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Mingqi représentant un chameau de Bactriane assis
Un Mingqi est un objet funéraire
Chine du nord
Dynastie des Wei du Nord
premier quart du 6è siècle.
Terre cuite
Paris, musée national des arts asiatiques - Guimet (MNAAG)
Notice complète
www.photo.rmn.fr/CS.aspx?VP3=SearchResult&VBID=2CMFCI...
Oeuvre présentée dans l'exposition : "Tadjikistan. Au pays des Fleuves d'or", Musée national des arts asiatiques - Guimet (MNAAG), Paris
www.guimet.fr/event/nepal-art-de-la-vallee-de-katmandou/
Le Musée national des arts asiatiques – Guimet propose la plus grande exposition jamais consacrée en occident au Tadjikistan. Elle révèle la richesse
culturelle de ce pays méconnu, resté dans l’ombre de ses voisins davantage médiatisés que sont l’Afghanistan et l’Ouzbékistan, avec des pièces exceptionnelles et rares. Par sa situation stratégique sur les voies de passage et de conquête entre Moyen-Orient, ancien monde des steppes, sous-continent indien et oasis de l’Asie centrale chinoise, le Tadjikistan est au cœur des réseaux d’échanges depuis la plus haute antiquité. Extrait du site de l'exposition
Extremities represent the most vulnerable parts of our bodies - subject to breaks and sprains and bruises and scratches - yet the feeling of our intertwined limbs is one of the strongest in the universe.
This collection represents a sophisticated visual exploration of cinematic and analog textures, meticulously crafted to emulate the distinct characteristics of iconic film stocks and high-end digital sensors. From the warm, nostalgic glow of Kodak Gold 200 and the dreamlike imperfections of a Holga 120N to the clinical precision of the Fujifilm GFX 100 and the timeless, high-contrast soul of Leica M Monochrom.
The series traverses diverse narrative landscapes: intimate portraits bathed in golden hour light, gritty cinematic battlefields, neon-drenched urban nights, and the stark solitude of sub-zero environments. Each frame serves as a technical study in color science, grain structure, and dynamic range, blurring the lines between traditional cinematography and modern computational creativity.
These images were generated by Artificial Intelligence.
Dated to the 2nd century AD. It is thought that the sculpture represents Sauromates II, King of the Bosporus, an ancient realm around present day Crimea. Little is known about him except that he reigned between around 173 and 210 AD. If it represents him, the bust would have been sculpted during his lifetime.
The Hubble Legacy Field represents the largest, most comprehensive "history book" of galaxies in the universe.
The image, a combination of nearly 7,500 separate Hubble exposures, represents 16 years of observations gathered together into a unified whole, giving the image its uneven shape. It includes Hubble deep-field surveys, such as the 2012 eXtreme Deep Field (XDF) and the 2004 Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF), as well as the 2003 Great Observatories Origins Deep Survey (GOODS).
The wavelength range stretches from ultraviolet to near-infrared light.
The image presents a wide portrait of the distant universe and contains roughly 265,000 galaxies. They stretch back through 13.3 billion years of time to just 500 million years after the universe's birth in the Big Bang. The tiny, faint, most distant galaxies in the image are similar to the seedling villages from which today's great galaxy star-cities grew. The faintest and farthest galaxies are just one ten-billionth the brightness of what the human eye can see.
The wider view contains 100 times as many galaxies as in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field. The new portrait, a mosaic of multiple snapshots, covers almost the width of the full Moon. Lying in this region is the XDF, which penetrated deeper into space than this legacy field view. However, the XDF field covers less than one-tenth of the full Moon's diameter.
The Hubble Legacy Field is located in the constellation Fornax.
Credit: NASA, ESA, and G. Illingworth (University of California, Santa Cruz; UCO/Lick Observatory)
For more information, visit: hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/2019/news-2019-17.html
Esta mujer Tauro está representada por las astas del toro.Su pecho y el cuerpo lo forman las astas y se corona con otra.Tauro simboliza el empuje,arranque y decisión,por eso no se me ocurría mejor modo de señalarlo que de esta manera.
Esta mujer Tauro está representada por las astas del toro.Su pecho y el cuerpo lo forman las astas y se corona con otra.Tauro simboliza el empuje,arranque y decisión,por eso no se me ocurrría mejor modo de señalarlo que de esta manera.
Características de Tauro
Fechas Tauro 21/4 - 21/5
Cómo es un Tauro
Un tauro es paciente, persistente, decidido y fiable. A un tauro le encanta sentirse seguro, tiene buen corazón y es muy cariñoso. Les gusta la estabilidad, las cosas naturales, el placer y la comodidad. Los tauro disfrutan con tiempo para reflexionar y les encanta sentirse atraído hacía alguien.
Características de Tauro
Tauro puede ser celoso y posesivo y tiene tendencia a ser inflexible y resentido. A veces los Tauro pecan de ser codiciosos y de permitírselo todo. No les gustan las interrupciones ni las prisas. Tampoco les gustan las cosas sintéticas o falsas. No les gusta sentirse presionados y no soportan estar demasiado tiempo en casa.
Descripción de Tauro
Un Tauro suele ser práctico, decidido y tener una gran fuerza de voluntad. Los tauro son personas estables y conservadores, y seguirán de forma leal un líder en el que tienen confianza. Les encanta la paz y tranquilidad y son muy respetuosos con las leyes y las reglas. Respetan los valores materiales y evitan las deudas. Son un poco reacios al cambio.
Son más prácticos que intelectuales, y como les gusta la continuidad y la rutina, suelen ser de ideas fijas. Los Tauro son prudentes, estables y tienen un gran sentido de la justicia. No suelen hundirse ante las dificultades sino que siguen adelante hasta salir.
A veces los Tauro pueden ser demasiado rígidos, argumentativos, egocentrísticos y tercos.
A los tauros les gustan las cosas bellas y suelen ser aficionados al arte y la música. Algunos tauros tienen una fe religiosa poco convencional y muy fuerte. Les encantan los placeres de la vida, el lujo y la buena comida y bebida. De hecho los tauro deben esforzarse para no dejarse llevar por la tentación de satisfacer en exceso estos gustos.
Tauro en el amor y las relaciones personales
Los tauro son amigos fieles y generosos. Tienen una gran capacidad para ser cariñosos aunque rara vez hagan amigos con personas fuera de su entorno social. Evitan los conflictos y los disgustos y prefieren el buen humor y la estabilidad. No obstante, si pierden los nervios son capaces de tener un genio tan furioso que sorprende a todos.
Los tauro son sensuales pero prácticos, y en este sentido son parejas fieles y considerados. Son buenos padres y no existen demasiado de su pareja ni tampoco de sus hijos. Tienen bastante amor propio y tienden a ser posesivos pero si su pareja intenta hacer las paces y comprenderles, hacen un esfuerzo para olvidar su enfado.
En el trabajo los tauros son trabajadores y no se les caen los anillos con ningún tipo de trabajo manual. Son fiables, prácticos, metódicos y ambiciosos. Asumen autoridad sobre los demás, y rinden más en puestos rutinarios de confianza y responsabilidad.
Son creativos y emprendedores. Pueden triunfar en profesiones como la banca, la arquitectura, la construcción, la administración, la agricultura, la medicina, la química y la industria.
También triunfan en la educación, las artes y la cocina. Pueden ser excelentes músicos y artistas.
Pueden representar un inicio afortunado
El blanco se asocia a la luz, la bondad, la inocencia, la pureza y la virginidad. Se le considera el color de la perfección.
El blanco significa seguridad, pureza y limpieza, por lo general tiene una connotación positiva.
Mezclado con cualquier color reduce su croma y cambia sus potencias psíquicas, la del blanco es siempre positiva y afirmativa. El blanco crea una impresión luminosa de vacio, positivo infinito.
Taxonomía: El bigotudo (Panurus biarmicus) es el único representante en nuestro país de la familia Timaliidae. Su nombre común es consecuencia de la peculiar coloración facial de esta especie.
Identificación: Esta especie suele medir unos 16 cm y puede pesar hasta 15 gramos.
Es fácilmente identificable por su larga cola y por el curioso diseño de sus alas. Los machos adultos presentan una cabeza y parte del pecho de tonos grisáceos, con dos grandes rayas triangulares que empiezan entre el ojo y el pico y bajan hasta ambos lados de la barbilla. Su cuerpo es de color canela con tonos naranjas, y en las coberteras primarias observamos dibujos negros con bordes blancos. Las infracoberteras caudales en los machos también son negras. Su pico es de tonos naranjas, y el iris amarillento.
Las hembras son más discretas, sin bigotes negros, la cabeza tiene también tonos marrones y puede tener algunas manchas oscuras en el píleo. El iris suele ser amarillento.
Los juveniles tienen una coloración general es más amarillenta, y en el dorso se pueden observar también algunas franjas oscuras (sus alas son también más negras). No presentan bigotes.
En ambos sexos las patas son oscuras, prácticamente negras. Su cola es proporcionalmente larga.
Plumaje: 10 primarias, 6 secundarias, 3 terciarias y 12 rectrices. Realiza una muda posnupcial completa.
Variaciones geográficas: En España encontramos la subespecie Panurus biarmicus biarmicus.
Especies similares: Es una especie muy particular, por lo que no existen en nuestro país otras especies similares.
“The most important thing is to enjoy your life—to be happy—it's all that matters.”
― Audrey Hepburn
112 Pictures in 2012~ #69 ~ Represent the title of a film in your image
Explored~ thanks you to all who visit xx
okay I know happiness is spelled wrong and it's driving me crazy~ but that's the name of the movie
Symbols
The red ginger flower represents intense passion.
These flowers symbolise strength, prosperity as well as diversity.
The general flower meaning for ginger flowers is proud and majestic.
These flowers are sometimes used as substitute for roses.
History
Ginger, along with black pepper, were considered highly valuable trade commodities in 13th and 14nth century England.
One pound of ginger traded for the same amount as a sheep.
The country of India brought ginger to the Romans as far back as 2,000 years ago.
The Romans used the plant for its medicinal value.
The ginger family (Zingiberaceae) contains around 1,000 species of tropical perennial herbs.
Some gingers are cultivated for their edible rhizomes, which are used for as both a medicine and a culinary spice.
Other ginger plants, known as ornamental gingers, are grown primarily for their pleasing appearance.
Leafy cane-like stems arise from rhizomes to form a plant 3 to 15 feet tall and 2 to 4 feet wide.
Throughout the year, ginger plants produce stunning red blossoms that are often used in flower arrangements.
When growing gingers, remember, they love moist, well-drained soil and partial shade.
Ginger blooms come red, pink and white, have thick, very sturdy stems and are perfect to create height in a tropical arrangement.
They have a decidedly modern feel.
Thank you for your visits and comments, M, (*_*)
For more: www.indigo2photography.com
IT IS STRICTLY FORBIDDEN (BY LAW!!!) TO USE ANY OF MY image or TEXT on websites, blogs or any other media without my explicit permission. © All rights reserved
GINGER, flower, single, "conceptual art", portrait, colour, design, red, studio, square, "Nikon D7200", "black background", "Magda indigo"
MADRID DE LOS AUSTRIAS
Por Madrid de los Austrias, también llamado barrio de los Austrias, se conoce una amplia zona de la capital española, sin entidad administrativa, correspondiente al primitivo trazado medieval de la ciudad y a la expansión urbanística iniciada por los monarcas de la Casa de Austria, a partir de los reinados de Carlos I y, especialmente, de Felipe II, que, en el año 1561, estableció la Corte en Madrid. A efectos turísticos, el nombre se emplea para promocionar los conjuntos monumentales de una gran parte de los barrios administrativos de Sol y Palacio, que representa aproximadamente una cuarta parte de la citada zona. Además de su acepción geográfica, el término Madrid de los Austrias también tiene una acepción histórica. Según esta perspectiva, la expresión se emplea para designar la evolución, preferentemente urbanística, de la ciudad entre los reinados de Carlos I (r. 1516–1556), el primero de los Austrias, y Carlos II (r. 1665–1700), con el que se extinguió la rama española de esta dinastía.
Los límites del Madrid de los Austrias difieren significativamente según el punto de vista adoptado, ya sea histórico o turístico.
Límites históricos
Durante el reinado de Carlos I, Madrid estaba integrado por dos núcleos principales: el recinto comprendido dentro de la muralla cristiana, de origen medieval, y los arrabales. El casco urbano se extendía, de oeste a este, desde el Palacio Real hasta la Puerta del Sol; y, de norte a sur, desde la plaza de Santo Domingo hasta la plaza de la Cebada.
A partir de 1561, con la capitalidad, la ciudad creció de forma vertiginosa, expandiéndose principalmente hacia el este. El plano de Madrid realizado por Pedro Teixeira en el año 1656, casi un siglo después del establecimiento de la Corte, da una idea precisa de las dimensiones del casco urbano, en tiempos de Felipe IV (r. 1621–1665).
La villa estaba rodeada por una cerca, mandada construir por el citado monarca en el año 1625, levantada, hacia el norte, sobre las actuales calles de Génova, Sagasta, Carranza y Alberto Aguilera (conocidas popularmente como los bulevares); hacia el sur, sobre las rondas de Toledo, Valencia y Embajadores; hacia el este, sobre los paseos del Prado y Recoletos; y hacia el oeste, sobre los terraplenes del valle del río Manzanares.
Extramuros, se situaban los jardines, parajes agrestes y recintos palaciegos del Buen Retiro, en la parte oriental de la ciudad; de la Casa de Campo, en la occidental; y del El Pardo, en la noroccidental.
La cerca de Felipe IV sustituyó a una anterior, promovida por Felipe II (r. 1556–1598) y que enseguida quedó obsoleta. Fue erigida para detener el crecimiento desordenado que estaba experimentando la ciudad y actuó como una auténtica barrera urbanística, que limitó la expansión de la urbe hasta el siglo XIX. Fue derribada en 1868.
A grandes rasgos, el espacio comprendido dentro de la cerca de Felipe IV se corresponde en la actualidad con el distrito Centro. Su superficie es de 523,73 hectáreas y comprende los barrios administrativos de Cortes, Embajadores, Justicia, Palacio, Sol y Universidad.
Límites turísticos
A diferencia de los límites históricos, perfectamente establecidos a través de la cerca de Felipe IV, la zona promocionada turísticamente como Madrid de los Austrias carece de una delimitación precisa. Se circunscribe a un ámbito sensiblemente menor, que comprende parcialmente los barrios administrativos de Sol y Palacio, pertenecientes al distrito Centro de la capital.
Se estaría hablando de las áreas de influencia de las calles Mayor, Arenal, Segovia, carrera de San Francisco, Bailén y Toledo y de las plazas de la Cebada, de la Paja, Mayor, Puerta del Sol y de Oriente, donde se hallan barrios y áreas sin entidad administrativa, como La Latina, Ópera o Las Vistillas.
Aquí se encuentran conjuntos monumentales construidos tanto en los siglos XVI y XVII, cuando reinó en España la dinastía Habsburgo, como en épocas anteriores y posteriores. Por lo general, todos ellos quedan incluidos en los itinerarios turísticos que utilizan la expresión Madrid de los Austrias. Es el caso de las iglesias medievales de san Nicolás de los Servitas y san Pedro el Viejo, de los siglos XII y XIV, respectivamente, y del Palacio Real, erigido en el siglo XVIII.
En orden inverso, existen monumentos promovidos por los Austrias no integrados en las citadas rutas, al situarse fuera de los barrios de Sol y Palacio. Algunos ejemplos son el Salón de Reinos y el Casón del Buen Retiro, que formaron parte del desaparecido Palacio del Buen Retiro, y los jardines homónimos.
También quedan excluidas de esta clasificación turística zonas de menor valor monumental, pero con un gran significado histórico en la época de los Austrias. Es el caso del barrio de las Letras, articulado alrededor de la calle de las Huertas, donde coincidieron algunos de los literatos más destacados del Siglo de Oro español, tales como Félix Lope de Vega, Miguel de Cervantes o Francisco de Quevedo; o de la Casa de Campo, concebida por Felipe II como una finca de recreo y reserva de caza. En la primera mitad del siglo XVI, antes de su designación como capital, Madrid era una villa de tamaño medio entre las urbes castellanas, con cierta relevancia social e influencia política. Tenía entre 10 000 y 20 000 habitantes y formaba parte del grupo de dieciocho ciudades que disfrutaban del privilegio de tener voz y voto en las Cortes de Castilla.
Había acogido en numerosas ocasiones las Cortes del Reino y, desde la época de los Trastámara, era frecuentada por la monarquía, atraída por su riqueza cinegética. Además, uno de sus templos religiosos, San Jerónimo el Real, fue elegido por la monarquía como escenario oficial del acto de jura de los príncipes de Asturias como herederos de la Corona. El primero en hacerlo fue Felipe II (18 de abril de 1528), que 33 años después fijaría la Corte en Madrid, y la última Isabel II (20 de junio de 1883).
Carlos I (r. 1516–1556), el primer monarca de la Casa de Austria, mostró un interés especial por la villa, tal vez con la intención de establecer de forma definitiva la Corte en Madrid. Así sostiene el cronista Luis Cabrera de Córdoba (1559–1623), en un escrito referido a Felipe II
El emperador impulsó diferentes obras arquitectónicas y urbanísticas en Madrid. A él se debe la conversión del primitivo castillo de El Pardo en palacio, situado en las afueras del casco urbano. Las obras, dirigidas por el arquitecto Luis de Vega, se iniciaron en 1547 y concluyeron en 1558, durante el reinado de Felipe II. De este proyecto sólo se conservan algunos elementos que, como el Patio de los Austrias, quedaron integrados en la estructura definitiva del Palacio Real de El Pardo, fruto de la reconstrucción llevada a cabo en el siglo XVIII, tras el incendio de 1604.
Otro de los edificios que el monarca ordenó reformar fue el Real Alcázar de Madrid, un castillo de origen medieval, que fue pasto de las llamas en 1734 y en cuyo solar se levanta en la actualidad el Palacio Real. Duplicó su superficie con diferentes añadidos, entre los que destacan el Patio y las Salas de la Reina y la llamada Torre de Carlos I, a partir de un diseño de Luis de Vega y Alonso de Covarrubias.
Entre los proyectos urbanísticos promovidos por Carlos I, figura la demolición de la Puerta de Guadalaxara, el acceso principal de la antigua muralla cristiana de Madrid, y su sustitución por una más monumental, con tres arcos. Fue levantada hacia 1535 a la altura del número 49 de la actual calle Mayor y el 2 de septiembre de 1582 desapareció en un incendio.
Durante su reinado, se inauguraron algunos templos religiosos, entre ellos el santuario de Nuestra Señora de Atocha, que data de 1523. Fue derribado en 1888, ante su mal estado, y reconstruido como basílica en el siglo XX.
En 1541, se dispuso la ampliación de la Iglesia de San Ginés, situada en la calle del Arenal, mediante un anejo parroquial en la calle de la Montera, que recibió el nombre de San Luis Obispo. Abrió sus puertas en 1689, en tiempos de Carlos II, y fue incendiado en 1935. Sólo se conserva su fachada principal, que fue trasladada e integrada en la estructura de la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora del Carmen, en la calle del Carmen.
El Convento de San Felipe el Real, de 1547, fue uno de los puntos de encuentro más importantes del Madrid de los Austrias. Su lonja recibió el sobrenombre de mentidero de la villa, por los rumores que allí se fraguaban. El edificio, destruido en 1838, poseía un relevante claustro renacentista, compuesto por 28 arcos en cada una de sus dos galerías.
Otro templo de la época es la Iglesia de San Sebastián (1554–1575), que tuvo que ser reconstruida tras ser alcanzada por una bomba durante la Guerra Civil.
La Capilla del Obispo es, sin duda, la construcción religiosa de mayor interés arquitectónico llevada a cabo en Madrid, en tiempos de Carlos I. Fue levantada entre 1520 y 1535, como un anejo de la iglesia medieval de San Andrés. Responde a una iniciativa de la familia de los Vargas, una de las más poderosas del Madrid medieval y renacentista. Debe su nombre a Gutierre de Vargas y Carvajal, obispo de Plasencia, su principal impulsor.
En el terreno social, el religioso Antón Martín creó en 1552 el Hospital de Nuestra Señora del Amor de Dios, que estuvo en la calle de Atocha, cerca de la plaza que lleva el nombre de su fundador.
En 1529, Carlos I ordenó que el Real Hospital de la Corte, de carácter itinerante ya que acompañaba a la Corte en sus desplazamientos, quedara establecido de forma fija en Madrid. Su edificio, conocido como Hospital del Buen Suceso, estaba integrado por un recinto hospitalario y una iglesia, que fueron concluidos en 1607. A mediados del siglo XIX, se procedió a su derribo dentro de las obras de ampliación de la Puerta del Sol, donde se encontraba.
En cuanto a las residencias palaciegas, cabe mencionar la de Alonso Gutiérrez de Madrid, tesorero del emperador, cuya estructura fue aprovechada, durante el reinado de Felipe II, para la fundación del Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales. Recientes intervenciones en este edificio han puesto al descubierto elementos originales del patio principal del citado palacio.
El Palacio de los condes de Paredes de Nava o Casa de San Isidro, donde tiene sus instalaciones el Museo de los Orígenes, se encuentra en la plaza de San Andrés. Fue construido en el solar de un antiguo edificio donde, según la tradición, vivió Iván de Vargas, quien, en el siglo XI, dio alojamiento y trabajo a san Isidro. Data de la primera mitad del siglo XVI.
Por su parte, la Casa de Cisneros data del año 1537 y está construida en estilo plateresco. Situada entre la calle del Sacramento y la plaza de la Villa, su primer propietario fue Benito Jiménez de Cisneros, sobrino del cardenal Cisneros (1436–1517), de quien toma su nombre.
Reinado de Felipe II
En 1561, Felipe II (r. 1556–1598) estableció la Corte en Madrid. Tal designación provocó un aumento de la población vertiginoso: de los 10 000 - 20 000 habitantes que podía haber en la villa antes de la capitalidad se pasó a 35 000 - 45 000 en el año 1575 y a más de 100 000 a finales del siglo XVI.
Para hacer frente a este crecimiento demográfico, el Concejo de Madrid, respaldado por la Corona, elaboró un proyecto de ordenación urbanística, consistente en la alineación y ensanchamiento de calles, el derribo de la antigua muralla medieval, la adecuación de la plaza del Arrabal (antecedente de la actual Plaza Mayor) y la construcción de edificios públicos como hospitales, hospicios, orfanatos, instalaciones de abastos y templos religiosos.
Felipe II puso al frente de este plan al arquitecto Juan Bautista de Toledo. Sin embargo, la falta de medios y lentitud burocrática del consistorio y el desinterés mostrado por la Corona en la aportación de recursos ralentizaron su desarrollo. La consecuencia fue un crecimiento urbano rápido y desordenado, que se realizó preferentemente hacia el este del centro histórico, dada la accidentada orografía de la parte occidental, orientada a los barrancos y terraplenes del valle del río Manzanares.
Los nuevos edificios se construyeron siguiendo la dirección de los caminos que partían de la villa y, a su alrededor, surgió un entramado de calles estrechas, aunque dispuestas hipodámicamente. El que conducía hasta Alcalá de Henares (hoy calle de Alcalá) vertebró el crecimiento urbano hacia el este, al igual que el camino que llevaba a San Jerónimo el Real, sobre el que se originó la carrera de San Jerónimo. Por el sudeste, la expansión tomó como eje principal el camino del santuario de Nuestra Señora de Atocha (actual calle de Atocha).
Hacia el sur, las nuevas casas se alinearon alrededor del camino de Toledo (calle de Toledo) y, por el norte, la referencia urbanística estuvo marcada por los caminos de Hortaleza y de Fuencarral (con sus respectivas calles homónimas), si bien hay que tener en cuenta que, en estos dos lados de la ciudad, el crecimiento fue más moderado.
Antes de la capitalidad, en 1535, la superficie de Madrid era de 72 hectáreas, cifra que aumentó hasta 134 en 1565, sólo cuatro años después de establecerse la Corte en la villa. A finales del reinado de Felipe II, el casco urbano ocupaba 282 hectáreas y tenía unos 7590 inmuebles, tres veces más que en 1563 (2250), al poco tiempo de la designación de Madrid como capital.
La intensa actividad inmobiliaria de este periodo no fue suficiente para satisfacer la demanda de viviendas, por parte de cortesanos y sirvientes de la Corona. Tal situación llevó al monarca a promulgar el edicto conocido como Regalía de Aposento, mediante el cual los propietarios de inmuebles de más de una planta estaban obligados a ceder una de ellas a una familia cortesana.
Este decreto favoreció el desarrollo de las llamadas casas a la malicia, un tipo de vivienda con el que sus propietarios intentaban evitar el cumplimiento de la norma, mediante diferentes soluciones (una única planta, compartimentación excesiva de los interiores, ocultación a la vía pública del piso superior...).
En 1590, la Corona y el Concejo crearon la Junta de Policía y Ornato, organismo presidido por el arquitecto Francisco de Mora, con el que se intentó poner fin a los desarreglos urbanísticos provocados por la rápida expansión de la ciudad. La correcta alineación de las calles, mediante la supresión de los recovecos existentes entre los inmuebles, fue uno de sus objetivos.
Felipe II promovió la realización de diferentes infraestructuras urbanas, caso del Puente de Segovia, la calle Real Nueva (actual calle de Segovia) y la Plaza Mayor. Los proyectos inicialmente previstos para estas tres obras no pudieron llevarse a cabo plenamente, adoptándose soluciones menos ambiciosas, ante las limitaciones presupuestarias.
Las dos primeras se enmarcaban dentro del mismo plan, consistente en la creación de una gran avenida, de aire monumental, que, salvando el río Manzanares por el oeste, conectase el antiguo camino de Segovia con el Real Alcázar. Finalmente, sólo pudo ejecutarse el puente (1582–1584), atribuido a Juan de Herrera, mientras que la avenida quedó reducida a unas nivelaciones del terreno sobre el barranco del arroyo de San Pedro y al derribo de varios edificios, que dieron origen a la calle de Segovia, terminada en 1577.
Con respecto a la Plaza Mayor, levantada sobre la antigua plaza del Arrabal, el centro comercial de la villa en aquel entonces, el monarca encargó su diseño a Juan de Herrera en el año 1580. Durante su reinado, se demolieron los edificios primitivos y dieron comienzo las obras de la Casa de la Panadería (1590), proyectada por Diego Sillero. Fue su sucesor, Felipe III, quien dio el impulso definitivo al recinto.
Felipe II continuó con las reformas y ampliaciones del Real Alcázar, iniciadas por su padre, con la edificación de la Torre Dorada, obra de Juan Bautista de Toledo, y la decoración de las distintas dependencias. También ordenó la construcción, en las inmediaciones del palacio, de la Casa del Tesoro, las Caballerizas Reales y la Armería Real. Todos estos conjuntos han desaparecido.
Pero tal vez su proyecto más personal fuese la Casa de Campo, paraje que convirtió en un recinto palaciego y ajardinado para su recreo. Se debe a un diseño de Juan Bautista de Toledo, que siguió el modelo de naturaleza urbanizada, acorde con el gusto renacentista de la época, a modo de conexión con el Monte de El Pardo. De este proyecto sólo se conservan partes del trazado de los jardines y algunos restos del palacete.
Asimismo, fueron levantados distintos edificios religiosos y civiles. El Monasterio de las Descalzas Reales fue fundado en 1559 por Juana de Austria, hermana del monarca, y en 1561 comenzaron las obras del Convento de la Victoria, que, como aquel, también estuvo muy vinculado con la Corona.
En 1583 abrió su puertas el corral de comedias del Teatro del Príncipe (en cuyo solar se levanta ahora el Teatro Español), institución clave en el Siglo de Oro español.15 En 1590, fue inaugurado el Colegio de María de Córdoba y Aragón (actual Palacio del Senado), que toma su nombre de una dama de la reina Ana de Austria, principal impulsora del proyecto.
Entre los palacios nobiliarios, hay que destacar la Casa de las Siete Chimeneas (1574–1577), actual sede del Ministerio de Cultura, situada en la plaza del Rey. Su primer propietario fue Pedro de Ledesma, secretario de Antonio Pérez.
En la calle de Atocha se encontraban las casas de Antonio Pérez y en la plaza de la Paja se halla el Palacio de los Vargas, cuya fachada fue transformada en el siglo XX, adoptándose una solución historicista, a modo de continuación de la contigua Capilla del Obispo.
Reinado de Felipe III
En 1601, pocos años después de subir al trono Felipe III (r. 1598–1621), Madrid perdió la capitalidad a favor de Valladolid. Consiguió recuperarla cinco años después, tras el pago a la Corona de 250 000 ducados y el compromiso por parte del Concejo de abastecer de agua potable al Real Alcázar, entre otras infraestructuras.
Con tal fin, el consistorio realizó los denominados viajes de agua (conducciones desde manantiales cercanos a la villa), entre los cuales cabe destacar el de Amaniel (1614–1616). De ellos también se beneficiaron algunos conventos y palacios, además de los propios vecinos, a través de las fuentes públicas. En 1617 fue creada la llamada Junta de Fuentes, organismo encargado de su mantenimiento y conservación.
Bajo el reinado de Felipe III, se proyectaron numerosos edificios religiosos y civiles, algunos de los cuales fueron inaugurados en la época de Felipe IV. Es el caso de la Colegiata de San Isidro; de la nueva fachada del Real Alcázar (1610–1636), obra de Juan Gómez de Mora, que perduró hasta el incendio del palacio en 1734; y del Convento de los Padres Capuchinos, en El Pardo, fundado por el rey en 1612, cuyo edificio definitivo no pudo comenzarse hasta 1638.
Las nuevas edificaciones se construyeron con mayor calidad arquitectónica que en los periodos anteriores, al tiempo que se impuso un estilo propio, típicamente madrileño, de aire clasicista y de clara influencia herreriana, aunque también se observan rasgos prebarrocos.
Además, se establecieron arquetipos arquitectónicos, que, en relación con las casas palaciegas, quedaron definidos en un trazado de planta rectangular, dos o más alturas de órdenes, portadas manieristas, cubiertas abuhardilladas de pizarra y torres cuadrangulares, por lo general dos, con chapiteles rematados en punta, en la línea escurialense.
Este esquema, uno de los que mejor definen la arquitectura madrileña de los Austrias y de periodos posteriores, empezó a gestarse en tiempos de Felipe III, con ejemplos tan notables como las Casas de la Panadería y de la Carnicería, en la Plaza Mayor; el Palacio del marqués de Camarasa, ubicado en la calle Mayor y sede actual de diferentes dependencias municipales; el proyecto de reconstrucción del Palacio Real de El Pardo, incendiado el 13 de marzo de 1604; y la ya citada fachada del Real Alcázar. No obstante, fue con Felipe IV cuando alcanzó su máxima expresión.
Por su parte, el Palacio de los Consejos (también llamado del duque de Uceda) puede ser considerado un precedente en lo que respecta a la organización del espacio y fachadas, si bien carece de las torres de inspiración herreriana. Fue diseñado por Francisco de Mora, quien contó con la colaboración de Alonso de Trujillo, al frente las obras entre 1608 y 1613.
En cuanto a los templos religiosos, la mayoría de las construcciones utilizó como referencia el modelo jesuítico, de planta de cruz latina, que tiene su origen en la Iglesia del Gesú (Roma, Italia). La Colegiata de San Isidro, que, como se ha referido, fue diseñada en tiempos de Felipe III y terminada con Felipe IV, responde a esta pauta.
Mención especial merece el Real Monasterio de la Encarnación (1611–1616), fundado por Margarita de Austria, esposa del rey. Su fachada, obra de Juan Gómez de Mora (aunque posiblemente proyectada por su tío, Francisco de Mora), fue una de las más imitadas en la arquitectura castellana del siglo XVII y buena parte del XVIII.
Un ejemplo es el Monasterio de la Inmaculada Concepción, en Loeches (Madrid), que, como aquel, presenta fachada rectangular con pórtico, pilastras a ambos lados y frontón en la parte superior.
La lista de edificios religiosos levantados durante el reinado de Felipe III es amplia. El Convento de San Ildefonso de las Trinitarias Descalzas (o, sencillamente, de las Trinitarias), del año 1609, se encuentra en el Barrio de las Letras y en él fue enterrado Miguel de Cervantes. Del Convento del Santísimo Sacramento, fundado en 1615 por Cristóbal Gómez de Sandoval y de la Cerda, valido del rey, sólo se conserva su iglesia (actual Catedral Arzobispal Castrense), levantada en tiempos de Carlos II.
El Monasterio del Corpus Christi o de las Carboneras y la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora del Carmen fueron empezados en 1607 y 1611, respectivamente, y ambos se deben a Miguel de Soria. La Iglesia de San Antonio de los Alemanes, de 1606, es una de las más singulares del primer tercio del siglo XVII, por su planta oval.21 Su interior está decorado al fresco por Lucas Jordán, Juan Carreño de Miranda y Francisco Rizi.
Las iglesias de San Ildefonso (1619) y de Santos Justo y Pastor (hacia 1620) se encuentran entre las últimas fundaciones religiosas llevadas a cabo antes de la muerte del monarca en 1621. La primera, destruida completamente durante la Guerra Civil Española, fue reconstruida en la década de 1950.
Pero, sin duda, el proyecto urbanístico más importante llevado a cabo por el monarca fue la Plaza Mayor. En 1619, Felipe III finalizó las obras, que había iniciado su antecesor, con un nuevo diseño, firmado y desarrollado por Juan Gómez de Mora. Este arquitecto fue también responsable de la Casa de la Panadería, que preside el conjunto, si bien su aspecto actual corresponde a la reconstrucción realizada por Tomás Román, tras el incendio acaecido en 1672.
Además de este recinto, se procedió a adecuar otras plazas, como la de la Cebada y la desaparecida de Valnadú, esta última resultado de la demolición en el año 1567 de la puerta homónima, en la época de Felipe II. Otro de sus logros urbanísticos fue la reorganización del territorio en las riberas del río Manzanares y en el Real Camino de Valladolid, mediante la eliminación de las compartimentaciones internas y la estructuración de los plantíos.
En el terreno de la escultura, destaca la estatua ecuestre del propio rey, traída desde Italia como obsequio del Gran Duque de Florencia. Realizada en bronce, fue comenzada por Juan de Bolonia y terminada por su discípulo, Pietro Tacca, en 1616.
Estuvo emplazada en la Casa de Campo, recinto que fue objeto de una especial atención por parte del monarca con la construcción de nuevas salas en el palacete (del Mosaico y de las Burlas) y la instalación de diferentes fuentes y adornos en los jardines. En 1848, la escultura fue trasladada al centro de la Plaza Mayor, donde actualmente se exhibe, por orden de Isabel II.
Reinado de Felipe IV
Felipe IV (r. 1621–1665) accedió al trono a la edad de dieciséis años, tras la inesperada muerte de su padre. Tradicionalmente ha sido considerado como un mecenas de las letras y de las artes, principalmente de la pintura. Durante su reinado, Madrid se convirtió en uno de los principales focos culturales de Europa y en el escenario donde se fraguaron muchas de las grandes creaciones del Siglo de Oro español. Además, la ciudad albergó la mayor parte de la colección pictórica del monarca, una de las más importantes de la historia del coleccionismo español
En el ámbito de la arquitectura, se levantaron numerosos edificios civiles y religiosos, al tiempo que se construyó una nueva residencia regia en el entorno del Prado de los Jerónimos, en el lado oriental del casco urbano. El Palacio del Buen Retiro desplazó hacia el este buena parte de la actividad política, social y cultural de la villa, que hasta entonces gravitaba únicamente sobre el Real Alcázar, situado en el extremo occidental.
En líneas generales, la arquitectura palaciega del reinado de Felipe IV siguió el modelo post-escurialense, de rasgos barrocos contenidos, que comenzó a forjarse con Felipe III. Este estándar aparecía en estado puro en el desaparecido Palacio del Buen Retiro, cuyo origen fue el llamado Cuarto Real, un anexo del Monasterio de los Jerónimos, que, desde tiempos de los Reyes Católicos, era frecuentado por la realeza para su descanso y retiro.
Siguiendo una iniciativa del Conde-Duque de Olivares,29 en 1632 Felipe IV ordenó al arquitecto Alonso Carbonel la ampliación del recinto y su conversión en residencia veraniega. El palacio fue concebido como un lugar de recreo, función que quedó remarcada mediante una configuración articulada alrededor de dos grandes patios, diseñados a modo de plazas urbanas.30 La Plaza Principal estaba reservada a la Familia Real, mientras que la Plaza Grande, de mayores dimensiones, era utilizada para la celebración de fiestas, actos lúdico-culturales y eventos taurinos.
La primera fase, correspondiente al núcleo central (Plaza Principal), se concluyó en 1633, sólo un año después de realizarse el encargo. Por su parte, las obras de la Plaza Grande, el Picadero, el Salón de Baile, el Coliseo y los jardines se prolongaron, a lo largo de diferentes etapas, hasta 1640.
El recinto palaciego sufrió graves desperfectos durante la Guerra de la Independencia y, finalmente, fue demolido en la época de Isabel II, ante la imposibilidad de recuperación. Sólo se conservan el Salón de Reinos y el Salón de Baile (o Casón del Buen Retiro), si bien con importantes transformaciones en relación con el diseño original.
En lo que respecta a los jardines, el Parque de El Retiro es heredero del trazado llevado a cabo en la época de Felipe IV, aunque su fisonomía actual responde a múltiples remodelaciones ejecutadas en periodos posteriores, principalmente en los siglos XVIII y XIX. Entre los elementos primitivos que aún se mantienen, cabe citar algunos complejos hidráulicos, como el Estanque Grande y la Ría Chica.
Además del Buen Retiro, el monarca mostró una especial predilección por el Real Sitio de El Pardo, donde mandó construir el Palacio de la Zarzuela, actual residencia de la Familia Real, y ampliar la Torre de la Parada, a partir de un diseño de Juan Gómez de Mora. Este último edificio fue erigido como pabellón de caza por Felipe II y resultó completamente destruido en el siglo XVIII.
La arquitectura civil tiene en el Palacio de Santa Cruz y en la Casa de la Villa, ambos proyectados por Juan Gómez de Mora en el año 1629, dos notables exponentes.
El primero albergó la Sala de Alcaldes de Casa y Corte y la Cárcel de Corte y, en la actualidad, acoge al Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores. Se estructura alrededor de dos patios cuadrangulares simétricos, unidos mediante un eje central que sirve de distribuidor y acceso al edificio. La horizontalidad de su fachada principal, que da a la Plaza de la Provincia, queda rota por los torreones laterales de inspiración herreriana y la portada con dos niveles de triple vano. Fue terminado en 1636 y ha sido objeto de numerosas reformas en siglos posteriores.
Por su parte, la Casa de la Villa fue diseñada como sede del gobierno municipal y Cárcel de Villa. Sus obras comenzaron en 1644, quince años después de realizarse el proyecto, y finalizaron en 1696. Junto a Gómez de Mora, colaboraron José de Villarreal, a quien se debe el patio central, Teodoro Ardemans y José del Olmo.
Entre las residencias nobiliarias, figuran el Palacio del duque de Abrantes, construido por Juan Maza entre 1653 y 1655 y transformado sustancialmente en el siglo XIX, y el Palacio de la Moncloa. Este último fue erigido en el año 1642, a iniciativa de Melchor Antonio Portocarrero y Lasso de la Vega, conde de Monclova y virrey del Perú, su primer propietario. La estructura actual corresponde a la reconstrucción y ampliación llevadas a cabo en el siglo XX, tras los daños sufridos durante la Guerra Civil.
La arquitectura religiosa del reinado de Felipe IV presenta dos fases, coincidentes con los procesos evolutivos que se dieron en el arte barroco español a lo largo del siglo XVII.
En la primera mitad, se mantuvo la austeridad geométrica y espacial, arrastrada del estilo herreriano, con escasos y calculados motivos ornamentales, salvo en los interiores, que, en clara contraposición, aparecían profusamente decorados. En la segunda mitad del siglo, el gusto por las formas favoreció un progresivo alejamiento del clasicismo y la incorporación de motivos naturalistas en las fachadas.
Dentro de la primera corriente, que puede ser denominada como barroco clasicista, se encuentran la Colegiata de San Isidro, la Ermita de San Antonio de los Portugueses y el Convento de San Plácido.
La Colegiata de San Isidro (1622–1664) fue fundada como iglesia del antiguo Colegio Imperial, situado dentro del mismo complejo. El templo se debe a un proyecto del hermano jesuita Pedro Sánchez de hacia 1620, iniciándose su construcción en 1622. A su muerte, en 1633, se hará cargo de la obra el hermano Francisco Bautista junto con Melchor de Bueras. Es de planta de cruz latina y destaca por su fachada monumental, realizada en piedra de granito y flanqueada por dos torres en los lados. Fue la catedral provisional de Madrid desde 1885 hasta 1993.
La Ermita de San Antonio de los Portugueses estuvo ubicada en una isla artificial, en medio de un estanque lobulado, dentro de los Jardines del Buen Retiro. Fue edificada entre 1635 y 1637 por Alonso Carbonel y derribada en 1761, para levantar, sobre su solar, la Real Fábrica de Porcelana de la China, igualmente desaparecida. Su torre cuadrangular, rematada con chapitel herreriano, y su suntuosa portada, configurada por cuatro grandes columnas de mármol blanco y capiteles de mármol negro, eran sus elementos más notables.
El edificio actual del Convento de San Plácido, obra de Lorenzo de San Nicolás, data de 1641. La decoración interior es la parte más sobresaliente y en él se conserva un Cristo yacente de Gregorio Fernández.
Conforme fue avanzando el siglo XVII, los exteriores sobrios fueron perdiendo vigencia y se impuso un estilo plenamente barroco, sin apenas concesiones al clasicismo. Esta evolución puede apreciarse en la ya citada Casa de la Villa, que, dado su prolongado proceso de construcción (el diseño se hizo en 1629 y el edificio se terminó en 1696), fue incorporando diferentes elementos ornamentales en su fachada clasicista, acordes con las nuevas tendencias.
La Capilla de San Isidro ejemplifica el apogeo del barroco. Fue construida como un anejo de la iglesia de origen medieval de San Andrés para albergar los restos mortales de san Isidro. La primera piedra se puso en 1642, a partir de un proyecto de Pedro de la Torre. En 1657, José de Villarreal realizó un segundo proyecto, cuyas obras fueron inauguradas por Felipe IV y su esposa Mariana de Austria en un acto institucional. Fue terminada en 1699.
Junto a la basílica neoclásica de San Francisco el Grande (siglo XVIII), se halla la Capilla del santo Cristo de los Dolores para la Venerable Orden Tercera de San Francisco (1662–1668), realizada por el arquitecto Francisco Bautista. En su interior sobresale la decoración barroca, con especial mención al baldaquino, hecho en maderas, jaspes y mármoles, donde se guarda la talla del Cristo de los Dolores.
El Convento de Nuestra Señora de la Concepción o de las Góngoras es otro ejemplo del barroco madrileño. Debe su nombre a Juan Jiménez de Góngora, ministro del Consejo de Castilla, quien procedió a su creación, por encargo directo del rey, como ofrenda por el nacimiento de su hijo Carlos (a la postre Carlos II). Fue inaugurado en 1665 y ampliado en 1669, según un proyecto de Manuel del Olmo.
Dentro del capítulo de arquitectura religiosa, también hay que destacar la reconstrucción de la iglesia medieval de San Ginés, llevada a cabo, a partir de 1645, por el arquitecto Juan Ruiz. Es de planta de cruz latina, de tres naves, con crucero y cúpula.
Escultura
Las numerosas fundaciones religiosas llevadas a cabo con Felipe IV generaron una importante actividad escultórica, destinada a la realización de tallas y retablos. Hacia 1646 se estableció en la Corte Manuel Pereira, a quien se debe el retablo de la Iglesia de San Andrés, desaparecido durante la Guerra Civil, y la estatua de San Bruno, considerada una de sus obras maestras, que se conserva en la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando.
Fuera del ámbito religioso, la producción escultórica se desarrolló a través de dos vías: la ornamentación de calles y plazas, mediante la construcción de fuentes artísticas (es el caso de la Fuente de Orfeo, diseñada por Juan Gómez de Mora y terminada en 1629), y los encargos reales, entre los que sobresale la estatua ecuestre de Felipe IV (1634–1640).
Se trata de las primera escultura a caballo del mundo en la que éste se sostiene únicamente sobre sus patas traseras.34 Es obra de Pietro Tacca, quien trabajó sobre unos bocetos hechos por Velázquez y, según la tradición, contó con el asesoramiento científico de Galileo Galilei. Conocida como el caballo de bronce, estuvo inialmente en el Palacio del Buen Retiro y, en tiempos de Isabel II, fue trasladada a la Plaza de Oriente, su actual ubicación.
En el terreno urbanístico, Felipe IV ordenó la construcción de una cerca alrededor del casco urbano, mediante la cual quedaron establecidos los nuevos límites de la villa, tras los procesos expansivos de los periodos anteriores. Desde la fundación de Madrid en el siglo IX, había sido costumbre cercar el caserío, bien con una finalidad defensiva (murallas musulmana y cristiana), bien para el control fiscal de los abastos e inmigración (cerca medieval de los arrabales y Cerca de Felipe II).
La Cerca de Felipe IV provocó varios efectos en el desarrollo urbano: por un lado, impidió la expansión horizontal de Madrid hasta bien entrado el siglo XIX, cuando fue demolida y pudieron acometerse los primeros ensanches; y, por otro, favoreció un cierto crecimiento vertical, dando lugar a las corralas, viviendas dispuestas en varias alturas y organizadas en corredera, alrededor de un gran patio común.
De la citada cerca, realizada en ladrillo y mampostería, aún se mantienen en pie algunos restos, como los situados en la Ronda de Segovia, en los alrededores de la Puerta de Toledo.
El Puente de Toledo es otro de los proyectos urbanísticos impulsados por el rey. Su función era enlazar directamente el casco urbano con el camino de Toledo, salvando el río Manzanares por la parte suroccidental de la ciudad. Fue construido por José de Villarreal entre 1649 y 1660, a partir de un proyecto de Juan Gómez de Mora.
El puente quedó destruido en una riada y en 1671, durante el reinado de Carlos II, se levantó uno nuevo, que también desapareció por los mismos motivos. La estructura definitiva que ha llegado a la actualidad corresponde al primer tercio del siglo XVIII y es obra de Pedro de Ribera.
Reinado de Carlos II
Con la llegada al trono de Carlos II (r. 1665–1700), se frenó el ritmo constructor del reinado anterior, sobre todo en lo que respecta a las edificaciones civiles. Entre éstas, tan sólo cabe mencionar la Puerta de Felipe IV (1680), que, pese a su nombre, fue erigida en honor de María Luisa de Orleáns, primera esposa de Carlos II. Trazada por Melchor Bueras, estuvo inicialmente emplazada en la Carrera de San Jerónimo, hasta su traslado, a mediados del siglo XIX, a la calle de Alfonso XII, donde sirve de acceso al Parque de El Retiro.
En cuanto a las fundaciones religiosas, se levantaron algunos templos de interés artístico, que abandonaron definitivamente el aspecto austero de la primera mitad del siglo XVII e incorporaron plenamente las tendencias barrocas.
Es el caso de la Iglesia de Nuestra Señora de Montserrat, que forma parte del convento homónimo. Fue trazada en el año 1668 por el arquitecto Sebastián Herrera Barnuevo, si bien su proyecto fue transformado por Gaspar de la Peña, Juan de Torija, Pedro de la Torre, Francisco Aspur y Pedro de Ribera, que intervinieron, en diferentes fases, hasta la conclusión del conjunto en 1720. El edificio destaca por su exterior profusamente ornamentado, en especial la torre que flanquea uno de sus lados, con abundantes motivos naturalistas en su parte superior y alrededor de los vanos.
El gusto por las formas también está presente en la Iglesia de las Calatravas (1670–1678), situada en la calle de Alcalá. Se debe a un diseño de fray Lorenzo de San Nicolás, terminado por Isidro Martínez y Gregorio Garrote. Presenta planta de cruz latina y, en su crucero, se alza una cúpula con tambor de ocho vanos, cuatro abiertos y cuatro cegados. La capilla mayor está adornada con un retablo de José Benito de Churriguera, realizado en tiempos de Felipe V.
Del Monasterio del santísimo Sacramento, fundado por Cristóbal Gómez de Sandoval en la época de Felipe IV, sólo se conserva su iglesia, actual Catedral Arzobispal Castrense. El templo se construyó con Carlos II, entre 1671 y 1744, a partir de un proyecto firmado por Francisco Bautista, Manuel del Olmo y Bartolomé Hurtado García.
Su fachada, labrada en sillares de granito, se estructura en tres niveles horizontales y está rematada por un frontón circular. La decoración exterior consiste en diferentes molduras que recorren los vanos, con motivos naturales, y en un relieve dedicado a san Benito y san Bernardo, instalado en el nivel intermedio.
Pese a las corrientes barrocas del momento, el Convento de las Comendadoras de Santiago se aproxima más al arquetipo arquitectónico de la primera mitad del reinado de Felipe IV, caracterizado por su sobriedad. El edificio, que empezó a construirse en 1667, destaca por su iglesia, de planta de cruz griega, fachada inspirada en el modelo del Real Monasterio de la Encarnación y torres con chapiteles herrerianos en los lados.
atelier ying, nyc
The M5 represented Leica's most ambitious foray at the time of its introduction. Size, heft and weight compensated for the forward thinking of its philosophy at that time.
Later on, when Leica was criticized, in view of the smaller and more compact trends in Camera making, The M5 was viewed as too much material, too much of everything, an eyesore and prodigal son of the line.
As Leica's design has been minimalist, to allow the materials to express themselves, my redesign emphasizes this relation but in a different way.
The traditional black leatherette skin of the camera is replaced with thin sheets of slate. The interior enclosure of the very small gallery space for this camera is lined instead with rich alligator skin. The floor is black onyx. The ceiling tiles and pattern of the stone floor are asymmetrical, along with the display table, all with the objective to allow the M5 to express, as material.
Following my sketch, there is a womblike, lozenge-like alcove area for a 5-seat cigar bar. The bar top and seats are lined with alligator skin. The scroll-like opening is a display alcove for M5 lenses, for viewing. Note that the bar area and the camera display area are separated, so the bar customers can meditate on the lenses alone. The gallery is expressly for experiencing the M5.
Design, concepts, text and drawing are copyright 2014 by David Lo.
This image perfectly represents the problems I have with 35mm film. The biggest issue for me is that it takes me so long to finish a roll. I am too methodical for 35mm anymore. I loaded this roll into my pinhole camera in August of 2022, shot 2/3 of the roll on a trip to Victoria, BC then promptly forgot about it. I set the camera aside, played with other pinhole cameras and then when I got the itch to shoot my 35mm pinhole again it was late March of 2024 and by this point I had forgotten there was even film in the camera still. I remembered quickly enough when I popped the lid of the camera and saw a roll inside rapidly soaking up all the light I was pouring into the camera. Thankfully this was not my first time inadvertently exposing a loaded roll of film and my reflexes kicked in and a dark bathroom got me the rest of the way to making sure I didn't spoil this roll. Even seeing the film once I had rewound it gave me no clue as to what I had been shooting with it when first loaded. It was not until I saw the developed negatives and realized this was a leftover roll from that Victoria trip that the pieces all came together in my memory. I guess if I am being fair, the length of time it takes me to get through a roll of 35mm is not the only issue at play here. There is also the fact that I have so many pinhole cameras that this one was able to sit out of rotation for way too long. And the fact that I really should be better about putting sticky notes on my cameras noting the film type loaded. But hey...
As far as what is going on in this image, I was using the Reality So Subtle 35R pinhole camera. It has two pinholes, one on the front of the camera and another on the back of the camera. You can expose your film either normally on the emulsion side, or through the reverse side of the film creating a redscale effect. Or, as in what I did here, you can make two exposures one via the front and then turn the camera around and make a second via the rear pinhole overlapping the normal and redscale images into a double exposure. Kind of fun and I kind of like kind of fun stuff. What else am I going to do while waiting for a drawbridge to raise?
Reality So Subtle 35R
Silberra Color 50
From left:
- Amulet of Harpocrates
Faience
Provenance unknown
BAAM 0155
- Amulet representing Harpocrates, wearing a side lock and standing with finger to the lips
Faience
Graeco-Roman Period, the second century BC
Provenance: Lower Egypt, Alexandria, El-Hadara, Antoniades tombs
BAAM 0151
- Amulet of Harpocrates
Faience
Provenance unknown
BAAM 0156
Antiquities Museum of Bibliotheca Alexandrina
Esta escultura representa una gaviota, está ubicada en el Ayuntamiento de Castelló d'Empuries en la plaza Joan Alsina realizada por el escultor Narcis Costa Bofill en el año 1997 y quiere ser un homenaje al joven sacerdote (Joan Alsina) asesinado por la dictadura chilena en 1973 cuando solo tenía 31 años
Postal representativa de este sitio turístico. El valle del Elqui se caracteriza por la producción de vinos y piscos, además de otras frutas como las paltas. El lugar también tiene ciertos toques esotéricos o mágicos.
Representative postcard of this tourist site. The Elqui Valley is characterized by the production of wines and pisco, and other fruits like avocados. The place also has certain esoteric or magical touches.
404 represents the batch of five E400's that Newport bought in 2012, the last double deckers purchased new by the undertaking. Since then, Newport has tapped into the ex London secondhand market for it's double deck purchases.
Operator: Newport Bus
Registration: SN62 AOX
Fleet number: 404
Chassis & Body: Alexander Dennis Enviro 400
Seating: H41/31F
Date new: November 2012
Location: Duffryn Drive, Newport
Date: Tuesday 12 September 2017
Cultybraggan represents one of the most complete PoW camps remaining in the UK, with the many Nissen huts there having changed little since their original construction. Built in 1941, PoW camp No 21 at Cultybraggan was designed to hold some 4,000 Category A prisoners. Considered to be the toughest, most committed and fanatical Nazi PoWs, many had been captured from the SS and the Afrika Corps. It is open to the public.
A estátua representa Laocoonte e seus dois filhos, Antífantes e Timbreu, sendo estrangulados por duas serpentes marinhas, uma lenda da Guerra de Troia também relatada na Eneida de Virgílio.[carece de fontes] Laocoonte, um sacerdote de Apolo, teria irritado o deus, ou por ter se casado e tido filhos, ou por ter arremessado uma lança contra o cavalo de Troia. Em vingança, o próprio Apolo teria enviado os répteis (no caso como na escultura, serpentes) para matar seus filhos, e Laocoonte foi morto ao tentar salvá-los. (Wikipédia)
For ABCs and 123s group, Letter M for Me, My doll that represents Me, and Masks.
(20201225_135834ME&MyDollDarkbutSomeTUresamInitMirCorFlickr122520)
St Albans Cathedral, also known as the Cathedral and Abbey Church of St Alban, is a Church of England cathedral church within St Albans, England. At 84 metres (276 ft), its nave is the longest of any cathedral in England. With much of its present architecture dating from Norman times, it was formerly known as St Albans Abbey before it became a cathedral in 1877. It is the second longest cathedral in the United Kingdom (after Winchester). Local residents often call it "the abbey", although the present cathedral represents only the church of the old Benedictine abbey.
The abbey church, although legally a cathedral church, differs in certain particulars from most of the other cathedrals in England: it is also used as a parish church, of which the dean is rector. He has the same powers, responsibilities and duties as the rector of any other parish.
Alban was a pagan living in the Roman city of Verulamium, now Verulamium Park, in St Albans, in Hertfordshire, England, about 22 miles (35 km) north of London along Watling Street. Before Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, local Christians were being persecuted by the Romans. Alban sheltered their priest, Saint Amphibalus, in his home and was converted to the Christian faith by him. When the soldiers came to Alban's house looking for the priest, Alban exchanged cloaks with the priest and let himself be arrested in his place. Alban was taken before the magistrate, where he avowed his new Christian faith and was condemned for it. He was beheaded, according to legend, on the spot where the cathedral named after him now stands. The site is on a steep hill and legend has it that his head rolled down the hill after being cut off and that a well sprang up at the point where it stopped.
A well certainly exists today and the road up to the cathedral is named Holywell Hill. However the current well structure is no older than the late 19th century and it is thought that the name of the street derives from the "Halywell" river and "Halywell Bridge", not from the well.
The date of Alban's execution is a matter of some debate and is generally given as "circa 250"—scholars generally suggest dates of 209, 254 or 304.
History of the abbey and cathedral
A memoria over the execution point and holding the remains of Alban existed at the site from the mid-4th century (possibly earlier); Bedementions a church and Gildas a shrine. Bishop Germanus of Auxerre visited in 429 and took a portion of the apparently still bloody earth away. The style of this structure is unknown; the 13th century chronicler Matthew Paris (see below) claimed that the Saxons destroyed the building in 586.
Saxon buildings
Offa II of Mercia, who ruled in the 8th century, is said to have founded the Benedictine abbey and monastery at St Albans. All later religious structures are dated from the foundation of Offa's abbey in 793. The abbey was built on Holmhurst Hill—now Holywell Hill—across the River Ver from the ruins of Verulamium. Again there is no information to the form of the first abbey. The abbey was probably sacked by the Danes around 890 and, despite Paris's claims, the office of abbot remained empty from around 920 until the 970s when the efforts of Dunstanreached the town.
There was an intention to rebuild the abbey in 1005 when Abbot Ealdred was licensed to remove building material from Verulamium. With the town resting on clay and chalk the only tough stone is flint. This was used with a lime mortar and then either plastered over or left bare. With the great quantities of brick, tile and other stone in Verulamium the Roman site became a prime source of building material for the abbeys, and other projects in the area, up to the 18th century. Sections demanding worked stone used Lincolnshire limestone (Barnack stone) from Verulamium, later worked stones include Totternhoe freestone from Bedfordshire, Purbeck marble, and different limestones (Ancaster, Chilmark, Clipsham, etc.).
Renewed Viking raids from 1016 stalled the Saxon efforts and very little from the Saxon abbey was incorporated in the later forms.
The nave. The north wall (left) features a mix of Norman arches dating back to 1077 and arches in the Early English style of 1200.
Norman abbey
Much of the current layout and proportions of the structure date from the first Norman abbot, Paul of Caen (1077–1093). The 14th abbot, he was appointed by the new Archbishop of Canterbury, Lanfranc.
Building work started in the year of Abbot Paul's arrival. The design and construction was overseen by the Norman Robert the Mason. The plan has very limited Anglo-Saxon elements and is clearly influenced by the French work at Cluny, Bernay, and Caen and shares a similar floor plan to Saint-Étienne and Lanfranc's Canterbury—although the poorer quality building material was a new challenge for Robert and he clearly borrowed some Roman techniques, learned while gathering material in Verulamium. To take maximum use of the hilltop the abbey was oriented to the south-east. The cruciform abbey was the largest built in England at that time, it had a chancel of four bays, a transept containing seven apses, and a nave of ten bays—fifteen bays long overall. Robert gave particular attention to solid foundations, running a continuous wall of layered bricks, flints and mortar below and pushing the foundations down to twelve feet to hit bedrock. Below the crossing tower special large stones were used.
The tower was a particular triumph—it is the only 11th century great crossing tower still standing in England. Robert began with special thick supporting walls and four massive brick piers. The four-level tower tapers at each stage with clasping buttresses on the three lower levels and circular buttresses on the fourth stage. The entire structure masses 5,000 tons and is 144 feet high. The tower was probably topped with a Norman pyramidal roof; the current roof is flat. The original ringing chamber had five bells—two paid for by the Abbot, two by a wealthy townsman, and one donated by the rector of Hoddesdon. None of these bells has survived.
There was a widespread belief that the abbey had two additional, smaller towers at the west end. No remains have been found.
The monastic abbey was completed in 1089 but not consecrated until Holy Innocents' Day, 1115, (28 Dec) by the Archbishop of Rouen. King Henry I attended as did many bishops and nobles.
A nunnery (Sopwell Priory) was founded nearby in 1140.
Internally the abbey was bare of sculpture, almost stark. The plaster walls were coloured and patterned in parts, with extensive tapestries adding colour. Sculptural decoration was added, mainly ornaments, as it became more fashionable in the 12th century—especially after the Gothic style arrived in England around 1170.
In the current structure the original Norman arches survive principally under the central tower and on the north side of the nave. The arches in the rest of the building are Gothic, following medieval rebuilding and extensions, and Victorian era restoration.
The abbey was extended in the 1190s by Abbot John de Cella (also known as John of Wallingford) (1195–1214); as the number of monks grew from fifty to over a hundred, the abbey was extended westwards with three bays added to the nave. The severe Norman west front was also rebuilt by Hugh de Goldclif—although how is uncertain, it was very costly but its 'rapid' weathering and later alterations have erased all but fragments. A more prominent shrine and altar to Saint Amphibalus were also added. The work was very slow under de Cella and was not completed until the time of Abbot William de Trumpington (1214–35). The low Norman tower roof was demolished and a new, much higher, broached spire was raised, sheathed in lead.
The St Albans Psalter (ca. 1130–45) is the best known of a number of important Romanesque illuminated manuscripts produced in the Abbey scriptorium. Later, Matthew Paris, a monk at St Albans from 1217 until his death in 1259, was important both as a chronicler and an artist. Eighteen of his manuscripts survive and are a rich source of contemporary information for historians.
Nicholas Breakspear was born near St Albans and applied to be admitted to the abbey as a novice, but he was turned down. He eventually managed to be accepted into an abbey in France. In 1154 he was elected Pope Adrian IV, the only English Pope there has ever been. The head of the abbey was confirmed as the premier abbot in England also in 1154.
13th to 15th centuries
An earthquake shook the abbey in 1250 and damaged the eastern end of the church. In 1257 the dangerously cracked sections were knocked down—three apses and two bays. The thick Presbytery wall supporting the tower was left. The rebuilding and updating was completed during the rule of Abbot Roger de Norton (1263–90).
On 10 October 1323 two piers on the south side of the nave collapsed dragging down much of the roof and wrecking five bays. Mason Henry Wy undertook the rebuilding, matching the Early English style of the rest of the bays but adding distinctly 14th century detailing and ornaments. The shrine to St Amphibalus had also been damaged and was remade.
Abbey Gateway, now part of St. Albans School.
Richard of Wallingford, abbot from 1297 to 1336 and a mathematician and astronomer, designed a celebrated clock, which was completed by William of Walsham after his death, but apparently destroyed during the reformation.
A new gateway, now called the Abbey Gateway, was built to the abbey grounds in 1365, which was the only part of the monastery buildings (besides the church) to survive the dissolution, later being used as a prison and now part of St Albans School. The other monastic buildings were located to the south of the gateway and church.
In the 15th century a large west window of nine main lights and a deep traced head was commissioned by John of Wheathampstead. The spire was reduced to a 'Hertfordshire spike', the roof pitch greatly reduced and battlements liberally added. Further new windows, at £50 each, were put in the transept by Abbot Wallingford (also known as William of Wallingford), who also had a new high altar screen made.
Dissolution and after
After the death of Abbot Ramryge in 1521 the abbey fell into debt and slow decay under three weak abbots. At the time of the Dissolution of the Monasteries and its surrender on 5 December 1539 the income was £2,100 annually. The abbot and remaining forty monks were pensioned off and then the buildings were looted. All gold, silver and gilt objects were carted away with all other valuables; stonework was broken and defaced and graves opened to burn the contents.
The abbey became part of the diocese of Lincoln in 1542 and was moved to the diocese of London in 1550. The buildings suffered—neglect, second-rate repairs, even active damage. Richard Lee purchased all the buildings, except the church and chapel and some other Crown premises, in 1550. Lee then began the systematic demolition for building material to improve Lee Hall at Sopwell. In 1551, with the stone removed, Lee returned the land to the abbot. The area was named Abbey Ruins for the next 200 years or so.
In 1553 the Lady chapel became a school, the Great Gatehouse a town jail, some other buildings passed to the Crown, and the Abbey Church was sold to the town for £400 in 1553 by King Edward VI to be the church of the parish.
The cost of upkeep fell upon the town, although in 1596 and at irregular intervals later the Archdeacon was allowed to collect money for repairs by Brief in the diocese. After James I visited in 1612 he authorised another Brief, which collected around £2,000—most of which went on roof repairs. The English Civil War slashed the monies spent on repairs, while the abbey was used to hold prisoners of war and suffered from their vandalism, as well as that of their guards. Most of the metal objects that had survived the Dissolution were also removed and other ornamental parts were damaged in Puritan sternness. Another round of fund-raising in 1681–84 was again spent on the roof, repairing the Presbytery vault. A royal grant from William and Mary in 1689 went on general maintenance, 'repairs' to conceal some of the unfashionable Gothic features, and on new internal fittings. There was a second royal grant from William in 1698.
By the end of the 17th century the dilapidation was sufficient for a number of writers to comment upon it.
In 1703, from 26 November to 1 December, the Great Storm raged across southern England; the abbey lost the south transept window which was replaced in wood at a cost of £40. The window was clear glass with five lights and three transoms in an early Gothic Revival style by John Hawgood. Other windows, although not damaged in the storm, were a constant drain on the abbey budget in the 18th century.
A brief in 1723–24, seeking £5,775, notes a great crack in the south wall, that the north wall was eighteen inches from vertical, and that the roof timbers were decayed to the point of danger. The money raised was spent on the nave roof over ten bays.
Another brief was not issued until 1764. Again the roof was rotting, as was the south transept window, walls were cracked or shattered in part and the south wall had subsided and now leant outwards. Despite a target of £2,500 a mere £600 was raised.
In the 1770s the abbey came close to demolition; the expense of repairs meant a scheme to destroy the abbey and erect a smaller church almost succeeded.
A storm in 1797 caused some subsidence, cracking open graves, scattering pavement tiles, flooding the church interior and leaving a few more arches off-vertical.
19th century
The Wallingford Screen of c. 1480—the statues are Victorian replacements (1884–89) of the originals, destroyed in the Dissolution of the Monasteries, when the screen itself was also damaged. Statues of St Alban and St Amphibalus stand on either side of the altar.
This century was marked with a number of repair schemes. The abbey received some money from the 1818 "Million Act", and in 1820 £450 was raised to buy an organ—a second-hand example made in 1670.
The major efforts to revive the abbey church came under four men—L. N. Cottingham, Rector H. J. B. Nicholson, and, especially, George Gilbert Scott and Edmund Beckett, first Baron Grimthorpe.
In February 1832 a portion of the clerestory wall fell through the roof of the south aisle, leaving a hole almost thirty feet long. With the need for serious repair work evident the architect Lewis Nockalls Cottingham was called in to survey the building. His Survey was presented in 1832 and was worrying reading: everywhere mortar was in a wretched condition and wooden beams were rotting and twisting. Cottingham recommended new beams throughout the roof and a new steeper pitch, removal of the spire and new timbers in the tower, new paving, ironwork to hold the west transept wall up, a new stone south transept window, new buttresses, a new drainage system for the roof, new ironwork on almost all the windows, and on and on. He estimated a cost of £14,000. A public subscription of £4,000 was raised, of which £1,700 vanished in expenses. With the limited funds the clerestory wall was rebuilt, the nave roof re-leaded, the tower spike removed, some forty blocked windows reopened and glazed, and the south window remade in stone.
Henry Nicholson, rector from 1835 to 1866, was also active in repairing the abbey church—as far as he could, and in uncovering lost or neglected Gothic features.
In 1856 repair efforts began again; £4,000 was raised and slow moves started to gain the abbey the status of cathedral. George Gilbert Scottwas appointed the project architect and oversaw a number of works from 1860 until his death in 1878.
Scott began by having the medieval floor restored, necessitating the removal of tons of earth, and fixing the north aisle roof. From 1872–77 the restored floors were re-tiled in matching stone and copies of old tile designs. A further 2,000 tons of earth were shifted in 1863 during work on the foundation and a new drainage system. In 1870 the tower piers were found to be badly weakened with many cracks and cavities. Huge timbers were inserted and the arches filled with brick as an emergency measure. Repair work took until May 1871 and cost over £2,000. The south wall of the nave was now far from straight; Scott reinforced the north wall and put in scaffolding to take the weight of the roof off the wall, then had it jacked straight in under three hours. The wall was then buttressed with five huge new masses and set right. Scott was lauded as "saviour of the Abbey." From 1870–75 around £20,000 was spent on the abbey.
In 1845 St Albans was transferred from the Diocese of Lincoln to the Diocese of Rochester. Then, in 1875, the Bishopric of St Albans Act was passed and on 30 April 1877 the See of St Albans was created, which comprises about 300 churches in the counties of Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire. The then Bishop of Rochester, the Right Revd Dr Thomas Legh Claughton, elected to take the northern division of his old diocese and on 12 June 1877 was enthroned first Bishop of St Albans, a position he held until 1890. He is buried in the churchyard on the north side of the nave.
George Gilbert Scott was working on the nave roof, vaulting and west bay when he died on 27 March 1878. His plans were partially completed by his son, John Oldrid Scott, but the remaining work fell into the hands of Lord Grimthorpe, whose efforts have attracted much controversy—Nikolaus Pevsner calling him a "pompous, righteous bully." However, he donated much of the immense sum of £130,000 the work cost.
Whereas Scott's work had clearly been in sympathy with the existing building, Grimthorpe's plans reflected the Victorian ideal. Indeed, he spent considerable time dismissing and criticising the work of Scott and the efforts of his son.
Grimthorpe first reinstated the original pitch of the roof, although the battlements added for the lower roof were retained. Completed in 1879, the roof was leaded, following on Scott's desires.
1805 engraving of the west front of the abbey showing the lost Wheathampstead window.
His second major project was the most controversial. The west front, with the great Wheathampstead window, was cracked and leaning, and Grimthorpe, never more than an amateur architect, designed the new front himself—attacked as dense, misproportioned and unsympathetic: "His impoverishment as a designer ... [is] evident"; "this man, so practical and ingenious, was utterly devoid of taste ... his great qualities were marred by arrogance ... and a lack of historic sense". Counter proposals were deliberately substituted by Grimthorpe for poorly drawn versions and Grimthorpe's design was accepted?. During building it was considerably reworked in order to fit the actual frontage and is not improved by the poor quality sculpture. Work began in 1880 and was completed in April 1883, having cost £20,000.
The Lady Chapel at the east end of the cathedral.
Grimthorpe was noted for his aversion to the Perpendicular—to the extent that he would have sections he disliked demolished as "too rotten" rather than remade. In his reconstruction, especially of windows, he commonly mixed architectural styles carelessly (see the south aisle, the south choir screen and vaulting). He spent £50,000 remaking the nave. Elsewhere he completely rebuilt the south wall cloisters, with new heavy buttresses, and removed the arcading of the east cloisters during rebuilding the south transept walls. In the south transept he completely remade the south face, completed in 1885, including the huge lancet window group—his proudest achievement—and the flanking turrets; a weighty new tiled roof was also made. In the north transept Grimthorpe had the Perpendicular window demolished and his design inserted—a rose window of circles, cusped circles and lozenges arrayed in five rings around the central light, sixty-four lights in total, each circle with a different glazing pattern.
Grimthorpe continued through the Presbytery in his own style, adapting the antechapel for Consistory Courts, and into the Lady Chapel. After a pointed lawsuit with Henry Hucks Gibbs, first Baron Aldenham over who should direct the restoration, Grimthorpe had the vault remade and reproportioned in stone, made the floor in black and white marble (1893), and had new Victorian arcading and sculpture put below the canopy work. Externally the buttresses were expanded to support the new roof, and the walls were refaced.
As early as 1897, Grimthorpe was having to return to previously renovated sections to make repairs. His use of over-strong cement led to cracking, while his fondness for ironwork in windows led to corrosion and damage to the surrounding stone.
Grimthorpe died in 1905 and was interred in the churchyard. He left a bequest for continuing work on the buildings.
During this century the name St Albans Abbey was given to one of the town's railway stations.
20th century
John Oldrid Scott (died 1913) (George Gilbert Scott's son), despite frequent clashes with Grimthorpe, had continued working within the cathedral. Scott was a steadfast supporter of the Gothic revival and designed the tomb of the first bishop; he had a new bishop's throne built (1903), together with commemorative stalls for Bishop Festing and two Archdeacons, and new choir stalls. He also repositioned and rebuilt the organ (1907). Further work was interrupted by the war.
A number of memorials to the war were added to the cathedral, notably the painting The Passing of Eleanor by Frank Salisbury (stolen 1973) and the reglazing of the main west window, dedicated in 1925.
Following the Enabling Act of 1919 control of the buildings passed to a Parochial Church Council (replaced by the Cathedral Council in 1968), who appointed the woodwork specialist John Rogers as Architect and Surveyor of the Fabric. He uncovered extensive death watch beetledamage in the presbytery vault and oversaw the repair (1930–31). He had four tons of rubbish removed from the crossing tower and the main timbers reinforced (1931–32), and invested in the extensive use of insecticide throughout the wood structures. In 1934, the eight bells were overhauled and four new bells added to be used in the celebration of George V's jubilee.
Cecil Brown was architect and surveyor from 1939 to 1962. At first he merely oversaw the lowering of the bells for the war and established a fire watch, with the pump in the slype. After the war, in the 1950s, the organ was removed, rebuilt and reinstalled and new pews added. His major work was on the crossing tower. Grimthorpe's cement was found to be damaging the Roman bricks: every brick in the tower was replaced as needed and reset in proper mortar by one man, Walter Barrett. The tower ceiling was renovated as were the nave murals. Brown established the Muniments Room to gather and hold all the church documents.
In 1972, to encourage a closer link between celebrant and congregation, the massive nine-ton pulpit along with the choir stalls and permanent pews was dismantled and removed. The altar space was enlarged and improved. New 'lighter' wood (limed oak) choir stalls were put in, and chairs replaced the pews. A new wooden pulpit was acquired from a Norfolk church and installed in 1974. External floodlighting was added in 1975.
A major survey in 1974 revealed new leaks, decay and other deterioration, and a ten-year restoration plan was agreed. Again the roofing required much work. The nave and clerestory roofs were repaired in four stages with new leading. The nave project was completed in 1984 at a total cost of £1.75 million. The clerestory windows were repaired with the corroded iron replaced with delta bronze and other Grimthorpe work on the clerestory was replaced. Seventy-two new heads for the corbel table were made. Grimthorpe's west front was cracking, again due to the use originally of too strong a mortar, and was repaired.
A new visitors' centre was proposed in 1970. Planning permission was sought in 1973; there was a public inquiry and approval was granted in 1977. Constructed to the south side of the cathedral close to the site of the original chapter house of the abbey, the new 'Chapter House' cost around £1 million and was officially opened on 8 June 1982 by Queen Elizabeth. The main building material was 500,000 replica Roman bricks.
Other late 20th-century works include the restoration of Alban's shrine, with a new embroidered canopy, and the stained glass designed by Alan Younger for Grimthorpe's north transept rose window, unveiled in 1989 by Diana, Princess of Wales.
Modern times
The Bishop is the Right Reverend Alan Smith, installed in September 2009. The Venerable Jonathan Smith is Archdeacon of St Albans, installed in October 2008. On 2 July 2004, the Very Reverend Canon Dr Jeffrey John became the ninth Dean of the Cathedral.
Robert Runcie, later Archbishop of Canterbury, was bishop of St Albans from 1970 to 1980 and returned to live in the city after his retirement; he is commemorated by a gargoyle on the Cathedral as well as being buried in the graveyard. Colin Slee, former Dean of Southwark Cathedral, was sub-dean at St Albans under Runcie and then Dean, Peter Moore. The bishop's house is in Abbey Mill Lane, St Albans, as is the house of the Bishop of Hertford. The Reverend Canon Eric James, Chaplain Extraordinary to HM the Queen, was Canon at St Albans for many years.
Parvati (Devanagari: पार्वती, IAST: Pārvatī) is the Hindu goddess of love, fertility and devotion. She is the goddess of divine strength and power. She is the gentle and nurturing aspect of the Hindu goddess Shakti. She is the mother goddess in Hinduism and has many attributes and aspects. Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name, giving her over 100 names in regional Hindu mythologies of India. Along with Lakshmi (goddess of wealth and prosperity) and Saraswati (goddess of knowledge and learning), she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses.
Parvati is the wife of the Hindu deity Shiva - the destroyer, recycler and regenerator of universe and all life. She is the daughter of the mountain king Himavan and mother Mena. Parvati is the mother of Hindu deities Ganesha and Karttikeya. She is also the mother of Ashokasundari, whose husband was Nahusha Her elder sister is the goddess Ganges. Some communities also believe her to be the adopted sister of Vishnu.
With Śiva, Pārvatī is a central deity in the Saivism sect of Hinduism. In Hindu belief, she is the recreative energy and power of Śiva, and she is the cause of a bond that connects all beings and a means of their spiritual release. In Hindu temples dedicated to her and Śiva, she is symbolically represented as argha or yoni. She is found extensively in ancient Indian literature, and her statues and iconography grace ancient and medieval era Hindu temples all over South Asia and Southeast Asia.
ETYMOLOGY AND NOMENCLATURE
Parvata is one of the Sanskrit words for "mountain"; "Parvati" derives her name from being the daughter of king Himavan (also called Himavat, Parvat) and mother Mena. King Parvat is considered lord of the mountains and the personification of the Himalayas; Parvati implies "she of the mountain".
Parvati is known by many names in Hindu literature. Other names which associate her with mountains are Shailaja (Daughter of the mountains), Adrija or Nagajaa or Shailaputri (Daughter of Mountains), 'Haimavathi' (Daughter of Himavan) and 'Girija' or 'Girirajaputri' (Daughter of king of the mountains).
The Lalita sahasranama contains a listing of 1,000 names of Parvati (as Lalita). Two of Parvati's most famous epithets are Uma and Aparna. The name Uma is used for Sati (Shiva's first wife, who is reborn as Parvati) in earlier texts,[which?] but in the Ramayana, it is used as a synonym for Parvati. In the Harivamsa, Parvati is referred to as Aparna ('One who took no sustenance') and then addressed as Uma, who was dissuaded by her mother from severe austerity by saying u mā ('oh, don't'). She is also Ambika ('dear mother'), Shakti (power), Mataji ('revered mother'), Maheshwari ('great goddess'), Durga (invincible), Bhairavi ('ferocious'), Bhavani ('fertility and birthing'), Shivaradni ('Queen of Shiva'), and many hundreds of others. Parvati is also the goddess of love and devotion, or Kamakshi; the goddess of fertility, abundance and food/nourishment, or Annapurna.
The apparent contradiction that Parvati is addressed as the fair one, Gauri, as well as the dark one, Kali or Shyama, has been explained by the following legend: Once, Shiva rebuked Parvati about her dark complexion. An angry Parvati left him and underwent severe austerities to become fair-complexioned as a boon from Brahma. Regional stories of Gauri suggest an alternate origin for Gauri's name and complexion. In parts of India, Gauri's skin color is golden or yellow in honor of her being the goddess of ripened corn/harvest and of fertility.
Parvati is sometimes spelled as Parvathy or Parvaty
HISTORY
Some scholars hold that Parvati does not explicitly appear in Vedic literature, though the Kena Upanishad (3.12) contains a goddess called Uma-Haimavati. Sayana's commentary in Anuvaka, however, identifies Parvati in Talavakara Upanishad, suggesting her to be the same as Uma and Ambika in the Upanishad, referring to Parvati is thus an embodiment of divine knowledge and the mother of the world.
She appears as the shakti, or essential power, of the Supreme Brahman. Her primary role is as a mediator who reveals the knowledge of Brahman to the Vedic trinity of Agni, Vayu, and Indra, who were boasting about their recent defeat of a group of demons. But Kinsley notes: "it is little more than conjecture to identify her with the later goddess Satī-Pārvatī, although [..] later texts that extol Śiva and Pārvatī retell the episode in such a way to leave no doubt that it was Śiva's spouse.." Sati-Parvati appears in the epic period (400 BC–400 AD), as both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata present Parvati as Shiva's wife. However, it is not until the plays of Kalidasa (5th-6th centuries) and the Puranas (4th through the 13th centuries) that the myths of Sati-Parvati and Shiva acquire more comprehensive details. Kinsley adds that Parvati may have emerged from legends of non-aryan goddesses that lived in mountains. While the word Umā appears in earlier Upanisads, Hopkins notes that the earliest known explicit use of the name Pārvatī occurs in late Haṃsa Upanishad (Yoga / Shukla Yajurveda).
Weber suggests that just like Shiva is a combination of various Vedic gods Rudra and Agni, Parvati in Puranas text is a combination of wives of Rudra and Agni. In other words, the symbolism, legends and characteristics of Parvati evolved over time fusing Uma, Haimavati, Ambika in one aspect and the more ferocious, destructive Kali, Gauri, Nirriti in another aspect. Tate suggests Parvati is a mixture of the Vedic goddesses Aditi and Nirriti, and being a mountain goddess herself, was associated with other mountain goddesses like Durga and Kali in later traditions.
LEGENDS
The Puranas tell the tale of Sati's marriage to Shiva against her father Daksha's wishes. Her father Daksha and her husband Shiva do not get along, and ignore the wishes of Sati. The conflict gets to a point where Daksha does not invite Shiva to a major fire ceremony, and Shiva does not come on his own, humiliating Sati. She self-immolates herself at Daksha's yajna ceremony. This shocks Shiva, who is so grief-stricken that he loses interest in worldly affairs, retires and isolates himself in the mountains, in meditation and austerity. Sati is then reborn as Parvati, the second daughter of Himavat and Minavati, and is named Parvati, or "she from the mountains", after her father Himavant who is also called king Parvat.
According to different versions of her myths, the maiden Parvati resolves to marry Shiva. Her parents learn of her desire, discourage her, but she pursues what she wants. She approaches the god Kama - the Hindu god of desire, erotic love, attraction and affection, and asks him to help her. Kama reaches Shiva and shoots an arrow of desire. Shiva opens his third eye in his forehead and burns the cupid Kama to ashes. Parvati does not lose her hope or her resolve to win over Shiva. She begins to live in mountains like Shiva, engage in the same activities as Shiva, one of asceticism, yogin and tapas. This draws the attention of Shiva and awakens his interest. He meets her in disguised form, tries to discourage her, telling her Shiva's weaknesses and personality problems. Parvati refuses to listen and insists in her resolve. Shiva finally accepts her and they get married. Shiva dedicates the following hymn in Parvati's honor,
I am the sea and you the wave,
You are Prakṛti, and I Purusha.
– Translated by Stella Kramrisch
After the marriage, Parvati moves to Mount Kailash, the residence of Shiva. To them are born Kartikeya (also known as Skanda and Murugan) - the leader of celestial armies, and Ganesha - the god of wisdom that prevents problems and removes obstacles.
ALTERNATE STORIES
There are many alternate Hindu legends about the birth of Parvati and how she got married with Shiva. In the Harivamsa, for example, Parvati has two younger sisters called Ekaparna and Ekapatala. According to Devi Bhagawata Purana and Shiva Purana mount Himalaya and his wife Mena appease goddess Adi Shakti. Pleased, Adi Shakti herself is born as their daughter Parvati. Each major story about Parvati's birth and marriage to Shiva has regional variations, suggesting creative local adaptations. In another version of Shiva Purana, Chapters 17 through 52, cupid Kama is not involved, and instead Shiva appears as a badly behaved, snake wearing, dancing, disheveled beggar who Parvati gets attracted to, but who her parents disapprove of. The stories go through many ups and downs, until Parvati and Shiva are finally married.
Kalidasa's epic Kumarasambhavam ("Birth of Kumara") describes the story of the maiden Parvati who has made up her mind to marry Shiva and get him out of his recluse, intellectual, austere world of aloofness. Her devotions aimed at gaining the favor of Shiva, the subsequent annihilation of Kamadeva, the consequent fall of the universe into barren lifelessness, regeneration of life, the subsequent marriage of Parvati and Shiva, the birth of Kartikeya, and the eventual resurrection of Kamadeva after Parvati intercedes for him to Shiva.
ICONOGRAPHY AND SYMBOLISM
Parvati, the gentle aspect of Devi Shakti, is usually represented as fair, beautiful and benevolent. She typically wears a red dress (often a sari), and may have a head-band. When depicted alongside Shiva, she generally appears with two arms, but when alone, she may be depicted having four. These hands may hold a conch, crown, mirror, rosary, bell, dish, farming tool such as goad, sugarcane stalk, or flowers such as lotus. One of her arms in front may be in the Abhaya mudra (hand gesture for 'fear not'), one of her children, typically Ganesha, is on her knee, while her elder son Skanda may be playing near her in her watch. In ancient temples, Parvati's sculpture is often depicted near a calf or cow - a source of food. Bronze has been the chief metal for her sculpture, while stone is next most common material.
A common symbolism for her and her husband Siva is in the form of yoni and linga respectively. In ancient literature, yoni means womb and place of gestation, the yoni-linga metaphor represents "origin, source or regenerative power". The linga-yoni icon is widespread, found in Shaivite Hindu temples of South Asia and Southeast Asia. Often called Shivalinga, it almost always has both linga and the yoni. The icon represents the interdependence and union of feminine and masculine energies in recreation and regeneration of all life. In some temples and arts, the iconographic representation of sexuality, fertility and energies of Parvati and Shiva, is more explicit, where they are shown in various stages of their sexual form and union.
In some iconography Parvati's hands may symbolically express many mudras (symbolic hand gestures). For example, Kataka — representing fascination and enchantment, Hirana — representing the antelope, the symbolism for nature and the elusive, Tarjani by the left hand — representing gesture of menace, and Chandrakal — representing the moon, a symbol of intelligence. Kataka is expressed by hands closer to the devotee; Tarjani mudra with the left hand, but far from devotee.
If Parvati is depicted with two hands, Kataka mudra — also called Katyavalambita or Katisamsthita hasta — is common, as well as Abhaya (fearlessness, fear not) and Varada (beneficence) are representational in Parvati's iconography. Parvati's right hand in Abhaya mudra symbolizes "do not fear anyone or anything", while her Varada mudra symbolizes "wish fulfilling". In Indian dance, Parvatimudra is dedicated to her, symbolizing divine mother. It is a joint hand gesture, and is one of sixteen Deva Hastas, denoting most important deities described in Abhinaya Darpana. The hands mimic motherly gesture, and when included in a dance, the dancer symbolically expresses Parvati. Alternatively, if both hands of the dancer are in Ardhachandra mudra, it symbolizes an alternate aspect of Parvati.
Parvati is sometimes shown with golden or yellow colour skin, particularly as goddess Gauri, symbolizing her as the goddess of ripened harvests.
In some manifestations, particularly as angry, ferocious aspects of Shakti such as Durga or Kali, she has eight or ten arms, and is astride on a tiger or lion. In benevolent manifestation such as Kamakshi or Meenakshi, a parrot sits near her right shoulder symbolizing cheerful love talk, seeds and fertility. A parrot is found with Parvati's form as Kamakshi - the goddess of love, as well as Kama - the cupid god of desire who shoots arrows to trigger infatuation. A crescent moon is sometimes included near the head of Parvati particularly the Kamakshi icons, for her being half of Shiva. In South Indian legends, her association with the parrot began when she won a bet with her husband and asked for his loin cloth as victory payment; Shiva keeps his word but first transforms her into a parrot. She flies off and takes refuge in the mountain ranges of south India, appearing as Meenakshi (also spelled Minakshi).
SYMBOLISM OF MANY ASPECTS FOR THE SAME GODDESS
Parvati is expressed in many roles, moods, epithets and aspects. In Hindu mythology, she is an active agent of the universe, the power of Shiva. She is expressed in nurturing and benevolent aspects, as well as destructive and ferocious aspects. She is the voice of encouragement, reason, freedom and strength, as well as of resistance, power, action and retributive justice. This paradox symbolizes her willingness to realign to Pratima (reality) and adapt to needs of circumstances in her role as the universal mother. She identifies and destroys evil to protect (Durga), as well as creates food and abundance to nourish (Annapurna).
MANIFESTATIONS AND ASPECTS OF PARVATI
Several myths present alternate aspects of Parvati, such as the ferocious, violent aspect as Shakti and related forms. Shakti is pure energy, untamed, unchecked and chaotic. Her wrath crystallizes into a dark, blood-thirsty, tangled-hair Goddess with an open mouth and a drooping tongue. This goddess is usually identified as the terrible Mahakali or Kali (time). In Linga Purana, Parvati metamorphoses into Kali, on the request of Shiva, to destroy a female asura (demoness) Daruka. Even after destroying the demoness, Kali's wrath could not be controlled. To lower Kali's rage, Shiva appeared as a crying baby. The cries of the baby raised the maternal instinct of Kali who resorts back to her benign form as Parvati.
In Skanda Purana, Parvati assumes the form of a warrior-goddess and defeats a demon called Durg who assumes the form of a buffalo. In this aspect, she is known by the name Durga. Although Parvati is considered another aspect of Sakti, just like Kali, Durga, Kamakshi, Meenakshi, Gauri and many others in modern day Hinduism, many of these “forms” or aspects originated from regional legends and traditions, and the distinctions from Parvati are pertinent.
In Devi Bhagwata Purana, Parvati is the lineal progenitor of all other goddesses. She is the one who is the source of all forms of goddesses. She is worshiped as one with many forms and names. Her different moods bring different forms or incarnation. For example,
- Durga is a demon-fighting form of Parvati, and some texts suggest Parvati took the form of Durga to kill the demon Durgamasur.
- Kali is another ferocious form of Parvati, as goddess of time and change, with mythological origins in the deity Nirriti.
- Chandi is the epithet of Durga, considered to be the power of Parvati; she is black in color and rides on a lion, slayer of the demon Mahishasura.
- Ten Mahavidyas are the ten aspects of Shakti. In tantra, all have importance and all are different aspects of Parvati.
- 52 Shakti Peethas suggests all goddesses are expansions of the goddess Parvati.
- Navadurga nine forms of the goddess Parvati
- Meenakshi, goddess with eyes shaped like a fish.
- Kamakshi, goddess of love and devotion.
- Lalita, the playful Goddess of the Universe, she is a form of the Devi Parvati.
- Akhilandeshwari, found in coastal regions of India, is the goddess associated with water.
- Annapurna is the representation of all that is complete and of food.
STORY OF THE ATTAINMENT OF THE NAME DURG
A demon named Durgasur has undertook severe austerities to please Lord Brahma. Being pleased with his penances, as his blessing, he cannot be killed by any man, demon, God or male deity. He gathered his large demonic forces and declared war against the Gods. Durgasur and Indra's forces engage in a severe war. In the end, Durgasur defeats Indra and he, with the help of his fellow demons take over the three worlds, and the heavens. Durgasur, full of pride and arrogance started tormenting and torturing innocent common people like villagers, wrecking down the religious schools and students and teachers, molesting other sages' wives and wreaking atrocities on the sages also. All the Gods, sages, their wives, the common people, teachers and students, united all together went to Kailash to seek the refuge of Lord Shiva but he was not there. They turned to his wife, Goddess Parvati, the full form of the Adi Parashakti and requested her to kill Durgasur and put an end to his every bad deed and atrocity. Parvati, hearing the atrocities of Durgasur, felt compassionate for them and she promised to stop Durgasur. She invokes Kaalratri, in the form of a damsel and requested her to go to Durgasur and ordered him to stop his atrocities on vulnerable people and Gods. Kaalratri went to Durgasur's territory and she requested him to cease his every atrocity on the Gods and common people and to hand over their respective abodes by going back to where he came from or get slayed at the hands of Parvati. Hearing this, Durgasur becomes very annoyed and he refuses to stop his atrocities on the world and ordered his demons to catch hold of the female messenger. Kaalratri turns furious and so she grew massive in her original form. She tells him to make preparations for his death. Durgasur becomes angry and commands his army to attack Kailash. Kaalratri returns to Parvati and conveyed the complete message to her. Parvati, on hearing this, she tells Durgasur that his last wish is to fight and his wish would be fulfilled by her. Parvati infuses Kaalratri in her body. Then, she, along with the Gods and common people approach the battlefield, waiting for Durgasur. Parvati creates a luminous circle around them as their own safety shield. Durgasur and his corps reach the battleground. Seeing them, Parvati sprouted a thousand hands holding all types of weapons. Seeing this thousand-armed form of Parvati, the Gods and common people express their gratitude awhile Durgasur and his army corps are terrified. At her call, all her Shaktis, of female forms, having a number of arms, weapons, wearing different garments, ornaments and apparels, riding on all kinds of animal vehicles, some of them were fierce and some of them were beneficial, they were of different names and incarnations and/or forms of Adi Parashakti. The war began. The fierce forms of Parvati managed to destroy the entire demon army of Durgasur. A severe duel erupted between Parvati and Durgasur. In the end, Parvati kills Durgasur with her trident. Seeing this end or Durgasur, the Gods and common people's joy knew no bounds and started worshipping her. She was instantly pleased. The Gods gave Parvati the name Durga as she killed demon Durgasur. Parvati restored all the worlds and abodes of the Gods and common people and the worlds were at peace again.
LEGENDS
Parvati's legends are intrinsically related to Shiva. In the goddess-oriented Shakta texts, that she is said to transcend even Shiva, and is identified as the Supreme Being. Just as Shiva is at once the presiding deity of destruction and regeneration, the couple jointly symbolise at once both the power of renunciation and asceticism and the blessings of marital felicity.
Parvati thus symbolises many different virtues esteemed by Hindu tradition: fertility, marital felicity, devotion to the spouse, asceticism, and power. Parvati represents the householder ideal in the perennial tension in Hinduism in the household ideal and the ascetic ideal, the later represented by Shiva. Renunciation and asceticism is highly valued in Hinduism, as is householder's life - both feature as Ashramas of an ethical and proper life. Shiva is portrayed in Hindu legends as the ideal ascetic withdrawn in his personal pursuit in the mountains with no interest in social life, while Parvati is portrayed as the ideal householder keen about the nurturing worldly life and society. Numerous chapters, stories and legends revolve around their mutual devotion as well as disagreements, their debates on Hindu philosophy as well as the proper life.
Parvati tames Shiva, the "great unpredictable madman" with her presence. When Shiva does his violent, destructive Tandava dance, Parvati is described as calming him or complementing his violence by slow, creative steps of her own Lasya dance. In many myths, Parvati is not as much his complement as his rival, tricking, seducing, or luring him away from his ascetic practices.
Three images are central to the mythology, iconography and philosophy of Parvati: the image of Shiva-Shakti, the image of Shiva as Ardhanarishvara (the Lord who is half-woman), and the image of the linga and the yoni. These images that combine the masculine and feminine energies, Shiva and Parvati, yield a vision of reconciliation, interdependence and harmony between the way of the ascetic and that of a householder.
The couple is often depicted in the Puranas as engaged in "dalliance" or seated on Mount Kailash debating concepts in Hindu theology. They are also depicted as quarreling. In stories of the birth of Kartikeya, the couple is described as love-making; generating the seed of Shiva. Parvati's union with Shiva symbolises the union of a male and female in "ecstasy and sexual bliss". In art, Parvati is depicted seated on Shiva's knee or standing beside him (together the couple is referred to as Uma-Maheshvara or Hara-Gauri) or as Annapurna (the goddess of grain) giving alms to Shiva.
Shaiva approaches tend to look upon Parvati as the Shiva's submissive and obedient wife. However, Shaktas focus on Parvati's equality or even superiority to her consort. The story of the birth of the ten Mahavidyas (Wisdom Goddesses) of Shakta Tantrism. This event occurs while Shiva is living with Parvati in her father's house. Following an argument, he attempts to walk out on her. Her rage at Shiva's attempt to walk out, manifests in the form of ten terrifying goddesses who block Shiva's every exit.
David Kinsley states,
The fact that [Parvati] is able to physically restrain Shiva dramatically makes the point that she is superior in power. The theme of the superiority of the goddess over male deities is common in Shakta texts, [and] so the story is stressing a central Shakta theological principle. ... The fact that Shiva and Parvati are living in her father's house in itself makes this point, as it is traditional in many parts of India for the wife to leave her father's home upon marriage and become a part of her husband's lineage and live in his home among his relatives. That Shiva dwells in Parvati's house thus implies Her priority in their relationship. Her priority is also demonstrated in her ability, through the Mahavidyas, to thwart Shiva's will and assert her own.
ARDHANARISVARA
Parvati is portrayed as the ideal wife, mother and householder in Indian legends. In Indian art, this vision of ideal couple is derived from Shiva and Parvati as being half of the other, represented as Ardhanarisvara. This concept is represented as an androgynous image that is half man and half woman, Siva and Parvati respectively.
IDEAL WIFE, MOTHER AND MORE
In Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, she as Umā suggests that the duties of wife and mother are as follows - being of a good disposition, endued with sweet speech, sweet conduct, and sweet features. Her husband is her friend, refuge, and god. She finds happiness in physical, emotional nourishment and development of her husband and her children. Their happiness is her happiness. She is positive and cheerful even when her husband or her children are angry, she's with them in adversity or sickness. She takes interest in worldly affairs, beyond her husband and family. She is cheerful and humble before family, friends, and relatives; helps them if she can. She welcomes guests, feeds them and encourages righteous social life. Her family life and her home is her heaven, Parvati declares in Book 13 of the Mahabharata.
Rita Gross states, that the view of Parvati only as ideal wife and mother is incomplete symbolism of the power of the feminine in mythology of India. Parvati, along with other goddesses, are involved with the broad range of culturally valued goals and activities. Her connection with motherhood and female sexuality does not confine the feminine or exhaust their significance and activities in Hindu literature. She is balanced by Durga, who is strong and capable without compromising her femaleness. She manifests in every activity, from water to mountains, from arts to inspiring warriors, from agriculture to dance. Parvati's numerous aspects, states Gross, reflects the Hindu belief that the feminine has universal range of activities, and her gender is not a limiting condition.
GANESHA
Hindu literature, including the Matsya Purana, Shiva Purana, and Skanda Purana, dedicates many stories to Parvati and Shiva and their children. For example, one about Ganesha is:
Once, while Parvati wanted to take a bath, there were no attendants around to guard her and stop anyone from accidentally entering the house. Hence she created an image of a boy out of turmeric paste which she prepared to cleanse her body, and infused life into it, and thus Ganesha was born. Parvati ordered Ganesha not to allow anyone to enter the house, and Ganesha obediently followed his mother's orders. After a while Shiva returned and tried to enter the house, Ganesha stopped him. Shiva was infuriated, lost his temper and severed the boy's head with his trident. When Parvati came out and saw her son's lifeless body, she was very angry. She demanded that Shiva restore Ganesha's life at once. Shiva did so by attaching an elephant's head to Ganesha's body, thus giving rise to the elephant headed deity.
PARVATI IN CULTURE
FESTIVALS
Teej is a significant festival for Hindu women, particularly in northern and western states of India. Parvati is the primary deity of the festival, and it ritually celebrates married life and family ties.[68] It also celebrates the monsoon. The festival is marked with swings hung from trees, girls playing on these swings typically in green dress (seasonal color of crop planting season), while singing regional songs. Historically, unmarried maidens prayed to Parvati for a good mate, while married women prayed for the well-being of their husbands and visited their relatives. In Nepal, Teej is a three-day festival marked with visits to Shiva-Parvati temples and offerings to linga. Teej is celebrated as Teeyan in Punjab.
The Gowri Habba, or Gauri Festival, is celebrated on the seventh, eighth, and ninth of Bhadrapada (Shukla paksha). Parvati is worshipped as the goddess of harvest and protectress of women. Her festival, chiefly observed by women, is closely associated with the festival of her son Ganesha (Ganesh Chaturthi). The festival is popular in Maharashtra and Karnataka.
In Rajasthan the worship of Gauri happens during the Gangaur festival. The festival starts on the first day of Chaitra the day after Holi and continues for 18 days. Images of Issar and Gauri are made from Clay for the festival.
Another popular festival in reverence of Parvati is Navratri, in which all her manifestations are worshiped over nine days. Popular in eastern India, particularly in Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand and Assam, as well as several other parts of India such as Gujarat, this is associated with Durga, with her nine forms i.e. Shailputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandmata, Katyani, Kalratri, Mahagauri, Siddhidaatri.
Another festival Gauri tritiya is celebrated from Chaitra shukla third to Vaishakha shukla third. This festival is popular in Maharashtra and Karnataka, less observed in North India and unknown in Bengal. The unwidowed women of the household erect a series of platforms in a pyramidal shape with the image of the goddess at the top and a collection of ornaments, images of other Hindu deities, pictures, shells etc. below. Neighbours are invited and presented with turmeric, fruits, flowers etc. as gifts. At night, prayers are held by singing and dancing. In south Indian states such as Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, the Kethara Gauri Vritham festival is celebrated on the new moon day of Diwali and married women fast for the day, prepare sweets and worship Parvati for the well-being of the family.
ARTS
From sculpture to dance, many Indian arts explore and express the stories of Parvati and Shiva as themes. For example, Daksha Yagam of Kathakali, a form of dance-drama choreography, adapts the romantic episodes of Parvati and Shiva.
The Gauri-Shankar bead is a part of religious adornment rooted in the belief of Parvati and Shiva as the ideal equal complementing halves of the other. Gauri-Shankar is a particular rudraksha (bead) formed naturally from the seed of a tree found in India. Two seeds of this tree sometimes naturally grow as fused, and considered to symbolic of Parvati and Shiva. These seeds are strung into garlands and worn, or used in malas (rosaries) for meditation in Saivism.
NUMISMATICS
Ancient coins from Bactria (Central Asia) of Kushan Empire era, and those of king Harsha (North India) feature Uma. These were issued sometime between 3rd- and 7th-century AD. In Bactria, Uma is spelled Ommo, and she appears on coins holding a flower. On her coin is also shown Shiva, who is sometimes shown in ithyphallic state holding a trident and standing near Nandi (his vahana). On coins issued by king Harsha, Parvati and Shiva are seated on a bull, and the reverse of the coin has Brahmi script.
MAJOR TEMPLES
Parvati is often present with Shiva in Saivite Hindu temples all over South Asia and southeast Asia.
Some locations (Pithas or Shaktipeeths) are considered special because of their historical importance and legends about their origins in the ancient texts of Hinduism. Other locations celebrate major events in Parvati's life. For example, the World Heritage Site at Khajuraho is one such site where Parvati temple is found. It is one of the four major sites associated with Parvati, along with Kedarnath, Kashi and Gaya. The temple’s origin in Khajuraho has been traced to the Hindu mythology in which Khajuraho is the place where Parvati and Shiva got married.
One interpretation of the (Khajuraho) temples is that they were built to celebrate the mythic marriage of Shiva and his consort. At Maha-shivratri in Khajuraho, they celebrate the marriage of Shiva and Parvati. (...) The erotic sculptures are a metaphor of the union of Shiva and Parvati, the marriage of two cosmic forces, of light and darkness, sky and earth, spirit and matter.
Each major Parvati-Shiva temple is a pilgrimage site that has an ancient legend associated with it, which is typically a part of a larger story that links these Hindu temples across South Asia with each other.
Some temples where Parvati can be found include Annapurneshwari temple, Attukal Bhagavathy temple, Chengannur Mahadeva temple, Oorpazhachi Kavu, Valiya Kavu Sree Parvathi Devi temple, Sri Kiratha Parvathi Temple Paramelpadi, Korechal Kirathaparvathi temple, Sree Bhavaneeswara Temple Palluruthy, Irumkulangara Durga Devi Temple, Chakkulathukavu Temple, Nedukavu Parvathy Devi temple, Karthyayani Devi temple, Varanad Devi Temple, Veluthattu Vadakkan Chowa temple, Thiruvairanikulam Mahadeva temple, Ardhanariswara temple and Kadampuzha Devi Temple in Kerala, Meenakshi Amman Temple in Tamil Nadu, Kamakshi Amman Temple in Tamil Nadu, Sri Siva Durga Temple , Mandaikadu Bhagavathi Temple and Devi Kanya Kumari in Tamil Nadu, Mookambika Devi Temple and Banashankari Temple in Karnataka, Maanikyambika Bhimeswara temple in Andhra pradesh, Vishalakshi Temple, Vishalakshi Gauri temple and Annapurna devi temple in Uttar Pradesh, Parvati Temple in Madhya Pradesh, Tulja Bhavani Temple in Maharashtra, Nartiang Durga Temple in Meghalaya, Tripura Sundari Temple in Tripura.
OUTSIDE INDIA
Sculpture and iconography of Parvati, in one of her many manifestations, have been found in temples and literature of southeast Asia. For example, early Saivite inscriptions of the Khmer in Cambodia, dated as early as the fifth century AD, mention Parvati (Uma) and Siva. Many ancient and medieval era Cambodian temples, rock arts and river bed carvings such as the Kbal Spean are dedicated to Parvati and Shiva.
Boisselier has identified Uma in a Champa era temple in Vietnam.
Dozens of ancient temples dedicated to Parvati as Uma, with Siva, have been found in the islands of Indonesia and Malaysia. Her manifestation as Durga has also been found in southeast Asia.[86] Many of the temples in Java dedicated to Siva-Parvati are from second half of 1st millennium AD, and some from later centuries. Durga icons and worship have been dated to be from the 10th- to 13th-century.
In Nakhorn Si Thammarat province of Thailand, excavations at Dev Sathan has yielded a Hindu Temple dedicated to Vishnu (Na Pra Narai), a lingam in yoni, a Shiva temple (San Pra Isuan). The sculpture of Parvati found at this excavation site reflect the South Indian style.Bali, IndonesiaParvati, locally spelled as Parwati, is a principal goddess in modern day Hinduism of Bali. She is more often called Uma, and sometimes referred to as Giriputri (daughter of the mountains). She is the goddess of mountain Gunung Agung. Like Hinduism of India, Uma has many manifestations in Bali, Indonesia. She is the wife of deity Siwa. Uma or Parwati is considered as the mother goddess that nurtures, nourishes, grants fertility to crop and all life. As Dewi Danu, she presides over waters, lake Batur and Gunung Batur, a major volcano in Bali. Unlike India where Sri refers to Lakshmi, Sri is another name of Uma in Bali; her icons and pillar temples grace terraced rice fields (sawahs). Parwati's small pillar temples in rice fields is to seek her blessings of abundance and a good crop. Her ferocious form in Bali is Dewi Durga. As Rangda, she is wrathful and presides cemeteries. As Ibu Petri, Parwati of Balinese Hinduism is the goddess of earth. The legends about various manifestations of Parwati, and how she changes from one form to another, are in Balinese literature, such as the palm-leaf (lontar) manuscript Andabhuana.
RELATED GODDESS
BUDDHISM
Tara found in some sects of Buddhism, particularly Tibetan and Nepalese, is related to Parvati. Tara too appears in many manifestations. In tantric sects of Buddhism, as well as Hinduism, intricate symmetrical art forms of yantra or mandala are dedicated to different aspects of Tara and Parvati.
ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
Parvati is closely related in symbolism and powers as Cybele of Greek and Roman mythology and as Vesta the guardian goddess of children. In her manifestation as Durga, Parvati parallels Mater Montana. She is the equivalent of Magna Mater (Universal Mother). As Kali and punisher of all evil, she corresponds to Proserpine and Diana Taurica.
As Bhawani and goddess of fertility and birthing, she is the symbolic equivalent of Ephesian Diana. In Crete, Rhea is the mythological figure, goddess of the mountains, paralleling Parvati; while in some mythologies from islands of Greece, the terrifying goddess mirroring Parvati is Diktynna (also called Britomartis). At Ephesus, Cybele is shown with lions, just like iconography of Parvati is sometimes shown with a lion.
Carl Jung, in Mysterium Coniunctionis, states that aspects of Parvati belong to the same category of black goddesses as Artemis, Isis and Mary. Edmund Leach equates Parvati in her relationship with Shiva, with that of Greek goddess Aphrodite - a symbol of sexual love.
108 NAMES OF PARVATI
Parvati is known by 108 different names. Following are the name along with it meaning.
Aadya: The meaning of this name is initial reality.
Aarya: It is the name of the Goddess
Abhavya: Signifies fear
Aeindri: The power of Lord Indra.
Agnijwala: Signifies fire
Ahankaara: Indicates pride.
Ameyaa: The name signifies beyond measure.
Ananta: Signifies one who is infinite.
Ananta: The Infinite
Anekashastrahasta: It means the possessor of many hand weapons
AnekastraDhaarini: It means the possessor of many weapons
Anekavarna: Person with multiple complexions.
Aparna: Signifies a person who does not eat anything during fasting
Apraudha: Signifies a person who does not age
Bahula: Various forms
Bahulaprema: Loved by everyone
Balaprada: Signifies the giver of strength
Bhaavini: The Beautiful Woman
Bhavya: Future
Bhadrakaali: One of the forms of Goddess Kali
Bhavani: The abode of the universe
Bhavamochani: The absolver of the universe
Bhavaprita: Loved by everyone in the universe
Bhavya: Indicates magnificence
Braahmi: God Brahma’s power
Brahmavaadini: Present everywhere
Buddhi: Intelligence
Buddhida: The bestower of wisdom
Chamunda: Name of Goddess who killed the demons Chanda and Munda
Chandaghanta: Mighty bells
ChandaMundaVinashini: Goddess who killed asuras Chanda and Munda
Chinta: Tension
Chita: Death-bed
Chiti: The thinking mind
Chitra: The Picturesque
Chittarupa: Thinking or thoughtful state.
Dakshakanya: It is the name of daughter of Daksha
Dakshayajnavinaashini: Interrupter of the sacrifice of Daksha
Devamata: Mother Goddess
Durga: The Invincible
Ekakanya: The girl child
Ghorarupa: Fierce outlook
Gyaana: Knowledge
Jalodari: Abode of the ethereal universe
Jaya: The Victorious
Kaalaratri: Goddess who is black and is similar to the night.
Kaishori: The adolescent
Kalamanjiiraranjini: Musical anklet
Karaali: Violent
Katyayani: Sage Katyanan worships this name
Kaumaari: Adolescent
Komaari: Beautiful adolescent
Kriya: Action
Krrooraa: Brutal
Lakshmi: Goddess of Wealth
Maaheshvari: Power of Lord Shiva
Maatangi: Goddess of Matanga
MadhuKaitabhaHantri: Goddess that killed the demons Madhu and Kaitabha
Mahaabala: Strength
Mahatapa: Penance
Mahodari: Keeping the universe in a huge belly
Manah: Mind
Matangamunipujita: Worshipped by Sage Matanga
Muktakesha: Open tresses
Narayani: Lord Narayana destructive attributes
NishumbhaShumbhaHanani: Goddess who killed brothers Shumbha Nishumbha
Mahishasura Mardini: Goddess who killed demon Mahishasura
Nitya: Eternal one
Paatala: The color red
Paatalavati: Wearing the color red and white
Parameshvari: Ultimate Goddess
Pattaambaraparidhaana: Dress made of leather
Pinaakadharini: Trident of Shiva
Pratyaksha: Real
Praudha: Old
Purushaakriti: Taking the form of a man
Ratnapriya: Adorned
Raudramukhi: Fierce face like destroyer Rudra
Saadhvi: Sanguine
Sadagati: Bestowing Moksha
Sarvaastradhaarini: Possessor of missile weapons
Sarvadaanavaghaatini: Ability to kill all the demons
Sarvamantramayi: Instruments of thought
Sarvashaastramayi: Deft in all theories
Sarvavahanavahana: Rides all vehicles
Sarvavidya: Knowledgeable
Sati: Women who burned on the pyre of her husband
Satta: Above all
Satya: Truth
Satyanandasvarupini: Eternal bliss
Savitri: Daughter of the Sun God Savitr
Shaambhavi: Consort of Shambhu
Shivadooti: Ambassador of Lord Shiva
Shooldharini: Person who holds a monodent
Sundari: Gorgeous
Sursundari: Very Beautiful
Tapasvini: Engaged in penance
Trinetra: Person with three eyes.
Vaarahi: Person who rides on Varaah
Vaishnavi: Invincible
Vandurga: Goddess of forests
Vikrama: Violent
Vimalauttkarshini: Providing joy
Vishnumaya: The spells of Lord Vishnu
Vriddhamaata: Mother who is old
Yati: Person one who renounces the world
Yuvati: Woman
WIKIPEDIA
Land upon which the Catholic Church has established the buildings that represent the hub for the local Catholic community was originally part of 13½ acres purchased by William Robinson in 1864. After the land passed to his widow in 1884, James Robinson acquired title to the property in 1892. This farmer of Dingo Head, Teleman Crossing Upper Logan, retained the property until it was transferred to the War Service Homes Commission in the late 1920s.
At this time Gaythorne / Mitchelton was beginning to become more densely settled. The train line to Enoggera had been operating since 1899 and extended to Gaythorne (initially Rifle Range) in 1916 and Mitchelton in 1918. The Rifle Range, from which originated Gallipoli Barracks, was officially established in 1908. With the advent of World War One (1914 - 1918) the Range became a recruit training area as well as a staging camp. Military personnel and their families contributed to the population growth in the adjoining suburbs. Residential estates such as Lade’s Paddock, the Brookside estate and Oxford Park estate were offered for sale in the first two decades of the twentieth century. Population growth in the area warranted the establishment of the Enoggera (originally called Grovely) State School in 1916.
At this time Catholics in the developing local community travelled mostly to Alderley to the first St John the Baptist church (built 1908) to receive the sacraments, and during the 1920s also worshipped at the chapel of the Redemptorist Order of monks in Church Road. James Duhig, Catholic Archbishop of Brisbane bought the 3 subdivisions on the corner of Samford Road and Suez Street from the War Service Homes Commission in May 1928. The first Church of Our Lady of Dolours was produced by transforming the house on the corner of the site when it was purchased. At the opening ceremony on Easter Sunday, the 19th of April 1930, Archbishop Duhig commented that the drive to Mitchelton had become familiar “during the sad days of the Great War … when our soldiers were being trained for overseas in that big area that surrounded the White City”. From being “scarcely more than a name” Mitchelton then was becoming “one of our most rapidly growing suburbs” with “its picturesque slopes and hill-tops now being covered with beautiful villas”. By June 1941, when the Mitchelton Presbytery was completed and blessed, there were about 140 Catholics in the parish. During World War II the Mitchelton parish priest ministered to the needs of the parish as well as carrying out duties as an Army chaplain and chaplain to the nearby Good Shepherd Convent.
The parish priest of the time (1960s), Father Nugent, had travelled overseas and did extensive research to try to ascertain what the changes might be. He told the architect that he wanted a “church that could be seen from all over the parish” and had “the congregation … as close as possible to the altar”. The accepted design produced by Hargraves had the altar sited so the priest could stand either in front or behind it. The new church, designed by architectural firm Cullen, Fagg, Hargraves and Mooney, opened in 1964.
The church received a commendation in the ‘Building of the Year’ category of the 1966 Royal Australian Institute of Architects awards for Meritorious Architecture. It was built at a time of significant changes to liturgical practices introduced by the Vatican Council in Rome and may have been one of the first churches in Australia to have a free-standing altar. Our Lady of Dolours was certainly the first church built in Brisbane and probably Queensland to provide for changes in the liturgy and is one of the earliest churches in Brisbane to have the congregation’s pews arrayed around the altar. The church is also a War Memorial “commemorating all Australian Servicemen … fallen in the war”.
Source: Brisbane City Council Heritage Register.
U-BOOT TYP VII C - 1/38 (minifig) scale with full interior.
~ 177 CM (~70 INCH) LONG
~ 15.000 PARTS
~ 4.5 YEARS OF WORK
GOALS
The model was supposed to represent a ship from the initial period of the war.
It does not show a specific copy, but it should resemble uboots such as U-69 or U-96 (known from the classic Das Boot movie).
I wanted to get a fairly good representation of both the curves of the hull and as many pieces of internal equipment as possible.
MODEL CHARACTERISTICS
It consists of 6 modules that naturally represent the 6 sections of a real ship:
1. The forward torpedo room and crew compartment [Bow: ~ 3600 parts]
2. Officers', radio and listening room [Front mess: ~ 2000 parts]
3. Control room with conning tower [Control room: ~ 2700 parts]
4. Petty Officers' romm and galley [Rear mess: ~ 1700 parts]
5. Diesel engines room [Diesels: ~ 2400 parts]
6. Electric engines and aft torpedo room [Stern: ~ 2800 parts]
In each module, the port and / or starboard can be removed.
So the entire model can represent the ship from the outside or with an open interior.
The target configuration is with the starboard closed and the port open.
I finally made two photo sessions of the entire model - in a fully closed configuration and with a closed starboard and open port side.
Adittionally I have prepared presentation of individual modules separately.
[b][CONSTRUCTION][/b]
The construction was planned to be made in sections and I started from the control room.
Each module was first designed in LDD (first the hull, then the interior) and then built in reality.
The modules were created in this order:
3. Control room
2. Front mess
1. Bow
4. Rear mess
5. Diesels
6. Stern
Designing started on 26.12.2017.
[b][PHOTOS][/b]
I invite you to view photos.
I'm sorry that there are so many, but I couldn't resist.
(it took me about 3 months to photograph and post-process them)
Flickr albums (part of the photos):
0. Overall: www.flickr.com/photos/pigletciamek/albums/72177720300082599
1. Bow: www.flickr.com/photos/pigletciamek/albums/72177720300077412
2. Front mess: www.flickr.com/photos/pigletciamek/albums/72177720300086873
3. Control room: www.flickr.com/photos/pigletciamek/albums/72177720300082694
4. Rear mess: www.flickr.com/photos/pigletciamek/albums/72177720300082699
5. Diesels: www.flickr.com/photos/pigletciamek/albums/72177720300086878
6. Stern: www.flickr.com/photos/pigletciamek/albums/72177720300077462
0-6. Alltogether: www.flickr.com/photos/pigletciamek/albums/72177720300076411
BS (all photos):
0. Overall: brickshelf.com/cgi-bin/gallery.cgi?f=584704
1. Bow: brickshelf.com/cgi-bin/gallery.cgi?f=584706
2. Front mess: brickshelf.com/cgi-bin/gallery.cgi?f=584707
3. Control room: brickshelf.com/cgi-bin/gallery.cgi?f=584708
4. Rear mess: brickshelf.com/cgi-bin/gallery.cgi?f=584709
5. Diesels: brickshelf.com/cgi-bin/gallery.cgi?f=584710
The Sphinx itself, it seems, symbolized the pharaoh presenting offerings to the sun god in the court of the temple.” Hawass concurs, saying the Sphinx represents Khafre as Horus, the Egyptians’ revered royal falcon god, “who is giving offerings with his two paws to his father, Khufu, incarnated as the sun god, Ra, who rises and sets in that temple.”
Taken @Cairo, Egypt
Sarcophagus Representing a Dionysiac Vintage Festival
Roman Empire - A.D. 290-300
Marble
A lively pastoral scene decorates this oval-shaped sarcophagus. It lacks a lid, but is carved on three sides in high relief. Two lions' heads with rings in their mouths flank the central panel depicting a mythological representation of the Vindemia, a rural Roman wine festival. An assortment of Erotes, or putti--chubby, naked infants with and without wings--harvest grapes from vines overhead. At right, they stomp on grapes in a lenos, or large wine pressing trough. The sarcophagus itself imitates the shape of the container with grapes.
Description from the Getty Villa website
This photo was taken by a Kowa/SIX medium format film camera with a KOWA 1:3.5/55mm lens using Ilford Delta 3200 film, the negative scanned by an Epson Perfection V600 and digitally rendered with Photoshop.
Take Aim-Represent Heat
Created in Photoshop. I took the photo of the chimney today, and added the smoke. I wouldn't mind if it was a bit cooler right now!
IR HDR. IR converted Canon Rebel XTi. AEB +/-2 total of 6 exposures processed with Photomatix. Tokina 11-16mm lens
High Dynamic Range (HDR)
High-dynamic-range imaging (HDRI) is a high dynamic range (HDR) technique used in imaging and photography to reproduce a greater dynamic range of luminosity than is possible with standard digital imaging or photographic techniques. The aim is to present a similar range of luminance to that experienced through the human visual system. The human eye, through adaptation of the iris and other methods, adjusts constantly to adapt to a broad range of luminance present in the environment. The brain continuously interprets this information so that a viewer can see in a wide range of light conditions.
HDR images can represent a greater range of luminance levels than can be achieved using more 'traditional' methods, such as many real-world scenes containing very bright, direct sunlight to extreme shade, or very faint nebulae. This is often achieved by capturing and then combining several different, narrower range, exposures of the same subject matter. Non-HDR cameras take photographs with a limited exposure range, referred to as LDR, resulting in the loss of detail in highlights or shadows.
The two primary types of HDR images are computer renderings and images resulting from merging multiple low-dynamic-range (LDR) or standard-dynamic-range (SDR) photographs. HDR images can also be acquired using special image sensors, such as an oversampled binary image sensor.
Due to the limitations of printing and display contrast, the extended luminosity range of an HDR image has to be compressed to be made visible. The method of rendering an HDR image to a standard monitor or printing device is called tone mapping. This method reduces the overall contrast of an HDR image to facilitate display on devices or printouts with lower dynamic range, and can be applied to produce images with preserved local contrast (or exaggerated for artistic effect).
In photography, dynamic range is measured in exposure value (EV) differences (known as stops). An increase of one EV, or 'one stop', represents a doubling of the amount of light. Conversely, a decrease of one EV represents a halving of the amount of light. Therefore, revealing detail in the darkest of shadows requires high exposures, while preserving detail in very bright situations requires very low exposures. Most cameras cannot provide this range of exposure values within a single exposure, due to their low dynamic range. High-dynamic-range photographs are generally achieved by capturing multiple standard-exposure images, often using exposure bracketing, and then later merging them into a single HDR image, usually within a photo manipulation program). Digital images are often encoded in a camera's raw image format, because 8-bit JPEG encoding does not offer a wide enough range of values to allow fine transitions (and regarding HDR, later introduces undesirable effects due to lossy compression).
Any camera that allows manual exposure control can make images for HDR work, although one equipped with auto exposure bracketing (AEB) is far better suited. Images from film cameras are less suitable as they often must first be digitized, so that they can later be processed using software HDR methods.
In most imaging devices, the degree of exposure to light applied to the active element (be it film or CCD) can be altered in one of two ways: by either increasing/decreasing the size of the aperture or by increasing/decreasing the time of each exposure. Exposure variation in an HDR set is only done by altering the exposure time and not the aperture size; this is because altering the aperture size also affects the depth of field and so the resultant multiple images would be quite different, preventing their final combination into a single HDR image.
An important limitation for HDR photography is that any movement between successive images will impede or prevent success in combining them afterwards. Also, as one must create several images (often three or five and sometimes more) to obtain the desired luminance range, such a full 'set' of images takes extra time. HDR photographers have developed calculation methods and techniques to partially overcome these problems, but the use of a sturdy tripod is, at least, advised.
Some cameras have an auto exposure bracketing (AEB) feature with a far greater dynamic range than others, from the 3 EV of the Canon EOS 40D, to the 18 EV of the Canon EOS-1D Mark II. As the popularity of this imaging method grows, several camera manufactures are now offering built-in HDR features. For example, the Pentax K-7 DSLR has an HDR mode that captures an HDR image and outputs (only) a tone mapped JPEG file. The Canon PowerShot G12, Canon PowerShot S95 and Canon PowerShot S100 offer similar features in a smaller format.. Nikon's approach is called 'Active D-Lighting' which applies exposure compensation and tone mapping to the image as it comes from the sensor, with the accent being on retaing a realistic effect . Some smartphones provide HDR modes, and most mobile platforms have apps that provide HDR picture taking.
Camera characteristics such as gamma curves, sensor resolution, noise, photometric calibration and color calibration affect resulting high-dynamic-range images.
Color film negatives and slides consist of multiple film layers that respond to light differently. As a consequence, transparent originals (especially positive slides) feature a very high dynamic range
Tone mapping
Tone mapping reduces the dynamic range, or contrast ratio, of an entire image while retaining localized contrast. Although it is a distinct operation, tone mapping is often applied to HDRI files by the same software package.
Several software applications are available on the PC, Mac and Linux platforms for producing HDR files and tone mapped images. Notable titles include
Adobe Photoshop
Aurora HDR
Dynamic Photo HDR
HDR Efex Pro
HDR PhotoStudio
Luminance HDR
MagicRaw
Oloneo PhotoEngine
Photomatix Pro
PTGui
Information stored in high-dynamic-range images typically corresponds to the physical values of luminance or radiance that can be observed in the real world. This is different from traditional digital images, which represent colors as they should appear on a monitor or a paper print. Therefore, HDR image formats are often called scene-referred, in contrast to traditional digital images, which are device-referred or output-referred. Furthermore, traditional images are usually encoded for the human visual system (maximizing the visual information stored in the fixed number of bits), which is usually called gamma encoding or gamma correction. The values stored for HDR images are often gamma compressed (power law) or logarithmically encoded, or floating-point linear values, since fixed-point linear encodings are increasingly inefficient over higher dynamic ranges.
HDR images often don't use fixed ranges per color channel—other than traditional images—to represent many more colors over a much wider dynamic range. For that purpose, they don't use integer values to represent the single color channels (e.g., 0-255 in an 8 bit per pixel interval for red, green and blue) but instead use a floating point representation. Common are 16-bit (half precision) or 32-bit floating point numbers to represent HDR pixels. However, when the appropriate transfer function is used, HDR pixels for some applications can be represented with a color depth that has as few as 10–12 bits for luminance and 8 bits for chrominance without introducing any visible quantization artifacts.
History of HDR photography
The idea of using several exposures to adequately reproduce a too-extreme range of luminance was pioneered as early as the 1850s by Gustave Le Gray to render seascapes showing both the sky and the sea. Such rendering was impossible at the time using standard methods, as the luminosity range was too extreme. Le Gray used one negative for the sky, and another one with a longer exposure for the sea, and combined the two into one picture in positive.
Mid 20th century
Manual tone mapping was accomplished by dodging and burning – selectively increasing or decreasing the exposure of regions of the photograph to yield better tonality reproduction. This was effective because the dynamic range of the negative is significantly higher than would be available on the finished positive paper print when that is exposed via the negative in a uniform manner. An excellent example is the photograph Schweitzer at the Lamp by W. Eugene Smith, from his 1954 photo essay A Man of Mercy on Dr. Albert Schweitzer and his humanitarian work in French Equatorial Africa. The image took 5 days to reproduce the tonal range of the scene, which ranges from a bright lamp (relative to the scene) to a dark shadow.
Ansel Adams elevated dodging and burning to an art form. Many of his famous prints were manipulated in the darkroom with these two methods. Adams wrote a comprehensive book on producing prints called The Print, which prominently features dodging and burning, in the context of his Zone System.
With the advent of color photography, tone mapping in the darkroom was no longer possible due to the specific timing needed during the developing process of color film. Photographers looked to film manufacturers to design new film stocks with improved response, or continued to shoot in black and white to use tone mapping methods.
Color film capable of directly recording high-dynamic-range images was developed by Charles Wyckoff and EG&G "in the course of a contract with the Department of the Air Force". This XR film had three emulsion layers, an upper layer having an ASA speed rating of 400, a middle layer with an intermediate rating, and a lower layer with an ASA rating of 0.004. The film was processed in a manner similar to color films, and each layer produced a different color. The dynamic range of this extended range film has been estimated as 1:108. It has been used to photograph nuclear explosions, for astronomical photography, for spectrographic research, and for medical imaging. Wyckoff's detailed pictures of nuclear explosions appeared on the cover of Life magazine in the mid-1950s.
Late 20th century
Georges Cornuéjols and licensees of his patents (Brdi, Hymatom) introduced the principle of HDR video image, in 1986, by interposing a matricial LCD screen in front of the camera's image sensor, increasing the sensors dynamic by five stops. The concept of neighborhood tone mapping was applied to video cameras by a group from the Technion in Israel led by Dr. Oliver Hilsenrath and Prof. Y.Y.Zeevi who filed for a patent on this concept in 1988.
In February and April 1990, Georges Cornuéjols introduced the first real-time HDR camera that combined two images captured by a sensor3435 or simultaneously3637 by two sensors of the camera. This process is known as bracketing used for a video stream.
In 1991, the first commercial video camera was introduced that performed real-time capturing of multiple images with different exposures, and producing an HDR video image, by Hymatom, licensee of Georges Cornuéjols.
Also in 1991, Georges Cornuéjols introduced the HDR+ image principle by non-linear accumulation of images to increase the sensitivity of the camera: for low-light environments, several successive images are accumulated, thus increasing the signal to noise ratio.
In 1993, another commercial medical camera producing an HDR video image, by the Technion.
Modern HDR imaging uses a completely different approach, based on making a high-dynamic-range luminance or light map using only global image operations (across the entire image), and then tone mapping the result. Global HDR was first introduced in 19931 resulting in a mathematical theory of differently exposed pictures of the same subject matter that was published in 1995 by Steve Mann and Rosalind Picard.
On October 28, 1998, Ben Sarao created one of the first nighttime HDR+G (High Dynamic Range + Graphic image)of STS-95 on the launch pad at NASA's Kennedy Space Center. It consisted of four film images of the shuttle at night that were digitally composited with additional digital graphic elements. The image was first exhibited at NASA Headquarters Great Hall, Washington DC in 1999 and then published in Hasselblad Forum, Issue 3 1993, Volume 35 ISSN 0282-5449.
The advent of consumer digital cameras produced a new demand for HDR imaging to improve the light response of digital camera sensors, which had a much smaller dynamic range than film. Steve Mann developed and patented the global-HDR method for producing digital images having extended dynamic range at the MIT Media Laboratory. Mann's method involved a two-step procedure: (1) generate one floating point image array by global-only image operations (operations that affect all pixels identically, without regard to their local neighborhoods); and then (2) convert this image array, using local neighborhood processing (tone-remapping, etc.), into an HDR image. The image array generated by the first step of Mann's process is called a lightspace image, lightspace picture, or radiance map. Another benefit of global-HDR imaging is that it provides access to the intermediate light or radiance map, which has been used for computer vision, and other image processing operations.
21st century
In 2005, Adobe Systems introduced several new features in Photoshop CS2 including Merge to HDR, 32 bit floating point image support, and HDR tone mapping.
On June 30, 2016, Microsoft added support for the digital compositing of HDR images to Windows 10 using the Universal Windows Platform.
HDR sensors
Modern CMOS image sensors can often capture a high dynamic range from a single exposure. The wide dynamic range of the captured image is non-linearly compressed into a smaller dynamic range electronic representation. However, with proper processing, the information from a single exposure can be used to create an HDR image.
Such HDR imaging is used in extreme dynamic range applications like welding or automotive work. Some other cameras designed for use in security applications can automatically provide two or more images for each frame, with changing exposure. For example, a sensor for 30fps video will give out 60fps with the odd frames at a short exposure time and the even frames at a longer exposure time. Some of the sensor may even combine the two images on-chip so that a wider dynamic range without in-pixel compression is directly available to the user for display or processing.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-dynamic-range_imaging
Infrared Photography
In infrared photography, the film or image sensor used is sensitive to infrared light. The part of the spectrum used is referred to as near-infrared to distinguish it from far-infrared, which is the domain of thermal imaging. Wavelengths used for photography range from about 700 nm to about 900 nm. Film is usually sensitive to visible light too, so an infrared-passing filter is used; this lets infrared (IR) light pass through to the camera, but blocks all or most of the visible light spectrum (the filter thus looks black or deep red). ("Infrared filter" may refer either to this type of filter or to one that blocks infrared but passes other wavelengths.)
When these filters are used together with infrared-sensitive film or sensors, "in-camera effects" can be obtained; false-color or black-and-white images with a dreamlike or sometimes lurid appearance known as the "Wood Effect," an effect mainly caused by foliage (such as tree leaves and grass) strongly reflecting in the same way visible light is reflected from snow. There is a small contribution from chlorophyll fluorescence, but this is marginal and is not the real cause of the brightness seen in infrared photographs. The effect is named after the infrared photography pioneer Robert W. Wood, and not after the material wood, which does not strongly reflect infrared.
The other attributes of infrared photographs include very dark skies and penetration of atmospheric haze, caused by reduced Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering, respectively, compared to visible light. The dark skies, in turn, result in less infrared light in shadows and dark reflections of those skies from water, and clouds will stand out strongly. These wavelengths also penetrate a few millimeters into skin and give a milky look to portraits, although eyes often look black.
Until the early 20th century, infrared photography was not possible because silver halide emulsions are not sensitive to longer wavelengths than that of blue light (and to a lesser extent, green light) without the addition of a dye to act as a color sensitizer. The first infrared photographs (as distinct from spectrographs) to be published appeared in the February 1910 edition of The Century Magazine and in the October 1910 edition of the Royal Photographic Society Journal to illustrate papers by Robert W. Wood, who discovered the unusual effects that now bear his name. The RPS co-ordinated events to celebrate the centenary of this event in 2010. Wood's photographs were taken on experimental film that required very long exposures; thus, most of his work focused on landscapes. A further set of infrared landscapes taken by Wood in Italy in 1911 used plates provided for him by CEK Mees at Wratten & Wainwright. Mees also took a few infrared photographs in Portugal in 1910, which are now in the Kodak archives.
Infrared-sensitive photographic plates were developed in the United States during World War I for spectroscopic analysis, and infrared sensitizing dyes were investigated for improved haze penetration in aerial photography. After 1930, new emulsions from Kodak and other manufacturers became useful to infrared astronomy.
Infrared photography became popular with photography enthusiasts in the 1930s when suitable film was introduced commercially. The Times regularly published landscape and aerial photographs taken by their staff photographers using Ilford infrared film. By 1937 33 kinds of infrared film were available from five manufacturers including Agfa, Kodak and Ilford. Infrared movie film was also available and was used to create day-for-night effects in motion pictures, a notable example being the pseudo-night aerial sequences in the James Cagney/Bette Davis movie The Bride Came COD.
False-color infrared photography became widely practiced with the introduction of Kodak Ektachrome Infrared Aero Film and Ektachrome Infrared EIR. The first version of this, known as Kodacolor Aero-Reversal-Film, was developed by Clark and others at the Kodak for camouflage detection in the 1940s. The film became more widely available in 35mm form in the 1960s but KODAK AEROCHROME III Infrared Film 1443 has been discontinued.
Infrared photography became popular with a number of 1960s recording artists, because of the unusual results; Jimi Hendrix, Donovan, Frank and a slow shutter speed without focus compensation, however wider apertures like f/2.0 can produce sharp photos only if the lens is meticulously refocused to the infrared index mark, and only if this index mark is the correct one for the filter and film in use. However, it should be noted that diffraction effects inside a camera are greater at infrared wavelengths so that stopping down the lens too far may actually reduce sharpness.
Most apochromatic ('APO') lenses do not have an Infrared index mark and do not need to be refocused for the infrared spectrum because they are already optically corrected into the near-infrared spectrum. Catadioptric lenses do not often require this adjustment because their mirror containing elements do not suffer from chromatic aberration and so the overall aberration is comparably less. Catadioptric lenses do, of course, still contain lenses, and these lenses do still have a dispersive property.
Infrared black-and-white films require special development times but development is usually achieved with standard black-and-white film developers and chemicals (like D-76). Kodak HIE film has a polyester film base that is very stable but extremely easy to scratch, therefore special care must be used in the handling of Kodak HIE throughout the development and printing/scanning process to avoid damage to the film. The Kodak HIE film was sensitive to 900 nm.
As of November 2, 2007, "KODAK is preannouncing the discontinuance" of HIE Infrared 35 mm film stating the reasons that, "Demand for these products has been declining significantly in recent years, and it is no longer practical to continue to manufacture given the low volume, the age of the product formulations and the complexity of the processes involved." At the time of this notice, HIE Infrared 135-36 was available at a street price of around $12.00 a roll at US mail order outlets.
Arguably the greatest obstacle to infrared film photography has been the increasing difficulty of obtaining infrared-sensitive film. However, despite the discontinuance of HIE, other newer infrared sensitive emulsions from EFKE, ROLLEI, and ILFORD are still available, but these formulations have differing sensitivity and specifications from the venerable KODAK HIE that has been around for at least two decades. Some of these infrared films are available in 120 and larger formats as well as 35 mm, which adds flexibility to their application. With the discontinuance of Kodak HIE, Efke's IR820 film has become the only IR film on the marketneeds update with good sensitivity beyond 750 nm, the Rollei film does extend beyond 750 nm but IR sensitivity falls off very rapidly.
Color infrared transparency films have three sensitized layers that, because of the way the dyes are coupled to these layers, reproduce infrared as red, red as green, and green as blue. All three layers are sensitive to blue so the film must be used with a yellow filter, since this will block blue light but allow the remaining colors to reach the film. The health of foliage can be determined from the relative strengths of green and infrared light reflected; this shows in color infrared as a shift from red (healthy) towards magenta (unhealthy). Early color infrared films were developed in the older E-4 process, but Kodak later manufactured a color transparency film that could be developed in standard E-6 chemistry, although more accurate results were obtained by developing using the AR-5 process. In general, color infrared does not need to be refocused to the infrared index mark on the lens.
In 2007 Kodak announced that production of the 35 mm version of their color infrared film (Ektachrome Professional Infrared/EIR) would cease as there was insufficient demand. Since 2011, all formats of color infrared film have been discontinued. Specifically, Aerochrome 1443 and SO-734.
There is no currently available digital camera that will produce the same results as Kodak color infrared film although the equivalent images can be produced by taking two exposures, one infrared and the other full-color, and combining in post-production. The color images produced by digital still cameras using infrared-pass filters are not equivalent to those produced on color infrared film. The colors result from varying amounts of infrared passing through the color filters on the photo sites, further amended by the Bayer filtering. While this makes such images unsuitable for the kind of applications for which the film was used, such as remote sensing of plant health, the resulting color tonality has proved popular artistically.
Color digital infrared, as part of full spectrum photography is gaining popularity. The ease of creating a softly colored photo with infrared characteristics has found interest among hobbyists and professionals.
In 2008, Los Angeles photographer, Dean Bennici started cutting and hand rolling Aerochrome color Infrared film. All Aerochrome medium and large format which exists today came directly from his lab. The trend in infrared photography continues to gain momentum with the success of photographer Richard Mosse and multiple users all around the world.
Digital camera sensors are inherently sensitive to infrared light, which would interfere with the normal photography by confusing the autofocus calculations or softening the image (because infrared light is focused differently from visible light), or oversaturating the red channel. Also, some clothing is transparent in the infrared, leading to unintended (at least to the manufacturer) uses of video cameras. Thus, to improve image quality and protect privacy, many digital cameras employ infrared blockers. Depending on the subject matter, infrared photography may not be practical with these cameras because the exposure times become overly long, often in the range of 30 seconds, creating noise and motion blur in the final image. However, for some subject matter the long exposure does not matter or the motion blur effects actually add to the image. Some lenses will also show a 'hot spot' in the centre of the image as their coatings are optimised for visible light and not for IR.
An alternative method of DSLR infrared photography is to remove the infrared blocker in front of the sensor and replace it with a filter that removes visible light. This filter is behind the mirror, so the camera can be used normally - handheld, normal shutter speeds, normal composition through the viewfinder, and focus, all work like a normal camera. Metering works but is not always accurate because of the difference between visible and infrared refraction. When the IR blocker is removed, many lenses which did display a hotspot cease to do so, and become perfectly usable for infrared photography. Additionally, because the red, green and blue micro-filters remain and have transmissions not only in their respective color but also in the infrared, enhanced infrared color may be recorded.
Since the Bayer filters in most digital cameras absorb a significant fraction of the infrared light, these cameras are sometimes not very sensitive as infrared cameras and can sometimes produce false colors in the images. An alternative approach is to use a Foveon X3 sensor, which does not have absorptive filters on it; the Sigma SD10 DSLR has a removable IR blocking filter and dust protector, which can be simply omitted or replaced by a deep red or complete visible light blocking filter. The Sigma SD14 has an IR/UV blocking filter that can be removed/installed without tools. The result is a very sensitive digital IR camera.
While it is common to use a filter that blocks almost all visible light, the wavelength sensitivity of a digital camera without internal infrared blocking is such that a variety of artistic results can be obtained with more conventional filtration. For example, a very dark neutral density filter can be used (such as the Hoya ND400) which passes a very small amount of visible light compared to the near-infrared it allows through. Wider filtration permits an SLR viewfinder to be used and also passes more varied color information to the sensor without necessarily reducing the Wood effect. Wider filtration is however likely to reduce other infrared artefacts such as haze penetration and darkened skies. This technique mirrors the methods used by infrared film photographers where black-and-white infrared film was often used with a deep red filter rather than a visually opaque one.
Another common technique with near-infrared filters is to swap blue and red channels in software (e.g. photoshop) which retains much of the characteristic 'white foliage' while rendering skies a glorious blue.
Several Sony cameras had the so-called Night Shot facility, which physically moves the blocking filter away from the light path, which makes the cameras very sensitive to infrared light. Soon after its development, this facility was 'restricted' by Sony to make it difficult for people to take photos that saw through clothing. To do this the iris is opened fully and exposure duration is limited to long times of more than 1/30 second or so. It is possible to shoot infrared but neutral density filters must be used to reduce the camera's sensitivity and the long exposure times mean that care must be taken to avoid camera-shake artifacts.
Fuji have produced digital cameras for use in forensic criminology and medicine which have no infrared blocking filter. The first camera, designated the S3 PRO UVIR, also had extended ultraviolet sensitivity (digital sensors are usually less sensitive to UV than to IR). Optimum UV sensitivity requires special lenses, but ordinary lenses usually work well for IR. In 2007, FujiFilm introduced a new version of this camera, based on the Nikon D200/ FujiFilm S5 called the IS Pro, also able to take Nikon lenses. Fuji had earlier introduced a non-SLR infrared camera, the IS-1, a modified version of the FujiFilm FinePix S9100. Unlike the S3 PRO UVIR, the IS-1 does not offer UV sensitivity. FujiFilm restricts the sale of these cameras to professional users with their EULA specifically prohibiting "unethical photographic conduct".
Phase One digital camera backs can be ordered in an infrared modified form.
Remote sensing and thermographic cameras are sensitive to longer wavelengths of infrared (see Infrared spectrum#Commonly used sub-division scheme). They may be multispectral and use a variety of technologies which may not resemble common camera or filter designs. Cameras sensitive to longer infrared wavelengths including those used in infrared astronomy often require cooling to reduce thermally induced dark currents in the sensor (see Dark current (physics)). Lower cost uncooled thermographic digital cameras operate in the Long Wave infrared band (see Thermographic camera#Uncooled infrared detectors). These cameras are generally used for building inspection or preventative maintenance but can be used for artistic pursuits as well.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_photography
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Metro Express 15
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Operator: MetroExpress Connect Inc.
Fleet No.: 15
Type of Service: Premium Point-to-Point (P2P) Bus Service
Route: Starmall Alabang - Dasmariñas
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ENGINE
Maker: Volvo Bus Corporation
Model: D7E
CHASSIS
Maker: Volvo Bus Corporation
Model: B7RLE
COACH
Coachbuilder: Autodelta Coach Builders Inc.
Model: Volvo 8900/Sunwin SWB6128 (repl.)
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captured at Daang Hari, Muntinlupa City
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NOTE: Errors may be evident with this description. Corrections will be done once verified.
The 16th of May 2013 represented the 70th anniversary of the Dambusters of 617 Squadron Royal Air Forces daring raid to destroy 2 of the main dams in the Ruhr Industial area,these being the Mohne and Sorpe dams with the Eder Dam as a secondary target. Led by Wing Commander Guy Gibson 19 Lancaster bombers departed to carry out Operation Chastise with the use of the now famous Barnes Wallis "Bouncing Bomb". 8 aircraft and 53 aircrew would fail to return from the mission. The mission was a great success. The aircraft depicted in the pictures represent a Spitfire of 541 sqn which carried out reconnaissance of the area before the attacks,a pair of Tornado Gr4`s with a commemorative tail design from the current 617sqn "Dambusters" and last but not least the Lancaster of the BBMF in the markings of 617Sqn and carrying the name "Thumper".
The Derwent Dam and Ladybower Reservoir were used during the build up to the mission due to similairity in terrain to that which the crews would have to fly over to complete their mission.
These ten astronauts represent NASA's prime crew, the backup crew, and the crew support team for the joint U.S.–USSR Apollo-Soyuz Test Project docking mission in Earth orbit. They are, left to right, Robert L. Crippen, support team; Robert F. Overmyer, support team; Richard H. Truly, support team; Karol J. Bobko, support team; Donald K. Slayton, prime crew docking module pilot; Thomas P. Stafford, prime crew commander; Vance D. Brand, prime crew command module pilot; Jack R. Lousma, backup crew docking module pilot; Ronald E. Evans, backup crew command module pilot; and Alan L. Bean, backup crew commander. They are photographed by the Apollo Mission Simulator console in Building 5 at NASA's Johnson Space Center in July 1975.
Credit: NASA
Image Number: S75-28361
Date: July 9, 1975
TANK ENGINE FOR SOUTH AFRICA
THE locomotive illustrated above represents one of six tank engines recently constructed by Messrs. Beyer, Peacock, and Co., of Gorton, Manchester, for the Pretoria and Pietersburg Railway in the South African Republic.
The gauge of the railway is comparatively narrow, the rails being laid to the standard 3ft. 6in. gauge of South Africa, and as the ruling gradients are 1 in 50, with curves of 150 meters radius, while the gross loads specified to be hauled by these engines totalled out to 212 tons, exclusive of their own weight; while at the same time the maximum load per axle was limited to 12,000 kilos. (11 tons 16 cwt.) the problem was not an easy one to fulfil, more especially in view of the fact that the engines were required to carry 1540 gallons of water and three tons of coal. The coupled wheels were, further, specified to be not less than 1·15 metres (3ft. 9fin.) in diameter, so as to render the engines capable of running easily at a speed of 25 miles an hour. On examining the engraving and the statement of leading dimensions, along with the particulars given below, it will be seen that the problem has, nevertheless, been solved in an admirable manner, in combining lateral and vertical flexibility with a sufficiently long wheel base to ensure steadiness in running at the maximum speed required, the rigid wheel base being only l0 ft. 2in. long, while the total base is 28ft. 3in. The springs of the front bogie and first pair of coupled wheels are further compensated by beams, those of the driving and hind-coupled axles being compensated in like manner. The weight of the engines has also, it will be seen, been well distributed on the axles, the feedwater being accommodated in long side tanks, while the fuel is carried in a convenient position behind the footplate.
The Pretoria-Pietersburg Railway (PPR) was a private railway which operated between Pretoria West via Warmbad and Nylstroom to Pietersburg. It was constructed under a concession granted by the government of the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (ZAR) to Hendrik Jacobus Schoeman on 30 October 1895. Construction commenced in 1897 and the railway was opened to traffic as far as Nylstroom by 1 July 1898. Potgietersrus was reached on 1 October 1898 and Pietersburg on 1 May 1899. The P&P Railway ordered one additional 2-6-4T locomotive from Beyer Peacock in 1900, under the BP works number 4127, following the loss at sea of locomotive Nr. 5.
Illustration by John Swain for "The Engineer" from May 05, 1899
For more information about this 2-6-4T steam locomotive, please visit this Wikipedia link:
Ya no recuerdo de su cuerpo aquello que no puede representar la fotografía, hago el esfuerzo, su risa, su voz, su mirada, su olor, y tantos otros encantos que se quedaron en el tiempo, que no es el ahora, y ahora ya no tengo aquello que un día creí que me pertenecía, ¿y si no sabes?, ¿Como lo puedes saber?. Le pegaba porque me contestaba, y yo le decía que sino me tocaba las pelotas, no haría falta todo aquello, para mí, era una posesión más a la que quería y que me tenía enamorado. No podía soportar cuando ella tenía razón y yo dándome cuenta de mi inferioridad, me ponía en ridículo, a veces incluso estando a solas, pero sino atajas esos comportamientos, te dejan de tener miedo. ¡Creo que fue eso!, pasó del amor ciego que me tenía al miedo, y todo cambió.
Ahora siento el frío, y una vergüenza enorme, una pena inmensa, parece increíble que aquello fuese yo, pero no sabía, nadie me lo había enseñado. En mi caso, mi padre hacia lo que yo repetí, lo que yo creía que era normal, y la perdí, por la creencia de algo que ni siquiera era yo, pero que me comportaba como si mi esencia reclamara no ser. Aquel día, me la encontré por la calle cogida de la mano de otro, y mi corazón sintió toneladas de celos, que me aplastaban la respiración, reaccioné a lo que no quería hacer, y un puñetazo certero de su actual pareja me hizo parar y entender que aquello, no era yo, sino una multitud de cargas emocionales aprendidas de las cuales no comportía, pero que me utilizaban como un títere.
Hace un mes de aquello y no sé como superarlo, pero sé lo que tengo que cambiar, ¿porque si el cambio no empieza en mi, donde se producirá?. El mechero encendido ya prende la hoja fotográfica que soporta a la imagen. Primer paso para cambiar, pero no para olvidar. Ahora siento que sin respeto no hay nada, sin amor, no hay nada, sin libertad no hay nada, y otras tantas que no me vienen a la mente. Aunque haya personas que no te lo aplique a tí,¿ pero sino cambias tú como esperas que cambien los demás?. Ya arde aproximandose a los dedos que la soportan, ya siento el calor, no se cuanto tiempo podré aguantar. Se apagó justo antes de consumir el seno que reflejaba en ondas acuosas de aquel día de verano en que sentí el frío.
The Ramayana or Rāmāyaṇa (/rɑːˈmɑːjənə/; Sanskrit: रामायणम्, Rāmāyaṇam, pronounced [rɑːˈmɑːjəɳəm]), is the first of two Sanskrit itihāsas (ancient Indian epic poem) traditionally ascribed to the Hindu muni (sage) Vālmīki - the other one being the Mahābhārata attributed to Kṛṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa.
The epic narrates the life of Rāma, a legendary rāja-kumāra (prince) of Kośala, his banishment from his kingdom by his father king Daśaratha, his travels across forests in India with his wife Sītā and brother Lakṣmaṇa, the kidnap of his wife by his enemies, resulting in a war with Rāvaṇa (the king of the island of Laṅkā) and eventual return to Ayodhya to be crowned king.
The Ramayana is one of the largest ancient epics in world literature. It is comprised nearly 24,000 verses (mostly set in the śloka meter), divided into seven Kāṇḍas (books) and about 500 sargas (chapters). In Hindu tradition, it is considered to be the ādi-kāvya (first kāvya poem). It depicts the duties of relationships, portraying ideal characters like the ideal father, the ideal servant, the ideal brother, the ideal wife and the ideal king. The Ramayana was an important influence on later Sanskrit poetry and Hindu life and culture. Like the Mahabharata, the Ramayana is not just a story: it presents the teachings of ancient Hindu sages in narrative allegory, interspersing philosophical and ethical elements. The characters Rāma, Sītā, Lakṣmaṇa, Bharata, Hanumān and Rāvaṇa are all fundamental to the cultural consciousness of India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and south-east Asian countries such as Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia and Indonesia.
There are many other versions of the Ramayana in Indian languages, besides Buddhist and Jain adaptations; and also Cambodian, Indonesian, Filipino, Thai, Lao, Burmese, and Malaysian versions of the tale.
ETYMOLOGY
The name Ramayana is a tatpuruṣa compound of Rāma and ayana("going, advancing"), translating to Rama's Journey.
Textual history and structure
Traditionally, the Ramayana is attributed to Valmiki. The Hindu tradition is unanimous in its agreement that the poem is the work of a single poet, the sage Valmiki, a contemporary of Rama and a peripheral actor in the drama. The story's original version in Sanskrit is known as Valmiki Ramayana.
According to Hindu tradition - and according to the Ramayana itself - the Ramayana belongs to the genre of itihāsa like the Mahabharata. The definition of itihāsa is a narrative of past events (purāvṛtta) which includes teachings on the goals of human life. According to Hindu tradition, the Ramayana takes place during a period of time known as Treta Yuga.
In its extant form, Valmiki's Ramayana is an epic poem of some 24,000 verses. The text survives in several thousand partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which is a palm-leaf manuscript found in Nepal and dated to the 11th century CE. A Times of India report dated 18 Dec 2015 informs about discovery of a 6th-century manuscript of Ramayana at the Asiatic Society library, Kolkata. The Ramayana text has several regional renderings, recensions, and subrecensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two major regional recensions: the northern(n) and the southern(s). Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that "the Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind."
There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last chapters of Valmiki's Ramayana were composed by the original author. Most Hindus still believe they are integral parts of the book, in spite of some style differences and narrative contradictions between these two chapters and the rest of the book.
Famous retellings include Gona Budda Reddy's Ramayanam in Telugu, Kamban's Ramavataram in Tamil (c. 11th–12th century), Madhava Kandali's Saptakanda Ramayana in Assamese (c. 14th century), Krittibas Ojha's Krittivasi Ramayan(also known as Shri Rama panchali) in Bengali (c. 15th century), Sarala Das' Vilanka Ramayana (c. 15th century) and Balaram Das' Dandi Ramayana(also known as the Jagamohan Ramayana) (c. 16th century) both in Odia, sant Eknath's Bhavarth Ramayan (c. 16th century) in Marathi, Tulsidas' Ramcharitamanas (c. 16th century) in Awadhi (which is an eastern form of Hindi) and Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan's Adhyathmaramayanam in Malayalam.
PERIOD
Some cultural evidence - such as the presence of sati in the Mahabharata but not in the main body of the Ramayana - suggests that the Ramayana predates the Mahabharata. However, the general cultural background of the Ramayana is one of the post-urbanization period of the eastern part of north India and Nepal, while the Mahabharata reflects the Kuru areas west of this, from the Rigvedic to the late Vedic period.
By tradition, the text belongs to the Treta Yuga, second of the four eons(yuga) of Hindu chronology. Rama is said to have been born in the treta yuga to king Dasaratha in the Ikshvaku dynasty.
The names of the characters(Rama, Sita, Dasaratha, Janaka, Vashista, Vishwamitra) are all known in late Vedic literature. However, nowhere in the surviving Vedic poetry is there a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki. According to the modern academic view, Vishnu - who, according to bala kanda, was incarnated as Rama - first came into prominence with the epics themselves and further during the puranic period of the later 1st millennium CE. Also, in the epic Mahabharata, there is a version of Ramayana known as Ramopakhyana. This version is depicted as a narration to Yudhishthira.
There is general consensus that books two to six form the oldest portion of the epic, while the first and last books(bala kanda and uttara kanda, respectively) are later additions. The author or authors of bala kanda and ayodhya kanda appear to be familiar with the eastern Gangetic basin region of northern India and with the Kosala and Magadha region during the period of the sixteen Janapadas, based on the fact that the geographical and geopolitical data accords with what is known about the region. The knowledge of the location of the island of Lanka also lacks detail. Basing his assumption on these features, archeologist Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia has proposed a date of the 4th century BC for the composition of the text. Historian and indologist Arthur Llewellyn Basham is of the opinion that Rama may have been a minor chief who lived in the 8th or the 7th century BC.
CHARACTERS
Rāma is one of the protagonists of the tale. Portrayed as the seventh avatar of the god Vishnu, he is the eldest and favourite son of Dasharatha - the king of Ayodhya(current day Ayodhya, India) - and his Chief Queen, Kausalya. He is portrayed as the epitome of virtue. Dasharatha is forced by Kaikeyi, one of his wives, to command Rama to relinquish his right to the throne for fourteen years and go into exile. He kills the evil demon Ravana, who abducted his wife Sita and later returned to Ayodhya to form an ideal state.
Sīta is another of the tale's protagonists. She is daughter of Mother Earth, adopted by King Janaka and Rama's beloved wife. Rama went to Mithila (located in Janakpur, Nepal) and got a chance to marry her by breaking the Shiv Dhanush (bow) while trying to tie a knot to it in a competition organized by King Janaka of Nepal in Dhanusa. The competition was to find the most suitable husband for Sita and many princes from different states competed to win her. Sita is the avatara of the goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu. Sita is portrayed as the epitome of female purity and virtue. She follows her husband into exile and is abducted by the demon king Ravana. She is imprisoned on the island of Lanka, until Rama rescues her by defeating Ravana. Later, she gives birth to Lava and Kusha.
Hanumān is a vanara belonging to the kingdom of Kishkindha. He is an ideal bhakta of Rama. He is born as the son of Kesari, a Vanara king in Sumeru region and the goddess Añjanā. He plays an important part in locating Sita and in the ensuing battle. He is believed to live until our modern world.
Lakṣmaṇa, the younger brother of Rama, who chose to go into exile with him. He is the son of King Dasaratha and Queen Sumitra and twin of Shatrughna. Lakshmana is portrayed as an avatar of the Shesha, the nāga associated with the god Vishnu. He spends his time protecting Sita and Rama during which he fought the demoness Surpanakha. He is forced to leave Sita, who was deceived by the demon Maricha into believing that Rama was in trouble. Sita is abducted by Ravana upon him leaving her. He was married to Sita's younger sister Urmila.
Rāvaṇa, a rakshasa, is the king of Lanka. He was son of a sage named Vishrava and daitya princess Kaikeshi. After performing severe penance for ten thousand years he received a boon from the creator-god Brahma: he could henceforth not be killed by gods, demons,or spirits. He is portrayed as a powerful demon king who disturbs the penances of rishis. Vishnu incarnates as the human Rama to defeat him, thus circumventing the boon given by Brahma.
Jaṭāyu, the son of Aruṇa and nephew of Garuda. A demi-god who has the form of an vulture that tries to rescue Sita from Ravana. Jatayu fought valiantly with Ravana, but as Jatayu was very old, Ravana soon got the better of him. As Rama and Lakshmana chanced upon the stricken and dying Jatayu in their search for Sita, he informs them of the direction in which Ravana had gone.
Daśaratha is the king of Ayodhya and the father of Rama. He has three queens, Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra, and three other sons: Bharata, Lakshmana and Shatrughna. Kaikeyi, Dasharatha's favourite queen, forces him to make his son Bharata crown prince and send Rama into exile. Dasharatha dies heartbroken after Rama goes into exile.
Bharata is the son of Dasharatha and Queen Kaikeyi. When he learns that his mother Kaikeyi had forced Rama into exile and caused Dasharatha to die brokenhearted, he storms out of the palace and goes in search of Rama in the forest. When Rama refuses to return from his exile to assume the throne, Bharata obtains Rama's sandals and places them on the throne as a gesture that Rama is the true king. Bharata then rules Ayodhya as the regent of Rama for the next fourteen years staying outside the city of Ayodhya. He was married to Mandavi.
Śatrughna is the son of Dasharatha and his second wife Queen Sumitra. He is the youngest brother of Rama and also the twin brother of Lakshmana. He was married to Shrutakirti.
Sugrīva, a vanara king who helped Rama regain Sita from Ravana. He had an agreement with Rama through which Vaali – Sugriva's brother and king of Kishkindha – would be killed by Rama in exchange for Sugriva's help in finding Sita. Sugriva ultimately ascends the throne of Kishkindha after the slaying of Vaali and fulfills his promise by putting the Vanara forces at Rama's disposal.
Indrajit or Meghnadha, the eldest son of Ravana who twice defeated Rama and Lakshmana in battle, before succumbing to Lakshmana. An adept of the magical arts, he coupled his supreme fighting skills with various stratagems to inflict heavy losses on the Vanara army before his death.
Kumbhakarṇa, a brother of Ravana, famous for his eating and sleeping. He would sleep for months at a time and would be extremely ravenous upon waking up, consuming anything set before him. His monstrous size and loyalty made him an important part of Ravana's army. During the war he decimated the Vanara army before Rama cut off his limbs and head.
Sūrpanakha, Ravana's demoness sister who fell in love with Rama and had the magical power to take any form she wanted.
Vibhīṣaṇa, a younger brother of Ravana. He was against the kidnapping of Sita and joined the forces of Rama when Ravana refused to return her. His intricate knowledge of Lanka was vital in the war and he was crowned king after the fall of Ravana.
SYNOPSIS
BALA KANDA
Dasharatha was the king of Ayodhya. He had three wives: Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra. He was childless for a long time and anxious to produce an heir, he performs a fire sacrifice known as putra-kameshti yagya. As a consequence, Rama is first born to Kausalya, Bharata is born to Kaikeyi, Lakshmana and Shatrughna are born to Sumitra. These sons are endowed, to various degrees, with the essence of the Supreme Trinity Entity Vishnu; Vishnu had opted to be born into mortality to combat the demon Ravana, who was oppressing the gods, and who could only be destroyed by a mortal. The boys are reared as the princes of the realm, receiving instructions from the scriptures and in warfare. When Rama is 16 years old, the sage Vishwamitra comes to the court of Dasharatha in search of help against demons who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rama, who is followed by Lakshmana, his constant companion throughout the story. Rama and Lakshmana receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Vishwamitra and proceed to destroy the demons.
Janaka was the king of Mithila. One day, a female child was found in the field by the king in the deep furrow dug by his plough. Overwhelmed with joy, the king regarded the child as a "miraculous gift of god". The child was named Sita, the Sanskrit word for furrow. Sita grew up to be a girl of unparalleled beauty and charm. The king had decided that who ever could lift and wield the heavy bow, presented to his ancestors by Shiva, could marry Sita. The sage Vishwamitra takes Rama and Lakshmana to Mithila to show the bow. Then Rama desires to lift it and goes on to wield the bow and, when he draws the string, it breaks. Marriages are arranged between the sons of Dasharatha and daughters of Janaka. Rama gets married to Sita, Lakshmana to Urmila, Bharata to Mandavi and Shatrughan to Shrutakirti. The weddings are celebrated with great festivity at Mithila and the marriage party returns to Ayodhya.
AYODHYA KANDA
After Rama and Sita have been married for twelve years, an elderly Dasharatha expresses his desire to crown Rama, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support. On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyi - her jealousy aroused by Manthara, a wicked maidservant - claims two boons that Dasharatha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyi demands Rama to be exiled into the wilderness for fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata. The heartbroken king, constrained by his rigid devotion to his given word, accedes to Kaikeyi's demands. Rama accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterises him throughout the story. He is joined by Sita and Lakshmana. When he asks Sita not to follow him, she says, "the forest where you dwell is Ayodhya for me and Ayodhya without you is a veritable hell for me." After Rama's departure, King Dasharatha, unable to bear the grief, passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhya. Bharata refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming and visits Rama in the forest. He requests Rama to return and rule. But Rama, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. However, Bharata carries Rama's sandals and keeps them on the throne, while he rules as Rama's regent.
ARNYA KANDA
Thirteen years pass and in the last year of exile Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana journey southward along the banks of river Godavari, where they build cottages and live off the land. At the Panchavati forest they are visited by a rakshasa (demon) woman, Surpanakha, the sister of Ravana. She attempts to seduce the brothers and failing in this, attempts to kill Sita. Lakshmana stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her demon brother, Khara, organises an attack against the princes. Rama annihilates Khara and his demons.
When news of these events reaches Ravana, he resolves to destroy Rama by capturing Sita with the aid of the rakshasa Maricha. Maricha, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sita's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sita pleads with Rama to capture it. Lord Rama, aware that this is the ploy of the demons, cannot dissuade Sita from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sita under Lakshmana's guard. After some time, Sita hears Rama calling out to her; afraid for his life, she insists that Lakshmana rush to his aid. Lakshmana tries to assure her that Rama is invincible and that it is best if he continues to follow Rama's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics, Sita insists that it is not she but Rama who needs Lakshmana's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any strangers. He draws a chalk outline, the Lakshmana rekha, around the cottage and casts a spell on it that prevents anyone from entering the boundary but allows people to exit. With the coast finally clear, Ravana appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sita's hospitality. Unaware of the devious plan of her guest, Sita is tricked into leaving the rekha and is then forcibly carried away by the evil Ravana.
Jatayu, a vulture, tries to rescue Sita, but is mortally wounded. At Lanka, Sita is kept under the heavy guard of rakshasis. Ravana demands Sita marry him, but Sita, eternally devoted to Rama, refuses. Rama and Lakshmana learn about Sita's abduction from Jatayu and immediately set out to save her. During their search, they meet the demon Kabandha and the ascetic Shabari, who direct them towards Sugriva and Hanuman.
KISHKINDHA KANDA
The kishkindha kanda is set in the ape (Vanar) citadel Kishkindha. Rama and Lakshmana meet Hanuman, the bigest devotee of Rama, the greatest of ape heroes and an adherent of Sugriva, the banished pretender to the throne of Kishkindha. Rama befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vali thus regaining the kingdom of Kiskindha, in exchange for helping Rama to recover Sita. However Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time in enjoying his powers. The clever former ape queen Tara (wife of Vali) calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakshmana from destroying the ape citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honour his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from north, east and west. The southern search party under the leadership of Angad and Hanuman learns from a vulture named Sampati (elder brother of Jatayu), that Sita was taken to Lanka.
SUNDARA KANDA
The sundara kanda forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana and consists of a detailed, vivid account of Hanuman's adventures. After learning about Sita, Hanuman assumes a gargantuan form and makes a colossal leap across the sea to Lanka. On the way he faces many challenges like facing a gandharva kanya who comes in the form of demon to test his abilities and he faces a mountain naming Mainakudu who offers Lord Hanuman some help to take some rest but he refuses because of the time is running out and there is a very less time remaining for searching Sita. After entering into Lanka he finds a demon lankini who protects the entire Lanka and Hanuman fights with her and kills her in order to get into Lanka. Here, Hanuman explores the demons' kingdom and spies on Ravana. He locates Sita in ashoka grove, who is wooed and threatened by Ravana and his rakshasis to marry Ravana. He reassures her, giving Rama's signet ring as a sign of good faith. He offers to carry Sita back to Rama, however she refuses and says that it is not the dharma. She says that Rama himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction.
Hanuman then wreaks havoc in Lanka by destroying trees and buildings and killing Ravana's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and produced before Ravana. He gives a bold lecture to Ravana to release Sita. He is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and leaping from roof to roof, sets fire to Ravana's citadel and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kishkindha with the news.
LANKA KANDA
Also known as Lanka kanda, this book describes the Ramayana War between the army of Rama and the army of Ravana. Having received Hanuman's report on Sita, Rama and Lakshmana proceed with their allies towards the shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Ravana's renegade brother Vibhishana. The apes named Nala and Nila construct a floating bridge (known as Rama Setu) across the sea, using stones that floated on water because they had Rama's name written on them. The princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy war ensues. During a battle, Ravana's son Indrajit hurls a powerful weapon at Lakshmana, who is badly wounded and is nearly killed. So Hanuman assumes a gigantic form and flies from Lanka to the Himalayas. Upon reaching Mount Sumeru, Hanuman was unable to identify the herb that could cure Lakshmana, and so decided to bring the entire mountain back to Lanka. Eventually, the war ends when Rama kills Ravana. Rama then installs Vibhishana on the throne of Lanka.
On meeting Sita, Rama asks her to undergo an "agni pareeksha" (test of fire) to prove her purity, as he wants to get rid of the rumours surrounding Sita's purity. When Sita plunges into the sacrificial fire, Agni the lord of fire raises Sita, unharmed, to the throne, attesting to her purity. The episode of agni pariksha varies in the versions of Ramayana by Valmiki and Tulsidas. In earlier versions this event does not occur and many scholars consider it to have been added later as society became more patriarchal. In Tulsidas's Ramacharitamanas Sita was under the protection of Agni (see Maya Sita) so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita and Lakshmana, where the coronation is performed. This is the beginning of Ram Rajya, which implies an ideal state with good morals.
UTTARA KANDA
The uttara kanda is regarded to be a later addition to the original story by Valmiki and concerns the final years of Rama, Sita and Rama's brothers. After being crowned king, Rama passes time pleasantly with Sita. After some time, Sita gets pregnant with twin children. However, despite the agni pariksha (fire ordeal) of Sita, rumours about her purity are spreading among the populace of Ayodhya. Rama yields to public opinion and reluctantly banishes Sita to the forest, where the sage Valmiki provides shelter in his ashrama (hermitage). Here, she gives birth to twin boys, Lava and Kusha, who become pupils of Valmiki and are brought up in ignorance of their identity.
Valmiki composes the Ramayana and teaches Lava and Kusha to sing it. Later, Rama holds a ceremony during Ashwamedha yagna, which the sage Valmiki, with Lava and Kusha, attends. Lava and Kusha sing the Ramayana in the presence of Rama and his vast audience. When Lava and Kusha recite about Sita's exile, Rama becomes grief-stricken and Valmiki produces Sita. Sita calls upon the earth, her mother, to receive her and as the ground opens, she vanishes into it. Rama then learns that Lava and Kusha are his children. Many years later, a messenger from the Gods appears and informs Rama that the mission of his incarnation was over. Rama returns to his celestial abode.
It was dramatised as the Uttararamacarita by the Sanskrit poet Bhavabhuti.
VARIANT VERSIONS
As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the Ramayana survive. In particular, the Ramayana related in north India differs in important respects from that preserved in south India and the rest of south-east Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on the Ramayana in Indonesia, Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam and Maldives. Father Kamil Bulke, author of Ramakatha, has identified over 300 variants of Ramayana.
In India
The 7th century CE "bhatti's poem" Bhaṭṭikāvya of Bhaṭṭi is a Sanskrit retelling of the epic that simultaneously illustrates the grammatical examples for Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as the major figures of speech and the Prakrit language.
There are diverse regional versions of the Ramayana written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. During the 12th century, Kamban wrote Ramavataram, known popularly as Kambaramayanam in Tamil. A Telugu version, Ranganatha Ramayanam, was written by Gona Budda Reddy in the 14th century. The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language is the early-14th century Saptakanda Ramayana in Assamese by Madhava Kandali. Valmiki's Ramayana inspired the Sri Ramacharit Manas by Tulsidas in 1576, an epic Awadhi(a dialect of Hindi) version with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti; it is an acknowledged masterpiece of India, popularly known as Tulsi-krta Ramayana. Gujarati poet Premanand wrote a version of Ramayana in the 17th century. Other versions include Krittivasi Ramayan, a Bengali version by Krittibas Ojha in the 15th century; the Vilanka Ramayana by the 15th century poet Sarala Dasa and the Dandi Ramayana (also known as Jagamohana Ramayana) by the 16th century poet Balarama Dasa both in Odia; a Torave Ramayana in Kannada by the 16th-century poet Narahari; Adhyathmaramayanam, a Malayalam version by Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan in the 16th century; in Marathi by Sridhara in the 18th century; in Maithili by Chanda Jha in the 19th century; and in the 20th century, Rashtrakavi Kuvempu's Sri Ramayana Darshanam in Kannada.
There is a sub-plot to Ramayana, prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of Ahi Ravana and Mahi Ravana, the evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-Mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a subterranean cave, to be sacrificed to the goddess Kali. Adbhuta Ramayana is a version that is obscure but also attributed to Valmiki - intended as a supplementary to original Valmiki Ramayana. In this variant of the narrative, Sita is accorded far more prominence such as elaboration of the events surrounding her birth — in this case to Ravana's wife, Mandodari as well as her conquest of Ravana's older brother in her Mahakali form.
Mappillapattu - a genre of song popular among the Muslims belonging to Kerala and Lakshadweep - has incorporated some episodes from the Ramayana into its songs. These songs, known as mappila ramayana, have been handed down from one generation to the next orally. In mappila ramayana, the story of the Ramayana has been changed into that of a sultan, and there are no major changes in the names of characters except for that of Rama which is `laman' in many places. The language and the imagery projected in the mappilapattu are in accordance with the social fabric of the earlier Muslim community.
BUDDHIST VERSION
In the Buddhist variant of Rāmāyaṇa(Dasarathajātaka, #467), Dasaratha was the king of Benares and not Ayodhya. Rāma [called Rāmapaṇḍita in this version] was son of Kausalya, first wife of Dasaratha, Lakṣmaṇa [Lakkhaṇa] was sibling of Rama and son of Sumitra second wife of Dasaratha, and Sita wife of Rama. To protect his children from his wife Kaikayi, who wished to promote her son Bharata, Dasaratha sent the three to a hermitage in the Himalayas for a twelve-year exile. After nine years, Dasaratha died and Lakkhaṇa and Sita returned; Rāmapaṇḍita, in deference to his father's wishes, remained in exile for a further two years. This version does not include the abduction of Sītā.
In the explanatory commentary on the Jātaka, Rāmapaṇḍita is said to have been a previous incarnation of the Buddha and Sītā an incarnation of Yasodharā.
This version is notable for depicting Rama and Sita as siblings who marry. Such sibling marriages are a common symbolic imagery in early Buddhist literature to denote purity of a dynasty. As the Buddha is supposed to have come from the Ikshvaku dynasty (of Rama).
SIKH VERSION
In Guru Granth Sahib, there is description of two types of Ramayana. One is spiritual Ramayana which is actual subject of Guru Granth Sahib, in which Ravan is ego, Seeta is budhi (intellect), Rama is inner soul and Laxman is mann (attention, mind). Guru Granth Sahib also believes in existence of dasavtara who were kings of their times which tried their best to bring revolution in the world. King Ramchandra was one of those and it is not covered in Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Granth Sahib states:
ਹੁਕਮਿ ਉਪਾਏ ਦਸ ਅਉਤਾਰਾ॥
हुकमि उपाए दस अउतारा॥
By hukam (supreme command), he created his ten incarnations,
This version of Ramayana was written by Guru Gobind Singh, which is part of Dasam Granth. In dasam granth, Guru Gobind Singh also explained that he does not believe Ramchandra as a God. He is equating Ramchandra with a common man.
He also said that the almighty, invisible, all prevailing God created so many of Indras, Moons and Suns, Deities, Demons and sages, so many Prophets and Brahmanas(enlightened people). But they too were caught in the noose of death (KAAL) (Transmigration of soul). This is very well same to as explained in Geeta which is part of Mahabharata.
JAIN VERSION
Jain versions of Ramayana can be found in the various Jain agamas like Padmapurana (story of Padmaja and Rama, Padmaja being the name of Sita), Hemacandra's Trisastisalakapurusa charitra (hagiography of 63 illustrious persons), Sanghadasa's Vasudevahindi and Uttarapurana by Gunabhadara. According to Jain cosmology, every half time cycle has nine sets of Balarama, Vasudeva and prativasudeva. Rama, Lakshmana and Ravana are the eighth baladeva, vasudeva, and prativasudeva respectively. Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the Hindu puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain Puranas. Instead they serve as names of two distinct class of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half time cycle and jointly rule the half the earth as half-chakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the jinacharitra (lives of the jinas) by Acharya Bhadrabahu (3–4th century BCE).
In the Jain epic of Ramayana, it is Lakshmana who ultimately kills Ravana and not Rama as told in the Hindu version. In the end, Rama who led an upright life renounces his kingdom, becomes a Jain monk and attains moksha. On the other hand, Lakshmana and Ravana go to hell. However, it is predicted that ultimately they both will be reborn as upright persons and attain liberation in their future births. According to Jain texts, Ravana will be the future Tirthankara (omniscient teacher) of Jainism.
The Jain versions have some variations from Valmiki's Ramayana. Dasharatha, the king of Saketa had four queens: Aparajita, Sumitra, Suprabha and Kaikeyi. These four queens had four sons. Aparajita's son was Padma and he became known by the name of Rama. Sumitra's son was Narayana: he became to be known by another name, Lakshmana. Kaikeyi's son was Bharata and Suprabha's son was Shatrughna. Furthermore, not much was thought of Rama's fidelity to Sita. According to Jain version, Rama had four chief-queen's: Maithili, Prabhavati, Ratinibha, and Sridama. Furthermore, Sita takes renunciation as a Jain ascetic after Rama abandons her and is reborn in heaven. Rama, after Lakshmana's death, also renounces his kingdom and becomes a Jain monk. Ultimately, he attains Kevala Jnana omniscience and finally liberation. Rama predicts that Ravana and Lakshmana, who were in fourth hell, will attain liberation in their future births. Accordingly, Ravana is the future tirthankara of next half ascending time cycle and Sita will be his Ganadhara.
IN NEPAL
Besides being the site of discovery of the oldest surviving manuscript of Ramayana, Nepal gave rise to two regional variants in mid 19th – early 20th century. One, written by Bhanubhakta Acharya, is considered the first epic of Nepali language, while the other, written by Siddhidas Mahaju in Nepal Bhasa was a foundational influence in the renaissance of that language.
The Ramayana written by Bhanubhakta Acharya is one of the most popular verses in Nepal. The popularization of the 'Ramayana' and its tale, originally written in Sanskrit Language was greatly enhanced by the work of Bhanubhakta. Mainly because of his writing of Nepali Ramayana, Bhanubhakta is also called 'Aadi Kavi' or 'The Pioneering Poet'.
SOUTHEAST ASIAN VERSIONS
Phra Lak Phra Lam is a Lao language version, whose title comes from Lakshmana and Rama. The story of Lakshmana and Rama is told as the previous life of the Buddha. In Hikayat Seri Rama of Malaysia, Dasharatha is the great-grandson of the Prophet Adam. Ravana receives boons from Allah instead of Brahma. In many Malay language versions, Lakshmana is given greater importance than Rama, whose character is considered somewhat weak.
The Cambodian version of Ramayana, the Reamker, is the most famous story of Khmer literature since the Kingdom of Funan era. It adapts the Hindu concepts to Buddhist themes and show's the balance of good and evil in the world. The Reamker has several differences from the original Ramayana, including scenes not included in the original and emphasis on Hanuman and Sovanna Maccha, a retelling which influences the Thai and Lao versions. Reamker in Cambodia is not confined to the realm of literature but extends to all Cambodian art forms, such as sculpture, Khmer classical dance, theater known as lakhorn luang (the foundation of the royal ballet), poetry and the mural and bas reliefs seen at the Silver Pagoda and Angkor Wat.
Thailand's popular national epic Ramakien(thai:รามเกียรติ์.,from Sanskrit rāmakīrti, "glory of Rama") is derived from the Hindu epic. In Ramakien, Sita is the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari(thotsakan and montho). Vibhisana(phiphek), the astrologer brother of Ravana, predicts calamity from the horoscope of Sita. Ravana has her thrown into the water, but is later rescued by Janaka(chanok). While the main story is identical to that of the Ramayana, many other aspects were transposed into a Thai context, such as the clothes, weapons, topography and elements of nature, which are described as being Thai in style. It has an expanded role for Hanuman and he is portrayed as a lascivious character. Ramakien can be seen in an elaborate illustration at Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok.
Other Southeast Asian adaptations include Kakawin Ramayana of Java, Ramakavaca of Bali(Indonesia), Maharadia Lawana and Darangen of the Moro Muslims of Mindanao (Philippines) and the Yama Zatdaw of Myanmar.
Influence on culture and art
One of the most important literary works of ancient India, the Ramayana has had a profound impact on art and culture in the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia with the lone exception of Vietnam. The story ushered in the tradition of the next thousand years of massive-scale works in the rich diction of regal courts and Hindu temples. It has also inspired much secondary literature in various languages, notably the Kambaramayanam by the Tamil poet Kambar of the 12th century, the Telugu-language Molla Ramayanam by poet Molla and Ranganatha Ramayanam by poet Gona Budda Reddy, 14th century Kannada poet Narahari's Torave Ramayana, and 15th century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha's Krittivasi Ramayan, as well as the 16th century Awadhi version, Ramacharitamanas, written by Tulsidas.
The Ramayana became popular in southeast Asia during the 8th century and was represented in literature, temple architecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of Ramayana, known as Ramlila, take place all across India and in many places across the globe within the Indian diaspora.
The Ramayana has also been depicted in many paintings, most notably by the Malaysian artist Syed Thajudeen in 1972. The epic tale was picturized on canvas in epic proportions measuring 72 x 453 cm in 9 panels. The painting depicts three prolific parts of the epic, namely The Abduction of Sita, Hanuman visits Sita and Hanuman Burns Lanka. The painting is currently in the permanent collection of the Malaysian National Visual Arts Gallery.
RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE
Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, is one of the most popular deities worshipped in the Hindu religion. Each year, many devout pilgrims trace their journey through India and Nepal, halting at each of the holy sites along the way. The poem is not seen as just a literary monument, but serves as an integral part of Hinduism, and is held in such reverence that the mere reading or hearing of it, or certain passages of it, is believed by Hindus to free them from sin and bless the reader or listener.
According to Hindu tradition, Rama is an incarnation (Avatar) of the god Vishnu. The main purpose of this incarnation is to demonstrate the righteous path (dharma) for all living creatures on earth.
IN THE MEDIA
A number of movies and television serials have been produced based upon the Ramayana.
STAGE
Starting in 1978 and under the supervision of Baba Hari Dass, the Ramayana has been performed every year by Mount Madonna School in Watsonville, California. Currently, it is the largest yearly, Western version of the epic being performed. It takes the form of a colorful musical with custom costumes, sung and spoken dialog, jazz-rock orchestration and dance. This performance takes place in a large audience theater setting usually in June, in San Jose, CA. Baba Hari Dass has taught acting arts, costume-attire design, mask making and choreography to bring alive characters of Sri Ram, Sita, Hanuman, Lakshmana, Shiva, Parvati, Vibhishan, Jatayu, Sugriva, Surpanakha, Ravana and his rakshasa court, Meghnadha, Kumbhakarna and the army of monkeys and demons.
WIKIPEDIA
Representing STL and Classic Camera's in a single frame!
I joined a photo forum shortly after graduating high school in 2005, soon to follow were friendly people who have helped me become a better photographer. While I have known Andy for the better part of the last decade of my life through countless online forums (Facebook/Myspace mainly), I've never had the pleasure of meeting him face to face. There was a slight chance back in April when I went to St. Louis for my birthday, that he and I would be able to meet up and grab a beer. Unfortunately, keeping busy on the trip I didn't have the time to meet him. As luck may have it, Andy and his girlfriend were taking a vacation from life and had a two day stay scheduled for Madison. We exchanged phone calls and text messages for the better part of the week leading up to his trip.
While out photographing with my friend John, a text came in from Andy informing me that they had arrived safely and were relaxing for a bit. I had my hopes to meet up right away, but I am sure after a five hour drive I would be rather tired too. A few hours passed, and then Andy texted me his location; a local bar not far from my apartment. As an avid beer connoisseur, it was the right choice; funny fact is that when Andy and I first met I didn't drink at all. Times change, people grow older, but some friendships last the test of time. So I asked John if he would like to meet a stranger, and he did so we strolled across the isthmus and walked into the bar.
Even though I knew what he looked like, I was nervous to meet him; slightly for the fear of the unknown. I sheepishly texted "where are you seated?" but once I entered the bar, I saw him sitting with his large beard and black STL baseball cap. As he stood up, he was taller then eye with a beard as big as my face; an outstretched hand we shook firmly finally meeting in person. The skies outside were darkening fast, but no worries when in the company of good people and a good beer; conversation is the only thing we needed.
An active film shooter (with over 150 35mm camera's and counting) Andy is as hardcore as they come. In his place he has a full sized refrigerator dedicated just to the storing of film. A crack of thunder interrupted our conversation, and I quickly ventured out of the bar to snap photos of the torrential downpour happening outside. Upon returning inside, drenched with camera in hand; a few patrons gave me puzzled looks BUT Andy informed me that he "wished to have the drive" that I do in taking photos everyday. He keeps busy taking care of his father, which is in reality his full time job. John left us when the rain let up; leaving Andy, Ann, and myself to converse among ourselves.
We enjoyed dinner with a local flavor, and another choice beer. Upon walking Andy and Ann back to the bed and breakfast they were staying at, I told Andy it was time for his photo for the 100 strangers group he laughed and told me I'd have to do it "paparazzi" style and thus wouldn't directly pose for a simple shot. I think a shot of Andy in action really does justice to the art that he creates, as I've admired his work for so long it was almost like seeing a painter create a masterpiece. Although with Andy, I was unable to see it as he was shooting film! The rain returned and we rushed through the sidewalks, hoping not to damage gear in tow.
Upon parting ways after an eventful second day of just hanging out, we agreed to meet up again. Next time in St. Louis, so I can meet a few other fellow photographers I've had the pleasure of knowing the last so many years of my life. Until that happens, Andy is a contact in my phone and a good friend and mentor as any I've ever had.
091/100
I love how the expression and colour of the face work together to show the emotion of Unikitty.
Nice use of colour theory by the LEGO designers.
Steam locomotives represented a significant advance in human achievement. They were the first man-made objects that could move under their own power and they played a huge role in the success of the industrial revolution in the 1800s and 1900s. Unfortunately, with only about 150 operable examples left, it's a good bet that many Americans have never seen one run. It seems that a father and son from Indiana have made it their life's work to change all of that. John and Byron Gramling restored the 40-ton saddle tanker that you see here and over the past 10 years, have taken her on the road to tourist railroads and museums around the country, becoming very visible ambassadors for the preservation these historic machines. Not only do they provide the public with a chance to see and ride behind steam, they also provide the crews at each stop with actual, hands-on experience. When Flagg Coal #75 visited the Railroad Museum of New England in Thomaston, CT, most of the actual running and firing was done by museum volunteers, with training and supervision provided by the Gramlings. Virtually all couldn't say enough about how educational and motivating this experience was. The Gramlings are already at work expanding their operation. Their displays at Thomaston indicated that they are in the process of restoring two more saddle tankers. Here's wishing them a bright future in their very worthwhile endeavour.
Polychrome wooden reliquary statue representing Saint George, made in Goa (India) by an anonymous author on loan from the Rijksmuseum Twenthe (Pays-Bs) during the exhibition "Man the Dragon and Death" at Mac's in Hornu (Belgium)
Arhat / Luohan
Série de 3 arhat
Le personnage représenté est un des 16 arhat à qui le Bouddha a confié le Dharma (la doctrine) au moment d'entrer dans le Nirvana
Dans le bouddhisme Hinayana, un Arhat est un homme qui, à travers de nombreuses existences successives a réussi par ses propres forces et au bénéfice exclusif de lui-même, à atteindre l'Illumination du Nirvâna alors que, dans le bouddhisme Mahayana, le Bodhisattva sacrifie son propre salut au salut du monde, ce qui lui confère un caractère messianique.....ref : Th. van Baaren, Les religions d'Asie, marabout Université, 1962
1790
Dynastie Qing
(règne de l'empereur Qianlong (1736-1795)
Chine Province du Jiangxi
Fours de Jingdezhen
Porcelaine, émaux polychromes (famille rose), dorure
Don du père Alphonse Favier à la collection Grandidier du Louvre, 1898
Musée national des arts asiatiques - Guimet (MNAAG), Paris
Les trois statues d'arhat ont été restaurées pour l'exposition
www.guimet.fr/non-classifiee/restauration-de-trois-arhats...
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Je vais en Bouddha comme refuge,
Je vais en Dharma comme refuge,
Je vais en Sangha comme refuge
Triple Voeu (Formule des Trois Joyaux : Triratna) prononcé trois fois par le bouddhiste qui veut entrer dans un ordre monastique.
Oeuvre exposée dans l'exposition : Bouddha. La légende dorée au MNAAG, Paris
Here is a massive vacant cathedral in pristine condition. There is some water damage on the upper level in which this photo was taken from as well, parts of the exterior are crumbling. I really hope that this is only temporarily closed for repairs but at the same time, there are so many others that were closed for the same reason & have gone into disrepair.