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Lucerne landing was formed by the outwash of Railroad Creek - the largest stream feeding into Lake Chelan. Not only did the Wolverine fire burn through here in 2015, but the stream has been contaminated by a copper mine far up this valley. The ferry stops off here for passengers heading up to Holden Village.
Drought conditions throughout the state of Washington resulted in many devastating wildfires throughout 2015. On June 29, lightning sparked a fire in Wolverine Creek, which expanded toward Lucerne and became part of the Chelan Complex fire. Fire damage can be seen in the cropped view.
What once was a common sight on the BNSF, CREX gevos, are now mostly owned by CN sporting ugly patches. Glad I shot the last of the leaser era before they were all gone.
.. dieses einfachen Werbekugelschreibers haben mir gefallen.
I liked form and design of this simple advertising pen
Reseña de Bailes Tipicos de Bolivia
Las danzas propiamente originarias se distinguen a primera vista por el empleo de plumas y cueros de animales en la vestimenta. De estas las danzas que quedan son las siguientes: Kachua, cintakaniris, sicuris, choqquelas, chiriguanos,pallapallas, qquenaqquenas, lichihuayus, chunchus, callahuadas, llameros, huitiquis, liphis, cañeros, cullahuas, tarkafucus, salquis, pacpacu, tairari, etc.
La Kachua fue una danza del amor. La ejecutaba la juventud soltera de ambos sexos, formando una gran rueda de personas que giraban de uno a otro lado, en la cual cada varon seguido por la moza con quien mantenia realciones amorosas, al verificarse los rapidos y generales movimientos de la rueda, bailaba a su vez con ella, agarrandola, algunos momentos, de la mano y otros enganchandola del brazo y haciendola dar vueltas aisladas, pero sin desprenderse del circulo comun ni alterar su orden. Los instrumentos mas usados en la kachua y el cintakaniris son flautas y tambores tocados solo a ratos, porque mas se rigen en sus movimientos coreograficos por el canto.
Los Sicuris o sopladores de zampoña son de tres clases: los suri-sicuris, los laquitas y los sulka-sicuris o yungueños. Los primeros llevan enormes plumeros sobre la cabeza en forma de paraguas adornados el centro por plumas de colores; visten pollerines de Genero blanco almidonado y planchado; sobre las espaldas les cubre diagonalmente un paño blanco. La musica es variada y es indudablemente una de las mejores y mas armoniosas del folklore boliviano.
Los laquitas llevan sombreros adornados de plumas, paños de colores sobre la espalda y tocan cuatro clases de zampoñas de gran tamaño de una sola fila. Son de numero indefinido y los preside un hombre que conduce sobre la cabeza un condor disecado con las alas extendidas (antiguamente); su musica es entusiasta.
Los Sulka-sicuris o yungueños visten ponchos vistosos y su mejor traje, tocan zampoñas de una sola fila de ocho flautas, y cajas pequeñas en forma de tambores; su musica es alegre, de ritmo vivo y energico. En estas danzas particularmente los suri-sicuris, las mujeres se presentan vestidas de chaquetillas de merino de colores y polleras de castilla, la cabeza con cintas y chaquiras, y en la mano derecha un pañuelo que se agita a menudo. La musica de los sicuris llamada ayarichi se destaca por sus notas variadas y su armoniosa ejecucion. En el canton de Italaque, de la antigua provincia Muñecas, se encuentran los mejores musicos de ese orden.
Los choqquelas llevan un cuero curtido de vicuña sobre la espalda, adornandose las extremidades con horlas de colores y pedazos de cintas. Visten pollerines de lienzo blanco, almidonados y encarrujados; la copa de los sombreros esta rodeada de plumas, unas veces blancas y otras rosadas. Dos o tres bailarines llevan colgados de las manos zorros y vicuñas disecadas, los que hacen representar en los intermedios.
Los lichihuayus, que anualmente bailan por la fiesta de Santiago en la region de Oruro, tocan la qquena y se compone cada grupo de seis o diez personas, vestidos con polleras blancas, una chaqueta de terciopelo bordada con lentejuelas y un sombrero plano que remata en un penacho de plumas.
Los llameros se diferencias por su traje, compuesto de un ponchillo matizado de diversos colores y guarnecido con flecos, de calcetas de lana blanca, que se las colocan como polainas, de un sombrero de copa aplastado por sus costados y terminado en punta. Se cubren el rostro con una mascara de yeso de aspecto agradable, en la cual la boca esta figurada en actitud de silbar. A cada varon sigue en el baile una moza con la rueca en la mano y un ovillo de hilo prendido al pecho en ademan de hilar. Los hombres a medida que bailan acostumbran agitar y hacer sonar la honda que traen consigo, aparentando espantar o arrear llamas. La musica es ejecutada con qquena, tocada con cierta dulzura, que se hace escuchar con agrado.
Con el nombre de chunchus, se conocia un baile establecido en epoca remotas por los indigenas del tropico sojuzgados por los kollas, que venian atavidos segun su costumbre a las fiestas de estos. Posteriormente les imitaron los kollas, cubriendose el cuerpo de plumas y simulando acciones propias de aquellos. Los bailarines llevaban flechas que descargaban segun la exigencia de la musica. Ultimamente han sustituido el uniforme de plumas con sayas de terciopelo cortas, de varios colores, bordadas con hilos de oro y plata y recargas de lentejuelas. Esta danza es propia de Tarija y es aun posible verla en la fiesta de San Roque.
Los callahuayas, se distinguen por las bolsas elegantes y grandes que traen bajo el brazo. Eran estas provenientes del ayllu de los curanderos y herbolarios del dominio kolla. Llevan sombreros comunes adornados con flores. El cuerpo cubierto de una camisa almidonada de genero blanco. La espalda y el pecho cruzados por bandas anchas, bordadas y acondicionadas en direcciones opuestas; encima de las bandas levan dos bolsas, cubiertas de monedas antiguas.
En varias de las danzas anteriores habia un actor que desempeñaba el papel comico con el nombre de kusillo o sea mono, haciendo cabriolas y visajes. El kusillo anima el buen humor de los danzantes, haciendo reir con frecuencia a los espectadores con sus dichos picarescos y las licencias que se toma. Ademas en las fiestas habia otro personaje bajo cuya autoridad se desenvolvian bailarines y concurrentes, era el brujo; y a falta de este el anciano mas caracterizado de la marca o pueblo.
Remontandonos a investigar el origen de estos bailes, considerados como propios de la raza, se nota que cada cual emana de la necesidad de venerar al animal u objeto material, bajo cuya proteccion se pone el ayllu (comunidad), y a quien suponia deber su existencia. Asi los qquenaqquenas, danza exclusivamente kolla, llevaban el cuero de tigre en señal de que provenian de el sus antepasados y de que, al usar esa piel se hacian invulnerables; los choqquelas se conceptuaban protegidos de la vicuña y el zorro, y se tendia a imitar la ligereza de la una y la estucia del ultimo. Los sicuris (baile kolla) era dedicado al suri y al condor, aves que entre ellos simbolizan la tormenta y la fuerza. Cada ayllu observa el uso de totems, segun la tradicion que tenian en su origen, pero el dios comunmente acatado por todos los ayllus kollas, fue el titi o tigre; por eso el cuero de este animal sagrado, rara vez dejaba de ser parte de sus disfraces en alguna forma. El baile entre los indigenas no constituia una simple diversion, tenia por objeto recordar su pasado y rendir culto a sus dioses penantes.
Algunas representaciones, a cual mas grotesca, tambien fueron introducidas por los españoles e impuestas a los indigenas. Como ejemplo esta la "mojiganga" que llamaban Juan de la Coba, se componia de tres negros vestidos con sacos y bonetes encarnados cabalgados en mulas o asnos, con timbales cubiertos de trapos del mismo color. Una multitud de muchachos andrajosos, de negros y sambos de mayor edad, hacian el acompañamiento con desordenada griteria. Entre Juan de la Coba y el pueblo habia una especie de dialogo compuesto de palabras toscas e indecentes.
De las muchas danzas implantadas en el regimen colonial, que han sobrevivido al tiempo, se distinguen la conocida con el nombre de huaca-tocoris o sea toros bailadores y los tinti caballos. El uniforme del huaca-tocoris consiste en un cuero de toro disecado sobre un fuste de madera, que tiene la forma de este animal, con una abertura circular en el lomo, por donde se introduce la persona y se sujeta a la cintura. Por delante va un indigena con la cara pintada de hollin, vestido de pantalon blanco; en una mano empuña una espada de madera y con la otra agita un pañuelo. Esta danza es la caricatura vulgar y ruda de la corrida de toros. La musica es monotona y estridente.
Los tinti caballos llevan fustes de caballitos de yeso, por cuyo centro se introduce un bailarin. Con una una mano agarra una campañilla y con la otra un pañuelo que segun las circunstancias las dan aplicacion. Siguen a los huaca-tocoris, con quiene forman la supuesta y burlesca cuadrilla de toreros.
Los danzantes es un baile en el que los bailarines se cubren las cabezas de grandes y pesados cascos de yeso, pintados de colores caprichosos. Se bailaba en Achacachi, en la fiesta de san Pedro. Este baile debio ser una derivacion de los Gigantones.
La diablada es una danza compuesta de individuos disfrazados todos ellos de diablos, con trajes vistosos y bordados con hilos de oro y plata, mascaras que representan figuras pintadas de vivos colores, y con grandes espuelas en los pies. Los grupos suelen constar de muchos miembros en cuyo centro domina el que esta disfrazado de arcangel San Miguel. Cuando mas soberbios y pagados de si mismos andan los diablos, se presenta San Miguel, reta a Satanas, lo humilla y lo abate; lo hace contemplar en el espejo que lleva consigo su rostro horroroso; luego se ponen a bailar juntos en una danza llena de satisfaccion y contento. Es un baile que encierra un simbolismo religioso propio del caracter y preocupacion de los españoles. La diablada tiene algo de satira porque refleja la rebeldia de los mitayos mineros contra la opresion y conquista española y la danza fue asi utilizada para expresar sus ansias de libertad. Su musica tiene cierto aire marcial pero esta llena de vitalidad. En la ciudad de Oruro es donde este baile se manifiesta con todo su esplendor.
Imitando y ridiculizando a la vez, el porte, vanidad y fanfarroneria de los soldados castellanos, los indigenas inventaron el baile de los ppakkacoches. En Oruro se llamaba palampas.
Los catripullis se diferencian por su indumento especial, formado por una saya de genero blanco almidonado y encarrujado, de una camisa del mismo genero y un pañuelo de madras verde que les cruza diagonalmente por la espalda. Sobre la cabeza llevan un casco de carton o lata. Bailan formando circulos, en cuyo centro hay dos indigenas disfrazados de negro y negra (con la cara pintada con betun), que hacen gracias y divierten a los demas.
Las danzas mestizas en las que predominan una mezcla de caracteristicas de bailes y notas indigenas con las extrañas venidas de afuera, como el misti-sicuris, compuesta de dos filas de bailarines, vestidos de chaquetas y pantalon corto, ambas piezas confeccionadas de generos de color, sombrero de falda ancha con plumas y toquilla de color. Tocan zampoñas; su musica es cadenciosa e impresiona agradablemente.
Las danzas indigenas cuando llegan a ser adoptadas por los mestizos son transformadas por completo en su indumento y aun en su musica. Algunos como los auqui-auquis se ponen grandes sombreros de paja tejida, con desproporcionadas faldas y caretas con lengua, barba balanca y rubia. Asi cada una de estas danzas se distingue por su traje, su musica y su significado.
Los hombres de color introducidos en el coloniaje en calidad de esclavos, tuvieron varios bailes peculiares. De estos, solo queda el tundiques y mururatas, que han llegado a popularizarse mucho. El vestido esta compuesto de un pantalon y saco de genero blanco y llevan en las manos dos pedazos de maderas, talladas y condentaduras apropiadas para producir un sonido aspero con el roce de ambas partes, y cascabeles en los pies. Entonan canciones que acompasan con el movimiento de los cascabeles y sonido de las maderas. Cantan y bailan con mucho donaire y mimica ritmica, sin perder un momento el compas
A los bailes españoles la influencia indigena les hizo adquirir nuevas formas y nuevas figuras, de mayor movimiento y de mas alegres cambios como en el Fandango, del que se derivaron el Khaluyu, la celebre Mecapaqueña.
El Khaluyu, como baile es distinto del huayñu , aunque la musica es semejante. La Mecapaqueña y el Khaluyu difieren un poco. La ultima es de menos figuras que la otra, pero mas animada y de mas constante zapateo. La Mecapaqueña fue el baile predilecto de la sociedad paceña y su nombre viene de haberse originado y ejecutado en el pueblo de Mecapaca, a donde en determinadas estaciones del año se retiraban las familias paceñas a descansar.
Actualmente la mecapaqueña ha sido olvidada y se le ha sustituido con un baile de extremados movimientos que ha tomado todas las figuras de la Cuadrilla francesa, son los movimientos y el compas del huayñu criollo.
De los numerosos bailes populares, que en otros tiempos se acostumbraban, solo tres han sobrevivido: el bailecito, el huayñu y la cueca . Los demas como los morenos mistti-sicuris y los auqui-auquis, son una derivacion de las danzas indigenas, con mezcla de figuras y vestimenta apropiada para su representacion y se desenvuelven al aire libre, en hileras y con movimientos agiles. Los tres primeros son ejecutados siempre al son de instrumentos de cuerda, acompañados estos de cantos o de flautas. La musica bailable mestiza se halla dominada por una profunda tristeza, en estos bailes se agita zapateando y se hace contorsiones con el cuerpo.
En el bailecito se colocan frente a frente hombre y mujer a una distancia apropiada, en seguida se mueve la pareja agitando los pañuelos, haciendo contorsiones con el cuerpo y diferentes pasos con los pies; dan dos vueltas enteras primero, dos medias vueltas despues y terminan la danza con una vuelta entera, en la que los movimientos de los danzantes son mas desenvueltos y animados por el jaleo y expresiones de aplauso de los concurrentes, por el furioso rasguear de la guitarra y por el entusiasmo de los cantores en levantar la voz.
El huayñu ha sido propiamente el baile originario de los indigenas. Lo ejecutaban en los intermedios de las demas danzas enfrentandose un hombre y una mujer en el centro de los bailarines que hacian rueda. Esta forma personal de bailar se llama huayñusiña. Actualmente se da el nombre de huayñu a una singular mezcla de las antiguas danzas denominadas agua de nieve, moza mala, bolero, en ciertas figuras y en otras se nota la influencia manifiesta de la muñcira gallega. Todas estas figuras han sido arregladas a la manera de ser y al tono del gusto nacional.
El huayñu lo bailan por parejas de hombres y mujeres colocadas en la misma forma que la anterior danza. Comienza por una vuelta entera, en seguida se para uno de los dos, mientras el otro comienza a danzar solo frente a su pareja el tiempo que considere necesario. Al terminar la figura la agarra de ambas manos y le hace dar una vuelta. Despues la pareja que ha permanecido quieta ejecuta a su vez otra figura distinta a la anterior y asi sucesivamente se van cambiando las figuras, cuidando que no se repitan . Es una danza de extremados movimientos en que las jovenes hacen excitantes quiebres de cintura y hacen diferentes pasos mientras se contonean y mueven los brazos.
La cueca fue el baile de preferencia de las clases aristocratas, durante el coloniaje y en los primeros años de la republica. Se enfrenta la pareja, suena la musica y comienza en canto; los bailarines avanzan y retroceden agitando los pañuelos. El hombre con una mano en la cadera y con otra batiendo el pañuelo acosa a su pareja; esta se hace la indiferente y baila seguida de aquel que continua asediandola. Dan vueltas enteras y medias vueltas, zapatenado y haciendo girar el hombre su pañuelo por sobre la cabeza de la mujer, o lo baja al nivel de sus rodillas. El hombre despliega toda su habilidad, redobla su donaire, ondula, zapatea hasta que la bailarina se para en medio de los palmoteos. El hombre hinca la rodilla a los pies de la mujer y termina el baile.
Otra danza al aire libre es la de los morenos o morenada , notable por el costoso traje que llevan. Este se compone de casaca de terciopelo de color, profusamente bordado con hilos de oro y de plata; chaleco y pantalon corto, igualmente bordados; medias de seda, calzado de charol, peluca y sombrero adornado con plumas.
(EMP) A "black box" in a voluptuously undulating musical form. Dedicated to Jimi Hendrix, commissioned by Paul Allen.
Architect , Frank Gehry
This is the back side of a Labradorite free form cabochon gemstone that I picked up years ago. I didn't see the exact ratio but this is somewhere between a 1:2 and 1:1.4 ratio in terms of how close I could get to the gem with my macro lens.
Labradorite has an iridescent optical effect (oriented in one direction) sometimes referred to as labradorescence. The iridescent colors are normally shades of blue, blue-green, and yellow.
Using NASA's Hubble Space Telescope and a new observing technique, astronomers have found that dark matter forms much smaller clumps than previously known. This result confirms one of the fundamental predictions of the widely accepted "cold dark matter" theory.
All galaxies, according to this theory, form and are embedded within clouds of dark matter. Dark matter itself consists of slow-moving, or “cold,” particles that come together to form structures ranging from hundreds of thousands of times the mass of the Milky Way galaxy to clumps no more massive than the heft of a commercial airplane. (In this context, "cold" refers to the particles' speed.)
The Hubble observation yields new insights into the nature of dark matter and how it behaves. "We made a very compelling observational test for the cold dark matter model and it passes with flying colors," said Tommaso Treu of the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), a member of the observing team.
Dark matter is an invisible form of matter that makes up the bulk of the universe's mass and creates the scaffolding upon which galaxies are built. Although astronomers cannot see dark matter, they can detect its presence indirectly by measuring how its gravity affects stars and galaxies. Detecting the smallest dark matter formations by looking for embedded stars can be difficult or impossible, because they contain very few stars.
While dark matter concentrations have been detected around large- and medium-sized galaxies, much smaller clumps of dark matter have not been found until now. In the absence of observational evidence for such small-scale clumps, some researchers have developed alternative theories, including "warm dark matter." This idea suggests that dark matter particles are fast moving, zipping along too quickly to merge and form smaller concentrations. The new observations do not support this scenario, finding that dark matter is "colder" than it would have to be in the warm dark matter alternative theory.
"Dark matter is colder than we knew at smaller scales," said Anna Nierenberg of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, leader of the Hubble survey. "Astronomers have carried out other observational tests of dark matter theories before, but ours provides the strongest evidence yet for the presence of small clumps of cold dark matter. By combining the latest theoretical predictions, statistical tools and new Hubble observations, we now have a much more robust result than was previously possible."
Hunting for dark matter concentrations devoid of stars has proved challenging. The Hubble research team, however, used a technique in which they did not need to look for the gravitational influence of stars as tracers of dark matter. The team targeted eight powerful and distant cosmic "streetlights," called quasars (regions around active black holes that emit enormous amounts of light). The astronomers measured how the light emitted by oxygen and neon gas orbiting each of the quasars' black holes is warped by the gravity of a massive foreground galaxy, which is acting as a magnifying lens.
Using this method, the team uncovered dark matter clumps along the telescope's line of sight to the quasars, as well as in and around the intervening lensing galaxies. The dark matter concentrations detected by Hubble are 1/10,000th to 1/100,000th times the mass of the Milky Way's dark matter halo. Many of these tiny groupings most likely do not contain even small galaxies, and therefore would have been impossible to detect by the traditional method of looking for embedded stars.
The eight quasars and galaxies were aligned so precisely that the warping effect, called gravitational lensing, produced four distorted images of each quasar. The effect is like looking at a funhouse mirror. Such quadruple images of quasars are rare because of the nearly exact alignment needed between the foreground galaxy and background quasar. However, the researchers needed the multiple images to conduct a more detailed analysis.
The presence of the dark matter clumps alters the apparent brightness and position of each distorted quasar image. Astronomers compared these measurements with predictions of how the quasar images would look without the influence of the dark matter. The researchers used the measurements to calculate the masses of the tiny dark matter concentrations. To analyze the data, the researchers also developed elaborate computing programs and intensive reconstruction techniques.
"Imagine that each one of these eight galaxies is a giant magnifying glass," explained team member Daniel Gilman of UCLA. "Small dark matter clumps act as small cracks on the magnifying glass, altering the brightness and position of the four quasar images compared to what you would expect to see if the glass were smooth."
The researchers used Hubble’s Wide Field Camera 3 to capture the near-infrared light from each quasar and disperse it into its component colors for study with spectroscopy. Unique emissions from the background quasars are best seen in infrared light. "Hubble's observations from space allow us to make these measurements in galaxy systems that would not be accessible with the lower resolution of ground-based telescopes—and Earth's atmosphere is opaque to the infrared light we needed to observe," explained team member Simon Birrer of UCLA.
Treu added: "It's incredible that after nearly 30 years of operation, Hubble is enabling cutting-edge views into fundamental physics and the nature of the universe that we didn't even dream of when the telescope was launched."
The gravitational lenses were discovered by sifting through ground-based surveys such as the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and Dark Energy Survey, which provide the most detailed three-dimensional maps of the universe ever made. The quasars are located roughly 10 billion light-years from Earth; the foreground galaxies, about 2 billion light-years.
The number of small structures detected in the study offers more clues about dark matter's nature. "The particle properties of dark matter affect how many clumps form," Nierenberg explained. "That means you can learn about the particle physics of dark matter by counting the number of small clumps."
However, the type of particle that makes up dark matter is still a mystery. "At present, there's no direct evidence in the lab that dark matter particles exist," Birrer said. "Particle physicists would not even talk about dark matter if the cosmologists didn’t say it's there, based on observations of its effects. When we cosmologists talk about dark matter, we're asking 'how does it govern the appearance of the universe, and on what scales?'"
Astronomers will be able to conduct follow-up studies of dark matter using future NASA space telescopes such as the James Webb Space Telescope and the Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST), both infrared observatories. Webb will be capable of efficiently obtaining these measurements for all known quadruply lensed quasars. WFIRST's sharpness and large field of view will help astronomers make observations of the entire region of space affected by the immense gravitational field of massive galaxies and galaxy clusters. This will help researchers uncover many more of these rare systems.
The team will present its results at the 235th meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Honolulu, Hawaii.
The Hubble Space Telescope is a project of international cooperation between NASA and ESA (European Space Agency). NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, manages the telescope. The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) in Baltimore, Maryland, conducts Hubble science operations. STScI is operated for NASA by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy in Washington, D.C.
For more information: www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/hubble-detects-smallest...
Credits: NASA, ESA, A. Nierenberg (JPL) and T. Treu (UCLA)
Zona E Forma parte de la Unidad 3 (junto con el Troncal 3, Zona H y Zona I) del sistema de transporte público de Santiago de Chile. Corresponde a las comunas de La Florida y La Granja. Está a cargo de Buses Vule. Posee 20 recorridos licitados y su color distintivo es el verde, es decir, los buses de esta zona tienen color verde con una franja blanca en medio de ellos.
La operación de la Zona E está a cargo de Buses Vule. Quien tomo posesión debido a la quiebra de la empresa Union del Transporte.
La BJFG55 era una de las que estaba para la empresa Buses Gran Santiago, y esta junto a 26 de sus hermanas Foz y fueron rematadas y adquiridas por Buses Vule.
E05 Bellavista de la Florida - Metro La Cisterna
Pendant jewel, gold and enameled, in the form of a galloping white horse ridden by warrior dressed in helmet, cuirass and buskins, holding a scimitar and buckler. One side of the horse is set with three rubies, hanging from a plain gold chain with cartouche in open-work with a central emerald and pendant pearl.
Despite its imperfect state, this little figure group is impressive because of its excellent composition and its fine detail in the modeling of both horse and warrior. The enamel has been damaged in a number of places but otherwise is in good condition; both the chains and the 'cartouche' (at the top) appear to be modern replacements.
This collection is known as the Waddesdon Bequest under the terms of Baron Ferdinand Rothschild’s will, who bequeathed this collection to the British Museum.
Made in Germany (?), ca. 1525-1575.
British Museum, London (WB.151)
Two Large Forms by Henry Moore, Grange Park, Toronto. The Frank Gehry extension to the Art Gallery of Ontario is in the background on the left.
++++++ Form Wikipedia +++++
Kalaw (Burmese: ကလောမြို့; Shan: ၵလေႃး [ka lɔ]) is a hill town in the Shan State of Myanmar. It is located in Kalaw Township in Taunggyi District.
Kalaw
ကလောမြို့
Kalaw 21.jpg
Kalaw is located in Myanmar
Kalaw
Location in Myanmar
Coordinates: 20°38′N 96°34′E
Country Myanmar
Division Shan State
Districts Taunggyi District
Township Kalaw Township
Population (2005)
• Religions Buddhism
Time zone MST (UTC+6.30)
OverviewEdit
The town was popular with the British during colonial rule. Kalaw is the main setting of the novel "The Art of Hearing Heartbeats" by Jan-Philipp Sendker.
The hill station is located at an elevation of 1320 metres, 50 km from the Inle lake. Kalaw is famous for hiking and trekking.[1]
Kalaw Train station sign altitude.
Myanmar (Burmese pronunciation: [mjəmà]),[nb 1][8] officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a sovereign state in Southeast Asia. Myanmar is bordered by India and Bangladesh to its west, Thailand and Laos to its east and China to its north and northeast. To its south, about one third of Myanmar's total perimeter of 5,876 km (3,651 mi) forms an uninterrupted coastline of 1,930 km (1,200 mi) along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. The country's 2014 census counted the population to be 51 million people.[9] As of 2017, the population is about 54 million.[10] Myanmar is 676,578 square kilometers (261,228 square miles) in size. Its capital city is Naypyidaw, and its largest city and former capital is Yangon (Rangoon).[1] Myanmar has been a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) since 1997.
Early civilisations in Myanmar included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Burma and the Mon kingdoms in Lower Burma.[11] In the 9th century, the Bamar people entered the upper Irrawaddy valley and, following the establishment of the Pagan Kingdom in the 1050s, the Burmese language, culture and Theravada Buddhism slowly became dominant in the country. The Pagan Kingdom fell due to the Mongol invasions and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty, the country was for a brief period the largest empire in the history of Mainland Southeast Asia.[12] The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur and Assam as well. The British took over the administration of Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the country became a British colony. Myanmar was granted independence in 1948, as a democratic nation. Following a coup d'état in 1962, it became a military dictatorship.
For most of its independent years, the country has been engrossed in rampant ethnic strife and its myriad ethnic groups have been involved in one of the world's longest-running ongoing civil wars. During this time, the United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systematic human rights violations in the country.[13] In 2011, the military junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election, and a nominally civilian government was installed. This, along with the release of Aung San Suu Kyi and political prisoners, has improved the country's human rights record and foreign relations, and has led to the easing of trade and other economic sanctions.[14] There is, however, continuing criticism of the government's treatment of ethnic minorities, its response to the ethnic insurgency, and religious clashes.[15] In the landmark 2015 election, Aung San Suu Kyi's party won a majority in both houses. However, the Burmese military remains a powerful force in politics.
Myanmar is a country rich in jade and gems, oil, natural gas and other mineral resources. In 2013, its GDP (nominal) stood at US$56.7 billion and its GDP (PPP) at US$221.5 billion.[6] The income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by supporters of the former military government.[16] As of 2016, Myanmar ranks 145 out of 188 countries in human development, according to the Human Development Index.[7]
Etymology
Main article: Names of Myanmar
In 1989, the military government officially changed the English translations of many names dating back to Burma's colonial period or earlier, including that of the country itself: "Burma" became "Myanmar". The renaming remains a contested issue.[17] Many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use "Burma" because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to rename the country.[18]
In April 2016, soon after taking office, Aung San Suu Kyi clarified that foreigners are free to use either name, "because there is nothing in the constitution of our country that says that you must use any term in particular".[19]
The country's official full name is the "Republic of the Union of Myanmar" (ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်, Pyidaunzu Thanmăda Myăma Nainngandaw, pronounced [pjìdàʊɴzṵ θàɴməda̰ mjəmà nàɪɴŋàɴdɔ̀]). Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form "Union of Burma" instead.[20]
In English, the country is popularly known as either "Burma" or "Myanmar" /ˈmjɑːnˌmɑːr/ (About this sound listen).[8] Both these names are derived from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group. Myanmar is considered to be the literary form of the name of the group, while Burma is derived from "Bamar", the colloquial form of the group's name.[17] Depending on the register used, the pronunciation would be Bama (pronounced [bəmà]) or Myamah (pronounced [mjəmà]).[17] The name Burma has been in use in English since the 18th century.
Burma continues to be used in English by the governments of many countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom.[21][22] Official United States policy retains Burma as the country's name, although the State Department's website lists the country as "Burma (Myanmar)" and Barack Obama has referred to the country by both names.[23] The Czech Republic officially uses Myanmar, although its Ministry of Foreign Affairs mentions both Myanmar and Burma on its website.[24] The United Nations uses Myanmar, as do the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Australia,[25] Russia, Germany,[26] China, India, Bangladesh, Norway,[27] Japan[21] and Switzerland.[28]
Most English-speaking international news media refer to the country by the name Myanmar, including the BBC,[29] CNN,[30] Al Jazeera,[31] Reuters,[32] RT (Russia Today) and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)/Radio Australia.[33]
Myanmar is known with a name deriving from Burma as opposed to Myanmar in Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Greek – Birmania being the local version of Burma in the Spanish language, for example. Myanmar used to be known as "Birmânia" in Portuguese, and as "Birmanie" in French.[34] As in the past, French-language media today consistently use Birmanie.,[35][36]
History
Main article: History of Myanmar
Prehistory
Main articles: Prehistory of Myanmar and Migration period of ancient Burma
Pyu city-states c. 8th century; Pagan is shown for comparison only and is not contemporary.
Archaeological evidence shows that Homo erectus lived in the region now known as Myanmar as early as 750,000 years ago, with no more erectus finds after 75,000 years ago.[37] The first evidence of Homo sapiens is dated to about 11,000 BC, in a Stone Age culture called the Anyathian with discoveries of stone tools in central Myanmar. Evidence of neolithic age domestication of plants and animals and the use of polished stone tools dating to sometime between 10,000 and 6,000 BC has been discovered in the form of cave paintings in Padah-Lin Caves.[38]
The Bronze Age arrived circa 1500 BC when people in the region were turning copper into bronze, growing rice and domesticating poultry and pigs; they were among the first people in the world to do so.[39] Human remains and artefacts from this era were discovered in Monywa District in the Sagaing Division.[40] The Iron Age began around 500 BC with the emergence of iron-working settlements in an area south of present-day Mandalay.[41] Evidence also shows the presence of rice-growing settlements of large villages and small towns that traded with their surroundings as far as China between 500 BC and 200 AD.[42] Iron Age Burmese cultures also had influences from outside sources such as India and Thailand, as seen in their funerary practices concerning child burials. This indicates some form of communication between groups in Myanmar and other places, possibly through trade.[43]
Early city-states
Main articles: Pyu city-states and Mon kingdoms
Around the second century BC the first-known city-states emerged in central Myanmar. The city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states, the earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant, from present-day Yunnan.[44] The Pyu culture was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural, architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on later Burmese culture and political organisation.[45]
By the 9th century, several city-states had sprouted across the land: the Pyu in the central dry zone, Mon along the southern coastline and Arakanese along the western littoral. The balance was upset when the Pyu came under repeated attacks from Nanzhao between the 750s and the 830s. In the mid-to-late 9th century the Bamar people founded a small settlement at Bagan. It was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century when it grew in authority and grandeur.[46]
Imperial Burma
Main articles: Pagan Kingdom, Taungoo Dynasty, and Konbaung Dynasty
See also: Ava Kingdom, Hanthawaddy Kingdom, Kingdom of Mrauk U, and Shan States
Pagodas and kyaungs in present-day Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom.
Pagan gradually grew to absorb its surrounding states until the 1050s–1060s when Anawrahta founded the Pagan Kingdom, the first ever unification of the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Pagan Empire and the Khmer Empire were two main powers in mainland Southeast Asia.[47] The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing the Pyu, Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century.[48]
Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level, although Tantric, Mahayana, Hinduism, and folk religion remained heavily entrenched. Pagan's rulers and wealthy built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Pagan capital zone alone. Repeated Mongol invasions (1277–1301) toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287.[48]
Temples at Mrauk U.
Pagan's collapse was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. Like the Burmans four centuries earlier, Shan migrants who arrived with the Mongol invasions stayed behind. Several competing Shan States came to dominate the entire northwestern to eastern arc surrounding the Irrawaddy valley. The valley too was beset with petty states until the late 14th century when two sizeable powers, Ava Kingdom and Hanthawaddy Kingdom, emerged. In the west, a politically fragmented Arakan was under competing influences of its stronger neighbours until the Kingdom of Mrauk U unified the Arakan coastline for the first time in 1437.
Early on, Ava fought wars of unification (1385–1424) but could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Having held off Ava, Hanthawaddy entered its golden age, and Arakan went on to become a power in its own right for the next 350 years. In contrast, constant warfare left Ava greatly weakened, and it slowly disintegrated from 1481 onward. In 1527, the Confederation of Shan States conquered Ava itself, and ruled Upper Myanmar until 1555.
Like the Pagan Empire, Ava, Hanthawaddy and the Shan states were all multi-ethnic polities. Despite the wars, cultural synchronisation continued. This period is considered a golden age for Burmese culture. Burmese literature "grew more confident, popular, and stylistically diverse", and the second generation of Burmese law codes as well as the earliest pan-Burma chronicles emerged.[49] Hanthawaddy monarchs introduced religious reforms that later spread to the rest of the country.[50] Many splendid temples of Mrauk U were built during this period.
Taungoo and colonialism
Bayinnaung's Empire in 1580.
Political unification returned in the mid-16th century, due to the efforts of Taungoo, a former vassal state of Ava. Taungoo's young, ambitious king Tabinshwehti defeated the more powerful Hanthawaddy in the Toungoo–Hanthawaddy War (1534–41). His successor Bayinnaung went on to conquer a vast swath of mainland Southeast Asia including the Shan states, Lan Na, Manipur, Mong Mao, the Ayutthaya Kingdom, Lan Xang and southern Arakan. However, the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia unravelled soon after Bayinnaung's death in 1581, completely collapsing by 1599. Ayutthaya seized Tenasserim and Lan Na, and Portuguese mercenaries established Portuguese rule at Thanlyin (Syriam).
The dynasty regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1613 and Siam in 1614. It restored a smaller, more manageable kingdom, encompassing Lower Myanmar, Upper Myanmar, Shan states, Lan Na and upper Tenasserim. The Restored Toungoo kings created a legal and political framework whose basic features would continue well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley, and greatly reduced the hereditary rights of Shan chiefs. Its trade and secular administrative reforms built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. From the 1720s onward, the kingdom was beset with repeated Meithei raids into Upper Myanmar and a nagging rebellion in Lan Na. In 1740, the Mon of Lower Myanmar founded the Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom. Hanthawaddy forces sacked Ava in 1752, ending the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty.
A British 1825 lithograph of Shwedagon Pagoda shows British occupation during the First Anglo-Burmese War.
After the fall of Ava, the Konbaung–Hanthawaddy War involved one resistance group under Alaungpaya defeating the Restored Hanthawaddy, and by 1759, he had reunited all of Myanmar and Manipur, and driven out the French and the British, who had provided arms to Hanthawaddy. By 1770, Alaungpaya's heirs had subdued much of Laos (1765) and fought and won the Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67) against Ayutthaya and the Sino-Burmese War (1765–69) against Qing China (1765–1769).[51]
With Burma preoccupied by the Chinese threat, Ayutthaya recovered its territories by 1770, and went on to capture Lan Na by 1776. Burma and Siam went to war until 1855, but all resulted in a stalemate, exchanging Tenasserim (to Burma) and Lan Na (to Ayutthaya). Faced with a powerful China and a resurgent Ayutthaya in the east, King Bodawpaya turned west, acquiring Arakan (1785), Manipur (1814) and Assam (1817). It was the second-largest empire in Burmese history but also one with a long ill-defined border with British India.[52]
The breadth of this empire was short lived. Burma lost Arakan, Manipur, Assam and Tenasserim to the British in the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). In 1852, the British easily seized Lower Burma in the Second Anglo-Burmese War. King Mindon Min tried to modernise the kingdom, and in 1875 narrowly avoided annexation by ceding the Karenni States. The British, alarmed by the consolidation of French Indochina, annexed the remainder of the country in the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.
Konbaung kings extended Restored Toungoo's administrative reforms, and achieved unprecedented levels of internal control and external expansion. For the first time in history, the Burmese language and culture came to predominate the entire Irrawaddy valley. The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females).[53] Nonetheless, the extent and pace of reforms were uneven and ultimately proved insufficient to stem the advance of British colonialism.
British Burma (1824–1948)
Main articles: British rule in Burma and Burma Campaign
Burma in British India
The landing of British forces in Mandalay after the last of the Anglo-Burmese Wars, which resulted in the abdication of the last Burmese monarch, King Thibaw Min.
British troops firing a mortar on the Mawchi road, July 1944.
The eighteenth century saw Burmese rulers, whose country had not previously been of particular interest to European traders, seek to maintain their traditional influence in the western areas of Assam, Manipur and Arakan. Pressing them, however, was the British East India Company, which was expanding its interests eastwards over the same territory. Over the next sixty years, diplomacy, raids, treaties and compromises continued until, after three Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1885), Britain proclaimed control over most of Burma.[54] British rule brought social, economic, cultural and administrative changes.
With the fall of Mandalay, all of Burma came under British rule, being annexed on 1 January 1886. Throughout the colonial era, many Indians arrived as soldiers, civil servants, construction workers and traders and, along with the Anglo-Burmese community, dominated commercial and civil life in Burma. Rangoon became the capital of British Burma and an important port between Calcutta and Singapore.
Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralysed Yangon (Rangoon) on occasion all the way until the 1930s.[55] Some of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for Burmese culture and traditions such as the British refusal to remove shoes when they entered pagodas. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement. U Wisara, an activist monk, died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest against a rule that forbade him to wear his Buddhist robes while imprisoned.[56]
Separation of British Burma from British India
On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered colony of Great Britain and Ba Maw the first Prime Minister and Premier of Burma. Ba Maw was an outspoken advocate for Burmese self-rule and he opposed the participation of Great Britain, and by extension Burma, in World War II. He resigned from the Legislative Assembly and was arrested for sedition. In 1940, before Japan formally entered the Second World War, Aung San formed the Burma Independence Army in Japan.
A major battleground, Burma was devastated during World War II. By March 1942, within months after they entered the war, Japanese troops had advanced on Rangoon and the British administration had collapsed. A Burmese Executive Administration headed by Ba Maw was established by the Japanese in August 1942. Wingate's British Chindits were formed into long-range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines.[57] A similar American unit, Merrill's Marauders, followed the Chindits into the Burmese jungle in 1943.[58] Beginning in late 1944, allied troops launched a series of offensives that led to the end of Japanese rule in July 1945. The battles were intense with much of Burma laid waste by the fighting. Overall, the Japanese lost some 150,000 men in Burma. Only 1,700 prisoners were taken.[59]
Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese as part of the Burma Independence Army, many Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, served in the British Burma Army.[60] The Burma National Army and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942 to 1944 but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945. Under Japanese occupation, 170,000 to 250,000 civilians died.[61]
Following World War II, Aung San negotiated the Panglong Agreement with ethnic leaders that guaranteed the independence of Myanmar as a unified state. Aung Zan Wai, Pe Khin, Bo Hmu Aung, Sir Maung Gyi, Dr. Sein Mya Maung, Myoma U Than Kywe were among the negotiators of the historical Panglong Conference negotiated with Bamar leader General Aung San and other ethnic leaders in 1947. In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Myanmar, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals[62] assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.[63]
Independence (1948–1962)
Main article: Post-independence Burma, 1948–62
British governor Hubert Elvin Rance and Sao Shwe Thaik at the flag raising ceremony on 4 January 1948 (Independence Day of Burma).
On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent republic, named the Union of Burma, with Sao Shwe Thaik as its first President and U Nu as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, Burma did not become a member of the Commonwealth. A bicameral parliament was formed, consisting of a Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Nationalities,[64] and multi-party elections were held in 1951–1952, 1956 and 1960.
The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of Lower Burma and Upper Burma, and the Frontier Areas, which had been administered separately by the British.[65]
In 1961, U Thant, then the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected Secretary-General of the United Nations, a position he held for ten years.[66] Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young Aung San Suu Kyi (daughter of Aung San), who went on to become winner of the 1991 Nobel Peace Prize.
When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the centre, the military leadership staged a coup d’état in 1962. Though incorporated in the 1947 Constitution, successive military governments construed the use of the term ‘federalism’ as being anti-national, anti-unity and pro-disintegration.[67]
Military rule (1962–2011)
On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état, and the government has been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by the general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalised or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism,[68] which combined Soviet-style nationalisation and central planning.
A new constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma was adopted in 1974. Until 1988, the country was ruled as a one-party system, with the General and other military officers resigning and ruling through the Burma Socialist Programme Party (BSPP).[69] During this period, Myanmar became one of the world's most impoverished countries.[70]
Protesters gathering in central Rangoon, 1988.
There were sporadic protests against military rule during the Ne Win years and these were almost always violently suppressed. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at Rangoon University, killing 15 students.[68] In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of U Thant. Student protests in 1975, 1976, and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force.[69]
In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the 8888 Uprising. Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General Saw Maung staged a coup d'état and formed the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared martial law after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.[71] SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 1989.
In May 1990, the government held free elections for the first time in almost 30 years and the National League for Democracy (NLD), the party of Aung San Suu Kyi, won 392 out of a total 492 seats (i.e., 80% of the seats). However, the military junta refused to cede power[72] and continued to rule the nation as SLORC until 1997, and then as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) until its dissolution in March 2011.
Protesters in Yangon during the 2007 Saffron Revolution with a banner that reads non-violence: national movement in Burmese. In the background is Shwedagon Pagoda.
On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from Yangon to a site near Pyinmana in November 2005, officially named the new capital Naypyidaw, meaning "city of the kings".[73]
Cyclone Nargis in southern Myanmar, May 2008.
In August 2007, an increase in the price of diesel and petrol led to the Saffron Revolution led by Buddhist monks that were dealt with harshly by the government.[74] The government cracked down on them on 26 September 2007. The crackdown was harsh, with reports of barricades at the Shwedagon Pagoda and monks killed. There were also rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none was confirmed. The military crackdown against unarmed protesters was widely condemned as part of the international reactions to the Saffron Revolution and led to an increase in economic sanctions against the Burmese Government.
In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis caused extensive damage in the densely populated, rice-farming delta of the Irrawaddy Division.[75] It was the worst natural disaster in Burmese history with reports of an estimated 200,000 people dead or missing, damage totalled to 10 billion US dollars, and as many as 1 million left homeless.[76] In the critical days following this disaster, Myanmar's isolationist government was accused of hindering United Nations recovery efforts.[77] Humanitarian aid was requested but concerns about foreign military or intelligence presence in the country delayed the entry of United States military planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies.[78]
In early August 2009, a conflict known as the Kokang incident broke out in Shan State in northern Myanmar. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including the Han Chinese,[79] Wa, and Kachin.[80][81] During 8–12 August, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to Yunnan province in neighbouring China.[80][81][82]
Civil wars
Main articles: Internal conflict in Myanmar, Kachin Conflict, Karen conflict, and 2015 Kokang offensive
Civil wars have been a constant feature of Myanmar's socio-political landscape since the attainment of independence in 1948. These wars are predominantly struggles for ethnic and sub-national autonomy, with the areas surrounding the ethnically Bamar central districts of the country serving as the primary geographical setting of conflict. Foreign journalists and visitors require a special travel permit to visit the areas in which Myanmar's civil wars continue.[83]
In October 2012, the ongoing conflicts in Myanmar included the Kachin conflict,[84] between the Pro-Christian Kachin Independence Army and the government;[85] a civil war between the Rohingya Muslims, and the government and non-government groups in Rakhine State;[86] and a conflict between the Shan,[87] Lahu, and Karen[88][89] minority groups, and the government in the eastern half of the country. In addition, al-Qaeda signalled an intention to become involved in Myanmar. In a video released on 3 September 2014, mainly addressed to India, the militant group's leader Ayman al-Zawahiri said al-Qaeda had not forgotten the Muslims of Myanmar and that the group was doing "what they can to rescue you".[90] In response, the military raised its level of alertness, while the Burmese Muslim Association issued a statement saying Muslims would not tolerate any threat to their motherland.[91]
Armed conflict between ethnic Chinese rebels and the Myanmar Armed Forces have resulted in the Kokang offensive in February 2015. The conflict had forced 40,000 to 50,000 civilians to flee their homes and seek shelter on the Chinese side of the border.[92] During the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to the ethnic Chinese rebels. Burmese officials have been historically "manipulated" and pressured by the Chinese government throughout Burmese modern history to create closer and binding ties with China, creating a Chinese satellite state in Southeast Asia.[93] However, uncertainties exist as clashes between Burmese troops and local insurgent groups continue.
Democratic reforms
Main article: 2011–12 Burmese political reforms
The goal of the Burmese constitutional referendum of 2008, held on 10 May 2008, is the creation of a "discipline-flourishing democracy". As part of the referendum process, the name of the country was changed from the "Union of Myanmar" to the "Republic of the Union of Myanmar", and general elections were held under the new constitution in 2010. Observer accounts of the 2010 election describe the event as mostly peaceful; however, allegations of polling station irregularities were raised, and the United Nations (UN) and a number of Western countries condemned the elections as fraudulent.[94]
U.S. President Barack Obama and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton with Aung San Suu Kyi and her staff at her home in Yangon, 2012
The military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party declared victory in the 2010 elections, stating that it had been favoured by 80 percent of the votes; however, the claim was disputed by numerous pro-democracy opposition groups who asserted that the military regime had engaged in rampant fraud.[95][96] One report documented 77 percent as the official turnout rate of the election.[95] The military junta was dissolved on 30 March 2011.
Opinions differ whether the transition to liberal democracy is underway. According to some reports, the military's presence continues as the label "disciplined democracy" suggests. This label asserts that the Burmese military is allowing certain civil liberties while clandestinely institutionalising itself further into Burmese politics. Such an assertion assumes that reforms only occurred when the military was able to safeguard its own interests through the transition—here, "transition" does not refer to a transition to a liberal democracy, but transition to a quasi-military rule.[97]
Since the 2010 election, the government has embarked on a series of reforms to direct the country towards liberal democracy, a mixed economy, and reconciliation, although doubts persist about the motives that underpin such reforms. The series of reforms includes the release of pro-democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi from house arrest, the establishment of the National Human Rights Commission, the granting of general amnesties for more than 200 political prisoners, new labour laws that permit labour unions and strikes, a relaxation of press censorship, and the regulation of currency practices.[98]
The impact of the post-election reforms has been observed in numerous areas, including ASEAN's approval of Myanmar's bid for the position of ASEAN chair in 2014;[99] the visit by United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in December 2011 for the encouragement of further progress, which was the first visit by a Secretary of State in more than fifty years,[100] during which Clinton met with the Burmese president and former military commander Thein Sein, as well as opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi;[101] and the participation of Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy (NLD) party in the 2012 by-elections, facilitated by the government's abolition of the laws that previously barred the NLD.[102] As of July 2013, about 100[103][104] political prisoners remain imprisoned, while conflict between the Burmese Army and local insurgent groups continues.
Map of Myanmar and its divisions, including Shan State, Kachin State, Rakhine State and Karen State.
In 1 April 2012 by-elections, the NLD won 43 of the 45 available seats; previously an illegal organisation, the NLD had not won a single seat under new constitution. The 2012 by-elections were also the first time that international representatives were allowed to monitor the voting process in Myanmar.[105]
2015 general elections
Main article: Myanmar general election, 2015
General elections were held on 8 November 2015. These were the first openly contested elections held in Myanmar since 1990. The results gave the National League for Democracy an absolute majority of seats in both chambers of the national parliament, enough to ensure that its candidate would become president, while NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi is constitutionally barred from the presidency.[106]
The new parliament convened on 1 February 2016[107] and, on 15 March 2016, Htin Kyaw was elected as the first non-military president since the military coup of 1962.[108] On 6 April 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi assumed the newly created role of State Counsellor, a role akin to a Prime Minister.
Geography
Main article: Geography of Myanmar
A map of Myanmar
Myanmar map of Köppen climate classification.
Myanmar has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (262,000 sq mi). It lies between latitudes 9° and 29°N, and longitudes 92° and 102°E. As of February 2011, Myanmar consisted of 14 states and regions, 67 districts, 330 townships, 64 sub-townships, 377 towns, 2,914 Wards, 14,220 village tracts and 68,290 villages.
Myanmar is bordered in the northwest by the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh and the Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh states of India. Its north and northeast border is with the Tibet Autonomous Region and Yunnan province for a Sino-Myanmar border total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi). It is bounded by Laos and Thailand to the southeast. Myanmar has 1,930 km (1,200 mi) of contiguous coastline along the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea to the southwest and the south, which forms one quarter of its total perimeter.[20]
In the north, the Hengduan Mountains form the border with China. Hkakabo Razi, located in Kachin State, at an elevation of 5,881 metres (19,295 ft), is the highest point in Myanmar.[109] Many mountain ranges, such as the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, the Shan Hills and the Tenasserim Hills exist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the Himalayas.[110]
The mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are the Irrawaddy, Salween (Thanlwin), and the Sittaung rivers.[111] The Irrawaddy River, Myanmar's longest river, nearly 2,170 kilometres (1,348 mi) long, flows into the Gulf of Martaban. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.[110] The majority of Myanmar's population lives in the Irrawaddy valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.
Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of Myanmar
A clickable map of Burma/Myanmar exhibiting its first-level administrative divisions.
About this image
Myanmar is divided into seven states (ပြည်နယ်) and seven regions (တိုင်းဒေသကြီး), formerly called divisions.[112] Regions are predominantly Bamar (that is, mainly inhabited by the dominant ethnic group). States, in essence, are regions that are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into districts, which are further subdivided into townships, wards, and villages.
Climate
Main article: Climate of Myanmar
The limestone landscape of Mon State.
Much of the country lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator. It lies in the monsoon region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (196.9 in) of rain annually. Annual rainfall in the delta region is approximately 2,500 mm (98.4 in), while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone in central Myanmar is less than 1,000 mm (39.4 in). The Northern regions of Myanmar are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have an average maximum temperature of 32 °C (89.6 °F).[111]
Environment
Further information: Deforestation in Myanmar
Myanmar continues to perform badly in the global Environmental Performance Index (EPI) with an overall ranking of 153 out of 180 countries in 2016; among the worst in the South Asian region, only ahead of Bangladesh and Afghanistan. The EPI was established in 2001 by the World Economic Forum as a global gauge to measure how well individual countries perform in implementing the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals. The environmental areas where Myanmar performs worst (ie. highest ranking) are air quality (174), health impacts of environmental issues (143) and biodiversity and habitat (142). Myanmar performs best (ie. lowest ranking) in environmental impacts of fisheries (21), but with declining fish stocks. Despite several issues, Myanmar also ranks 64 and scores very good (ie. a high percentage of 93.73%) in environmental effects of the agricultural industry because of an excellent management of the nitrogen cycle.[114][115]
Wildlife
Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and ecosystems. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable teak in lower Myanmar, cover over 49% of the country, including areas of acacia, bamboo, ironwood and Magnolia champaca. Coconut and betel palm and rubber have been introduced. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine and various rhododendrons cover much of the land.[116]
Heavy logging since the new 1995 forestry law went into effect has seriously reduced forest acreage and wildlife habitat.[117] The lands along the coast support all varieties of tropical fruits and once had large areas of mangroves although much of the protective mangroves have disappeared. In much of central Myanmar (the Dry Zone), vegetation is sparse and stunted.
Typical jungle animals, particularly tigers, occur sparsely in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild water buffalo, clouded leopard, wild boars, deer, antelope, and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the lumber industry. Smaller mammals are also numerous, ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including parrots, myna, peafowl, red junglefowl, weaverbirds, crows, herons, and barn owl. Among reptile species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, Burmese pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of species of freshwater fish are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.[118] For a list of protected areas, see List of protected areas of Myanmar.
Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Myanmar
Assembly of the Union (Pyidaungsu Hluttaw)
The constitution of Myanmar, its third since independence, was drafted by its military rulers and published in September 2008. The country is governed as a parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature (with an executive President accountable to the legislature), with 25% of the legislators appointed by the military and the rest elected in general elections.
forme rudis (Maton, 1797)
Bigorneaux photographiés à Cancale.
Pour cette photographie j'ai utilisé une bonnette x1 que j'avais trouvée sur internet.
1970 Corning invented optical fiber and the cable in later years was laid on the seabed crossing Atlantic Ocean or on the ground and serves as the backbone that interconnects the global communication via internet and telephone.
The Corning Museum of Glass Corning, NY
She is just so fun to shoot pictures of, everyone should have a corded poodle.
As you can see it is a little hazy, the smoke from the forest fires in Quebec that are over 500 miles away has made it to NH. It is a little hard to breathe, but the good thing is that it is going to make it a little less hot today, probably only in the 70's rather in the 80's, so there is an upside. Firefighters from all over Canada and from New England are in Quebec helping. There are 57 fires in Quebec of them 14 are out of control, I sure hope they get rain, and get them under control soon.
Formo parte de una expedición
al desierto del Sáhara,
solo llevo un polvorón
y una bolsa con agua.
Yo soy Lawrence de Arabia
y no tengo miedo de las trampas,
no hay camella que se me resista,
soy priemra plana en todas las revistas.
Hemos llegado a un oasis
repletito de moros,
mataremos cinco o seis
y beberemos un poco.
Yo soy Lawrence de Arabia
y sé que el agua está envenenada,
no bebáis amigos, es una trampa,
siempre os digo que os traigáis el agua.
Han muerto todos, siempre pasa igual,
y mi camello se encuentra mal.
malditos moros, qué habéis hecho con mi expedición
después de lo que me costó convencerlos.
Estoy solo en mi expedición
al desierto del Sáhar,
me he comido el polvorón
y ya no me queda agua.
Pero soy Lawrence de Arabia
y no tengo miedo de las trampas,
no hay camella que se me resista,
soy priemra plana en todas las revistas.
"Lawrence de Arabia"
Letra y música de David Summers
Hombres G
I have to interrupt the preparations for my dinner to take a quick image. I'm always surprised about the creativity of nature.
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Foot Reflexology
Foot reflexology is "pressure therapy" and involves applying focused pressure to certain known reflex points located in the foot to cure or prevent disease. Foot reflexology is based on the premise that our nerve zones or reflex points go from the bottom of our feet to the top of our head, encompassing all vital organs on the way.
Neck & Back Massage
A massage is the most basic of all healing techniques. Studies indicate that this touch therapy reduces stress, depression, lessen pain and boost the immune system. A back massage is the most preferred massage treatment as poor spine, postural defects and sleeping disorders are effectively addressed through this simple, nurturing and powerful touch therapy.
Swedish Massage
Swedish body massage is the original massage technique involving a sequence of movements working superficially and deeper into the tissue layers. The main purpose of Swedish massage is to increase the oxygen flow in the blood and release toxins from the muscles. Massage helps in flushing the tissues of harmful deposits such as lactic acid, uric acid, and other metabolic wastes . Swedish massage also stretches the ligaments and tendons keeping them supple and pliable, and stimulates the skin and sooth the nervous system at the same time. As a treatment it helps reduce stress, both emotional and physical, and is often suggested in a program for stress management. It also has many specific medical uses.
Balinese Massage
A Balinese massage uses a combination of gentle stretches, acupressure. Aroma oils used in the massage stimulate the flow of blood, oxygen and energy around your body, and bring deep relaxation and wellness. Massage is a rigorous and luxurious spa treatment and a great one to choose if you want to experience a variety of massage techniques, relax and feel spiritually renewed at the same time. Balinese massage is related to the ancient Ayurveda, the Indian holistic medical system.
Aromatherapy Massage
Aromatherapy massage is an ancient science of healing, relaxing and energizing by the use of plants and their parts. The roots, barks, flowers, fruits, seeds and nuts play a crucial part in this massage. The word aromatherapy is derived from two words aroma which means smell and therapy which stands for healing and overall relaxation and wellbeing.
Thai Massage
Thai massage is an ancient healing art. Through application of pressure on energy lines and points, and a vast array of passive stretching movements performed with the hands, feet, knees and elbows, the body experiences profound relaxation, peripheral stimulation of internal organs, increased flexibility and increased flow of energy. Thai massage is that you get the flexibility, inner organ massage, oxygenation of the blood and quieting of the mind that is attained with yoga. Through deep muscle stretching, joint release and emphasis on breath, Thai massage offers many of the same benefits as yoga.
Deep Tissue Massage
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Ayurveda Massage
According to Ayurveda each individual is a combination of the 3 doshas namely vata, pitta and kapha. These 3 govern the metabolic activity in an individual. The detoxification methods like panchakarma and other health remedies ( herbal) when applied wholly/singly make the body, more responsive to medicines thereby hastening the healing process. Various yogasanas achieve, the twin propose of strengthening the body, vital organs like heart, liver etc. as well as keep the physical and psychological condition strong. Not only do the herbal remedies play an important role in internal health and well being but also external health and beauty which is quite evident from the overall appearance.
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