View allAll Photos Tagged Device
AG2R La Mondiale
@-ms-viewport {
width:device-width;
}
body {
background-color: #ffffff;
-webkit-text-size-adjust: none;
-moz-text-size-adjust: none;
-o-text-size-adjust: none;
-ms-text-size-adjust: none;
text-size-adjust: none;
}
@media screen and (max-width: 638px) {
* {
-webkit-text-size-adjust: none !important;
-moz-text-size-adjust: none !important;
-o-text-size-adjust: none !important;
-ms-text-size-adjust: none !important;
text-size-adjust: none !important;
}
table[class="large"], td[class="large"], tr[class="large"], span[class="large"], br[class="large"] {
display: none !important;
}
*[class].small {
display: block !important;
width: 306px !important;
overflow: visible !important;
float: none !important;
height: auto !important;
}
*[class].mobile {
width: 320px !important;
}
*[class].w306 {
width: 307px !important;
}
*[class].w271 {
width: 271px !important;
}
*[class].w239 {
width: 239px !important;
}
*[class].w175 {
width: 175px !important;
}
*[class].w163 {
width: 163px !important;
}
*[class].w154 {
width: 154px !important;
}
*[class].w118 {
width: 118px !important;
}
*[class].w75 {
width: 75px !important;
}
*[class].block {
display: block !important;
}
*[class].inlineCls {
display: inline !important;
}
*[class].large {
display: none !important;
}
img[class="scale"] {
width: 100% !important;
}
.hide {
max-height: none !important;
display: block !important;
overflow: visible !important;
float: none !important;
}
*[class].h0 {
height: 0px !important;
}
*[class].h10 {
height: 10px !important;
}
*[class].h7 {
height: 8px !important;
}
*[class].h12 {
height: 12px !important;
}
*[class].h15 {
height: 15px !important;
}
body[yahoo] .none {
display: none;
display: none !important;
}
.ExternalClass * {
line-height: 100%;
}
*[class].logo {
width: 307px !important;
height: 64px !important;
}
*[class].sec1 {
width: 153px !important;
height: 181px !important;
}
*[class].sec1a {
width: 154px !important;
height: 39px !important;
}
*[class].sec1b {
width: 154px !important;
height: 100px !important;
}
*[class].sec1c {
width: 18px !important;
height: 23px !important;
}
*[class].sec2 {
width: 18px !important;
height: 31px !important;
}
*[class].sec3 {
width: 6px !important;
height: 32px !important;
}
*[class].sec4 {
width: 75px !important;
height: 33px !important;
}
*[class].sec5 {
width: 307px !important;
height: 18px !important;
}
*[class].pro1 {
width: 68px !important;
height: 51px !important;
}
*[class].pro2 {
width: 68px !important;
height: 52px !important;
}
*[class].pro3 {
width: 68px !important;
height: 54px !important;
}
*[class].pro4 {
width: 68px !important;
height: 52px !important;
}
*[class].texal {
text-align: center !important;
}
*[class].copy5 {
font-size: 5px !important;
line-height: 7px !important;
}
*[class].copy6 {
font-size: 6px !important;
line-height: 8px !important;
}
*[class].copy7 {
font-size: 7px !important;
line-height: 10px !important;
}
*[class].copy9 {
font-size: 9px !important;
line-height: 10px !important;
}
*[class].copy9ln {
font-size: 9px !important;
line-height: 12px !important;
}
*[class].copy12 {
font-size: 15px !important;
line-height: 18px !important;
}
*[class].copy12ln {
font-size: 13px !important;
line-height: 16px !important;
}
*[class].copy30 {
font-size: 30px !important;
line-height: 34px !important;
}
*[class].lspnorm {
letter-spacing: normal !important;
}
}
.ExternalClass * {
line-height: 100%;
}
img {
display: block;
}
Vous avez des difficults visualiser ce message ? Consultez-le en
ligne.
Votre mutuelle d’entreprise
DEVIS EN LIGNE IMMDIAT >
4
BONNES RAISONS D’ADHRER
UNE OFFRE FLEXIBLE AVEC 13 FORMULES AU CHOIX
pour la matrise de votre budget
DES TARIFS ATTRACTIFS spcialement tudis pour les TPE
et leurs salaris
UN ACCOMPAGNEMENT ET UN SERVICE DE QUALIT :
souscription 100% en ligne et scurise, espace ddi la gestion
de votre contrat, pack assistance…
Un investissement INTGRALEMENT DDUCTIBLE
de votre revenu imposable(*)
DEVIS EN LIGNE IMMDIAT
(*)Dans les conditions et les
limites dtermines par la lgislation et la rglementation en vigueur.
FlexeoSant Pro est
assur par ViaSant, mutuelle soumise aux dispositions du livre II du Code de la Mutualit immatricule sous
le
N de SIREN 777 927 120. Sige social : Mutuelle VIASANTE 104-110, boulevard Haussmann – 75008 PARIS.
Conformment l'article 34 de la loi 78-17 du 6 janvier 1978 relative
l'informatique,
aux fichiers et aux liberts, vous disposez d'un droit d'accs,
de rectification des donnes nominatives vous concernant.
Si ce message vous a caus un dsagrment, veuillez nous en excuser.
Pour cesser de recevoir nos informations sur l'adresse (partagephotos@telethon33w.fr) cliquez
ici
Platz, Cheryl, 2020. Design Beyond Devices: Creating Multimodal, Cross-Device Experiences. New York: Rosenfeld Media. rosenfeldmedia.com/books/design-beyond-devices/
Joint Improvised Explosive Device Defeat Organization director Lt. Gen. John D. Johnson briefs Honorable Frank Kendall, the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics during a tour of JIEDDO headquarters in Washington, Dc., June 30, 2015. (photo by Tanekwa Bournes, Public Affairs Specialist)
What the plaque reads:
United States
Atomic Energy Commission
Dr. Glenn I. Seaborg Chairman
Project Faultless
January 19, 1968
A nuclear detonation was conducted below this spot at a depth of 3,200 feet. The device, with a yield of less than one megaton, was detonated to determine the environmental and structural effects that might be expected should subsequently higher yield underground test be conducted in the vicinity.
No excavation, drilling and/or removal of material is permitted without U.S. Government approval within a horizontal distance of 3,300 feet from the surface ground zero location (Nevada State Coordinates N1,414,340 and E629,000 Nye County, Nevada.) Any reentry into U.S. Government drill holes within this horizontal restricted area is prohibited.
What else took place that day:
"Project Faultless was detonated 3,200 feet underground on January 19, 1968 at 10:15am.
The results were devastating! The force of the explosion caused the ground in a radius of several miles to collapse, and created several deep fault lines that despite some "restoration" efforts by the AEC are still visible today. A steel pipe with a diameter of 7.4 feet had been drilled into the ground to place the bomb. Its top end was level with the surface before the test. After the explosion the top 9 feet of the pipe were exposed, due to the ground collapsing.
The blast also created a huge cylindrical underground cavity, a so-called nuclear rubble chimney. It is approximately 820 feet in diameter, and 2,460 feet in height. At its bottom lies over 500,000 metric tons of highly radioactive rubble, with radiation levels similar to the core of a nuclear reactor.
The completely unpredicted disastrous geological damage led to the cancellation of the entire project. The steel pipe was sealed with concrete, and all other sites that were being prepared for more, even more powerful tests were abandoned. The excavations can still be seen nearby. A bronze plaque reminding of the test was affixed to the top of the steel pipe, which now serves as a memorial, marking Ground Zero of the Project Faultless test.
The center of the blast, deep inside the ground, is contaminated with radiation for thousands of years. But it appears that the surface is relatively "clean", and it is safe to visit the site. However, the plaque prohibits digging in the area, or even picking up material from the ground."
Location via:
Spaceflight (or space flight) is ballistic flight into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board. Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union was the first human to conduct a spaceflight. Examples of human spaceflight include the U.S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station. Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth, such as communications satellites. These operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous.
Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other Earth observation satellites.
A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft – both when unpropelled and when under propulsion – is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact.
History
Main articles: History of spaceflight and Timeline of spaceflight
Tsiolkovsky, early space theorist
The first theoretical proposal of space travel using rockets was published by Scottish astronomer and mathematician William Leitch, in an 1861 essay "A Journey Through Space".[1] More well-known (though not widely outside Russia) is Konstantin Tsiolkovsky's work, "Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами" (The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices), published in 1903.
Spaceflight became an engineering possibility with the work of Robert H. Goddard's publication in 1919 of his paper A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. His application of the de Laval nozzle to liquid fuel rockets improved efficiency enough for interplanetary travel to become possible. He also proved in the laboratory that rockets would work in the vacuum of space;[specify] nonetheless, his work was not taken seriously by the public. His attempt to secure an Army contract for a rocket-propelled weapon in the first World War was defeated by the November 11, 1918 armistice with Germany. Working with private financial support, he was the first to launch a liquid-fueled rocket in 1926. Goddard's paper was highly influential on Hermann Oberth, who in turn influenced Wernher von Braun. Von Braun became the first to produce modern rockets as guided weapons, employed by Adolf Hitler. Von Braun's V-2 was the first rocket to reach space, at an altitude of 189 kilometers (102 nautical miles) on a June 1944 test flight.[2]
Tsiolkovsky's rocketry work was not fully appreciated in his lifetime, but he influenced Sergey Korolev, who became the Soviet Union's chief rocket designer under Joseph Stalin, to develop intercontinental ballistic missiles to carry nuclear weapons as a counter measure to United States bomber planes. Derivatives of Korolev's R-7 Semyorka missiles were used to launch the world's first artificial Earth satellite, Sputnik 1, on October 4, 1957, and later the first human to orbit the Earth, Yuri Gagarin in Vostok 1, on April 12, 1961.[3]
At the end of World War II, von Braun and most of his rocket team surrendered to the United States, and were expatriated to work on American missiles at what became the Army Ballistic Missile Agency. This work on missiles such as Juno I and Atlas enabled launch of the first US satellite Explorer 1 on February 1, 1958, and the first American in orbit, John Glenn in Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962. As director of the Marshall Space Flight Center, Von Braun oversaw development of a larger class of rocket called Saturn, which allowed the US to send the first two humans, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, to the Moon and back on Apollo 11 in July 1969. Over the same period, the Soviet Union secretly tried but failed to develop the N1 rocket to give them the capability to land one person on the Moon.
Phases
Launch
Main article: Rocket launch
See also: List of space launch system designs
Rockets are the only means currently capable of reaching orbit or beyond. Other non-rocket spacelaunch technologies have yet to be built, or remain short of orbital speeds. A rocket launch for a spaceflight usually starts from a spaceport (cosmodrome), which may be equipped with launch complexes and launch pads for vertical rocket launches, and runways for takeoff and landing of carrier airplanes and winged spacecraft. Spaceports are situated well away from human habitation for noise and safety reasons. ICBMs have various special launching facilities.
A launch is often restricted to certain launch windows. These windows depend upon the position of celestial bodies and orbits relative to the launch site. The biggest influence is often the rotation of the Earth itself. Once launched, orbits are normally located within relatively constant flat planes at a fixed angle to the axis of the Earth, and the Earth rotates within this orbit.
A launch pad is a fixed structure designed to dispatch airborne vehicles. It generally consists of a launch tower and flame trench. It is surrounded by equipment used to erect, fuel, and maintain launch vehicles. Before launch, the rocket can weigh many hundreds of tonnes. The Space Shuttle Columbia, on STS-1, weighed 2,030 tonnes (4,480,000 lb) at take off.
Reaching space
The most commonly used definition of outer space is everything beyond the Kármán line, which is 100 kilometers (62 mi) above the Earth's surface. The United States sometimes defines outer space as everything beyond 50 miles (80 km) in altitude.
Rockets are the only currently practical means of reaching space. Conventional airplane engines cannot reach space due to the lack of oxygen. Rocket engines expel propellant to provide forward thrust that generates enough delta-v (change in velocity) to reach orbit.
For manned launch systems launch escape systems are frequently fitted to allow astronauts to escape in the case of emergency.
Alternatives
Main article: Non-rocket spacelaunch
Many ways to reach space other than rockets have been proposed. Ideas such as the space elevator, and momentum exchange tethers like rotovators or skyhooks require new materials much stronger than any currently known. Electromagnetic launchers such as launch loops might be feasible with current technology. Other ideas include rocket assisted aircraft/spaceplanes such as Reaction Engines Skylon (currently in early stage development), scramjet powered spaceplanes, and RBCC powered spaceplanes. Gun launch has been proposed for cargo.
Leaving orbit
This section possibly contains original research. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk:Spaceflight. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main articles: Escape velocity and Parking orbit
Launched in 1959, Luna 1 was the first known man-made object to achieve escape velocity from the Earth.[4] (replica pictured)
Achieving a closed orbit is not essential to lunar and interplanetary voyages. Early Russian space vehicles successfully achieved very high altitudes without going into orbit. NASA considered launching Apollo missions directly into lunar trajectories but adopted the strategy of first entering a temporary parking orbit and then performing a separate burn several orbits later onto a lunar trajectory. This costs additional propellant because the parking orbit perigee must be high enough to prevent reentry while direct injection can have an arbitrarily low perigee because it will never be reached.
However, the parking orbit approach greatly simplified Apollo mission planning in several important ways. It substantially widened the allowable launch windows, increasing the chance of a successful launch despite minor technical problems during the countdown. The parking orbit was a stable "mission plateau" that gave the crew and controllers several hours to thoroughly check out the spacecraft after the stresses of launch before committing it to a long lunar flight; the crew could quickly return to Earth, if necessary, or an alternate Earth-orbital mission could be conducted. The parking orbit also enabled translunar trajectories that avoided the densest parts of the Van Allen radiation belts.
Apollo missions minimized the performance penalty of the parking orbit by keeping its altitude as low as possible. For example, Apollo 15 used an unusually low parking orbit (even for Apollo) of 92.5 nmi by 91.5 nmi (171 km by 169 km) where there was significant atmospheric drag. But it was partially overcome by continuous venting of hydrogen from the third stage of the Saturn V, and was in any event tolerable for the short stay.
Robotic missions do not require an abort capability or radiation minimization, and because modern launchers routinely meet "instantaneous" launch windows, space probes to the Moon and other planets generally use direct injection to maximize performance. Although some might coast briefly during the launch sequence, they do not complete one or more full parking orbits before the burn that injects them onto an Earth escape trajectory.
Note that the escape velocity from a celestial body decreases with altitude above that body. However, it is more fuel-efficient for a craft to burn its fuel as close to the ground as possible; see Oberth effect and reference.[5] This is another way to explain the performance penalty associated with establishing the safe perigee of a parking orbit.
Plans for future crewed interplanetary spaceflight missions often include final vehicle assembly in Earth orbit, such as NASA's Project Orion and Russia's Kliper/Parom tandem.
Astrodynamics
Main article: Orbital mechanics
Astrodynamics is the study of spacecraft trajectories, particularly as they relate to gravitational and propulsion effects. Astrodynamics allows for a spacecraft to arrive at its destination at the correct time without excessive propellant use. An orbital maneuvering system may be needed to maintain or change orbits.
Non-rocket orbital propulsion methods include solar sails, magnetic sails, plasma-bubble magnetic systems, and using gravitational slingshot effects.
Ionized gas trail from Shuttle reentry
Recovery of Discoverer 14 return capsule by a C-119 airplane
Transfer energy
The term "transfer energy" means the total amount of energy imparted by a rocket stage to its payload. This can be the energy imparted by a first stage of a launch vehicle to an upper stage plus payload, or by an upper stage or spacecraft kick motor to a spacecraft.[6][7]
Reentry
Main article: Atmospheric reentry
Vehicles in orbit have large amounts of kinetic energy. This energy must be discarded if the vehicle is to land safely without vaporizing in the atmosphere. Typically this process requires special methods to protect against aerodynamic heating. The theory behind reentry was developed by Harry Julian Allen. Based on this theory, reentry vehicles present blunt shapes to the atmosphere for reentry. Blunt shapes mean that less than 1% of the kinetic energy ends up as heat that reaches the vehicle, and the remainder heats up the atmosphere.
Landing
The Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo capsules all splashed down in the sea. These capsules were designed to land at relatively low speeds with the help of a parachute. Russian capsules for Soyuz make use of a big parachute and braking rockets to touch down on land. The Space Shuttle glided to a touchdown like a plane.
Recovery
After a successful landing the spacecraft, its occupants and cargo can be recovered. In some cases, recovery has occurred before landing: while a spacecraft is still descending on its parachute, it can be snagged by a specially designed aircraft. This mid-air retrieval technique was used to recover the film canisters from the Corona spy satellites.
Types
Uncrewed
See also: Uncrewed spacecraft and robotic spacecraft
Sojourner takes its Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer measurement of Yogi Rock on Mars
The MESSENGER spacecraft at Mercury (artist's interpretation)
Uncrewed spaceflight (or unmanned) is all spaceflight activity without a necessary human presence in space. This includes all space probes, satellites and robotic spacecraft and missions. Uncrewed spaceflight is the opposite of manned spaceflight, which is usually called human spaceflight. Subcategories of uncrewed spaceflight are "robotic spacecraft" (objects) and "robotic space missions" (activities). A robotic spacecraft is an uncrewed spacecraft with no humans on board, that is usually under telerobotic control. A robotic spacecraft designed to make scientific research measurements is often called a space probe.
Uncrewed space missions use remote-controlled spacecraft. The first uncrewed space mission was Sputnik I, launched October 4, 1957 to orbit the Earth. Space missions where other animals but no humans are on-board are considered uncrewed missions.
Benefits
Many space missions are more suited to telerobotic rather than crewed operation, due to lower cost and lower risk factors. In addition, some planetary destinations such as Venus or the vicinity of Jupiter are too hostile for human survival, given current technology. Outer planets such as Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are too distant to reach with current crewed spaceflight technology, so telerobotic probes are the only way to explore them. Telerobotics also allows exploration of regions that are vulnerable to contamination by Earth micro-organisms since spacecraft can be sterilized. Humans can not be sterilized in the same way as a spaceship, as they coexist with numerous micro-organisms, and these micro-organisms are also hard to contain within a spaceship or spacesuit.
Telepresence
Telerobotics becomes telepresence when the time delay is short enough to permit control of the spacecraft in close to real time by humans. Even the two seconds light speed delay for the Moon is too far away for telepresence exploration from Earth. The L1 and L2 positions permit 400-millisecond round trip delays, which is just close enough for telepresence operation. Telepresence has also been suggested as a way to repair satellites in Earth orbit from Earth. The Exploration Telerobotics Symposium in 2012 explored this and other topics.[8]
Human
Main article: Human spaceflight
ISS crew member stores samples
The first human spaceflight was Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, on which cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin of the USSR made one orbit around the Earth. In official Soviet documents, there is no mention of the fact that Gagarin parachuted the final seven miles.[9] Currently, the only spacecraft regularly used for human spaceflight are the Russian Soyuz spacecraft and the Chinese Shenzhou spacecraft. The U.S. Space Shuttle fleet operated from April 1981 until July 2011. SpaceShipOne has conducted two human suborbital spaceflights.
Sub-orbital
Main article: Sub-orbital spaceflight
The International Space Station in Earth orbit after a visit from the crew of STS-119
On a sub-orbital spaceflight the spacecraft reaches space and then returns to the atmosphere after following a (primarily) ballistic trajectory. This is usually because of insufficient specific orbital energy, in which case a suborbital flight will last only a few minutes, but it is also possible for an object with enough energy for an orbit to have a trajectory that intersects the Earth's atmosphere, sometimes after many hours. Pioneer 1 was NASA's first space probe intended to reach the Moon. A partial failure caused it to instead follow a suborbital trajectory to an altitude of 113,854 kilometers (70,746 mi) before reentering the Earth's atmosphere 43 hours after launch.
The most generally recognized boundary of space is the Kármán line 100 km above sea level. (NASA alternatively defines an astronaut as someone who has flown more than 50 miles (80 km) above sea level.) It is not generally recognized by the public that the increase in potential energy required to pass the Kármán line is only about 3% of the orbital energy (potential plus kinetic energy) required by the lowest possible Earth orbit (a circular orbit just above the Kármán line.) In other words, it is far easier to reach space than to stay there. On May 17, 2004, Civilian Space eXploration Team launched the GoFast Rocket on a suborbital flight, the first amateur spaceflight. On June 21, 2004, SpaceShipOne was used for the first privately funded human spaceflight.
Point-to-point
Point-to-point is a category of sub-orbital spaceflight in which a spacecraft provides rapid transport between two terrestrial locations. Consider a conventional airline route between London and Sydney, a flight that normally lasts over twenty hours. With point-to-point suborbital travel the same route could be traversed in less than one hour.[10] While no company offers this type of transportation today, SpaceX has revealed plans to do so as early as the 2020s using its BFR vehicle.[11] Suborbital spaceflight over an intercontinental distance requires a vehicle velocity that is only a little lower than the velocity required to reach low Earth orbit.[12] If rockets are used, the size of the rocket relative to the payload is similar to an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Any intercontinental spaceflight has to surmount problems of heating during atmosphere re-entry that are nearly as large as those faced by orbital spaceflight.
Orbital
Main article: Orbital spaceflight
Apollo 6 heads into orbit
A minimal orbital spaceflight requires much higher velocities than a minimal sub-orbital flight, and so it is technologically much more challenging to achieve. To achieve orbital spaceflight, the tangential velocity around the Earth is as important as altitude. In order to perform a stable and lasting flight in space, the spacecraft must reach the minimal orbital speed required for a closed orbit.
Interplanetary
Main article: Interplanetary spaceflight
Interplanetary travel is travel between planets within a single planetary system. In practice, the use of the term is confined to travel between the planets of our Solar System.
Interstellar
Main article: Interstellar travel
Five spacecraft are currently leaving the Solar System on escape trajectories, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, and New Horizons. The one farthest from the Sun is Voyager 1, which is more than 100 AU distant and is moving at 3.6 AU per year.[13] In comparison, Proxima Centauri, the closest star other than the Sun, is 267,000 AU distant. It will take Voyager 1 over 74,000 years to reach this distance. Vehicle designs using other techniques, such as nuclear pulse propulsion are likely to be able to reach the nearest star significantly faster. Another possibility that could allow for human interstellar spaceflight is to make use of time dilation, as this would make it possible for passengers in a fast-moving vehicle to travel further into the future while aging very little, in that their great speed slows down the rate of passage of on-board time. However, attaining such high speeds would still require the use of some new, advanced method of propulsion.
Intergalactic
Main article: Intergalactic travel
Intergalactic travel involves spaceflight between galaxies, and is considered much more technologically demanding than even interstellar travel and, by current engineering terms, is considered science fiction.
Spacecraft
Main article: Spacecraft
An Apollo Lunar Module on the lunar surface
Spacecraft are vehicles capable of controlling their trajectory through space.
The first 'true spacecraft' is sometimes said to be Apollo Lunar Module,[14] since this was the only manned vehicle to have been designed for, and operated only in space; and is notable for its non aerodynamic shape.
Propulsion
Main article: Spacecraft propulsion
Spacecraft today predominantly use rockets for propulsion, but other propulsion techniques such as ion drives are becoming more common, particularly for unmanned vehicles, and this can significantly reduce the vehicle's mass and increase its delta-v.
Launch systems
Main article: Launch vehicle
Launch systems are used to carry a payload from Earth's surface into outer space.
Expendable
Main article: Expendable launch system
Most current spaceflight uses multi-stage expendable launch systems to reach space.
Reusable
Main article: Reusable launch system
Ambox current red.svg
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2019)
The first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19, 1963. The first partially reusable orbital spacecraft, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight, on April 12, 1981. During the Shuttle era, six orbiters were built, all of which have flown in the atmosphere and five of which have flown in space. The Enterprise was used only for approach and landing tests, launching from the back of a Boeing 747 and gliding to deadstick landings at Edwards AFB, California. The first Space Shuttle to fly into space was the Columbia, followed by the Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. The Endeavour was built to replace the Challenger, which was lost in January 1986. The Columbia broke up during reentry in February 2003.
The Space Shuttle Columbia seconds after engine ignition on mission STS-1
Columbia landing, concluding the STS-1 mission
Columbia launches again on STS-2
The first automatic partially reusable spacecraft was the Buran (Snowstorm), launched by the USSR on November 15, 1988, although it made only one flight. This spaceplane was designed for a crew and strongly resembled the US Space Shuttle, although its drop-off boosters used liquid propellants and its main engines were located at the base of what would be the external tank in the American Shuttle. Lack of funding, complicated by the dissolution of the USSR, prevented any further flights of Buran.
Per the Vision for Space Exploration, the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 due mainly to its old age and high cost of the program reaching over a billion dollars per flight. The Shuttle's human transport role is to be replaced by the partially reusable Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) no later than 2021. The Shuttle's heavy cargo transport role is to be replaced by expendable rockets such as the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) or a Shuttle Derived Launch Vehicle.
Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne was a reusable suborbital spaceplane that carried pilots Mike Melvill and Brian Binnie on consecutive flights in 2004 to win the Ansari X Prize. The Spaceship Company has built its successor SpaceShipTwo. A fleet of SpaceShipTwos operated by Virgin Galactic planned to begin reusable private spaceflight carrying paying passengers (space tourists) in 2008, but this was delayed due to an accident in the propulsion development.[15]
Challenges
Main article: Effect of spaceflight on the human body
Space disasters
Main article: Space accidents and incidents
All launch vehicles contain a huge amount of energy that is needed for some part of it to reach orbit. There is therefore some risk that this energy can be released prematurely and suddenly, with significant effects. When a Delta II rocket exploded 13 seconds after launch on January 17, 1997, there were reports of store windows 10 miles (16 km) away being broken by the blast.[16]
Space is a fairly predictable environment, but there are still risks of accidental depressurization and the potential failure of equipment, some of which may be very newly developed.
In 2004 the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety was established in the Netherlands to further international cooperation and scientific advancement in space systems safety.[17]
Weightlessness
Main article: Weightlessness
Astronauts on the ISS in weightless conditions. Michael Foale can be seen exercising in the foreground.
In a microgravity environment such as that provided by a spacecraft in orbit around the Earth, humans experience a sense of "weightlessness." Short-term exposure to microgravity causes space adaptation syndrome, a self-limiting nausea caused by derangement of the vestibular system. Long-term exposure causes multiple health issues. The most significant is bone loss, some of which is permanent, but microgravity also leads to significant deconditioning of muscular and cardiovascular tissues.
Radiation
Once above the atmosphere, radiation due to the Van Allen belts, solar radiation and cosmic radiation issues occur and increase. Further away from the Earth, solar flares can give a fatal radiation dose in minutes, and the health threat from cosmic radiation significantly increases the chances of cancer over a decade exposure or more.[18]
Life support
Main article: Life support system
In human spaceflight, the life support system is a group of devices that allow a human being to survive in outer space. NASA often uses the phrase Environmental Control and Life Support System or the acronym ECLSS when describing these systems for its human spaceflight missions.[19] The life support system may supply: air, water and food. It must also maintain the correct body temperature, an acceptable pressure on the body and deal with the body's waste products. Shielding against harmful external influences such as radiation and micro-meteorites may also be necessary. Components of the life support system are life-critical, and are designed and constructed using safety engineering techniques.
Space weather
Main article: Space weather
Aurora australis and Discovery, May 1991.
Space weather is the concept of changing environmental conditions in outer space. It is distinct from the concept of weather within a planetary atmosphere, and deals with phenomena involving ambient plasma, magnetic fields, radiation and other matter in space (generally close to Earth but also in interplanetary, and occasionally interstellar medium). "Space weather describes the conditions in space that affect Earth and its technological systems. Our space weather is a consequence of the behavior of the Sun, the nature of Earth's magnetic field, and our location in the Solar System."[20]
Space weather exerts a profound influence in several areas related to space exploration and development. Changing geomagnetic conditions can induce changes in atmospheric density causing the rapid degradation of spacecraft altitude in Low Earth orbit. Geomagnetic storms due to increased solar activity can potentially blind sensors aboard spacecraft, or interfere with on-board electronics. An understanding of space environmental conditions is also important in designing shielding and life support systems for manned spacecraft.
Environmental considerations
Rockets as a class are not inherently grossly polluting. However, some rockets use toxic propellants, and most vehicles use propellants that are not carbon neutral. Many solid rockets have chlorine in the form of perchlorate or other chemicals, and this can cause temporary local holes in the ozone layer. Re-entering spacecraft generate nitrates which also can temporarily impact the ozone layer. Most rockets are made of metals that can have an environmental impact during their construction.
In addition to the atmospheric effects there are effects on the near-Earth space environment. There is the possibility that orbit could become inaccessible for generations due to exponentially increasing space debris caused by spalling of satellites and vehicles (Kessler syndrome). Many launched vehicles today are therefore designed to be re-entered after use.
Walmart Credit Card Reader Debit cards scanner device. Pics by Mike Mozart of TheToyChannel and JeepersMedia on YouTube. #Walmart #WalmartCreditCard #WalmartCreditCardReader #WalmartCreditCardScanner #CreditCardScanner #CreditCardReader
This is a small grouping of booby trap devices. There is a small spool of trip wire and a fuse. From left, the divices are an M5 (pressure release), an M1A1 (pressure), and an M1 (pull type) with fuse attached.
This image is copyright © Silvia Paveri. All right reserved. This photo must not be used under ANY circumstances without written consent.
Questa immagine è protetta da copyright © Silvia Paveri. Tutti i diritto sono riservati. L'immagine non deve essere utilizzata in nessun caso senza autorizzazione scritta dell'autore.
Schirmer Farms (Batesville) Operations Manager Brandon Schirmer, sprays defoliant on one of the fields at his father's multi-crop 1,014-acre farm, in Batesville, TX, on August 12, 2020. Mr. Schirmer has already contacted the Texas Department of Agriculture to let them know that he will be spraying a defoliant to promote the cotton plant's leaves to drop off and bolls to open in preparation for harvest approximately 14-days later. The plant remains alive and will continue to produce cotton unless the field needs to be replanted for another crop to improve soil health or for economic opportunity. The sprayer vehicle has location and system data that is accessed by a smart-device app. The app allows him to show authorities detailed records of what, where, and how much was sprayed. He uses this historical spray data to improve future harvests. The liquid concentrates are carefully measured and safely poured into the sprayer's mixing system. Once in the cotton fields, the sprayer with its 90-foot-wide spray arms will deliver defoliant to the plants just below the nozzles.
Schirmer Farms operates in consultation with an agronomist for science-based recommendations for all soil, crop, and harvest management.
Brandon Schirmer is the sixth generation of the Schirmer farming family.
USDA Photo by Lance Cheung.
Schirmer Farms (Batesville) Operations Manager Brandon Schirmer, sprays defoliant on one of the fields at his father's multi-crop 1,014-acre farm, in Batesville, TX, on August 12, 2020. Mr. Schirmer has already contacted the Texas Department of Agriculture to let them know that he will be spraying a defoliant to promote the cotton plant's leaves to drop off and bolls to open in preparation for harvest approximately 14-days later. The plant remains alive and will continue to produce cotton unless the field needs to be replanted for another crop to improve soil health or for economic opportunity. The sprayer vehicle has location and system data that is accessed by a smart-device app. The app allows him to show authorities detailed records of what, where, and how much was sprayed. He uses this historical spray data to improve future harvests. The liquid concentrates are carefully measured and safely poured into the sprayer's mixing system. Once in the cotton fields, the sprayer with its 90-foot-wide spray arms will deliver defoliant to the plants just below the nozzles.
Schirmer Farms operates in consultation with an agronomist for science-based recommendations for all soil, crop, and harvest management.
Brandon Schirmer is the sixth generation of the Schirmer farming family.
USDA Photo by Lance Cheung.
GEC first developed transistor devices at their research facility in Wembley, then transferred production to the GEC Radio Works in Coventry, where a point contact diode line had been established.
In 1956 GEC established a dedicated semiconductor manufacturing facility at School St, Hazel Grove (Greater Manchester).
In 1962 GEC merged their semiconductor business with Mullard into a business called ASM (Associated Semiconductor Manufacturers), creating the UK's dominant semiconductor company of the 1960s. Mullard (Philips) owned 2/3 of the company. GEC devices were subsequently marketed as Mullard. GEC sold most of their share in 1968.
NXP (formerly Philips) still have an operating semiconductor facility in Hazel Grove.
hfe=70, Vf=120mV
Minolta AF 100mm f2.8 macro lens.
Device of Josse Badius: printing press
Penn Libraries call number:
GC B6557 509d All images from this book
Penn Libraries catalog record
TriPollar™ POSE™ - clinical skin tightening device for body
A new, clinically proven, non-invasive, at-home treatment for skin tightening, boosting collagen, contour the body and reduce stubborn fat deposit and cellulite. TriPollar™ POSE™ uses advanced professional TriPollar™ technology to help you refine, reduce and reshape your body in the comfort of your own home.
For my coming Jabba's palace I've built some technical device. I've made an instruction to see how I used some SNOT-techniques.
Andrew Rizzi 38/52
Meet The Person:
Andrew Rizzi. Sales Representative & Central US Field Triner
Andrew enjoys being a respected consultant and advocate for his customers. My greatest thrill is the knowledge that he sells and provides for medical products and devices to hospitals to help them provide care for patients in critical need. He enjoys the challenge and competition and the hard work to prove that the company, products and services best represent the customers’ needs. He also enjoys helping and motivating his colleagues to drive sales and provide the best service possible. Andrew has now been with Baxter Healthcare for seven years, with a sales territory in central and southwest Ohio. He has been a five-time consecutive Sales Award Winner, and the inaugural Division Sales Representative of the Year, 2011.
Outside of work, Andrew enjoys spending time with his loving wife, Julie, and of course, their three Chihuahuas - Mia, Kingston & Gizmo. They also enjoy stand-up comedians and city festivals. Whenever they are fortunate enough to have the opportunity, they enjoy traveling and experiencing new places, both domestically and abroad. Andrew also savors the opportunities that they have to visit with their friends and families back in PA/NY. Although his competition days are over, he still enjoys maintaining a high level of physical fitness and anything active.
Andrew earned his B.S. in Marketing from Lehigh University in 2005 and his M.B.A with a Finance Concentration from the University of Cincinnati in 2013.
As a wrestler, Andrew started wrestling as a freshman in high school with a record of 2-14. He ended his career with a winning record. At Lehigh, he was a varsity starter for the the 2nd ranked NCAA Division I Lehigh University Wrestling Team. He finished 6th individually at the E.I.W.A Conference Championships (top 5 places qualified for NCAA’s.) To Andrew, it was an incredible privilege to compete at that high of an athletic level and contribute to a prestigious program.
Andrew is grateful for and to his Mom, “Mom Riz.”
Influence:
Rizzi. Rizz dog. The Rizza.
Rizzi was a good friend and teammate in high school. We wrestled together at Pennridge and enjoyed some fun times outside of the room as well. Andrew was one of the hardest working kids I had ever met. Everything he did was 110% and he never held back.
Rizzi started wrestling very late, as a 9th grader (atypical for most good wrestlers these days) and didn’t have a lot of experience. But he had a ton of drive and determination. He wasn’t the best wrestler by any means, but he was the hardest worker. His work ethic was by far the best in our wrestling room. And that work ethic helped him become very successful not only on the mat but outside as well. Rizzi went on to Lehigh University and also made the wrestling team. And if you know anything about the wrestling program at Lehigh you know it’s a top 20 team perennially. So cracking that lineup is an amazing accomplishment. So not only do you need to juggle an ivy league education but you also have to juggle weight loss and a grueling schedule to boot. Nobody could handle that better than he could!
I always looked up to Rizzi. I was a year under him in school so he was that older kid who you wanted to model your work ethic after. He had a motor that just wouldn’t stop. It would actually be annoying sometimes because he would always make you look bad! When you were tired and had nothing left in the tank, he was the one going harder and faster. We would lift and workout together which obviously helped as well because, again, he would try and lift more than you every time! He was also a fantastic student in school. His mom was an English teacher at Pennridge as well. And, coincidentally, I had her as my English teacher (god bless her! haha)
Andrew’s mom was basically our team mom. We would go and spend a ‘study hall’ with her after school for 30 minutes or so before practice got started. So we would spend time in her room just hanging out, getting work done and relaxing. She would bring in snacks and granola bars and stuff for us to eat. She was our wrestling mom and we loved her. But very sadly during my senior year, Mrs. Rizzi passed away unexpectedly from a blood clot. It was devastating. I still remember where I was when I got the phone call and heard the news. It was one of the closest people I had in my life at the time that died. And it was not fun. I felt so bad for Andrew, his mom was such a big influence in his life. It was also a huge blow for our entire wrestling team. She was such an incredible lady and meant a great deal to everyone on that team. Her viewing was so emotional. Like I said, she was one of the closest people I had in my life to pass away. Add to that how incredibly sad I felt for Andrew and that just made it miserable. But as with anything in life, you have to pick yourself back up and move forward. It came at a tough time with Andrew going off to college as well. So he struggled for a while. But as he had throughout his entire life, he worked hard and he came away with some great things. Like wrestling D1 for Lehigh, getting his degree, landing a great job he enjoys and just this past weekend, marrying his fiancee that he met at Lehigh.
Rizzi and I had some good times in high school, hanging out, wrestling and lifting. But one thing I will never forget was when he was up at Lehigh and invited me to hang out. It was my first year at Bucks County Community College and I was living at home and working construction with my dad. He was up at college, living in a wrestling house and having a good time. It was not long before this that my sister got diagnosed with a brain tumor. Times were extremely rough for me then. My grandfather was diagnosed with Pancreatic cancer and died within three months. At the same time we found out about my sister. So when he asked me to come up and hang out with him and some teammates, I was really excited. I would go up on Tuesday nights during the week to go bowling with them. It was something like $1 games and $1 beers so naturally, we took advantage! I went up a handful of times and really enjoyed hanging out with him and the wrestlers. I really felt like I was part of their group and they were a bunch of nice guys. It was something that I really needed and was a great release for me. I know the type of guy Rizzi is and I know he wanted to help me out. And I just want him to know how much that meant to me during that time. I am sure the experience of losing his mom helped him in his understanding of what I was going through. And to be able to learn from a tragic experience of losing your mother to helping out a friend who was worried about losing his sister is pretty incredible. And I can’t thank him enough for that.
Thanks Rizz for always being the gold standard of the student athlete, for having a work ethic that would make even the hardest workers jealous and for being a great friend.
Cades Cove, Great Smoky Mountains National Park
The sorghum press and outdoor furnace at the Cable Mill were used to turn sorghum (sugarcane) into syrup. Primitive as they might look, they were yet another set of essential devices that the people at Cades Cove needed for their farming life.
For my coming Jabba's palace I've built some technical device. I've made an instruction to see how I used some SNOT-techniques.
Spc. Matthew Campbell of the 10th Brigade Support Battalion, 1st Brigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain Division (center), uses the THOR III to detect and disrupt radio-controlled improvised explosive devices during the brigade’s weeklong Company Crew Specialist Course, July 11, 2018. The electronic warfare portion of the training, taught by brigade EW specialists, focused on using the equipment to neutralize radio-controlled IEDs and disrupt enemy communications. To read more about the training, go to www.dvidshub.net/news/284718 (Photo by Staff Sgt. James Avery)
For my coming Jabba's palace I've built some technical device. I've made an instruction to see how I used some SNOT-techniques.
The military comes up with the most high tech of devices that we civilians dont see on a daily basis.... here is one of them.
hope you all like it!!!
This is a photograph from the SSE Airticity Dublin Marathon which was held in Dublin City, Ireland on Monday October 27th 2014 at 09:00. This is the 35th year of the SSE Airtricity Dublin Marathon, which is run through the historic Georgian streets of Dublin, Ireland's largest and capital city. This photograph was taken in Dublin City Center Mount Street Canal Bridge which is just before the 26 mile mark on Mount Street.
PLEASE NOTE: These are completely unofficial photographs. We have no linkages whatsoever to the official photography outlets for the marathon
Please read the information below on how to use these photographs on social media or other media
Can I use these photographs directly from Flickr on my social media account(s)?
Yes - of course you can! Flickr provides several ways to share this and other photographs in this Flickr set. You can share to: email, Facebook, Pinterest, Twitter, Tumblr, LiveJournal, and Wordpress and Blogger blog sites. Your mobile, tablet, or desktop device will also offer you several different options for sharing this photo page on your social media outlets.
We take these photographs as a hobby and as a contribution to the running community in Ireland. Our only "cost" is our request that if you are using these images: (1) on social media sites such as Facebook, Tumblr, Pinterest, Twitter,LinkedIn, Google+, etc or (2) other websites, blogs, web multimedia, commercial/promotional material that you must provide a link back to our Flickr page to attribute us.
This also extends the use of these images for Facebook profile pictures. In these cases please make a separate wall or blog post with a link to our Flickr page. If you do not know how this should be done for Facebook or other social media please email us and we will be happy to help suggest how to link to us.
I want to download these pictures to my computer or device?
You can download the photographic image here direct to your computer or device. This version is the low resolution web-quality image. How to download will vary slight from device to device and from browser to browser. However - look for a symbol with three dots 'ooo' or the link to 'View/Download' all sizes. When you click on either of these you will be presented with the option to download the image. Remember just doing a right-click and "save target as" will not work on Flickr.
I want get full resolution, print-quality, copies of these photographs?
If you just need these photographs for online usage then they can be used directly once you respect their Creative Commons license and provide a link back to our Flickr set if you use them. For offline usage and printing all of the photographs posted here on this Flickr set are available free, at no cost, at full image resolution.
Please email petermooney78 AT gmail DOT com with the links to the photographs you would like to obtain a full resolution copy of. We also ask race organisers, media, etc to ask for permission before use of our images for flyers, posters, etc. We reserve the right to refuse a request.
In summary please remember when requesting photographs from us - If you are using the photographs online all we ask is for you to provide a link back to our Flickr set or Flickr pages. You will find the link above clearly outlined in the description text which accompanies this photograph. Taking these photographs and preparing them for online posting does take a significant effort and time. We are not posting photographs to Flickr for commercial reasons. If you really like what we do please spread the link around your social media, send us an email, leave a comment beside the photographs, send us a Flickr email, etc. If you are using the photographs in newspapers or magazines we ask that you mention where the original photograph came from.
I would like to contribute something for your photograph(s)?
Many people offer payment for our photographs. As stated above we do not charge for these photographs. We take these photographs as our contribution to the running community in Ireland. If you feel that the photograph(s) you request are good enough that you would consider paying for their purchase from other photographic providers or in other circumstances we would suggest that you can provide a donation to any of the great charities in Ireland who do work for Cancer Care or Cancer Research in Ireland.
We use Creative Commons Licensing for these photographs
We use the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License for all our photographs here in this photograph set. What does this mean in reality?
The explaination is very simple.
Attribution- anyone using our photographs gives us an appropriate credit for it. This ensures that people aren't taking our photographs and passing them off as their own. This usually just mean putting a link to our photographs somewhere on your website, blog, or Facebook where other people can see it.
ShareAlike – anyone can use these photographs, and make changes if they like, or incorporate them into a bigger project, but they must make those changes available back to the community under the same terms.
Creative Commons aims to encourage creative sharing. See some examples of Creative Commons photographs on Flickr: www.flickr.com/creativecommons/
I ran in the race - but my photograph doesn't appear here in your Flickr set! What gives?
As mentioned above we take these photographs as a hobby and as a voluntary contribution to the running community in Ireland. Very often we have actually ran in the same race and then switched to photographer mode after we finished the race. Consequently, we feel that we have no obligations to capture a photograph of every participant in the race. However, we do try our very best to capture as many participants as possible. But this is sometimes not possible for a variety of reasons:
►You were hidden behind another participant as you passed our camera
►Weather or lighting conditions meant that we had some photographs with blurry content which we did not upload to our Flickr set
►There were too many people - some races attract thousands of participants and as amateur photographs we cannot hope to capture photographs of everyone
►We simply missed you - sorry about that - we did our best!
You can email us petermooney78 AT gmail DOT com to enquire if we have a photograph of you which didn't make the final Flickr selection for the race. But we cannot promise that there will be photograph there. As alternatives we advise you to contact the race organisers to enquire if there were (1) other photographs taking photographs at the race event or if (2) there were professional commercial sports photographers taking photographs which might have some photographs of you available for purchase. You might find some links for further information above.
Don't like your photograph here?
That's OK! We understand!
If, for any reason, you are not happy or comfortable with your picture appearing here in this photoset on Flickr then please email us at petermooney78 AT gmail DOT com and we will remove it as soon as possible. We give careful consideration to each photograph before uploading.
I want to tell people about these great photographs!
Great! Thank you! The best link to spread the word around is probably http://www.flickr.com/peterm7/sets
Woodcut printer's device of Johann Setzer of Haguenau.
Established heading: Setzer, Johann, -1532
Penn Libraries call number: GC5 M4804 523a 1526
HDR. AEB +/-3 total of 7 exposures processed with Photomatix. Colors adjusted in PSE.
High-dynamic-range imaging (HDRI) is a high dynamic range (HDR) technique used in imaging and photography to reproduce a greater dynamic range of luminosity than is possible with standard digital imaging or photographic techniques. The aim is to present a similar range of luminance to that experienced through the human visual system. The human eye, through adaptation of the iris and other methods, adjusts constantly to adapt to a broad range of luminance present in the environment. The brain continuously interprets this information so that a viewer can see in a wide range of light conditions.
HDR images can represent a greater range of luminance levels than can be achieved using more 'traditional' methods, such as many real-world scenes containing very bright, direct sunlight to extreme shade, or very faint nebulae. This is often achieved by capturing and then combining several different, narrower range, exposures of the same subject matter. Non-HDR cameras take photographs with a limited exposure range, referred to as LDR, resulting in the loss of detail in highlights or shadows.
The two primary types of HDR images are computer renderings and images resulting from merging multiple low-dynamic-range (LDR) or standard-dynamic-range (SDR) photographs. HDR images can also be acquired using special image sensors, such as an oversampled binary image sensor.
Due to the limitations of printing and display contrast, the extended luminosity range of an HDR image has to be compressed to be made visible. The method of rendering an HDR image to a standard monitor or printing device is called tone mapping. This method reduces the overall contrast of an HDR image to facilitate display on devices or printouts with lower dynamic range, and can be applied to produce images with preserved local contrast (or exaggerated for artistic effect).
In photography, dynamic range is measured in exposure value (EV) differences (known as stops). An increase of one EV, or 'one stop', represents a doubling of the amount of light. Conversely, a decrease of one EV represents a halving of the amount of light. Therefore, revealing detail in the darkest of shadows requires high exposures, while preserving detail in very bright situations requires very low exposures. Most cameras cannot provide this range of exposure values within a single exposure, due to their low dynamic range. High-dynamic-range photographs are generally achieved by capturing multiple standard-exposure images, often using exposure bracketing, and then later merging them into a single HDR image, usually within a photo manipulation program). Digital images are often encoded in a camera's raw image format, because 8-bit JPEG encoding does not offer a wide enough range of values to allow fine transitions (and regarding HDR, later introduces undesirable effects due to lossy compression).
Any camera that allows manual exposure control can make images for HDR work, although one equipped with auto exposure bracketing (AEB) is far better suited. Images from film cameras are less suitable as they often must first be digitized, so that they can later be processed using software HDR methods.
In most imaging devices, the degree of exposure to light applied to the active element (be it film or CCD) can be altered in one of two ways: by either increasing/decreasing the size of the aperture or by increasing/decreasing the time of each exposure. Exposure variation in an HDR set is only done by altering the exposure time and not the aperture size; this is because altering the aperture size also affects the depth of field and so the resultant multiple images would be quite different, preventing their final combination into a single HDR image.
An important limitation for HDR photography is that any movement between successive images will impede or prevent success in combining them afterwards. Also, as one must create several images (often three or five and sometimes more) to obtain the desired luminance range, such a full 'set' of images takes extra time. HDR photographers have developed calculation methods and techniques to partially overcome these problems, but the use of a sturdy tripod is, at least, advised.
Some cameras have an auto exposure bracketing (AEB) feature with a far greater dynamic range than others, from the 3 EV of the Canon EOS 40D, to the 18 EV of the Canon EOS-1D Mark II. As the popularity of this imaging method grows, several camera manufactures are now offering built-in HDR features. For example, the Pentax K-7 DSLR has an HDR mode that captures an HDR image and outputs (only) a tone mapped JPEG file. The Canon PowerShot G12, Canon PowerShot S95 and Canon PowerShot S100 offer similar features in a smaller format.. Nikon's approach is called 'Active D-Lighting' which applies exposure compensation and tone mapping to the image as it comes from the sensor, with the accent being on retaing a realistic effect . Some smartphones provide HDR modes, and most mobile platforms have apps that provide HDR picture taking.
Camera characteristics such as gamma curves, sensor resolution, noise, photometric calibration and color calibration affect resulting high-dynamic-range images.
Color film negatives and slides consist of multiple film layers that respond to light differently. As a consequence, transparent originals (especially positive slides) feature a very high dynamic range
Tone mapping
Tone mapping reduces the dynamic range, or contrast ratio, of an entire image while retaining localized contrast. Although it is a distinct operation, tone mapping is often applied to HDRI files by the same software package.
Several software applications are available on the PC, Mac and Linux platforms for producing HDR files and tone mapped images. Notable titles include
Adobe Photoshop
Aurora HDR
Dynamic Photo HDR
HDR Efex Pro
HDR PhotoStudio
Luminance HDR
MagicRaw
Oloneo PhotoEngine
Photomatix Pro
PTGui
Information stored in high-dynamic-range images typically corresponds to the physical values of luminance or radiance that can be observed in the real world. This is different from traditional digital images, which represent colors as they should appear on a monitor or a paper print. Therefore, HDR image formats are often called scene-referred, in contrast to traditional digital images, which are device-referred or output-referred. Furthermore, traditional images are usually encoded for the human visual system (maximizing the visual information stored in the fixed number of bits), which is usually called gamma encoding or gamma correction. The values stored for HDR images are often gamma compressed (power law) or logarithmically encoded, or floating-point linear values, since fixed-point linear encodings are increasingly inefficient over higher dynamic ranges.
HDR images often don't use fixed ranges per color channel—other than traditional images—to represent many more colors over a much wider dynamic range. For that purpose, they don't use integer values to represent the single color channels (e.g., 0-255 in an 8 bit per pixel interval for red, green and blue) but instead use a floating point representation. Common are 16-bit (half precision) or 32-bit floating point numbers to represent HDR pixels. However, when the appropriate transfer function is used, HDR pixels for some applications can be represented with a color depth that has as few as 10–12 bits for luminance and 8 bits for chrominance without introducing any visible quantization artifacts.
History of HDR photography
The idea of using several exposures to adequately reproduce a too-extreme range of luminance was pioneered as early as the 1850s by Gustave Le Gray to render seascapes showing both the sky and the sea. Such rendering was impossible at the time using standard methods, as the luminosity range was too extreme. Le Gray used one negative for the sky, and another one with a longer exposure for the sea, and combined the two into one picture in positive.
Mid 20th century
Manual tone mapping was accomplished by dodging and burning – selectively increasing or decreasing the exposure of regions of the photograph to yield better tonality reproduction. This was effective because the dynamic range of the negative is significantly higher than would be available on the finished positive paper print when that is exposed via the negative in a uniform manner. An excellent example is the photograph Schweitzer at the Lamp by W. Eugene Smith, from his 1954 photo essay A Man of Mercy on Dr. Albert Schweitzer and his humanitarian work in French Equatorial Africa. The image took 5 days to reproduce the tonal range of the scene, which ranges from a bright lamp (relative to the scene) to a dark shadow.
Ansel Adams elevated dodging and burning to an art form. Many of his famous prints were manipulated in the darkroom with these two methods. Adams wrote a comprehensive book on producing prints called The Print, which prominently features dodging and burning, in the context of his Zone System.
With the advent of color photography, tone mapping in the darkroom was no longer possible due to the specific timing needed during the developing process of color film. Photographers looked to film manufacturers to design new film stocks with improved response, or continued to shoot in black and white to use tone mapping methods.
Color film capable of directly recording high-dynamic-range images was developed by Charles Wyckoff and EG&G "in the course of a contract with the Department of the Air Force". This XR film had three emulsion layers, an upper layer having an ASA speed rating of 400, a middle layer with an intermediate rating, and a lower layer with an ASA rating of 0.004. The film was processed in a manner similar to color films, and each layer produced a different color. The dynamic range of this extended range film has been estimated as 1:108. It has been used to photograph nuclear explosions, for astronomical photography, for spectrographic research, and for medical imaging. Wyckoff's detailed pictures of nuclear explosions appeared on the cover of Life magazine in the mid-1950s.
Late 20th century
Georges Cornuéjols and licensees of his patents (Brdi, Hymatom) introduced the principle of HDR video image, in 1986, by interposing a matricial LCD screen in front of the camera's image sensor, increasing the sensors dynamic by five stops. The concept of neighborhood tone mapping was applied to video cameras by a group from the Technion in Israel led by Dr. Oliver Hilsenrath and Prof. Y.Y.Zeevi who filed for a patent on this concept in 1988.
In February and April 1990, Georges Cornuéjols introduced the first real-time HDR camera that combined two images captured by a sensor3435 or simultaneously3637 by two sensors of the camera. This process is known as bracketing used for a video stream.
In 1991, the first commercial video camera was introduced that performed real-time capturing of multiple images with different exposures, and producing an HDR video image, by Hymatom, licensee of Georges Cornuéjols.
Also in 1991, Georges Cornuéjols introduced the HDR+ image principle by non-linear accumulation of images to increase the sensitivity of the camera: for low-light environments, several successive images are accumulated, thus increasing the signal to noise ratio.
In 1993, another commercial medical camera producing an HDR video image, by the Technion.
Modern HDR imaging uses a completely different approach, based on making a high-dynamic-range luminance or light map using only global image operations (across the entire image), and then tone mapping the result. Global HDR was first introduced in 19931 resulting in a mathematical theory of differently exposed pictures of the same subject matter that was published in 1995 by Steve Mann and Rosalind Picard.
On October 28, 1998, Ben Sarao created one of the first nighttime HDR+G (High Dynamic Range + Graphic image)of STS-95 on the launch pad at NASA's Kennedy Space Center. It consisted of four film images of the shuttle at night that were digitally composited with additional digital graphic elements. The image was first exhibited at NASA Headquarters Great Hall, Washington DC in 1999 and then published in Hasselblad Forum, Issue 3 1993, Volume 35 ISSN 0282-5449.
The advent of consumer digital cameras produced a new demand for HDR imaging to improve the light response of digital camera sensors, which had a much smaller dynamic range than film. Steve Mann developed and patented the global-HDR method for producing digital images having extended dynamic range at the MIT Media Laboratory. Mann's method involved a two-step procedure: (1) generate one floating point image array by global-only image operations (operations that affect all pixels identically, without regard to their local neighborhoods); and then (2) convert this image array, using local neighborhood processing (tone-remapping, etc.), into an HDR image. The image array generated by the first step of Mann's process is called a lightspace image, lightspace picture, or radiance map. Another benefit of global-HDR imaging is that it provides access to the intermediate light or radiance map, which has been used for computer vision, and other image processing operations.
21st century
In 2005, Adobe Systems introduced several new features in Photoshop CS2 including Merge to HDR, 32 bit floating point image support, and HDR tone mapping.
On June 30, 2016, Microsoft added support for the digital compositing of HDR images to Windows 10 using the Universal Windows Platform.
HDR sensors
Modern CMOS image sensors can often capture a high dynamic range from a single exposure. The wide dynamic range of the captured image is non-linearly compressed into a smaller dynamic range electronic representation. However, with proper processing, the information from a single exposure can be used to create an HDR image.
Such HDR imaging is used in extreme dynamic range applications like welding or automotive work. Some other cameras designed for use in security applications can automatically provide two or more images for each frame, with changing exposure. For example, a sensor for 30fps video will give out 60fps with the odd frames at a short exposure time and the even frames at a longer exposure time. Some of the sensor may even combine the two images on-chip so that a wider dynamic range without in-pixel compression is directly available to the user for display or processing.
COMM 335 Photojournalism in COMM 335 - Fall 2013 Photojournalism Benedictine University, Springfield, “We decide what is real and what is an illusion”
Class Objectives:
In today’s media landscape, an understanding of photography is crucial to most jobs. Copy editors, page designers, web designers and photographers have to create and evaluate images on a daily basis. The purpose of this class is to give you those skills.This class will stress many different skills. Learning the technical tools and software of a photographer will be covered at the start. We will focus on the creation of the highest quality still images. The class will focus on storytelling, since this is the primary purpose of professional photojournalism and many other specialized areas of photography. Anyone seeking employment in media must possess the ability to create and discern quality images and effective content. This class will stress actual production of photojournalistic material. Instructor Information:
Instructor: Gerald SchneiderOffice: lower level of Becker Library, extension 245 /Capital Area Career Center 2201 Toronto Road room 206 phone 529-5431 ext.162Email: jschneider@caccschool.org gschneider@ben.edu Office hours: 11:30 am - 3:00 pm M-F at the CACC office photography lab (217) 529-5431 ext 162 or by appointment MTW 8am-9amClass website: www.classes.
Required Material:
Text: Photojournalism6th Editionby Ken KobreISBN: 978-0-7506-8593-1
SLR or equivalent camera (digital preferred). The university does have a few cameras that can be checked out.USB Device with min. 2gb capacity, Proper Memory card.
Grades:
•Portrait photo - 100 points•Coverage photo - 200 points•Photo essay - 150 points•Shoot off - 50 points•Final - 85 points•Attendance - 15 points Photojournalist -50 points
Total: 500 points
Grading scale
500 - 450 A449 - 400 B399 - 350C349 - 300 D299 - 0 F
There is no rounding up of pointsAttendance policy:• Two or less classes missed - 15 points• Three classes missed - 7 points• Four or more classes missed - 0 points
I do not differentiate between excused and unexcused absences. Save your two “free” days for when you really need them.
There will be an attendance sheet for you to sign every day. The sheet is the arbiter on missed classes, so don’t forget to sign in.
Assignments
Benedictine Magazine - This will be a semester long project which will use photographs the class has created about our University.Cover design, articles about students and staff, sports, activities and school architecture will be the content to be published at the end of the semester. This will become a regular publication for the University with proper funding as generated by the class marketing activities. Most assignments will contribute to this final publication project. The students will learn from the actual production of a photojournalistic publication.
Portrait photo(s) - This is an image of a person that conveys something about that person. The photo should be done as an environmental portrait, not a canned one (like your senior photo). Proper lighting, composition, focus and exposure are part of the grade as well. An accurate cutline should also be included.This assignment will be one of our first in order to identify with each other and will be repeated for other University staff and students. You will also present your photo(s) to the class; it will count towards the grade.
Coverage photo(s) - This can be photos from a news event or a sporting event. Benedictine events are fine, as are any other venues (community activities, intramural sports, etc.) The key moment(s) should be presented as well as good lighting, composition, focus and exposure. An accurate cutline should also be included. You will have several of these assignments with multiple subjects or themes. You will also present your photo(s) to the class; it will count towards the grade.
Architecture - This project will capture the rich historical building on campus. You will also present your photo(s) to the class; it will count towards the grade.
Seasonal - This project will have a theme relative to a season or celebration. October, November and December are times when seasonal atmosphere can really effect the creative process. You will also present your photo(s) to the class; it will count towards the grade.
Photo essay - Each student will choose an event or person and record an in-depth photographic story. This assignment should contain quality images. It should be between ten and fifteen frames, effective lighting, composition, and editing (enhancement) are part of the grade as well. You will also present your photo essay to the class; it will count towards the grade.
Shoot today - Student will be assigned a topic at the start of class and then have the rest of the period to wander around campus to fulfill that assignment. The following class period, students will edit their shoot and present their images to the class. There will be several of these assignments when conditions allow. You will also present your photo(s) to the class; it will count towards the grade.
Photo Journalist research - This assignment each student will research a specific photojournalist and discuss his best photograph with the class
Quiz - Multiple choice, fill in the blank and short answer questions, which will cover the material from class as well as the material in the textbook. The quiz will be open book.
- Students need to have a decent camera; a SLR or equivalent. The university does have a few that can be checked out. Film cameras are OK, but processing costs are the student’s responsibility. All projects must be turned in as digital files, as well as all photos from a student’s shoot. Most film processors can burn you a CD with digital copies of your prints. You may also use the darkrooms at the Capital Area Career Center under the direction of lab assistants. See your instructor for details.
- All photos can be uploaded to the class Flickr site: www.flickr.com/groups/benedictinephotojournalism335/ (click to join the group) this is so we can learn from each other and get the experience of actually producing something. We will spend class time examining everyone’s projects. This website will be live to the world; anybody will be able to see your work. Being able to critique other photographers work and to benefit from others who critique your work is most critical. You must also have your original projects and photographs available for critique during class on your camera media card or USB device. The quality of your work and your participation during critiques is the most import part of this class.
About your instructor
Mr. Schneider has been a photographer for 35 years. He has served on the faculty at Southern Illinois University, University of Illinois, District 186 Springfield,Lincoln Land Community College, The Lincoln Institute, Lincoln Scholars, the Capital Area Career Center and the Springfield Art Association. He has administered a private photography business for 35 years. He has attended Southern Illinois University, University of Illinois, Illinois StateUniversity, Chicago State University, Royal Academy London, University ofNotre Dame . University Policies1. The search for truth and the dissemination of knowledge are the central missions of a university. Benedictine University pursues these missions in an environment guided by our Roman Catholic tradition and our Benedictine heritage. Integrity and honesty are therefore expected of all members of the University community, including students, faculty members, administration, and staff.Actions such as cheating, plagiarism, collusion, fabrication, forgery, falsification, destruction, multiple submission, solicitation, and misrepresentation, are violations of these expectations and constitute unacceptable behavior in the University community. The penalties for such actions can range from a private verbal warning, all the way to expulsion from the University. The University’s Academic Honesty Policy is available at http:/www.ben.edu/AHP and students are expected to read it.2. A student whose religious obligation conflicts with a course requirement may request an academic accommodation from the instructor.Students must make such requests in writing by theend of the first week of the class.
3. Benedictine University at Springfield strives to provide individuals with disabilities reasonable accommodations to participate in educational programs, activities and services. Students with a documented permanent or temporary disability requiring accommodations should contact Disability Services as early in the semester as possible. Disability Services works with students, faculty and other campus personnel in a cooperative and confidential effort to find appropriate solutions to each individual’s special needs.
To request an appointment or for further information please contact Disability Services at 217-525-1420 X 3306 or email springaccess@ben.edu. If you need help Email me jschneider@caccschool.org or gschneider@ben.edu Class Policies•All assignments must be turned in on the day they are due and at the beginning of class. Late work will not be accepted and there are no extra credit assignments. Assignments notturned in when they are due will result in a score of zero points for that assignment.
•Turn OFF all cell phones, beepers,.mp3 players, etc. If you are waiting for an emergency phone call, see me before class. Do not check messages during class time, but before class is fine.
•Please do not bring laptops/netbooks into class unless we are working with photoshop.Do not surf the Internet during class time. If you need to take notes on a computer, please clearit with me first.
•Respect your fellow students and teacher.Disruptions (such as talking with friends during class, doing homework during class, reading newspapers during class, etc.) will not be tolerated. • Do not be tardy to class. If you cannot make the start of class regularly, see me. There will be an attendance sheet for you to sign. Remember to sign in each class period.
•You are responsible for the material if you miss a class; either get the notes from a fellow student or see me during office hours. Do not email me something like: “Did I miss anything important?”
•Your campus email address will be the official way I contact you with course and/or academic performance information. Check your email often. “I didn’t get your email,” is not an excuse for missed work and/or information.
•Check D2L, the Twitter feed and the class website often. Your grades will be posted on D2L.
•Feedback on your projects will be during critique sessions.
Class schedule - COMM 335 MW 9:00 am - 10:15 am (3) (3105) room D 220
Week 1Aug. 26: Intro, class expectationsAug. 28: Camera basics / Photo gear/check out procedures/-Chapter 1
Week 2Sept. 2: Labor Day, no classSept. 4: 35mm SLR basics /Picture editing workshop/Chapter 2/research a photojournalist choose his best photograph and be prepared to discuss it at next class
Week 3Sept. 9: Quiz on camera operation and care/discuss photojournalistSept. 11: Project # 1 Shoot a portrait of someone in the class and write a brief biography about that student./-Chapter 3/research a photojournalist choose his best photograph and be prepared to discuss it at next class
Week 4Sept. 16: Basic composition and lighting - critique project 1/Chapter 4/discuss photojournalistSept. 18: Basic composition and lighting - Project # 2 Coverage of an event, activity, Benedictine staff or student story, Historical building on or off campus/research a photojournalist choose his best photograph and be prepared to discuss it at next class
Week 5Sept. 23: PhotoShop basics - critique project 2 /-Chapter 5/discuss photojournalistSept. 25: PhotoShop basics-Project # 3 Coverage of an event, activity, Benedictine staff or student story, Historical building on or off campus/research a photojournalist choose his best photograph and be prepared to discuss it at next class
Week 6Sept. 30: Portrait - Chapter 5/critique project #3/photoShop basics cont./-Chapter 6/discuss photojournalistOct. 2: In-class: Portraits / Photoshop / Project # 4 Coverage of an event, activity, Benedictine staff or student story, Historical building on or off campus/research a photojournalist choose his best photograph and be prepared to discuss it at next class
Week 7Oct. 7: Fall break, no class Oct. 9: Portrait photo due/critique project # 4/photoshop practice/-Chapter 7/research a photojournalist choose his best photograph and be prepared to discuss it at next class/discuss photojournalist
Week 8Oct. 14:Midsemester Break Oct. 16: Event coverage — Sports - Chapter 6 /Project # 5 Coverage of an event, activity, Benedictine staff or student story, Historical building on or off campus/photoShop practice/discuss photojournalistcritique project # 4/PhotoShop practice/-Chapter 8/research a photojournalist choose his best photograph and be prepared to discuss it at next class
Week 9 Oct. 21: Seasonal project #6 /Chapter 9/critique project # 5 /PhotoShop practice /research a photojournalist choose his best photograph and be prepared to discuss it at next class//discuss photojournalist Oct. 23: No class,
Week 10 Oct. 28: PhotoShop practice / Critique project # 6 /discuss photojournalist Oct. 30: Photo essay - Chapter 10/photoShop practice/research a photojournalist choose his best photograph and be prepared to discuss it at next class Week 11 Nov. 4: Shoot-today, project #7 / Chapter 11//discuss photojournalist Nov. 6: Shoot-today , photoshop project #7
Week 12 Nov. 11:Critique Project #7 / Chapter 12 Nov. 13: Final project presentation and discussion
Week 13 Nov. 18: Photo essay of seasonal activity/-Chapter 13 Nov. 20: In-class: write cut lines for photo essay
Week 14 Nov. 25: Photoshop lab/- Chapter 14 Nov. 27: Photoshop lab
Week 15 Dec. 2: Career Day Dec. 4: Open day (work on make up assignments) photoshop lab/-Chapter 15&16/Final Exam presentation Week 16 : Dec. 9 : Final Exam presentation Dec.11: Final Exam due
*Note: Changes to the schedule may occur during the semester, depending on access to labs and equipment.
Grading scale
500 - 450 A449 - 400 B399 - 350C349 - 300 D299 - 0 F•Portrait photo/pohtojournalist discussions - 100 points•Coverage photo - 250 points•Shoot off - 50 points•Final Exam - 85 points•Attendance - 15 points
Total: 500 points