Devaki and Vasudeva and told them that he himself would be their eighth son and kill Kansa and destroy sin in the world. In the story of Krishna the deity is the agent of conception and also the offspring.[citation needed] Because of his sympathy for the earth, the divine Vishnu himself descended into the womb of Devaki and was born as her son, Vaasudeva (i.e., Krishna).[citation needed] This is occasionally cited as evidence that "virgin birth" tales are fairly common in non-Christian religions around the world.[56][57][58] However, there is nothing in Hindu scriptures to suggest that it was a "virgin" birth. By the time of conception and birth of Krishna, Devaki was married to Vasudeva and had already borne 7 children.[59] Virgin birth in this case should be more accurately understood as divine conception. Kunti the mother of the Pandavas referenced contemporaneously with the story of Krishna in the Mahabharata also has divine conception and virgin birth of Prince Karna.
The Hindu Vishnu Purana relates: "Devaki bore in her womb the lotus-eyed deity...before the birth of Krishna, no one could bear to gaze upon Devaki, from the light that invested her, and those who contemplated her radiance felt their minds disturbed.” This reference to light is reminiscent of the Vedic hymn "To an Unknown Divine," which refers to a Golden Child. According to F. M. Müller, this term means "the golden gem of child" and is an attempt at naming the sun. According to the Vishnu Purana, Krishna is the total incarnation of Lord Vishnu. It clearly describes in the Vishnu Purana that Krishna was born on earth to destroy sin, especially Kansa.
Krishna belonged to the Vrishni clan of Yadavas from Mathura,[60] and was the eighth son born to the princess Devaki, and her husband Vasudeva.
Mathura (in present day Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh) was the capital of the Yadavas, to which Krishna's parents Vasudeva and Devaki belonged. King Kansa, Devaki's brother,[61] had ascended the throne by imprisoning his father, King Ugrasena. Afraid of a prophecy from a divine voice from the heavens that predicted his death at the hands of Devaki's eighth "garbha", Kansa had the couple locked in a prison cell. After Kansa killed the first six children, Devaki apparently had a miscarriage of the seventh. However, in reality, the womb was actually transferred to Rohini secretly. This was how Balarama, Krishna's elder brother, was born. Once again Devaki became pregnant. Now due to the miscarriage, Kansa was in a puzzle regarding 'The Eighth One', but his ministers advised that the divine voice from the heavens emphasised "the eight garbha" and so this is the one. That night Krishna was born in the Abhijit nakshatra and simultanously Ekanamsha was born as Yogamaya in Gokulam to Nanda and Yashoda.
Since Vasudeva knew Krishna's life was in danger, Krishna was secretly taken out of the prison cell to be raised by his foster parents, Yasoda[62] and Nanda, in Gokula (in present day Mathura district). Two of his other siblings also survived, Balarama (Devaki's seventh child, transferred to the womb of Rohini, Vasudeva's first wife) and Subhadra (daughter of Vasudeva and Rohini, born much later than Balarama and Krishna)Nanda was the head of a community of cow-herders, and he settled in Vrindavana. The stories of Krishna's childhood and youth tell how he became a cow herder,[64] his mischievous pranks as Makhan Chor (butter thief) his foiling of attempts to take his life, and his role as a protector of the people of Vrindavana.
Krishna killed the demoness Putana, disguised as a wet nurse, and the tornado demon Trinavarta both sent by Kamsa for Krishna's life. He tamed the serpent Kaliya, who previously poisoned the waters of Yamuna river, thus leading to the death of the cowherds. In Hindu art, Krishna is often depicted dancing on the multi-hooded Kaliya.
Krishna lifted the Govardhana hill and taught Indra, the king of the devas, a lesson to protect native people of Brindavana from persecution by Indra and prevent the devastation of the pasture land of Govardhan. Indra had too much pride and was angry when Krishna advised the people of Brindavana to take care of their animals and their environment that provide them with all their necessities, instead of worshipping Indra annually by spending their resources.[65][66] In the view of some, the spiritual movement started by Krishna had something in it which went against the orthodox forms of worship of the Vedic gods such as Indra.[67] In Bhagavat Purana, Krishna says that the rain came from the nearby hill Govardhana, and advised that the people worshiped the hill instead of Indra. This made Indra furious, so he punished them by sending out a great storm. Krishna then lifted Govardhan and held it over the people like an umbrella.
The stories of his play with the gopis (milkmaids) of Brindavana, especially Radha (daughter of Vrishbhanu, one of the original residents of Brindavan) became known as the Rasa lila and were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. These became important as part of the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna.[68]
Krishna’s childhood reinforces the Hindu concept of lila, playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or Rasa-lila is a great example of this. Krishna played his flute and the gopis came immediately from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the Yamuna River, and joined him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there joined him through meditation.[69] The story of Krishna’s battle with Kaliya also supports this idea in the sense of him dancing on Kaliya’s many hoods. Even though he is doing battle with the serpent, he is in no real danger and treats it like a game. He is a protector, but he only appears to be a young boy having fun.[70] This idea of having a playful god is very important in Hinduism. The playfulness of Krishna has inspired many celebrations like the Rasa-lila and the Janmashtami : where they make human pyramids to break open handis (clay pots) hung high in the air that spill buttermilk all over the group after being broken by the person at the top. This is meant to be a fun celebration and it gives the participants a sense of unity. Many believe that lila being connected with Krishna gives Hindus a deeper connection to him and thus a deeper connection to Vishnu also; seeing as Krishna is an incarnation of Vishnu. Theologists, like Kristin Johnston Largen, believe that Krishna’s childhood can even inspire other religions to look for lila in deities so that they have a chance to experience a part of their faith that they may not have previously seen.On his return to Mathura as a young man, Krishna overthrew and killed his maternal uncle, Kansa, after quelling several assassination attempts from Kansa's followers. He reinstated Kansa's father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and became a leading prince at the court.[73] During this period, he became a friend of Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom, who were his cousins. Later, he took his Yadava subjects to the city of Dwaraka (in modern Gujarat) and established his own kingdom there.[74]
Krishna married Rukmini, the Vidarbha princess, by abducting her, at her request, from her proposed wedding with Shishupala. He married eight queens—collectively called the Ashtabharya—including Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti, Bhadra and Lakshmana.[75][76] Krishna subsequently married 16,000 or 16,100 maidens who were held captive by the demon Narakasura, to save their honour.[77][78] Krishna killed the demon and released them all. According to social custom of the time, all of the captive women were degraded, and would be unable to marry, as they had been under the Narakasura's control. However Krishna married them to reinstate their status in the society. This symbolic wedding with 16,100 abandoned daughters was more of a mass rehabilitation.[79] In Vaishnava traditions, Krishna's wives are forms of the goddess Lakshmi— consort of Vishnu, or special souls who attained this qualification after many lifetimes of austerity, while his two queens, Rukmani and Satyabhama, are expansions of Lakshmi.[80]
When Yudhisthira was assuming the title of emperor, he had invited all the great kings to the ceremony and while paying his respects to them, he started with Krishna because he considered Krishna to be the greatest of them all. While it was a unanimous feeling amongst most present at the ceremony that Krishna should get the first honours, his cousin Shishupala felt otherwise and started berating Krishna. Due to a vow given to Shishupal's mother, Krishna forgave a hundred verbal abuses by Shishupal, and upon the one hundred and first, he assumed his Virat (universal) form and killed Shishupal with his Chakra. The blind king Dhritarashtra also obtained divine vision to be able to see this form of Krishna during the time when Duryodana tried to capture Krishna when he came as a peace bearer before the great Mahabharat War. Essentially, Shishupala and Dantavakra were both re-incarnations of Vishnu's gate-keepers Jaya and Vijaya, who were cursed to be born on Earth, to be delivered by the Vishnu back to Vaikuntha.Once battle seemed inevitable, Krishna offered both sides the opportunity to choose between having either his army called narayani sena or himself alone, but on the condition that he personally would not raise any weapon. Arjuna, on behalf of the Pandavas, chose to have Krishna on their side, and Duryodhana, Kaurava prince, chose Krishna's army. At the time of the great battle, Krishna acted as Arjuna's charioteer, since this position did not require the wielding of weapons.
Upon arrival at the battlefield, and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart does not allow him to fight and he would rather prefer to renounce the kingdom and put down his Gandiv (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the battle, with the conversation soon extending into a discourse which was later compiled as the Bhagavad Gita.[82]Krishna asked Arjuna, "Have you within no time, forgotten the Kauravas' evil deeds such as not accepting the eldest brother Yudhishtira as King, usurping the entire Kingdom without yielding any portion to the Pandavas, meting out insults and difficulties to Pandavas, attempt to murder the Pandavas in the Barnava lac guest house, publicly attempting to disrobe and disgracing Draupadi. Krishna further exhorted in his famous Bhagavad Gita, "Arjuna, do not engage in philosophical analyses at this point of time like a Pundit. You are aware that Duryodhana and Karna particularly have long harboured jealousy and hatred for you Pandavas and badly want to prove their hegemony. You are aware that Bhishmacharya and your Teachers are tied down to their dharma of protecting the unitarian power of the Kuru throne. Moreover, you Arjuna, are only a mortal appointee to carry out my divine will, since the Kauravas are destined to die either way, due to their heap of sins. Open your eyes O Bhaarata and know that I encompass the Karta, Karma and Kriya, all in myself. There is no scope for contemplation now or remorse later, it is indeed time for war and the world will remember your might and immense powers for time to come. So rise O Arjuna!, tighten up your Gandiva and let all directions shiver till their farthest horizons, by the reverberation of its string."Krishna had a profound effect on the Mahabharata war and its consequences. He had considered the Kurukshetra war to be a last resort after voluntarily acting as a messenger in order to establish peace between the Pandavas and Kauravas. But, once these peace negotiations failed and was embarked into the war, then he became a clever strategist. During the war, upon becoming angry with Arjuna for not fighting in true spirit against his ancestors, Krishna once picked up a carriage wheel in order to use it as a weapon to challenge Bhishma. Upon seeing this, Bhishma dropped his weapons and asked Krishna to kill him. However, Arjuna apologized to Krishna, promising that he would fight with full dedication here/after, and the battle continued. Krishna had directed Yudhisthira and Arjuna to return to Bhishma the boon of "victory" which he had given to Yudhisthira before the war commenced, since he himself was standing in their way to victory. Bhishma understood the message and told them the means through which he would drop his weapons—which was if a woman entered the battlefield. Next day, upon Krishna's directions, Shikhandi (Amba reborn) accompanied Arjuna to the battlefield and thus, Bhishma laid down his arms. This was a decisive moment in the war because Bhishma was the chief commander of the Kaurava army and the most formidable warrior on the battlefield. Krishna aided Arjuna in killing Jayadratha, who had held the other four Pandava brothers at bay while Arjuna's son Abhimanyu entered Drona's Chakravyuha formation—an effort in which he was killed by the simultaneous attack of eight Kaurava warriors. Krishna also caused the downfall of Drona, when he signalled Bhima to kill an elephant called Ashwatthama, the namesake of Drona's son. Pandavas started shouting that Ashwatthama was dead but Drona refused to believe them saying he would believe it only if he heard it from Yudhisthira. Krishna knew that Yudhisthira would never tell a lie, so he devised a clever ploy so that Yudhisthira wouldn't lie and at the same time Drona would be convinced of his son's death. On asked by Drona, Yudhisthira proclaimed
Ashwathama Hatahath, naro va Kunjaro va
i.e. Ashwathama had died but he was nor sure whether it was a Drona's son or an elephant. But as soon as Yudhisthira had uttered the first line, Pandava army on Krishna's direction broke into celebration with drums and conchs, in the din of which Drona could not hear the second part of the Yudhisthira's declaration and assumed that his son indeed was dead. Overcome with grief he laid down his arms, and on Krishna's instruction Dhrishtadyumna beheaded Drona.
When Arjuna was fighting Karna, the latter's chariot's wheels sank into the ground. While Karna was trying to take out the chariot from the grip of the Earth, Krishna reminded Arjuna how Karna and the other Kauravas had broken all rules of battle while simultaneously attacking and killing Abhimanyu, and he convinced Arjuna to do the same in revenge in order to kill Karna. During the final stage of the war, when Duryodhana was going to meet his mother Gandhari for taking her blessings which would convert all parts of his body on which her sight falls to diamond, Krishna tricks him to wearing banana leaves to hide his groin. When Duryodhana meets Gandhari, her vision and blessings fall on his entire body except his groin and thighs, and she becomes unhappy about it because she was not able to convert his entire body to diamond. When Duryodhana was in a mace-fight with Bhima, Bhima's blows had no effect on Duryodhana. Upon this, Krishna reminded Bhima of his vow to kill Duryodhana by hitting him on the thigh, and Bhima did the same to win the war despite it being against the rules of mace-fight (since Duryodhana had himself broken Dharma in all his past acts). Thus, Krishna's unparalleled strategy helped the Pandavas win the Mahabharata war by bringing the downfall of all the chief Kaurava warriors, without lifting any weapon. He also brought back to life Arjuna's grandson Parikshit, who had been attacked by a Brahmastra weapon from Ashwatthama while he was in his mother's womb. Parikshit became the Pandavas' successor.Krishna had eight princely wives, also known as Ashtabharya: Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Nagnajiti, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Bhadra, Lakshmana) and the other 16,100 or 16,000 (number varies in scriptures), who were rescued from Narakasura. They had been forcibly kept in his palace and after Krishna had killed Narakasura, he rescued these women and freed them. Krishna married them all to save them from destruction and infamity. He gave them shelter in his new palace and a respectful place in society. The chief amongst them is Rohini.
The Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Harivamsa list the children of Krishna from the Ashtabharya with some variation; while Rohini's sons are interpreted to represent the unnumbered children of his junior wives. Most well-known among his sons are Pradyumna, the eldest son of Krishna (and Rukmini) and Samba, the son of Jambavati, whose actions led to the destruction of Krishna's clan.According to Mahabharata, the Kurukshetra war resulted in the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. On the night before Duryodhana's death, Lord Krishna visited Gandhari to offer his condolences. Gandhari felt that Krishna knowingly did not put an end to the war, and in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari cursed that Krishna, along with everyone else from the Yadu dynasty, would perish after 36 years. Krishna himself knew and wanted this to happen as he felt that the Yadavas had become very haughty and arrogant (adharmi), so he ended Gandhari's speech by saying "tathastu" (so be it).[83][84][85]
After 36 years passed, a fight broke out between the Yadavas, at a festival, who killed each other. His elder brother, Balarama, then gave up his body using Yoga. Krishna retired into the forest and started meditating under a tree. The Mahabharata also narrates the story of a hunter who becomes an instrument for Krishna's departure from the world. The hunter Jara, mistook Krishna's partly visible left foot for that of a deer, and shot an arrow, wounding him mortally. After he realised the mistake, While still bleeding, Krishna told Jara, "O Jara, you were Bali in your previous birth, killed by myself as Rama in Tretayuga. Here you had a chance to even it and since all acts in this world are done as desired by me, you need not worry for this". Then Krishna, with his physical body[86] ascended back to his eternal abode, Goloka vrindavan and this event marks departure of Krishna from the earth.[87][88][89] The news was conveyed to Hastinapur and Dwaraka by eyewitnesses to this event.[86] The place of this incident is believed to be Bhalka, near Somnath temple.[90][91]
According to Puranic sources,[92] Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[7] Vaishnava teachers such as Ramanujacharya and Gaudiya Vaishnavas held the view that the body of Krishna is completely spiritual and never decays (Achyuta) as this appears to be the perspective of the Bhagavata Purana. Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) exhorted, "Krishna Naama Sankirtan" i.e. the constant chanting of the Krishna's name is the supreme healer in Kali Yuga. It destroys sins and purifies the hearts through Bhakti ensures universal peace.
Krishna never appears to grow old or age at all in the historical depictions of the Puranas despite passing of several decades, but there are grounds for a debate whether this indicates that he has no material body, since battles and other descriptions of the Mahabharata epic show clear indications that he seems to be subject to the limitations of nature.[93] While battles apparently seem to indicate limitations, Mahabharata also shows in many places where Krishna is not subject to any limitations as through episodes Duryodhana trying to arrest Krishna where his body burst into fire showing all creation within him.[94] Krishna is also explicitly described as without deterioration elsewhere.[95]The worship of Krishna is part of Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu as the Supreme God and venerates His associated avatars, their consorts, and related saints and teachers. Krishna is especially looked upon as a full manifestation of Vishnu, and as one with Vishnu himself.[96] However the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,[97] where Krishna is sometimes considered an independent deity, supreme in his own right.[98] Out of many deities, Krishna is particularly important, and traditions of Vaishnava lines are generally centered either on Vishnu or on Krishna, as supreme. The term Krishnaism has been used to describe the sects of Krishna, reserving the term "Vaishnavism" for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an avatar, rather than as a transcendent Supreme Being.[99]
All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu; while traditions, such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism,[100][101] Vallabha Sampradaya and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, regard Krishna as the Svayam Bhagavan, original form of God.[102][103][104][105][106] Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala of late Vedic period.[107] Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.[108]The deity Krishna-Vasudeva (k???a vasudeva "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism.[8][39] It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of the worship of Krishna in antiquity.[9][109] This tradition is considered as earliest to other traditions that led to amalgamation at a later stage of the historical development. Other traditions are Bhagavatism and the cult of Gopala, that along with the cult of Bala Krishna form the basis of current tradition of monotheistic religion of Krishna.[110][111] Some early scholars would equate it with Bhagavatism,[9] and the founder of this religious tradition is believed to be Krishna, who is the son of Vasudeva, thus his name is Vasudeva; he is said to be historically part of the Satvata tribe, and according to them his followers called themselves Bhagavatas and this religion had formed by the 2nd century BC (the time of Patanjali), or as early as the 4th century BC according to evidence in Megasthenes and in the Arthasastra of Kautilya, when Vasudeva was worshiped as supreme deity in a strongly monotheistic format, where the supreme being was perfect, eternal and full of grace.[9] In many sources outside of the cult, the devotee or bhakta is defined as Vasudevaka.[112] The Harivamsa describes intricate relationships between Krishna Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha that would later form a Vaishnava concept of primary quadrupled expansion, or avatar.[113]
Bhakti tradition[edit]
Main article: Bhakti yoga
Bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotional and ecstatic aspects of Hindu religion, particularly among the Vaishnava sects.[100][114] Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of lila, meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the Universe. The lilas of Krishna, with their expressions of personal love that transcend the boundaries of formal reverence, serve as a counterpoint to the actions of another avatar of Vishnu: Rama, "He of the straight and narrow path of maryada, or rules and regulations."[101]
The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil country.[115] A major collection of their works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre.[116][117] [118] Kulasekaraazhvaar's Mukundamala was another notable work of this early stage.
Spread of the Krishna-bhakti movement[edit]
The movement, which started in the 6th-7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs. The religion of Alvar poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions. The movement originated in South India during the seventh-century CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the fifteenth century, it was established in Bengal and northern India[119]While the learned sections of the society well versed in Sanskrit could enjoy works like Gita Govinda or Bilvamangala's Krishna-Karnamritam, the masses sang the songs of the devotee-poets, who composed in the regional languages of India. These songs expressing intense personal devotion were written by devotees from all walks of life. The songs of Meera and Surdas became epitomes of Krishna-devotion in north India.These devotee-poets, like the Alvars before them, were aligned to specific theological schools only loosely, if at all. But by the 11th century AD, Vaishnava Bhakti schools with elaborate theological frameworks around the worship of Krishna were established in north India. Nimbarka (11th century AD), Vallabhacharya (15th century AD) and (Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) (16th century AD) all inspired by the teachings of Madhvacharya (11th century AD) were the founders of the most influential schools. These schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya and Gaudiya Vaishnavism respectively, see Krishna as the supreme God, rather than an avatar, as generally seen.
In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Varkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba,[29] a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century.[6] In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti named Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.[114]In 1965, the Krishna-bhakti movement had spread outside India when its founder, Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, (who was instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) traveled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of the saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In an effort to gain attention, followers chanted the names of God in public locations. This chanting was known as hari-nama sankirtana and helped spread the teaching. Additionally, the practice of distributing prasad or “sanctified food” worked as a catalyst in the dissemination of his works. In the Hare Krishna movement, Prasad was a vegetarian dish that would be first offered to Krishna. The food’s proximity to Krishna added a “spiritual effect,” and was seen to “counteract material contamination affecting the soul.” Sharing this sanctified food with the public, in turn, enabled the movement to gain new recruits and further spread these teachings.[10][120][121]In South India, Vaishnavas usually belong to the Sri Sampradaya[citation needed]. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya have written reverentially about Krishna in most of their works like the Thiruppavai by Andal[122] and Gopala Vimshati by Vedanta Desika.[123] In South India, devotion to Krishna, as an avatar of Vishnu, spread in the face of opposition to Buddhism, Shaktism, and Shaivism and ritualistic Vedic sacrifices. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya like Manavala Mamunigal, Vedanta Desika strongly advocated surrender to Vishnu as the aim of the Vedas. Out of 108 Divya Desams there are 97 Divya Desams in South India.While discussing the origin of Indian theatre, Horwitz talks about the mention of the Krishna story in Patanjali's Mahabhashya (c. 150 BC), where the episodes of slaying of Kamsa (Kamsa Vadha) and "Binding of the heaven storming titan" (Bali Bandha) are described.[124] Bhasa's Balacharitam and Dutavakyam (c. 400 BC) are the only Sanskrit plays centered on Krishna written by a major classical dramatist. The former dwells only on his childhood exploits and the latter is a one-act play based on a single episode from the Mahabharata when Krishna tries to make peace between the warring cousins.[125]
From the 10th century AD, with the growing bhakti movement, Krishna became a favorite subject of the arts. The songs of the Gita Govinda became popular across India, and had many imitations. The songs composed by the Bhakti poets added to the repository of both folk and classical singing.
The classical Indian dances, especially Odissi and Manipuri, draw heavily on the story. The 'Rasa lila' dances performed in Vrindavan shares elements with Kathak, and the Krisnattam, with some cycles, such as Krishnattam, traditionally restricted to the Guruvayur temple, the precursor of Kathakali.[126]
The Sattriya dance, founded by the Assamese Vaishnava saint Sankardeva, extols the virtues of Krishna. Medieval Maharashtra gave birth to a form of storytelling known as the Hari-Katha, that told Vaishnava tales and teachings through music, dance, and narrative sequences, and the story of Krishna one of them. This tradition spread to Tamil Nadu and other southern states, and is now popular in many places throughout India.
Narayana Tirtha's (17th century AD) Krishna-Lila-Tarangini provided material for the musical plays of the Bhagavata-Mela by telling the tale of Krishna from birth until his marriage to Rukmini. Tyagaraja (18th century AD) wrote a similar piece about Krishna called Nauka-Charitam. The narratives of Krishna from the Puranas are performed in Yakshagana, a performance style native to Karnataka's coastal districts. Many movies in all Indian languages have been made based on these stories. These are of varying quality and usually add various songs, melodrama, and special effects.
In other religions[edit]
Jainism[edit]
Further information: Salakapurusa
The most exalted figures in Jainism are the twenty-four Tirthankaras. Krishna, when he was incorporated into the Jain list of heroic figures, presented a problem with his activities which are not pacifist. The concept of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prati-Vasudeva was used to solve it.[neutrality is disputed] The Jain list of sixty-three Shalakapurshas or notable figures includes, amongst others, the twenty-four Tirthankaras and nine sets of this triad. One of these triads is Krishna as the Vasudeva, Balarama as the Baladeva and Jarasandha as the Prati-Vasudeva. He was a cousin of the twenty-second Tirthankara, Neminatha. The stories of these triads can be found in the Harivamsha of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to Mahabharata) and the Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita of Hemachandra.[127]
In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a Vasudeva with an elder brother termed the Baladeva. The villain is the Prati-vasudeva. Baladeva is the upholder of the Jain principle of non-violence. However, Vasudeva has to forsake this principle to kill the Prati-Vasudeva and save the world. [128][129]The story of Krishna occurs in the Jataka tales in Buddhism,[130] in the Vaibhav Jataka as a prince and legendary conqueror and king of India.[131] In the Buddhist version, Krishna is called Vasudeva, Kanha and Keshava, and Balarama is his older brother, Baladeva. These details resemble that of the story given in the Bhagavata Purana. Vasudeva, along with his nine other brothers (each son a powerful wrestler) and one elder sister (Anjana) capture all of Jambudvipa (many consider this to be India) after beheading their evil uncle, King Kamsa, and later all other kings of Jambudvipa with his Sudarshana Chakra. Much of the story involving the defeat of Kamsa follows the story given in the Bhagavata Purana.[132]
As depicted in the Mahabharata, all of the sons are eventually killed due to a curse of sage Kanhadipayana (Veda Vyasa, also known as Krishna Dwaipayana). Krishna himself is eventually speared by a hunter in the foot by mistake, leaving the sole survivor of their family being their sister, Anjanadevi of whom no further mention is made.[133]
Since Jataka tales are given from the perspective of Buddha's previous lives (as well as the previous lives of many of Buddha's followers), Krishna appears as the "Dhammasenapati" or "Chief General of the Dharma" and is usually shown being Buddha's "right-hand man" in Buddhist art and iconography.[134] The Bodhisattva, is born in this tale as one of his youngest brothers named Ghatapandita, and saves Krishna from the grief of losing his son.[131] The 'divine boy' Krishna as an embodiment of wisdom and endearing prankster forms a part of the pantheon of gods in Japanese Buddhism .[135]Bahá'ís believe that Krishna was a "Manifestation of God", or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Muhammad, Jesus, the Báb, and the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh.[Members of the Ahmadiyya Community believe Krishna to be a great prophet of God as described by their founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. This belief is maintained by the Qur'anic Principle that God has sent prophets and messengers to every nation of the world leaving no region without divine guidance (see for instance Quran 10:47 and Quran 16:36).
Ghulam Ahmad also claimed to be the likeness of Krishna as a latter day reviver of religion and morality whose mission was to reconcile man with God.[138] Ahmadis maintain that the Sanskrit term Avatar is synonymous with the term 'prophet' of the Middle Eastern religious tradition as God's intervention with man; as God appoints a man as his vicegerent upon earth. In Lecture Sialkot, Ghulam Ahmed wrote:
Let it be clear that Raja Krishna, according to what has been revealed to me, was such a truly great man that it is hard to find his like among the Rishis and Avatars of the Hindus. He was an Avatar—i.e., Prophet—of his time upon whom the Holy Spirit would descend from God. He was from God, victorious and prosperous. He cleansed the land of the Aryas from sin and was in fact the Prophet of his age whose teaching was later corrupted in numerous ways. He was full of love for God, a friend of virtue and an enemy of evil.[138]
Krishna is also called Murli Dhar. The flute of Krishna means the flute of revelation and not the physical flute. Krishna lived like humans and he was a prophet.[139][140]Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several new religious movements since the 19th century and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in occult texts, along with Greek, Buddhist, biblical and even historical figures.[141] For instance, Édouard Schuré, an influential figure in perennial philosophy and occult movements, considered Krishna a Great Initiate; while Theosophists regard Krishna as an incarnation of Maitreya (one of the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom), the most important spiritual teacher for humanity along with Buddha
Krishna [1](/ˈkrɪʃnə/; Sanskrit: कृष्ण, Kṛṣṇa in IAST, pronounced [ˈkr̩ʂɳə] ( listen)) is considered the supreme deity, worshipped across many traditions of Hinduism in a variety of different perspectives. Krishna is recognized as the eighth incarnation (avatar) of Lord Vishnu, and one and the same as Lord Vishnu one of the trimurti and as the supreme god in his own right. Krishna is the principal protagonist with Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita also known as the Song of God, which depicts the conversation between the Royal Prince Arjuna and Krishna during the great battle of Kurukshetra 5000 years ago where Arjuna discovers that Krishna is God and then comprehends his nature and will for him and for mankind. In present age Krishna is one of the most widely revered and most popular of all Indian divinities.[2]
Krishna is often described and portrayed as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a flute as in the Bhagavata Purana,[3] or as an elder giving direction and guidance as in the Bhagavad Gita.[4] The stories of Krishna appear across a broad spectrum of Hindu philosophical and theological traditions.[5] They portray him in various perspectives: a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine hero, and the Supreme Being.[6] The principal scriptures discussing Krishna's story are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana.
Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga (present age), which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[7] Worship of the deity Krishna, either in the form of deity Krishna or in the form of Vasudeva, Bala Krishna or Gopala can be traced to as early as 4th century BC.[8][9] Worship of Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan, or the supreme being, known as Krishnaism, arose in the Middle Ages in the context of the Bhakti movement. From the 10th century AD, Krishna became a favourite subject in performing arts and regional traditions of devotion developed for forms of Krishna such as Jagannatha in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra and Shrinathji in Rajasthan. Since the 1960s the worship of Krishna has also spread in the Western world, largely due to the International Society for Krishna Consciousness.[10]The name originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning "black", "dark" or "dark blue".[11] The waning moon is called Krishna Paksha in the Vedic tradition, relating to the adjective meaning "darkening".[12] Sometimes it is also translated as "all-attractive", according to members of the Hare Krishna movement.[13]
As a name of Vishnu, Krishna listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu Sahasranama. Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in murtis as black or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets and titles, which reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are Mohan "enchanter", Govinda, "Finder of the cows" or Gopala, "Protector of the cows", which refer to Krishna's childhood in Braj (in present day Uttar Pradesh).[14][15] Some of the distinct names may be regionally important; for instance, Jagannatha, a popular incarnation of Puri, Odisha in eastern India.[16]Krishna is easily recognized by his representations. Though his skin color may be depicted as black or dark in some representations, particularly in murtis, in other images such as modern pictorial representations, Krishna is usually shown with a blue skin. He is often shown wearing a silk dhoti and a peacock feather crown. Common depictions show him as a little boy, or as a young man in a characteristically relaxed pose, playing the flute.[17][18] In this form, he usually stands with one leg bent in front of the other with a flute raised to his lips, in the Tribhanga posture, accompanied by cows, emphasizing his position as the divine herdsman, Govinda, or with the gopis (milkmaids) i.e. Gopikrishna, stealing butter from neighbouring houses i.e. Navneet Chora or Gokulakrishna, defeating the vicious serpent i.e. Kaliya Damana Krishna, lifting the hill i.e. Giridhara Krishna ..so on and so forth from his childhood / youth events.
A steatite (soapstone) tablet unearthed from Mohenjo-daro, Larkana district, Sindh depicting a young boy uprooting two trees from which are emerging two human figures is an interesting archaeological find for fixing dates associated with Krishna. This image recalls the Yamalarjuna episode of Bhagavata and Harivamsa Purana. In this image, the young boy is Krishna, and the two human beings emerging from the trees are the two cursed gandharvas, identified as Nalakubara and Manigriva. Dr. E.J.H. Mackay, who did the excavation at Mohanjodaro, compares this image with the Yamalarjuna episode. Prof. V.S. Agrawal has also accepted this identification. Thus, it seems that the Indus valley people knew stories related to Krishna. This lone find may not establish Krishna as contemporary with Pre-Indus or Indus times, but, likewise, it cannot be ignored.[19][20]The scene on the battlefield of the epic Mahabharata, notably where he addresses Pandava prince Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita, is another common subject for representation. In these depictions, he is shown as a man, often with supreme God characteristics of Hindu religious art, such as multiple arms or heads, denoting power, and with attributes of Vishnu, such as the chakra or in his two-armed form as a charioteer. Cave paintings dated to 800 BCE in Mirzapur, Mirzapur district, Uttar Pradesh, show raiding horse-charioteers, one of whom is about to hurl a wheel, and who could potentially be identified as Krishna.[21]
Representations in temples often show Krishna as a man standing in an upright, formal pose. He may be alone, or with associated figures:[22] his brother Balarama and sister Subhadra, or his main queens Rukmini and Satyabhama.
Often, Krishna is pictured with his gopi-consort Radha. Manipuri Vaishnavas do not worship Krishna alone, but as Radha Krishna,[23] a combined image of Krishna and Radha. This is also a characteristic of the schools Rudra[24] and Nimbarka sampradaya,[25] as well as that of Swaminarayan sect. The traditions celebrate Radha Ramana murti, who is viewed by Gaudiyas as a form of Radha Krishna.[26]
Krishna is also depicted and worshipped as a small child (Bala Krishna, Bāla Kṛṣṇa the child Krishna), crawling on his hands and knees or dancing, often with butter or Laddu in his hand being Laddu Gopal.[27][28] Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as Jaganatha of Odisha, Vithoba of Maharashtra,[29] Venkateswara (also Srinivasa or Balaji) in Andhra Pradesh, and Shrinathji in Rajasthan.The earliest text to explicitly provide detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahabharata which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu.[30] Krishna is central to many of the main stories of the epic. The eighteen chapters of the sixth book (Bhishma Parva) of the epic that constitute the Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to the warrior-hero Arjuna, on the battlefield. Krishna is already an adult in the epic, although there are allusions to his earlier exploits. The Harivamsa, a later appendix to this epic, contains the earliest detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.
The Rig Veda 1.22.164 sukta 31 mentions a herdsman "who never stumbles".[31] Some Vaishnavite scholars, such as Bhaktivinoda Thakura, claim that this herdsman refers to Krishna.[32] Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar also attempted to show that "the very same Krishna" made an appearance, e.g. as the drapsa ... krishna "black drop" of RV 8.96.13.[33] Some authors have also likened prehistoric depictions of deities to Krishna.
Chandogya Upanishad (3.17.6) composed around 900 BCE[34] mentions Vasudeva Krishna as the son of Devaki and the disciple of Ghora Angirasa, the seer who preached his disciple the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya.’ Having been influenced by the philosophy of ‘Chhandogya’ Krishna in the Bhagavadgita while delivering the discourse to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra discussed about sacrifice, which can be compared to purusha or the individual.[35][36][37][38]
Yāska's Nirukta, an etymological dictionary around 6th century BC, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of Akrura, a motif from well known Puranic story about Krishna.[39] Shatapatha Brahmana and Aitareya-Aranyaka, associate Krishna with his Vrishni origins.[40]
Pāṇini, the ancient grammarian and author of Asthadhyayi (probably belonged to 5th century or 6th century BC) mentions a character called Vāsudeva, son of Vasudeva, and also mentions Kaurava and Arjuna which testifies to Vasudeva Krishna, Arjuna and Kauravas being contemporaries.[35][41][42]
Megasthenes (350 – 290 BC) a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to the court of Chandragupta Maurya made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica. Many scholars have suggested that the deity identified as Herakles was Krishna. According to Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo, Megasthenes described an Indian tribe called Sourasenoi, who especially worshipped Herakles in their land, and this land had two cities, Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river, the Jobares. As was common in the ancient period, the Greeks sometimes described foreign gods in terms of their own divinities, and there is a little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged; Herakles to Krishna, or Hari-Krishna: Methora to Mathura, where Krishna was born; Kleisobora to Krishnapura, meaning "the city of Krishna"; and the Jobares to the Yamuna, the famous river in the Krishna story. Quintus Curtius also mentions that when Alexander the Great confronted Porus, Porus's soldiers were carrying an image of Herakles in their vanguard.[43]
The name Krishna occurs in Buddhist writings in the form Kānha, phonetically equivalent to Krishna.[44]
The Ghata-Jâtaka (No. 454) gives an account of Krishna's childhood and subsequent exploits which in many points corresponds with the Brahmanic legends of his life and contains several familiar incidents and names, such as Vâsudeva, Baladeva, Kaṃsa. Yet it presents many peculiarities and is either an independent version or a misrepresentation of a popular story that had wandered far from its home. Jain tradition also shows that these tales were popular and were worked up into different forms, for the Jains have an elaborate system of ancient patriarchs which includes Vâsudevas and Baladevas. Krishna is the ninth of the Black Vâsudevas and is connected with Dvâravatî or Dvârakâ. He will become the twelfth tîrthankara of the next world-period and a similar position will be attained by Devakî, Rohinî, Baladeva and Javakumâra, all members of his family. This is a striking proof of the popularity of the Krishna legend outside the Brahmanic religion.[45]
According to Arthasastra of Kautilya (4th century BCE) Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme Deity in a strongly monotheistic format.[41]
Around 150 BC, Patanjali in his Mahabhashya quotes a verse: "May the might of Krishna accompanied by Samkarshana increase!" Other verses are mentioned. One verse speaks of "Janardhana with himself as fourth" (Krishna with three companions, the three possibly being Samkarshana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha). Another verse mentions musical instruments being played at meetings in the temples of Rama (Balarama) and Kesava (Krishna). Patanjali also describes dramatic and mimetic performances (Krishna-Kamsopacharam) representing the killing of Kamsa by Vasudeva.[46][47]
In the 1st century BC, there seems to be evidence for a worship of five Vrishni heroes (Balarama, Krishna, Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Samba) for an inscription has been found at Mora near Mathura, which apparently mentions a son of the great satrap Rajuvula, probably the satrap Sodasa, and an image of Vrishni, "probably Vasudeva, and of the "Five Warriors".[48] Brahmi inscription on the Mora stone slab, now in the Mathura Museum.[49][50]
Many Puranas tell Krishna's life-story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana, that contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna’s story and teachings are the most theologically venerated by the Vaishnava schools.[51] Roughly one quarter of the Bhagavata Purana is spent extolling his life and philosophy.
Life[edit]
This summary is based on details from the Mahābhārata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana. The scenes from the narrative are set in north India mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Delhi and Gujarat.Based on scriptural details and astrological calculations, the date of Krishna's birth, known as Janmashtami,[52] is 18 July 3228 BCE.[53] He was born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva,[54][55] When Mother Earth became upset by the sin being committed on Earth, she thought of seeking help from Lord Vishnu. She went in the form of a cow to visit Lord Vishnu and ask for help. Lord Vishnu agreed to help her and promised her that he would be born on Earth. On Earth in the Yadava clan, he was yadav according to his birth, a prince named Kansa sent his father Ugrasena (King of Mathura) to prison and became the King himself. One day a loud voice from the sky (Akash Vani in Hindi) prophesied that the 8th son of Kansa's sister (Devaki) would kill Kansa. Out of affection for Devaki, Kansa did not kill her outright. He did, however, send his sister and her husband (Vasudeva) to prison. Lord Vishnu himself later appeared to Devaki and Vasudeva and told them that he himself would be their eighth son and kill Kansa and destroy sin in the world. In the story of Krishna the deity is the agent of conception and also the offspring.[citation needed] Because of his sympathy for the earth, the divine Vishnu himself descended into the womb of Devaki and was born as her son, Vaasudeva (i.e., Krishna).[citation needed] This is occasionally cited as evidence that "virgin birth" tales are fairly common in non-Christian religions around the world.[56][57][58] However, there is nothing in Hindu scriptures to suggest that it was a "virgin" birth. By the time of conception and birth of Krishna, Devaki was married to Vasudeva and had already borne 7 children.[59] Virgin birth in this case should be more accurately understood as divine conception. Kunti the mother of the Pandavas referenced contemporaneously with the story of Krishna in the Mahabharata also has divine conception and virgin birth of Prince Karna.
The Hindu Vishnu Purana relates: "Devaki bore in her womb the lotus-eyed deity...before the birth of Krishna, no one could bear to gaze upon Devaki, from the light that invested her, and those who contemplated her radiance felt their minds disturbed.” This reference to light is reminiscent of the Vedic hymn "To an Unknown Divine," which refers to a Golden Child. According to F. M. Müller, this term means "the golden gem of child" and is an attempt at naming the sun. According to the Vishnu Purana, Krishna is the total incarnation of Lord Vishnu. It clearly describes in the Vishnu Purana that Krishna was born on earth to destroy sin, especially Kansa.
Krishna belonged to the Vrishni clan of Yadavas from Mathura,[60] and was the eighth son born to the princess Devaki, and her husband Vasudeva.
Mathura (in present day Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh) was the capital of the Yadavas, to which Krishna's parents Vasudeva and Devaki belonged. King Kansa, Devaki's brother,[61] had ascended the throne by imprisoning his father, King Ugrasena. Afraid of a prophecy from a divine voice from the heavens that predicted his death at the hands of Devaki's eighth "garbha", Kansa had the couple locked in a prison cell. After Kansa killed the first six children, Devaki apparently had a miscarriage of the seventh. However, in reality, the womb was actually transferred to Rohini secretly. This was how Balarama, Krishna's elder brother, was born. Once again Devaki became pregnant. Now due to the miscarriage, Kansa was in a puzzle regarding 'The Eighth One', but his ministers advised that the divine voice from the heavens emphasised "the eight garbha" and so this is the one. That night Krishna was born in the Abhijit nakshatra and simultanously Ekanamsha was born as Yogamaya in Gokulam to Nanda and Yashoda.
Since Vasudeva knew Krishna's life was in danger, Krishna was secretly taken out of the prison cell to be raised by his foster parents, Yasoda[62] and Nanda, in Gokula (in present day Mathura district). Two of his other siblings also survived, Balarama (Devaki's seventh child, transferred to the womb of Rohini, Vasudeva's first wife) and Subhadra (daughter of Vasudeva and Rohini, born much later than Balarama and Krishna)Nanda was the head of a community of cow-herders, and he settled in Vrindavana. The stories of Krishna's childhood and youth tell how he became a cow herder,[64] his mischievous pranks as Makhan Chor (butter thief) his foiling of attempts to take his life, and his role as a protector of the people of Vrindavana.
Krishna killed the demoness Putana, disguised as a wet nurse, and the tornado demon Trinavarta both sent by Kamsa for Krishna's life. He tamed the serpent Kāliyā, who previously poisoned the waters of Yamuna river, thus leading to the death of the cowherds. In Hindu art, Krishna is often depicted dancing on the multi-hooded Kāliyā.
Krishna lifted the Govardhana hill and taught Indra, the king of the devas, a lesson to protect native people of Brindavana from persecution by Indra and prevent the devastation of the pasture land of Govardhan. Indra had too much pride and was angry when Krishna advised the people of Brindavana to take care of their animals and their environment that provide them with all their necessities, instead of worshipping Indra annually by spending their resources.[65][66] In the view of some, the spiritual movement started by Krishna had something in it which went against the orthodox forms of worship of the Vedic gods such as Indra.[67] In Bhagavat Purana, Krishna says that the rain came from the nearby hill Govardhana, and advised that the people worshiped the hill instead of Indra. This made Indra furious, so he punished them by sending out a great storm. Krishna then lifted Govardhan and held it over the people like an umbrella.
The stories of his play with the gopis (milkmaids) of Brindavana, especially Radha (daughter of Vrishbhanu, one of the original residents of Brindavan) became known as the Rasa lila and were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. These became important as part of the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna.[68]
Krishna’s childhood reinforces the Hindu concept of lila, playing for fun and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or Rasa-lila is a great example of this. Krishna played his flute and the gopis came immediately from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the Yamuna River, and joined him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there joined him through meditation.[69] The story of Krishna’s battle with Kāliyā also supports this idea in the sense of him dancing on Kāliyā’s many hoods. Even though he is doing battle with the serpent, he is in no real danger and treats it like a game. He is a protector, but he only appears to be a young boy having fun.[70] This idea of having a playful god is very important in Hinduism. The playfulness of Krishna has inspired many celebrations like the Rasa-lila and the Janmashtami : where they make human pyramids to break open handis (clay pots) hung high in the air that spill buttermilk all over the group after being broken by the person at the top. This is meant to be a fun celebration and it gives the participants a sense of unity. Many believe that lila being connected with Krishna gives Hindus a deeper connection to him and thus a deeper connection to Vishnu also; seeing as Krishna is an incarnation of Vishnu. Theologists, like Kristin Johnston Largen, believe that Krishna’s childhood can even inspire other religions to look for lila in deities so that they have a chance to experience a part of their faith that they may not have previously seen.On his return to Mathura as a young man, Krishna overthrew and killed his maternal uncle, Kansa, after quelling several assassination attempts from Kansa's followers. He reinstated Kansa's father, Ugrasena, as the king of the Yadavas and became a leading prince at the court.[73] During this period, he became a friend of Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the Kuru kingdom, who were his cousins. Later, he took his Yadava subjects to the city of Dwaraka (in modern Gujarat) and established his own kingdom there.[74]
Krishna married Rukmini, the Vidarbha princess, by abducting her, at her request, from her proposed wedding with Shishupala. He married eight queens—collectively called the Ashtabharya—including Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Nagnajiti, Bhadra and Lakshmana.[75][76] Krishna subsequently married 16,000 or 16,100 maidens who were held captive by the demon Narakasura, to save their honour.[77][78] Krishna killed the demon and released them all. According to social custom of the time, all of the captive women were degraded, and would be unable to marry, as they had been under the Narakasura's control. However Krishna married them to reinstate their status in the society. This symbolic wedding with 16,100 abandoned daughters was more of a mass rehabilitation.[79] In Vaishnava traditions, Krishna's wives are forms of the goddess Lakshmi— consort of Vishnu, or special souls who attained this qualification after many lifetimes of austerity, while his two queens, Rukmani and Satyabhama, are expansions of Lakshmi.[80]
When Yudhisthira was assuming the title of emperor, he had invited all the great kings to the ceremony and while paying his respects to them, he started with Krishna because he considered Krishna to be the greatest of them all. While it was a unanimous feeling amongst most present at the ceremony that Krishna should get the first honours, his cousin Shishupala felt otherwise and started berating Krishna. Due to a vow given to Shishupal's mother, Krishna forgave a hundred verbal abuses by Shishupal, and upon the one hundred and first, he assumed his Virat (universal) form and killed Shishupal with his Chakra. The blind king Dhritarashtra also obtained divine vision to be able to see this form of Krishna during the time when Duryodana tried to capture Krishna when he came as a peace bearer before the great Mahabharat War. Essentially, Shishupala and Dantavakra were both re-incarnations of Vishnu's gate-keepers Jaya and Vijaya, who were cursed to be born on Earth, to be delivered by the Vishnu back to Vaikuntha.Once battle seemed inevitable, Krishna offered both sides the opportunity to choose between having either his army called narayani sena or himself alone, but on the condition that he personally would not raise any weapon. Arjuna, on behalf of the Pandavas, chose to have Krishna on their side, and Duryodhana, Kaurava prince, chose Krishna's army. At the time of the great battle, Krishna acted as Arjuna's charioteer, since this position did not require the wielding of weapons.
Upon arrival at the battlefield, and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather, his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart does not allow him to fight and he would rather prefer to renounce the kingdom and put down his Gandiv (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the battle, with the conversation soon extending into a discourse which was later compiled as the Bhagavad Gita.[82]Krishna asked Arjuna, "Have you within no time, forgotten the Kauravas' evil deeds such as not accepting the eldest brother Yudhishtira as King, usurping the entire Kingdom without yielding any portion to the Pandavas, meting out insults and difficulties to Pandavas, attempt to murder the Pandavas in the Barnava lac guest house, publicly attempting to disrobe and disgracing Draupadi. Krishna further exhorted in his famous Bhagavad Gita, "Arjuna, do not engage in philosophical analyses at this point of time like a Pundit. You are aware that Duryodhana and Karna particularly have long harboured jealousy and hatred for you Pandavas and badly want to prove their hegemony. You are aware that Bhishmacharya and your Teachers are tied down to their dharma of protecting the unitarian power of the Kuru throne. Moreover, you Arjuna, are only a mortal appointee to carry out my divine will, since the Kauravas are destined to die either way, due to their heap of sins. Open your eyes O Bhaarata and know that I encompass the Karta, Karma and Kriya, all in myself. There is no scope for contemplation now or remorse later, it is indeed time for war and the world will remember your might and immense powers for time to come. So rise O Arjuna!, tighten up your Gandiva and let all directions shiver till their farthest horizons, by the reverberation of its string."Krishna had a profound effect on the Mahabharata war and its consequences. He had considered the Kurukshetra war to be a last resort after voluntarily acting as a messenger in order to establish peace between the Pandavas and Kauravas. But, once these peace negotiations failed and was embarked into the war, then he became a clever strategist. During the war, upon becoming angry with Arjuna for not fighting in true spirit against his ancestors, Krishna once picked up a carriage wheel in order to use it as a weapon to challenge Bhishma. Upon seeing this, Bhishma dropped his weapons and asked Krishna to kill him. However, Arjuna apologized to Krishna, promising that he would fight with full dedication here/after, and the battle continued. Krishna had directed Yudhisthira and Arjuna to return to Bhishma the boon of "victory" which he had given to Yudhisthira before the war commenced, since he himself was standing in their way to victory. Bhishma understood the message and told them the means through which he would drop his weapons—which was if a woman entered the battlefield. Next day, upon Krishna's directions, Shikhandi (Amba reborn) accompanied Arjuna to the battlefield and thus, Bhishma laid down his arms. This was a decisive moment in the war because Bhishma was the chief commander of the Kaurava army and the most formidable warrior on the battlefield. Krishna aided Arjuna in killing Jayadratha, who had held the other four Pandava brothers at bay while Arjuna's son Abhimanyu entered Drona's Chakravyuha formation—an effort in which he was killed by the simultaneous attack of eight Kaurava warriors. Krishna also caused the downfall of Drona, when he signalled Bhima to kill an elephant called Ashwatthama, the namesake of Drona's son. Pandavas started shouting that Ashwatthama was dead but Drona refused to believe them saying he would believe it only if he heard it from Yudhisthira. Krishna knew that Yudhisthira would never tell a lie, so he devised a clever ploy so that Yudhisthira wouldn't lie and at the same time Drona would be convinced of his son's death. On asked by Drona, Yudhisthira proclaimed
Ashwathama Hatahath, naro va Kunjaro va
i.e. Ashwathama had died but he was nor sure whether it was a Drona's son or an elephant. But as soon as Yudhisthira had uttered the first line, Pandava army on Krishna's direction broke into celebration with drums and conchs, in the din of which Drona could not hear the second part of the Yudhisthira's declaration and assumed that his son indeed was dead. Overcome with grief he laid down his arms, and on Krishna's instruction Dhrishtadyumna beheaded Drona.
When Arjuna was fighting Karna, the latter's chariot's wheels sank into the ground. While Karna was trying to take out the chariot from the grip of the Earth, Krishna reminded Arjuna how Karna and the other Kauravas had broken all rules of battle while simultaneously attacking and killing Abhimanyu, and he convinced Arjuna to do the same in revenge in order to kill Karna. During the final stage of the war, when Duryodhana was going to meet his mother Gandhari for taking her blessings which would convert all parts of his body on which her sight falls to diamond, Krishna tricks him to wearing banana leaves to hide his groin. When Duryodhana meets Gandhari, her vision and blessings fall on his entire body except his groin and thighs, and she becomes unhappy about it because she was not able to convert his entire body to diamond. When Duryodhana was in a mace-fight with Bhima, Bhima's blows had no effect on Duryodhana. Upon this, Krishna reminded Bhima of his vow to kill Duryodhana by hitting him on the thigh, and Bhima did the same to win the war despite it being against the rules of mace-fight (since Duryodhana had himself broken Dharma in all his past acts). Thus, Krishna's unparalleled strategy helped the Pandavas win the Mahabharata war by bringing the downfall of all the chief Kaurava warriors, without lifting any weapon. He also brought back to life Arjuna's grandson Parikshit, who had been attacked by a Brahmastra weapon from Ashwatthama while he was in his mother's womb. Parikshit became the Pandavas' successor.Krishna had eight princely wives, also known as Ashtabharya: Rukmini, Satyabhama, Jambavati, Nagnajiti, Kalindi, Mitravinda, Bhadra, Lakshmana) and the other 16,100 or 16,000 (number varies in scriptures), who were rescued from Narakasura. They had been forcibly kept in his palace and after Krishna had killed Narakasura, he rescued these women and freed them. Krishna married them all to save them from destruction and infamity. He gave them shelter in his new palace and a respectful place in society. The chief amongst them is Rohini.
The Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Harivamsa list the children of Krishna from the Ashtabharya with some variation; while Rohini's sons are interpreted to represent the unnumbered children of his junior wives. Most well-known among his sons are Pradyumna, the eldest son of Krishna (and Rukmini) and Samba, the son of Jambavati, whose actions led to the destruction of Krishna's clan.According to Mahabharata, the Kurukshetra war resulted in the death of all the hundred sons of Gandhari. On the night before Duryodhana's death, Lord Krishna visited Gandhari to offer his condolences. Gandhari felt that Krishna knowingly did not put an end to the war, and in a fit of rage and sorrow, Gandhari cursed that Krishna, along with everyone else from the Yadu dynasty, would perish after 36 years. Krishna himself knew and wanted this to happen as he felt that the Yadavas had become very haughty and arrogant (adharmi), so he ended Gandhari's speech by saying "tathastu" (so be it).[83][84][85]
After 36 years passed, a fight broke out between the Yadavas, at a festival, who killed each other. His elder brother, Balarama, then gave up his body using Yoga. Krishna retired into the forest and started meditating under a tree. The Mahabharata also narrates the story of a hunter who becomes an instrument for Krishna's departure from the world. The hunter Jara, mistook Krishna's partly visible left foot for that of a deer, and shot an arrow, wounding him mortally. After he realised the mistake, While still bleeding, Krishna told Jara, "O Jara, you were Bali in your previous birth, killed by myself as Rama in Tretayuga. Here you had a chance to even it and since all acts in this world are done as desired by me, you need not worry for this". Then Krishna, with his physical body[86] ascended back to his eternal abode, Goloka vrindavan and this event marks departure of Krishna from the earth.[87][88][89] The news was conveyed to Hastinapur and Dwaraka by eyewitnesses to this event.[86] The place of this incident is believed to be Bhalka, near Somnath temple.[90][91]
According to Puranic sources,[92] Krishna's disappearance marks the end of Dvapara Yuga and the start of Kali Yuga, which is dated to February 17/18, 3102 BCE.[7] Vaishnava teachers such as Ramanujacharya and Gaudiya Vaishnavas held the view that the body of Krishna is completely spiritual and never decays (Achyuta) as this appears to be the perspective of the Bhagavata Purana. Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) exhorted, "Krishna Naama Sankirtan" i.e. the constant chanting of the Krishna's name is the supreme healer in Kali Yuga. It destroys sins and purifies the hearts through Bhakti ensures universal peace.
Krishna never appears to grow old or age at all in the historical depictions of the Puranas despite passing of several decades, but there are grounds for a debate whether this indicates that he has no material body, since battles and other descriptions of the Mahabhārata epic show clear indications that he seems to be subject to the limitations of nature.[93] While battles apparently seem to indicate limitations, Mahabharata also shows in many places where Krishna is not subject to any limitations as through episodes Duryodhana trying to arrest Krishna where his body burst into fire showing all creation within him.[94] Krishna is also explicitly described as without deterioration elsewhere.[95]The worship of Krishna is part of Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu as the Supreme God and venerates His associated avatars, their consorts, and related saints and teachers. Krishna is especially looked upon as a full manifestation of Vishnu, and as one with Vishnu himself.[96] However the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,[97] where Krishna is sometimes considered an independent deity, supreme in his own right.[98] Out of many deities, Krishna is particularly important, and traditions of Vaishnava lines are generally centered either on Vishnu or on Krishna, as supreme. The term Krishnaism has been used to describe the sects of Krishna, reserving the term "Vaishnavism" for sects focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an avatar, rather than as a transcendent Supreme Being.[99]
All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as an avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu; while traditions, such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism,[100][101] Vallabha Sampradaya and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, regard Krishna as the Svayam Bhagavan, original form of God.[102][103][104][105][106] Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala of late Vedic period.[107] Today the faith has a significant following outside of India as well.[108]The deity Krishna-Vasudeva (kṛṣṇa vāsudeva "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism.[8][39] It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of the worship of Krishna in antiquity.[9][109] This tradition is considered as earliest to other traditions that led to amalgamation at a later stage of the historical development. Other traditions are Bhagavatism and the cult of Gopala, that along with the cult of Bala Krishna form the basis of current tradition of monotheistic religion of Krishna.[110][111] Some early scholars would equate it with Bhagavatism,[9] and the founder of this religious tradition is believed to be Krishna, who is the son of Vasudeva, thus his name is Vāsudeva; he is said to be historically part of the Satvata tribe, and according to them his followers called themselves Bhagavatas and this religion had formed by the 2nd century BC (the time of Patanjali), or as early as the 4th century BC according to evidence in Megasthenes and in the Arthasastra of Kautilya, when Vāsudeva was worshiped as supreme deity in a strongly monotheistic format, where the supreme being was perfect, eternal and full of grace.[9] In many sources outside of the cult, the devotee or bhakta is defined as Vāsudevaka.[112] The Harivamsa describes intricate relationships between Krishna Vasudeva, Sankarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha that would later form a Vaishnava concept of primary quadrupled expansion, or avatar.[113]
Bhakti tradition[edit]
Main article: Bhakti yoga
Bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotional and ecstatic aspects of Hindu religion, particularly among the Vaishnava sects.[100][114] Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of lila, meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the Universe. The lilas of Krishna, with their expressions of personal love that transcend the boundaries of formal reverence, serve as a counterpoint to the actions of another avatar of Vishnu: Rama, "He of the straight and narrow path of maryada, or rules and regulations."[101]
The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries AD. The earliest works included those of the Alvar saints of the Tamil country.[115] A major collection of their works is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar Andal's popular collection of songs Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre.[116][117] [118] Kulasekaraazhvaar's Mukundamala was another notable work of this early stage.
Spread of the Krishna-bhakti movement[edit]
The movement, which started in the 6th-7th century A.D. in the Tamil-speaking region of South India, with twelve Alvar (one immersed in God) saint-poets, who wrote devotional songs. The religion of Alvar poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions. The movement originated in South India during the seventh-century CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the fifteenth century, it was established in Bengal and northern India[119]While the learned sections of the society well versed in Sanskrit could enjoy works like Gita Govinda or Bilvamangala's Krishna-Karnamritam, the masses sang the songs of the devotee-poets, who composed in the regional languages of India. These songs expressing intense personal devotion were written by devotees from all walks of life. The songs of Meera and Surdas became epitomes of Krishna-devotion in north India.These devotee-poets, like the Alvars before them, were aligned to specific theological schools only loosely, if at all. But by the 11th century AD, Vaishnava Bhakti schools with elaborate theological frameworks around the worship of Krishna were established in north India. Nimbarka (11th century AD), Vallabhacharya (15th century AD) and (Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu an incarnation of Lord Sri Krishna according to the Bhavishya Purana) (16th century AD) all inspired by the teachings of Madhvacharya (11th century AD) were the founders of the most influential schools. These schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya and Gaudiya Vaishnavism respectively, see Krishna as the supreme God, rather than an avatar, as generally seen.
In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Varkari sect such as Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Janabai, Eknath and Tukaram promoted the worship of Vithoba,[29] a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century.[6] In southern India, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism, has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti named Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.[114]In 1965, the Krishna-bhakti movement had spread outside India when its founder, Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, (who was instructed by his guru, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) traveled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), popularly known as the Hare Krishna movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western world by spreading the teachings of the saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. In an effort to gain attention, followers chanted the names of God in public locations. This chanting was known as hari-nama sankirtana and helped spread the teaching. Additionally, the practice of distributing prasad or “sanctified food” worked as a catalyst in the dissemination of his works. In the Hare Krishna movement, Prasad was a vegetarian dish that would be first offered to Krishna. The food’s proximity to Krishna added a “spiritual effect,” and was seen to “counteract material contamination affecting the soul.” Sharing this sanctified food with the public, in turn, enabled the movement to gain new recruits and further spread these teachings.[10][120][121]In South India, Vaishnavas usually belong to the Sri Sampradaya[citation needed]. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya have written reverentially about Krishna in most of their works like the Thiruppavai by Andal[122] and Gopala Vimshati by Vedanta Desika.[123] In South India, devotion to Krishna, as an avatar of Vishnu, spread in the face of opposition to Buddhism, Shaktism, and Shaivism and ritualistic Vedic sacrifices. The acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya like Manavala Mamunigal, Vedanta Desika strongly advocated surrender to Vishnu as the aim of the Vedas. Out of 108 Divya Desams there are 97 Divya Desams in South India.While discussing the origin of Indian theatre, Horwitz talks about the mention of the Krishna story in Patanjali's Mahabhashya (c. 150 BC), where the episodes of slaying of Kamsa (Kamsa Vadha) and "Binding of the heaven storming titan" (Bali Bandha) are described.[124] Bhasa's Balacharitam and Dutavakyam (c. 400 BC) are the only Sanskrit plays centered on Krishna written by a major classical dramatist. The former dwells only on his childhood exploits and the latter is a one-act play based on a single episode from the Mahābhārata when Krishna tries to make peace between the warring cousins.[125]
From the 10th century AD, with the growing bhakti movement, Krishna became a favorite subject of the arts. The songs of the Gita Govinda became popular across India, and had many imitations. The songs composed by the Bhakti poets added to the repository of both folk and classical singing.
The classical Indian dances, especially Odissi and Manipuri, draw heavily on the story. The 'Rasa lila' dances performed in Vrindavan shares elements with Kathak, and the Krisnattam, with some cycles, such as Krishnattam, traditionally restricted to the Guruvayur temple, the precursor of Kathakali.[126]
The Sattriya dance, founded by the Assamese Vaishnava saint Sankardeva, extols the virtues of Krishna. Medieval Maharashtra gave birth to a form of storytelling known as the Hari-Katha, that told Vaishnava tales and teachings through music, dance, and narrative sequences, and the story of Krishna one of them. This tradition spread to Tamil Nadu and other southern states, and is now popular in many places throughout India.
Narayana Tirtha's (17th century AD) Krishna-Lila-Tarangini provided material for the musical plays of the Bhagavata-Mela by telling the tale of Krishna from birth until his marriage to Rukmini. Tyagaraja (18th century AD) wrote a similar piece about Krishna called Nauka-Charitam. The narratives of Krishna from the Puranas are performed in Yakshagana, a performance style native to Karnataka's coastal districts. Many movies in all Indian languages have been made based on these stories. These are of varying quality and usually add various songs, melodrama, and special effects.
In other religions[edit]
Jainism[edit]
Further information: Salakapurusa
The most exalted figures in Jainism are the twenty-four Tirthankaras. Krishna, when he was incorporated into the Jain list of heroic figures, presented a problem with his activities which are not pacifist. The concept of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prati-Vasudeva was used to solve it.[neutrality is disputed] The Jain list of sixty-three Shalakapurshas or notable figures includes, amongst others, the twenty-four Tirthankaras and nine sets of this triad. One of these triads is Krishna as the Vasudeva, Balarama as the Baladeva and Jarasandha as the Prati-Vasudeva. He was a cousin of the twenty-second Tirthankara, Neminatha. The stories of these triads can be found in the Harivamsha of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to Mahābhārata) and the Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita of Hemachandra.[127]
In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a Vasudeva with an elder brother termed the Baladeva. The villain is the Prati-vasudeva. Baladeva is the upholder of the Jain principle of non-violence. However, Vasudeva has to forsake this principle to kill the Prati-Vasudeva and save the world. [128][129]The story of Krishna occurs in the Jataka tales in Buddhism,[130] in the Vaibhav Jataka as a prince and legendary conqueror and king of India.[131] In the Buddhist version, Krishna is called Vasudeva, Kanha and Keshava, and Balarama is his older brother, Baladeva. These details resemble that of the story given in the Bhagavata Purana. Vasudeva, along with his nine other brothers (each son a powerful wrestler) and one elder sister (Anjana) capture all of Jambudvipa (many consider this to be India) after beheading their evil uncle, King Kamsa, and later all other kings of Jambudvipa with his Sudarshana Chakra. Much of the story involving the defeat of Kamsa follows the story given in the Bhagavata Purana.[132]
As depicted in the Mahābhārata, all of the sons are eventually killed due to a curse of sage Kanhadipayana (Veda Vyasa, also known as Krishna Dwaipayana). Krishna himself is eventually speared by a hunter in the foot by mistake, leaving the sole survivor of their family being their sister, Anjanadevi of whom no further mention is made.[133]
Since Jataka tales are given from the perspective of Buddha's previous lives (as well as the previous lives of many of Buddha's followers), Krishna appears as the "Dhammasenapati" or "Chief General of the Dharma" and is usually shown being Buddha's "right-hand man" in Buddhist art and iconography.[134] The Bodhisattva, is born in this tale as one of his youngest brothers named Ghatapandita, and saves Krishna from the grief of losing his son.[131] The 'divine boy' Krishna as an embodiment of wisdom and endearing prankster forms a part of the pantheon of gods in Japanese Buddhism .[135]Bahá'ís believe that Krishna was a "Manifestation of God", or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Muhammad, Jesus, the Báb, and the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh.[Members of the Ahmadiyya Community believe Krishna to be a great prophet of God as described by their founder, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. This belief is maintained by the Qur'anic Principle that God has sent prophets and messengers to every nation of the world leaving no region without divine guidance (see for instance Quran 10:47 and Quran 16:36).
Ghulam Ahmad also claimed to be the likeness of Krishna as a latter day reviver of religion and morality whose mission was to reconcile man with God.[138] Ahmadis maintain that the Sanskrit term Avatar is synonymous with the term 'prophet' of the Middle Eastern religious tradition as God's intervention with man; as God appoints a man as his vicegerent upon earth. In Lecture Sialkot, Ghulam Ahmed wrote:
Let it be clear that Raja Krishna, according to what has been revealed to me, was such a truly great man that it is hard to find his like among the Rishis and Avatars of the Hindus. He was an Avatar—i.e., Prophet—of his time upon whom the Holy Spirit would descend from God. He was from God, victorious and prosperous. He cleansed the land of the Aryas from sin and was in fact the Prophet of his age whose teaching was later corrupted in numerous ways. He was full of love for God, a friend of virtue and an enemy of evil.[138]
Krishna is also called Murli Dhar. The flute of Krishna means the flute of revelation and not the physical flute. Krishna lived like humans and he was a prophet.[139][140]Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several new religious movements since the 19th century and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in occult texts, along with Greek, Buddhist, biblical and even historical figures.[141] For instance, Édouard Schuré, an influential figure in perennial philosophy and occult movements, considered Krishna a Great Initiate; while Theosophists regard Krishna as an incarnation of Maitreya (one of the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom), the most important spiritual teacher for humanity along with Buddha.[142][143]
Krishna was canonized by Aleister Crowley and is recognized as a saint in the Gnostic Mass of Ordo Templi Orientis.[144][145]
Spleen
Quand le ciel bas et lourd pèse comme un couvercle
Sur l'esprit gémissant en proie aux longs ennuis,
Et que de l'horizon embrassant tout le cercle
Il nous verse un jour noir plus triste que les nuits ;
Quand la terre est changée en un cachot humide,
Où l'Espérance, comme une chauve-souris,
S'en va battant les murs de son aile timide
Et se cognant la tête à des plafonds pourris ;
Quand la pluie étalant ses immenses traînées
D'une vaste prison imite les barreaux,
Et qu'un peuple muet d'infâmes araignées
Vient tendre ses filets au fond de nos cerveaux,
Des cloches tout à coup sautent avec furie
Et lancent vers le ciel un affreux hurlement,
Ainsi que des esprits errants et sans patrie
Qui se mettent à geindre opiniâtrement.
- Et de longs corbillards, sans tambours ni musique,
Défilent lentement dans mon âme ; l'Espoir,
Vaincu, pleure, et l'Angoisse atroce, despotique,
Sur mon crâne incliné plante son drapeau noir.
Charles BAUDELAIRE
(Les fleurs du mal)
Le Voyage
I
Pour l'enfant, amoureux de cartes et d'estampes,
L'univers est égal à son vaste appétit.
Ah! que le monde est grand à la clarté des lampes!
Aux yeux du souvenir que le monde est petit!
Un matin nous partons, le cerveau plein de flamme,
Le coeur gros de rancune et de désirs amers,
Et nous allons, suivant le rythme de la lame,
Berçant notre infini sur le fini des mers:
Les uns, joyeux de fuir une patrie infâme;
D'autres, l'horreur de leurs berceaux, et quelques-uns,
Astrologues noyés dans les yeux d'une femme,
La Circé tyrannique aux dangereux parfums.
Pour n'être pas changés en bêtes, ils s'enivrent
D'espace et de lumière et de cieux embrasés;
La glace qui les mord, les soleils qui les cuivrent,
Effacent lentement la marque des baisers.
Mais les vrais voyageurs sont ceux-là seuls qui partent
Pour partir; coeurs légers, semblables aux ballons,
De leur fatalité jamais ils ne s'écartent,
Et, sans savoir pourquoi, disent toujours: Allons!
Ceux-là dont les désirs ont la forme des nues,
Et qui rêvent, ainsi qu'un conscrit le canon,
De vastes voluptés, changeantes, inconnues,
Et dont l'esprit humain n'a jamais su le nom!
Charles Baudelaire, Les fleurs du mal, 1861.
MÚSICA: Rui Veloso - Auto da Pimenta - País do Gelo
Tras la victoria chilena en Yungay en enero de 1839, la Confederación Perú Boliviana deja de existir. Su creador y líder indiscutido, el Mariscal boliviano Andrés de Santa Cruz, se convierte en un proscrito. Encajando las inevitables traiciones del derrotado, huye y se asila en el Ecuador. Desde ahí observa las bochornosas pugnas entre sus herederos. Perú y Bolivia se desgarran en revoluciones y guerras civiles. Llamado por consecutivos revolucionarios bolivianos, Santa Cruz abandona su exilio y se lanza a la aventura de recuperar el poder. Desembarcado en la caleta de Camarones, tiene la mala suerte de caer en una región que le es adversa. Efectivos peruanos lo encarcelan. Los bolivianos envían una tropa armada, amenazando llevárselo por la fuerza. Los argentinos bajo el general Rosas lo califican de “bandido, salteador, cruel, funesto y criminal sin ejemplo”. Santa Cruz ve con espanto que varios países forcejean para encarcelarlo o llanamente ejecutarlo.
El gobierno chileno no se queda atrás. Es tanta la alarma por su reaparición que llega al extremo de organizar y enviar una flota naval para capturarlo. El tironeo por Santa Cruz es internacional y despiadado. En Perú lo trasladan por sucesivas cárceles, no pocas veces con amenazas a su vida. Los bolivianos aguardan para echarle el guante. La flota chilena recorre la costa peruana acechando y desembarca una delegación para negociar su entrega. Chile argumenta que lo más seguro para todos es llevar a Santa Cruz lo más lejos posible, es decir, a nuestro país. Tras una serie de engorrosas y complejas negociaciones, los peruanos ceden la persona del zarandeado mariscal y éste es embarcado en la fragata “Chile”. El 8 de marzo de 1844 llegan con el prisionero al puerto de Valparaíso. A la semana siguiente el Presidente Bulnes manda a fondear al defenestrado caudillo en la ciudad de Chillán.
Como acompañante de Santa Cruz es designado el coronel Benjamín Viel, oficial francés veterano de las guerras napoleónicas y que ha seguido su carrera militar al servicio de Chile. Viel es un rubicundo y fornido militar, aficionado a la buena mesa, los mostos y la vida alegre. Por su lado, Andrés de Santa Cruz es un hombre sobrio, enjuto y moreno, de mirada brillante, inteligente y muy seductor. El gobierno chileno supone que Viel, personaje simpático, cosmopolita y expansivo, será buena compañía para Santa Cruz y que además lo vigilará de cerca, evitando cualquier comunicación del boliviano con sus partidarios.
Celador y prisionero llegan a Chillán a inicios de abril y se instalan en la mejor casa de la ciudad. Para mayor comodidad del único reo, el gobierno autoriza a Viel a “gastar libremente”, facultad exclusiva suya entre todos los empleados y funcionarios de la República. El coronel, amante de la buena vida, se embala con el permiso. La cocina queda a cargo de un chef francés llevado especialmente desde Valparaíso. Abundan los vinos extranjeros y el champagne. Se gastan 500 pesos mensuales en el condumio, dinero que en aquella época habría bastado para mantener por un año a una familia completa de la elite chillaneja. Santa Cruz es aficionado a la caza y para sustentar el sano ejercicio de ese deporte se le tienen caballos, escopetas y sirvientes.
El antiguo protector de la Confederación Perú Boliviana se transforma en una curiosidad, Es visitado con frecuencia por los vecinos importantes y por cuanto ocioso quiera ver al Mariscal en su lujosa cárcel. Incluso se autoriza la venida de un hijo suyo de quince años desde Guayaquil para que lo acompañe. Ahí, entre vianda y copa, Santa Cruz hace recuerdos de sus épocas de gloria, cuando unió al Perú y Bolivia y los hizo soñar con la reconstrucción del imperio inca.
Una visita ilustre es la de Ignacio Domeyko, en gira científica por el sur del país. Cuenta Domeyko que la obligada pareja de Santa Cruz y Viel comparten un infierno bien surtido. Santa Cruz, siempre anhelando su antiguo poder y haciendo planes para recuperarlo, se sentía como un Napoleón sudamericano recluido en Santa Elena. Veía entonces a Viel como a Hudson Lowe, el infame carcelero inglés del emperador de los franceses. Este personaje no podía irritar más al sanguíneo Viel. Habiendo sido soldado de Napoleón, caballero de la Legión de Honor condecorado por mano de Bonaparte tras Borodino y declarado enemigo de los ingleses, que lo compararan con el verdugo de su ídolo era una afrenta insufrible. Santa Cruz, que se siente cómodo en el papel del emperador, goza irritando al explosivo oficial. A pesar del espléndido menú, las querellas son continuas y recíprocas, quejándose el uno del otro por la mala suerte que les ha deparado estos desagradables papeles. Cada cual se mantiene, rígidamente, en su correspondiente extremo de la mesa. Jamás se hablan, ni siquiera se miran, si no que utilizan a sus contertulios o a los sirvientes como intermediarios. Incluso cuando la discusión se caldea y vuelan las provocaciones.
Domeyko describe una de estas escenas. “Nos sentamos para desayunar y la charla comenzó con cosas triviales. Viel lucía su ingenio francés, Santa Cruz sonreía; hasta el mediodía tomábamos la champaña como si fuera agua…” La conversación se va haciendo espesa y sale a colación el Código Civil que Santa Cruz había redactado para Bolivia. Viel, caballeroso, elogia esta obra. Santa Cruz, pillo y amalditado, se queja de que el actual Presidente de Bolivia le ha cambiado el nombre de “Código de Santa Cruz” y agrega, mirando a Viel de reojo: “Pero fíjense, por favor, que el código actual de Francia se sigue llamando el Código de Napoleón, el emperador Napoleón… – en ese instante Viel saltó de la silla, enrojeció como un tomate y salió del salón”.
Esta rutina de provocaciones mantiene a Viel en una enervada distancia. Santa Cruz la aprovecha para urdir la trama de su liberación. Se le permite escribir a sus parientes y ahí se queja y exagera amargamente “las duras condiciones de su encierro”. Aprovechando estas concesiones, el prisionero se da maña para enviar y recibir correspondencia de sus partidarios en Perú y Bolivia. Obtiene valiosa información política y mantiene vivas las esperanzas de su restauración. Da instrucciones a sus partidarios para que se comuniquen con los representantes de gobiernos amigos que él conoció y favoreció mientras tuvo el poder. Así teje una vasta red, invisible para sus captores chilenos, que le será de enorme utilidad para salir del cautiverio.
El primer gobierno que responde a sus maniobras y realiza gestiones por su liberación es el de Ecuador. Por intermedio del canciller ecuatoriano, poseedor del desconcertante nombre de don Benigno Malo, se pide a Chile que permita la salida de Santa Cruz con rumbo a Europa. El gobierno chileno responde que no le tiene confianza, porque éste continua con sus conspiraciones y ánimos de revueltas.
En vista de la negativa y explorando la posibilidad de un escape, el hábil caudillo llega al extremo de convencer a un par de padres misioneros del colegio de Chillán para que lo ayuden a huir a través de la cordillera y ya en Argentina, recibir el auxilio de los capitanejos dueños y señores de las pampas.
Más fructíferas y seguras son las gestiones internacionales que realizan su familia y partidarios. El 14 de agosto el encargado de negocios inglés en Chile, coronel Walpole, dirige al ministro de Relaciones Exteriores una nota a nombre de su gobierno en que le pide la adopción “de la humana y sabia política de poner en libertad al general Santa Cruz”, y en caso de no ser esto posible, que no se usara con él “ninguna restricción innecesaria”. En esos mismos días el gobierno recibe comunicaciones de su encargado de negocios en Francia, informando que el ministro del Rey, Mr. Guizot, mostraba interés por la suerte de Santa Cruz, dando a entender su deseo de interponer a favor de él la amistad que existía entre los gobiernos chileno y francés. Un mes más tarde llega a Santiago una información aún más alarmante. Ahora es el mismo Rey de Francia, Luis Felipe, quien le ha hablado al representante de Chile en París en favor de Santa Cruz. Al parecer, el ladino prisionero ha instalado en la opinión pública internacional y al más alto nivel, la idea de que efectivamente es un Napoleón encarcelado, víctima del más duro e injusto de los encierros, en una lejana e inhóspita región del planeta.
Para Bulnes y sus ministros, una cosa es desechar sin asco la petición de libertad de los ecuatorianos. Otra muy distinta es echarse al bolsillo a los gobiernos de Inglaterra y Francia y aparecer como los ejecutores de una vergonzosa y opresiva iniquidad en contra de una víctima de los vaivenes de la política internacional. Peor aún cuando la joven República de Chile intenta hacerse de una buena reputación en el concierto mundial.
Como Perú y Bolivia también están comprometidos con la suerte del protector, hay que ponerse de acuerdo. Luego de muchas cartas, oficios y comunicaciones, en septiembre de 1845 se da inicio a una conferencia en Santiago con la presencia de los representantes de los tres países. La sala del ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores es el tirante escenario de estas negociaciones. Durante un mes se discute el destino de Santa Cruz, a quien, en verdad, ninguno de los tres gobiernos quiere cerca. En octubre se firma un convenio que estipula la liberación del prisionero, pero éste deberá salir de inmediato a Europa y durante seis años le estará prohibido asomar su humanidad por el continente americano. El gobierno de Bolivia se compromete a pagar seis mil pesos anuales para su manutención en el extranjero.
Santa Cruz recibe este acuerdo con la mayor satisfacción, afirmando que “Siendo mi deseo más vehemente el dejar de ser objeto de persecuciones en América, y contraerme a la educación de mi familia… me resigno gustoso a trasladarme a Europa, y a no regresar de ella antes de los seis años prefijados a mi ostracismo”. El pacto es ratificado en diciembre. A fines de enero siguiente, Santa Cruz se traslada a Valparaíso.
El dictador permanece en el puerto durante tres meses, en espera de familiares que viajarán con él a Europa. Durante este tiempo lo acompaña el infaltable Viel. A esas alturas y con su libertad en la mano, las relaciones entre los protagonistas de esta obligada convivencia de veinte meses, llena de recelos y desconfianzas, se endulza como por encanto. La franqueza simple y espontánea de Viel y la inteligencia práctica de Santa Cruz disipan todo encono. El 20 de abril de 1846, el mariscal y Protector de la Confederación Perú Boliviana y el coronel Benjamín Viel se separaron con un largo abrazo de viejos amigos. Santa Cruz será sepultado en Versalles en 1865. Viel fallecerá en Santiago tres años más tarde.
Texto del historiador Gonzalo Peralta
E' arrivato il momento di decidere da che parte stare.
E' vero che non ci sono soluzioni semplici e che ogni cosa in questo mondo è sempre più complessa.
Ma per affrontare i cambiamenti epocali della storia è necessario avere una posizione, sapere quali sono le priorità per poter prendere delle scelte.
Noi stiamo dalla parte degli uomini scalzi.
Di chi ha bisogno di mettere il proprio corpo in pericolo per poter sperare di vivere o di sopravvivere.
E' difficile poterlo capire se non hai mai dovuto viverlo.
Ma la migrazione assoluta richiede esattamente questo: spogliarsi completamente della propria identità per poter sperare di trovarne un'altra. Abbandonare tutto, mettere il proprio corpo e quello dei tuoi figli dentro ad una barca, ad un tir, ad un tunnel e sperare che arrivi integro al di là, in un ignoto che ti respinge, ma di cui tu hai bisogno.
Sono questi gli uomini scalzi del 21°secolo e noi stiamo con loro.
Le loro ragioni possono essere coperte da decine di infamie, paure, minacce, ma è incivile e disumano non ascoltarle.
La Marcia degli Uomini Scalzi parte da queste ragioni e inizia un lungo cammino di civiltà.
E' l'inizio di un percorso di cambiamento che chiede a tutti gli uomini e le donne del mondo globale di capire che non è in alcun modo accettabile fermare e respingere chi è vittima di ingiustizie militari, religiose o economiche che siano. Non è pensabile fermare chi scappa dalle ingiustizie, al contrario aiutarli significa lottare contro quelle ingiustizie.
Dare asilo a chi scappa dalle guerre, significa ripudiare la guerra e costruire la pace.
Dare rifugio a chi scappa dalle discriminazioni religiose, etniche o di genere, significa lottare per i diritti e le libertà di tutte e tutti.
Dare accoglienza a chi fugge dalla povertà, significa non accettare le sempre crescenti disuguaglianze economiche e promuovere una maggiore redistribuzione di ricchezze.
"Lo Stato italiano è stato una dittatura feroce che ha messo a ferro e fuoco l'Italia meridionale e le isole, squartando, fucilando, seppellendo vivi i contadini poveri che scrittori salariati tentarono d'infamare col marchio di briganti."
Antonio Gramsci, da L'Ordine Nuovo, 1920
Pra quem reclamava que nunca tinha visto um prisma holográfico nos esmaltes da Sancion Angel, olha ele aí...
Perdoem a piadinha infame, mas eu não resisti, hihihi...
De todos os acabamentos existentes no mercado, depois do bom e velho cremoso, o holográfico é sem sombra de dúvida o meu preferido. Como eu não tenho um OMG pra fazer top coat holo, fiquei maravilhada qdo a queridíssima Tiane mostrou que dá pra usar o Diamond como top coat, batizando ele primeiro com algum esmalte transparente (eu usei o extra-brilho da Cora).
Agora to muito feliz pq posso sair por aí holografando a vida e ainda usei o Seche vite por cima e não diminuiu na-da a holografia dele.
Ainda não to me entendendo com a posição do sol pra tirar direito as fotos que dependem dele. No verão, o melhor momento era de manhã, mas agora com o outono chegando talvez seja melhor à tarde, pq o esmalte fica um escândalo no sol, mas eu não consigo captar direito pq fica estourando a luz na máquina. Tirei trocentas fotos de vários ângulos, posições, com zoom, sem zoom e nada ficou muitíssimo bom... A foto com flash dos comentários dá pra mostrar bem como fica a holografia dele na luz artificial, to amandoooooo!!!
Relevem a unha do indicador menor do que as outras, mas ela tava rachando perto da carne e tive que lixar um pouxo pra não quebrar de vez e fiquei com pena de diminuir todas as unhas. Ao vivo nem dá pra perceber muito, mas na foto, uia...
EDIT: Postei essa foto uns minutos atrás e 2 meninas já tinham comentado, aí fui fazer uma edição enquanto falava ao telefone e acabei excluindo a foto sem querer dãããããã... Desculpa tá!!
@marciaallves
Argh, je ne fais pas fort en ce moment, je suis tellement prise IRL, que je ne passe plus aucun temps sur MC ou sur Flickr, je ne suis pas au courant de la moindre nouveauté du côté des compagnies et des résineux des uns et des autres, j'espère réussir à revenir plus souvent par ici ! Puis ouais, j'ai encore et toujours la même excuse, mais pas d'inspiration !! Comment ça se faiiiit ? En plus je suis amoureuse, ça devrait aider, non ? (Mais finalement, c'est à lui que j'accorde tout mon temps, voilà la vérité... :3)
Breffeuh, revenons-en à nos moutons, en mars dernier (ouais, ça date un peu), j'ai gagné le premier prix du concours d'écriture organisé par Ehowinn. Et le premier prix : une Mayfair, et la dernière Mayfair en tirage d'artiste (si j'ai bien compris) ! J'ai eu le droit de choisir sa custo de A à Z, de sa couleur de résine (je n'ai pas fait dans l'original, je la voulais simplement en natural un peu pâle) à son makeup en passant par sa wig. Pour dire vrai, c'est la première fois que j'ai une poupée avec un blush tout beau, tout neuf, mes Unoa en ont un aussi, mais comme j'ai acheté leurs corps en seconde main, les blush étaient déjà très abîmés. Ma nouvelle a une jolie manucure, pédicure, une jolie wig avec des petites décos, deux faceplates, normal et sleeping et une paire de pieds à talons en plus des normaux. J'ai été archi gâtée !! Je l'ai reçu juste après le LDoll car Ehowinn a été très prise depuis ce concours et n'a pas eu le temps de la finir avant.
Cette custo, je l'avais prévue de longue date pour une Bellosse (une SD de chez DIM), puis en fait, j'ai fini par ne plus accrocher autant qu'avant à ce moule, mais je tenais à garder le personnage prévu.
C'est donc une princesse, Pimprenelle. Et vous en saurez plus sur son histoire quand elle sera déjà plus clair dans ma tête ! xD
Je suis contente à propos de quelque chose, j'avais acheté pour cette fameuse SD, une superbe robe de chez Musedoll, et je ne l'avais jamais revendue, même en sachant que j'allais passer à une MSD. Du coup, je l'ai quand même essayé sur Pimprenelle, et je suis bluffée, car malgré la finesse et la petitesse de son corps, elle lui va à merveille. :')
Pardonnez les photos d'une médiocre qualité mais le temps au Danemark est infâme depuis mon retour mi-octobre et il n'y a pas un brin de soleil et je n'aime pas le rendu des photos avec les lumières d'intérieur, et ne parlons pas du flash !
Juste deux photos dont je ne suis pas fière (comme trop souvent d'ailleurs) pour vous la présenter.
Fonte dell'immagine: Il Lampo da Levante
Condizioni d'Uso: Avviso legale e condizioni per l’uso
Mettersi sul cammino della fede in Dio
Nel 1991, per grazia di Dio, iniziai a seguire Dio Onnipotente a causa di una malattia. A quel tempo non sapevo nulla della fede in Dio, ma la cosa interessante è che mi piaceva nutrirmi e abbeverarmi delle parole proferite da Dio Onnipotente. Sentivo che le Sue parole erano così buone, e quando cantavo o pregavo ero spesso commosso dallo Spirito Santo al punto da mettermi a piangere. Quella dolcezza nel mio cuore, quel godimento, erano come un evento gioioso che mi fosse capitato. In particolare, nel ritrovarsi assieme durante la grande opera dello Spirito Santo, sentivo come se avessi trasceso la carne e vivessi nel terzo cielo, sentivo che qualsiasi cosa appartenente al mondo era stato gettato al vento. Non riesco a dire quanto ricolmo di gioia, quanto felice, fossi nel mio cuore. Sentivo di essere la persona più felice al mondo. A quel tempo, quindi, pensavo che credere in Dio consistesse soltanto nel gustare la Sua grazia.
Più le parole di Dio venivano rilasciate (al tempo venivano continuamente inviate alla Chiesa, passaggio dopo passaggio), più io conoscevo. Allora, non fui più soltanto ricolmo dal godimento della grazia di Dio. Quando vidi “i primogeniti” menzionati nelle Sue parole e imparai che Dio elargisce grandi benedizioni su di essi, cercai di divenire uno di loro, sperando che in futuro avrei potuto regnare con Dio. Più tardi, quando vidi nelle Sue parole che il Suo tempo era prossimo, sentii perfino un’urgenza maggiore e pensai: Ho iniziato a credere in Dio così tardi; sarò forse incapace di guadagnare questa benedizione? Ho bisogno di metterci un maggiore impegno. Così, quando la casa di Dio mi affidò un incarico, reagii in modo attivo: non ebbi paura delle difficoltà e decisi di rinunciare a tutto, così da meritarmi la benedizione di essere un primogenito. In verità, Dio non aveva mai detto esplicitamente nelle Sue parole che potevamo essere primogeniti. Era soltanto perché eravamo ambiziosi e avevamo desideri stravaganti che pensavamo che, avendoci Egli chiamato Suoi figli e avendoci ora elevati, potevamo certamente divenire primogeniti. Questo era il modo in cui credevo di essere divenuto, in modo naturale, un primogenito. Più tardi vidi parole di Dio, che erano state appena rilasciate, che spesso menzionavano “servitore” e vi erano sempre più menzioni del giudizio su di essi. Pensai tra me e me: per fortuna seguo Dio Onnipotente, altrimenti diverrei un servitore. Quando lessi delle benedizioni di Dio e delle promesse per i primogeniti, credetti che una porzione di queste sarebbe stata mia. Quando lessi le Sue parole di conforto e di esortazione per i Suoi primogeniti, sentii anche dunque che erano rivolte a me. Ciò che mi rendeva ancora più contento erano, in particolare, le parole seguenti: “Sicuramente le grandi catastrofi non si abbatteranno sui Miei figli, sui Miei amati. Mi prenderò cura di loro in ogni momento e in ogni secondo. Certamente non subirete quel dolore e quella sofferenza; anzi, servono alla perfezione dei Miei figli e al compimento della Mia parola in loro, affinché possiate riconoscere la Mia onnipotenza, crescere ulteriormente nella vita, farvi carico prima dei fardelli al Mio posto e dedicare tutto il vostro io al completamento del Mio piano di gestione. Dovete essere contenti e felici e gioire per questo. Vi cederò ogni cosa, permettendovi di prendere il controllo. Lo metterò nelle vostre mani. Se un figlio eredita l’intera proprietà del padre, ciò non vale ancor più per voi, Miei figli primogeniti? Siete veramente benedetti. Anziché soffrire per le grandi sciagure, riceverete benedizioni eterne. Che gloria! Che gloria!” (Capitolo 68 di “Discorsi di Cristo al principio” in “La Parola appare nella carne”). Pensavo: Sto sognando? Una manna così incredibile è caduta dal cielo su di me? Non potevo osare di crederci completamente, ma avevo paura che i miei fratelli e le mie sorelle avrebbero detto che la mia fede era troppo piccola, e quindi non osavo non crederci.
Un giorno, andai per partecipare con entusiasmo a una riunione e vidi che due capi erano venuti in Chiesa. Quando fui in loro compagnia, mi dissero di essere dei servitori. Rimasi scioccato dal sentire questo, e gli chiesi: “Se voi siete servitori, non siamo tutti qui servitori?”. Essi dissero la verità senza tirarsi indietro: “Quasi tutti noi siamo servitori in Cina”. Ascoltandoli dire questo, il mio cuore sprofondò. Non poteva essere! È la verità? Quando vidi le loro espressioni gravi, addolorate, e vidi che i volti degli altri erano ugualmente molto tetri, non potei crederci. Ma poi cambiai idea e pensai: Come capi, hanno rinunciato alle loro famiglie e carriere, hanno sofferto molto e pagato un prezzo così alto per l’opera di Dio. Ero abbastanza in difetto rispetto a loro, ma se erano servitori, che cos’altro potevo dire? Un servitore è un servitore e così, al tempo, non mi sembrò tanto terribile.
Dopo essere andato a casa, presi ancora una volta la parola di Dio e guardai ciò che Dio aveva da dire sui servitori, e vidi questo: “Voi che Mi rendete servizio, ascoltate! Puoi ricevere un po’ della Mia grazia quando Mi rendi servizio. Cioè per un certo tempo conoscerete la Mia opera successiva e le cose che accadranno in futuro, ma non ne godrete affatto. Questa è la Mia grazia. Quando il tuo servizio sarà completo, vattene subito e non indugiare. Coloro che sono i Miei figli primogeniti non devono essere arroganti, ma tu puoi essere orgoglioso, perché vi ho concesso infinite benedizioni. Coloro che sono bersagli di distruzioni non devono attirare tribolazioni su di voi o addolorarsi per il vostro destino; chi ti ha reso un discendente di Satana? Dopo che avrai compiuto il tuo servizio per Me, potrai tornare ancora una volta nel pozzo dell’abisso, perché non Mi sarai più utile, e comincerò a occuparMi di voi con il Mio castigo. Una volta che inizio la Mia opera, non Mi fermo mai; ciò che faccio si compirà, e ciò che compio durerà in eterno. Questo vale per i Miei figli primogeniti, per i Miei figli, per il Mio popolo, e anche per voi. I Miei castighi per voi sono eterni” (Capitolo 86 di “Discorsi di Cristo al principio” in “La Parola appare nella carne”). Non appena lessi queste parole fui assalito da una pena che non avevo mai sentito prima. Chiusi velocemente il libro delle parole di Dio e non osai più guardarlo. In un attimo sentimenti di pesantezza confusione, insoddisfazione affluirono tutti insieme nel mio cuore. Pensai: ieri mi crogiolavo nella felicità, ma oggi sono stato cacciato fuori dalla casa di Dio. Ieri ero figlio di Dio, ma oggi sono divenuto un nemico di Dio, un discendente di Satana. Ieri, le benedizioni infinite di Dio mi aspettavano, ma oggi la mia destinazione è un abisso senza fondo, e io sarò punito per l’eternità. Se Egli non elargisce benedizioni, non importa, ma perché deve ancora castigarmi? Che cosa mai ho fatto di sbagliato? A che scopo avviene tutto ciò? Non volevo confrontarmi con questa realtà; non ero capace di confrontarmi con questo tipo di realtà. Chiudevo gli occhi e non volevo pensarci più. Speravo tanto che fosse soltanto un sogno.
Da allora in poi, ogni volta che pensavo a me stesso come un servitore, sentivo un’indicibile pena nel mio cuore, e non osavo leggere di nuovo le parole di Dio. Ma Dio è molto saggio, e le Sue parole, che castigano e mettono a nudo le persone, non sono soltanto permeate di mistero, bensì contengono anche profezie della futura catastrofe e offrono una prospettiva sul Regno e su cose simili. Erano tutte cose che volevo conoscere, quindi non potevo ancora volgere le spalle alle Sue parole. Quando le leggevo, esse, affilate come una spada, trafiggevano ripetutamente il mio cuore, e non potevo far altro che accettare il Suo giudizio e il Suo castigo. Sentivo che la collera maestosa del giudizio di Dio era sopra di me. A parte il dolore, conoscevo l’effettiva verità del mio essere stato corrotto da Satana. Era divenuto chiaro che ero figlio del gran dragone rosso, discendente di Satana, e oggetto di distruzione. Disperato, non osavo più sperare avidamente in qualche benedizione, ed ero disposto ad accettare la predestinazione di Dio riguardo al mio essere un servitore. Quando sentii che potevo mettere il mio cuore nell’essere un servitore, Dio, ancora una volta, predispose un ambiente che portò allo scoperto l’indole corrotta c che era nascosta in me. Un giorno, nel mentre leggevo le parole di Dio, vidi: “Dopo che sarò tornato a Sion, coloro che sono sulla terra continueranno a lodarMi come in passato. Quei servitori leali restano ad aspettare per renderMi servizio, ma il loro compito dovrà giungere al termine. La cosa migliore che possano fare è contemplare il dato di fatto della Mia presenza sulla terra. In quel tempo comincerò a infliggere disastri a coloro che meriteranno le calamità, ma proprio come[a] tutti credono che Io sia un Dio giusto, certamente non punirò quei servitori leali, ed essi riceveranno solo la Mia grazia” (Capitolo 120 di “Discorsi di Cristo al principio” in “La Parola appare nella carne”). Vedendo questo, pensai segretamente tra me e me: non penserò più al diritto di nascita del primogenito e non vorrò più grandi benedizioni. Ora penserò soltanto a divenire un devoto servitore. Questo è il mio unico obiettivo. Per il futuro, non importa che cosa disporrà la casa di Dio per me, io lo farò nel modo più devoto possibile. Non posso assolutamente perdere l’opportunità di essere nuovamente un operatore di servizio. Se non sono nemmeno capace di essere un devoto servitore, ma sono un semplice servitore, dopo aver completato il mio servizio dovrò ritornare nell’abisso senza fondo o nel lago di fuoco e zolfo. In tal caso, perché tutto questo? Non osavo esprimere questo pensiero ad alcuno, ma non potevo sfuggire agli occhi scrutatori di Dio. Lessi le parole di Dio che dicono: “Nessuno può sondare la natura degli uomini tranne Me, ed essi pensano tutti di esserMi leali, non sapendo che la loro lealtà è impura. Queste impurità rovineranno le persone perché sono una macchinazione del gran dragone rosso. Fu smascherato da Me molto tempo fa; Io sono il Dio onnipotente, e non capirei qualcosa di così semplice? Sono in grado di penetrare nel tuo sangue e nella tua carne per vedere le tue intenzioni. Non è difficile per Me sondare la natura dell’uomo, ma le persone cercano di fare le saccenti, pensando che nessuno, tranne loro, conosca le loro intenzioni. Non sanno che il Dio onnipotente esiste nei cieli, nella terra e in tutte le cose?”. (Capitolo 118 di “Discorsi di Cristo al principio” in “La Parola appare nella carne”). “Ora molte persone nutrono una piccola speranza ma, quando essa si trasforma in delusione, diventano restie ad andare avanti e chiedono di tornare indietro. Prima, ho detto che non tengo qui nessuno contro la sua volontà, ma bada a riflettere su quali saranno le conseguenze per te, e questo è un dato di fatto, non una Mia minaccia” (Capitolo 118 di “Discorsi di Cristo al principio” in “La Parola appare nella carne”). Dopo aver letto questo, il cuore batteva forte. Sentivo che Dio veramente scruta ogni meandro dell’essere umano. Noi pensiamo a qualcosa e Dio lo sa; abbiamo segretamente nei nostri cuori qualche piccola speranza e Dio è disgustato. Soltanto a quel tempo ebbi un po’ di riverenza nei confronti di Dio. Decisi che non avrei più condotto transazioni con Dio, bensì avrei agito onestamente come un servitore e obbedito ai Suoi progetti.
Solo in seguito giunsi a cogliere che ciò che avevo sperimentato lungo questi tre mesi era la prova dei servitori. La prima opera che Dio ha completato in persone sottoposte a una prova è avvenuta con le Sue parole. Dopo aver subito la prova dei servitori, compresi che Dio non è soltanto misericordioso e benevolo, ma che è un Dio giusto e maestoso che non sopporta le offese dell’umanità. Le sue parole hanno in sé autorità e potenza tali da non poter produrre nell’uomo altro che un cuore di timore. Compresi anche che l’umanità è creazione di Dio, che dovremmo credere in Dio e adorarLo. Ecco ciò che è giusto e opportuno. Non ci dovrebbero essere ragionamenti, condizioni, non ci dovrebbe essere ambizione o desideri eccessivi. Se si crede in Dio al fine di ottenere da Lui qualcosa, questo tipo di fede significa sfruttarLo e ingannarLo. È l’espressione di mancanza di coscienza e ragione. Anche se si crede in Dio ma non si ottiene niente, e in seguito se Ne riceve la punizione, si dovrebbe credere in Lui. L’umanità dovrebbe credere in Dio e ubbidirGli in quanto Lui è Dio. Compresi anche che io, per parte mia, sono un figlio del gran dragone rosso, discendente di Satana e uno di quelli che periranno. Dio è il Signore di tutta la creazione, e quale che sia il modo con cui mi tratta, me lo sono meritato. Tutto ciò è giusto, e dovrei ubbidire senza condizioni ai Suoi progetti e alle Sue disposizioni. Non dovrei tentare di discutere con Lui, e ancor meno dovrei resisterGli. Se ripenso alla mia idiozia che questa prova ha rivelato, vedo di essere stato davvero infame. Volevo soltanto guadagnarmi uno status elevato, grandi benedizioni o addirittura sedere al fianco di Dio e governare con Lui Quando colsi che non mi sarei guadagnato le benedizioni che avevo sospirato ma che, al contrario, avrei dovuto subire la catastrofe, pensai di tradire Dio. Queste prove assolutamente trasparenti mi fecero vedere chiaro che il mio obiettivo nel credere in Dio era di essere benedetto. Stavo evidentemente tentando di condurre transazioni con Dio; ero davvero spudorato, e avevo completamente perso quella ragione che si dovrebbe avere. Se non fosse stato per questa sapienza nell’opera di Dio, che utilizzava la prova dei servitori per conquistarmi, per infrangere la mia aspirazione di guadagnarmi benedizioni, starei ancora correndo giù per il falso cammino di ricerca delle benedizioni. Non avrei certamente capito la mia essenza corrotta e, soprattutto, non avrei accettato obbedientemente il giudizio e il castigo delle parole di Dio. In quel caso, non avrei mai potuto ottenere la salvezza o il perfezionamento.
Dopo aver subito la prova dei servitori, pensavo che non avrei più osato credere in Dio e adempiere al mio dovere allo scopo di ottenere benedizioni e pensavo che non avrei più osato compiere azioni al fine di condurre transazioni con Dio. Percepivo che sfruttare e ingannare Dio in questo modo era troppo disprezzabile. Allo stesso tempo, però, avevo una comprensione del fatto che servirsi di questa prova per salvare l’umanità è l’intenzione premurosa di Dio, e sapevo che non c’è alcuna parte di Lui che odi l’uomo. Il Suo amore per l’umanità non è mutato da quando creò il mondo, tanto che, nel mio cuore, avevo l’intenzione di andare in cerca di un sentiero per soddisfare e ripagare l’amore di Dio nella mia futura fede in Lui e nel compimento del mio dovere. Poiché, però, l’intenzione di guadagnarsi benedizioni e contrattare con Dio è troppo radicata nei cuori delle persone, non è possibile liberarsene dopo aver sperimentato una sola prova. Dopo qualche tempo questi fenomeni si mostreranno ancora. Così, per conquistarci e salvarci più profondamente e completamente, Egli suscita su di noi diverse successive prove – la prova dei tempi di castigo, la prova della morte, e la prova dei sette anni. Tra queste prove, quella che patii di più e da cui ottenni maggior frutto fu quella dei sette anni, nel 1999.
Nel 1999 fui eletto responsabile della Chiesa. Fu l’anno in cui il Vangelo del Regno venne grandemente ampliato e la casa di Dio richiese che tentassimo di salvare tutti coloro che avevano la possibilità di essere salvati. Quando vidi questa disposizione della casa di Dio pensai che l’opera di Dio si sarebbe compiuta nel 2000. Per guadagnare più anime e ottenere una destinazione migliore per me quando fosse venuto il tempo, mi impegnai nell’opera del Vangelo dalla prima mattina alla notte fonda. Riguardo alla vita della Chiesa, mi limitavo a fare un’apparizione e non lasciarmi coinvolgere. Pur ammettendo che le mie intenzioni erano sbagliate, semplicemente non riuscivo a dominare il mio desiderio di guadagnarmi benedizioni. In quel tempo ero abbastanza impegnato e sentivo che fare qualcosa di diverso dall’opera del Vangelo, fosse pure mangiare e bere la parola di Dio, mi era d’ostacolo. In questo modo mi gettai in un ardore di lavoro, e prima di accorgermene, l’anno era finito. La casa di Dio aveva scelto una persona del posto per aiutare nel lavoro, così tornai alla zona della mia città natale.
Immaginavo che quando l’opera di Dio fosse conclusa sarebbe di sicuro giunta la grande catastrofe, così, dopo essere tornato a casa, mi limitavo ad attendervi ogni giorno il disastro, aspettando la fine dell’opera di Dio. Quando vidi che stava giungendo il Capodanno, vi fu una condivisione del responsabile della Chiesa in cui egli sosteneva che è necessario attraversare sette anni di prove. All’udire questo messaggio mi sentii scosso e il mio cuore andò in subbuglio. Non potei fare a meno di iniziare a discutere con Dio: “Mi aspettano altri sette anni – come si può sopravvivere? O Dio, Ti prego di distruggermi. Davvero non posso più sopportare questa sofferenza!”. Il giorno dopo non potevo ancora rialzarmi dalla mia depressione. Pensavo: “Comunque, sono stati sette anni! Domani è un altro giorno: me ne andrò via e mi toglierò questo pensiero dalla testa”. Non appena salii in autobus, sentii che lo Spirito Santo era dentro di me e mi rimproverava: “Quando eri in volenterosa ricerca, avevi pagato il tuo prezzo, e dicesti che avresti amato Dio fino alla fine, che non Lo avresti mai lasciato, che avresti sopportato ogni fatica e condiviso ogni gioia. Eri un ipocrita che si prendeva in giro da solo!”. Di fronte al rimprovero dello Spirito Santo, non potei fare altro che abbassare il capo. Era vero. “Prima, nel fruire della grazia di Dio, Gli avevo rivolto promesse, ma ora che ci sono difficoltà e devo soffrire, voglio tornare nel mio mondo. Le mie promesse, quindi, non sono forse semplici bugie? Dio mi ha dato così tanto amore e adesso, nel trovare un ambiente che non è totalmente come voglio, provo questo grande risentimento, fino al punto di voler volgerGli le spalle. Sono davvero una bestia ingrata, non migliore di un animale!”. A questo pensiero non ero più nello stato d’animo adatto per andare via, ma tornai a casa col cuore gonfio. Pur essendo stato costretto a essere “ubbidiente”, quando pensavo al fatto che mi restavano da passare nell’opera di Dio ancora sette anni, nel mio cuore mi lasciavo andare e, qualunque cosa facessi, non percepivo di dovermi affrettare né preoccupare. Sgobbai ogni giorno nel compiere il mio dovere, come se si trattasse semplicemente di un altro giorno. Questo tipo di condizione negativa e provocatoria mi fece progressivamente sfuggire di mano l’opera dello Spirito Santo e, pur volendo trasformare la mia condizione, non vi riuscivo.
Un giorno, mentre mangiavo e bevevo la parola di Dio, vidi le sue parole che dicevano: “Alcune persone, nel cominciare a compiere il loro dovere, erano piene di energia, come se non dovesse mai esaurirsi. Ma come mai nell’andare avanti sembrano perdere quell’energia? Le persone che erano allora e le persone che sono adesso sono come due tipi diversi di persona. Perché sono cambiate? Qual è il motivo? È che la loro fede in Dio ha intrapreso la strada sbagliata prima di imboccare la direzione giusta. Hanno scelto la strada sbagliata. Nella loro ricerca iniziale vi era qualcosa di nascosto che nel momento cruciale è emerso. Che cosa era nascosto? È un’aspettativa di ciò che risiede nel loro cuore mentre credono in Dio, l’aspettativa che il giorno di Dio arriverà presto, cosicché la loro infelicità giungerà al termine; l’aspettativa che Dio sarà trasfigurato e tutte le loro sofferenze finiranno” (“Chi ha perduto l’opera dello Spirito Santo è più a rischio” in “Registrazione dei discorsi di Cristo”). Le parole di Dio mi spinsero a cercare la radice del problema. Emerse che nelle mie occupazioni avevo la speranza nascosta che il giorno di Dio sarebbe venuto presto e che non avrei più sofferto, che avrei raggiunto una buona meta. Fin dal principio le mie attività erano dominate da questa speranza, e quando essa svanì, soffrii e andai in pezzi, al punto di tradire Dio, addirittura di pensare di fuggire con la morte. Solo in quel tempo vidi che avevo seguito per così tanti anni Dio, ma in sostanza non perseguivo il sentiero della verità; avevo sempre tenuto i miei occhi fissi sul giorno di Dio e mi ero messo a contrattare con Lui per ottenere le Sue benedizioni. Anche se allora non potei fare a meno di restare nella famiglia di Dio e non lasciarLo, se non avessi risolto la contaminazione che avevo dentro me, presto o tardi avrei opposto resistenza a Dio e Lo avrei tradito. Dopo aver colto la mia pericolosa situazione, chiesi nel mio cuore a Dio: “Che cosa posso fare per liberarmi dalla contaminazione di questa speranza nel giorno?”. A quel punto ancora una volta lessi le parole di Dio, che recitano: “Lo sapevi che credendo in Dio in Cina, riuscendo a sopportare queste sofferenze e a gioire dell’opera di Dio, gli stranieri davvero vi invidiano tutti? I desideri degli stranieri sono: ‘Anche noi vogliamo sperimentare l’opera di Dio, patiremo qualunque cosa per questo. Anche noi vogliamo ottenere la verità! Anche noi vogliamo ottenere qualche intuizione, acquisire una certa levatura, ma purtroppo non abbiamo questo ambiente’. […] Completare questo gruppo di persone nel paese del gran dragone rosso, facendogli sopportare queste sofferenze, si può dire che sia la più grande elevazione di Dio. Una volta fu detto: ‘Molto tempo fa ho spostato la Mia gloria da Israele verso Est’. Comprendete tutti il significato di questa affermazione ora? Come dovresti percorrere il sentiero in futuro? Come dovresti cercare la verità? Se non cerchi la verità, come puoi ottenere l’opera dello Spirito Santo? Quando avrai perduto l’opera dello Spirito Santo, ti ritroverai nel pericolo maggiore. La sofferenza del presente è insignificante. Sai che cosa farà per voi?” (“Chi ha perduto l’opera dello Spirito Santo è più a rischio” in “Registrazione dei discorsi di Cristo”). Da queste parole di Dio potevo cogliere che nel fatto che le persone oggi siano capaci di soffrire è posto un grande significato, ma non riuscivo a individuare quale fosse effettivamente il senso di quel soffrire. Sapevo soltanto che solo se avessi potuto comprendere il senso della sofferenza sarei stato capace di trasformare autenticamente la mia condizione di speranza nel giorno di Dio. Era un percorso verso la soluzione. Pur non comprendendo in quel tempo il senso della sofferenza, la sola cosa che potevo fare era di perseguire davvero la verità, di cercarla maggiormente, perché solo se avessi ottenuto la verità avrei davvero potuto comprendere il significato della sofferenza, e solo allora avrei potuto liberarmi di questa contaminazione dentro di me.
Come se il tempo fosse stato affrettato, battei le palpebre ed eravamo già nel 2009. Quei sette anni se n’erano andati da un po’, senza che me ne rendessi conto. Ero arrivato fino a quel punto e infine percepii che quei sette anni non erano stati lunghi come avevo immaginato. In quei pochi anni, nel giudizio rivelato dalle parole di Dio, nelle rivelazioni delle prove e degli affinamenti di Dio, avevo visto il mio vero volto. Avevo visto che cosa ero: assolutamente un figlio del gran dragone rosso, perché ero pieno dei suoi veleni, come il veleno del “Non alzarti presto se non c’è un vantaggio, il vantaggio ha la meglio in tutto”. Questa è una tipica descrizione della forma del gran dragone rosso. Sotto il dominio di questo veleno, la mia fede in Dio doveva solo essere benedetta. Ciò in cui mi adoperavo per Dio aveva un limite temporale, e desideravo soffrire meno e ottenere grandi benedizioni. Per liberarmi di questo forte proponimento di essere benedetto e di questo atteggiamento di compromesso dentro di me, Dio portò a termine su di me molteplici prove e affinamenti. Solo allora la contaminazione nella mia fede in Dio venne purificata. E, nelle rivelazioni di Dio, colsi che ero pieno dell’indole corrotta di Satana. Ero altezzoso, disonesto, egoista e deprecabile, sconsiderato e distratto. Mi fecero vedere sempre più chiaramente la mia vera natura, vedere che ero stato corrotto troppo profondamente da Satana, che ero il figlio dell’inferno. Che in quel tempo riuscissi a credere in Dio e a seguirLo era davvero la Sua elevazione e grazia, e che io fossi riuscito ad accettare il Suo giudizio e castigo era una benedizione ancora maggiore. La mia gratitudine nei confronti di Dio crebbe, le mie richieste diminuirono, crebbe la mia ubbidienza nei Suoi confronti, diminuì il mio amor proprio. Chiesi soltanto di riuscire a scrollarmi di dosso la mia corrotta indole satanica, di essere una persona che davvero ubbidisce a Dio e Lo adora. Questo piccolo frutto fu ottenuto dopo chissà quanto lavoro di Dio, compreso fin troppo del Suo paziente sforzo. Finché oggi, sperimentando l’opera di Dio, ho finalmente compreso che la salvezza divina dell’umanità davvero non è semplice. Il Suo lavoro è troppo concreto, la Sua opera di trasformazione e salvezza dell’umanità non è semplice come ci si potrebbe immaginare. Così ora non sono più come un bambino ingenuo, che si limita a sperare che il giorno di Dio possa giungere velocemente, ma percepisco sempre che la mia corruzione è troppo profonda, che ho troppo bisogno della salvezza di Dio e di sperimentare il Suo giudizio e castigo, le Sue prove e affinamenti. Ora sono in possesso di un poco della coscienza e ragionevolezza che dovrebbero essere presenti nell’umanità normale e sto sperimentando in modo adeguato l’opera di salvezza dell’umanità da parte di Dio. Alla fine, se posso vivere il modello di una persona autentica e accogliere la gioia di Dio, il mio cuore ne sarà appagato. Adesso, quando mi guardo indietro e penso a che cosa svelai su di me quando mi vennero addosso quei sette anni di prove, sento di essere troppo in debito nei confronti di Dio, di aver troppo ferito il Suo cuore. Se l’opera di Dio si fosse conclusa nel 2000, io, un essere totalmente immondo, di certo sarei stato un bersaglio della distruzione. I sette anni di prove davvero furono per me la tolleranza e la compassione di Dio e, inoltre, furono per me la più vera e reale salvezza di Dio.
Una volta uscito da quei sette anni, riflettei su queste parole di Dio che in precedenza non avevo capito: “Lo sapevi che credendo in Dio in Cina, riuscendo a sopportare queste sofferenze e a gioire dell’opera di Dio, gli stranieri davvero vi invidiano tutti? I desideri degli stranieri sono: ‘Anche noi vogliamo sperimentare l’opera di Dio, patiremo qualunque cosa per questo. Anche noi vogliamo ottenere la verità! Anche noi vogliamo ottenere qualche intuizione, acquisire una certa levatura, ma purtroppo non abbiamo questo ambiente’. […] Completare questo gruppo di persone nel paese del gran dragone rosso, facendogli sopportare queste sofferenze, si può dire che sia la più grande elevazione di Dio. Una volta fu detto: ‘Molto tempo fa ho spostato la Mia gloria da Israele verso Est’. Comprendete tutti il significato di questa affermazione ora?” Potevo intendere un poco del significato di queste parole, potevo finalmente percepire che davvero soffrire è denso di significato. Pur patendo mentre sperimentavo queste prove, solo dopo aver sofferto colsi quanto fosse prezioso, quanto apprezzabile ciò che avevo guadagnato. Nello sperimentare queste prove, vidi l’indole giusta dell’Onnipotente e l’onnipotenza e sapienza di Dio. Compresi la benevolenza di Dio e assaporai il profondo, paterno amore di Dio per i Suoi figli. Sperimentai anche l’autorità e il potere delle Sue parole, e colsi la verità della mia stessa corruzione operata da Satana. Vidi le fatiche di Dio nella Sua opera di salvezza, vidi che è santo e venerato e che gli esseri umani sono brutti e disprezzabili. Sperimentai anche come Dio conquista e salva l’umanità, fino a condurla sul sentiero corretto del credere in Lui. Quando ci penso adesso, se Dio non avesse svolto su di me questo duro lavoro di prova dopo prova, non avrei forse mai raggiunto queste comprensioni. Durezze e affinamenti sono di così grande beneficio per la crescita delle persone nelle loro vite! Per loro mezzo si può ottenere il dono più concreto e prezioso nel percorso della fede in Dio: la verità. Dopo aver visto il valore e il significato del soffrire, non sogno più di entrare nel Regno a bordo di una portantina, ma sono disposto a tenere ben piantati i miei piedi per terra e sperimentare l’opera di Dio, per perseguire autenticamente la verità fino a cambiarmi.
Avendo sperimentato diversi anni dell’opera di Dio, solo ora sono giunto a un poco di comprensione pratica di queste parole di Dio: “La vera fede in Dio significa fare esperienza delle Sue parole e della Sua opera nella convinzione che Egli ha la sovranità su tutte le cose. In tal modo sarai liberato dalla tua indole corrotta, realizzerai il desiderio di Dio e giungerai a conoscerLo. Solo mediante un percorso simile puoi affermare di credere in Dio” (dall’Introduzione a “La Parola appare nella carne”). Prima di aver sperimentato queste prove da parte di Dio, ero pieno della forte intenzione di essere benedetto e di un atteggiamento da compromesso. Benché sapessi, in linea di principio, che cosa fosse credere in Dio e quale fosse l’obiettivo della fede in Lui, mi concentravo ancora soltanto sull’essere benedetto. Non prestavo assolutamente attenzione alla verità, non puntai a liberarmi della mia disposizione corrotta per soddisfare il volere di Dio o a riconoscere Dio come meta della mia ricerca. Solo allora compresi che quando Dio divenne carne il Suo impegno principale fu di sciogliere l’intenzione dell’umanità di essere benedetta e il suo atteggiamento da compromesso. Ciò perché queste caratteristiche davvero sono le pietre d’inciampo poste tra l’uomo e il suo entrare nel cammino corretto della fede in Dio. Se dentro l’uomo si ospitano questi difetti, egli non perseguirà la verità. Non avrà una metà corretta nel suo impegno, camminerà su un sentiero sbagliato. Si tratta di un sentiero che non è riconosciuto da Dio. Adesso, l’opera di conquista e salvezza da parte di Dio ha distrutto la fortezza di Satana che si trovava dentro di me. Finalmente, non sono più preoccupato, non sono più assorbito dal pensiero di guadagnarmi benedizioni o di patire la catastrofe. Non mi pongo più all’amara ricerca di desideri eccessivi e non mi pongo più a discutere le condizioni o ad avanzare pretese per evitare la catastrofe. Senza questa contaminazione mi sento più leggero, più libero. Posso perseguire con calma e appropriatezza la verità. È questo il frutto generato dalle prove e dagli affinamenti di Dio Onnipotente. È l’opera di processi e affinamenti condotta da Dio Onnipotente che mi ha portato sul sentiero autentico della fede in Dio. D’ora in poi, non importa quali altre prove Dio infligga, non importa quanto grandi siano i dolorosi affinamenti che patirò, ubbidirò e accetterò, e li sperimenterò davvero. Cercherò da essi la verità e conseguirò un’indole libera dalla corruzione per adempiere la volontà di Dio, per ricompensare i molti anni di Suo paziente sforzo.
Note a piè di pagina:
a. Il testo originale non contiene la frase “proprio come”.
Fonte: Il Lampo da Levante
Una doverosa visita nel sancta sanctorum del Meazza, a rendere onore allo spogliatoio dei maiali...
Sono trascorsi quasi trent'anni dall'infamata, ma ancora si respira chiara l'aria di serie cadetta di cui queste pareti trasudano...
E' arrivato il momento di decidere da che parte stare.
E' vero che non ci sono soluzioni semplici e che ogni cosa in questo mondo è sempre più complessa.
Ma per affrontare i cambiamenti epocali della storia è necessario avere una posizione, sapere quali sono le priorità per poter prendere delle scelte.
Noi stiamo dalla parte degli uomini scalzi.
Di chi ha bisogno di mettere il proprio corpo in pericolo per poter sperare di vivere o di sopravvivere.
E' difficile poterlo capire se non hai mai dovuto viverlo.
Ma la migrazione assoluta richiede esattamente questo: spogliarsi completamente della propria identità per poter sperare di trovarne un'altra. Abbandonare tutto, mettere il proprio corpo e quello dei tuoi figli dentro ad una barca, ad un tir, ad un tunnel e sperare che arrivi integro al di là, in un ignoto che ti respinge, ma di cui tu hai bisogno.
Sono questi gli uomini scalzi del 21°secolo e noi stiamo con loro.
Le loro ragioni possono essere coperte da decine di infamie, paure, minacce, ma è incivile e disumano non ascoltarle.
La Marcia degli Uomini Scalzi parte da queste ragioni e inizia un lungo cammino di civiltà.
E' l'inizio di un percorso di cambiamento che chiede a tutti gli uomini e le donne del mondo globale di capire che non è in alcun modo accettabile fermare e respingere chi è vittima di ingiustizie militari, religiose o economiche che siano. Non è pensabile fermare chi scappa dalle ingiustizie, al contrario aiutarli significa lottare contro quelle ingiustizie.
Dare asilo a chi scappa dalle guerre, significa ripudiare la guerra e costruire la pace.
Dare rifugio a chi scappa dalle discriminazioni religiose, etniche o di genere, significa lottare per i diritti e le libertà di tutte e tutti.
Dare accoglienza a chi fugge dalla povertà, significa non accettare le sempre crescenti disuguaglianze economiche e promuovere una maggiore redistribuzione di ricchezze.
TAKE ME TO THE KITTENS!
Push&Cat es la censura en la ciudad. El botón de Flickr LLÉVENME A LOS GATITOS nos sirve para liberar a todos aquellos transeuntes que no desean ver grosería, pornografía y contenidos infames en Salas X, Sex Shops o revistas pornográficas de la urbe. Púlsalo.
Más desinformación en lefthandrotation.blogspot.com/2009/08/acciones-urbanas-ab...
Ventura di Simona intelligente, che è molto brava, molto preparata.
Grande fratello di televisione è andata mia nipota: non pigliata.
Isola famosa veramente, a Sharm El Sheik con la liquidazione.
Salmone con le trofie di sciampagna, sulla barca cainata senza una rata.
Appartamento che ti fai un affare di proprietà mangiata da ucraina.
Machina nuova pagata con pensione per figli iscritti a Alleanza Nazionale.
Di parcheggiat'a Smart: "Prego dottore". Carissimo ingegnere di assessore.
Di condomini, di amministratore: "saluto il consigliere comunale".
Due figli, cane pitbull feroce, palestra "ca senza non ci potrei stare",
integratore teglia cannellone, pistola, porto d'armi regolare.
Di cardinalo embrione rispettato, miracolo di scienza inispiegata.
Il CEPU, il debitino professoro, oggi o domani almeno laureato.
Di discoteca assieme calciatore: "canosco, posso pure presentare".
Di tatuaggio, gin-tonic con limone. Di Briatore e Franchi Califani.
Della chiavata terrestre digitale. Di Vodafone, Gattuso, Walter Veltrone.
Di cinema e cultura eccezionale. Fiorello che si invidia il Panariello.
Di schermo piatto centro commerciale. Di offerta di parabola campione,
che vedo "come muore un italiano". Della Fallaci granda indignazione.
Di Ceppaloni emerito Andreotto, di richiamata fede nei valori.
Della chiagniuta sbirra di Picciuotto, il libro nuovo del brigatisto rotto.
Del giornalista scoop a Nassiriya. Di moda Prada evento. Di "geniale".
Di "sei un grande, mitica emozione!". Di testi di Mogol e Cannavaro.
Chesta è l'Italia, chest so l'Italian: bugiard, votafaccia, sbirr e infam.
Pezzenti coi difetti, cafun e bigotti, si riempiono la bocca col latino
ma si e no s'ann leggiut Topolino.
Chesta è l'Italia, chest so l'Italian: cu cinquant'euro t'i accatt san san
e cu altri cinquanta t'accatt moglie e figlia,
'o nonn, 'a nonna e o riest'ra famiglia.
Chesta è l'Italia, chest so l'Italian: prima fascisti, mo filo-israeliani, anzi filo-sionisti,
"ma tu nun eri comunista?", "ma sai non mi ricordo, non lo so... però credo di no"
Cantiamo Popporoppoppoppò!
Leggete e capite perché ogni tanto si tira fuori la “Classifica del più stronzo”, così, tanto per esorcizzare quello che capita nella vita quotidiana.
Allora, ieri mattina prendo Viale Livio Salinatore come ogni altro giorno per recarmi al lavoro (con comodo, traffico di punta già esaurito). Davanti a me uno di quei giganteschi SUV (Stronz Useless Vehicles) di colore nero. Mette la freccia a sinistra, e si sposta verso il lato della corsia per eseguire la svolta (almeno penso questo, Io piccolo ingenuo automobilista che da 10 anni tira biaste nel traffico urbano, extraurbano ed autostradale). Al ché mi allargo sulla destra per passare, continuando a seguire il normale senso di marcia, per di più a REALI 50 km/h.
Sto per affiancarlo (la strada è estremamente larga, ndr) e il fenomeno senza fermarsi ne rallentare o almeno rimettere una cazzo di freccia a destra decide che di girare a sinistra non gliene può fregar di meno, e neppure di avvisare lo stronzo (sottoscritto) che ha dietro. Mi si fa’ incontro leggiadro come un airone al Vondelpark di Amsterdam, ma dopo che hanno scambiato il mangime con uno zocco di Black Bombay di Baba.
(N.b.: uso il maschile per definire il fenomeno perché anche se fosse una donna si tratta in realtà di un corpo inerme e infame che bighellona per le strade forlivesi, incurante dei mali del mondo - e la lingua italiana a differenza del latino non presenta il genere neutro in maniera grammaticalmente riconoscibile).
Per evitare un impatto potenzialmente devastante, mentre suono il clacson con la mano e canto una giaculatoria d’infamie con la mia impareggiabile ugola romagnola, sterzo ulteriormente a destra andando ad impattare con la gomma anteriore destra sul marciapiede. La macchina saltella, ma riesco ad evitare danni peggiori. Io illeso e, per carità, è andata bene.
Il fenomeno che d’ora in poi ribattezzeremo “Carne Morta”, a meno che non avesse una benda di titanio sugli occhi e Moka DJ in consolle sul cruscotto in modalità Cocoricò NON può non essersi accorto del fatto che mi stavo schiantando con potenziali conseguenze di gravità rilevante, e in un impeto di coraggio degno di Paride il Troiano Cacasotto butta il sasso sull’acceleratore e inizia a fuggire verso la statale.
Ora, non essendo il vostro affezionatissimo Master famoso per la scarsa impulsività, avrete già capito che non sono riuscito a prendere il numero di targa di Carne Morta perché appena rimessa la macchina sull’asfalto amico non ho pensato ad altro che lanciarmi all’inseguimento del merdoso, avendo completamente perso ogni briciolo di razionalità, ma il destino infame ha fatto sì che dopo pochi metri la gomma abbia perso di tono (sarà stato lo sbrego di dieci centimetri?) e il sottoscritto non sia riuscito a far altro che perdere le tracce di Carne Morta e raggiungere lo spiazzo più vicino facendo scintillare la lega del cerchione, invocando la più tremenda giustizia divina e giustamente vendicativa per il mio nuovo nemico.
Ebbene, prendendo spunto dal capitolo che il grande Paolo Rossi dedica a Furio Scartezzini ne “Si fa’ presto a dire pirla” (1992), attualizzandolo leggermente per l’occasione, decanterò ora una lirica di insulti in favore di Carne Morta.
Siccome lo so che ognuno di voi ha incontrato nella sua vita, in macchina o a piedi, in centro o in piena campagna, un Carne Morta, ebbene questo è il mio momento di visualizzarlo.
La lirica si chiama : Carne Morta,quanto sei infame!
Carne Morta, che la sfiga cominci a pedinarti a tal punto che se fanno un campionato mondiale della sfiga, tu arrivi secondo.
Carne Morta, che ogni volta che risali in macchina per andare in autostrada, la radio si metta a trasmettere la canzone di Guccini Lunga e diritta correva la strada.
Che tutte le volte che incontri delle suore per strada, siano loro a toccarsi. Idem i gatti neri.
Che tutte le volte che vai allo stadio la Domenica, ti siedi vicino a un teppista e mentre le telecamere lo inquadrano che lancia un sasso,tu ti metta le dita nel naso. E tutta l'Italia alla sera ti veda a Controcampo
mentre ti stai scaccolando.
Che ti vengano in faccia dei foruncoli così sistematici che neanche Rambo... che la mamma quando ti sveglia alla mattina per non spaventarti ti dica:"Ma che belle petunie che hai in faccia".
Che la cosa più bella che una donna ti dica nella tua vita sia:"E' stato bellissimo...è stato bellissimo il preambolo,adesso comincia!"
(se sei una donna, che il massimo piacere che un uomo possa farti provare sia quello di farti vedere come si scopa tua madre, aggiungo col mio solito fair-play)
Carne Morta, che mentre tu sei bello e tranquillo al bar che leggi un articolo sul morbo del legionario e pensi:" A me che cazzo me ne frega, io vivo in Italia", in quella passa un marocchino che vende accendini e che inciampando finisca con un suo dito nella tua bocca e a te viene un dubbio.
Che questo dubbio ti perseguiti.
Che ti venga un genococco,ma non un genococco normale,no: un genococco triplo carpiato con frattura della tibia e sinusite all'incontrario e che starnutendo ti schizzi la schiena.
Che ti venga il mal dei polli che non so che cazzo sia,ma dà l'idea. Anzi, ora nel 2006 la da’ anche troppo.
Carne Morta, che tu per rilassarti vada alla piscina comunale di Forlì, ti tuffi, ti cucchi un eritema da cloro sulla schiena, trenta funghi sui piedi e un tartufo nel culo.
Che ti venga un attacco di dissenteria, tipo kamikaze negli intestini, che sei in piazza Saffi che cerchi disperatamente un bar e mentre lo cerchi ti circonda una banda di Hare Krisna che cercano di liberarti l'anima e mentre ti liberano l'anima tu incominci a sudare come una mucca turca sigillata viva nel domopak, e quando alla fine trovi un bar e vai lì e dici:
"Scusi per cortesia,una toilette",il barista ti fa:"Scàpa fùra, bròt drughè".E che quando trovi un water tutto per te i microbi, quelli della pubblicità, ti aspettino dentro con le cerbottane:"Butta giù l'acido,pirla!".
Che tu ti faccia un'amante svizzera con un preservativo tedesco (gli unici benedetti dal Papa)...come,quali?Quelli senza punta! Di qui sì...di qui no... ma cos'è,un girocollo?
Che ci impieghi tanto tempo per infilartelo che la svizzera ti scacci perché ti è scaduto il permesso di soggiorno.
Che torni indietro e alla dogana ti fermi un cane della narcotici strabico che con la coda punta un turco, con gli occhi guarda te, e abbaia nel mezzo.
Che la finanza nel dubbio vi arresti tutti e due, che ti metta nella stessa cella del turco, che il turco ti chieda di diventare sua moglie,che tu per sfuggire al turco chieda di cambiare cella; che ti accontentino, Carne Morta, e che ti cambino cella, ma ti mettano in quella di Mike Tyson. Che tu ricordi a Mike Tyson uno che l'aveva picchiato da piccolo; che tu per salvarti chieda a Mike Tyson di diventare lui la tua fidanzata.
Che tu muoia e vada in paradiso e che in paradiso si presenti un terrorista dell'Ira. Che al terrorista dell'Ira san Pietro dica:"Ma guardi che lei non può entrare qui!" ....... "Ma io non voglio entrare,siete voi che dovete uscire entro tre minuti.Buonanotte e che Dio vi benedica."
gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8451116z/f337.plancheconta... Titre : Valère Maxime [Valerius Maximus], Faits et dits mémorables [Facta et dicta memorabilia], traduit par Simon de Hesdin et Nicolas de Gonesse.
Date d'édition : 1400-1425
Type : manuscrit
Langue : Français
Format : Paris. - Écriture bâtarde. Probablement un copiste, malgré les différences de module aux ff. 244-249, 255-266, 315, l. 20-411. Hastes à cadelures. - Décoration :M. Meiss a attribué la décoration du manuscrit à l’atelier du Maître de Virgile (ainsi désigné d’après le Virgile, ms. Florence, Bibl. Laurenziana, Med. Pal. 69), connu dans les ateliers parisiens entre 1390 et la deuxième décade du XVe siècle : cf. Meiss, French Painting in the Time of Jean de Berry. The Limbourgs and Their Contemporaries, p. 408-412. L’artiste travailla à plusieurs reprises pour le duc de Berry : on lui doit notamment l’illustration d’un exemplaire des Bucoliques et de l’Énéide de Virgile (Florence, Bibl. Laurenziana, Med. Pal. 69), d’une copie de la Cité de Dieu (Bruxelles, Bibl. Royale, 9294-95), d’une chronique de la campagne de Richard II en Irlande (Londres, Brit. Museum, Harley 1319). Onze peintures de petit format au début du volume (introduction), du prologue et des livres II-IX. Une peinture au début du chap. VIII du livre III. Légende des peintures : F. 1 (introduction) : Valère Maxime enseignant ; f. 2v (prologue) : jugement ? ; f. 71 (Livre II) : armement d’un chevalier ; procession triomphale ; f. 131v (Livre III) : Caton d’Utique et Poppaedius ; Caton d’Utique et Sylla ; f. 168v (Livre III, début du chap. VIII) : exécution des sénateurs capouans ; f. 173 (Livre IV) :réconciliation ; libéralité ; f. 208 (Livre V) : libération des prisonniers carthaginois ; f. 242 (Livre VI) : viol et suicide de Lucrèce ; f. 267v (Livre VII) : Metellus Macedonicus et sa famille ; f. 302v (Livre VIII) : les Horaces et les Curiaces en présence ; f. 345 (Livre IX) : luxure et cruauté (cf. la base mandragore.bnf.fr). Décoration secondaire : Les bordures offrent des similitudes avec celles des manuscrits datés de 1401-1402. Les riches encadrements de rinceaux de vignettes de certains feuillets du Français 282 (f. 1, 71, 131v, 169, 173) rappellent le travail du peintre Paul de Limbourg sur un autre ouvrage de la librairie de Jean de Berry : les Belles Heures actuellement conservées au Metropolitan Museum of Art de New York, Cloisters (f. 80, Meiss, op. cit., fig. 492). Les petites jarres éparpillées sur la baguette formant l’encadrement le f. 71 du Français 282 se retrouvent à l’identique sur la bordure du f. 191 des Belles Heures (Meiss, op. cit., fig. 409). Oiseaux (f. 1), faune (f. 1), papillon (f. 1), dragon (f. 71, 169) ornent la bordure. Au f. 131v, décor de gobelets d'or. - Au début de l’introduction (f. 1), initiale (8 lignes) ornée de vignettes avec riche bordure marginale (cf. - supra. - ). - Au début du prologue (f. 2), initiale ornée (7 lignes), à prolongement de baguette avec vignettes. - Au début des différents livres, initiales ornées (5 à 7 lignes), à prolongement de rinceaux de vignettes. - Au début des différents chapitres et des paragraphes, initiales ornées (3 lignes), à prolongement de rinceaux de vignettes. Quelques initiales de 4 à 5 lignes. - Pieds de mouche champis, à l’intérieur du texte et dans la marge signalant les notes. - Parchemin. - 411 ff. précédés et suivis d’un feuillet de garde en parchemin. - 390 x 280 mm (justification : 255/260 x 180 mm). - 52 cahiers : 18 (f. 1-8) ; 28 (f. 9-16) ; 38 (f. 17-24) ; 48 (f. 25-32) ; 58 (f. 33-40) ; 68 (f. 41-48) ; 78 (f. 49-56) ; 88 (f. 57-64) ; 98 (f. 65-72) ; 108 (f. 73-80) ; 118 (f. 81-88) ; 128 (f. 89-96) ; 138 (f. 97-104) ; 148 (f. 105-112) ; 158 (f. 113-120) ; 168 (f. 121-128) ; 178 (f. 129-136) ; 188 (f. 137-144) ; 198 (f. 145-152) ; 208 (f. 153-160) ; 218 (f. 161-169) ; 228 (f. 169-176) ; 238 (f. 177-184) ; 248 (f. 185-192) ; 258 (f. 193-200) ; 268 (f. 201-208) ; 278 (f. 209-216) ; 288 (f. 217-224) ; 298 (f. 225-232) ; 308 (f. 233-240) ; 3114 (12+2) (f. 241-254, pas de réclame apparente entre les ff. 241 et 254 ; reliure trop serrée pour faire le décompte des cahiers) ; 328 (f. 255-262) ; 334 (f. 263-266) ; 348 (f. 267-274) ; 358 (f. 275-282) ; 368 (f. 283-290) ; 378 (f. 291-298) ; 388 (f. 299-306) ; 396 (f. 307-312) ; 404 (f. 313-316) ; 418 (f. 317-324) ; 428 (f. 325-332) ; 438 (f. 333-340) ; 448 (f. 341-348) ; 458 (f. 349-356) ; 468 (f. 357-364) ; 478 (f. 365-372) ; 488 (f. 373-380) ; 498 (f. 381-388) ; 508 (f. 389-396) ; 518 (f. 397-404) ; 528 (f. 405-412). Réclames ornées, avec hastes montantes (f. 168v). Une signature de feuillets apparente au f. 376. F. 255-255v : Titres courants indiquant la numérotation des livres disposés en bandeaux sur fond or orné de vignettes : « Incipium I » (f. 2) ; « Liber I » etc. Bordure inférieure du f. 70 déchirée. - Mise en page :. - La traduction du texte de Valère Maxime qui fut commencée, sur l’ordre du roi Charles V, par Simon de Hesdin ( ?-1383), fut interrompue en 1383. Reprise, à l’instigation du duc de Berry, elle fut achevée par Nicolas de Gonesse (v. 1364-ap. 1415) le 28 septembre 1401. Au f. 287v, une annotation marginale indique le changement de traducteur : « Cy commence la translacion que maistre Nicole de Gonesse a faite et ycelle continue jusques a la fin (. - à l’encre bleue. - ) ». - Chez les deux auteurs, la traduction est accompagnée de « gloses encyclopédiques » (cf. Bruckner, dans. - Traduction et adaptation. - , p. 75). - La mise en page reflète l’étroite imbrication du commentaire et du texte en français de Valère Maxime. La transition de l’un à l’autre n’est pas toujours nette : au f. 103v, une note marginale souligne le passage de la traduction au commentaire : « Addicationes du translator sur le premier chapitre du second livre ». Aux ff. 1-106v, la transition est annoncée par les mots : « auctor » et « translator », calligraphiés à l’encre alternativement bleue et or aux ff. 1-106v, avec lettres d’attente (« au » ; « t » ; « tran »). On note le passage du latin en français (« aucteur », « translateur ») et la différence de calligraphie aux ff. 185-411. Aux ff. 107-145v, la transition est indiquée par les seuls pieds de mouche (texte) et lettres ornées (commentaires). Aux ff. 146-173v, les mots « le acteur », « le translateur », écrits à l’encre brune, se repèrent grâce aux pieds de mouche qui les précèdent. Quelques corrections se remarquent au f. 314 : le mot « translateur » a été gratté à plusieurs reprises. - Incipit du texte de Valère Maxime d’un module plus grand du f. 1 au f. 20. Têtes de chapitres, indications indiquant un passage à supprimer à l’encre bleue (f. 250 : passage encadré à l’encre bleue avec l’indication « vacat » ; f. 266v: « Vacat jusques a l’ystoire du .VII. - e. - livre qui est ou premier foillet ensuivant ») : cf. - infra. - Contenu). Incipit des différents livres notés à l’encre bleue ou or dans la traduction de Simon de Hesdin, à l’encre or dans celle de Nicolas de Gonesse. Explicit à l’encre or. - Quelques corrections à l’encre rouge à l’intérieur du texte. Annotations marginales contemporaines du manuscrit, indiquant notamment les sources, le plus souvent introduites dans la marge par des pieds de mouche identiques à ceux du texte. - À partir du f. 287 (début de la traduction de Nicolas de Gonesse), les citations latines sont soulignées à l’encre brune. Apparaissent des « Addicions », inscrites à l’encre dorée, le traducteur ayant inséré dans son texte de nombreux emprunts aux commentaires de Dionigi da Borgo S. Sepolcro et Luca de Penne, ainsi qu’à Boccace (. - De casibus virorum illustrium. - et. - De mulieribus claris. - ), Pierre Comestor, Salluste, Suétone et Plutarque : cf. J. Monfrin, dans. - The Late Middle Ages and the Dawn of Humanism outside Italy. - , Leuven-The Hague, 1972, p. 139. - Annotation (XIX. - e. - s.) : f. 411v. - Réglure à l’encre, peu visible par endroit. - Reliure de maroquin rouge restaurée en 1973, avec armes et chiffre royaux (XVIIe-XVIIIe s.). Tranche dorée. Au dos titre en capitales : « VALERE LE GRAND ». D’après l’inventaire de 1413, le volume était recouvert de velours écarlate (vermeil) et garni de quatre fermoirs d’argent doré aux armes du duc : cf. infra Historique. - F. 1 et 411 : estampilles de la « BIBLIOTHECAE REGIAE » (Ancien Régime, avant 1725), correspondant au modèle Josserand-Bruno, type A, n° 1
Droits : domaine public
Identifiant : ark:/12148/btv1b8451116z
Source : Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département des Manuscrits, Français 282
Description : Le manuscrit contient la traduction des Dits et faits mémorables de Valère Maxime. Commencée en 1375 par Simon de Hesdin pour le roi Charles V (livres I-VII, 4e chapitre : f. 1-287v), elle fut achevée par Nicolas de Gonesse en septembre 1401, pour le duc de Berry (5e chapitre du livre VII-IX : f. 287v-411). Les deux traductions sont accompagnées d’un commentaire qui s’inspire partiellement de celui de Dionigi de Borgo San Sepolcro : cf. A. Valentini, « Entre traduction et commentaire érudit… », La traduction vers le moyen français, 2007, p.355-367. F. 1-v. [Préface]. « La briefté et fragilité de ceste douleureuse vie temporelle et la constance de le inconstance et variableté de fortune …-… en l’onneur et reverance duquel, aprés Dieu, je ay entrepris cest oeuvre a fere ». F. 2-71. [Livre I]. « Urbis Rome et cetera : C’est le commencement du proheme de ce livre pour l’entendement duquel avoir …-… laquelle avoit cinquante coustes de long et avoit afeublé un mantel de pourpre. Et yci fine de ceste (de ceste : répété) matiere et par consequent du premier Livre ». « Icy fine la translacion du premier livre de Valerius Maximus, avec la declaracion d’icellui et addicions plusieurs, faite et compillee l’an mil .CCC. soixante et quinze, par frere Simon de Hesdin, de l’ordre de Saint Jehan de Jherusalem, docteur en theologie ». F. 71-131v. [Livre II]. « Dives et prepo[tens] ». « Translat[or] (à l’encre or) ». « Aprés ce que Valerius a parlé ou premier Livre des choses qui appartiennent au service et honneur des dieux …-… quant ilz devoient rendre sentence aucune, il leur convenoit jurer qu’ilz la rendirent vraye et juste. Et ycy fine la translacion du second Livre de Valerius Maximus, faicte et acomplie par frere Simon de Hesdin, l’an mil .CCC. .LXXVII., le second jour de may ». F. 131v-173. [Livre III]. « En cest tiers Livre a .VIII. chapitles. Le premier est de indole, le secont de force, le tiers de pacience …-… et quant il vit que Phelipe n’en faisoit compte et que la couleur ne lei (sic) contenance ne lui muoit point, Alixandre fut tout asseuré et fut guéri ou quart jour ». « Et icy fine le tiers Livre et commence le quart, et cetera ». F. 173-208. [Livre IV]. « Transgrediatur et cetera : En ceste partie Valerius commence son quart Livre, ouquel il a .VIII. chappitres : le premier de moderacion, le second de ceulx qui furent ennemis et puis redevindrent amis …-… Il n’est plus male chose que de aver, ne il n’est plus chose inique que amer peccune ». « Et ycy fine ce quart Livre ». F. 208-242. [Livre V]. « Cy commence le quint Livre (à l’encre bleue) ». « Translateur ». « Libertati et cetera : Icy commence Valerius son quint Livre, lequel a dix chappitres, selon ce que il appert en la poursuite …-… aussy qu’il ne muert nul qu’il n’ait vescu, aussi ne puet il nulz vivre qu’il n’ait a mourir ». « Et ycy fine le chapitre de tout le quint Livre ». F. 242-266v. |Livre VI]. « Cy commence Valerius le .VI.e Livre (à l’encre or) ». « Unde te virorum et cetera : Cy commence Valerius le .VI.e livre, et est le premier chappitre de chasté, pour laquelle recommander il fait un petit prologue …-… Et pour ce que petis enffans les ont tost perdues et usees, compare il les biens de fortune a celle maniere d’echaussement ». « Et ycy fine le .VI.e livre ». F. 267r-v : fin du 3e chapitre du Livre VI à supprimer : « … on notter que les femmes …-… Icy fine le chapitre de severité et aussi le .VI.e Livre » [déjà copié aux ff. 255r-v].Note explicative : « Vacat jusques a l’ystoyre du .VII.e Livre, qui est ou premier foillet ensuivant (à l’encre bleue) ». F. 267v-302v. [Livre VII]. F. 267v-287v. [Chap. I-IV : traduction de Simon de Hesdin] « Volubilis fortune et cetera : Icy commence le .VII.e Livre, lequel selon mon advis n’a que six chappitres a translater …-… Scipio disoit c’on ne devoit pas seulement donner voye a son ennemi de fouir mais lui aidier a le faire et trouver ». F. 287v-302v. [Chap. V-X : traduction de Nicolas de Gonesse]. « Le Ve chapitre qui est diz Repulses (à l’encre or) ». « Aprés ce que Valerius ou chapitre precedent a parlé des fais soubtis en armes appellés stratigemes …-… c'est-à-dire que a decente dacion doit estre decente accepcion correspondent ». « Et en ce se termine le Xe chapitre de ce VII.e Livre. Aprés s’ensuit le .VIII.e Livre ». F. 302v-345. [Livre VIII]. « Le premier chapitre du .VIII.e Livre qui est des causes pour lesquelles les infames coupables furent absoubz ou condempnés (à l’encre or) ». « Tunc quoque ». « Translateur (à l’encre or) ». « Yci commence le .VIII.e Livre qui contient .XVI. chapitres. Le premier est des causes pour lesquelles aucuns coupables furent absolz ou condempnés …-… et par ce moyen fu Arbogastes desconfit avec sa poissance, et en ce je feray fin de la translacion du .VIII.e Livre de Valere. Cy après s’ensuit le .IX.e ouquel Valerius determine des vices ». F. 345-411. [Livre IX]. « Cy commence le .IX.e Livre qui parle de luxure et de superfluité. Le premier chapitre (à l’encre or) ». « Blandum eciam ». « Translateur (à l’encre bleue) ». « En ceste partie commence le .IX.e Livre de Valerius, qui est des fais et des dis dignes de memoire de la cité de Romme …-… Des exemples dessus dis, il appert assez que ceulz qui par mensongerie ont esté eslevés aus grans et nobles estas en sont decheu aprés ignominieusement et en ce je feray fin de ce livre ». F. 411v. « Par l’aide divine sans laquelle (la : dans l’interligne) nulle chose n’est droitement commencee (e : dans l’interligne) ne profitablement continuee (e : dans l’interligne) ne menee affin, est la translation de Valere le Grant terminee. Laquelle commence tres reverent maistre Symon de Haydin, maistre (maistre : répété à l’encre rouge dans l’interligne) en theologie, re(i)ligieulx des Hospitaliers de Saint Jehan de Jherusalem, qui poursuivi jusques au .VII.e livre ou chapitre des stratagemes, et la lissa des la en avant jusques a la fin du livre. Je, Nicholas de Gonesse, maistre es ars et en theologie, ay poursuivi ladicte translation au mains mal que ay peu, du commendement et ordennance de tres excellent et puissent prince, mon seigneur le duc de Berri et d’Auvergne, conte de Poitou, de Bouloingne et d’Auvergne, et a la requeste de Jacquemin Coureau son tresorier. Et ne doubte point que mon stile de translater n’est ne si bel ne si parfait comme est celui devant. Mais je prie a ceulx qui la liront qu’il le me pardonnent. Car je ne suiz mie si expert es histoires comme il estoit. Et fut finee l’an mil .CCCC. et .I. la veille Saint Michiel l’archange (à l’encre or) ».
Description : Le manuscrit fut offert à Jean de Berry, le 1er janvier 1402, par son trésorier et maître d’hôtel Jacques Coureau. Au f. 411v se lit à la lampe de wood l’ex-libris du duc : « Ce livre est au duc de Berry. – JEHAN ». Le volume figure dans les inventaires de la bibliothèque établis en 1413 et 1416 : 1° inventaire de 1413-1416 : « Item un grant Livre de Valerius Maximus, historié et escript de lettre de court ; et au commancement du second fueillet a escript : Urbis Rome ; couvert de veluiau vermeil, garni de .IIII. fermouers d’argent dorez, esmaillez aux armes de Monseigneur ; lequel sire Jaques Courau lui envoia a estraines le premier jour de janvier l’an mil .CCCC. et .I ». Addition : « Ista pars, cum duabus partibus sequentibus [nos 912-913] reddite fuerunt per dictum Robinetum, ut supra » (Arch., nat. KK 258, n° 911 ; cité par Guiffrey, I, p. 236, n° 911). 2° compte de Jean Lebourne, exécuteur testamentaire du duc de Berry (Bibl. Sainte-Geneviève, ms. 841, n° 1097). Le volume est alors prisé 75 livres tournois. L’incipit indiqué dans l’inventaire de 1413 peut être repéré au f. 2 : « Urbis Rome [et cetera]…» . On perd la trace du manuscrit après la dispersion de la librairie du duc de Berry. Il entra à une date indéterminée dans la bibliothèque royale. La mention d’un exemplaire de « Valère le Grand, françois », notée dans l’inventaire de la fin du XVIe s. (Paris), est trop succincte pour affirmer qu’elle correspond au Français 282. Le volume est, en revanche, répertorié dans les catalogues postérieurs : 1° inventaire de Rigault (1622), n° 313 ; 2° inv. des frères Dupuy (1645), n° 519 ; 3° inventaire de Clément (1682), n° 6911.Cotes inscrites au f. 1 : [Rigault II] « trois cents treize » ; [Dupuy II] 519 ; [Regius] 6911. Inventaire 1622 : « Valere le Grand, traduit de latin en françois, les VII premiers livres par Simon de Hesdin, et les autres par Nicolas de Gonnesse, maitre es arts et de theologie ». Inventaire 1645 : « Valere le Grand, mis en françois par Simon de Hesdin et Nicolas de Gonnesse, avec commentaires ».
Provenance : bnf.fr
O acesso de pedestres, Ponte do Brooklyn:
A ponte de Brooklyn tem uma ampla passarela de pedestres abertos para caminhantes e ciclistas, no centro da ponte e maior do que as pistas de automóveis. Enquanto a ponte sempre permitida a passagem de pedestres em toda a sua extensão, seu papel em permitir que milhares de pessoas a atravessar assume uma importância especial nos momentos de dificuldade, quando os meios usuais de cruzar o rio East tornaram-se indisponíveis.
Manhattan Bridge:
A ponte de Manhattan é uma ponte pênsil que cruza o rio East , em Nova Iorque , conectando Lower Manhattan (na Canal Street), com Brooklyn (em Flatbush Avenue Extension). Foi a última das três pontes pênseis construídas em toda a baixa do East River, na sequência do Brooklyn e Williamsburg pontes. A ponte foi aberta ao tráfego em 31 de dezembro de 1909 e foi desenhado por Leon Moisseiff , [1] que mais tarde desenvolveu o infame original Tacoma Narrows Bridge , que abriu e entrou em colapso em 1940.
Mais infos:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn_Bridge
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Bridge
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_River
EXIF:
Camera: Canon EOS 5D Mark II
Lens: 20 mm
Exposure: Manual exposure, 1/640 sec, f/7.1, ISO 400
*Canon 5D Mark II + Canon 16-35mm f/2.8
*Copyright © 2008 Naldo Mundim. All rights reserved.
*Reprodução proibida. © Todos os direitos reservados.
*Imagem protegida pela Lei do Direito Autoral Nº 9.610 de 19/02/1998
Rue à Berlin (Rosa Straße mit Auto)
ERNST LUDWIG KIRCHNER (1880-1938)
1913
Huile sur toile
Achat, 1939
The Museum of Modern Art, New York
www.moma.org/collection/works/79354
Œuvre présentée à l'exposition «Art dégénéré» («Entartete Kunst»), Munich, 1937
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Œuvre présentée dans l'exposition :
« L’art « dégénéré » : Le procès de l’art moderne sous le nazisme », Musée Picasso, Paris
Cette manifestation aborde l’exposition de propagande « Entartete Kunst » (Art dégénéré), organisée en 1937 à Munich, montrant plus de 700 œuvres d’une centaine d’artistes, représentants des différents courants de l’art moderne... dans une mise en scène conçue pour provoquer le dégoût du visiteur. C'est le point culminant d’une série d’expositions infamantes mises en place dans plusieurs musées allemands dès 1933 ... pour dénoncer les avant-gardes artistiques comme une menace à la « pureté » allemande.. (Extraits du site de l'exposition)