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Fish, any of approximately 34,000 species of vertebrate animals (phylum Chordata) found in the fresh and salt waters of the world. Living species range from the primitive jawless lampreys and hagfishes through the cartilaginous sharks, skates, and rays to the abundant and diverse bony fishes. Most fish species are cold-blooded; however, one species, the opah (Lampris guttatus), is warm-blooded.
The term fish is applied to a variety of vertebrates of several evolutionary lines. It describes a life-form rather than a taxonomic group. As members of the phylum Chordata, fish share certain features with other vertebrates. These features are gill slits at some point in the life cycle, a notochord, or skeletal supporting rod, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, and a tail. Living fishes represent some five classes, which are as distinct from one another as are the four classes of familiar air-breathing animals—amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. For example, the jawless fishes (Agnatha) have gills in pouches and lack limb girdles. Extant agnathans are the lampreys and the hagfishes. As the name implies, the skeletons of fishes of the class Chondrichthyes (from chondr, “cartilage,” and ichthyes, “fish”) are made entirely of cartilage. Modern fish of this class lack a swim bladder, and their scales and teeth are made up of the same placoid material. Sharks, skates, and rays are examples of cartilaginous fishes. The bony fishes are by far the largest class. Examples range from the tiny seahorse to the 450-kg (1,000-pound) blue marlin, from the flattened soles and flounders to the boxy puffers and ocean sunfishes. Unlike the scales of the cartilaginous fishes, those of bony fishes, when present, grow throughout life and are made up of thin overlapping plates of bone. Bony fishes also have an operculum that covers the gill slits.
The study of fishes, the science of ichthyology, is of broad importance. Fishes are of interest to humans for many reasons, the most important being their relationship with and dependence on the environment. A more obvious reason for interest in fishes is their role as a moderate but important part of the world’s food supply. This resource, once thought unlimited, is now realized to be finite and in delicate balance with the biological, chemical, and physical factors of the aquatic environment. Overfishing, pollution, and alteration of the environment are the chief enemies of proper fisheries management, both in fresh waters and in the ocean. (For a detailed discussion of the technology and economics of fisheries, see commercial fishing.) Another practical reason for studying fishes is their use in disease control. As predators on mosquito larvae, they help curb malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases.
Fishes are valuable laboratory animals in many aspects of medical and biological research. For example, the readiness of many fishes to acclimate to captivity has allowed biologists to study behaviour, physiology, and even ecology under relatively natural conditions. Fishes have been especially important in the study of animal behaviour, where research on fishes has provided a broad base for the understanding of the more flexible behaviour of the higher vertebrates. The zebra fish is used as a model in studies of gene expression.
There are aesthetic and recreational reasons for an interest in fishes. Millions of people keep live fishes in home aquariums for the simple pleasure of observing the beauty and behaviour of animals otherwise unfamiliar to them. Aquarium fishes provide a personal challenge to many aquarists, allowing them to test their ability to keep a small section of the natural environment in their homes. Sportfishing is another way of enjoying the natural environment, also indulged in by millions of people every year. Interest in aquarium fishes and sportfishing supports multimillion-dollar industries throughout the world.
Fishes have been in existence for more than 450 million years, during which time they have evolved repeatedly to fit into almost every conceivable type of aquatic habitat. In a sense, land vertebrates are simply highly modified fishes: when fishes colonized the land habitat, they became tetrapod (four-legged) land vertebrates. The popular conception of a fish as a slippery, streamlined aquatic animal that possesses fins and breathes by gills applies to many fishes, but far more fishes deviate from that conception than conform to it. For example, the body is elongate in many forms and greatly shortened in others; the body is flattened in some (principally in bottom-dwelling fishes) and laterally compressed in many others; the fins may be elaborately extended, forming intricate shapes, or they may be reduced or even lost; and the positions of the mouth, eyes, nostrils, and gill openings vary widely. Air breathers have appeared in several evolutionary lines.
Many fishes are cryptically coloured and shaped, closely matching their respective environments; others are among the most brilliantly coloured of all organisms, with a wide range of hues, often of striking intensity, on a single individual. The brilliance of pigments may be enhanced by the surface structure of the fish, so that it almost seems to glow. A number of unrelated fishes have actual light-producing organs. Many fishes are able to alter their coloration—some for the purpose of camouflage, others for the enhancement of behavioral signals.
Fishes range in adult length from less than 10 mm (0.4 inch) to more than 20 metres (60 feet) and in weight from about 1.5 grams (less than 0.06 ounce) to many thousands of kilograms. Some live in shallow thermal springs at temperatures slightly above 42 °C (100 °F), others in cold Arctic seas a few degrees below 0 °C (32 °F) or in cold deep waters more than 4,000 metres (13,100 feet) beneath the ocean surface. The structural and, especially, the physiological adaptations for life at such extremes are relatively poorly known and provide the scientifically curious with great incentive for study.
Almost all natural bodies of water bear fish life, the exceptions being very hot thermal ponds and extremely salt-alkaline lakes, such as the Dead Sea in Asia and the Great Salt Lake in North America. The present distribution of fishes is a result of the geological history and development of Earth as well as the ability of fishes to undergo evolutionary change and to adapt to the available habitats. Fishes may be seen to be distributed according to habitat and according to geographical area. Major habitat differences are marine and freshwater. For the most part, the fishes in a marine habitat differ from those in a freshwater habitat, even in adjacent areas, but some, such as the salmon, migrate from one to the other. The freshwater habitats may be seen to be of many kinds. Fishes found in mountain torrents, Arctic lakes, tropical lakes, temperate streams, and tropical rivers will all differ from each other, both in obvious gross structure and in physiological attributes. Even in closely adjacent habitats where, for example, a tropical mountain torrent enters a lowland stream, the fish fauna will differ. The marine habitats can be divided into deep ocean floors (benthic), mid-water oceanic (bathypelagic), surface oceanic (pelagic), rocky coast, sandy coast, muddy shores, bays, estuaries, and others. Also, for example, rocky coastal shores in tropical and temperate regions will have different fish faunas, even when such habitats occur along the same coastline.
Although much is known about the present geographical distribution of fishes, far less is known about how that distribution came about. Many parts of the fish fauna of the fresh waters of North America and Eurasia are related and undoubtedly have a common origin. The faunas of Africa and South America are related, extremely old, and probably an expression of the drifting apart of the two continents. The fauna of southern Asia is related to that of Central Asia, and some of it appears to have entered Africa. The extremely large shore-fish faunas of the Indian and tropical Pacific oceans comprise a related complex, but the tropical shore fauna of the Atlantic, although containing Indo-Pacific components, is relatively limited and probably younger. The Arctic and Antarctic marine faunas are quite different from each other. The shore fauna of the North Pacific is quite distinct, and that of the North Atlantic more limited and probably younger. Pelagic oceanic fishes, especially those in deep waters, are similar the world over, showing little geographical isolation in terms of family groups. The deep oceanic habitat is very much the same throughout the world, but species differences do exist, showing geographical areas determined by oceanic currents and water masses.
All aspects of the life of a fish are closely correlated with adaptation to the total environment, physical, chemical, and biological. In studies, all the interdependent aspects of fish, such as behaviour, locomotion, reproduction, and physical and physiological characteristics, must be taken into account.
Correlated with their adaptation to an extremely wide variety of habitats is the extremely wide variety of life cycles that fishes display. The great majority hatch from relatively small eggs a few days to several weeks or more after the eggs are scattered in the water. Newly hatched young are still partially undeveloped and are called larvae until body structures such as fins, skeleton, and some organs are fully formed. Larval life is often very short, usually less than a few weeks, but it can be very long, some lampreys continuing as larvae for at least five years. Young and larval fishes, before reaching sexual maturity, must grow considerably, and their small size and other factors often dictate that they live in a habitat different than that of the adults. For example, most tropical marine shore fishes have pelagic larvae. Larval food also is different, and larval fishes often live in shallow waters, where they may be less exposed to predators.
After a fish reaches adult size, the length of its life is subject to many factors, such as innate rates of aging, predation pressure, and the nature of the local climate. The longevity of a species in the protected environment of an aquarium may have nothing to do with how long members of that species live in the wild. Many small fishes live only one to three years at the most. In some species, however, individuals may live as long as 10 or 20 or even 100 years.
Fish behaviour is a complicated and varied subject. As in almost all animals with a central nervous system, the nature of a response of an individual fish to stimuli from its environment depends upon the inherited characteristics of its nervous system, on what it has learned from past experience, and on the nature of the stimuli. Compared with the variety of human responses, however, that of a fish is stereotyped, not subject to much modification by “thought” or learning, and investigators must guard against anthropomorphic interpretations of fish behaviour.
Fishes perceive the world around them by the usual senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste and by special lateral line water-current detectors. In the few fishes that generate electric fields, a process that might best be called electrolocation aids in perception. One or another of these senses often is emphasized at the expense of others, depending upon the fish’s other adaptations. In fishes with large eyes, the sense of smell may be reduced; others, with small eyes, hunt and feed primarily by smell (such as some eels).
Specialized behaviour is primarily concerned with the three most important activities in the fish’s life: feeding, reproduction, and escape from enemies. Schooling behaviour of sardines on the high seas, for instance, is largely a protective device to avoid enemies, but it is also associated with and modified by their breeding and feeding requirements. Predatory fishes are often solitary, lying in wait to dart suddenly after their prey, a kind of locomotion impossible for beaked parrot fishes, which feed on coral, swimming in small groups from one coral head to the next. In addition, some predatory fishes that inhabit pelagic environments, such as tunas, often school.
Sleep in fishes, all of which lack true eyelids, consists of a seemingly listless state in which the fish maintains its balance but moves slowly. If attacked or disturbed, most can dart away. A few kinds of fishes lie on the bottom to sleep. Most catfishes, some loaches, and some eels and electric fishes are strictly nocturnal, being active and hunting for food during the night and retiring during the day to holes, thick vegetation, or other protective parts of the environment.
Communication between members of a species or between members of two or more species often is extremely important, especially in breeding behaviour (see below Reproduction). The mode of communication may be visual, as between the small so-called cleaner fish and a large fish of a very different species. The larger fish often allows the cleaner to enter its mouth to remove gill parasites. The cleaner is recognized by its distinctive colour and actions and therefore is not eaten, even if the larger fish is normally a predator. Communication is often chemical, signals being sent by specific chemicals called pheromones.
Many fishes have a streamlined body and swim freely in open water. Fish locomotion is closely correlated with habitat and ecological niche (the general position of the animal to its environment).
Many fishes in both marine and fresh waters swim at the surface and have mouths adapted to feed best (and sometimes only) at the surface. Often such fishes are long and slender, able to dart at surface insects or at other surface fishes and in turn to dart away from predators; needlefishes, halfbeaks, and topminnows (such as killifish and mosquito fish) are good examples. Oceanic flying fishes escape their predators by gathering speed above the water surface, with the lower lobe of the tail providing thrust in the water. They then glide hundreds of yards on enlarged, winglike pectoral and pelvic fins. South American freshwater flying fishes escape their enemies by jumping and propelling their strongly keeled bodies out of the water.
So-called mid-water swimmers, the most common type of fish, are of many kinds and live in many habitats. The powerful fusiform tunas and the trouts, for example, are adapted for strong, fast swimming, the tunas to capture prey speedily in the open ocean and the trouts to cope with the swift currents of streams and rivers. The trout body form is well adapted to many habitats. Fishes that live in relatively quiet waters such as bays or lake shores or slow rivers usually are not strong, fast swimmers but are capable of short, quick bursts of speed to escape a predator. Many of these fishes have their sides flattened, examples being the sunfish and the freshwater angelfish of aquarists. Fish associated with the bottom or substrate usually are slow swimmers. Open-water plankton-feeding fishes almost always remain fusiform and are capable of rapid, strong movement (for example, sardines and herrings of the open ocean and also many small minnows of streams and lakes).
Bottom-living fishes are of many kinds and have undergone many types of modification of their body shape and swimming habits. Rays, which evolved from strong-swimming mid-water sharks, usually stay close to the bottom and move by undulating their large pectoral fins. Flounders live in a similar habitat and move over the bottom by undulating the entire body. Many bottom fishes dart from place to place, resting on the bottom between movements, a motion common in gobies. One goby relative, the mudskipper, has taken to living at the edge of pools along the shore of muddy mangrove swamps. It escapes its enemies by flipping rapidly over the mud, out of the water. Some catfishes, synbranchid eels, the so-called climbing perch, and a few other fishes venture out over damp ground to find more promising waters than those that they left. They move by wriggling their bodies, sometimes using strong pectoral fins; most have accessory air-breathing organs. Many bottom-dwelling fishes live in mud holes or rocky crevices. Marine eels and gobies commonly are found in such habitats and for the most part venture far beyond their cavelike homes. Some bottom dwellers, such as the clingfishes (Gobiesocidae), have developed powerful adhesive disks that enable them to remain in place on the substrate in areas such as rocky coasts, where the action of the waves is great.
The methods of reproduction in fishes are varied, but most fishes lay a large number of small eggs, fertilized and scattered outside of the body. The eggs of pelagic fishes usually remain suspended in the open water. Many shore and freshwater fishes lay eggs on the bottom or among plants. Some have adhesive eggs. The mortality of the young and especially of the eggs is very high, and often only a few individuals grow to maturity out of hundreds, thousands, and in some cases millions of eggs laid.
Males produce sperm, usually as a milky white substance called milt, in two (sometimes one) testes within the body cavity. In bony fishes a sperm duct leads from each testis to a urogenital opening behind the vent or anus. In sharks and rays and in cyclostomes the duct leads to a cloaca. Sometimes the pelvic fins are modified to help transmit the milt to the eggs at the female’s vent or on the substrate where the female has placed them. Sometimes accessory organs are used to fertilize females internally—for example, the claspers of many sharks and rays.
In the females the eggs are formed in two ovaries (sometimes only one) and pass through the ovaries to the urogenital opening and to the outside. In some fishes the eggs are fertilized internally but are shed before development takes place. Members of about a dozen families each of bony fishes (teleosts) and sharks bear live young. Many skates and rays also bear live young. In some bony fishes the eggs simply develop within the female, the young emerging when the eggs hatch (ovoviviparous). Others develop within the ovary and are nourished by ovarian tissues after hatching (viviparous). There are also other methods utilized by fishes to nourish young within the female. In all live-bearers the young are born at a relatively large size and are few in number. In one family of primarily marine fishes, the surfperches from the Pacific coast of North America, Japan, and Korea, the males of at least one species are born sexually mature, although they are not fully grown.
Some fishes are hermaphroditic—an individual producing both sperm and eggs, usually at different stages of its life. Self-fertilization, however, is probably rare.
Successful reproduction and, in many cases, defense of the eggs and the young are assured by rather stereotypical but often elaborate courtship and parental behaviour, either by the male or the female or both. Some fishes prepare nests by hollowing out depressions in the sand bottom (cichlids, for example), build nests with plant materials and sticky threads excreted by the kidneys (sticklebacks), or blow a cluster of mucus-covered bubbles at the water surface (gouramis). The eggs are laid in these structures. Some varieties of cichlids and catfishes incubate eggs in their mouths.
Some fishes, such as salmon, undergo long migrations from the ocean and up large rivers to spawn in the gravel beds where they themselves hatched (anadromous fishes). Some, such as the freshwater eels (family Anguillidae), live and grow to maturity in fresh water and migrate to the sea to spawn (catadromous fishes). Other fishes undertake shorter migrations from lakes into streams, within the ocean, or enter spawning habitats that they do not ordinarily occupy in other ways.
The basic structure and function of the fish body are similar to those of all other vertebrates. The usual four types of tissues are present: surface or epithelial, connective (bone, cartilage, and fibrous tissues, as well as their derivative, blood), nerve, and muscle tissues. In addition, the fish’s organs and organ systems parallel those of other vertebrates.
The typical fish body is streamlined and spindle-shaped, with an anterior head, a gill apparatus, and a heart, the latter lying in the midline just below the gill chamber. The body cavity, containing the vital organs, is situated behind the head in the lower anterior part of the body. The anus usually marks the posterior termination of the body cavity and most often occurs just in front of the base of the anal fin. The spinal cord and vertebral column continue from the posterior part of the head to the base of the tail fin, passing dorsal to the body cavity and through the caudal (tail) region behind the body cavity. Most of the body is of muscular tissue, a high proportion of which is necessitated by swimming. In the course of evolution this basic body plan has been modified repeatedly into the many varieties of fish shapes that exist today.
The skeleton forms an integral part of the fish’s locomotion system, as well as serving to protect vital parts. The internal skeleton consists of the skull bones (except for the roofing bones of the head, which are really part of the external skeleton), the vertebral column, and the fin supports (fin rays). The fin supports are derived from the external skeleton but will be treated here because of their close functional relationship to the internal skeleton. The internal skeleton of cyclostomes, sharks, and rays is of cartilage; that of many fossil groups and some primitive living fishes is mostly of cartilage but may include some bone. In place of the vertebral column, the earliest vertebrates had a fully developed notochord, a flexible stiff rod of viscous cells surrounded by a strong fibrous sheath. During the evolution of modern fishes the rod was replaced in part by cartilage and then by ossified cartilage. Sharks and rays retain a cartilaginous vertebral column; bony fishes have spool-shaped vertebrae that in the more primitive living forms only partially replace the notochord. The skull, including the gill arches and jaws of bony fishes, is fully, or at least partially, ossified. That of sharks and rays remains cartilaginous, at times partially replaced by calcium deposits but never by true bone.
The supportive elements of the fins (basal or radial bones or both) have changed greatly during fish evolution. Some of these changes are described in the section below (Evolution and paleontology). Most fishes possess a single dorsal fin on the midline of the back. Many have two and a few have three dorsal fins. The other fins are the single tail and anal fins and paired pelvic and pectoral fins. A small fin, the adipose fin, with hairlike fin rays, occurs in many of the relatively primitive teleosts (such as trout) on the back near the base of the caudal fin.
The skin of a fish must serve many functions. It aids in maintaining the osmotic balance, provides physical protection for the body, is the site of coloration, contains sensory receptors, and, in some fishes, functions in respiration. Mucous glands, which aid in maintaining the water balance and offer protection from bacteria, are extremely numerous in fish skin, especially in cyclostomes and teleosts. Since mucous glands are present in the modern lampreys, it is reasonable to assume that they were present in primitive fishes, such as the ancient Silurian and Devonian agnathans. Protection from abrasion and predation is another function of the fish skin, and dermal (skin) bone arose early in fish evolution in response to this need. It is thought that bone first evolved in skin and only later invaded the cartilaginous areas of the fish’s body, to provide additional support and protection. There is some argument as to which came first, cartilage or bone, and fossil evidence does not settle the question. In any event, dermal bone has played an important part in fish evolution and has different characteristics in different groups of fishes. Several groups are characterized at least in part by the kind of bony scales they possess.
Scales have played an important part in the evolution of fishes. Primitive fishes usually had thick bony plates or thick scales in several layers of bone, enamel, and related substances. Modern teleost fishes have scales of bone, which, while still protective, allow much more freedom of motion in the body. A few modern teleosts (some catfishes, sticklebacks, and others) have secondarily acquired bony plates in the skin. Modern and early sharks possessed placoid scales, a relatively primitive type of scale with a toothlike structure, consisting of an outside layer of enamel-like substance (vitrodentine), an inner layer of dentine, and a pulp cavity containing nerves and blood vessels. Primitive bony fishes had thick scales of either the ganoid or the cosmoid type. Cosmoid scales have a hard, enamel-like outer layer, an inner layer of cosmine (a form of dentine), and then a layer of vascular bone (isopedine). In ganoid scales the hard outer layer is different chemically and is called ganoin. Under this is a cosminelike layer and then a vascular bony layer. The thin, translucent bony scales of modern fishes, called cycloid and ctenoid (the latter distinguished by serrations at the edges), lack enameloid and dentine layers.
Skin has several other functions in fishes. It is well supplied with nerve endings and presumably receives tactile, thermal, and pain stimuli. Skin is also well supplied with blood vessels. Some fishes breathe in part through the skin, by the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the surrounding water and numerous small blood vessels near the skin surface.
Skin serves as protection through the control of coloration. Fishes exhibit an almost limitless range of colours. The colours often blend closely with the surroundings, effectively hiding the animal. Many fishes use bright colours for territorial advertisement or as recognition marks for other members of their own species, or sometimes for members of other species. Many fishes can change their colour to a greater or lesser degree, by movement of pigment within the pigment cells (chromatophores). Black pigment cells (melanophores), of almost universal occurrence in fishes, are often juxtaposed with other pigment cells. When placed beneath iridocytes or leucophores (bearing the silvery or white pigment guanine), melanophores produce structural colours of blue and green. These colours are often extremely intense, because they are formed by refraction of light through the needlelike crystals of guanine. The blue and green refracted colours are often relatively pure, lacking the red and yellow rays, which have been absorbed by the black pigment (melanin) of the melanophores. Yellow, orange, and red colours are produced by erythrophores, cells containing the appropriate carotenoid pigments. Other colours are produced by combinations of melanophores, erythrophores, and iridocytes.
The major portion of the body of most fishes consists of muscles. Most of the mass is trunk musculature, the fin muscles usually being relatively small. The caudal fin is usually the most powerful fin, being moved by the trunk musculature. The body musculature is usually arranged in rows of chevron-shaped segments on each side. Contractions of these segments, each attached to adjacent vertebrae and vertebral processes, bends the body on the vertebral joint, producing successive undulations of the body, passing from the head to the tail, and producing driving strokes of the tail. It is the latter that provides the strong forward movement for most fishes.
The digestive system, in a functional sense, starts at the mouth, with the teeth used to capture prey or collect plant foods. Mouth shape and tooth structure vary greatly in fishes, depending on the kind of food normally eaten. Most fishes are predacious, feeding on small invertebrates or other fishes and have simple conical teeth on the jaws, on at least some of the bones of the roof of the mouth, and on special gill arch structures just in front of the esophagus. The latter are throat teeth. Most predacious fishes swallow their prey whole, and the teeth are used for grasping and holding prey, for orienting prey to be swallowed (head first) and for working the prey toward the esophagus. There are a variety of tooth types in fishes. Some fishes, such as sharks and piranhas, have cutting teeth for biting chunks out of their victims. A shark’s tooth, although superficially like that of a piranha, appears in many respects to be a modified scale, while that of the piranha is like that of other bony fishes, consisting of dentine and enamel. Parrot fishes have beaklike mouths with short incisor-like teeth for breaking off coral and have heavy pavementlike throat teeth for crushing the coral. Some catfishes have small brushlike teeth, arranged in rows on the jaws, for scraping plant and animal growth from rocks. Many fishes (such as the Cyprinidae or minnows) have no jaw teeth at all but have very strong throat teeth.
Some fishes gather planktonic food by straining it from their gill cavities with numerous elongate stiff rods (gill rakers) anchored by one end to the gill bars. The food collected on these rods is passed to the throat, where it is swallowed. Most fishes have only short gill rakers that help keep food particles from escaping out the mouth cavity into the gill chamber.
Once reaching the throat, food enters a short, often greatly distensible esophagus, a simple tube with a muscular wall leading into a stomach. The stomach varies greatly in fishes, depending upon the diet. In most predacious fishes it is a simple straight or curved tube or pouch with a muscular wall and a glandular lining. Food is largely digested there and leaves the stomach in liquid form.
Between the stomach and the intestine, ducts enter the digestive tube from the liver and pancreas. The liver is a large, clearly defined organ. The pancreas may be embedded in it, diffused through it, or broken into small parts spread along some of the intestine. The junction between the stomach and the intestine is marked by a muscular valve. Pyloric ceca (blind sacs) occur in some fishes at this junction and have a digestive or absorptive function or both.
The intestine itself is quite variable in length, depending upon the fish’s diet. It is short in predacious forms, sometimes no longer than the body cavity, but long in herbivorous forms, being coiled and several times longer than the entire length of the fish in some species of South American catfishes. The intestine is primarily an organ for absorbing nutrients into the bloodstream. The larger its internal surface, the greater its absorptive efficiency, and a spiral valve is one method of increasing its absorption surface.
Sharks, rays, chimaeras, lungfishes, surviving chondrosteans, holosteans, and even a few of the more primitive teleosts have a spiral valve or at least traces of it in the intestine. Most modern teleosts have increased the area of the intestinal walls by having numerous folds and villi (fingerlike projections) somewhat like those in humans. Undigested substances are passed to the exterior through the anus in most teleost fishes. In lungfishes, sharks, and rays, it is first passed through the cloaca, a common cavity receiving the intestinal opening and the ducts from the urogenital system.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolve in water, and most fishes exchange dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide in water by means of the gills. The gills lie behind and to the side of the mouth cavity and consist of fleshy filaments supported by the gill arches and filled with blood vessels, which give gills a bright red colour. Water taken in continuously through the mouth passes backward between the gill bars and over the gill filaments, where the exchange of gases takes place. The gills are protected by a gill cover in teleosts and many other fishes but by flaps of skin in sharks, rays, and some of the older fossil fish groups. The blood capillaries in the gill filaments are close to the gill surface to take up oxygen from the water and to give up excess carbon dioxide to the water.
Most modern fishes have a hydrostatic (ballast) organ, called the swim bladder, that lies in the body cavity just below the kidney and above the stomach and intestine. It originated as a diverticulum of the digestive canal. In advanced teleosts, especially the acanthopterygians, the bladder has lost its connection with the digestive tract, a condition called physoclistic. The connection has been retained (physostomous) by many relatively primitive teleosts. In several unrelated lines of fishes, the bladder has become specialized as a lung or, at least, as a highly vascularized accessory breathing organ. Some fishes with such accessory organs are obligate air breathers and will drown if denied access to the surface, even in well-oxygenated water. Fishes with a hydrostatic form of swim bladder can control their depth by regulating the amount of gas in the bladder. The gas, mostly oxygen, is secreted into the bladder by special glands, rendering the fish more buoyant; the gas is absorbed into the bloodstream by another special organ, reducing the overall buoyancy and allowing the fish to sink. Some deep-sea fishes may have oils, rather than gas, in the bladder. Other deep-sea and some bottom-living forms have much-reduced swim bladders or have lost the organ entirely.
The swim bladder of fishes follows the same developmental pattern as the lungs of land vertebrates. There is no doubt that the two structures have the same historical origin in primitive fishes. More or less intermediate forms still survive among the more primitive types of fishes, such as the lungfishes Lepidosiren and Protopterus.
The circulatory, or blood vascular, system consists of the heart, the arteries, the capillaries, and the veins. It is in the capillaries that the interchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and other substances such as hormones and waste products takes place. The capillaries lead to the veins, which return the venous blood with its waste products to the heart, kidneys, and gills. There are two kinds of capillary beds: those in the gills and those in the rest of the body. The heart, a folded continuous muscular tube with three or four saclike enlargements, undergoes rhythmic contractions and receives venous blood in a sinus venosus. It passes the blood to an auricle and then into a thick muscular pump, the ventricle. From the ventricle the blood goes to a bulbous structure at the base of a ventral aorta just below the gills. The blood passes to the afferent (receiving) arteries of the gill arches and then to the gill capillaries. There waste gases are given off to the environment, and oxygen is absorbed. The oxygenated blood enters efferent (exuant) arteries of the gill arches and then flows into the dorsal aorta. From there blood is distributed to the tissues and organs of the body. One-way valves prevent backflow. The circulation of fishes thus differs from that of the reptiles, birds, and mammals in that oxygenated blood is not returned to the heart prior to distribution to the other parts of the body.
The primary excretory organ in fishes, as in other vertebrates, is the kidney. In fishes some excretion also takes place in the digestive tract, skin, and especially the gills (where ammonia is given off). Compared with land vertebrates, fishes have a special problem in maintaining their internal environment at a constant concentration of water and dissolved substances, such as salts. Proper balance of the internal environment (homeostasis) of a fish is in a great part maintained by the excretory system, especially the kidney.
The kidney, gills, and skin play an important role in maintaining a fish’s internal environment and checking the effects of osmosis. Marine fishes live in an environment in which the water around them has a greater concentration of salts than they can have inside their body and still maintain life. Freshwater fishes, on the other hand, live in water with a much lower concentration of salts than they require inside their bodies. Osmosis tends to promote the loss of water from the body of a marine fish and absorption of water by that of a freshwater fish. Mucus in the skin tends to slow the process but is not a sufficient barrier to prevent the movement of fluids through the permeable skin. When solutions on two sides of a permeable membrane have different concentrations of dissolved substances, water will pass through the membrane into the more concentrated solution, while the dissolved chemicals move into the area of lower concentration (diffusion).
The kidney of freshwater fishes is often larger in relation to body weight than that of marine fishes. In both groups the kidney excretes wastes from the body, but the kidney of freshwater fishes also excretes large amounts of water, counteracting the water absorbed through the skin. Freshwater fishes tend to lose salt to the environment and must replace it. They get some salt from their food, but the gills and skin inside the mouth actively absorb salt from water passed through the mouth. This absorption is performed by special cells capable of moving salts against the diffusion gradient. Freshwater fishes drink very little water and take in little water with their food.
Marine fishes must conserve water, and therefore their kidneys excrete little water. To maintain their water balance, marine fishes drink large quantities of seawater, retaining most of the water and excreting the salt. Most nitrogenous waste in marine fishes appears to be secreted by the gills as ammonia. Marine fishes can excrete salt by clusters of special cells (chloride cells) in the gills.
There are several teleosts—for example, the salmon—that travel between fresh water and seawater and must adjust to the reversal of osmotic gradients. They adjust their physiological processes by spending time (often surprisingly little time) in the intermediate brackish environment.
Marine hagfishes, sharks, and rays have osmotic concentrations in their blood about equal to that of seawater and so do not have to drink water nor perform much physiological work to maintain their osmotic balance. In sharks and rays the osmotic concentration is kept high by retention of urea in the blood. Freshwater sharks have a lowered concentration of urea in the blood.
Endocrine glands secrete their products into the bloodstream and body tissues and, along with the central nervous system, control and regulate many kinds of body functions. Cyclostomes have a well-developed endocrine system, and presumably it was well developed in the early Agnatha, ancestral to modern fishes. Although the endocrine system in fishes is similar to that of higher vertebrates, there are numerous differences in detail. The pituitary, the thyroid, the suprarenals, the adrenals, the pancreatic islets, the sex glands (ovaries and testes), the inner wall of the intestine, and the bodies of the ultimobranchial gland make up the endocrine system in fishes. There are some others whose function is not well understood. These organs regulate sexual activity and reproduction, growth, osmotic pressure, general metabolic activities such as the storage of fat and the utilization of foodstuffs, blood pressure, and certain aspects of skin colour. Many of these activities are also controlled in part by the central nervous system, which works with the endocrine system in maintaining the life of a fish. Some parts of the endocrine system are developmentally, and undoubtedly evolutionarily, derived from the nervous system.
As in all vertebrates, the nervous system of fishes is the primary mechanism coordinating body activities, as well as integrating these activities in the appropriate manner with stimuli from the environment. The central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, is the primary integrating mechanism. The peripheral nervous system, consisting of nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord to various body organs, carries sensory information from special receptor organs such as the eyes, internal ears, nares (sense of smell), taste glands, and others to the integrating centres of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system also carries information via different nerve cells from the integrating centres of the brain and spinal cord. This coded information is carried to the various organs and body systems, such as the skeletal muscular system, for appropriate action in response to the original external or internal stimulus. Another branch of the nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, helps to coordinate the activities of many glands and organs and is itself closely connected to the integrating centres of the brain.
The brain of the fish is divided into several anatomical and functional parts, all closely interconnected but each serving as the primary centre of integrating particular kinds of responses and activities. Several of these centres or parts are primarily associated with one type of sensory perception, such as sight, hearing, or smell (olfaction).
The sense of smell is important in almost all fishes. Certain eels with tiny eyes depend mostly on smell for location of food. The olfactory, or nasal, organ of fishes is located on the dorsal surface of the snout. The lining of the nasal organ has special sensory cells that perceive chemicals dissolved in the water, such as substances from food material, and send sensory information to the brain by way of the first cranial nerve. Odour also serves as an alarm system. Many fishes, especially various species of freshwater minnows, react with alarm to a chemical released from the skin of an injured member of their own species.
Many fishes have a well-developed sense of taste, and tiny pitlike taste buds or organs are located not only within their mouth cavities but also over their heads and parts of their body. Catfishes, which often have poor vision, have barbels (“whiskers”) that serve as supplementary taste organs, those around the mouth being actively used to search out food on the bottom. Some species of naturally blind cave fishes are especially well supplied with taste buds, which often cover most of their body surface.
Sight is extremely important in most fishes. The eye of a fish is basically like that of all other vertebrates, but the eyes of fishes are extremely varied in structure and adaptation. In general, fishes living in dark and dim water habitats have large eyes, unless they have specialized in some compensatory way so that another sense (such as smell) is dominant, in which case the eyes will often be reduced. Fishes living in brightly lighted shallow waters often will have relatively small but efficient eyes. Cyclostomes have somewhat less elaborate eyes than other fishes, with skin stretched over the eyeball perhaps making their vision somewhat less effective. Most fishes have a spherical lens and accommodate their vision to far or near subjects by moving the lens within the eyeball. A few sharks accommodate by changing the shape of the lens, as in land vertebrates. Those fishes that are heavily dependent upon the eyes have especially strong muscles for accommodation. Most fishes see well, despite the restrictions imposed by frequent turbidity of the water and by light refraction.
Fossil evidence suggests that colour vision evolved in fishes more than 300 million years ago, but not all living fishes have retained this ability. Experimental evidence indicates that many shallow-water fishes, if not all, have colour vision and see some colours especially well, but some bottom-dwelling shore fishes live in areas where the water is sufficiently deep to filter out most if not all colours, and these fishes apparently never see colours. When tested in shallow water, they apparently are unable to respond to colour differences.
Sound perception and balance are intimately associated senses in a fish. The organs of hearing are entirely internal, located within the skull, on each side of the brain and somewhat behind the eyes. Sound waves, especially those of low frequencies, travel readily through water and impinge directly upon the bones and fluids of the head and body, to be transmitted to the hearing organs. Fishes readily respond to sound; for example, a trout conditioned to escape by the approach of fishermen will take flight upon perceiving footsteps on a stream bank even if it cannot see a fisherman. Compared with humans, however, the range of sound frequencies heard by fishes is greatly restricted. Many fishes communicate with each other by producing sounds in their swim bladders, in their throats by rasping their teeth, and in other ways.
A fish or other vertebrate seldom has to rely on a single type of sensory information to determine the nature of the environment around it. A catfish uses taste and touch when examining a food object with its oral barbels. Like most other animals, fishes have many touch receptors over their body surface. Pain and temperature receptors also are present in fishes and presumably produce the same kind of information to a fish as to humans. Fishes react in a negative fashion to stimuli that would be painful to human beings, suggesting that they feel a sensation of pain.
An important sensory system in fishes that is absent in other vertebrates (except some amphibians) is the lateral line system. This consists of a series of heavily innervated small canals located in the skin and bone around the eyes, along the lower jaw, over the head, and down the mid-side of the body, where it is associated with the scales. Intermittently along these canals are located tiny sensory organs (pit organs) that apparently detect changes in pressure. The system allows a fish to sense changes in water currents and pressure, thereby helping the fish to orient itself to the various changes that occur in the physical environment.
Dandenong Hospital Stage 3 Redevelopment
Mental Health Facilities
Architect: Bates Smart
Completed: Stage 1, 2011; Stage 2, 2013
History
The oldest predecessor building was a cathedral complex from the Ottonian period with a three-aisled double-choir church (symbol of the Pope and the Empire), which was probably equipped with a flat wooden ceiling. The complex was completed before the relocation of the episcopal see from Säben (Säben Abbey (German: Kloster Säben; Italian: Monastero di Sabiona) is a Benedictine nunnery located near Klausen in South Tyrol, northern Italy. It was established in 1687, when it was first settled by the nuns of Nonnberg Abbey in Salzburg) to Brixen, which took place around 990. The church's eastern choir was consecrated to Saints Peter and Ingenuin (bishop of Säben around 600) and had a St. Martin's crypt, the west choir with a St. Nicholas crypt was dedicated to St. Stephen. After the end of the investiture controversy, the double-choir church no longer met the spirit of religious reform. Bishop Hartmann (1140-1164) had the west choir therefore broken off and built in its place two facade towers.
Ceiling painting by Paul Troger: Adoration of the Lamb
In 1174, the cathedral complex fell victim to a major fire. As a result, under the bishops Richer of Hohenburg and Heinrich von Berchtesgaden during the reconstruction structural adaptations in the style of the High Romanesque were made. The nave was vaulted and a single-aisled transept put in. The cathedral was consecrated in 1237 by Bishop Eberhard of Salzburg and re-consecrated in 1274 after further fire damage. During the Gothic period several chapels were added to the cathedral. There were more significant conversions under Bishop Nicholas of Kues, who had removed the eastern apses and had them replaced with a Gothic high choir with pointed arched windows and reticulated vaults. Under the direction of court architect Hans Reichle, the Romanesque north tower 1610-1613 received its present early Baroque form. The south tower was adapted in 1748 to the north tower.
Prince-Bishop Kaspar Ignaz Count Künigl (1702-1747) advocated a fundamental renovation of the old building complex already at the beginning of his long term of office, while he was forced by the cathedral chapter to a Baroque new building. He then preferred to first stabilize his diocese in pastoral terms (popular missions) before lending a hand to the cathedral. It was not until 1745 that the time had come. For the implementation of the comprehensive reconstruction, which lasted until 1754, the cream de la creme of the Tyrolean Baroque in Brixen was, so to speak, concentrated: Josef Delai from Bolzano as an architect, Theodor Benedetti from Mori as plasterer and altar builder, Stephan Föger from Innsbruck, who (the three of them) also participated in the planning; furthermore Paul Troger from Welsberg as a fresco artist, Joseph Schöpf from Telfs as a painter of the altarpieces, Dominikus Moling from Wengen as a designer of the altar statues, the Troger pupil Michelangelo Unterberger from Cavalese as painter of the high altarpiece. The construction management was held by Josef Delai and the priests Franz Penz and Georg Tangl. On September 10, 1758, the almost completely remodeled cathedral was completed with the consecration of Prince Bishop Leopold Count Spaur. The Classicistic vestibule was completed 30 years later by Jakob Pirchstaller from Trens.
In 1895, the fresco ensemble Paul Trogers was sustainably altered by the restoration work of Albrecht Steiner von Felsburg, not only by replacing his pseudo-dome in the crossing by his "triumph of religions", but also his painted illusory architecture around the large ceiling picture in green-gray tint by gilded and colored neo-Baroque stucco; this was contrary to the contemporary tastes, but from today's point of view it was not a fortunate intervention, even though a design by Paul Troger for the Geras Abbey in Lower Austria served as a model for the new dome painting.
Extensive restoration work undertook in 1985/86 the workshop Peskoller from Bruneck, outdoors the original color tones and the Baroque ornaments being restored and inside cleaned the ceiling frescoes and the stucco and wall panels painted again. In 2001, the cathedral roof was re-covered and the tower helmets were restored.
Geschichte
Der älteste Vorgängerbau war eine Münsteranlage aus ottonischer Zeit mit einer dreischiffigen Doppelchorkirche (Symbol von Papst- und Kaisertum), die vermutlich mit einer flachen Holzdecke ausgestattet war. Die Anlage war noch vor der Verlegung des Bischofssitzes von Säben nach Brixen, die um 990 stattfand, vollendet worden. Der Ostchor der Kirche war den Heiligen Petrus und Ingenuin (Bischof von Säben um 600) geweiht und verfügte über eine St.-Martins-Krypta, der Westchor mit einer St.-Nikolaus-Krypta war dem Heiligen Stefan geweiht. Nach dem Ende des Investiturstreites entsprach die Doppelchorkirche dem Sinne der religiösen Reformen nicht mehr. Bischof Hartmann (1140–1164) ließ den Westchor deshalb abbrechen und an seiner Stelle zwei Fassadentürme errichten.
Deckengemälde von Paul Troger: Anbetung des Lammes
Im Jahre 1174 fiel die Münsteranlage einem Großbrand zum Opfer. In der Folge wurden unter den Bischöfen Richer von Hohenburg und Heinrich von Berchtesgaden beim Wiederaufbau bauliche Adaptierungen im Stile der Hochromanik vorgenommen. Das Langhaus wurde eingewölbt und ein einschiffiges Querhaus eingezogen. Der Dom wurde 1237 von Bischof Eberhard von Salzburg geweiht und nach weiteren Brandschäden 1274 nochmals geweiht. In der Zeit der Gotik wurden an den Dom mehrere Kapellen angebaut. Bedeutendere Umbauten gab es dann unter Bischof Nikolaus von Kues, der die Ostapsiden entfernen und diese mit einem gotischen Hochchor mit Spitzbogenfenstern und Netzgewölben ersetzen ließ. Unter der Leitung des Hofbaumeisters Hans Reichle erhielt der romanische Nordturm 1610–1613 seine heutige frühbarocke Form. Der Südturm wurde 1748 an den Nordturm angeglichen.
Fürstbischof Kaspar Ignaz Graf Künigl (1702–1747) befürwortete bereits am Beginn seiner langen Amtszeit eine grundlegende Renovierung des alten Gebäudekomplexes, während er vom Domkapitel zu einem barocken Neubau gedrängt wurde. Er zog es dann aber vor, zuerst seine Diözese in seelsorglicher Hinsicht zu stabilisieren (Volksmissionen), bevor er Hand an den Dom legen ließ. Erst 1745 war es soweit. Für die Durchführung des umfassenden Umbaus, der bis 1754 andauerte, wurde gewissermaßen die Creme des Tiroler Barocks in Brixen zusammengezogen: Josef Delai aus Bozen als Architekt, Theodor Benedetti aus Mori als Stuckateur und Altarbauer, Stephan Föger aus Innsbruck, die auch an der Planung beteiligt waren; weiters Paul Troger aus Welsberg als Freskant, Joseph Schöpf aus Telfs als Maler der Altarblätter, Dominikus Moling aus Wengen als Gestalter der Altarstatuen, der Troger-Schüler Michelangelo Unterberger aus Cavalese als Maler des Hochaltarbildes. Die Bauleitung hatten unter anderem Josef Delai und die Priester Franz Penz und Georg Tangl inne. Am 10. September 1758 wurde das nahezu komplett umgestaltete Münster mit der Weihe durch Fürstbischof Leopold Graf Spaur vollendet. Die klassizistische Vorhalle hat 30 Jahre später Jakob Pirchstaller aus Trens fertiggestellt.
Im Jahr 1895 wurde das Freskenensemble Paul Trogers durch die Restaurierungsarbeiten von Albrecht Steiner von Felsburg nachhaltig verändert, indem er nicht nur dessen Scheinkuppel in der Vierung durch seinen „Triumph der Religionen“, sondern auch dessen gemalte Scheinarchitektur um das große Deckenbild in grün-grauer Tönung durch vergoldete und eingefärbte neubarocke Stuckaturen ersetzte; dem damaligen Zeitgeschmack kam das zwar entgegen, aus heutiger Sicht war es kein glücklicher Eingriff, auch wenn für das neue Kuppelgemälde ein Entwurf Paul Trogers für das Stift Geras in Niederösterreich als Vorlage diente.
Umfangreiche Restaurierungsarbeiten nahm 1985/86 die Werkstätte Peskoller aus Bruneck vor, wobei im Außenbereich die originalen Farbtönungen und die Barockornamentik wiederhergestellt und im Innenbereich die Deckenfresken gereinigt und die Stuck- und Wandfelder nachgefärbt wurden. 2001 wurde das Domdach neu eingedeckt und die Turmhelme wurden restauriert.
Zona E Forma parte de la Unidad 3 (junto con el Troncal 3, Zona H y Zona I) del sistema de transporte público de Santiago de Chile. Corresponde a las comunas de La Florida y La Granja. Está a cargo de Buses Vule. Posee 20 recorridos licitados y su color distintivo es el verde, es decir, los buses de esta zona tienen color verde con una franja blanca en medio de ellos.
La operación de la Zona E está a cargo de Buses Vule. Quien tomo posesión debido a la quiebra de la empresa Union del Transporte.
La BJFG55 era una de las que estaba para la empresa Buses Gran Santiago, y esta junto a 26 de sus hermanas Foz y fueron rematadas y adquiridas por Buses Vule.
E05 Bellavista de la Florida - Metro La Cisterna
India - Chandigarh, Le Corbusier amazing extrusion of concrete and formwork has the ruin value of all great modern architecture. Although showing the kind of 'cultural wear' that would be expected the structure is still amazing as the Chandigarh Legislative Assembly.
thanks for reading....jhe
Joaquín Torres-García, Construction with Curved Forms, 1931, oil and nails on wood, 49.5 x 41 x 1.3 cm (The Museum of Modern Art)
CITYLIFE MASTERPLAN MILÁN
Delimitado por los Viales Spinola, Senofonte, Berengario, Ezio, Belisario, Cassiodoro, Severino Boezio, Duilio y Eginardo, Piazzales Giulio Cesare y Elsa Morante y Piazza Tre Torri. Milán, Milano, Italia
Zonificación
Superficie total: 160.000 M2
Zona Residencial I: 38.000 M2.
Zona Residencial. II: 15.500 M2.
Torres de Oficinas: 32.000 M2.
Parque de las Tres Torres: 15.000 M2.
Desarrollo
Residencial Daniel Libeskind, Via Spinola 2009-13.
Residencial Zaha Hadid, Via Senofonte 2009-13.
Parterres verdes 2010
Estación de Metro Tre Torri 2010-12
Torre Allianz - Torre Isozaki (il dritto, el recto) 2012-15
Parque (primera fase - 25.000 m2) 2013
Parque (segunda fase - 33.000m2) 2013-15
Distrito comercial 2013-18
Torre Generali - Torre Hadid (lo storto, la trenzada) 2014-17
Parque (parte posterior) 2015-16
Torre Libeskind (il curvo, la curva) 2015-18
En 2004 el Estudio Libeskind junto con Zaha Hadid y Arata Isozaki & Associates resultó ganador del concurso para desarrollar el Master Plan para recomponer el tejido urbano existente en el viejo recinto de la Feria de Milán.
El proyecto Citylife situado en el corazón de Milán – en una de las mayores zonas peatonales de Europa- trae al contexto urbano un nuevo modelo para la residencia, el trabajo y el ocio, un área para ser disfrutada a pie o en bicicleta, dejando el tráfico rodado por el subsuelo.
Con un total de 662 viviendas, los dos proyectos residenciales se caracterizan por las formas sinuosas de los volúmenes asimétricos, organizados alrededor de patios.
En el centro del proyecto se encuentra el distrito de negocios formado por tres torres de oficinas entorno a la nueva "Piazza delle Tre Torri" donde se sitúa la nueva estación de Metro: Torre Isozaki (il dritto, el recto), Torre Hadid (lo storto, la trenzada) y la torre Libeskind (il curvo, la curva) - la Torre Isozaki tiene 202 metros de altura con 50 pisos, por lo que estará entre las más altas de Italia. La torre de Hadid tendrá 170 metros de altura, con 44 pisos, y la torre Libeskind alcanzará una altura de 150 metros con cerca de 30 plantas. Entre las tres son capaces de dar cabida a 10.000 personas, sobre un total de aproximadamente 130.000 m2. También son parte del proyecto un museo de arte contemporáneo, una zona comercial con bares y restaurantes, un pabellón de exposiciones, deportes, programas de entretenimiento y la moda.
LAS TORRES
Il Dritto / El Recto / Torre Allianz “Torre sin fin”
Piazza Tre Torri. Milán, Milano, Italia
Arquitecto Arata Isozaki. Arquitecto colaboradora Andrea Maffei. 2012-15
Il Dritto o Torre Allianz es actualmente uno de los edificios más altos de Italia con 207 m y 50 pisos -con la antena alcanza los 247 m -. Ha sido diseñado por el japonés arquitecto Arata Isozaki en colaboración con la arquitecto italiana Andrea Maffei.
La torre está compuesta por 8 módulos de 6 plantas cada uno con una planta larga y delgada de 24 x 61.5m. La elección de estas proporciones se hace para hacer todo el volumen más delgado enfatizando la verticalidad y haciendo que sea estructuralmente provocativa, debido a la forma esbelta y alta. La fachada de cada módulo está compuesta por una unidad de vidrio triple ligeramente curvada hacia el exterior. La sucesión vertical de formas redondeadas crean una sensación de ligera vibración del volumen del edificio a medida que sube hacia arriba. Los alzados laterales son totalmente acristaladas y muestran la serie de 6 ascensores panorámicos que dan servicio a los distintos pisos del edificio.
Lo Storto / La Trenzada / Torre Generali - Torre Hadid
Piazza Tre Torri. Milán, Milano, Italia
Arquitectos Zaha Hadid Architects 2014-17
Lo Storto o Torre Generali alcanzará una altura de 185 m con 44 pisos (+ 3 plantas de sótano), y una superficie total de unos 67.000 m2. Diseñada por la arquitecto anglo-iraquí Zaha Hadid. La geometría de la construcción es la de una forma de trenza, donde tanto la dimensión plantas y su orientación varían a lo largo del eje de la torre.
La estructura es de hormigón. Un núcleo central actúa como refuerzo horizontal principal y elemento resistente. La cimentación está constituida por una losa y pilotes. La base es una gruesa losa de hormigón de 2,5 m, apoyada en 64 pilotes en forma de racimo en los principales puntos de carga. Con el fin de resistir los principales efectos de torsión debidos a la disposición de la columna deformada, los dinteles de las puertas principales del núcleo cuentan con soluciones mixtas de elementos de acero, barras de refuerzo y hormigón. Debido a los efectos específicos de la deformación, se ha llevado a cabo una etapa de análisis altamente sofisticado para contrarrestar posibles efectos negativos, tanto durante la construcción como a largo plazo. El acero forma la base libre para uso comercial que rodea el edificio.
Il Curvo / El Curvo / Torre Libeskind “Esmeralda verde”
Piazza Tre Torri. Milán, Milano, Italia
Arquitecto Estudio Libeskind, Daniel Libeskind. 2015-18
La denominada “Esmeralda Verde” alcanzará una altura de 175 m con 28 pisos y una superficie total de unos 76.000 m2. Situado entre Il Dritto y Lo Storto, Il Curvo se inclinará en dirección de sus homólogos sobre la Piazza Tre Torri.
La cúpula renacentista es el principio básico en el que se inspira Il Curvo. Se reinterpreta a través del movimiento cóncavo de su elevación y culmina en la corona, ambos elementos definen el proyecto. La fachada de la torre curva es sostenible, en vidrio que reflejará el espacio público por debajo y alrededor.
libeskind.com/work/citylife-masterplan/
www.arquitecturaviva.com/es/Info/News/Details/7264
www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/785273/departamentos-cit...
www.zaha-hadid.com/architecture/city-life-milano-resident...
singularesmag.com/citylife-milano-residencial-complex-zah...
www.metalocus.es/es/historic?keys=citylife
www.metalocus.es/es/noticias/residencial-citylife-en-mila...
www.zaha-hadid.com/architecture/citylife-milano/
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CityLife_(Milan)
www.plataformaarquitectura.cl/cl/777520/torre-allianz-ara...
www.metalocus.es/es/noticias/torre-allianz-por-arata-isoz...
forme rudis (Maton, 1797)
Bigorneaux photographiés à Cancale.
Pour cette photographie j'ai utilisé une bonnette x1 que j'avais trouvée sur internet.
Production: 1 of 685 (1934-1940)
According to Bugatti historian Pierre-Yves Laugier, this Type 57 was the second of seven examples of the famed Atalante, known in its early form —as here— as simply the Faux Cabriolet; it sported a fabric roof that opened all of the way to the rear of the car, similar to the top of a Citroën 2CV. Built in June of 1935, it was registered 8 June 1935 to a Lucien Blanc of Agen, who registered it there as 2049 JV 2. Mr. Blanc was a known Bugatti client, having earlier acquired a Type 35. In his ownership the Type 57 was photographed by Bugatti enthusiast Jim Byrom at Spanish Customs later in 1935.
About one year after his purchase, Mr. Blanc sold the Type 57 to an unknown owner in Paris, who registered it there on 7 August 1936 as “6273 RK 5.” This owner kept the car for two years before selling it in September 1938 to Georges Pilon de Loynes of Nantes, where it was registered “9941 JH4.” Mr. de Loyne, in turn, passed the Bugatti, still in its original colors and configuration, to Pierre Douarre, an airplane pilot then studying at the air school at Versailles. When he left for the Russian Front in 1944, it was likely left near Toulon, his original home, and survived the rest of the war there, before being put back on the road by a Marseilles-area mechanic in August 1946.
On 26 August 1946, the car was registered as “6788 CB4” in the Bouches du Rhone by Jean Filippi, with, somewhat confusingly, the identity of a Type 49, number 49258, believed to have been broken up during the war. At this time, the Type 57 was now a drophead coupe, retaining most of the original Faux Cabriolet body, but with the roof removed and the additions of new bumpers, chrome rear fender trim, a folding windscreen, and a rear luggage rack. Mr. Laugier believes that at the time of these modifications the car may have been fitted with its present second-series Type 57 frame.
Less than one month after Mr. Filippi registered the car, it was sold to Marcel Maillet, the first of several short-term Marseilles owners who would possess the Bugatti before it returned to Paris in August 1949. Christian d’Epenoux, later to become a well-known reporter for L’Express known as “The Baron,” bought the car at an auction held by Les Domaines in that city in 1956. Unfortunately, he was unable to keep the Bugatti for very long, as his student finances necessitated its sale for the then-remarkable sum of 3,000 Francs to Alexandre Babeanu, a chemical engineer.
In 1974 the car was purchased by Bugatti enthusiast Claude Jeangirard of the Loire Valley, for whom it was maintained by well-known specialist Henri Novo for nine years. Jeangirard passed it in 1983 to noted and prolific Bugatti collector, Michel Seydoux. In Seydoux’s ownership the Bugatti was refinished to black and red by the noted Carrosserie Lecoq, and had the mechanical components overhauled by Gaston Garino of Puteaux. The current collection then purchased the cabriolet from Mr. Seydoux in the late 1990s, and it has remained largely out of public view ever since.
Inspection of the car today shows that, typical of Lecoq’s quality workmanship, it remains in high-quality cosmetic condition from stem to stern, attractive in presentation both inside and out. No serial number tag is present, and the engine number appears to have been removed. At some point the left-hand chassis frame was stamped, on its top surface near the firewall, with a Type 46 number, 46512, but this is believed to have done for a prior registration, as the font is not correct and the frame is, as mentioned, correct for a second-series Type 57. While at one time the car was known during Mr. Seydoux’s ownership as 57668, likely due to being fitted with its registration number, the Laugier report clearly indicates that this vehicle it bears no part of that car, a Gangloff Stelvio, and is indeed 57263 with its cabriolet modifications and second-series frame as refinished by Jean Filippi.
Source: www.metropole.nl/
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Dutch entrepreneur Frans van Haren has a classic car collection that has won prizes at prestigious national and international competitions. Since 2017, he has been presenting his impressive car collection to a wider audience in the futuristic-looking, former furniture showroom 'Metropole' in Druten, the Netherlands.
The collection includes some four hundred cars, trucks and motorcycles, making it almost the largest car museum in the Netherlands.
Metropole Museum
Druten, the Netherlands.
One for the 52 Week Challenge theme of Shapes and Forms.
Heading to the 1300 year old Yew tree in the Churchyard at St Mary's Church, Sullington, I hoped that my macro lens would show the shapes I remembered having seen in the gnarled old tree trunk. This area made me think of a landscape viewed from above, perhaps somewhere deep in a canyon somewhere more exotic than sleepy West Sussex.
#week14_shapesandforms
BRCC 2025 52_15
I have to interrupt the preparations for my dinner to take a quick image. I'm always surprised about the creativity of nature.
Colour Forms is a project by artists Lenny and Whale, initially exhibited in the Fernery at Wentworth Castle Gardens it is now exhibited in the walled garden at Cannon Hall. Colour Forms was developed and created during the pandemic and Lenny and Whale drew their inspiration from the achievements of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and her pioneering work to introduce Smallpox vaccination to England in the 18th century. The sun monument at Wentworth Castle is dedicated to Lady Mary in recognition of her achievements.
Images of viruses were an early influence in the development of their work, as was the spherical form seen on the top of the sun monument. Colour Forms consists of a series of hand painted spheres, a molecular structure and two bespoke benches accompanied by an atmospheric soundscape. Lenny and Whale affectionately refer to the sculptures as Mother-Sphere (the large sphere), Sibling Spheres (the six small spheres) and Molly (the molecular sphere).
www.lennyandwhale.co.uk/colour-forms
www.nationaltrust.org.uk/features/who-was-lady-mary-wortl...
All over the capital, the Arirang adverts (« Grand mass gymnastic and artistic performance », « Welcome to Pyongyang » and so on) warn the profane…Between August and October, takes place one of the biggest and most impressive performances in the world. The tone is set : even the Beijing Olympics ceremony can’t compete with the mass games organized by the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). The show is held several times a week and welcomes tourists from all over the World, including the US, in one of the most isolated and despised country on earth. The well-called « mass games » are designed to emphasize group dynamics rather than individual performances as the supreme emblem of communism. Prepared by hundred of thousands performers all along the year, after their classes for the youngest of them, they are entirely dedicated to the NK’s leader Kim Jong Il and his deceased father Kim Il Sung, considered as the « Eternal president » and « sun of the 21st century »…
In the surroundings of Pyongyang's May Day giant Stadium, two girls are running to perform for the Arirang show. They are already dressed in their gymnastic outfits, as well as some 100,000 others who participate to the performance. They all come to honour their self-proclaimed « dear leader » Kim Jong Il, after a very hard and gruelling training, since their earliest age. Yet, it has been many years that Kim Jong Il has not shown up, formally for business reasons. But officials now admit the western medias’ assertions of illness. Anyways, Kim Jong Il or not, the mass games are held every year in Pyongyang, as a means for the regime to show to the entire world the country’s strength and good shape. To reach this sole purpose, not less than 100,000 people are involved in a choreographed show of simultaneous dancing and gymnastics. Many symbols are displayed by thousands of trained athlets, whether they are adults or even children. Hand over their heart, the young pupils sing in chorus "We are the happiest children in the world", one of the famous propaganda songs in North Korea. Many dancers make movements either with ribbons or colourful flowers named « kimjonglias » after the leader Kim Jong Il. All along the show, a live band plays a ceremonious music.
On the background, some 20,000 young koreans sit on the terraces, facing the spectators. They flip coloured cards at a high speed to form a fresco of animated and detailed images, changing from one to another. Each time they turn the page to create a new giant picture, they cry out. It creates a awe-inspiring atmosphere, as the shout is mixed with the noise of thousands of pages turned at the same moment. The figures are stunning : to compose these images, 2000 children are needed to make only one soldier, 20,000 for a north korean flag. Hiding a much more grim reality, the panels represent Pyongyang enlightened by night, wheat fields ready for harvest, scientists at work, atoms as symbols of the nuclear bomb and others for the reunification of two Koreas. One of the North Korea’s myths (history according to them) is recounted by the means of a huge image made by thousands of children. It represents the two pistols reportedly used by Kim Il Sung, when he founded the Anti-Japanese People’s Guerrilla Army in 1932. When the pistols appear, the audience applauses loudly. Among them, many soldiers attend the show as the ultimate award after years of good and faithful service.The thousands and thousands of boys and girls involved create a giant mass movement in the stadium which leaves the public stunned. These talented performers are used to that kind of performance: in North Korea they have to dance, sing, jump and spin around as many times as there are celebrations, always in praise of their leaders. There are mainly two sorts of shows. The first one is the classical artistic show, named "Arirang" after the famous korean folk song (whose story sometimes changes, but most often recounts the legend of a disappointed woman who hopes that her lover will return to her –metaphor of the break-up with South Korea). The second one is a more political show, which was untitled in 2008 "Prosper our country" and intended to show the country’s greatest achievements and its struggle against the foreign oppressors.
The show continues in the same way for one hour. Thereafter, the thousands of people present vanish in the dark and silent streets of Pyongyang, which contrast with the flood of lights and music in the stadium. Within the space of a few hours, it gives us a a strange feeling, between the real and unreal, of another universe both terrifying and fantastic.
Dans toute la ville, les publicités d’Arirang (« Grande représentation gymnastique et artistique de masse », « Bienvenue à Pyongyang » etc.) mettent le profane en garde …Entre août et octobre, a lieu l’une des plus grandes et impressionnantes représentations au monde. Le ton est donné : pas même la cérémonie des Jeux de Pékin ne peut rivaliser avec les mass games organisés par la République Démocratique Populaire de Corée (RDPC). Le spectacle se tient plusieurs fois par semaine et accueille des touristes du monde entier, y compris des Etats-Unis, dans l’un des pays les plus isolés et méprisés sur terre. Les biens nommés mass games (« mouvements de masse») sont conçus pour mettre en avant les dynamiques de groupe plutôt que les performances individuelles comme emblème suprême du communisme. Préparés par des centaines de milliers d’artistes tout au long de l’année, après les cours pour les plus jeunes d’entre eux, les jeux sont entièrement dédiés au leader de la Corée du Nord, Kim Jong Il, et feu son père Kim Il Sung, considéré comme l’ « Eternel président » et « soleil du 21ème siècle »…
Aux environs du Stade géant May Day de Pyongyang, deux filles courent pour participer au spectacle de Arirang. Elles sont déjà en costume de gymnastique, tout comme quelque 100 000 autres qui participent à la représentation. Tous viennent pour honorer leur autoproclamé « cher leader » Kim Jong Il, après un très difficile et éprouvant entraînement, depuis leur plus jeune âge. Pourtant, cela fait plusieurs années que Kim Jong Il ne s’est pas montré, formellement pour des raisons professionnelles. Mais des officiels admettent les assertions des médias occidentaux sur sa maladie. Quoi qu’il en soit, Kim Jong Il ou pas, les jeux de masse ont lieu chaque année à Pyongyang, comme moyen pour le régime de montrer au monde entier la puissance et bonne santé du pays. Pour atteindre ce seul but, pas moins de 100 000 personnes sont engagées dans une chorégraphie de danses et gymnastiques synchronisées. De nombreux symboles sont affichés par des milliers d’athlètes entraînés, qu’il s’agisse d’adultes ou même d’enfants. Main sur le cœur, les jeunes élèves chantent en chœur « Nous sommes les enfants les plus heureux du monde », l’une des chansons de propagande les plus connues en Corée du Nord. De nombreux danseurs font des mouvements avec des rubans ou avec des fleurs colorées appelées « kimjonglias », du nom du leader Kim Jong Il. Tout le long du spectacle, un orchestre joue une musique solennelle.
À l’arrière-plan, quelque 20 000 jeunes coréens sont assis sur les gradins, faisant face aux spectateurs. Ils retournent des cartes colorées à une grande vitesse pour former une fresque d’images animées et détaillées, changeant de l’une à l’autre. Chaque fois qu’ils tournent la page pour créer une nouvelle illustration, ils crient. Cela crée une atmosphère impressionnante, le cri étant mêlé avec le bruit de milliers de pages tournées au même moment. Les chiffres sont stupéfiants : pour composer ces images, 2000 enfants sont nécessaires pour faire un seul soldat, 20 000 pour un drapeau de la Corée du Nord. Cachant une réalité bien plus dure, les panneaux représentent Pyongyang éclairée la nuit, des champs de blé prêt à être récolté, des scientifiques au travail, des atomes comme symboles de la bombe nucléaire et d’autres pour la réunification des deux Corées. L’un des mythes de Corée du Nord (ou histoire selon eux) est relaté au moyen d’une image gigantesque faite par des milliers d’enfants. Elle représente les deux pistolets que Kim Il Sung aurait utilisés quand il a fondé l’armée de guérilla populaire anti-japonaise en 1932. Lorsque les deux pistolets apparaissent, le public applaudit bruyamment. Parmi eux, de nombreux soldats assistent au spectacle comme récompense ultime après des années de bons et loyaux services. Les milliers et milliers de garçons et de filles participant créent un mouvement de masse géant dans le stade, qui laisse le public ébahi. Ces artistes talentueux sont coutumiers de ce type de représentation : en Corée du Nord ils doivent danser, chanter, sauter et virevolter autant de fois qu’il y a de célébrations, toujours à la gloire de leurs chefs. Il existe principalement deux sortes de spectacles. Le premier est le spectacle classique artistique, appelé « Arirang » d’après la célèbre chanson folklorique coréenne (dont l’histoire quelques fois change, mais qui raconte le plus souvent la légende d’une femme déçue qui espère que son amant lui reviendra –métaphore de la séparation avec la Corée du Sud). Le second est un spectacle plus politique, qui était intitulé en 2008 « Que prospère notre pays » et qui tentait de montrer les plus grandes réalisations du pays et sa lutte contre les oppresseurs étrangers.
Le spectacle continue de cette façon pendant une heure. Ensuite, les milliers de personnes présentes disparaissent dans les rues sombres et silencieuses de Pyongyang, ce qui contraste avec le déluge de lumières et de musique dans le stade. En l’espace de quelques heures, cela nous donne un étrange sentiment, entre le réel et l’irréel, d’un autre univers à la fois terrifiant et fantastique.
© Eric Lafforgue
Port Grimaud French Riviera
is a seaside town forms That portion of the town of Grimaud. It is located seven kilometers (4.3 miles) (oven mi (6.4 km)) west of Saint-Tropez and seven kilometers (4.3 miles) south-west of Sainte Maxime. This seaside town Was created by architect Francois Spoerry in the 1960s by-modifying the marshes of the river Giscle on the bay of Saint Tropez. Built with channels in a Venetian Manner, aim with French "Fishermans" style houses Resembling Those in Saint Tropez.
The Mainly traffic free town is popular with boat owners as MOST properties come with Their Own berth. The success of the first stage of the development Meant That Grimaud 2 (Extending the town further Top East) Was completed in the 1970s and then again in Port Grimaud 3 Was in the 90s. The Church of St Francis of Assisi in the hand instead of church contains stained glass by Victor Vasarely.
Located 5 minutes from the harbor is the big campsite "The Praries sea" which HAS 1500 caravan and tent pitches.
Managing exchanges between residents, boaters and visitors
Port Grimaud I hosts many merchants and professionals in its three places: the place des Artisans, the Market Square, instead of six guns. During the summer, the street markets are held every Thursday and Sunday as well as art markets. Thus, as desired by François Spoerry, this condominium is also a space for exchange between land and sea opened to boaters.
In a lakeside town such as Port Grimaud, it is faster to travel by boat than by car or motorbike, so water buses, water checkmarks are available to residents to move into the city.
The Grimaldines shuttles allow to go to Saint-Tropez by sea from June to September.
To ensure harmony between owners, merchants, sailors and visitors, certain rules of living together apply throughout the lakeside village: non-residents are invited to park their vehicles in the parking lot reserved for them at entrance to the city, the visit taking place on foot (bikes are also banned). Proper dress is required, observing the peace of the owners is required as well as respect for the cleanliness of common areas. The display of the machine to passers or neighbors is forbidden. Dogs must be leashed. Also prohibited within the city: rollerblades and skateboards, and picnics and barbecues
The awesome prizes I got as a Runner Up for the Form Your Most Imaginative Voltron Scene Contest. The Voltron set is signed by the designers and graphic designer, plus a winners certificate.
VW MK7 GTI Candy White - Flow Formed V810 Gunmetal 18"
Front / Rear
18x8.5 ET45
225/40/18
sales@velocitymotoring.com
Form 5 Confirmation Mass 2021
English session 1
16 Confirmants
Celebrated by Father Andrew Wong
F5Confirmation: Anointing with Chrism Oil
Eleanor Catherine Tan Shu Qi
This red-figure terracotta rhyton (vase for libations or drinking) is in the form of a black African youth being attacked by a crocodile. Rhyta in this form are known from the workshop of the Athenian potter Sotades, and examples have been found in Italy. Such pieces inspired Apulian and especially Tarentine artists to create their own versions.
Here, the young man’s (mostly missing) right arm is in the jaws of the orange croc, and his left arm is caught in the coils of the beast’s tail. The snout of the crocodile with that right arm is also missing.
Greek, South Italian, Apulian, ca. 350-300 BCE.
H. 6 1/8 in. (15.6 cm)
Met Museum, New York (55.11.3)