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1958 VW pick up spent most of her life on a farm in Oklahoma. Over the last 4 years the truck has undergone a total nut and bolt restoration and has been re-engineered to introduce modern components. The Rolls Royce Viper 535 jet engine is from a fighter jet with an afterburner added to produce a maximum power output of 5000 lbs of thrust which can be roughly translated to 5000 BHP.
Immersing the shea in boiling water will help to separate the butter from the other components of the kernel, and including impurities which settle to the bottom. Once removed, the butter floating on the surface is kneaded before being cooked to allow the water to evaporate and the impurities to settle, Burkina Faso.
Photo by Ollivier Girard/CIFOR
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The Narcotic-Administering Arms Division was a key component of the Human Preservation Act that was passed by the Allied Nations in 2473. The Act was an attempt to preserve humanity from self-extinction in the face of devastating losses incurred during the then-ongoing Vraashan War. Despite the larger interspecies conflict, Earth was still wracked with petty civil wars, crime, and urban violence, so the Allied Nations sought to enforce a blanket ban on the use of lethal force against humans.
The global reaction was far from unified or compliant, but some military and law enforcement entities did register with the newly-formed NAAD. Individuals belonging to NAAD-registered organizations were outfitted with high-end riot-control gear and cutting-edge "weapons". Here, for example, are two medium-outfitted soldiers.
The one on the left wields ZADpulse nullifiers whose specially-tuned subsonic emanations induce extreme dizziness to cow large crowds.
The soldier on the right has a sleepsaber. A sleepsaber's "blades" are actually intangible electric fields which can harmlessly pass through flesh. These fields communicate an overriding bioelectric signal to neurons they contact that travels to the brain and forces an opponent into an entire sleep cycle.
Ankai HFF21GS-3 Open Top Bus (2012) Engine 8900cc
Registration Number LJ 12 LYH
ANKAI SET
www.flickr.com/photos/45676495@N05/albums/72157685474923122
Anhui Ankai Automobile Co., Ltd. is a Chinese manufacturer from Hefei, Anhui, China. which specialises in the production of buses and coaches. Ankai's products include urban buses, regular coaches, sleeping berth coaches, bus and coach chassis and automotive components.
Their half covered Double Decker sightseeing buses, are sold and operate in cities throughout the world.
Many Thanks for a fan'dabi'dozi 30,351,100 views
Shot 01:11:2014 , in Park Lane, London Ref 103-217
Belgian Air Component F-16AM FA-84 from 350Sqn in display markings gets airborne from RWY 09 at RAF Fairford for its display at RIAT 2012.
OBSERVATORY MUSEUM
Established 1982. (A component of the Albany Museum Complex).
10 Bathurst Street, Grahamstown.
Tel : (046) 622 2312
This building was originally a 19th Century jeweller's shop and family home. Its connection with the identification of the Eureka, South Africa's first authenticated diamond, in 1867, prompted De Beers Consolidated Mines Limited to purchase the building and restore it in 1981-1982, to commemorate the beginnings of the country's diamond industry. It was opened on 2 February 1982 by Mr H F Oppenheimer of De Beers, and was formally presented to the Museum Trustees to become part of the Albany Museum's Cultural History division. The original owner-designer of the Observatory, Henry Carter Galpin, was a watchmaker and jeweller who lived in Grahamstown from 1850 until his death in 1886. His special interests - optics, astronomy and the measuring of time - are impressively reflected in this gracious multi-storeyed building. In the topmost tower is the only Victorian Camera Obscura in the Southern Hemisphere. Through the system of lenses and mirror in the revolving turret in its roof, this ingenious device projects an enchanting full colour live panorama of the town and its activities onto a flat viewing surface in a darkened room. Beneath it, Galpin built a Meridian Room where he could ascertain the precise time of local noon - 14 minutes behind South African standard time. The nearby Telescope Room contains his 8-inch reflector telescope which was initially installed in the rooftop observatory, from which the house got its name. On the Victorian Floor, five rooms of fine furnishings recapture the atmosphere of an upper middle class home of the time. Display panels detail the award-winning restoration project which returned the building to Galpin's original plan. The Diamond Story display tells the story of the identification of South Africa's first authenticate diamond and a full-size replica of the Eureka diamond is its sparkling focal point. In the basement a Victorian kitchen and dining room have been restored and a herb garden adds interest out-of-doors.
Hours :
Monday-Friday 09h30-13h00, 14h00-17h00
Saturday 09h00-13h00
Closed Sundays, Good Friday, Workers' Day, Christmas Day, New Year's Day.
A westbound local led by classy standard cab power passes the ancient B&O cantilever at Leipsic on a dreary day in July 2015.
polymer clay tile with layers of color using acrylic paint and inks. Back, sides and work strip is coated in metal paints, patinas - Swellegant productsl
Forges et Ateliers de Constructions d’Eure-et-Loir or Facel S.A. was founded in December 1939 by Bronzavia, a French manufacturer of military aircraft components. In 1945, Facel merged with Métallon forming Facel-Métallon to coachbuild special projects for Simca, Ford, Panhard, and Delahaye. Jean Daninos, former technical director for Bronzavia took charge of Facel-Métallon in 1945. He began his career with Citroen – a French automotive brand – designing Traction coupés and cabriolets.
In 1948, a luxury car division was established. They specialized making various Simca Sport models gaining publicity in collaboration with Pinin Farina Design Studio. A special bodied Bentley was built on the Bentley MK VI chassis resulting in the famous Bentley Cresta. The exclusive Ford Comète began production September of 1951 and ended in 1955 when Simca took over Ford of France.
Under the Facel-Métallon union, scooters were built for Vespa, Piaggio, and Motobécane. Army jeeps were built for Delahaye. Special production runs for Simca, Delahaye, and Somua trucks were expedited. The company also built Massey Ferguson tractors. Stainless steel bumpers, hubcaps, and grilles were stamped for Simca, Ford, and Renault. Monocoque construction became popular with mass-produced cars forcing Facel-Métallon to lose their larger flagship accounts. The partnership lasted through 1953.
Jean Daninos wanted to build a French grand marque to compete with the luxury grand touring automobiles of the world. He ventured out making these cars using Chrysler V8 powerplants. Volvo and Austin engines were alternatives towards the end of the venture. Daninos gained knowledge during WWII working with General Aircraft here in the USA with experience gained using Bronzavia patents.
The Chrysler powered French luxury saloon concept became a Franco-American luxury/performance hybrid named Facel Vega. Classy styling continuity boasts elegant cosmopolitan-inspired architecture for each model. A fresh, pillarless hardtop design makes them as classic as they are contemporary for their day. All Facel Vega motorcars are built as traditional body on frame construction configured as front engine rear-wheel drive.
The first prototype was drawn in 1951. By October 1952 the prototype was fully functional and was taken out on the road in the real world for testing. It was sent to Chrysler here in the USA for further testing. Chassis # FV-54-002 is the pioneer ‘Vega’ in its initial stage. This car’s unique tubular frame is designed by Lance Macklin, son of Sir Noel Macklin of Railton fame. Lance is a former member of the HWM racing team with Stirling Moss and Mike Collins.
I think I have a new addiction. These crusty, grungy Rustic Components are my latest creation. I'm having fun dreaming up new color combinations to try. I blogged about it here.
Copyright © 2013 by Ginger Davis Allman The Blue Bottle Tree, all rights reserved.
AP offered a form of automatic transmission that was available on several BMC (British Motor Corporation) cars built by both Austin and Morris (the two major components of the BMC). Here can be seen an Austin A50 and a Morris Oxford - along with the once ubiquitous BMC rosette logo.
PictionID:44808994 - Title:Atlas Payload Component - Catalog:14_014229 - Filename:14_014229.TIF - - - Image from the Convair/General Dynamics Astronautics Atlas Negative Collection. The processing, cataloging and digitization of these images has been made possible by a generous National Historical Publications and Records grant from the National Archives and Records Administration---Please Tag these images so that the information can be permanently stored with the digital file.---Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum
Mosquito y zancudo1 son términos genéricos con los que se designa a los miembros de varias familias de insectos del orden de los dípteros y en particular del suborden de los nematóceros; en su uso más estricto «mosquito» se refiere únicamente a los componentes de la familia de los culícidos. Como los otros insectos holometábolos mosquitos tienen cuatro etapas de desarrollo en su vida: huevo, larva, pupa y adulto. Necesitan el agua para completar sus ciclos de vida, porque las larvas son acuáticas.
La presencia de los mosquitos ha sido obviamente reconocida por todos los habitantes de la Tierra, y en cada lengua hay un término, más o menos específico para designarlos. Las referencias escritas más antiguas, aquellas en las cuales podemos nítidamente reconocer al actor, son probablemente las de Aristóteles. En efecto, el famoso filósofo y naturalista griego los cita tanto en su Historia animalium como en De generatione animalibus. En ambas obras se refiere a ellos con el nombre de empis y los incluye entre aquellos seres que tienen una fase de vida terrestre y otra acuática y que además se originaban por generación espontánea de los líquidos putrefactos. Estas ideas primarían en Europa hasta tiempos recientes.
25/04/2018, approaching Rotterdam (Europort) Netherlands.
Keel laid on 16/12/1994, launched on 21/06/1995 and completed on 28/07/1995 by IHC Holland, Kinderdijk, Netherlands ( co1209) and completed by De Merwede, Hardinxveld, Netherlands (669)
9,125 g.t. and 4,253 dwt., as:
'MN Toucan'.
This specially constructed vessel, and her sister 'MN Colibri', carry launcher components of Ariane 5 from Europe to French Guiana and the components of Soyuz satellite launchers from Russia to French Guyana.
DIY Tutorial - make a rolled paper Christmas ornament.
Blogged: www.allthingspaper.net/2013/12/rolled-paper-christmas-orn...
Of all the posts I’ve written over the last nine years, this is one of those I am most proud of.
The Great Housing Bubble cultivated a gentility of entitlement, a sordid societal residue, a system of reliance, a conviction among people that they may possess anything they wish just... at The Unceremonious Fall from Entitlement (redux)
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La Porsche 911 è un'autovettura sportiva prodotta dalla Porsche a partire dal 1963. È tuttora in produzione, e nel corso degli anni ha avuto molti cambiamenti. Si possono, tuttavia, distinguere due serie fondamentali: le 911 con motore raffreddato ad aria (1963-1997) e le 911 "moderne" (dal 1998 ad oggi). Nella seconda metà degli anni cinquanta la Porsche 356 iniziava a sentire il peso degli anni. Il motore 4 cilindri boxer raffreddato ad aria era nato nel 1948 con cilindrata di 1.131 cm³ e 40 CV di potenza, ed era derivato, come altre componenti dell'auto, dalla Volkswagen Maggiolino. Il vecchio 4 cilindri aveva raggiunto il massimo del suo potenziale di sviluppo con la versione 2.0 Carrera GS da 130 CV. Per la progettazione della nuova vettura Ferry Porsche si occupò della parte tecnica, affidando l'innovazione stilistica al figlio Ferdinand Alexander Porsche soprannominato dai suoi familiari "Butzi". Le linee guida decise a priori comportavano il mantenimento dell'impostazione tecnico-stilistica della "356", con il motore boxer raffreddato ad aria e montato posteriormente, ma con un'abitabilità sufficiente a ospitare 4 persone. La costruzione in serie di una tale vettura, avrebbe consentito alla Porsche di entrare nel mercato delle Gran turismo "due litri", con un prezzo concorrenziale rispetto ai modelli costruiti artigianalmente da molti carrozzieri italiani, su meccaniche Alfa Romeo, Fiat e Lancia. Lo sviluppo tecnico non diede gravi difficoltà e la nuova meccanica, incluso l'inedito 6 cilindri boxer, era pronta già nel 1961. Problemi maggiori derivarono dalla definizione della carrozzeria. La soluzione trovata da Butzi alla fine del 1959, il prototipo "T7" (in seguito anche denominato "754"), non convinceva e le varie modifiche non riuscirono a trovare la giusta soluzione tra l'eleganza dell'aspetto e la necessità di ottenere il richiesto spazio per passeggeri dei sedili posteriori.
Un lungo lavoro di affinamento portò alle soluzioni più disparate e bizzarre, finché Butzi si vide costretto ad abbandonare l'iniziale punto programmatico dei 4 posti e ripiegare sulla configurazione 2+2, che consentiva di mantenere la linea di cintura iniziale, raccordando il padiglione con il cofano motore in una sola curva.
L'aspetto estetico risultò subito molto equilibrato e, ancor più la parentela stilistica con il modello "356". Per la nuova vettura venne scelta la sigla commerciale "901" e il primo esemplare costruito, di colore giallo, fu presentato al Salone dell'Automobile di Francoforte del 1963, ottenendo buoni apprezzamenti dal pubblico e dalla stampa specializzata. La commercializzazione della nuova "901", avviata all'inizio del 1964, fu subito ostacolata dalla diffida della Peugeot ad usare quella sigla, poiché depositaria di tutti i numeri a tre cifre con lo zero al centro da utilizzare per i suoi modelli. La Porsche fu quindi costretta a modificare la sigla in "911" a partire dal 10 novembre 1964. Marchiati "901" furono soltanto i primi 82 esemplari già venduti, quasi tutti allestiti in maniera artigianale, dato che la produzione di serie ebbe inizio il 14 settembre di quell'anno. Pur immediatamente ottenendo un buon successo di vendite, la "911" fu inizialmente investita da forti polemiche e contestazioni, soprattutto rivolte all'eccessivo prezzo di listino e alla problematica tenuta di strada. La questione del prezzo, provocò un vero e putiferio di rimostranze da parte della clientela Porsche, dato che il nuovo modello era proposto all'astronomica cifra di 23.900 DM, con un aumento di oltre 7.000 DM, rispetto alla "356". A seguito delle proteste, l'azienda decise di ridurre il prezzo della "911" a 22.400 DM. Inoltre propose una versione con finiture modeste e motore a 4 cilindri derivato dalla "356", al contenuto prezzo di 17.500 DM, poi divenuta "912" dall'aprile 1965. Di soluzione non altrettanto facile furono le carenze tecniche lamentate dalla clientela che si tramutarono, nel 1966, in un dimezzamento delle vendite, passando alle 1.709 vetture consegnate, contro le 3.389 dell'anno precedente. Venivano lamentate la scarsa ventilazione e l'eccessiva rumorosità nell'abitacolo, il comportamento nervoso della vettura e, soprattutto, l'instabilità direzionale oltre i 130 km/h e il notevole effetto sottosterzante. La 911 era una coupé 2+2 (gli affinamenti avevano ridotto lo spazio posteriore), con motore posteriore a sbalzo, trazione posteriore, sospensioni a 4 ruote indipendenti con barre di torsione, 4 freni a disco e cambio meccanico a 5 rapporti (spesso 4 per gli USA). Il 6 cilindri boxer raffreddato ad aria e alimentato da 2 carburatori Solex triplo corpo che la muoveva aveva una cilindrata di 1991 cm³ e una potenza massima di 130 CV. Nel 1966 venne lanciata anche la 911 S che, grazie ad una serie di modifiche all'albero motore, profilo dei pistoni, valvole maggiorate, raggiungeva una potenza di 160 CV. Su tutti i modelli si passò a carburatori Weber. Esternamente la S si riconosceva per i cerchi in lega Fuchs.
Sempre nel 1966 le coupé (standard e S) vennero affiancate dalle versioni Targa, con tetto rigido asportabile. Era la 911 T, con alimentazione a carburatori e motore meno prestante (110 CV); la 911 L manteneva il motore a carburatori da 130 CV ed aveva finiture di maggior pregio; la 911 S, ancora dotata di carburatori Weber, offriva 160 CV. Tutti i modelli erano disponibili sia in versione coupé che Targa.
Nel 1968, per rendere meno "nervoso" il comportamento stradale, venne allungato il passo di 6 cm (da 221 a 227 cm): il modello base era ancora la 911 T, con alimentazione a carburatori e motore da 110 CV; i modelli 911 E (140 CV) e 911 S (170 CV) erano dotati di iniezione meccanica Bosch. Nel 1969 fu cambiata la griglia posteriore e la cilindrata del motore: da 1991 a 2195 cm³. Le potenze salirono a 125 CV per la serie T (a carburatori), a 155 CV per la serie E (a iniezione) e a 180 CV per la serie S (pure a iniezione). Una serie S come si direbbe oggi "full optional" fu acquistata dalla Solar Film (casa produttrice statunitense che faceva capo a Steve McQueen) e usata nel film Le 24 Ore di Le Mans, con lo stesso Steve McQueen protagonista, che arriva sul circuito al volante proprio della 911 S grigia. Recentemente quest'auto, venduta dall'attore pochi anni dopo il film, e passata varie volte di mano, è stata battuta ad un'asta statunitense di auto d'epoca. Nel 1971 la cilindrata del boxer venne aumentata ulteriormente da 2195 cm³ a 2341 cm³ e le potenze crebbero a 130 CV (T), 165 CV (E) e 190 CV (S). La più potente 911 S ottenne anche uno spoiler anteriore per stabilizzare l'avantreno alle alte velocità. Nel 1972 fu proposta la 911 Carrera RS (RennSport), mossa da una versione di 2687 cm³ (210 CV) a iniezione meccanica del classico 6 cilindri boxer e carrozzeria alleggerita, con cofani e portiere in alluminio e lamiere non strutturali assottigliate. La Carrera RS era disponibile in una versione Touring con interno simile a quello delle 911 S e Sport, con allestimento interno semplificato per contenere ulteriormente il peso. Era riconoscibile per il celebre alettone posteriore "a coda d'anatra" (ducktail), le strip adesive sulla fiancata ed i cerchi (in lega) in tinta con le strip. Era disponibile nella sola versione coupé. Nel 1973 ne vennero creati otto esemplari da competizione denominati Carrera RSR. Utilizzando come base la RS, vennero montati nuovi freni ventilati a disco con quattro pistoncini e nuove sospensioni sportive irrigidite. I passaruota erano stati allargati per permettere il montaggio di pneumatici da competizione, più grandi rispetto a quelli di serie. Nella parte anteriore venne sistemato un nuovo radiatore dell'olio, mentre il propulsore impiegato era una versione 2.8 da 308 cv del motore della RS stradale. La sua gestione era affidata ad un cambio manuale a 5 rapporti. Questi modelli vennero affidati ai team Brumos e Penske per competere in alcune prove del Campionato Mondiale per vetture sport.
La prima prova fu alla 24 Ore di Daytona, dove i piloti Peter Gregg e Hurley Haywood del team Brumos ottennero la vittoria. Altre pregevoli conquiste furono La Targa Florio e la 12 Ore di Sebring. Nel 1974 le nuove norme USA sulla sicurezza e sull'inquinamento costrinsero i tecnici Porsche a rivedere la 911. Furono cambiati i paraurti, resi più grandi e ad assorbimento d'urto (i cosiddetti "impact bumpers"), con due pistoni idraulici al posto delle barre metalliche usate sul mercato europeo. I gruppi ottici posteriori vennero uniti da una fascia trasparente rossa inglobante i catarifrangenti. Dal punto di vista tecnico, invece, la cilindrata venne portata per tutte le versioni a 2687 cm³. Tutte adottarono l'alimentazione a iniezione meccanica, ma l'adozione di dispositivi antinquinamento ridusse la potenza utile. Anche gli interni furono aggiornati per migliorare comfort e sicurezza. La nuova gamma comprendeva la 911 standard (150 CV), la 911 S (177 CV) e la 911 Carrera (210 CV). Quest'ultima aveva la carrozzeria delle altre 911, senza alleggerimenti e variazioni estetiche, ed era disponibile anche in versione Targa (come pure la standard e la S), mentre il motore era lo stesso della Carrera RS della serie precedente: fu venduta solo sul mercato europeo ed in Sudafrica, ma non negli Stati Uniti. Nel 1975 venne introdotta la 911 Turbo, con motore portato a 2994 cm³ e sovralimentato con turbocompressore . La potenza cresceva così a 260 CV.
La 911 Turbo, disponibile solo in versione coupé, era facilmente riconoscibile per la carrozzeria allargata, l'ampio alettone posteriore (che incorporava l'intercooler), i cerchi sportivi con pneumatici maggiorati sui posteriori, lo spoiler anteriore più pronunciato e la verniciatura in nero opaco di tutte le parti cromate. Minime le modifiche all'interno. Lo stesso anno, data l'esigenza di proporla anche sul mercato statunitense, la cilindrata della Carrera crebbe a 2994 cm³, ma a causa dei dispositivi antinquinamento la potenza scese da 210 a 200 CV. Nel 1977 fu lanciata la 911 SC (SuperCarrera), che sostituiva tutte le altre versioni "non turbo" (standard, S e Carrera); aveva una cilindrata di 2994 cm³ e una potenza ridotta a 180 CV. Esteticamente le uniche modifiche riguardavano la verniciatura in nero opaco dei particolari prima cromati.
La SC, disponibile sia in versione coupé che Targa, venne lanciata in un momento in cui il management della Casa tedesca riteneva che la 911 fosse un modello superato, destinato ad essere gradualmente rimpiazzato dalla Porsche 928, lanciata proprio quell'anno e dotata di un nuovo motore V8 raffreddato ad acqua e meccanica transaxle. La 928 ebbe un buon successo di mercato, soprattutto negli USA, ma non riuscì mai a sostituire nel cuore degli appassionati la 911, che rimase sempre il modello Porsche più popolare. Nel 1978 la cilindrata della 911 Turbo crebbe da 2994 a 3299 cm³ e la potenza, grazie anche all'adozione dell'alimentazione a iniezione elettronica (anziché meccanica), raggiunse i 300 CV. Nel 1981 la potenza delle SC venne incrementata a 204 CV. Nel 1983 le versioni coupé e Targa vennero affiancate dalla 3.0 SC Cabriolet. Nel 1984 le 911 SC lasciarono il posto alle 911 Carrera 3.2, pressoché invariate esteticamente (a parte i piccoli fendinebbia rettangolari, ora integrati nello spoiler anteriore e non più solo opzionali, e il richiamo degli indicatori di posizione in posizione laterale), ma con importanti novità tecniche: cilindrata portata a 3164 cm³, alimentazione a iniezione elettronica anziché meccanica e potenza di 231 CV.
Fu realizzata anche in versione cabriolet. Nel 1987 venne proposta la nuova migliorata trasmissione G50 e la frizione idraulica. La fascia posteriore rossa ora comprende anche i retronebbia. Sono state prodotte due versioni commemorative della 3.2, chiamate comunemente, ma erroneamente, entrambe Giubileo.
Una del 1988 in occasione della 250.000ª 911 prodotta aveva un colore specifico (Diamantblau met cod. 697), la firma Ferry Porsche ricamata sugli appoggiatesta ed i cerchi ruota forgiati Fuchs con i "petali" nello stesso colore della carrozzeria anziché neri. Venne prodotta in tutte le varianti di carrozzeria, con motore catalizzato e non. Nell'anno seguente è stata realizzata una nuova versione commemorativa per i 25 anni di inizio di produzione della 911: in realtà erano 3 modelli con equipaggiamento molto completo e piuttosto rari, contraddistinti dai codici M097, M098 e M099. Rappresentavano una serie limitata di fine produzione del modello 3.2: M097 modello Anniversario 1989 25 anni 911 versione Germania, vernice blu profondo metallizzata, interni pelle totale colore grigio perla, tappetini in velluto effetto seta colore grigio perla, consolle centrale speciale, cerchi Fuchs in tinta, cruscotto in radica; prodotta principalmente con carrozzeria coupé, ha avuto anche versioni Targa e Cabrio, molto rare; M098 modello Anniversario 1989 25 anni 911 versione USA vernice argento metallizzata, interni in pelle totale colore grigio effetto seta, tappetini in velluto colore grigio, consolle centrale speciale, cerchi Fuchs in tinta; M099 modello Anniversario 1989 25 anni 911 versione Resto del mondo vernice blu metallizzata, pelle totale colore blu, tappetini in velluto colore argento-blu, consolle centrale speciale, cerchi Fuchs in tinta. Il Model Year 1989 rappresenta l'ultimo anno di produzione della 3.2 con la tipica carrozzeria Bumper e le "sospensioni a lame". Le vetture di quest'anno presentano tutta una serie di piccole evoluzioni tecniche e di dotazioni poi riprese dalla imminente 964. Sempre nel 1989 venne realizzata una piccola serie di 911 Speedster.
Si trattava di una cabriolet alleggerita con parabrezza più piccolo, calotta aerodinamica in plastica al posto dei sedili posteriori, carrozzeria slim o allargata "Turbo Look" e meccanica della normale derivata dalla Carrera 3.2. Nel giugno 1989 venne lanciata la 911 Carrera 4 (serie 964), con tantissime novità tecniche ed estetiche. Da punto di vista tecnico la novità principale era l'adozione della trazione integrale permanente e di un motore a cilindrata maggiorata da 3600 cm³ con doppia accensione e 250 CV. I freni ottennero l'ABS di serie, mentre lo sterzo era servoassistito. Esteticamente venivano adottati nuovi paraurti, diversi cerchi, inedito alettone posteriore retrattile e interni rivisti. Le versioni disponibili erano coupé, Targa e cabriolet.
Nel 1990 anche le versioni a trazione posteriore adottarono motore, freni e allestimento della Carrera 4. Il nome commerciale era 911 Carrera 2. Le versioni disponibili erano coupé, Targa e cabriolet. Anche le 964 Turbo (talvolta impropriamente indicate come 965) vennero aggiornate, prendendo i paraurti e gli interni delle Carrera 2/4. La potenza del motore 3,3 litri saliva a 320 CV. Lo stesso anno debuttò anche la Carrera 2 3.6 RS, alleggerita grazie ad un allestimento semplificato e potenziata a 260 CV. Nel 1987 per la prima volta venne proposta la 911 Turbo Cabriolet, e nel 1993 arrivarono la Carrera 2 Speedster e la Carrera 2 3.8 RS (con motore di 3,8 litri da 300 CV). La cilindrata della Turbo venne accresciuta a 3,6 litri con un conseguente aumento della potenza massima a 360 CV. I fari anteriori più inclinati ed il diverso taglio dei gruppi ottici posteriori costrinsero la Porsche a ridisegnare i parafanghi anteriori e alcune lamiere posteriori. Nuovi anche i paraurti e parte degli interni. Rilevanti anche le novità tecniche: nuova sospensione posteriore, denominata "LSA", acronimo che sta per "leggero, stabile, agile" (con traliccio che ingabbiava il motore) e 6 cilindri boxer con condotti di aspirazione a lunghezza variabile "Variocam" introdotta dal Model Year 1996 con conseguente aumento della potenza a 286 CV. Ulteriore novità tecnica fu l'adozione, per la prima volta su un'auto di serie, del fondo piatto, soluzione che migliorò l'aerodinamica e la stabilità della vettura.
La nuova sospensione garantiva un'eccellente tenuta di strada anche al cospetto dei 272 CV erogati dal 6 cilindri di 3,6 litri. Nuova anche la trazione integrale della Carrera 4. Sia le Carrera (a 2 ruote motrici) che le Carrera 4 erano disponibili in versione coupé o cabriolet. La versione Targa non venne inizialmente prodotta. La 911 Turbo della serie 993 venne potenziata con trazione integrale e sovralimentazione con 2 turbocompressori più intercooler, per un totale di 408 CV. Nel 1995, con il Model Year 1996, venne riproposta una versione denominata Targa: si trattava di una Carrera 2 con tetto apribile panoramico in cristallo azionato elettronicamente. Lo stesso anno vennero lanciate le Carrera S e Carrera 4 S, con carrozzeria "Turbo look". Nel 1996 entrarono in gamma la RS (motore di 3,8 litri da 300 CV, trazione posteriore e carrozzeria alleggerita di 100 kg) e la Turbo GT2 (trazione posteriore e motore biturbo da 450 CV). La serie delle 911 con motore raffreddato ad aria si chiuse nel 1997. Bisognava progettare un modello completamente nuovo, ma che mantenesse l'identità estetica e meccanica (motore 6 cilindri boxer posteriore a sbalzo) della 911, evitando gli errori commessi con le varie Porsche 944 e Porsche 968: evolute tecnicamente, ma fallimenti commerciali. Fu così che alla fine del 1997 nacque la 911 serie 996. Un modello completamente nuovo, sia tecnicamente che esteticamente, ma indubbiamente legato alla tradizione, in pratica una riedizione dei modelli tradizionali. Dal punto di vista tecnico le novità riguardarono soprattutto le sospensioni anteriori (comuni alla Porsche Boxster) a quadrilateri ed il motore, sempre sei cilindri boxer, ma con raffreddamento ad acqua e testata a 4 valvole per cilindro. Posteriormente venne riproposta una riedizione della sofisticata sospensione posteriore "LSA". L'ESP integrava il lavoro delle sospensioni ed erano disponibili due tipi di trazione: posteriore o integrale permanente a gestione elettronica.
Grazie alla distribuzione a 24 valvole con fasatura variabile il boxer, nonostante la cilindrata ridotta a 3387 cm³, era in grado di fornire 296 CV. Anche gli interni erano completamente nuovi. La gamma era composta dalle versioni coupé e cabriolet alle quali s'aggiunse successivamente la versione Targa con tetto in cristallo, come sulla 993. Nel 1999 arrivò la GT3, con motore aspirato di 3,6 litri da 360 CV e carrozzeria alleggerita.
Nel 2000 entrò in produzione la 911 Turbo con motore biturbo (420 CV) e trazione integrale che spinge la vettura da 0 a 100 km/h in soli 4,2 secondi. La carrozzeria, inizialmente solo coupé poi anche in versione cabrio, venne allargata rispetto alle "normali", ma era meno estrema rispetto alle edizioni precedenti. Nel frontale debuttarono fari diversi che anticiparono il restyling su tutta la gamma, e sono state introdotte due grosse prese d'aria laterali e feritoie sul paraurti posteriore più alettone (sdoppiato superati i 120 km/h) che ne aumentarono l'aggressività rispetto alla 911 standard, oltre che le prestazioni aerodinamiche. Nel 2002 è stato inoltre rilasciato il modello potenziato "Turbo S", una versione elaborata della 996 turbo che spinge il motore da 420 cv a 450 cv limando il 0-100 a 4,1 secondi, grazie alla rimappatura della centralina, e all'impiego di turbocompressori di maggiori dimensioni. Il tutto firmato Porsche. La carrozzeria è rimasta invariata, ad eccezione della S posteriore affiancata alla scritta turbo. Per i già possessori del turbo standard, la casa produttrice di Stoccarda ha rilasciato anche il KIT S, per poter rimanere al passo senza che i più esigenti abbiano dovuto rivendere il veicolo appositamente per avere la S. Infine, sempre nel 2002 venne lanciata la versione GT2, derivata dalla Turbo, ma potenziata a 462 CV, alleggerita e convertita in trazione posteriore. Quest'auto, particolarmente nervosa ed impegnativa da guidare, era priva di qualsiasi controllo di trazione e stabilità, proprio in nome della filosofia racing che Porsche adotta per le proprie versioni GT. Nel 2004 la GT2 venne leggermente aggiornata nella versione cosiddetta "Mark2", potenziata a 483 CV e modificata in alcuni particolari. Nel 2005 un restyling di fari anteriori, paraurti e interni ha dato vita alla serie 997. Rispetto alla precedente 996, la nuova versione oltre al ritorno dei fari anteriori circolari (oblunghi sulla serie precedente), riportava alcune novità tecniche, soprattutto riguardanti il motore con cilindrata di 3600 cm³ (325 CV) per le 911 Carrera standard e di 3800 cm³ (355 CV) per le 911 Carrera S.
Venne mantenuta disponibile la trazione integrale accanto a quella posteriore, sia per le versioni standard che S. Tutte sono disponibili con carrozzeria coupé, Targa o cabriolet. Nel 2006 hanno debuttato le versioni Turbo (3,6 litri biturbo, trazione integrale, turbine a geometria variabile e 480 CV), GT3 (3,6 litri aspirata da 415 CV), GT3 RS (con la stessa meccanica della GT3 standard, carrozzeria alleggerita e assetto ancora più esasperato) e Carrera 4 Targa (con tetto panoramico in cristallo ad azionamento elettrico e trazione integrale). Alla fine dell'autunno 2006 viene proposta la 911 997 Targa. Nella primavera del 2009 la Porsche annuncia una versione commemorativa che si chiama Sport Classic e si rifà alle 911 classiche: in primis la 2.7 Carrera RS, di cui riprende l'alettone a coda d'anatra e i cerchi "Fuchs style" da 19". La meccanica è quella della Carrera S potenziata a 408 CV, il tetto ha la doppia gobba; ne verranno prodotti solo 250 esemplari.Nel 2010 viene lanciata la GT2 RS: in pratica un'auto da corsa targata. L'abitacolo presenta un roll-bar, e il motore è biturbo con 620 CV, scaricati solo sull'assale posteriore: la più potente Porsche omologata per circolare per strada. Inoltre è stata creata la versione Speedster della 997: a livello meccanico e stilistico è uguale alla Sport Classic, la differenza è naturalmente il tetto ripiegabile nella calotta aerodinamica in plastica. Ne verranno prodotti solo 365 esemplari.
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The orangutans (also spelled orang-utan, orangutang, or orang-utang) are the two exclusively Asian species of extant great apes. Native to Indonesia and Malaysia, orangutans are currently found in only the rainforests of Borneo and Sumatra. Classified in the genus Pongo, orangutans were considered to be one species. Since 1996, they have been divided into two species: the Bornean orangutan (P. pygmaeus) and the Sumatran orangutan (P. abelii). In addition, the Bornean species is divided into three subspecies.
Based on genome sequencing, the two extant orangutan species evidently diverged around 400,000 years ago. The orangutans are also the only surviving species of the subfamily Ponginae, which also included several other species, such as the three extinct species of the genus Gigantopithecus, including the largest known primate Gigantopithecus blacki. The ancestors of the Ponginae subfamily split from the main ape line in Africa 16 to 19 million years ago (mya) and spread into Asia.
Orangutans are the most arboreal of the great apes and spend most of their time in trees. Their hair is typically reddish-brown, instead of the brown or black hair typical of chimpanzees and gorillas. Males and females differ in size and appearance. Dominant adult males have distinctive cheek pads and produce long calls that attract females and intimidate rivals. Younger males do not have these characteristics and resemble adult females. Orangutans are the most solitary of the great apes, with social bonds occurring primarily between mothers and their dependent offspring, who stay together for the first two years. Fruit is the most important component of an orangutan's diet; however, the apes will also eat vegetation, bark, honey, insects and even bird eggs. They can live over 30 years in both the wild and captivity.
Orangutans are among the most intelligent primates; they use a variety of sophisticated tools and construct elaborate sleeping nests each night from branches and foliage. The apes have been extensively studied for their learning abilities. There may even be distinctive cultures within populations. Field studies of the apes were pioneered by primatologist Birutė Galdikas. Both orangutan species are considered to be endangered, with the Sumatran orangutan being critically endangered. Human activities have caused severe declines in the populations and ranges of both species. Threats to wild orangutan populations include poaching, habitat destruction, and the illegal pet trade. Several conservation and rehabilitation organisations are dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild.
ETYMOLOGY
The name "orangutan" (also written orang-utan, orang utan, orangutang, and ourang-outang) is derived from the Malay and Indonesian words orang meaning "person" and hutan meaning "forest", thus "person of the forest". Orang Hutan was originally not used to refer to apes, but to forest-dwelling humans.
The Malay words used to refer specifically to the ape are maias and mawas, but it is unclear if those words refer to just orangutans, or to all apes in general. The first attestation of the word to name the Asian ape is in Dutch physician Jacobus Bontius' 1631 Historiae naturalis et medicae Indiae orientalis – he reported that Malays had informed him the ape was able to talk, but preferred not to "lest he be compelled to labour". The word appeared in several German-language descriptions of Indonesian zoology in the 17th century. The likely origin of the word comes specifically from the Banjarese variety of Malay.
Cribb et al. (2014) suggest that Bontius' account referred not to apes (which were not known from Java) but rather to humans suffering some serious medical condition (most likely endemic cretinism) and that his use of the word was misunderstood by Nicolaes Tulp, who was the first to use the term in a publication.
The word was first attested in English in 1691 in the form orang-outang, and variants with -ng instead of -n as in the Malay original are found in many languages. This spelling (and pronunciation) has remained in use in English up to the present, but has come to be regarded as incorrect. The loss of "h" in Utan and the shift from n to -ng has been taken to suggest that the term entered English through Portuguese. In 1869, British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, co-creator of modern evolutionary theory, published his account of Malaysia's wildlife: The Malay Archipelago: The Land of the Orang-Utan and the Bird of Paradise.
The name of the genus, Pongo, comes from a 16th-century account by Andrew Battell, an English sailor held prisoner by the Portuguese in Angola, which describes two anthropoid "monsters" named Pongo and Engeco. He is now believed to have been describing gorillas, but in the 18th century, the terms orangutan and pongo were used for all great apes. Lacépède used the term Pongo for the genus following the German botanist Friedrich von Wurmb who sent a skeleton from the Indies to Europe.
TAXONOMY, PHYLOGENY AND GENETICS
The two orangutan species are the only extant members of the subfamily Ponginae. This subfamily also included the extinct genera Lufengpithecus, which lived in southern China and Thailand 2–8 mya, and Sivapithecus, which lived India and Pakistan from 12.5 mya until 8.5 mya. These apes likely lived in drier and cooler environments than orangutans do today. Khoratpithecus piriyai, which lived in Thailand 5–7 mya, is believed to have been the closest known relative of the orangutans. The largest known primate, Gigantopithecus, was also a member of Ponginae and lived in China, India and Vietnam from 5 mya to 100,000 years ago.
Within apes (superfamily Hominoidea), the gibbons diverged during the early Miocene (between 19.7 and 24.1 mya, according to molecular evidence) and the orangutans split from the African great ape lineage between 15.7 and 19.3 mya.
HISTORY OF ORANGUTAN TAXONOMY
The orangutan was first described scientifically in the Systema Naturae of Linnaeus as Simia satyrus. The populations on the two islands were classified as subspecies until 1996, when they were elevated to full species status, and the three distinct populations on Borneo were elevated to subspecies. The population currently listed as P. p. wurmbii may be closer to the Sumatran orangutan than the other Bornean orangutan subspecies. If confirmed, abelii would be a subspecies of P. wurmbii (Tiedeman, 1808).
Regardless, the type locality of P. pygmaeus has not been established beyond doubts, and may be from the population currently listed as P. wurmbii (in which case P. wurmbii would be a junior synonym of P. pygmaeus, while one of the names currently considered a junior synonym of P. pygmaeus would take precedence for the northwest Bornean taxon). To further confuse, the name P. morio, as well as some suggested junior synonyms, may be junior synonyms of the P. pygmaeus subspecies, thus leaving the east Bornean populations unnamed.
In addition, some fossils described under the name P. hooijeri have been found in Vietnam, and multiple fossil subspecies have been described from several parts of southeastern Asia. It is unclear if these belong to P. pygmaeus or
P. abelii or, in fact, represent distinct species.
GENOMICS
The Sumatran orangutan genome was sequenced in January 2011. Following humans and chimpanzees, the Sumatran orangutan has become the third species of hominid to have its genome sequenced. Subsequently, the Bornean species would have its genome sequenced. Genetic diversity was found to be lower in Bornean orangutans (P. pygmaeus) than in Sumatran ones (P. abelii), despite the fact that Borneo is home to six or seven times as many orangutans as Sumatra.
The comparison has shown these two species diverged around 400,000 years ago, more recently than was previously thought. Also, the orangutan genome was found to have evolved much more slowly than chimpanzee and human DNA. Previously, the species was estimated to have diverged 2.9 to 4.9 mya. The researchers hope these data may help conservationists save the endangered ape, and also prove useful in further understanding of human genetic diseases.
Bornean orangutans have 48 diploid chromosomes.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
An orangutan has a large, bulky body, a thick neck, very long, strong arms, short, bowed legs, and no tail. It is mostly covered with long, reddish-brown hair and grey-black skin. Sumatran orangutans have more sparse and lighter-coloured coats. The orangutan has a large head with a prominent mouth area. Though largely hairless, their faces can develop some hair in males, giving them a moustache.
Adult males have large cheek flaps to show their dominance to other males. The cheek flaps are made mostly of fatty tissue and are supported by the musculature of the face. Mature males' throat pouches allow them to make loud calls. The species display significant sexual dimorphism; females typically stand 115 cm tall and weigh around 37 kg, while flanged adult males stand 136 cm tall and weigh 75 kg. A male orangutan has an arm span of about 2 m.
Orangutan hands are similar to human hands; they have four long fingers and an opposable thumb. However, the joint and tendon arrangement in the orangutans' hands produces two adaptations that are significant for arboreal locomotion. The resting configuration of the fingers is curved, creating a suspensory hook grip. Additionally, without the use of the thumb, the fingers and hands can grip tightly around objects with a small diameter by resting the tops of the fingers against the inside of the palm, creating a double-locked grip.
Their feet have four long toes and an opposable big toe. Orangutans can grasp things with both their hands and their feet. Their fingers and toes are curved, allowing them to get a better grip on branches. Since their hip joints have the same flexibility as their shoulder and arm joints, orangutans have less restriction in the movements of their legs than humans have. Unlike gorillas and chimpanzees, orangutans are not true knuckle-walkers, and are instead fist-walkers.
ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR
Orangutans live in primary and old secondary forests, particularly dipterocarp forests and peat swamp forests. Both species can be found in mountainous and lowland swampy areas. Sumatran orangutans live at elevations as high as 1500 m, while Bornean orangutans live no higher than 1000 m. Other habitats used by orangutans include grasslands, cultivated fields, gardens, young secondary forest, and shallow lakes. Orangutans are the most arboreal of the great apes, spending nearly all their time in the trees.Most of the day is spent feeding, resting, and travelling. They start the day feeding for 2–3 hours in the morning. They rest during midday then travel in the late afternoon. When evening arrives, they begin to prepare their nests for the night. Orangutans do not swim, although they have been recorded wading in water. The main predators of orangutans are tigers. Other predators include clouded leopards, wild dogs and crocodiles. The absence of tigers on Borneo may explain why Bornean orangutans can be found on the ground more often than their Sumatran relatives.
DIET
Orangutans are opportunistic foragers, and their diets vary markedly from month to month. Fruit makes up 65–90% of the orangutan diet, and those with sugary or fatty pulp are favoured. Ficus fruits are commonly eaten and are easy to harvest and digest. Lowland dipterocarp forests are preferred by orangutans because of their plentiful fruit. Bornean orangutans consume at least 317 different food items that include young leaves, shoots, bark, insects, honey and bird eggs.
A decade-long study of urine and faecal samples at the Gunung Palung Orangutan Conservation Project in West Kalimantan has shown that orangutans give birth during and after the high fruit season (though not every year), during which they consume various abundant fruits, totalling up to 11,000 calories per day. In the low-fruit season, they eat whatever fruit is available in addition to tree bark and leaves, with daily intake at only 2,000 calories. Together with a long lactation period, orangutans also have a long birth interval.
Orangutans are thought to be the sole fruit disperser for some plant species including the climber species Strychnos ignatii which contains the toxic alkaloid strychnine. It does not appear to have any effect on orangutans except for excessive saliva production.
Geophagy, the practice of eating soil or rock, has been observed in orangutans. There are three main reasons for this dietary behaviour: for the addition of mineral nutrients to their diet; for the ingestion of clay minerals that can absorb toxic substances; or to treat a disorder such as diarrhoea. Orangutans also use plants of the genus Commelina as an anti-inflammatory balm.
SOCIAL LIFE
Orangutans live a more solitary lifestyle than the other great apes. Most social bonds occur between adult females and their dependent and weaned offspring. Adult males and independent adolescents of both sexes tend to live alone. Orangutan societies are made up of resident and transient individuals of both sexes. Resident females live with their offspring in defined home ranges that overlap with those of other adult females, which may be their immediate relatives. One to several resident female home ranges are encompassed within the home range of a resident male, who is their main mating partner.
Transient males and females move widely. Orangutans usually travel alone, but they may travel in small groups in their subadult years. However, this behaviour ends at adulthood. The social structure of the orangutan can be best described as solitary but social. Interactions between adult females range from friendly to avoidance to antagonistic. Resident males may have overlapping ranges and interactions between them tend to be hostile.
During dispersal, females tend to settle in home ranges that overlap with their mothers. However, they do not seem to have any special social bonds with them. Males disperse much farther from their mothers and enter into a transient phase. This phase lasts until a male can challenge and displace a dominant, resident male from his home range. Adult males dominate sub-adult males.
Both resident and transient orangutans aggregate on large fruiting trees to feed. The fruits tend to be abundant, so competition is low and individuals may engage in social interactions. Orangutans will also form travelling groups with members moving between different food sources. These groups tend to be made of only a few individuals. They also tend to be consortships between an adult male and female.
COMMUNICATION
Orangutans communicate with various sounds. Males will make long calls, both to attract females and advertise themselves to other males. Both sexes will try to intimidate conspecifics with a series of low guttural noises known collectively as the "rolling call". When annoyed, an orangutan will suck in air through pursed lips, making a kissing sound that is hence known as the "kiss squeak". Infants make soft hoots when distressed. Orangutans are also known to blow raspberries.
NESTING
Orangutans build nests specialized for both day or night use. These are carefully constructed; young orangutans learn from observing their mother's nest-building behaviour. In fact, nest-building is a leading cause in young orangutans leaving their mother for the first time. From six months of age onwards, orangutans practice nest-building and gain proficiency by the time they are three years old.
Construction of a night nest is done by following a sequence of steps. Initially, a suitable tree is located, orangutans being selective about sites though many tree species are used. The nest is then built by pulling together branches under them and joining them at a point. After the foundation has been built, the orangutan bends smaller, leafy branches onto the foundation; this serves the purpose of and is termed the "mattress". After this, orangutans stand and braid the tips of branches into the mattress. Doing this increases the stability of the nest and forms the final act of nest-building. In addition, orangutans may add additional features, such as "pillows", "blankets", "roofs" and "bunk-beds" to their nests.
REPRODUCTION AND PARENTING
Males mature at around 15 years of age, by which time they have fully descended testicles and can reproduce. However, they exhibit arrested development by not developing the distinctive cheek pads, pronounced throat pouches, long fur, or long-calls until they are between 15 and 20 years old. The development of these characteristics depends largely on the absence of a resident male.
Males without them are known as unflanged males in contrast to the more developed flanged males. The transformation from unflanged to flanged can occur very quickly. Unflanged and flanged males have two different mating strategies. Flanged males attract oestrous females with their characteristic long calls. Those calls may also suppress development in younger males. Unflanged males wander widely in search of oestrous females and upon finding one, will force copulation on her. While both strategies are successful, females prefer to mate with flanged males and seek their company for protection against unflanged males. Resident males may form consortships with females that can last days, weeks or months after copulation.
Female orangutans experience their first ovulatory cycle around 5.8–11.1 years. These occur earlier in females with more body fat. Like other great apes, female orangutans enter a period of infertility during adolescence which may last for 1–4 years. Female orangutans also have a 22– to 30-day menstrual cycle. Gestation lasts for 9 months, with females giving birth to their first offspring between the ages of 14 and 15 years.
Female orangutans have eight-year intervals between births, the longest interbirth intervals among the great apes. Unlike many other primates, male orangutans do not seem to practice infanticide. This may be because they cannot ensure they will sire a female's next offspring because she does not immediately begin ovulating again after her infant dies.
Male orangutans play almost no role in raising the young. Females do most of the caring and socializing of the young. A female often has an older offspring with her to help in socializing the infant. Infant orangutans are completely dependent on their mothers for the first two years of their lives. The mother will carry the infant during travelling, as well as feed it and sleep with it in the same night nest. For the first four months, the infant is carried on its belly and never relieves physical contact. In the following months, the time an infant spends with its mother decreases.
When an orangutan reaches the age of two, its climbing skills improve and it will travel through the canopy holding hands with other orangutans, a behaviour known as "buddy travel". Orangutans are juveniles from about two to five years of age and will start to temporarily move away from their mothers. Juveniles are usually weaned at about four years of age. Adolescent orangutans will socialize with their peers while still having contact with their mothers. Typically, orangutans live over 30 years in both the wild and captivity.
INTELLIGENCE
Orangutans are among the most intelligent primates. Experiments suggest they can figure out some invisible displacement problems with a representational strategy. In addition, Zoo Atlanta has a touch-screen computer where their two Sumatran orangutans play games. Scientists hope the data they collect will help researchers learn about socialising patterns, such as whether the apes learn behaviours through trial and error or by mimicry, and point to new conservation strategies.
A 2008 study of two orangutans at the Leipzig Zoo showed orangutans can use "calculated reciprocity", which involves weighing the costs and benefits of gift exchanges and keeping track of these over time. Orangutans are the first nonhuman species documented to do so. Orangutans are very technically adept nest builders, making a new nest each evening in only in 5 to 6 minutes and choosing branches which they know can support their body weight.
TOOL USE AND CULTURE
Tool use in orangutans was observed by primatologist Birutė Galdikas in ex-captive populations. In addition, evidence of sophisticated tool manufacture and use in the wild was reported from a population of orangutans in Suaq Balimbing (Pongo abelii) in 1996. These orangutans developed a tool kit for use in foraging that consisted of both insect-extraction tools for use in the hollows of trees and seed-extraction tools for harvesting seeds from hard-husked fruit. The orangutans adjusted their tools according to the nature of the task at hand, and preference was given to oral tool use. This preference was also found in an experimental study of captive orangutans (P. pygmaeus).
Primatologist Carel P. van Schaik and biological anthropologist Cheryl D. Knott further investigated tool use in different wild orangutan populations. They compared geographic variations in tool use related to the processing of Neesia fruit. The orangutans of Suaq Balimbing (P. abelii) were found to be avid users of insect and seed-extraction tools when compared to other wild orangutans. The scientists suggested these differences are cultural. The orangutans at Suaq Balimbing live in dense groups and are socially tolerant; this creates good conditions for social transmission. Further evidence that highly social orangutans are more likely to exhibit cultural behaviours came from a study of leaf-carrying behaviours of ex-captive orangutans that were being rehabilitated on the island of Kaja in Borneo.
Wild orangutans (P. pygmaeus wurmbii) in Tuanan, Borneo, were reported to use tools in acoustic communication. They use leaves to amplify the kiss squeak sounds they produce. The apes may employ this method of amplification to deceive the listener into believing they are larger animals.
In 2003, researchers from six different orangutan field sites who used the same behavioural coding scheme compared the behaviours of the animals from the different sites. They found the different orangutan populations behaved differently. The evidence suggested the differences were cultural: first, the extent of the differences increased with distance, suggesting cultural diffusion was occurring, and second, the size of the orangutans' cultural repertoire increased according to the amount of social contact present within the group. Social contact facilitates cultural transmission.
POSSIBLE LINGUISTIC CAPABILITIES
A study of orangutan symbolic capability was conducted from 1973 to 1975 by zoologist Gary L. Shapiro with Aazk, a juvenile female orangutan at the Fresno City Zoo (now Chaffee Zoo) in Fresno, California. The study employed the techniques of psychologist David Premack, who used plastic tokens to teach linguistic skills to the chimpanzee, Sarah. Shapiro continued to examine the linguistic and learning abilities of ex-captive orangutans in Tanjung Puting National Park, in Indonesian Borneo, between 1978 and 1980.
During that time, Shapiro instructed ex-captive orangutans in the acquisition and use of signs following the techniques of psychologists R. Allen Gardner and Beatrix Gardner, who taught the chimpanzee, Washoe, in the late 1960s. In the only signing study ever conducted in a great ape's natural environment, Shapiro home-reared Princess, a juvenile female, which learned nearly 40 signs (according to the criteria of sign acquisition used by psychologist Francine Patterson with Koko, the gorilla) and trained Rinnie, a free-ranging adult female orangutan, which learned nearly 30 signs over a two-year period. For his dissertation study, Shapiro examined the factors influencing sign learning by four juvenile orangutans over a 15-month period.
ORANGUTANS AND HUMANS
Orangutans were known to the native people of Sumatra and Borneo for millennia. While some communities hunted them for food and decoration, others placed taboos on such practices. In central Borneo, some traditional folk beliefs consider it bad luck to look in the face of an orangutan. Some folk tales involve orangutans mating with and kidnapping humans. There are even stories of hunters being seduced by female orangutans.
Europeans became aware of the existence of the orangutan possibly as early as the 17th century. European explorers in Borneo hunted them extensively during the 19th century. The first accurate description of orangutans was given by Dutch anatomist Petrus Camper, who observed the animals and dissected some specimens.
Little was known about their behaviour until the field studies of Birutė Galdikas, who became a leading authority on the apes. When she arrived in Borneo, Galdikas settled into a primitive bark and thatch hut, at a site she dubbed Camp Leakey, near the edge of the Java Sea. Despite numerous hardships, she remained there for over 30 years and became an outspoken advocate for orangutans and the preservation of their rainforest habitat, which is rapidly being devastated by loggers, palm oil plantations, gold miners, and unnatural forest fires.
Galdikas's conservation efforts have extended well beyond advocacy, largely focusing on rehabilitation of the many orphaned orangutans turned over to her for care. Galdikas is considered to be one of Leakey's Angels, along with Jane Goodall and Dian Fossey. According to the World Wildlife Fund, half of the habitat of the Bornean orangutan has been lost since 1994.
A persistent folktale on Sumatra and Borneo and in popular culture, is that male orangutans display sexual attraction to human women, and may even forcibly copulate with them. The only serious, but anecdotal, report of such an incident taking place, is primatologist Birutė Galdikas' report that her cook was sexually assaulted by a male orangutan. This orangutan, though, was raised in captivity and may have suffered from a skewed species identity, and forced copulation is a standard mating strategy for low-ranking male orangutans.
A female orangutan was rescued from a village brothel in Kareng Pangi village, Central Kalimantan, in 2003. The orangutan was shaved and chained for sexual purposes. Since being freed, the orangutan, named Pony, has been living with the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation. She has been re-socialised to live with other orang-utans.
LEGAL STATUS
In December 2014, Argentina became the first country to recognize a non-human primate as having legal rights when it ruled that an orangutan named Sandra at the Buenos Aires Zoo must be moved to a sanctuary in Brazil in order to provide her "partial or controlled freedom". Although animal rights groups interpreted the ruling as applicable to all species in captivity, legal specialists considered the ruling only applicable to hominid apes due to their genetic similarities to humans.
CONSERVATION
CONSERVATION STATUS
The Sumatran and Bornean species are both critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals, and both are listed on Appendix I of CITES.
The Bornean orangutan population declined by 60% in the past 60 years and is projected to decline by 82% over 75 years. Its range has become patchy throughout Borneo, being largely extirpated from various parts of the island, including the southeast. The largest remaining population is found in the forest around the Sabangau River, but this environment is at risk.
Sumatran orangutan populations declined by 80% in 75 years. This species is now found only in the northern part of Sumatra, with most of the population inhabiting the Leuser Ecosystem. In late March 2012, some of the last Sumatran orangutans in northern Sumatra were reported to be threatened with approaching forest fires and might be wiped out entirely within a matter of weeks.
Estimates between 2000 and 2003 found 7,300 Sumatran orangutans and between 45,000 and 69,000 Bornean orangutans remain in the wild. A 2007 study by the Government of Indonesia noted a total wild population of 61,234 orangutans, 54,567 of which were found on the island of Borneo in 2004.
During the early 2000s, orangutan habitat has decreased rapidly due to logging and forest fires, as well as fragmentation by roads. A major factor in that period of time has been the conversion of vast areas of tropical forest to palm oil plantations in response to international demand. Palm oil is used for cooking, cosmetics, mechanics, and biodiesel. Hunting is also a major problem as is the illegal pet trade.
Orangutans may be killed for the bushmeat trade, crop protection, or for use for traditional medicine. Orangutan bones are secretly traded in souvenir shops in several cities in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Mother orangutans are killed so their infants can be sold as pets, and many of these infants die without the help of their mother. Since 2004, several pet orangutans were confiscated by local authorities and sent to rehabilitation centres.
CONSERVATION CENTRES AND ORGANISATIONS
A number of organisations are working for the rescue, rehabilitation and reintroduction of orangutans. The largest of these is the Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation, founded by conservationist Willie Smits. It is audited by a multinational auditor company and operates a number of large projects, such as the Nyaru Menteng Rehabilitation Program founded by conservationist Lone Drøscher Nielsen.
Other major conservation centres in Indonesia include those at Tanjung Puting National Park and Sebangau National Park in Central Kalimantan, Kutai in East Kalimantan, Gunung Palung National Park in West Kalimantan, and Bukit Lawang in the Gunung Leuser National Park on the border of Aceh and North Sumatra. In Malaysia, conservation areas include Semenggoh Wildlife Centre in Sarawak and Matang Wildlife Centre also in Sarawak, and the Sepilok Orang Utan Sanctuary near Sandakan in Sabah. Major conservation centres that are headquartered outside of the orangutan's home countries; include Frankfurt Zoological Society, Orangutan Foundation International, which was founded by Birutė Galdikas, and the Australian Orangutan Project.
Conservation organisations such as Orangutan Land Trust work with the palm oil industry to improve sustainability and encourages the industry to establish conservation areas for orangutans. It works to bring different stakeholders together to achieve conservation of the species and its habitat.
WIKIPEDIA
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Here are the main sections of the Banshee. When transporting this for shows, this is probably how I'll do it - otherwise it'll just get banged up and pieces will go everywhere.
Recording the 4th of my Norah Jones MiniDiscs, I haven't bought her new "....featuring" album yet. My stack of black components has had a changeover again, this time the Pioneer MJ-D707 MiniDisc deck has been "retired" in favour of the Sony TC-KC820S cassette deck, joining the 3 other Sony QS items.
The Khajuraho Group of Monuments is a group of Hindu and Jain temples in Madhya Pradesh, India, about 175 kilometres southeast of Jhansi. They are one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India. The temples are famous for their nagara-style architectural symbolism and their erotic sculptures.
Most Khajuraho temples were built between 950 and 1050 by the Chandela dynasty. Historical records note that the Khajuraho temple site had 85 temples by 12th century, spread over 20 square kilometers. Of these, only about 20 temples have survived, spread over 6 square kilometers. Of the various surviving temples, the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple is decorated with a profusion of sculptures with intricate details, symbolism and expressiveness of ancient Indian art.
The Khajuraho group of temples were built together but were dedicated to two religions - namely Hinduism and Jainism - suggesting a tradition of acceptance and respect for diverse religious views among Hindus and Jains.
LOCATION
Khajuraho group of monuments are located in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, in Chhatarpur district, about 620 kilometres southeast of New Delhi. The temples are in a small town also known as Khajuraho, with a population of about 20,000 people (2001 Census).
Khajuraho is served by Civil Aerodrome Khajuraho (IATA Code: HJR), with services to Delhi, Agra, Varanasi and Mumbai. The site is also linked by Indian Railways service, with the railway station located approximately six kilometres from the monuments entrance.
The monuments are about 10 kilometres off the east-west National Highway 75, and about 50 kilometres from the city of Chhatarpur, that is connected to Bhopal - the state capital - by the SW-NE running National Highway 86.
HISTORY
The Khajuraho group of monuments was built during the rule of the Rajput Chandela dynasty. The building activity started almost immediately after the rise of their power, throughout their kingdom to be later known as Bundelkhand. Most temples were built during the reigns of the Hindu kings Yashovarman and Dhanga. Yashovarman's legacy is best exhibited by Lakshmana temple. Vishvanatha temple best highlights King Dhanga's reign. The largest and currently most famous surviving temple is Kandariya Mahadeva built in the reign of King Ganda from 1017-1029 CE. The temple inscriptions suggest many of the currently surviving temples were complete between 970 to 1030 CE, with further temples completed during the following decades.
The Khajuraho temples were built about 35 miles from the medieval city of Mahoba, the capital of the Chandela dynasty, in the Kalinjar region. In ancient and medieval literature, their kingdom has been referred to as Jijhoti, Jejahoti, Chih-chi-to and Jejakabhukti.
Khajuraho was mentioned by Abu Rihan-al-Biruni, the Persian historian who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni in his raid of Kalinjar in 1022 CE; he mentions Khajuraho as the capital of Jajahuti. The raid was unsuccessful, and a peace accord was reached when the Hindu king agreed to pay a ransom to Mahmud of Ghazni to end the attack and leave.
Khajuraho temples were in active use through the end of 12th century. This changed in the 13th century, after the army of Delhi Sultanate, under the command of the Muslim Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak, attacked and seized the Chandela kingdom. About a century later, Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller in his memoirs about his stay in India from 1335 to 1342 CE, mentioned visiting Khajuraho temples, calling them “Kajarra” as follows:
...near (Khajuraho) temples, which contain idols that have been mutilated by the Moslems, live a number of yogis whose matted locks have grown as long as their bodies. And on account of extreme asceticism they are all yellow in colour. Many Moslems attend these men in order to take lessons (yoga) from them.
— Ibn Battuta, about 1335 CE, Riḥlat Ibn Baṭūṭah, Translated by Arthur Cotterell
Central Indian region, where Khajuraho temples are, remained in the control of many different Muslim dynasties from 13th century through the 18th century. In this period, some temples were desecrated, followed by a long period when they were left in neglect. In 1495 CE, for example, Sikandar Lodi’s campaign of temple destruction included Khajuraho. The remoteness and isolation of Khajuraho protected the Hindu and Jain temples from continued destruction by Muslims. Over the centuries, vegetation and forests overgrew, took over the temples.
In the 1830s, local Hindus guided a British surveyor, T.S. Burt, to the temples and they were thus rediscovered by the global audience. Alexander Cunningham later reported, few years after the rediscovery, that the temples were secretly in use by yogis and thousands of Hindus would arrive for pilgrimage during Shivaratri celebrated annually in February or March based on a lunar calendar. In 1852, Maisey prepared earliest drawings of the Khajuraho temples.
NOMENCLATURE
The name Khajuraho, or Kharjuravāhaka, is derived from ancient Sanskrit (kharjura, खर्जूर means date palm, and vāhaka, वाहक means "one who carries" or bearer). Local legends state that the temples had two golden date-palm trees as their gate (missing when they were rediscovered). Desai states that Kharjuravāhaka also means scorpion bearer, which is another symbolic name for deity Shiva (who wears snakes and scorpion garlands in his fierce form).
Cunningham’s nomenclature and systematic documentation work in 1850s and 1860s have been widely adopted and continue to be in use. He grouped the temples into the Western group around Lakshmana, Eastern group around Javeri, and Southern group around Duladeva.
Khajuraho is one of the four holy sites linked to deity Shiva (the other three are Kedarnath, Kashi and Gaya). Its origin and design is a subject of scholarly studies. Shobita Punja has proposed that the temple’s origin reflect the Hindu mythology in which Khajuraho is the place where Shiva got married; with Raghuvamsha verse 5.53, Matangeshvara honoring ‘’Matanga’’, or god of love.
DESCRIPTION
The temple site is within Vindhya mountain range in central India. An ancient local legend held that Hindu deity Shiva and other gods enjoyed visiting the dramatic hill formation in Kalinjar area. The center of this region is Khajuraho, set midst local hills and rivers. The temple complex reflects the ancient Hindu tradition of building temples where gods love to play.
The temples are clustered near water, another typical feature of Hindu temples. The current water bodies include Sib Sagar, Khajur Sagar (also called Ninora Tal) and Khudar Nadi (river). The local legends state that the temple complex had 64 water bodies, of which 56 have been physically identified by archeologists so far.
All temples, except one (Chaturbhuja) face sunrise - another symbolic feature that is predominant in Hindu temples. The relative layout of temples integrate masculine and feminine deities and symbols highlight the interdependence. The art work symbolically highlight the four goals of life considered necessary and proper in Hinduism - dharma, kama, artha and moksha.
Of the surviving temples, 6 are dedicated to Shiva and his consorts, 8 to Vishnu and his affinities, 1 to Ganesha, 1 to Sun god, 3 to Jain Tirthanks. For some ruins, there is insufficient evidence to assign the temple to specific deities with confidence.
An overall examination of site suggests that the Hindu symbolic mandala design principle of square and circles is present each temple plan and design. Further, the territory is laid out in three triangles that converge to form a pentagon. Scholars suggest that this reflects the Hindu symbolism for three realms or trilokinatha, and five cosmic substances or panchbhuteshvara. The temple site highlights Shiva, the one who destroys and recycles life, thereby controlling the cosmic dance of time, evolution and dissolution. The temples have a rich display of intricately carved statues. While they are famous for their erotic sculpture, sexual themes cover less than 10% of the temple sculpture. Further, most erotic scene panels are neither prominent nor emphasized at the expense of the rest, rather they are in proportional balance with the non-sexual images. The viewer has to look closely to find them, or be directed by a guide. The arts cover numerous aspects of human life and values considered important in Hindu pantheon. Further, the images are arranged in a configuration to express central ideas of Hinduism. All three ideas from Āgamas are richly expressed in Khajuraho temples - Avyakta, Vyaktavyakta and Vyakta.
The Beejamandal temple is under excavation. It has been identified with the Vaidyanath temple mentioned in the Grahpati Kokalla inscription.
Of all temples, the Matangeshvara temple remains an active site of worship. It is another square grid temple, with a large 2.5 metres high and 1.1 metres diameter lingam, placed on a 7.6 metres diameter platform.
The most visited temple, Kandariya Mahadev, has an area of about 6,500 square feet and a shikhara (spire) that rises 116 feet. Jain templesThe Jain temples are located on east-southeast region of Khajuraho monuments. Chausath jogini temple features 64 jogini, while Ghantai temple features bells sculptured on its pillars.
ARCHITECTURE OF THE TEMPLES
Khajuraho temples, like almost all Hindu temple designs, follow a grid geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. This design plan has three important components - Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure.
The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, concentrically layered, self-repeating structure around the core of the temple called garbhagriya, where the abstract principle Purusha and the primary deity of the temple dwell. The shikhara, or spire, of the temple rises above the garbhagriya. This symmetry and structure in design is derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.
The circle of mandala circumscribe the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect 64 sub-squares called padas.
Most Khajuraho temples deploy the 8x8 padas grid Manduka Vastupurushamandala, with pitha mandala the square grid incorporated in the design of the spires. The primary deity or lingas are located in the grid’s Brahma padas.
The architecture is symbolic and reflects the central Hindu beliefs through its form, structure and arrangement of its parts. The mandapas as well as the arts are arranged in the Khajuraho temples in a symmetric repeating patterns, even though each image or sculpture is distinctive in its own way. The relative placement of the images are not random but together they express ideas, just like connected words form sentences and paragraphs to compose ideas. This fractal pattern that is common in Hindu temples. Various statues and panels have inscriptions. Many of the inscriptions on the temple walls are poems with double meanings, something that the complex structure of Sanskrit allows in creative compositions. All Khajuraho temples, except one, face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is this east side.Above the vastu-purusha-mandala of each temple is a superstructure with a dome called Shikhara (or Vimana, Spire). Variations in spire design come from variation in degrees turned for the squares. The temple Shikhara, in some literature, is linked to mount Kailash or Meru, the mythical abode of the gods.In each temple, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the pilgrim to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa and the main deity. The pillars, walls and ceilings around the space, as well as outside have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life - kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This clockwise walk around is called pradakshina. Larger Khajuraho temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One near the entrance, on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapas are also arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. This use of same underlying architectural principle is common in Hindu temples found all over India. Each Khajuraho temple is distinctly carved yet also repeating the central common principles in almost all Hindu temples, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an organism of repeating cells”.
CONSTRUCTION
The temples are grouped into three geographical divisions: western, eastern and southern.
The Khajuraho temples are made of sandstone, with a granite foundation that is almost concealed from view. The builders didn't use mortar: the stones were put together with mortise and tenon joints and they were held in place by gravity. This form of construction requires very precise joints. The columns and architraves were built with megaliths that weighed up to 20 tons. Some repair work in the 19th Century was done with brick and mortar; however these have aged faster than original materials and darkened with time, thereby seeming out of place.
The Khajuraho and Kalinjar region is home to superior quality of sandstone, which can be precision carved. The surviving sculpture reflect fine details such as strands of hair, manicured nails and intricate jewelry.
While recording the television show Lost Worlds (History Channel) at Khajuraho, Alex Evans recreated a stone sculpture under 4 feet that took about 60 days to carve in an attempt to develop a rough idea how much work must have been involved. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone. They concluded that these temples would have required hundreds of highly trained sculptors.
CHRONOLOGY
The Khajuraho group of temples belong to Vaishnavism school of Hinduism, Saivism school of Hinduism and Jainism - nearly a third each. Archaeological studies suggest all three types of temples were under construction at about the same time in late 10th century, and in use simultaneously. Will Durant states that this aspect of Khajuraho temples illustrates the tolerance and respect for different religious viewpoints in the Hindu and Jain traditions. In each group of Khajuraho temples, there were major temples surrounded by smaller temples - a grid style that is observed to varying degrees in Hindu temples in Angkor Wat, Parambaran and South India.
The largest surviving Saiva temple is Khandarya Mahadeva, while the largest surviving Vaishnava group includes Chaturbhuja and Ramachandra.
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple plan is 109 ft in length by 60 ft, and rises 116 ft above ground and 88 ft above its own floor. The central padas are surrounded by three rows of sculptured figures, with over 870 statues, most being half life size (2.5 to 3 feet). The spire is a self repeating fractal structure.
ARTS AND SCULPTURE
The Khajuraho temples feature a variety of art work, of which 10% is sexual or erotic art outside and inside the temples. Some of the temples that have two layers of walls have small erotic carvings on the outside of the inner wall. Some scholars suggest these to be tantric sexual practices. Other scholars state that the erotic arts are part of Hindu tradition of treating kama as an essential and proper part of human life, and its symbolic or explicit display is common in Hindu temples. James McConnachie, in his history of the Kamasutra, describes the sexual-themed Khajuraho sculptures as "the apogee of erotic art": "Twisting, broad-hipped and high breasted nymphs display their generously contoured and bejewelled bodies on exquisitely worked exterior wall panels. These fleshy apsaras run riot across the surface of the stone, putting on make-up, washing their hair, playing games, dancing, and endlessly knotting and unknotting their girdles....Beside the heavenly nymphs are serried ranks of griffins, guardian deities and, most notoriously, extravagantly interlocked maithunas, or lovemaking couples."
The temples have several thousand statues and art works, with Kandarya Mahadeva Temple alone decorated with over 870. Some 10% of these iconographic carvings contain sexual themes and various sexual poses. A common misconception is that, since the old structures with carvings in Khajuraho are temples, the carvings depict sex between deities; however the kama arts represent diverse sexual expressions of different human beings. The vast majority of arts depict various aspects the everyday life, mythical stories as well as symbolic display of various secular and spiritual values important in Hindu tradition. For example, depictions show women putting on makeup, musicians making music, potters, farmers, and other folks in their daily life during the medieval era. These scenes are in the outer padas as is typical in Hindu temples.
There is iconographic symbolism embedded in the arts displayed in Khajuraho temples. Core Hindu values are expressed in multitude of ways. Even the Kama scenes, when seen in combination of sculptures that precede and follow, depict the spiritual themes such as moksha. In the words of Stella Kramrisch,
This state which is “like a man and woman in close embrace” is a symbol of moksa, final release or reunion of two principles, the essence (Purusha) and the nature (Prakriti).
— Stella Kramrisch, 1976
The Khajuraho temples represent one expression of many forms of arts that flourished in Rajput kingdoms of India from 8th through 10th century CE. For example, contemporary with Khajuraho were the publications of poems and drama such as Prabodhacandrodaya, Karpuramanjari, Viddhasalabhanjika and Kavyamimansa. Some of the themes expressed in these literary works are carved as sculpture in Khajuraho temples. Some sculptures at the Khajuraho monuments dedicated to Vishnu include the Vyalas, which are hybrid imaginary animals with lions body, and are found in other Indian temples. Some of these hybrid mythical art work include Vrik Vyala (hybrid of wolf and lion) and Gaja Vyala (hybrid of elephant and lion). These Vyalas may represent syncretic, creative combination of powers innate in the two.
TEMPLE NAME - DEITY - YEAR COMPLETED
Chausath Yogini - Devi, 64 Yoginis - 885
Brahma - Vishnu - 925
Lalgun Mahadev - Shiva - 900
Matangeshwar - Shiva - 1000
Varaha - Vishnu - 950
Lakshmana - Vaikuntha Vishnu - 939
Parshvanath - Parshvanath - 954
Visvanatha - Shiva - 999
Devi Jagadambi - Devi, Parvati - 1023
Chitragupta - Sun, Chitragupta - 1023
Kandariya Mahadeva - Shiva - 1029
Vamana - Vamana - 1062
Adinath Jain Temple - Rishabha - 1027
Javeri - Vishnu - 1090
Chaturbhuja - Vishnu - 1110
Duladeo (Duladeva) - Shiva - 1125
Ghantai - Jain Tirthankara - 960
Vishnu-Garuda - Vishnu - 1000
Ganesha - Shiva - 1000
Hanuman - Hanuman - 922
Mahishasuramardini - Devi - 995
This car was one of the entrants in the Cheshire Concours d'Esprit at the Gold Cup meeting at Oulton Park in August 2017. It's a 1937 Cord 812, and the information sheet in the windscreen of the car reads as follows:
YSU 476
1937 Cord 812
SUPERCHARGED
WESTCHESTER SEDAN
One of the most distinctive
Cars of the 20th Century
"The single most beautiful American Car" American Heritage Magazine 1996
The 810 Series was conceived by E L Cord as America's first front-wheel drive auto. The Cord 812 supercharged developed from the 810 as a US design classic, revered to this day.
• Lycoming V-8 engine. 125bhp 289 cu in (4739cc) L-Head
• 812 model offered optional Schwitzer-Cummins Supercharger for 170bhp-plus power and 110 mph top speed.
• Four speed Bendix semi-automatic pre-selector transmission (3 + Overdrive) with electric gear change.
• Supercharged cars sported brilliant chrome plated external exhaust pipes on each side of the bonnet.
• Independent front suspension. Rear semi-elliptical leaf spring suspension.
• Four wheel hydraulic drum brakes.
• The body by Gordon M Buehrig was a thing of beauty. It's blunt bonnet gave it the nickname 'coffin nose'.
Hinges were hidden, and the low bodyline meant running boards could be dropped. The Cord 810/812 set new standards for automotive design.
• Retractable hidden headlights, adapted from aircraft landing lights and raised/lowered by hand cranks.
• Comprehensive instrumentation in engine-turned dashboard included radio as standard.
This futuristic front-wheel-drive supercar was based on the revolutionary Cord 810.
The car's reception at the November 1935 New York Auto Show was enthusiastic, with onlookers standing on the roofs of other cars just to catch a glimpse of the 810, and orders poured in.
Alas, the advanced and complex design was slow and expensive to produce, and components (particularly the semi-automatic gearbox) proved troublesome. Warranty problems followed.
After an initial flurry of orders, teething troubles delayed deliveries. Cancellations followed, leading to financial problems and the cessation of production in late 1937.
Only 3000 Cord 810/812s were produced. Few survive today of this extraordinary cult classic.
YSU 476
• Built in 1937 in supercharged form. Chassis No 16775. Engine No FB2111
• Sporting the rare Westchester Sedan body.
• Imported from the USA and first registered in UK 1990. Owned by a private Cheshire gentleman.
• An occasional visitor to local Cheshire classic car events and displays, YSU 476 won Best Grand Tourer in the 2017 Gawsworth Hall Classic Concours.
Avaya Collaboration Pods are turnkey solutions that enable rapid deployment of Avaya real-time applications in private, hybrid and public clouds.
It's getting closer!
On Friday the 24th we will have a launch event for the bike from 5pm to 8pm
at the Cascade Barrel House. More info here www.shift2bikes.org/cal/viewpp2011.php#24-2357
Starting June 27th, 2011 you can rent the Beer bike! - www.metrofiets.com/rentals/
Universal Studios Florida is a theme park located in Orlando, Florida. Opened on June 7, 1990, the park's theme is the entertainment industry, in particular movies and television. Universal Studios Florida inspires its guests to "ride the movies", and it features numerous attractions and live shows. The park is one component of the larger Universal Orlando Resort.
In 2013, the park hosted an estimated 7.06 million guests, ranking it the eighth-most visited theme park in the United States, and ranking it sixteenth worldwide.[2]
Contents [hide]
1 History 1.1 Park history
1.2 Branding
1.3 Timeline
1.4 Previous attractions
2 Park design 2.1 Production Central
2.2 New York
2.3 San Francisco
2.4 London/Diagon Alley
2.5 World Expo
2.6 Woody Woodpecker's Kidzone
2.7 Hollywood
3 Character appearances
4 Production facilities
5 Annual events 5.1 Grad Bash and Gradventure
5.2 Halloween Horror Nights
5.3 Macy's Holiday Parade
5.4 Mardi Gras
5.5 Rock the Universe
5.6 Summer Concert Series
6 Universal's Express Pass
7 Attendance
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
History[edit]
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The original entrance to the theme park.
Over the years, Universal Studios Florida has not limited itself to attractions based on its own vast film library. It has occasionally licensed popular characters from other rival studios, many of whom did not operate theme parks themselves. Some examples include Ghostbusters and Men in Black, (Sony's Columbia Pictures), The Simpsons (20th Century Fox) and Shrek (DreamWorks Animation).
Many of the park's past and present attractions were developed with the actual creators of the films they were based on, and feature the original stars as part of the experience. Steven Spielberg helped create E.T. Adventure and was a creative consultant for Back to the Future: The Ride, Twister...Ride it Out, An American Tail Theatre, Jaws, Men in Black: Alien Attack and Transformers: The Ride.
In many current rides, the original stars reprised their film roles including: Rip Torn and Will Smith in Men in Black: Alien Attack, Brendan Fraser for Revenge of the Mummy: The Ride, Bill Paxton and Helen Hunt in Twister...Ride it Out, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Edward Furlong and Linda Hamilton reprised their roles for Terminator 2: 3-D Battle Across Time, Mike Myers, Eddie Murphy, Cameron Diaz, and John Lithgow for Shrek 4D, Steve Carell, Miranda Cosgrove, Dana Gaier, and Elsie Fisher reprised their roles from Despicable Me for Despicable Me: Minion Mayhem, and Peter Cullen and Frank Welker reprised their roles as Optimus Prime and Megatron for Transformers: The Ride.
In many former rides, the many original stars were also to reprise their film roles such as: Christopher Lloyd and Thomas F. Wilson in Back to the Future: The Ride, Roy Scheider recorded a voice over for the conclusion of Jaws, Alfred Hitchcock and Anthony Perkins appeared in Alfred Hitchcock: The Art of Making Movies, additionally, various Nicktoon voice actors reprised their roles in Jimmy Neutron's Nicktoon Blast.
Park history[edit]
From its inception in 1982,[3] Universal Studios Florida was designed as a theme park and a working studio. It was also the first time that Universal Studios had constructed an amusement park "from the ground up." However, the proposed project was put on hold until 1986, when a meeting between Steven Spielberg, a co-founder for the park, and Peter N. Alexander prompted for the creation of a Back to the Future simulator ride in addition to the already planned King Kong based ride.[4]
A major component of the original park in Hollywood is its studio tour, which featured several special-effects exhibits and encounters built into the tour, such as an attack by the great white shark from the film Jaws. For its Florida park, Universal Studios took the concepts of the Hollywood tour scenes and developed them into larger, stand-alone attractions. As an example, in Hollywood, the studio tour trams travel close to a shoreline and are "attacked" by Jaws before they travel to the next part of the tour. In Florida, guests entered the "Jaws" attraction and would board a boat touring the fictitious Amity Harbor, where they encountered the shark, then exited back into the park at the conclusion of the attraction. Universal Studios Florida originally had a Studio Tour attraction that visited the production facilities, but that tour has since been discontinued.
Branding[edit]
Previous slogans for Universal Studios Florida were: See the Stars. Ride the Movies. (1990 - 1998); No one makes believe like we do! (1990 - 1998); Ride the Movies (1998 - 2008); Jump into the Action (2008–2012). The current slogan is: Experience the Movies (2012–present).
Timeline[edit]
1986: Land clearing takes place on the swamp land purchased by MCA/Universal that would hold the park.
1987: Universal Studios Florida is announced at a press conference on the Hollywood property, with a planned opening date of December 1989.
1988: Universal Studios Florida's opening date is delayed from December, 1989 to May 1, 1990. Shortly following, MCA/Universal releases a video detailing the future park, which stars Christopher Lloyd as the Universal character Doc Brown interacting with the various attractions at the Florida park.[5] Universal Studios allows guests to witness the production of television shows and motion pictures in the Florida park's soundstages in middle 1988, while the rest of the studio/park is still under construction.[6]
1989: MCA/Universal Studios claims that The Walt Disney Company and its CEO, Michael Eisner copied several concepts of the Universal Studios Florida park, and integrated them into Disney's recently opened Disney/MGM Studios park.[7]
1990: On January 31, Universal Studios Florida's opening date is again delayed from May 1, 1990 to June 7, 1990.[8] Universal Studios Florida begins soft openings for the general public in late May.[9] Many of the park's attractions are not yet open at the time, and still under testing. Universal Studios Florida is officially opened with a grand opening style ceremony on June 7.[10] The park opens with five themed areas: The Front Lot (entrance area), Production Central, New York, San Francisco/Amity, Expo Center, Hollywood as well as a Lagoon located in the center of the park. The Front Lot and Production Central areas are referred to as "In Production", the New York section is referred to as "Now Shooting", the San Francisco and Amity sections are referred to as "On Location" and the Expo Center area is referred to as "The World of CineMagic Center". Nickelodeon Studios also opened on this day where there was a grand opening ceremony hosted by Marc Summers. Due to massive technical problems with the original Kongfrontation, Earthquake: The Big One and Jaws rides, Universal begins a temporary voucher service to allow guests to re-visit the studio/park when the attractions are operating.[10] Jaws is temporarily closed by Universal on September 30 due to persistent major technical problems. During the shut-down, Universal sues the original designer of the Jaws ride,[11] Ride & Show Engineering, and hires Totally Fun Company to create a re-designed version of most of the ride.
1991: Universal adds four new attractions to the park: The Blues Brothers Show, StreetBusters, The Screen Test Home Video Adventure and How to Make a Mega Movie Deal.[12] Back to the Future: The Ride officially opens in the World Expo Center area of the park, in a grand opening ceremony.[13] The ride is considered to be a success, and receives positive reception from theme park critics.[14] Fright Nights debuts at the park. In 1992, it is renamed to Halloween Horror Nights.
1993: Jaws is re-opened, with many scenes altered. MCA/Universal announces plans to expand Universal Studios Florida into the Universal City, Florida resort complex, including a second theme park and multiple hotels.[15]
1995: Universal Studios Florida celebrates its 5th anniversary. A Day in the Park with Barney opens in the World Expo area. The Production Studio Tour is closed due to a dwindle in the studios' recent Film/TV production.
1996: Terminator 2: 3-D Battle Across Time opens in the Hollywood area.[16]
1997: Universal announces that Ghostbusters Spooktacular will be replaced by Twister...Ride it Out, with a planned opening date of Spring 1998[17] Universal Studios announces that the sole Studio park will be expanded into the Universal Studios Escape, including the Islands of Adventure park, Universal CityWalk Orlando and multiple hotels. The Islands of Adventure Preview Center opens in the New York area, replacing The Screen Test Home Video Adventure. It is meant to give guests a preview of the up-coming Islands of Adventure park, as well as expansion of the Studio park into the Universal Studios Escape resort.
1998: The expansion begins as the original open parking lot for Universal Studios Florida is demolished and replaced by CityWalk and a parking garage complex.[18] Universal delays the opening of Twister...Ride it Out from March, 1998 to May 4, 1998 out of respect for the 42 deaths caused by a recent El Nino outbreak of tornadoes in the central Florida area. Twister...Ride it Out opens in the New York area, replacing Ghostbusters Spooktacular.[19] A new area of the park, Woody Woodpecker's Kidzone, is officially opened, holding the attractions Curious George Goes to Town, StarToons and the previously opened Fievel's Playland, E.T. Adventure, Animal Actors Stage and A Day in the Park with Barney; CityWalk opens outside of the park.
1999: Woody Woodpecker's Nuthouse Coaster opens in the Woody Woodpecker's Kidzone area. Islands of Adventure opens next door to Universal Studios Florida.[20]
2000: Men in Black: Alien Attack opens in the World Expo area, on the former site of The Swamp Thing Set. Universal Studios Florida's 10th anniversary celebration.
2001: Animal Planet Live opens, replacing Animal Actors Stage.
2002: Universal Studios Escape is renamed Universal Orlando Resort. Kongfrontation closes in a closing ceremony. Halloween Horror Nights is moved to Islands of Adventure. Macy's Holiday Parade debuts at the park.
2003: Jimmy Neutron's Nicktoon Blast opens, replacing The Funtastic World of Hanna-Barbera.[21] Shrek 4-D opens with Donkey's Photo Finish, replacing Alfred Hitchcock: The Art of Making Movies and Stage 54 respectively.[22]
2004: Revenge of the Mummy: The Ride opens, replacing Kongfrontation.[23] Halloween Horror Nights takes place in both Universal Studios Florida and Islands of Adventure.
2005: Universal Express Plus is introduced, replacing Universal Express. Nickelodeon Studios closes after nearly 15 years. Fear Factor Live opens, replacing The Wild Wild Wild West Stunt Show. Universal Studios Florida celebrates its 15th anniversary.
2006: Delancey Street Preview Center opens in the New York area. Universal 360: A Cinesphere Spectacular opens, replacing Dynamite Nights Stunt Spectacular. Animal Planet Live is closed, and replaced by Animal Actors on Location. Halloween Horror Nights returns to Universal Studios Florida for its "Sweet 16".
2007: Back to the Future: The Ride closes on March 30.[24] Blue Man Group Sharp Aquos Theatre opens in CityWalk, replacing Nickelodeon Studios. Earthquake: The Big One closes in the San Francisco area on November 5.
2008: Disaster!: A Major Motion Picture Ride...Starring You! opens, replacing Earthquake: The Big One.[25] Universal announces Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit, with a planned opening of Spring 2009. The Simpsons Ride opens, replacing Back to the Future: The Ride.[26]
2009: The Universal Music Plaza Stage opens, replacing The Boneyard. Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit opens.
2010: The 20th anniversary of Universal Studios Florida in June, as well as Halloween Horror Nights in October.
2011: The 10th anniversary of Macy's Holiday Parade at the park.[27]
2012: Jaws and the surrounding Amity themed area closes, as announced on December 2, 2011.[28] Universal announces the additions of Universal’s Cinematic Spectacular: 100 Years of Movie Memories and Universal's Superstar Parade to the park, with openings on May 8, 2012.[29] Despicable Me: Minion Mayhem, opens replacing Jimmy Neutron's Nicktoon Blast; as announced on March 14, 2011 as "...one of many exciting things planned for the next couple of years".[30] Universal Orlando Resort announced Transformers: The Ride will officially open in the summer of 2013, replacing Soundstages 44 and 54, which were demolished on June 24, 2012.[31] SpongeBob StorePants,a gift shop themed after SpongeBob SquarePants opened in Woody Woodpecker's Kidzone replacing the Universal Cartoon Store
2013: The opening date for Transformers The Ride is announced for June 20, 2013. Details of The Wizarding World of Harry Potter expansion are officially announced. Details for the new Simpsons Land are announced and expected to open in the summer of 2013. Transformers: The Ride officially opens in the Production Central area replacing Soundstage 44. Simpsons Fast Food Boulevard (renamed Springfield U.S.A.) concludes its expansion as it includes one new ride: Kang and Kodos Twirl 'n' Hurl.
2014: The opening date for The Wizarding World of Harry Potter Diagon Alley is announced for July 8, 2014 amid the Diagon Alley preview red carpet premiere on June 18, 2014 with Domhnall Gleeson, Bonnie Wright, Evanna Lynch, Matthew Lewis, James and Oliver Phelps, Tom Felton, Robbie Coltrane, Warwick Davis and Helena Bonham Carter attending the premiere. King's Cross station opens on July 1, 2014 as well as the Hogwarts Express Hogsmeade station at Universal's Islands of Adventure, connecting park visitors to both theme Harry Potter theme parks via a full scale replica of the train that appears in the Harry Potter film series. Diagon Alley officially opens, replacing Jaws and the Amity section of the park.
Previous attractions[edit]
Main article: List of former Universal Studios Florida attractions
The previous icon of the Jaws ride is still a popular photo spot.
Like all theme parks, attractions are sometimes closed due to aging and replaced with more contemporary attractions. Universal has seen this happen several times. Some notable closures include Kongfrontation, Back to the Future: The Ride, The Funtastic World of Hanna-Barbera and Jaws. The closures of Kongfrontation, Back to the Future, and Jaws have been given homages by the park to honor veteran visitors who revered the former rides.
Park design[edit]
Main article: List of Universal Studios Florida attractions
Universal Studios Florida features seven themed areas all situated around a large lagoon. In 2012, this lagoon was the site of Universal’s Cinematic Spectacular: 100 Years of Movie Memories, a thematic display that showcased scenes from various Universal films, featuring lasers, projectors and fountains, and pyrotechnics.
The seven surrounding themed areas, clockwise from the entrance, are Production Central, New York, San Francisco, London/Diagon Alley, World Expo, Woody Woodpecker's Kidzone and Hollywood. Each area features a combination of rides, shows, attractions, character appearances, dining outlets and merchandise stores. A new area, based on Harry Potter's Diagon Alley was added to the park in the July of 2014.
Production Central[edit]
Ride
Year opened
Manufacturer
Despicable Me: Minion Mayhem 2012 Intamin
Shrek 4-D 2003 PDI/DreamWorks
Hollywood Rip, Ride, Rockit 2009 Maurer Söhne
Transformers: The Ride 3D 2013 Oceaneering International
The Universal Music Plaza Stage 2009
The area is also home to a variety of dining outlets and merchandise shops. Food and beverage items can be purchased from Beverly Hills Boulangerie or Universal Studios' Classic Monsters Cafe while merchandise can be bought from a variety of themed stores including Universal Studios Store, Studio Sweets, It's a Wrap!, Super Silly Stuff, Shrek's Ye Olde Souvenir Shoppe, and Transformers: Supply Vault.[32][33]