Mehr als 1.000 Rechte demonstrieren ohne Probleme im Berliner Regierungsviertel. Die Teilnehmer kamen aus sämtlichen Spektren der rechten Volksbewegung. NPD, Freie Kräfte, Gida, Hooligans, alles war da. Auch aus dem europäischen Ausland, wie Tschechien, Österreich und der Schweiz kamen Rassisten zusammen. Mindestens drei Neonazis wurden von der Polizei genauer geprüft. Bei einer gab es den Verdacht auf einen Hitlergruß, eine Person betätigte sich als Anti-Antifa-Aktivist und ein Dritter hatte einen vermutlich strafbaren Inhalt auf einem Shirt.

Teile der Demonstration waren extrem aggressiv, vor allem wenn sie auf einzelne Gegendemonstranten tragen. Am Aufzug waren etwa 2-300 Beamte, teilweise nur stationiert und nicht begleitend. Ein Seitenspalier fehlte ebenfalls.

 

Eine Gegendemonstration konnte ebenfalls nur etwa 1.000 Menschen mobilisieren. Diese hatte zu keinem Zeitpunkt den Charakter von Blockaden. Die Beamten in Zivil vom Staatsschutz hatten offenbar dieselbe Auffassung. Anfangs beobachteten sie immer wieder, was sich für ein Klientel in der Demonstration sammelt. Gerade einmal eine Hundertschaft begleitete den Zug, der sich freiwillig in kompletter Stärke in eine Sackgasse manövrierte. 1.000 Antifaschisten konnten von etwa drei Dutzend Beamten geleitet werden. Es gab an keiner Stelle den Versuch aus- bzw. zu den Neonazis durchzubrechen.

 

Fast die komplette Route der Neonazis war mit Hamburger Gittern abgesperrt. Laut eigenen Angaben waren etwa 1.300 Beamte im Einsatz, davon Unterstützungskräfte aus Oranienburg, Hamburg und Sachsen.

 

Vom Äußerlichen her betrachtet war eine Mobilisierung innerhalb des linksautonomen Spektrums nicht erkennbar oder zumindest nicht erfolgreich.

Dies könnte ebenfalls ein Grund dafür sein, warum Enrico Stubbe (Pro Deutschland) erneut erfolgreich marschieren konnte. Erneut konnte er Neonazis aus dem gesamten Bundesgebiet im vierstelligen Bereich mobilisieren. Erneut konnte die antifaschistische Szene in Berlin nicht mal ansatzweise den Aufmarsch erreichen oder behindern geschweige denn blockieren.

 

Die Fotos unterstehen dem Urheberrecht. Nutzungsrechte können angefragt werden.

twitter.com/Memoire2cite?fbclid=IwAR3JmEG0v02xG5uFvJNSn_x... - Après 1945, les collines agricoles du sud-est de la ville connaissent un programme d’urbanisation de grande ampleur pour répondre à la crise du logement. Près de 4600 logements sociaux vont ainsi être construits en quatre tranches successives de 1953 à 1970 : Beaulieu, la Marandinière, Montchovet, la Métare et la Palle formant aujourd’hui les quartiers sud-est. Touché par la crise économique et urbaine de dingue, le secteur sud-est apparaît à la fin des années 1990 comme un espace monofonctionnel dédié en totalité à l’habitat locatif social et porté par un seul bailleur l'OPAC devenu Métropole Habitat. Bien que bénéficiant de nombreux atouts (accessibilité et environnement agréable...), le quartier souffre du gigantisme de son urbanisation et du manque de résidentialisation des unités d’habitation. Par une action en profondeur et dans la durée, la Ville de Saint-Étienne, à travers son Programme de Rénovation Urbaine (PRU), a amorcé une transformation durable du quartier depuis 1989 avec la 1ere demolition du programme à la rue Pierre Loti le 31 janvier 1989 (BANLIEUE89), 30 ans de renouvellement urbain sur la ville.... une ville pilote en la matiere des 1990. Aujourd'hui et demain Les quartiers sud-est vont poursuivre leur mutation, avec l’appui continu de l’Agence Nationale de Rénovation Urbaine et ses partenaires l'ANRU2. Développer le secteur économique

L'objectif est de dynamiser l’économie dans ce territoire en portant de nouveaux projets et en restructurant l’offre commerciale de proximité. La Ville de Saint-Étienne a prévu la création de nouvelles zones d’activités permettant l’accueil d’entreprises. Ainsi une zone d’activités économiques, rue Pierre Loti, répondra aux besoins fonciers des entreprises et des artisans locaux. Ce projet de zone économique, en visibilité directe de la RN 88, permettra l’implantation d’une cinquantaine d’entreprises et la création de 300 emplois. Un nouveau centre commercial sur le secteur de la Marandinière, couplé à la démolition des centres commerciaux de la Palle et Sembat, permettra de restructurer et moderniser l’offre commerciale de proximité. Renouveller l'offre d'habitat Une qualité résidentielle s’affirme progressivement au sein des quartiers Sud-Est, grâce à une nouvelle offre d’habitat variée qui émerge depuis plusieurs années. Les nombreuses démolitions réalisées et à venir (Boulevard des Mineurs en 2018 et immeubles Loti en 2020), ainsi que les réhabilitations d’immeubles en cours, vont permettre de diversifier l’offre de logements. L’un des objectifs du projet urbain est donc de conforter la vocation résidentielle du quartier en stimulant l’offre et en accompagnant des projets comme la construction de logements passifs sur le secteur de Beaulieu, la transformation de l’ancienne école Baptiste-Marcet et la réhabilitation de logements à Monchovet. Améliorer le cadre de vie des habitants

Les quartiers sud-est bénéficient d’un environnement naturellement riche et varié, à l’interface entre les grands parcs de la ville (jardin des Plantes, parc de l’Europe, Bois d’Avaize) et le Pilat. Le projet urbain de la Ville de Saint-Étienne prévoit de relier ces espaces naturels entre-eux avec la création d’une continuité verte, qui permettra aux marcheurs et autres randonneurs de bénéficier d’un véritable réseau de chemins autour de la commune. Le boulevard Alexandre-de-Fraissinette, véritable colonne vertébrale du quartier, et la rue Pierre-Loti seront entièrement revus pour assurer un meilleur partage de l’espace entre tous les modes de déplacements (voiture, vélo et piéton) et assurer un maillage inter-quartiers plus efficace. fr.calameo.com/read/0005441131b4119eaa674

Depuis 2014, la rénovation urbaine dans les quartiers sud-est s’est traduite par de nombreux travaux: la construction du centre commercial de la Grande Marandinière, l’aménagement d’un lotissement de treize maisons individuelles passives, impasse Clémenceau, les rénovations des écoles de Montchovet et de Beaulieu, la réhabilitation de locaux rue Henri-Dunant (pour y installer la Maison des associations), et enfin les démolitions récentes du centre commercial du boulevard de la Palle et d’un garage, au 41 rue de Terrenoire.Démolitions mais aussi constructions sont au programme. Plusieurs acteurs entrent en jeu dans le financement de ces projets, notamment l’ANRU (Agence nationale de rénovation urbaine) mais aussi la Ville, le Département et la Région. Ainsi, le contrat avec l’ANRU, signé le 14 mars, dégage une somme de 23 millions d’euros, somme à laquelle il faut ajouter 3,3 millions d’euros de la Région. Pour les années à venir, les objectifs visent à la poursuite du développement économique, de la mutation de l’habitat par des constructions individuelles ou de petits immeubles, des démolitions ponctuelles, de la valorisation des espaces publics et du renforcement des espaces du quartier. Deux secteurs sont concernés : Loti et la Grande Marandinière. Le 11 AVRIL 1964, le développement de la ville de Saint Etienne, et ses travaux ..La ville de Saint Etienne se développe tout comme l'ensemble du territoire... Pour accompagner cet accroissement de population, de nouveaux quartiers se construisent aux abords de la ville chaque jours. Et pour faire face aux problèmes de circulation, un boulevard périphérique a été aménagé. Réalisé à l'occasion de la construction de la déviation sud de l'autoroute de Saint Etienne, ce reportage témoigne de la visite du sénateur maire de la ville, Mr. Michel DURAFOUR, sur le chantier du tunnel de la déviation. Accueilli par Mr. Rocher, président de la société forêzienne de travaux publics, Michel DURAFOUR découvre avec les membres du conseil municipal l'avancée des travaux. (voir aussi le chantier de l A 47 avec la video du tunnel du rond-point içi : www.ina.fr/video/LXC9610041788 . Ce quartier est né des programmes de grands ensembles mis en œuvre à partir des années 1950 afin de réduire la pénurie de logements. La mairie choisit donc de développer un quartier moderne 4 600 logements en HLM pour pouvoir loger plus de 30 000 habitants avec des loyers modérés dans des bâtiments modernes. Ce quartier avait comme emblème un des plus grands immeubles d’Europe surnommé la Muraille de Chine qui était visible depuis l’autoroute. Ce quartier s’est construit en quatre tranches : Beaulieu I (Beaulieu) de 1953 à 1955 ; Beaulieu II (La Marandinière) en 1959 ; Beaulieu III (Montchovet) en 1964 ; Beaulieu IV (La Palle) en 1971. Il est aujourd’hui en profonde mutation avec un programme de renouvellement urbain qui prévoit la démolition de plus 1000 logements et la reconstruction de 250. Bâtiments spécifiques : CHPL (Centre Hospitalier Privé de la Loire) qui remplace la Muraille de Chine ; Ecole Nationale d'ingénieurs de Saint-Etienne Un modèle de l'urbanisme des années 1950. Beaulieu-Montchovet: La ville choisit de construire un immense quartier neuf de plus de 4.600 logements, prévu pour loger 30.000 habitants, sur les basses pentes du Pilat, à la sortie sud-est de Saint-Etienne.Entre les forêts, qui seront classées parc naturel quelques années plus tard, et les quartiers chics du cours Fauriel, c'est un des endroits les mieux situés de la ville.C'est aussi le seul grand emplacement proche du centre où il n'y aie pas eu de mines, parce que les couches de charbon s'arrêtent juste avant : le terrain est assez solide pour supporter de gros immeubles. Içi le chantier de construction de MONTCHOVET soit Beaulieu 3, la continuitée des constructions HLM de nos quartiers sud-est (les chantiers de l'OPAC) , la vidéo içi :

www.ina.fr/video/LXF99004401 .

Retour sur son historique de 1962 à aujourd'hui e n 2018.

Un grand-Ensemble qui rappelle combien la politique d'urbanisme des années 1960 et suivantes a été conduite en dépit du bon sens la video içi www.google.fr/search?q=montchovet+ina&oq=montchovet+i... et là www.ina.fr/video/CAC00029801 , mais aussi içi www.ina.fr/video/CAC00029801 - avec Claude BARTOLONE içi avec la Visite à Saint Etienne du ministre délégué à la ville le jour de la démolition de la muraille de Chine. Rencontre avec des associations pr discuter du futur du quartier Montchovet. www.ina.fr/video/LY00001263573 - fresques.ina.fr/rhone-alpes/fiche-media/Rhonal00046/demol... - et les differentes videos de la demolition la encore : La démolition de la "muraille de Chine" de Saint Etienne www.youtube.com/watch?v=aq1uOc6Gtd0, www.youtube.com/watch?v=YB3z_Z6DTdc terrible :( ^^ l interview de Michel Thiolliere Le Grisou.fr a interviewé Michel Thiollière, ancien maire de Saint-Etienne et sénateur de la Loire, membre du Parti radical et actuel vice-président de la Commission de régulation de l'énergie. Il livre son analyse sur les prochaines échéances politiques, notamment la campagne des municipales en cours à Saint-Etienne, les alliances de la droite et du centre, mais aussi le mandat de Maurice Vincent. Michel Thiollière s'attarde également sur les besoins de l'agglomération stéphanoise et évoque les enjeux énergétiques en France.(Interview : Maxime Petit -- Réalisation : Studios Bouquet) www.youtube.com/watch?v=AJAylpe8G48,"François Mitterrand, après la visite de deux quartiers -l'un à Saint Etienne et l'autre à Vénissieux, inscrits sur la liste de ceux à réhabiliter -, parle du plan de réhabilitation pour de meilleures conditions de logement.François Mitterrand / Georgina Dufoix / Gilbert Trigano / François Dubanchet / Marcel Houël Thèmes : Grands travaux et grands projets

Le Président > 1er septennat 1981-1988 > 1981-1986 Éclairage

Depuis la fin des années 1970, la région lyonnaise apparaît comme l'épicentre des violences urbaines qui se déroulent en France. Durant l'été 1981, des violences urbaines ont conduit le gouvernement à engager le plus tôt possible une nouvelle politique en faveur des quartiers dégradés. Malgré les premières opérations de réhabilitation engagées par la Commission nationale pour le développement social des quartiers, la situation demeure extrêmement tendue dans un certain nombres de quartiers populaires. L'assassinat d'un jeune de la Cité des 4 000 par un habitant en juillet 1983 a ravivé les débats autour du thème du "mal des grands ensembles" selon l'expression de l'époque. D'autre part, le contexte politique conduit également le pouvoir à s'intéresser encore davantage à la question de la dégradation urbaine dans la mesure où de très nombreux quartiers populaires n'ont pas cette fois-ci apporté leurs suffrages aux candidats de la gauche.La visite de François Mitterrand dans deux quartiers dégradés de la région lyonnaise constitue donc un signal fort à l'égard des populations qui y vivent. Ce déplacement fait également écho à celui réalisé quelques jours plus tôt au sein de la Cité des 4 000 à La Courneuve en Seine Saint Denis (voir Visite de François Mitterrand à La Courneuve). Le principe est d'ailleurs le même et il est exprimé par le président de la République : voir par lui-même l'état réel de ses quartiers. Le fait qu'il soit mentionné dans le reportage que "ces visites surprises" se soient faites dans la "plus grande discrétion" (notamment sans les élus locaux concernés) marque effectivement la volonté du président de la République d'établir une sorte de lien direct avec les habitants qui vivent dans ces quartiers. Il ne s'agit pas de faire l'annonce de nouvelles mesures mais "de voir les choses par moi-même" selon l'expression utilisée par François Mitterrand lors de son allocution à la Préfecture à Lyon. Au moment où la Commission nationale pour le développement social des quartiers établit la liste définitive des 22 quartiers qui bénéficieront d'un programme de réhabilitation, la visite du président de la République sur le terrain suggère une forme de "présidentialisation" du thème de la réhabilitation des grands ensembles.La création au même moment de Banlieue 89 suscitée par deux architectes proches de François Mitterrand, Roland Castro et Michel Cantal-Duparc, suggère également l'intérêt du président de la République pour les questions urbaines (voir Inauguration de l'exposition organisée par Banlieue 89)."http://fresques.ina.fr/mitterrand/fiche-media/Mitter00106/visite-de-francois-mitterrand-a-saint-etienne-et-aux-minguettes.html Journaliste

Visites surprises qui se sont déroulées dans la plus grande discrétion, seule Madame Georgina Dufoix, Secrétaire d’Etat à la Famille et aux Immigrés, Monsieur Gilbert Trigano, le PDG du Club Méditerranée qui participe à la Commission Dubedout, et deux collaborateurs du Chef de l’État étaient présents. Ni à Saint-Étienne, ni à Vénissieux, les autorités locales n’y ont participés. Peu avant midi, le Président est arrivé à la Préfecture du Rhône à Lyon où s’est déroulée pendant 45 minutes une séance de travail avec les élus locaux et notamment Messieurs Dubanchet, Maire de Saint-Étienne et Houël, Maire de Vénissieux. Réunion qui a donné l’occasion d’aborder les problèmes de fond, devait souligner François Mitterrand.(Bruit)François Mitterrand

Les deux quartiers que je viens de visiter, celui de Montchovet à Saint-Étienne et celui de Monmousseau à l’intérieur des Minguettes sur la commune de Vénissieux, sont inscrits sur la liste des 22 quartiers à réhabiliter, retenus, proposés par la Commission Dubedout devenue la Commission Pesce, et retenus par le Gouvernement. Et je compte appliquer nos efforts pour qu’effectivement, ces quartiers soient réhabilités, c’est-à-dire, soient habitables. Qu’on y trouve, pour ceux qui y vivent, euh, suffisamment de convivialité, de capacité de développer une famille et, euh, revenant de son travail quand on en a, de pouvoir vivre avec les autres. Les conditions de logement, la construction de ces ensembles, les liaisons avec l’extérieur, l’école, le sport, les espaces verts, bref, l’espace tout court, contribuent, vous le comprenez bien à, au futur équilibre, ou contribueront au futur équilibre de ces quartiers. Alors, je préfère voir les choses par moi-même. Il faut bien se dire que à l’origine de nombreux désordres sociaux se trouvent ces fâcheuses, ces déplorables conditions de vie. Et moi, je veux lutter contre ces désordres et pour cela, il faut que je m’attaque avec le Gouvernement et ceux qui ont la charge auprès de moi, je veux absolument m’attaquer aux sources d’un malaise et d’un déséquilibre social qui sont d’une immense ampleur. Raison de plus pour commencer par un bout avec énergie et continuité. Et de ce point de vue, je compte bien, au cours des semaines et des mois à venir, persévérer dans cette enquête personnelle qui me permet ensuite de donner des instructions précises à ceux qui participent à la gestion de l’État., à Saint-Étienne comme dans les communes de sa proche banlieue. Une sorte de grand monument à la gloire des HLM, comme si on avait fait exprès de la faire aussi énorme pour montrer comme les gens étaient fiers de ce quartier. Autour on construit tout ce qu'il faut pour les habitants : une école, Montchovet, qui donne sur le grand pré derrière, une MJC, une piscine, un centre commercial, avec la Poste, plus tard le bureau de police. En 1978, comme les enfants des habitants grandissent, on ouvre un deuxième collège dans la ZUP. Il prendra le nom de Jean Dasté, qui a créé la Comédie de Saint-Etienne, le plus grand théatre de province en France, et son école de comédiens. Après 1984 les loyers des HLM ont augmenté, beaucoup d'habitants sont partis. La population de Saint-Etienne diminue surtout dans les quartiers sud : beaucoup de gens déménagent vers la plaine du Forez, moins froide, où il y a la place de batir des maisons. On a rénové beaucoup d'appartements anciens en ville : la crise du logement est finie. On ne sait même plus qu'elle a existé. Les ZUP ont vieilli et la plupart des gens préfèrent se loger dans des appartements récents. Alors on ferme : le collège de Beaulieu, l'école de la Marandinière, la Poste. La Muraille coute très cher à entretenir : il n'y a plus asssez d'habitants pour payer les frais. Les HLM ont décidé de la détruire: c'est le plus gros projet de démolition jamais réalisé en Europe. Les familles qui restaient ont du déménager. On va faire exploser la Muraille de Chine au printemps de l'an 2000. Peut être qu'il fallait le faire, mais pour les gens du quartier c'est un gros morceau de notre Histoire qu'on nous détruit.

1954: les premiers travaux à Beaulieu : la campagne devient une ville à grands coups de bulldozer..

Le projet est de construire en grande quantité des logements de bonne qualité, avec tout le confort, des chambres pour les enfants, l'eau, le chauffage central, des sanitaires, des arbres et des pelouses, et surtout .... des loyers accessibles pour tous. Ce seront les Habitations à Loyers Modérés, les HLM.

Il faudra les construires en dehors des villes, pour en finir avec le mélange des industries et des logements, qui amène le bruit et la pollution. Y prévoir tous les équipements : commerces, écoles, collèges, lycées, transports, parcs, équipements sportifs, police, pompiers, Postes. Construire des villes entières où tout le monde aura accès à ce qui n'était encore que le luxe de quelques gens très riches.

Cinq villes sont choisies pour être prioritaires : Paris ( Pantin ) et Lyon ( Bron-Parilly) à cause de leur taille, Angers et Rouen détruites dans les bombardements de 1944, Saint-Etienne, la ville la plus sinistrée de France pour le logement. C'est là que naissent les cinq premières Zone à Urbaniser en Priorité, les ZUP, modèles de l'urbanisme pour toute une génération. Elles ne s'appellent pas encore comme ça : on les construites avant que l'expression de ZUP existe, c'est de leur réussite que naitra le modèle repris partout pour lequel on inventera le mot plus tard.

Beaulieu I: le projet d'urbanisme

Maquette de 1953 - Projet des architectes Gouyon-Clément

Une architecture géométrique, de grands espaces, des arbres, des formes qui soulignent le relief.

La ZUP de Beaulieu est construite en quatre tranches:

- Beaulieu I ( Beaulieu ) de 1953 à 1955

- Beaulieu II ( La Marandinière ) en 1959

- Beaulieu III ( Montchovet ) en 1964, dont fait partie la Muraille de Chine, le grand immeuble le long du boulevard à gauche.

- Beaulieu IV ( La Palle ) en 1971

Le quartier:

Au premier plan, en bas à droite Beaulieu, la Marandinière est à droite derrière l'autoroute, Montplaisir à gauche, Monchovet au milieu, le long du boulevard de la Palle.

A gauche des tennis, les batiments du collège de Beaulieu. C'était l'autre collège de la ZEP, le seul collège "sensible" de France a avoir été fermé, en 1995.

Nouvelles techniques, nouveaux matériaux :

Construire vite pour un prix raisonnable oblige à inventer de nouvelles techniques, d'autant que l'on manque de travailleurs qualifiés.

La construction s'industrialise: immeubles à structure porteuse ( des poteaux en béton armé tiennent les dalles, ce ne sont plus les murs qui soutiennent les immeubles ), murs rideaux ( les murs sont fait de morceaux préfabriqués accrochés aux dalles ), éléments standardisés ( les éléments: murs, tuyauterie, portes et fenêtres, sanitaires, etc... sont tous identiques, fabriqués en usine en grande série, installés de la même façon dans tous les immeubles ), nouveaux matériaux ( matières plastiques, béton armé, acier ) qui ne s'utilisaient pas dans la construction traditionnelle.

Cela permet de diminuer les prix, en automatisant les fabrications, mais aussi parce qu'on peut utiliser des ouvriers beaucoup moins qualifiés, qui ne font que du montage et que l'on paye moins cher.

Bien après les gens se plaindront de ces appartements tous identiques, de ces matériaux peu agréables, de la taille inhumaine des batiments.

Mais à l'époque il faut compter deux à trois ans d'attente pour obtenir un appartement dans le quartier. Les familles sont si contentes de leur quartier tout neuf que les collègiens qui prennent le bus emportent une paire de bottes en plus de leur chaussures pour aller des immeubles à l'arrêt de bus : pas question de ramener de la boue dans les bus ou dans les escaliers.La crise du logement:

1950 : la France connait la pire crise du logement de son Histoire. La crise économique de 1929 puis la guerre de 1939-1945 ont arrêté la construction de logements, déja insuffisante avant 1930, pendant plus de vingt ans.

La France est au maximum du "baby-boom" ( période de très forte natalité qui commence à la fin de la guerre ) : les 40 millions de français de 1950 font deux fois plus de bébés que les 60 millions d'aujourd'hui. La très forte croissance économique relance l'immigration. Plus de la moitié des familles sont mal logées alors que la France commence la plus forte croissance démographique de son Histoire.

La IV° République, héritière du programme de la Résistance donne la priorité aux besoins sociaux : école, santé, logement, sur la rentabilité financière. L'Etat, les villes, sont décidés à investir dans le logement, qui est déclaré prioritaire dans le Plan d'organisation de l'économie.

Entre les années 50 et 60, et suite à la seconde guerre mondiale, la municipalité stéphanoise a vu sa population passée d’un peu moins de 180 000 habitants en 1950 à plus de 200 000 habitants dix ans plus tard en 1960. Cette forte augmentation de la population pouvait s’expliquer par le fort taux de natalité de cette époque (baby-boom), mais aussi par l’afflux de travailleurs de la classe ouvrière venus dans la grande cité stéphanoise pour trouver un travail. De ce fait, la construction d’un logement sain pour chaque ouvrier était devenue une priorité absolue pour les élus qui considéraient à raison que cela était une condition vitale dans le cadre de ce grand développement. Pour ce faire, la ville a lancé dans les années 50 une vaste opération de construction de barres d’habitation dans la zone de Beaulieu, destinée à fournir un logement à une population grandissante.

Une barre d’habitation innovante

A l’époque, avec une majorité d’architectes, les appartements modernes construits possédaient des cloisons lourdes empêchant toute modification interne ainsi que des espaces de renvoi sombres et non ventilés ressemblant à des alcôves.

Mais à l’inverse, pour certains architectes précurseurs de la région à l’image d’Yves et Henri Gouyon, la modernité reflétait le gout de la clarté, de l’air, et du soleil, avec de larges horizons. Ainsi, ces derniers donnaient la priorité non pas aux façades qu’ils considéraient comme de simples élévations du plan, mais aux cellules d’habitations et à leur orientation. Dans cette optique, le bâtiment proposé par Henri Gouyon, qui était donc un partisan de l’espace ouvert moderne, supprimait les circulations et profitait de ce gain de place pour aménager de nouveaux espaces de vie communes. De plus, dans ces cellules d’habitations, les architectes ont tirés profit au maximum de la double orientation des appartements (ces derniers étaient traversant) avec par exemple l’accolement de balcons.

Conception et réalisation d’un quartier entier

Pour le projet de Beaulieu, l’on confia la conception ainsi que la réalisation des interventions aux agences Henri et Yves Gouyon puis Yves Gouyon et associés. Ainsi, dés le milieu des années 50, des études concernant Beaulieu II – La Marandinière furent conduites, suivis de la construction du bâtiment entre 1957 et 1959. S’en suivit Beaulieu III – Montchovet entre 1962 et 1964, surnommé la « Muraille de Chine », qui comprenait entre autres, une barre de type HLM haute de 10 à 17 mètres et longue de 270 mètres, avec 560 logements. Suites à ces constructions, l’urbanisation des vallées et collines du sud-est de Saint-Etienne continua jusque dans les années 70 avec les séries de la Métare I, II, et III. Au total, ce sont plus de 8 000 logements, pour l’essentiel de type HLM, qui ont été construits durant cette période.

Ces constructions ont également contribué à la création du parc de l’Europe et d’un boulevard circulaire qui servait de jonction entre les différents édifices et le centre-ville de la cité stéphanoise.Un projet pharaonique

Le centre commercial fut un projet d’une dimension sans précédent pour la ville, plus grand centre commercial intra-urbain de la région Loire-Auvergne, avec 100 magasins, 1500 places de stationnement, 90 000 m² de surface, et sur 3 niveaux (4 niveaux avec la terrasse). Le 2 octobre 1979, CENTRE DEUX ouvre ses portes pour la première fois, et constitue une renaissance et un véritable tournant pour la ville.L’avis de l’architecte

De toutes les constructions de cette époque, Beaulieu est un des ensembles construits qui se porte le mieux si l’on en croit les nombreuses enquêtes menées auprès de la population de ces logements, dont certains l’occupe pratiquement depuis le début. Les arbres atteignent désormais le haut des immeubles, et la rue Le Corbusier adjacente a pris les allures « d’une banlieue des années 30 » avec un niveau d’urbanisme parfaitement acceptable. En conclusion, on peut parler pour cette construction d’un véritable savoir faire architectural et en quelques sortes d’art urbain. Ce projet a été récompensé par un prix d’urbanisme, mettant en valeur le travail en amont du projet. St-Etienne Cimaise Architectes -

Entretien avec François Tomas, géographe, spécialiste de l'aménagement urbain, et enseignant à l'université et à l'école d'architecture de Saint-Etienne. Il est notamment l'auteur des Grands Ensembles, une histoire qui continue (Publications de l'université de Saint-Etienne, 2003). Cet intellectuel a également mis la main à la pâte. Entre 1977 et 1983, il fut adjoint à l'urbanisme du maire communiste de l'époque, Joseph Sanguedolce. Engagé au PC de 1974 à 1985, il a, depuis, rejoint le Parti socialiste «comme militant de base»Quelle est l'ampleur des destructions provoquées par la Seconde Guerre mondiale à Saint-Etienne?

La ville subit un important bombardement des Alliés le 26 mai 1944. Celui-ci vise les usines qu'utilisaient les Allemands dans la région pour leur effort de guerre et les noeuds de communication ferroviaire. Comme prévu, la gare de Châteaucreux, les usines de Marais et le tunnel de Tardy sont touchés. Mais les bombes, larguées trop rapidement, atteignent aussi les quartiers du Soleil et de Tardy - notamment les écoles - ainsi que l'église Saint-François, emplie de fidèles. Au total, le bilan est lourd: un millier de morts, 1 500 blessés, 22 000 sinistrés; 800 immeubles ont été plus ou moins détruits.Que prévoit-on pour la reconstruction?Pas grand-chose. A la différence de la refonte spectaculaire du Havre, par exemple, on se contente ici de bâtir de petits immeubles, plus modernes bien sûr, mais sans réelle innovation architecturale ou urbanistique.Est-il vrai que Saint-Etienne, après guerre, traîne une réputation de «capitale des taudis»?C'est exact, et celle-ci n'est pas usurpée. En 1946, 7% seulement des logements sont jugés «confortables», et 17%, «acceptables»; 56% sont médiocres, et 20% peuvent véritablement être qualifiés de taudis: 1 logement sur 5 n'a pas d'eau à l'évier, les deux tiers ne disposent pas de WC, et 95%, de salle d'eau. Mais le problème n'a pas été créé par la guerre. Depuis la fin du XIXe siècle, Saint-Etienne a beaucoup grandi, mais très peu construit. Résultat: la ville a vieilli sur elle-même et se trouve après guerre dans une situation désastreuse, que les bombardements ont simplement aggravée.C'est alors qu'Alexandre de Fraissinette, maire élu en 1947, fixe le logement comme l'une de ses priorités.

Oui. Et ce ne sera pas un vain mot. Rendez-vous compte: on passe de 114 logements construits en 1948 à 531 en 1951, 1 085 en 1954, 1 694 en 1957 et même 2 932 en 1959! L'effort est gigantesque. Mais le changement est aussi qualitatif. A la fin des années 1940 et au début des années 1950, la France va connaître une rupture architecturale avec l'apparition des premiers grands ensembles. Saint-Etienne sera l'une des villes symboles de cette rupture.Comment cette nouvelle architecture est-elle accueillie?Très favorablement par les classes moyennes, beaucoup moins par les classes populaires.Cela paraît paradoxal, pour du logement social!

Le paradoxe n'est qu'apparent. On l'a oublié aujourd'hui, mais les premiers grands ensembles sont réservés aux familles de moins de trois enfants ayant des revenus corrects, autrement dit aux classes moyennes. Alors que, depuis la guerre, celles-ci devaient se contenter d'une ou de deux pièces mal équipées, elles se voient soudain proposer des logements spacieux, avec de la verdure, de la lumière, une salle d'eau, des WC, le chauffage central. Cela leur paraît merveilleux! Les pauvres, eux, continuent de s'entasser dans de petits appartements sans confort, quand ce ne sont pas des taudis, en particulier à Tarentaize et à Beaubrun, ou des bidonvilles, du côté de Méons, près des puits de mine et des usines sidérurgiques. Ce n'est que plus tard, à partir des années 1970, que les grands ensembles seront prioritairement réservés aux pauvres et aux familles immigrées. Mais, dans les années 1950, les grands ensembles sont encore synonymes de progrès social. Et même au-delà. On est persuadé que ce nouvel habitat va entraîner le recul de la maladie, de la délinquance, voire de la mésentente entre les époux! Il existe ainsi une «commission du bonheur ou des grands ensembles»!On croit rêver...

C'était l'ambiance de l'époque, avec ses utopies et ses excès. Pour les architectes, si l'un des repoussoirs est le taudis de centre-ville, l'autre est le petit pavillon de banlieue, symbole à leurs yeux de l'individualisme petit-bourgeois, avec ses gaspillages de terrain, son absence d'horizon et son coût pour la communauté...Quels sont les quartiers typiques de cette période, à Saint-Etienne?Le premier est constitué par le très bel ensemble de la place du Maréchal-Foch. Il s'agit d'une étape intermédiaire entre l'îlot traditionnel (des immeubles accolés, formant un pâté de maisons) et sa suppression totale. Du côté de la Grand-Rue, plusieurs immeubles constituent encore des semi-îlots. Mais, à l'ouest, deux immeubles sont déjà totalement indépendants: ils sont construits au milieu de la verdure. Et cela, c'est très nouveau. Jusqu'à présent, tous les immeubles érigés à Saint-Etienne, y compris les plus hauts, étaient accolés à d'autres édifices. Cela reste encore, cinquante ans plus tard, l'un des quartiers chics de Saint-Etienne.L'autre grande opération de l'époque, c'est Beaulieu I.Evidemment. On est, cette fois, face à un grand ensemble «pur». Le chantier commence en 1953 - il y a juste cinquante ans - et s'achève en 1955. Ce nouveau quartier de 1 264 logements est remarquablement conçu. Non seulement il respecte la topographie des lieux, mais aussi il joue avec elle: les bâtiments sont implantés soit parallèlement, soit perpendiculairement aux courbes de niveau, ce qui met en valeur la colline tout en préservant son sommet. Pour rompre l'anonymat, les entrées, les façades et les balcons sont individualisés. Les logements sont de qualité, et les espaces verts, confiés aux services de la ville, tout simplement magnifiques. Beaulieu produit d'ailleurs un effet prodigieux sur ses premiers habitants.Son implantation n'est pas non plus le fait du hasard...En effet. Compte tenu des préoccupations hygiénistes de l'époque, le conseil municipal a choisi ce site «loin des zones minières et industrielles, à l'abri des poussières et des fumées, au climat salubre». Il souligne qu'il ne sera «jamais exploité par les houillères, car son sous-sol est stérile» et qu'il est également «bien relié à Saint-Etienne par le cours Fauriel, la seule avenue large de la ville». C'est véritablement le contre-modèle du taudis. Il a d'ailleurs, lui également, remarquablement bien vieilli.Etes-vous aussi enthousiaste pour les projets qui ont suivi Beaulieu I?Hélas!... Beaulieu II-La Marandinière (1957-1959), Beaulieu III-Montchovet (1962-1964), avec la fameuse «muraille de Chine», Beaulieu IV-la Palle (1967-1970) et la Métare (1962-1974), représentant à eux tous quelque 6 000 logements, constituent - à l'exception de la Métare, qui ne comprend que des appartements en copropriété - des échecs complets. Et tragiques.Pourquoi cette différence?

Beaulieu I a bénéficié d'une accumulation de partis pris judicieux qui n'ont pas été appliqués par la suite. Outre la qualité de son architecture et de ses espaces verts, on a évité le zonage bête et méchant, qui allait s'imposer plus tard: les zones commerciales, d'un côté; les tours et les barres d'habitation, d'un deuxième; les emplois, d'un troisième. Enfin, Beaulieu I, réservé presque exclusivement aux classes moyennes, n'a pas connu le processus de dégradation que l'on constatera ailleurs, et dont la destruction de la «muraille de Chine» constituera le symbole.Qui ont été les grands aménageurs de cette époque?Parmi les politiques: le maire, Alexandre de Fraissinette (modéré), et son premier adjoint, qui lui succédera à sa mort, le radical Michel Durafour. Parmi les architectes: Edouard Hur et Henri Gouyon, concepteurs de Beaulieu I. Et, bien sûr, l'Etat, qui reste très présent. C'est lui qui, de manière générale, garde la haute main sur l'urbanisme. Beaulieu constitue une opération nationale, décidée de Paris. Cependant, ce qui est remarquable, c'est que, pour Beaulieu I, l'Etat va accepter de composer.Dans quels domaines?Le ministère de la Reconstruction souhaitait, ici comme ailleurs, que l'opération fût entièrement industrialisée. Autrement dit, que l'on adaptât au bâtiment les méthodes de l'automobile. Les constructions devaient se faire en préfabriqué, et l'on devait se contenter de les monter sur place. Mais, à Saint-Etienne, les architectes, soutenus par le maire, s'opposent à cette directive. Parce qu'ils sont expérimentés, et reconnus, ils vont obtenir gain de cause. Et heureusement.Y a-t-il eu des projets, conçus à cette époque, qui n'ont pas vu le jour? A la fin des années 1950, l'Etat fait appel à de grands architectes pour remodeler les villes. A Saint-Etienne, c'est Dufau, distingué par le prix de Rome, qui est choisi. Il présente un projet radical: raser les 70 îlots qui se trouvent à l'est de la Grand-Rue, entre la place du Peuple et Bellevue, et les remplacer par autant de tours et de barres! Son projet, finalement, ne sera appliqué qu'en partie. Au sud, jusqu'à Bellevue, presque tout est démoli, beaucoup de tours et de barres sont construites. Au nord, les démolitions sont également presque systématiques, mais, cette fois, les nouveaux immeubles reproduisent la forme traditionnelle de l'îlot. On détruit également une partie du quartier derrière la grande poste, ainsi que l'ancienne caserne de Tréfilerie et la prison de Bizillon. Le futur Centre-Deux...

C'est cela. Au départ, l'opération se nomme «prison-Tréfilerie», mais les promoteurs, qui ont le sens du commerce, préfèrent la rebaptiser. Ce quartier est conçu comme un centre d'affaires à l'américaine, type la Défense, à Paris, ou la Part-Dieu, à Lyon. On explique aux élus que, s'ils veulent que Saint-Etienne devienne une grande ville, ils doivent la doter d'un centre d'affaires, avec des immeubles atteignant 100 ou 150 mètres de hauteur, comme aux Etats-Unis! Le projet est lancé (en 1969), mais il sera peu à peu amendé, pour tenir compte de la réalité économique, de la montée des oppositions et de l'évolution des mentalités.

Comment l'économie stéphanoise se porte-t-elle alors?

La ville croit encore à l'avenir de la mine et des industries traditionnelles. Cela se comprend: le plan Monnet pour la relance de l'économie française s'appuie sur l'énergie, les transports, les industries lourdes... Bref, tous les points forts de Saint-Etienne, mais ce sera un cadeau empoisonné, car, bercée par cette illusion, la cité s'endort. Quand elle se décidera à moderniser ses structures industrielles, ce sera toujours avec quelques années de retard. Au fond, c'est dans les années 1950 que l'on commet les erreurs qui conduiront, plus tard, au démantèlement des industries locales.

Le secteur tertiaire a-t-il déjà commencé son essor?

Pas encore. Dans les années 1950, Saint-Etienne reste une ville très fortement industrielle. La tertiarisation, avec l'enseignement supérieur, la transformation de l'hôpital en centre hospitalier régional et universitaire et l'essor de Casino, avec les supermarchés et les hypermarchés, ne commencera véritablement que dans les années 1960.

Culturellement, la ville est aussi très active...

Elle est même, à ce moment-là, l'un des hauts lieux de la création culturelle en France, notamment dans les domaines théâtral et artistique. Maurice Allemand fait du musée de Saint-Etienne l'un des plus grands musées d'art moderne en France. Et Jean Dasté propose au public le théâtre moderne. Ce bouillonnement est dû, notamment, à Alexandre de Fraissinette. Comme, après lui, Michel Durafour, il est persuadé que l'avenir de la cité est dans la modernité. Il considère donc qu'elle doit être déclinée dans tous ses aspects: économique, urbanistique et culturel.

La population comprend-elle cette volonté?

Oui et non. Dans les années 1950, il existe un certain consensus, car tout le monde partage la vision d'un avenir meilleur. Mais, en réalité, Fraissinette, et surtout Durafour, sont très décalés. Dans leur obsession d'une ville «blanche», ils refusent en bloc le passé, dont on a heureusement découvert depuis lors les richesses. Ils rêvent d'une ville qui n'existe pas, peuplée d'habitants qui ne ressemblent pas aux Stéphanois réels... C'est d'ailleurs ce qui, plus tard, provoquera la chute de Michel Durafour.Le chantier de l'autoroute de Saint Etienne 01 nov. 1965, la video içi www.ina.fr/video/LXC9610041788 - ST-Etienne,Montchovet (Beaulieu III) "la Muraille de Chine" construction 1962-1964, architecte HUR/FARRAT/GOUYON.

Rappelez vous...Aout 1983, François Mitterand, se déplace incognito à la Muraille de Chine à Saint-Etienne. Quelques mois plus tard, la grande réhabilitation de cette barre d’habitation sera lancée.

& le 24 octobre 1987 : visite officielle à Saint-Etienne. Il retourne à La Muraille de Chine pour constater les travaux. Le même jour il se rendra à Saint-Chamond et Roanne.

« En 1983, le président s’est rendu à Montchovet à l’improviste »

François Mitterrand est venu une première à Montchovet en 1983 incognito. Pourquoi une telle démarche ?

C’est l’architecte Roland Castro qui a convaincu le président d’aller dans des quartiers populaires. Son but était de lui montrer où vivaient les gens à cette époque et qu’il fallait entreprendre un programme de rénovation.

François Mitterrand m’a appelé et m’a dit d’organiser trois ou quatre » descentes » sur le terrain mais le président ne voulait ni policiers, ni gendarmes. Il m’a simplement demandé d’avertir, par correction, le préfet une fois arrivé. C’était d’ailleurs le meilleur gage de sécurité car lorsque vous n’êtes pas attendu, il n’y a pas de risques. Nous sommes donc allés à Saint-Etienne à Montchovet, aux Minguettes à Lyon, dans le 93.. et, à chaque fois, à l’improviste

> Quelle a été la réaction des habitants ?

Ils étaient très étonnés de croiser le président de la République dans leur cage d’escaliers ! Partout, nous avons reçu un accueil très chaleureux.

Nous étions quatre : le président, Roland Castro, un policier et moi-même. Je me souviens qu’aux Minguettes, le président a été invité par une famille pour boire le thé. Les habitants étaient très heureux que le président s’intéresse à eux.

> Comment François Mitterrand a-t-il réagi en voyant la vie de ses quartiers ?Il était fasciné. Je n’irais pas jusqu’à dire que c’était, pour lui, une découverte mais il était un rural et le fait de se confronter à la vie de ces gens qui vivaient dans de grandes barres fut enrichissant.> Ces visites impromptues ont-elles été suivies d’effets ?Oui car la mission Banlieues 89 est née de ces visites de terrain. Ce fut d’ailleurs la naissance de la politique de la ville.> En 1987, cette fois, la visite fut officielle - Proposer de nouveaux logements dans une démarche environnementale forte. Dans la poursuite des opérations engagées depuis 2001 (démolition de la Muraille de Chine en 2000, implantation du CHPL, de l ’AIMV en 2005), une qualité résidentielle s'affirme progressivement au sein des quartiers Sud-Est, grâce à une nouvelle offre d'habitat variée (en forme comme en type de produits). Le dynamisme du quartier s'appuie sur l'accueil et le développement de services, d'activités économiques et d'équipements d'agglomération (centre nautique, Nouveau Théâtre de Beaulieu...) et de proximité (salles de sport, travaux dans les écoles). Les atouts paysagers du site sont pleinement exploités dans une démarche environnementale forte. L'aménagement des espaces libres et la requalification des axes structurants et de desserte renforcent les liaisons internes aux quartiers et les ouvrent sur l'ensemble de la ville. Beaulieu, un patrimoine de qualité, valorisé et adapté à ses occupants

40 logement ont été adaptés au vieillissement de leur occupants (bacs à douche, volets électriques, aménagement des ascenseurs, …). L'amélioration des espaces extérieurs, résidentiels ou publics (rue K.Marx, square Renoir, allée Clémenceau) viendra rendre plus conviviaux ces lieux de vie partagés. Petite Marandinière : une cité jardin qui se rénove en gardant son caractère Sur la Petite Marandinière, 320 logements de Métropole Habitat ont été rénovés. Les bâtiments ont été transformés pour arriver à 32 logements, avec création de T3, T4, et T5 en tenant compte de la rénovation thermique et du confort des logements. 54 logements ont été construits, répartis en 6 bâtiments à l'architecture contemporaine et fonctionnelle (surfaces généreuses, double ou triple orientation, terrasse ou loggia). En parallèle, les espaces publics ont été réaménagés dans une démarche environnementale durable et innovante : résidentialisation et embellissement des espaces extérieurs, traitement paysager d'ensemble, requalification des voiries et des circulations douces adaptées aux usages, gestion optimisée du stationnement et des eaux pluviales...Une nouvelle mixité pour le quartier : les maisons de ville "Jardins Sembat" 22 maisons de ville (du T3 au T5) ont été construites à l’angle de la rue Marcel Sembat et du boulevard de Fraissinette. Conçu et développé par l'équipe XXL-Civita-Spirit, ce projet se caractérise par la qualité de la construction (matériaux durables, aménagement soigné des espaces extérieurs…) et par la mise en valeur paysagère du site, ouvert sur les collines du Pilat. 3 types de maisons ont été proposées en location libre : maisons jumelées le long du boulevard de Fraissinette, maisons en pente en fond de parcelle adossée au talus, maisons patio au cœur de l’îlot. Un nouveau centre nautique sur le secteur Loti Souhaité par les habitants, exemplaire d’une démarche participative de coproduction, le centre nautique Yves Naime a été ouvert à l'été 2013, en remplacement de l'ancienne piscine de la Marandinière. Ce centre nautique comprend un bassin sportif (25m, 6 lignes d'eau), un bassin destiné aux activités ludiques (bains bouillonnants, aquagym...), une pataugoire et des plages extérieures.Grande Marandinière : un secteur d'habitat en développement . Après la démolition de la barre Sisley et celle en cours de la barre Féguide, c'est un nouveau quartier qui se dessine sur ce secteur. La reconfiguration de la rue Sisley en voie de promenade avec des vues en belvédère et l'aménagement d'une « coulée verte » ont profondément modifié le paysage urbain du secteur. Ce nouvel environnement a permis à Métropole Habitat de réaliser un programme immobilier de 27 logements locatifs. Dans ce bâtiment collectif moderne et fonctionnel, chaque logement comporte un espace extérieur privatif, balcon ou terrasse. Au rez-de-chaussée, des locaux d'activités (centre social espace-loisirs) ou de services sont déployés le long de la nouvelle rue Sisley. La Palle : des résidentialisations de qualité

La résidentialisation des immeubles du boulevard de la Palle apporte aux habitants de nouvelles terrasses privatives en rez-de-chaussée, des espaces en cœur d’îlots plus agréables, et de nouveaux parcours piétonniers avec aires de jeux. Elle s’accompagne de la réhabilitation des immeubles (réfection des façades, changement des garde-corps…). Des opérations de résidentialisation ont été menées immeuble par immeuble de 2006 à 2009. Elles permettent de définir les limites entre les parties publiques ouvertes à tous, et les parties privées. Des petits jardins privatifs sont ainsi aménagés pour chaque logement de rez-de-chaussée.

Le Pont Aven : du logement social à haute performance environnementale

Développé par Métropole Habitat, le Pont-Aven est un exemple en matière de construction écologique. Il accueille 20 logements sociaux du T2 au T5. L’ensemble de la conception du bâtiment intègre des critères environnementaux : parois extérieures en brique mono-mur, eau chaude solaire, chauffage collectif au gaz naturel, ventilation intérieure à double flux pour une meilleure circulation de l’air, équipements électriques et sanitaires économes en énergie. La toiture végétalisée permet quant à elle une meilleure conservation de la fraîcheur en été, les auvents du toit protègent les fenêtres du soleil et les eaux de pluie seront récupérées pour arroser les espaces extérieurs…Résultat : une diminution des rejets en CO2 et une baisse significative des charges de chauffage pour les locataires.

Favoriser l'accessibilité et les relations inter-quartiers Le réaménagement du boulevard de la Palle a favorisé une meilleure desserte du quartier en transports en commun. Une station de taxis, des pistes cyclables et des pelouses ont été aménagées le long du boulevard, sécurisant ainsi la traversée piétonne entre les terrasses Roinat et le centre hospitalier. A l'intérieur du quartier, la trame piétonnière a été développée dans le principe d'une continuité paysagère entre les différents secteurs. Initiée avec l’aménagement des terrasses Roinat, une coulée verte, nouveau poumon vert du quartier, facilitant la circulation des piétons et des cyclistes, relie désormais le boulevard de la Palle, et plus loin le bois d'Avaize, au Parc de l'Europe. - Après la seconde guerre mondiale, un immense chantier s'ouvre en France dans le but de loger massivement une population démunie, les réalisations des HLM en France et la lutte contre l'habitat indigne insalubre , le film parle de St-Etienne entre autre avec les Cités du soleil 1958 de Jean-Claude Sée : www.dailymotion.com/video/xgj74q .

Jusqu'au milieu des années 1970, cette période dite des « Trente Glorieuses l'après guerre et montre la plupart des grandes réalisations de 1945 à 1960. A travers les exemples de la région parisienne et de quelques grandes villes françaises sont posé les problèmes de la diversité architecturale, de l'esthétique et de l'harmonie entre le passé et l'avenir. Les images montrent les grands ensembles de Beaulieu, la Marandiniére, à Saint-Etienne, la cité le Haut du Lièvre à Nancy, des cités à Sarcelles, Asnières, Bron-Parilly, Epinay, Pantin, Bobigny, la cité radieuse de Le Corbusier à Marseille, le front de mer à Royan, la video de l'Année 1962, une réalisation de Philippe Brunet içi www.dailymotion.com/video/xgj2zz » fut le terrain de nombreuses expérimentations architecturales et urbanistiques, fondées notamment sur les idées émises plus tôt dans le siècle par le Mouvement moderne.

Aujourd'hui, ces ensembles bâtis sont au cœur d'une autre actualité, liée à leur adaptation à l'évolution des modes de vie de notre société contemporaine. Cette question qui se posa dès la fin des années 1970 apparaît sous un jour nouveau, avec les premières démolitions dans les années 1980 et, plus récemment, le vaste programme de réhabilitation mis en place dans le cadre de la loi Solidarité et Renouvellement Urbain.

Après Les Grands Ensembles. Une histoire qui continue…, ce nouvel ouvrage, fruit de la collaboration entre l'École Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Saint-Étienne et l'Université Jean Monnet, apporte un éclairage nouveau sur cet héritage bâti, mettant au jour simultanément la question de son vécu et celle des acteurs engagés dans son édification. En réunissant quinze auteurs spécialistes de ce domaine, il s'agit de regrouper autant de points de vue, pour comprendre la diversité et la complexité des enjeux liés à la postérité de ce bâti. - « Petite enquête sur Beaulieu – Le Rond-Point », La Tribune du centre et du sud-est, 13 octobre 1955 et « Le chantier de Beaulieu – Le Rond-Point (1ère tranche) sera terminé le 30 juin 1956 très exactement »,La Tribune du centre & du sud-est, 26 juin 1956 -

«St-Etienne, la place des grands ensembles dans l’histoire de l’habitat social français »

Saint-Étienne/Beaulieu, au sud-est de l’agglomération, sur le versant sud de la colline de Beaulieu, en forte pente et d’aspect semi-rural, la cité de Beaulieu est mise à l’étude dès 1950. Elle débute en 1953 et comprend 1 221 logements, un groupe scolaire et 35 boutiques. Des parrains prestigieux et l’élite de l’architecture sté- phanoise sont mobilisés pour ce premier grand ensemble local.

Tantôt les bâtiments suivent le dessin de la courbe de niveau 600, devenue rue Le Corbusier, tantôt ils s’installent perpendi-culairement à la pente, reliés à la rue par des passerelles ou de grands escaliers. A l’implantation exemplaire des bâtiments répond une maîtrise raffinée du végétal d’accompagnement, décliné selon les modes habituels aux squares urbains, avec une virtuosité étonnante dus aux talents de l’ingénieur des Services techniques de la ville, Jean Marc, associé à l’équipe de concep-tion dès l’origine de l’opération.

Le vocabulaire de l’art des jardins s’adapte au grand ensemble : les espaces sont découpés à partir des courbes de niveau et des allées, et caractérisés par un système de haies et de contre-haies (haies étagées doubles ou triples) constituées de troènes com-muns ou dorés, prunus, berbéris et buffets de laurier, et sont plantés d arbres rythmés et colorés (érables négundo et acacias), ou parfois fastigiés (la gamme d’arbres est d’ailleurs peu riche), selon un dessin géométrique et des alternances de couleurs. Ces espaces verts ne sont réalisés qu’à partir de 1964, après avoir été longtemps laissés en prairies fauchées. Cet état de fait, dû au départ à l’étirement des financements des projets d’espaces exté-rieurs, s’inscrivait aussi dans la logique de conception de notre ingénieur, qui pensait « qu’il était nécessaire de laisser vivre un groupe d’habitations avant de planter » – afin de reprendre notamment les chemins tracés par l’usage.

Cette réalisation révèle le décalage entre les réflexions et les savoir-faire architecturaux et paysagers et exprime quelques traits caractéristiques de la pratique paysagiste. Le festonnage des haies qui jalonne les espaces extérieurs rejoint celui des collines boca- gères surplombant les bâtiments. Il rappelle le site environnant et inspirera plus tard l’AUA et Alexandre Chemetoff pour la réhabilitation du quartier de Montreynaud.

Relevons que, sans l’action concertée des services de la ville et de l’office d’HLM, qui finança entièrement la réalisation des espaces verts, rien n’aurait été fait à cette époque, compte tenu du désintérêt pour cet aspect du projet des principaux responsables du chantier. « D’ailleurs, à cette époque, les architectes ne jouaient pas au paysagiste… », queleques superbes videos du Ministere de la Cohésion et des Territoires içi : .Naissance d'une banlieue mort d'un village 2000 www.dailymotion.com/video/x1a98iz

Réalisateur : Sidney Jézéquel Production : Les Films Roger Leenhardt Sujet : la commune de Goussainville (95) --------

Quatre murs et un toit 1953 www.dailymotion.com/video/xk6xui Scenario et réalisation Pierre Jallaud MRU (ministère de la reconstruction et de l'urbanisme) ----------------Le Bonheur est dans le béton www.dailymotion.com/video/x413amo - 2015 Documentaire réalisé par Lorenz Findeisen produit par Les Films du Tambour de Soie ---------------------Beaulieu par son constructeur la Cimaise :" Entre les années 50 et 60, et suite à la seconde guerre mondiale, la municipalité stéphanoise a vu sa population passée d’un peu moins de 180 000 habitants en 1950 à plus de 200 000 habitants dix ans plus tard en 1960. Cette forte augmentation de la population pouvait s’expliquer par le fort taux de natalité de cette époque (baby-boom), mais aussi par l’afflux de travailleurs de la classe ouvrière venus dans la grande cité stéphanoise pour trouver un travail. De ce fait, la construction d’un logement sain pour chaque ouvrier était devenue une priorité absolue pour les élus qui considéraient à raison que cela était une condition vitale dans le cadre de ce grand développement. Pour ce faire, la ville a lancé dans les années 50 une vaste opération de construction de barres d’habitation dans la zone de Beaulieu, destinée à fournir un logement à une population grandissante.--- Bâtir mieux plus vite et moins cher 1975 l'industrialisation du bâtiment et ses innovations : la préfabrication en usine, le coffrage glissant... www.dailymotion.com/video/xyjudq ----

SAINT-ETIENNE BEAULIEU une barre d’habitation innovante

A l’époque, avec une majorité d’architectes, les appartements modernes construits possédaient des cloisons lourdes empêchant toute modification interne ainsi que des espaces de renvoi sombres et non ventilés ressemblant à des alcôves.

Mais à l’inverse, pour certains architectes précurseurs de la région à l’image d’Yves et Henri Gouyon, la modernité reflétait le gout de la clarté, de l’air, et du soleil, avec de larges horizons. Ainsi, ces derniers donnaient la priorité non pas aux façades qu’ils considéraient comme de simples élévations du plan, mais aux cellules d’habitations et à leur orientation. Dans cette optique, le bâtiment proposé par Henri Gouyon, qui était donc un partisan de l’espace ouvert moderne, supprimait les circulations et profitait de ce gain de place pour aménager de nouveaux espaces de vie communes. De plus, dans ces cellules d’habitations, les architectes ont tirés profit au maximum de la double orientation des appartements (ces derniers étaient traversant) avec par exemple l’accolement de balcons. Conception et réalisation d’un quartier entier. Pour le projet de Beaulieu, l’on confia la conception ainsi que la réalisation des interventions aux agences Henri et Yves Gouyon puis Yves Gouyon et associés. Ainsi, dés le milieu des années 50, des études concernant Beaulieu II – La Marandinière furent conduites, suivis de la construction du bâtiment entre 1957 et 1959. S’en suivit Beaulieu III – Montchovet entre 1962 et 1964, surnommé la « Muraille de Chine la plus grande barre d'Europe avec 540 appartements à sa livraison mi 1964, les chantiers de l'OPAC devenu Métropole-Habitat, www.ina.fr/video/LY00001263522 », qui comprenait entre autres, une barre de type HLM haute de 10 à 17 mètres et longue de 270 mètres, avec 560 logements. Suites à ces constructions, l’urbanisation des vallées et collines du sud-est de Saint-Etienne continua jusque dans les années 70 avec les séries de la Métare I, II, et III. Au total, ce sont plus de 8 000 logements, pour l’essentiel de type HLM, qui ont été construits durant cette période. Ces constructions ont également contribué à la création du parc de l’Europe et d’un boulevard circulaire qui servait de jonction entre les différents édifices et le centre-ville de la cité stéphanoise.

Un projet pharaonique

Le centre commercial fut un projet d’une dimension sans précédent pour la ville, plus grand centre commercial intra-urbain de la région Loire-Auvergne, avec 100 magasins, 1500 places de stationnement, 90 000 m² de surface, et sur 3 niveaux (4 niveaux avec la terrasse). Le 2 octobre 1979, CENTRE DEUX ouvre ses portes pour la première fois, et constitue une renaissance et un véritable tournant pour la ville. L’avis de l’architecte

De toutes les constructions de cette époque, Beaulieu est un des ensembles construits qui se porte le mieux si l’on en croit les nombreuses enquêtes menées auprès de la population de ces logements, dont certains l’occupe pratiquement depuis le début. Les arbres atteignent désormais le haut des immeubles, et la rue Le Corbusier adjacente a pris les allures « d’une banlieue des années 30 » avec un niveau d’urbanisme parfaitement acceptable. En conclusion, on peut parler pour cette construction d’un véritable savoir faire architectural et en quelques sortes d’art urbain. Ce projet a été récompensé par un prix d’urbanisme, mettant en valeur le travail en amont du projet. www.cimaise-architectes.com/realisations/divers/construct... cité HLM labellisée Patrimoine du XXeme siecle -"Il faut bien le dire, avant même d’être livré, Beaulieu est l' un des grands-ensembles, parmis 6 autres qui fasçinait en 1954..En effet c'etait le début de la longue & grande histoire des chantiers de l'Office Public de l'Aménagement et de la Construction* içi, ou à Montreynaud, Solaure, Monthieu etc

( l'OPAC l'office public de logements sociaux, devenu plus tard Métropole-Habitat, est la plus importante au niveau National, c'est la plus grosse boite d'HLM). Bref, les habituels promeneurs du coin genre les "Bois du Four (la Metare, le nom ançien, qui par ailleurs appartenait a Mme de Métarie une veuve riche qui légua son domaine soit "la Métare" à la ville, pour un Franc symbolique à l'epoque et aux CHU anciennement les HCL Hospiçes Civils de la Ville comme à Lyon... (on notera qu il y a des tas de logements en centre ville propriété du CHU)..se rendant le dimanche

dans le Pilat ou à Rochetaillée et sur les collines* alentours (on en a 7 comme a Rome) font un léger détour par le chantier. Ils constatent alors de visu cet avancement des travaux que la presse qualifie de « belle prouesse ». Le rythme est en effet rapide : « un étage par semaine » pour certaines barres, comme le raconte un témoin. Les « grandes maisons », soient les immeubles de hauteur et nombre de logements importants (IGH), étant alors encore rares dans la

ville, les Stéphanois n’y sont pas habitués@ les H.L.M. Beaulieu est la 1ere cité Stéphanoise de toutes,. Les barres de dix-sept et quatorze niveaux gises respectivement rues Gomy Herriot et de Vlaminck, ainsi que la tour de 22 niveaux au 33 rue Le-Corbusier,surprennent donc encore pire pour la plus grande barre d'Europe qui arrvera 7 ans plus tard, la Muraille qui mettront certains certaines à la renverse , le gigantisme à l'état brut, du lourd.... La référence qui vient à l’esprit de beaucoup ajoute à la fascination : l’Amérique. « C’est New-York ! c'est tres joile, tres vert... », se rappelle avoir pensé un habitant de la première harre...Mais plus que les immeubles, ce sont surtout les logements qui emportent l’adhésion des « heureux locataires », comme aime à les appeler la presse tout court. La satisfaction procurée aux habitants par l’hygiène et le confort des logements des Grands-Ensembles soit les quartiers NEUF est une information connue, les études de sciences humaines sur le sujet abondent. Aussi, pour le cas de Beaulieu devenu un cas d'Ecole idem pour Montchovet (Beaulieu3) et les transformations de la Marandiniere (Beaulieu2)...Les entretiens réalisés avec des locataires n’apportent pas sur ce point-ci d’éléments nouveaux :les premiers motifs de satisfaction invoqués sont, comme pour bien d’autres Grands-Ensembles Français,

l’eau courante, le chauffage central dont sont pourvus les immeubles les plus hauts, les WC intérieurs et salles de bain, l’ensoleillement et la luminosité permis par l’orientation, la hauteur et la disposition des immeubles, les placards et les tout aussi pratiques balcons à parois séchoirs permettant de faire sécher le linge, hiver compris. Entretien avec François Tomas, géographe, spécialiste de l'aménagement urbain, et enseignant à l'université et à l'école d'architecture de Saint-Etienne. Il est notamment l'auteur des Grands Ensembles, une histoire qui continue (Publications de l'université de Saint-Etienne, 2003). Cet intellectuel a également mis la main à la pâte. Entre 1977 et 1983, il fut adjoint à l'urbanisme du maire communiste de l'époque, Joseph Sanguedolce. Engagé au PC de 1974 à 1985, il a, depuis, rejoint le Parti socialiste «comme militant de base»

L"apres guerre...Que prévoit-on pour la reconstruction? Pas grand-chose. A la différence de la refonte spectaculaire du Havre, par exemple, on se contente ici de bâtir de petits immeubles, plus modernes bien sûr, mais sans réelle innovation architecturale ou urbanistique.Est-il vrai que Saint-Etienne, après guerre, traîne une réputation de «capitale des taudis»?C'est exact, et celle-ci n'est pas usurpée. En 1946, 7% seulement des logements sont jugés «confortables», et 17%, «acceptables»; 56% sont médiocres, et 20% peuvent véritablement être qualifiés de taudis: 1 logement sur 5 n'a pas d'eau à l'évier, les deux tiers ne disposent pas de WC, et 95%, de salle d'eau. Mais le problème n'a pas été créé par la guerre. Depuis la fin du XIXe siècle, Saint-Etienne a beaucoup grandi, mais très peu construit. Résultat: la ville a vieilli sur elle-même et se trouve après guerre dans une situation désastreuse, que les bombardements ont simplement aggravée. C'est alors qu'Alexandre de Fraissinette, maire élu en 1947, fixe le logement comme l'une de ses priorités.Oui. Et ce ne sera pas un vain mot. Rendez-vous compte: on

Rules? What rules?

It's now become part of our travelling calendar - we go on a city break for Jayne’s birthday in January - no presents for birthday's and Christmas, we travel instead. This year it was Seville. We had to drive 180 miles south to Stansted to fly there though, Friday afternoon on the A1, such fun... It was a really good drive down in actual fact, the best day for months, glorious blue sky and a fantastic sunset- and I was in a car. We got stung for tea and drinks in the Radison Blu but we were overnighting and leaving the car so we didn't have much choice. Ryanair aagh! Again no choice. To be fair to the abrasive Irish man O Leary things are better than they used to be and it was an acceptable flight.

 

We were hoping for better weather than we got- don't you always? It was. cold, windy and after some initial beautiful sun on our first afternoon, it was mostly grey. The wind died but so did the sun. The other little problem was that it was my turn for the awful cold that Jayne had been trying to get over. I was under the weather in more ways than one all week, it was only a cold but it was the worst I've had for ages and it didn't help my mood, particularly when the sun was absent. We had a few hours of really nice light here and there and I made the most of it - I think!

 

Seville has miles and miles of narrow cobbled streets, they seem to go on for ever. They are almost random in layout and it is extremely difficult to find your way around, it's easier to just keep walking and see what you find. So we did! The architecture is stunning and the history is fascinating. Aside from the ancient history the two events that seem to have had a massive recent influence are the Expo's of 1929 and 1992. The incredible buildings or 'Pavilions' that were built for a one off event are now part of the reason that people visit the city. The 1929 pavilions are fantastic, each one is a story in itself and a destination in its own right but there are a lot of them in Parque Maria Luisa. Plaza Espana, built by the hosts of course, is the biggest and I would imagine that you could make a project out of photographing the individual ceramic tile displays around it on their own. These incredible buildings really need the light to be right to get images that people want to see, flat bright light from bright grey skies is good for certain things but dramatic architecture deserves better - or maybe I'm looking for the easy way option. The other discovery that we made, we found just down the road from the hotel, about an hour into the trip – The Metropol Parasol. A giant lattice work parasol, apparently called ‘The Mushrooms’ locally and apparently the world’s largest wooden structure. You have to look twice, having discovered that it is wood. Only later did we discover that we could get to the top and there is an extensive walkway around the top of it. It is built on top of ancient ruins, ( still intact and viewable) a food market and bars etc. and has a plaza around it and on it, that is buzzing on weekend evenings. Walking around the top, the first people up it one day and being back to watch the sunset later was one of the highlights of the trip for me.

 

The 1992 Expo also covered a massive area but left behind lots of modern - and some very strange - buildings and arenas. Some are of a temporary nature and get dismantled others find a new use. The land used was on an island between two branches of the River Guadalquivir – Isla de la Cartuja. The branch that goes through the city is now a canal, blocked at its northern end by a barrier with a motorway on it, and is used extensively for water sports, mainly rowing. Many of the buildings are now used by private companies as headquarters , others have a very derelict look. The whole area- even though it is home to the theme park- which was shut for the winter, has a neglected air about it. There are weeds growing everywhere but fountains are switched on, which seemed odd. Unlike the city a short distance away, there are no cafes or bars or other people around for that matter, just us meandering through. The car park that was created for the event is massive, it stretches for miles, and I really mean miles. Totally derelict, just the odd person or dog walker around. There is even a railway line terminating here, in the middle of nowhere a modern and apparently unmanned station, like a ghost station. At this point, across the river proper is open countryside, much flatter than I expected and very easy for local walkers and cyclists to get to - also very calm and quiet, a place to linger and enjoy the peace.

 

As usual I researched and discovered as we walked, we averaged around 13 miles a day and tried to get off the beaten track. We were out around 8.15, before sunrise, and had orange juice, coffee and Tostada with the locals for breakfast. The trouble is that there are many miles of walking in a relatively small area, some streets are only a few feet wide so there are a lot of them to explore. Incredible ancient churches and squares are around every corner- it's a very religious place - Catholicism rules in Spain. Unfortunately many are only a few feet away from the building next to it and it is difficult to get a decent shot of them. Seville is also famous, historically, as a producer of ceramic tiles. A building isn’t complete without a tile display of some sort and it would be very easy to make a project out of tiles alone. It may be a little boring for any companions though!

 

We walked the length of the embankment a couple of times, it has graffiti from end to end, several miles of massive concrete walls covered in everything imaginable, from marker pen scribbling to works of art. It was suggested to me that allowing people to paint here might prevent them from daubing property and monuments in the city- it hasn't! Most alleyways and shutters have been attacked to a greater or lesser degree. Spain has very high youth unemployment and maybe this plays a role. To be truthful though we haven't seen a city that's free of graffiti. The other problem is dogs- or what they produce, it's everywhere, absolutely everywhere, in a week we saw only one person remove his dogs mess. Fortunately the city streets are cleaned exceptionally well, some of the cleanest we have come across, men (and a lot of women) and machines are washing and sweeping endlessly.

 

Having had the wettest winter on record at home - almost three months of rain - we didn't want more rain but we got it. The upside was the water and the reflections that it created made photography on the cobbled streets more interesting, particularly at night. I usually find that it takes me a while to get into the groove on a trip and this one was no different, I didn't start shooting with total disregard - street shots- for a couple of days. Whilst the locals wore quilted jackets and scarves we got down to tee shirts at times, the warmer afternoons would be welcome in summer, never mind January, in Huddersfield. I envied the cyclists, being able to train in temperatures like this in winter - I wish! You need a lot less willpower to get out there and train hard in pleasant weather.

 

From a photography point of view I had a frustrating time, I never felt to get to grips with the place- other than on the streets at night. Writing this on my phone on the flight home, I haven't a clue what I've got to work with when I get back. I usually edit first and write later. Generally I have a first look, I'm disillusioned, I then revisit and see things differently- thankfully! Architectural shots with a grey sky could be destined for the monochrome treatment, we'll soon see. I'm still editing stuff from our London trip before Christmas, it's getting decent views in black and white and I quite enjoy looking at them myself.

We visited most of the notable tourist destinations, and went up anything that we could. Seville doesn't have a high point-it's flat! Nothing really stands head and shoulders above the city. The Cathedral tower is over 300 feet but the Cathedral itself fills a lot of the view on some aspects. Being square and having to look through bars in recesses you don't really get a completely open aspect. A new 600 foot tower is close to being finished, it's an office block and I couldn't find any mention of it being a viewing point in the future.

 

Oranges were the last thing on my mind when I suggested going to Seville. There are 25000 orange trees in Seville and now is the time that they are laden with big-and sour- Seville oranges, they are everywhere, apparently they are the property of the city authorities and will be harvested and sent to the UK to be made in to marmalade at some point in the near future. These trees will soon be covered in fragrant blossom, the city will smell beautiful for a couple of months. Studying the surrounding area it would be good to tour in March or April I would think, the scents, longer days and better weather would make for a fantastic trip. One for the future. The sunrise on our final morning was the best of the week, this was what we had looked forward to, we had to leave for the airport at 9.00...... Needless to say it was raining hard as we drove the last twenty miles home. Nothing new there then.

 

As usual I have aimed to present a pretty extensive collection of photographs of our chosen destination, some, at first glance will be pretty mundane shots of everyday life on the streets, often though, close inspection will reveal something humorous, something that needs a bit of thought. Others are definitely just people going about their holiday or work. Travelling with someone else it wouldn’t be fair to spend an inordinate amount of time trying to nail the perfect long exposure or HDR image of a cathedral or similar in perfect light – the one stunning shot to add to the portfolio- it’s not really my thing, I go for an overview of the place in the time available. Looking at the postcards locally it becomes obvious that stunning shots of some of these buildings are hard to come by. Heavily corrected converging verticals were quite obvious – and most likely will be in my own shots. As the owner of tilt and shift lenses I never travel with one – ever! My knees are already creaking from the weight of the bag.

 

Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).

 

Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions

 

"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".

 

The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.

 

The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.

 

Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.

 

Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:

 

Wet with cool dew drops

fragrant with perfume from the flowers

came the gentle breeze

jasmine and water lily

dance in the spring sunshine

side-long glances

of the golden-hued ladies

stab into my thoughts

heaven itself cannot take my mind

as it has been captivated by one lass

among the five hundred I have seen here.

 

Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.

 

Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.

 

There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.

 

Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.

 

The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.

 

In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:

 

During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".

 

Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.

 

While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’

 

Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.

 

An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.

 

Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983

 

Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture

Main article: Commercial graffiti

With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.

 

In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".

 

Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.

 

Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.

 

Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.

 

Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.

 

There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.

 

The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.

 

Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.

 

Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis

 

Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.

 

Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.

 

Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"

 

Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal

 

In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.

 

Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.

 

Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.

 

Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.

 

With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.

 

Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.

 

Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.

 

Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.

 

Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.

 

Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.

 

Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.

 

Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.

 

The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.

 

I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.

 

The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.

 

Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.

 

Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.

 

In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".

 

There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.

 

Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.

 

A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.

By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.

 

Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.

 

In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.

 

A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.

 

From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.

 

In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.

 

Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.

 

Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.

 

Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.

  

In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.

 

Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.

 

In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.

 

In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."

 

In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.

 

In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.

 

In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.

 

In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.

 

In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.

 

The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.

 

To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."

 

In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.

 

In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.

 

Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".

 

Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)

In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.

 

Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.

 

Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.

 

In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.

 

Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.

 

Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.

 

To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.

 

When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.

Nu Face The Counter Culture Collection Beyond This Planet Violaine Perrin (Violet Variation)

iPhoneから送信

This is actually a 365 day project reject, but seriously - look at this damn dog's paws. It's an allergy, but I can't figure out what kind - food or grass. It's impossible to keep him off the grass, so I've been doing trial and error with food for month.

 

It's a good thing he's the best dog in the world.

Design scetches for ceiling strip lighting of the Antwerp Jesuit church Peter and Paul

1 the Saint Caecilie

2 the Ascension

3 the Saint Jerome

4 the Annunciation

5 Esther in front of Ahasver

6 Adoration of the shepherds

  

On the history of women's studies at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna

1897

Conservative journalist A.F. Seligmann founded the art school for women and girls and taught there as a single teacher 16 students in the "Curs for head and act". 1898 expands the school: Tina Blau, a former teacher of the Munich artists association conducts 1.1.1898 a "Curs for landscape and still-life", which she held until 1915. Richard Kauffungen was nominated for sculpture, Ludwig Michalek led the "Curs for head and act" as well as an Radierkurs (etching course), Adolf Böhm the course for decorative and applied arts, Fabiani teaches ornamentation and style of teaching as well as "Modern home furnishings", Georg Klimt taught metalwork, Friedrich King wood cutting art and Hans Tichy from 1900 the drawing and painting from the living model. In all these teachers are moderate modern artists from the area of the Secession. The theoretical lectures are held in the company founded by Emil Zuckerkandl and Julius Tandler 1900 "Association of Austrian university lecturers Athenaeum", which had the task to be "an educational institution for members of the female sex". The first school year was completed with 64 students, the school is rapidly expanding, so that it forms 200-300 students annually within a few years. The steady growth is due to the restrictive attitude of the public schools of art (especially the academy) towards women, but also from the indiscriminate admission of which have been blamed all the private schools also on the part of women harshly, and just by women.

1904

The Academy of Fine Arts Vienna is one of the many requests for opening the Academy for students once again putting the old arguments against that women are rarely equipped with creative spirit in the field of great art and the other a "proliferation of dilettantism and a pushing back of male members" is to be feared. Just the idea of a joint education had "abhorred" the College. The Academy therefore advocates for the financial support of the art school for women and girls, and rejects the application for opening the academy for women unanimously. The main argument for the impossibility of the joint Aktzeichnens (nude drawing) and the need for a second Aktsaales (nude hall) is increasingly mentioned, which cannot be realized because lack of space and lack of money. Henni Lehmann (Artistic studies of women, Darmstadt 1913) countered the same argument in Germany: "The common nude studies of women and men can not be described as impossible as it is done in many places, without having shown any grievances". The objection of the Quorum of the Berlin University professors that no teacher could be forced to teach women at all in such delicate subjects is countered that the problem was easily solved by entrusting a lady the Aktunterricht (nude drawing) in ladies. Suitable artists were plentiful present. That the life drawing for a long time (until 1937) remained problematic, shows the application of the renowned sculptor Teresa F. Ries of 1931, in which she was offering the Academy her services for the purpose of the management of a yet to be affiliated department, where young girls separated from the young men could work under the direction of a woman. The application was not even put to a vote.

1912

The rector of the Munich Academy also does not believe in the inclusion of students (female ones): "... it is impossible, even with regard to the space conditions, apart from that that the aspirations of the artists who devote themselves to the arts especially are usually others than that of women..."

1913

No significant change in attitude can be found between the opinions of the Academies from 1904 and those of 1913.

1919

In the report from the College's meeting of the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna to the State Office of Internal Affairs and Teaching is communicated that against the requested admission there were no fundamental objections, but that the Academy is so limited in spatial relationship, that after the experiences of the last entrance exams not even the majority of gifted young artists, capable of studying, could be included, and therefore, in case of the admission of women to the study initially had to be made ​​a considerable expansion. The State Office counters that a further delay in the admission of women to the academic study could not be justified and that approval is to allow at least temporarily in a narrow frame.

1920

The State Office for the Interior and Education officially approved the admission of women to study at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna (since 1919 women were admitted to all faculties of the University of Vienna, with the exception of the Catholic and Protestant Theological Faculty).

A committee consisting of the professors Bacher, Delug, Schmutzer, and Jettmar Muellner claims that the Academy has never pronounced in principle against women's studies but have always only expressed reservations because of the cramped space and financial situation. As a complete novelty proves that no more concerns are raised with regard to coeducation. Men and women should compete in the entrance examination. In the winter semester 1920/21 will be included 14 women, of course, representing only a small minority in relation to the 250 male students.

1926/1927

In the new study regulations are for the first time mentioned Schüler (M) and Schülerinnen (F).

March 1927

Report of the Academy of Fine and Applied Arts about the experiences regarding the access of women to universities: ..."in past years it was thought for the education of women and girls by the Academy of Women for Liberal and Applied Art, which is also equipped with academic classes and by the State subsidized, sufficiently having taken precautions: during a period of almost seven years of study, it was probably possible to get a clear picture about the access applications of women, and about the degree course ... Of course, the number of female candidates in the painting is strongest, weaker in sculpture, and very low in the architecture. As much already now can be said, that in no way in terms of education in the new admissions the women are left behind the male candidates. During the study period, the female students are not in diligence and seriousness of studying behind their male colleagues. Particularly gratifying can be emphasized that because of the co-education of both sexes in common rooms in the individual schools a win-win situation for everybody was. In the master schools the College was repeatedly able also honouring women with academic prices. Subsuming, it should be emphasized that our experiences with the study of women in the Academy of Fine Arts were quite favorable."

The number of students (Studentinnen) increased from 5 % in the winter semester 1920/1921 till 1939/1940 to about 25 %. After the annexation of Austria to Nazi Germany, the number of students (Studentinnen) decreased. The proportion of female students rose after 1940 naturally, reached during the war years up to 70 % and amounted 1945/1946 to 65%. From 1946/1947 the number of students (Studentinnen) fell sharply again, so 1952/1953 only 20% of the students at the Academy were women. 1963/1964 there were, however, already 41% (278).

2002

Students (Studentinnen): 570 of 936 students

University professors (Universitätsprofessorinnen): 9 out of 29

Ao Univ. (extraordinary female professors) 2 of 12

Univ.Ass. (female university assistant) 18 of 41

Contract teachers (Vertragslehrerinnen): 3 of 7

Lecturer (Lehrbeautragte): 32 of 46

 

Almut Krapf

www.akbild.ac.at/Portal/akademie/uber-uns/Organisation/ar...

It brakes my heart to do this, but I know I need to do it. Roaglaan, I received those decals today, thought I did not order them or even traded for them. Is it normal you have send those to me? I'm not sure, so are those for me or for somebody else?

 

What do I do with those?

Hamburg has a „refugee problem“? No, Hamburg has a housing problem. For decades real estate developers and politicians have treated our cities as if mainly high earners inhabited them, as if people with low income and the homeless had no right to the city – and as if the worldwide flows of forced migration weren’t able to reach Europe. The arrival of more than one million refugees fleeing war, poverty and terror has clearified that this way of city-planning is irresponsible. Suddenly it becomes clear that a policy that has constantly feared „ghettoisation“ when it comes to social housing will fail to cope with the historic challenges of our time. The neoliberal city has been unable to develop concepts for good, affordable and sustainable housing, it has turned the social housing scheme into a subsidy-scheme for investors – and all this lapses have come back to bite. Now it’s high time to talk about new ways to continue building our cities.

Thus, on May 28 we call for a parade of choreographed blocks, leading into a public hearing under the motto „A different planning is possible“. We will start at Karolinenplatz / Messehallen, following a suggestion of the Hamburg Chamber of Architects: Why does Hamburg need an exhibition center, unused for most of the year, in such a central location? How about moving it to outskirts and reusing the exhibition site? We end our parade at the square in front of the empty Axel Springer-house – a former editorial building of 90.000 square meter that would make a perfect example for a different kind of planning, the right place for a public hearing to debate on a city in which ‚higher and more’ does not only benefit those who can afford it.

What we need is a planning that includes platforms of access and mediation and brings together the new neighbourhoods, a planning which organises a sustainable form of social housing by bringing cooperatives and new forms of communalisation

into the game – instead of encouraging privatisation of public space for the benefit of the real estate sector under the premise of building new housing for refugees. Last but not least, we need a perspective on housing, where origin and status do not matter.

We will not leave the city to the Not-in-my-Backyard-citizens, who instinctively demonise the planned arrival-quarters as „ghettos“. Furthermore, we don’t believe that the deportation campaign, promoted by the governing Social Democratic and

Green Party – affecting hundreds of people every month – produces any relief. Instead, it is a cruel attempt, doomed to failure, to appease right-wing sentiments. Therefore, we also call for the manifestation „Migration is a Right! Deportation is a Crime!“ that takes place on May 14.

We believe that city has no upper limits. Newcomers don’t remain strange in cities.

Densification is the essence of the city – it produces spaces, provides chances and makes us all smarter.

Right to the City Network & Never Mind the Papers

Netzwerk Recht auf Stadt & Never Mind the Papers

www.rechtaufstadt.net/

nevermindthepapers.noblogs.org/

schwabinggrad-ballett.org/

 

Cantaloupe are responsible for nearly 30 outbreaks and recalls since 1990, killing two people and sickening more than 1,200. The fruit's netted rind hides harmful pathogens like salmonella and E. coli, which can eventually penetrate the shell and infect the fleshy, nutrient-rich core. Photo by Brandon Quester/News21

 

Cantaloupe are responsible for nearly 30 outbreaks and recalls since 1990, killing two people and sickening more than 1,200. The fruit's netted rind hides harmful pathogens like salmonella and E. coli, which can eventually penetrate the shell and infect the fleshy, nutrient-rich core. (Photo by Brandon Quester/News21)

NEOBALLS / ZEN MAGNETS - Neodymium Magnetic Balls (@4205) - Starcraft II's Massive Thor

 

This is my most complex and largest build to date.

 

It was designed in parts: Cockpit body, then legs, then arms, then rear guns. Then I had to redesign parts when it came time to assemble it together because of incorrect bonding assumptions and misalignment of magnet fields.

 

Experimented with x-beam coupled bonds to get the maximum lateral strength with reinforcements on the sides. This proved to be very string. Created a X-Beam using similar methods producing a very strong leg structure. It was capable of support the entire weight of the cockpit body w/o a problem. Had to redesign the leg to cockpit body mount point from the earlier concept because the bond was not completely coupled.

 

Next up were the arm/guns ... the weight was too much for the cockpit body to support so I fashioned a pair of lego-platforms for them to rest on and take the weight off of the central body.

 

Finally ... the rear guns ... these were a challenge in that their original mount point design had to be reworked also to make them fit correctly into the rear of the cockpit body. I changed the mount points on the guns to fit the space on both sides and added a few support balls to improve the mount point bonds. I was very surprised how they were balanced and supported only by two point sections to the body. The guns stayed in place for a small series of photos.

 

The design flaw was in the side bonds of the beam to the legs. The coupled field held nicely for a short amount of time and would have held if it didn't have the weight of the rear guns to support. When they were standing upright and straight, all was good. As soon as I attempted to move the platform forward (to take a video), the rear guns tilted slightly backwards and and that was the end of the leg to body support bonds ... and created the dreaded implosion.

 

The rear gun weight caused the entire central body section to rotate backwards and fall back on the rear guns ... taking the arms in the process. Perhaps I should have created a Lego-support structure for the rear guns to remove the pendulum force backwards ... but that would have created another view blocker like the side Lego-platforms obstructed the view of the legs and feet. Not sure if I can recreate it for a rotational video ... this took over a week (on/off to design and assemble).

 

Overall ... I was very happy with the result ... hope I captured enough detail to warrant some visual recognition as a Starcraft II Thor reproduction/interpretation.

 

This was design and built for the Zen Magnets Contest 26: The Massive Thor

www.zenmagnets.com/blog/26-the-massive-thor/

 

I tried to document the info for this super complex build (below) accompanied by associated pics in this set

www.flickr.com/photos/tend2it/sets/72157632920071597/

 

Starcraft II Thor Magnet Count and Detail Talley

======+================

Cockpit Body bottom section: (@0520)

(@0217) - Main shape middle core = (2x108) + 1

(@0095) - central bottom layer 1 = (47x2) + 1 w/black parameter

(@0078) - Sides Bottom layer 2 = (2x(22 parallel pair frnt2bck support + 3 red + 4 gold + 10 ring outside black))

(@0028) - Central bottom layer 3 = (2x14) rectangle

(@0032) - Sides bottom layer 3 = (2x((2x5 parallel bridge rectangle to ring) + (6 ring outside))

(@0010) - Central bottom layer 4 = (10 ring) leg waist w/gold

(@0020) - Sides bottom layer 4 = (2x10 ring) coupled over parallel bridge for perpendicular underside support

(@0040) - Central rear Barrel = (4x8 ring w2 red rings) + (2x4 sqr end)

------

Cockpit Body top section (from center out): (@0371)

(@0166) - top layer 1 = (2x83) w/black missle cover + middle sect separator

(@0105) - top layer 2 = ((2x52) + 1) w/black separator, red trim, gold cockpit

(@0083) - top layer 3 = ((2x41) + 1) w/black separator, red trim, gold cockpit

(@0037) - top layer 4 = ((2x18) + 1) w/black separator trim

(@0010) - top layer 5 = (2x5) w/red/black

------

(@0891)

 

Leg section x2 (@0640 - 12 removed from bottom of @ leg for foot contact pt)

leg internal structure:

(@0384) - columns = 2 x (4x((2x12) + ((2x11) + 2))) top/bottom coupled bonds w/parallel bonds stacked x 4))

(@0096) - side reinforcements = 2x((2x11) + 2) coupled pair along outside edge centers)

(@0032) - ball reinforcements = 2x(2x4 balls are two balls added to 4 ball in 2, 4, 6, 8th positions) - (12 @ bottom)

leg arch structure (connected to one flat leg top face:

(@0128) - (4x4 parallel sqr) + (2x(6 + 2)) pointy rings) + (4x4 parallel sqr) + (2x(6 + 2)) pointy rings)

Place the two leg arch structures together to form the leg arch

-------

(@1519) = 1531-12

 

Leg side panels (@0384)

(@0344) - (2 each leg x (2x(2x43 each side))) w/black outside trim

Knees + Leg detail

(@0040) - (2x(2x(6 + 2) knee w/red sqr) + 2x(4 red sqr top of leg))

-------

(@1903)

 

Feet x2 (@0242)

(@0184) - (2x((2x7 + 2 1st mid layer) + (2x(2x10 + 1) 2nd mid layer) + ((2x(2x8 + 1) outside layer))

(@0034) - (2x(2x(2x3 + 1 top of toe 2 leg)) + (1 center rear foot 2 leg conn) + (2 x 1 outer rear foot sides 2 leg

 

conn))

(@0024) - (2x(2x6 rings rear foot heel))

-------

(@2145)

 

X-Beam waist platform - (@0233 - 19) this part is placed across the center perpendicular to the x-beam leg arch

(@0214) - (2x(2x(18 + 17 + 6 + 3)) + (2x(7 + 2)) + ((8 + 1 front side) + (2x9 rear side)) + ((2 x 3 red front center) +

 

(2 x 2 red front sides) + (2 red rear)) - (19 removed under rear panel side to fold)

 

Arm Guns (2 pair per arm w/red + black accents)

(@0380) - (4x((4x9 center core) + (3x((2x7) + 1)) top/sides) + (2x7) middle join))

 

Shoulder to elbow core w/o reinforcements ((@0174)per arm)

(@0348) - (2 x (top((2x5)+2) + (4x8+2 parallel) + ((2x5)+2) + (2x5) + (2x(2x5)+1) + (2x(2x6)+1) + ((4x7)+2 parallel

 

mount2gun) + (1 ball center to bridge below 2 ball center to 1 ball) + ((2x6)+1) + ((2x4)+2)bottom)

 

Shoulder to elbow (per arm, per side)

(@0248) - (2 x (2 x (top 3 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 4 + 5 + 4 + 4 + 5 + (2x7arm2shoulder bridge) + (5 + 3 bottom))

 

Elbow to gun support (per arm, per side) (@0140 - 18 for outside facing side revamp)

(@0122) - (2 x (2 x (((2x9)+1) + (2x8)) -

Revamp outside facing sides for Z bracket (remove 2x(4 top/4 bottom/2 middle/move center ball down, add 1 ball)

Revamp 2 rear centerballs with red

(@028) - add red design outside facing shoulder 2 elbow

------

(@3485)

 

Rear Guns x2

Large cannon (@0112 each)

(@0224) - 2 x ((2x(2x15) + (4x(5+2)) + (4x(6 ring)))

Smaller cannon (@0092 each)

(@0184) - 2 x ((2x(2x13) + (4x(4+2)) + (4x(4 ring)))

Gun bridges (@0010 each)

(@0020) - (2 x (4 ring + 6 ring across two cannons)

 

Gun mounts x2

(@0104) - (2 x ((top (2x4+2) + (2x5+2) parallel to existing + (2x4+2) + (2x5 parallel) + (2x4+2) bottom)

 

Gun panel x 2 (@0102 each)

(@0204) - (2 x (2x(11 + 10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 6))

-------

 

Revamp base

 

(@4221) subtotal b4 assembly

 

Assembly mods

-------------

Moved the (@0040) - Central rear Barrel = (4x8 ring w2 red rings) + (2x4 sqr end) below the rear of the body between

 

the leg mount and cockpit body. Actually used the barrel as a mount point for the rear guns.

 

Modded Cockpit Body bottom section (mount point):

(@0020) = (2 x (7 + 6 + 5)) = Changed = (@0028) - Central bottom layer 3 = (2x14) rectangle to covert parallel

 

rectangle to hex parallel center, coupled sides

-------

(@4213) = (@4221 - 8)

 

Moved central bottom layer x-beam

(@0018) = (2x09 ring) = Changed = (@0020) - Sides bottom layer 4 = shifted it down one row, removed 1 ball on end to form point and pinched outside end fit in center of 6 ball side.

(@4211) = (@4213 - 2)

 

Removed gold 10 ball ring mount

Changed = (@0010) = Central bottom layer 4 = (10 ring) leg waist w/gold

-------

(@4201) = (@4213 - 10)

 

Modded Rear Guns

(@0100) = Changed = Rear Gun mounts x2 - removed +2 from top/bottom mount point (2x4+2)=>(2x4)

(@4197) = (@4201-4)

Added extra mount point support bwtween rear gun mounts and rear cockpit body

(@4205) = (@4201+8)

 

Grand Total! = (@4205)

Graffiti is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire.

 

Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions

 

"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".

 

The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.

 

The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.

 

Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.

 

Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:

 

Wet with cool dew drops

fragrant with perfume from the flowers

came the gentle breeze

jasmine and water lily

dance in the spring sunshine

side-long glances

of the golden-hued ladies

stab into my thoughts

heaven itself cannot take my mind

as it has been captivated by one lass

among the five hundred I have seen here.

 

Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.

 

Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.

 

There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.

 

Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.

 

The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.

 

In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:

 

During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".

 

Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.

 

While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’

 

Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.

 

An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.

 

Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983

 

Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture

Main article: Commercial graffiti

With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.

 

In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".

 

Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.

 

Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.

 

Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.

 

Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.

 

There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.

 

The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.

 

Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.

 

Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis

 

Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.

 

Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.

 

Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"

 

Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal

 

In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.

 

Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.

 

Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.

 

Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.

 

With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.

 

Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.

 

Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.

 

Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.

 

Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.

 

Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.

 

Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.

 

Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.

 

The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.

 

I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.

 

The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.

 

Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.

 

Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.

 

In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".

 

There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.

 

Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.

 

A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.

By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.

 

Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.

 

In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.

 

A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.

 

From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.

 

In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.

 

Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.

 

Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.

 

Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.

  

In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.

 

Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.

 

In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.

 

In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."

 

In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.

 

In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.

 

In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.

 

In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.

 

In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.

 

The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.

 

To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."

 

In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.

 

In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.

 

Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".

 

Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)

In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.

 

Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.

 

Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.

 

In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.

 

Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.

 

Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.

 

To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.

 

When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.

Seller at flea market.

Occasionally I get this issue [only on Android] where the image gets messed up between uploading and posting/

 

Somehow though, this time around, it's actually made the picture better.

 

If poverty is a tree,

name the fruits....

 

What are the root causes?

This loaf has a doughy center, and look at the oats. White flecks clearly visible. I've baked with oats a number of times before but it's never looked like this. Usually the oats blend in with the bread and are kind of hard to notice. I think I under-baked the bread. But what's weird is the boule, baked for the same length of time, looked quite different. I guess this goes to show how much shape matters.

shot taken at 1/8000 sec

Vaginismus or muscle contraction usually causes serious problems to the marital relationship, most often, feelings of great guilt and despair. In this article we will discuss the causes of the Vaginismus and one of the most appropriate treatments. Painful spasms of the vagina cause the vagina to close; An anxiety reaction usually before coitus or pelvic examination. It is a muscle contraction that affects many women in their relationships and who often have little knowledge. It involves an involuntary reflex contraction of the vagina so that there is an inability to associate with penetration. In most cases the contraction may be unconscious, that is, women will not even notice vaginal or muscle tension and it will manifest just because it is impossible when you go in for an orgasm. If you need to understand more about IVF Treatment in Delhi, Best IVF Centre in Delhi, Best IVF Doctors in Delhi, Best Infertility Treatment in Delhi, Best IVF Doctor in Delhi, Best Infertility Specialist in Delhi, IVF Hospital in Delhi, best tube baby centre in Delhi, Best IVF Centre in Delhi, IVF Clinic in Delhi, Vaginismus Treatment in Delhi etc, then you can call us at +9196507 25386, +91 011 22503927 or visit link www.kjivf.com/vaginismus-treatment/

Driver problem

Im not interested in riding scooters, but if I was... I WILL NOT ride it on the street with CARS & risk my LIFE!!!!

 

Scooters on ROADS with CARS is EXTREMELY DANGEROUS. Furthermore... I always ride my bike on (any) sidewalk (anywhere) where I go > & no one has ever had a problem with it.

 

Atlanta, GA. 100519.

Alarte: "El Gobierno socialista de la Generalitat nunca mentirá a los valencianos y valencianas"

 

Amigas y amigos.

Gracias Alfredo Pérez Rubalcaba.

Gracias a los numerosos alcaldes, alcaldesas, concejales y concejalas.

Gracias a los diputados autonómicos, senadores y diputados nacionales.

Gracias a los representantes de los diferentes sectores de la sociedad valenciana.

Pero hoy sobre todo quiero expresar un agradecimiento: quiero dar las gracias a los militantes, a los simpatizantes y votantes socialistas, a los que abarrotáis este salón y a los que siempre estáis para apoyar nuestro proyecto. Gracias sobre todo por los avances que habéis conseguido en los últimos dos años (tiempo que hace que no volvíamos a este Palacio de Congresos). Avances de los que me siento orgulloso. Avances que juntos, con vuestro apoyo, hemos hecho posible.

Gracias porque hayamos recuperado el orgullo, la fortaleza de defender con claridad a esta tierra. Porque vosotros fuisteis los que parasteis el Estatuto de Castilla la Mancha y defendisteis el trasvase Tajo-Segura. Y acabasteis con la mentira que hace dos años nos asfixiaba y que habían montado con el Agua para Todos. Hoy, es historia negra de la mentira del PP.

Gracias por la fortaleza que nos dais, que es la que hace que hoy, y hace dos años era impensable, Ricardo Costa sea el pasado y a Camps, Rajoy no se atreva a nombrarlo candidato. Fabra se va de Presidente porque va a ser el primero que será juzgado, y porque Francesc Colomer y los socialistas de Castellón, luchan a diario por la honradez y la Democracia.

Gracias por vuestro apoyo por la fuerza y por las ganas de no resignarse, por no guardar silencio, y por unir vuestras fuerzas a Ángel Luna y nuestros diputados, para combatir un gobierno, corrupto, ineficaz, autoritario y mentiroso, como es el Gobierno de Camps y el PP.

Gracias porque hoy seamos más fuertes, estemos más unidos. Aquí esta el PSOE Valenciano, los que somos de verdad. Estamos todos y decididos a empujar por un nuevo tiempo en la Comunitat Valenciana.

Quisiera poder daros las gracias uno a uno. Gracias por vuestro compromiso y vuestras ideas. Gracias por creer, aún en los días más difíciles, que el cambio es posible. Gracias por soñar la Comunitat Valenciana con los ojos abiertos, por vuestra capacidad para rebelaros ante cada injusticia. Y gracias por darnos la fuerza y la confianza que nos va a llevar en mayo al Palau de la Generalitat.

Amigas y amigos. Cuando se acercan unas elecciones, cuando se aproxima el día de ir a votar, es a quien ha gobernado a quien le toca rendir cuentas. Someter el trabajo del Gobierno de Camps al examen de los ciudadanos, es lo que corresponde en democracia.

Pero el Gobierno de Camps y el PP hace años que han decidido no respetar y despreciar los mecanismos de la democracia. Su autoritarismo y prepotencia les lleva a pensar que no tienen que dar explicaciones en las Cortes cuando se las exigen los representantes de los valencianos.

No quieren ver y oír a la oposición en la televisión pública (Canal 9). Persiguen a cuantos no estamos de acuerdo, nos invisibilizan. Camps, es un político autoritario, que querría que fuéramos también nosotros, los socialistas, sus títeres.

Y no lo hemos sido nunca, y no lo seremos nunca. Ni de él ni de nadie.

Hace tiempo que decidieron no someterse a ningún control democrático. No respetar nada porque están borrachos de poder, y despreciar a la democracia y a la gente. Para ellos era más “rentable” una democracia diseñada por el Bigotes y Canal 9, a la medida de Camps. En fin, ya sabéis lo que quiero decir.

Y destruyendo controles democráticos, lo que hemos tenido en la Comunitat Valenciana ha sido eso. Un Gobierno para sus amigos, un Gobierno para unos pocos. Camps y el PP no están al servicio de los valencianos, están para llevarse el dinero de la gente. Hoy por ti, mañana por mí. Pero nunca por la gente.

El PP no va a perder mucho tiempo en explicar lo que han hecho ni lo que van a hacer. Piensan que ya todo el mundo sabe lo que han hecho. Y que lo que van hacer es mejor que no se sepa. Y piensan que es más fácil echarle la culpa de lo que pasa en la Comunitat Valenciana a cualquiera. Les da igual quien, con tal de seguir mintiendo.

Amigas y amigos. ¿Qué nos ha pasado?

Después de 15 años de Gobiernos del PP, el desempleo ha aumentado más en la Comunitat Valenciana que en el resto de España, pasando de estar 1 punto por debajo de la media nacional, a estar 4 puntos por encima. Después de 15 años de PP, la Comunidad Valenciana exporta hoy dos puntos menos que el resto de comunidades autónomas. Después de 15 años de Gobierno del PP, la riqueza por habitante en la Comunitat Valenciana ha pasado de estar 800 € por debajo de la media española a ser 2.542 euros más baja. Después de 15 años de Gobierno del PP, la Comunitat Valenciana es la segunda comunidad de España donde menos alumnos terminan la educación secundaria.

La Ley de la Dependencia no se aplica, la sociedad valenciana es cada vez más desigual, estamos a la cola en políticas sociales, la Fe ha tardado demasiado tiempo en construirse y hoy tiene menos camas que antes. Han suprimido el hospital infantil, …Nuestra sanidad pública es la peor de toda España.

¿Qué nos ha pasado?, ¿por qué aquí estamos peor? Sólo hay una razón: Camps y el PP son lo peor que le ha pasado a la Comunitat Valenciana en toda su historia.

Compañeros, detrás de esta terrible situación, lo que hay es una política y un modelo económico fracasados. Camps es el del despilfarro, la especulación, la ruina, el de no poder pagar a nadie y la corrupción y las grandes fiestas que no sirven de nada. Ellos, Camps y el PP, mirarán para otro lado y seguirán mintiendo, dejando a la gente en la estacada.

Amigos y amigas, estamos decididos a plantar cara a la derecha. Dispuestos a construir un proyecto nuevo. Una comunidad distinta. Para que se acabe tanto Camps, tanto PP, tanta incertidumbre y tanta preocupación.

Digámosle a la gente qué vamos a hacer: nuestro compromiso con los 245.000 parados de menos de 35 años. Vamos a financiar sus proyectos y las empresas que quieran crear, vamos a darles formación para que puedan optar a nuevos y mejores trabajos. Camps les mintió y les ha dejado en la estacada y nosotros vamos a generar nuevas oportunidades para ellos. Tienen que saber que nosotros seremos futuro para ellos. Vamos a hacer un programa ambicioso de formación y empleo. Me comprometo públicamente a que todos los jóvenes de esta tierra tengan un proyecto de futuro. Porque su futuro es el nuestro, el de la Comunitat. Vamos a darle la vuelta al SERVEF, lo haremos entre la Generalitat y los Ayuntamientos para que la gente vuelva a encontrar allí la formación que necesita y la oportunidad real de recuperar su empleo. Se acabaron las escuelas-taller para los amigos del PP. Vamos a hacer que las comarcas del interior vuelvan a ser importantes, que la industria, la agricultura y el trabajo sean las razones por las que la gente querrá volver a vivir allí.

Quiero aseguraros que los miles y miles de valencianos que están en el paro, que vienen de la construcción o de la crisis de algún otro sector, no tendrán que resignarse a no saber que será de ellos. Van a encontrar empleo. Es posible un nuevo tiempo y es posible una nueva prosperidad, ése es nuestro programa electoral y ése es nuestro compromiso. La gente volverá a trabajar en lo que sabe,

pero sin construir más y más para que, al final, siempre se hagan ricos los mismos.

Crearemos empleo pero no a base de construir hasta el infinito. Vamos a crear empleos rehabilitando la Comunitat, rehabilitando nuestros pueblos y ciudades, construyendo escuelas, hospitales y centros sociales. Hacen falta tantos y tantos en esta Comunitat… Hace tanto tiempo que nadie se encarga de construirlos…

Una prosperidad nueva. Pero que sea sostenible y duradera en el tiempo, que contribuirá a que la gente viva mejor. Ésa es nuestra nueva prosperidad. Propongámosle esta opción a la gente para vivir mejor, y para tener más futuro. Porque el PP nos mintió a todos.

Amigos y amigas, quiero comprometerme, ya sin Camps y el PP, a que la próxima legislatura será la de los grandes acuerdos y el entendimiento. Para salir de esta crisis hace falta el esfuerzo y el compromiso de todos. El 22 de mayo gobernaremos y será distinto. Porque eso también es parte de nuestro proyecto, arrimar el hombro y sumar la voluntad de todos. Toda la sociedad valenciana por un pacto por el urbanismo, para no repetir los errores del pasado. Un pacto por el futuro económico, la competitividad, la industria, un turismo de calidad. Un pacto para hacer las cosas bien, para el conocimiento, la innovación, la universidad. Todo eso que nosotros sabemos hacer mejor que nadie. Nosotros no somos como Rajoy. Llevamos casi dos años queriendo arrimar el hombro.

Camps y el PP no quieren ningún acuerdo, ningún consenso. Sólo perpetuarse en el poder y volver a engañar y dejar en la estacada a los valencianos. Amigos y amigas, los Socialistas Valencianos tenemos una tarea importante que hacer. La gente tiene que saber que con nosotros habrá empleo, una nueva prosperidad y un gran acuerdo para la Comunitat. Y lo haremos a pesar de Camps y del PP, porque sabemos que lo más importante son los valencianos y las valencianas y no un puñado de votos.

Nueve veces, nueve veces, le hemos propuesto a Camps y al PP arrimar el hombro y llegar a acuerdos. Nueve veces les hemos dicho de sentarnos a trabajar.

Se lo propusimos en enero de 2009, para proponer las primeras 40 medidas contra la crisis. Nada de nada. Y en esa época no sabíamos quiénes eran ni Alvarito ni sus amigos, ni esa excusa les valía. Se lo volvimos a proponer 3 veces más. Ya tenían mucho traje y mucho Gürtel. Montamos una comisión de trabajo y también que no. Les dijimos de trabajar juntos para hablar del modelo de financiación, para hablar de más dinero para esta tierra, para hospitales, para la dependencia, para la enseñanza. Fuimos a una reunión y nunca más supimos. Presentamos nuestro programa para el Saneamiento y Reforma de la Economía,

propusimos un gran pacto de estabilidad financiera para diez años…Y nada de nada. Hoy ya sabemos por qué.

No quieren hablar del futuro de la gente. No quieren hablar porque aquí no le pagan a tiempo a nadie. Porque aquí ni Correos le recoge las cartas a Camps si no paga al contado, porque aquí los dependientes mueren sin que nadie conteste sus peticiones, porque hay estaciones de ferrocarriles a las que les cortan la luz, porque Camps no paga, porque las constructoras y los que trabajan para la Generalitat, no cobran, porque los ayuntamientos tienen problemas porque Camps tampoco les paga, porque no hay Fondo de Cooperación Municipal para atender mejor a las personas.

Nosotros, me comprometo a que contando con todos, vamos a ser valientes, vamos a sanear la Generalitat y vamos a pagar a todos cuantos esperan. Camps y el PP se niegan a hablar de los problemas de los valencianos y las valencianas. Sólo se preocupan de sus problemas con la policía, con la Fiscalía y con los jueces.

Amigos y amigas, terminar con la corrupción no es sólo un imperativo ético, es también una buena medida económica. ¿Es así, con trampas, con comisiones y con maletines, como dan ejemplo de esfuerzo y trabajo bien hecho a nuestros empresarios y emprendedores?, ¿es ése el modelo que, según el PP, deben seguir nuestros jóvenes que quieran crear una empresa para poder salir adelante y tener un futuro de prosperidad en la Comunitat Valenciana con Camps y el PP?

Si los valencianos y las valencianas queremos una nueva prosperidad, si queremos más libertad y más calidad de vida, sólo hay un camino: tener más democracia. Sólo los países que gozan de más democracia y más transparencia consiguen que sus ciudadanos sean más libres, más ricos y con más futuro. Está comprobado.

Por eso los Socialistas Valencianos vamos a sacar adelante una Ley de Calidad Democrática, para abrir a la gente las puertas de la Generalitat y de Les Corts. Será una Ley para que todo salga, para que aparezcan todas las facturas y podamos afrontar todos los problemas que el PP nos haya dejado escondidos.

Una Ley de Calidad Democrática para que la gente pueda volver a confiar en nuestras instituciones y para que los valencianos y las valencianas podamos pedir, preguntar y discrepar sobre qué se hace con nuestro dinero.

Quiero una economía que premie a los más competitivos y que premie a los mejores. Y quiero unas cuentas públicas bien claras, porque nunca se puede jugar con el dinero público, ni se puede perder un céntimo.

La gente ha de saber que un gobierno socialista es un gobierno solvente, eficaz y transparente. Es un gobierno que asume el liderazgo, que asume las decisiones y que nunca, nunca, miente a los ciudadanos.

Amigas y amigos. Tenemos que decirles a los valencianos que los problemas de la Comunitat tienen respuesta. Pero esa respuesta no puede venir del Gobierno de Camps.

Es difícil que la solución a los problemas de los valencianos venga de un Presidente y un partido que suma decenas de casos de corrupción, y en el que están imputados o implicados 200 de sus dirigentes.

Y tenemos que salir a decirle a los valencianos, a todos los valencianos, que nos merecemos un Gobierno y un Presidente que ante todo, respete las leyes, las instituciones y a los ciudadanos.

Vamos a sacar a esta Comunitat de la crisis, porque somos los únicos que podemos hacer lo más importante: cambiar, sanear y reformar lo que ya no sirve.

Sin un gobierno distinto, de un partido distinto, no habrá políticas distintas. Y sin políticas distintas, sólo nos espera ruina y corrupción.

Amigas y amigos. Nos van decir y le van a decir a la gente que no hay opción. Que el PP de Camps va a volver a ganar sí o sí. Que no merece la pena el esfuerzo. Quieren que su mentira se convierta en nuestro desánimo.

Es importante que tengamos una cosa clara: estaremos preparados para el cambio, si empezamos a creernos el cambio. Yo me creo el cambio, porque el cambio no es mío, ni del PSOE. El cambio será el de los valencianos y las valencianas. El cambio será de la gente joven que quiere conocer otra forma de hacer las cosas. El cambio será de las personas mayores, o que sufren alguna discapacidad, que están esperando que la Generalitat aplique de una vez la Ley de Dependencia.

El cambio será de las familias, de las víctimas del accidente de metro del 3 de julio, de las bandas de música, de los empresarios a los que han arruinado por no pagarles. Será el cambio de los trabajadores y de la gente común, que no se sube nunca a un Ferrari, pero que necesita un mejor transporte público para ir a sus centros de trabajo. Este será su cambio, vuestro cambio, el cambio de todos.

Sabemos que no nos enfrentamos sólo al enorme poder económico y mediático que el Gobierno de Camps ha acumulado en su beneficio. Que siendo un obstáculo difícil, no es sólo el extraordinario abuso de poder de este Gobierno lo que combatimos.

Lo peor de este Gobierno, de este PP, el peor ingrediente de su cóctel político, es su mentira y su autoritarismo. Es pretender hacer creer que todos son iguales a ellos.

No, nosotros no somos como ellos. La inmensa mayoría de los valencianos y las valencianas no somos como ellos. La mayoría de los valencianos que les votaron la última vez, tampoco son como ellos. O incluso en su propio partido tampoco son todos como ellos.

Hay mucha gente honrada que confió en Camps. Hay mucha gente del PP que siente que se merece otra clase de dirigentes. Por eso, si quieren sumarse a esta mayoría, este cambio será también el suyo, el cambio de muchos valencianos que confiaron en Camps, y que se sienten traicionados, engañados y decepcionados.

Animo a toda la gente a la que Camps ha defraudado, a dar un paso al frente, y que se sumen a la mayoría de los valencianos y las valencianas que queremos un futuro mejor. Si lo hacen, si cambiamos el Gobierno en la Comunitat Valenciana, volverá a haber un día en que el PP vuelva a estar dirigido por la gente que se merece la mayoría de sus militantes y sus electores. Eso, también será importante para nuestra democracia.

Amigas y amigos. Os propongo un proyecto de progreso. Un proyecto para todos, para más democracia. Para devolver la confianza en nuestras instituciones. Os convoco a cambiar nuestra realidad política, para recuperar el orgullo de ser valencianos, para situar ese orgullo donde siempre debió estar: en nuestra capacidad para crear e innovar, en crear empleo para nuestros jóvenes, con una nueva prosperidad que será construir y rehabilitar nuestras escuelas y nuestros hospitales públicos, en nuestra bien merecida fama de buenos trabajadores y de buenos empresarios; en la investigación, en las Universidades, en nuestra capacidad de llegar a grandes acuerdos y grandes consensos y en un nuevo urbanismo y un mejor territorio.

Os convoco a hacer algo histórico en la Comunitat Valenciana. A cambiar nuestra historia. A abrir una nueva etapa para esta tierra. Optimismo, confianza, esperanza y actitud. Porque somos más.

Somos más los que no pagamos ni cobramos comisiones, los que sacamos adelante nuestros negocios sin recibir favores de nadie. Somos más los que queremos que nadie sufra el clientelismo de ningún Fabra ni ningún Ripoll. Somos más los que queremos que las decisiones que nos afectan se tomen a la luz pública, y no en los reservados de algunos restaurantes. Somos más los que en la Comunidad Valenciana queremos un Gobierno que represente a la mayoría de los valencianos, somos más los valencianos y las valencianas que queremos una democracia mejor. Somos más los que en la Comunitat Valenciana somos gente honrada y gente honesta.

Salgamos y digámosles que estamos dispuestos a liderarlos. Por eso, porque somos más, vamos a ganar las elecciones el próximo 22 de mayo.

Avant i a treballar.

Moltes gràcies.

 

www.psoealfafar.es/noticia.php?p=0&i d=186

elements taken from polyvore // collage/concept by me

 

Script:

U.P. Breaking News: K. I. Sawyer Latest KC-135 Emergency Landing/Raising Safety Concerns

The following exclusive information was not reported yet by Upper Peninsula TV stations and other media.

Many safety questions remain and a military plane is officially grounded after an emergency in the skies over Marquette County, Michigan on Tues. July 8, 2014

The emergency landing of a KC-135 refueling tanker is the latest in a series of similar hydraulic incidents involving the aging fleet of Milwaukee's 128th Air Refueling Wing, Upper Peninsula Breaking News has learned.

Veteran Investigative Reporter Greg Peterson has the story:

upperpeninsulabreakingnews.wordpress.com/2014/07/09/u-p-b...

youtu.be/tocLjvEslBA

  

-----

Essentially a flying gas station – this Air National Guard KC-135 is grounded – following an emergency that has happened at least 5 times in the past two years to KC 135 refueling tankers from the 128th Air Refueling Wing in Milwaukee.

That's right – at least 5 times in the past two years – a KC-135 from the 128th has developed hydraulic problems resulting in emergency landings at airports around the Midwest.

The tankers are all about 50 years old.

In fact in June 2013, a reporter for Milwaukee Television station WISN TV-12 investigated a rash of KC-135 emergency landings after hydraulic warning.

Upper Peninsula Breaking News called the 128th's public affairs office to verify this important safety problem.

With overcast skies, the three-member crew of this KC-135 declared a hydraulic emergency:

Chief Don Hutchens, Forsyth Township Volunteer Fire Department:

Emergency officials from across Marquette County responded to the plane's call for help – fearing it might crash while landing – which would have been catastrophic.

The KC -135 was among several planes from the 128th Refueling Wing that have been practicing touch and goes on K.I. Sawyer's long runways.

Now the Marquette County Airport, the once vibrant K.I. Sawyer Air Force Base was a Strategic Air Command base – constantly on alert - with bomber crews ready to fly in moments.

 

This reporter has had the pleasure of riding on two KC-135 Refueling Tankers – as show in this photo when I worked at WLUC TV-6 in Marquette.

We refueled F-16 Jets over Lake Huron.

Then this reporter became one of only a handful of civilians to ride aboard a B-52 Bomber – this while I did features stories for the Mining Journal newspaper.

I was given this official coin of the Sawyer bomber wing and a patch – after as 12-hour flight that included Fourth of July Parades and an airshow in Grand Rapids.

This reporter hopes the officials at Milwaukee's 128th Air Refueling Wing get to the bottom of this hydraulic issues before there is a tragedy – as the large number of emergencies on this flying gas station is scary to all involved.

Greg Peterson, Upper Peninsula Breaking News

 

Milwaukee's 128th Air Refueling Wing

www.128arw.ang.af.mil

 

Public Affairs Office

414-944-8715

128 HQ/Public Affairs

mailto:128HQ.PublicAffairs@ang.af.mil

 

Milwaukee's 128th Air Refueling Wing on Facebook

www.facebook.com/128ARW

Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/128th_Air_Refueling_Wing

 

Forsyth Township Volunteer Fire Department; Forsyth Township Police department

www.facebook.com/ftfd5202

www.forsythtwpmi.org/FT%20POLICE%20DEPT.htm

www.forsythtwpmi.org

 

Local News Coverage

abc10up.com/air-national-guard-plane-makes-emergency-land...

www.upmatters.com/story/d/story/news/15079/3fYz_NNJ0kmTs-...

www.uppermichiganssource.com/news/story.aspx?id=1067608

 

WISN TV-12 Investigation in June 2013:

 

Emergency landing prompts questions about KC-135 safety

 

Hydraulic problems lead to 4th in-flight emergency

June 19, 2013

www.wisn.com/news/south-east-wisconsin/milwaukee/emergenc...

 

www.wisn.com/news/south-east-wisconsin/milwaukee/emergenc...

 

www.wisn.com/news/south-east-wisconsin/milwaukee/emergenc...

 

Military plane makes emergency landing in Indiana

www.wisn.com/news/south-east-wisconsin/milwaukee/Military...

 

A plane from Milwaukee's 128th Air Refueling Wing of the Wisconsin Air National Guard is grounded and undergoing repairs after an in-flight emergency Tuesday.

For the fourth time in two months a KC-135 from Milwaukee makes an emergency landing, this time in Indiana.

The flight crew lost control of the hydraulic system and made an emergency landing in Indiana.

It's the fourth in-flight emergency in recent weeks involving four KC-135 refueling tankers.

Each of the planes is about 50 years old, which has some wondering if the aging aircraft are as safe as they should be.

 

Upper Peninsula Breaking News

U.P. Breaking News

 

Gmail:

UpperPeninsulaBreakingNews@gmail.com

 

Wordpress:

upperpeninsulabreakingnews.wordpress.com

 

youtube:

www.youtube.com/UPBreakingNews

www.youtube.com/watch?v=tocLjvEslBA

 

Facebook:

www.facebook.com/UpperPeninsulaBreakingNews

 

Twitter:

Greg Peterson

@UPBreakingNews

twitter.com/UPBreakingNews

 

flickr

www.flickr.com/photos/upperpeninsulabreakingnews

www.flickr.com/people/upperpeninsulabreakingnews

from bit.ly/11UDWEp

 

Through GoPro Through GoPro - They are heroes, look through their eyes

 

Case update: returned to gopro for replacement.Enjoy this GoProHero video

 

GoPro Video, average rating: 4 / 5

 

More GoPro video

 

GoProHero3

 

Read more Gopro Hero 3 black edition problems : Timelapse, f Thomas

As many of you know, I had a wee and ridiculous kitchen fire last month that ended up with the most bizarre domino-effect ever. The fire was in the bottom of my oven, which I couldn't open because the drawer was jammed. The fire department had to use an axe to get it open and the insurance company gave me the money for what was supposed to be an even replacement but which actually ended up being an upgrade.

 

Because I had sprayed the fire extinguisher, the insurance company also paid a restoration crew to come in and clean the entire main floor top-to-bottom. They did a fantastic job, but in the process of moving my refrigerator forward to clean behind it (what? people clean behind their refrigerators?), they ripped the vinyl floor. So they said they would pay to replace it.

  

They had it replaced last week, and in the process of moving the fridge out of the kitchen, they damaged the hardwood floor in the living room . I've pretty much taken everything in stride up to this point, especially since everything was turning out well for us. But the hardwood damage is a real problem because there is no easy fix (it's about 1/2" wide and 3' long, against the grain, and sort of deep). To sand and refinish would require moving all furniture out of the entire main floor (because the hardwood is continuous from living room to dining to 2 bedrooms and hall!) and all of us moving out. We had hoped to put our house on the market within the next year, so we need to something more than covering it with a rug.

 

At any rate, here's my before and after of the kitchen. It doesn't look as dramatic as it feels. We upgraded the floor and chose a slightly darker vinyl that won't look dirty as quickly (it matches the light grey of our counters). And the range is awesome - 5 burners with continuous grates, and higher BTUs than my old one.

The main street of Bailieborough in County Cavan. I certainly wouldnt even attempt to remove the wires from this photo. If you view it on large you can see just how many there are.

Putting another clutch in the bike at the side of a mosquitoe infested road. Mexico. 1989 Hiding behind the bike is my ex- girlfriends Honda XL600R - which ran faultlessly for her 10,000 mile trip, she didn't even have a manual, let alone service it!

11/2013 - The completed, but un-painted, tender of PRR 1361 sits at Altoona Pipe & Steel ready to be picked up. It's supposed to be taken to Union Tank Car Co. for paint but they keep running into problems moving it.

cotizaciones, dudas y encargos a

 

www.asuntopolera.com

contacto@asuntopolera.com

Twitter: @asuntopolera

Not for the light at heart! These are posted for the Bull Terrier Group that is discussing bad paws right now.

 

Poor Little Man! Wouldn't you think he has enough problems! ;-)