For children to be able to understand and communicate positions and directions, knowledge of ordinal numbers is important. Print, laminate and play simple games involving ordinal numbers with your pupils or for spelling too. They can also be used as classroom display. Available for FREE at:

 

www.sharemylesson.com/teaching-resource/Trophy-and-amp-Ro...

Greenpoint Historic District, Greenpoint, Brooklyn, New York City, New York, United States of America

 

If you want to know more about my walks and photos, check out my blog.

  

About the historic district:

 

The Greenpoint Histrict District occupies a unique position among Brooklyn's historic districts. Unlike the middle-class neighborhoods of Brooklyn's "brownstone belt,—Brooklyn Heights, Fort Greene, Clinton Hill, and Park Slope— whose residents commuted to professional and white collar jobs in downtown Brooklyn or Manhattan, Greenpoint was intimately linked to Brooklyn's industrial development. Its residents worked in nearby factories, and its architecture reflects the varied nature of the neighborhood's occupants. The buildings include substantial rowhouses built for the owners and managers of nearby businesses and factories, more modest rowhouses and numerous flathouses (walk-up apartment houses) for the factory laborers, as well as a variety of commercial buildings on the streets where the residents shopped.

 

Residential development of the area followed the advent of industry, the first of which was shipbuilding, located on the waterfront. The residential area grew inland from the waterfront. Perhaps because of the industrial character of the area, real estate developers were much less active in Greenpoint than in many other Brooklyn sections where it was common to find long rows of houses erected by developers for resale to middle-class occupants. Although there are examples of this in the district, particularly on the land originally owned by James R. Sparrow and his son (one of the rows they erected consists of twenty-one buildings), more often it was a single individual who bought one lot and had the house he intended to live in built on it. This is particularly so during the earliest period of growth in the area, prior to the Civil War.

 

The buildings within the district also reflect the importance of the builder tradition in nineteenth-century American architecture. The role between the builder and the architect was not clearly defined until about the time of the Civil War. When the American Institute of Architects was founded in 1857, its members were the most prominent men in the field in the country. This professionalism did not filter down to less well-known practitioners until later in the century.

 

The usual practice in Greenpoint and elsewhere in Brooklyn was for the owner of a piece of property to hire a builder, i.e., a mason or carpenter, to erect the house on the site. If the owner made particular design requirements, the builder might hire a draftsman to produce plans from which to work. But, because the vast majority of rowhouses have similar plans and construction, a practiced builder needed little outside aid. Also widely used were builders' guidebooks which gave practical advice on construction techniques to those in the building trade and often included plans for houses and designs for architectural details. Moreover, architectural elements such as foliate brackets, window and entrance enframements, and wooden doors, sashes, and shutters could be mass produced at local lumberyards and foundaries. Hence, many buildings within the district have nearly identical window and door lintels, cornices and iron railings.

 

The ambiguous distinction between builder and architect is illustrated by two men who lived in the area: Thomas C. Smith and Frederick Weber. Smith, an important figure in the history of the district, had been trained as a builder and worked in that trade for nearly thirty years before retiring to Greenpoint where he had come into possession of a bankrupt porcelain factory. He purchased a large tract of land on Milton Street and over a period of years built on it. Since he retired from tne trade because of ill health, it is improbable that Smith acted as mason or carpenter on these houses but it is evident by comparision of interiorand exterior features that he was the architect who designed them. Frederick Weber, who is responsible for a number of buildings, is listed as a carpenter in the directories of the 1870s but, ten years later, he signs Brooklyn Buildings Department permits as an architect.

 

Within the designated boundaries for the area, the buildings exhibit the architectural styles popular between 1850 and the end of the centuryT often executed in the vernacular builder tradition. The first buildings were erected in the early 1850s and were designed in the then current Italianate style or in a transitional style that combined elements of both the Greek Revival and the Italianate—a not uncommon practice in the builder tradition. The mixture of stylistic elements is particularly evident in the early tenements with"commercial ground floors on Franklin Street. The ground floors are trabeated granite and brick, based on the prototypical Tappan Store (1829) on Pearl Street in Manhattan that had set the standard for commercial architecture for twenty years. The upper floors are pierced by square-headed windows with two-over-two or six-over-six double-hung sash and cap molded lintels. The roof entablatures are simple, with plain fascias, dentils and diminutive curvilinear brackets carrying the cornice.

The early frame houses were also built in this transitional style. Sheathed with clapboards, they had square-headed windows, possibly with six-over-six sash, and were topped with cap-molded lintels. The simple cornices were carried on delicate curvilinear brackets. Some had erosseted enframements at the windows and entrance. The single, panelled door was enframed by square colonettes carrying an entablature above which was a transom, as can be seen at No. 100 Milton Street. A few of these houses still retain their squared, columned porches. These early frame structures occupy an important place within the district and in the city. Some were built individually by shipwrights and shipcarpenters connected with the nearby shipyards. Although most have now been resurfaced with modern materials, the original mass, size, scale and window arrangement remain as does the underlying framing which tangibly link them with one of New York's most romantic eras, the age of the graceful wooden ships.

 

The Italianate style, free of elements from the earlier Greek Revival, Is by far the most prevalent mode in the historic district and remained popular with builders in Greenpoint for over twenty years. The typical Italianate rowhouse is usually masonry, either brick or brownstone-faced, rising three or four stories above a basement, and approached by a high stoop. Arched doorway enframements with pilasters topped by triangular or segmental pediments supported on ornate foliate brackets, window enframements with bracketed lintels ana wide projecting sills, plate glass one-over-one or two-over-two window sash and deep wooden cornices with heavy foliate brackets are common on the Italianate houses found throughout New York City. Other typical forms include floor-length parlor windows, rusticated basements with arched openings, deeply inset double doors, heavy cast-iron balusters ana newel posts, and areaway railings with bold curving forms.. Nos. 144 and 146 Kent Street are good examples of the mode.

 

In Greenpoint, characteristic elements of the style are brick facades, unenframed round-arched doorways topped by round-arched lintels carried on foliate brackets, segmental-arched windows with eyebrow lintels, two-over-two window sash, and roof cornices with foliate brackets and arched fascias. Rows of these houses on Noble Street (Nos. 128-132) and Kent Street (Nos. 112-124) create rhythmically massed and unified block-fronts of great dignity.

 

A variant of the Italianate is the far less common Anglo-Italianate style. Whereas most Italianate style houses have high stoops leading to ornate doorways, Anglo-Italianate dwellings have low stoops or English basement entrances. The stoops lead to simple round-arched door enframements set into rusticated brownstone ground floors. These houses are often faced with brick above the ground floor and frequently have segmental or round-arched windows. No. 128 Kent Street is an example of the style, and two rows of houses on Milton Street (Nos. 93-109) and Noble Street (Nos. 119-125) are designed with English basements.

 

Much more common than the Anglo-Italianate is the French Second Empire style, most strongly identified with the decade of the 1860s. As the name implies, this style originated in Paris during the Second Empire period of the 1850s. As interpreted in the builder tradition, French Second Empire style uses all of the forms and details common to typical Italianate rowhouses but has the added feature of a full-story mansard roof placed above the cornice line of the house. These steeply pitched mansards are clad with slate shingles. The mansards are pierced by dormer windows and are frequently crowned by ornate cast-iron crestings. In many areas French Second Empire houses are more ornate than Italianate style residences, but this is not the case in Greenpoint where the two styles co-exist. Usually the Second Empire house displays the features of an Italianate house but is crowned by a mansard as at Nos. 94-100 Kent Street.

 

In the 1870s, a new style, the neo-Grec, replaced the Italianate and Second Empire in popularity. The basic form for neo-Grec rowhouses is very similar to that for Italianate rowhouses but in its detailing the neo-Grec house differs from those built in earlier styles. The neo-Grec reflects a movement away from the fluid, curvacous forms of the mid-century period to a sharper, more angular and geometric taste, evident not only in architecture, but also in the decorative arts produced in the 1870s.

 

The most notable attributes of the neo-Grec style are the extensive use of angular forms and stylized incised carving, which are indicative of the machine technology which became prevalent in America in the last half of the nineteenth century. Innovations in technology led to the advent of machines that could cut decorative elements in stone more cheaply than hand carving. Thus the naturalistic foliate detailing of hand-carved Italianate brackets was replaced by crisply cut angular foliate forms or more abstract geometric designs. Also reflecting the advent of mechanization is the replacement of wooden cornices by pressed, galvanized iron ones. The cornices also reflect the new taste for angularity with stylized brackets cut with incised details. There are particularly fine examples of the style at Nos. 110-114 Milton Street, which are also notable for their exceptional ironwork, Nos. 122-130 Calyer Street, and Nos. 1093-1103 Lorimer Street.

 

The Queen Anne and Romanesque Revival were contemporary styles popular in the 1800s and both are freer in their design than earlier nineteenth-century styles. Picturesque Queen Anne buildings gain their individuality from a sense of asymmetry, subtle textural relationships, and rich, though often eccentric, ornament. Much of the ornament is classical in derivation, but forms such as triumphal arches, pediments, and swags are used in a distinctive unclassical manner. A recurrent motif is the sunflower, a symbol of homevness. The Queen Anne style originated in England during the 1860s when architects led by Richard Norman Shaw began to design houses which combined Classical, Medieval, Renaissance, Flemish, and other forms in a new and highly original manner.

 

This style became popular in the United States during the 1800s, particularly for freestanding houses. In the district, examples of this style may be seen at No. 143 Kent Street and the pair of houses at Nos. 122 and 124 Milton Street, all designed by architect Theobald Engelhardt. There is also a long row at Nos. 139-151 Milton Street in a late, modified version of the style. Many of the clapboard, frame houses erected in the 1850s and 1860s during the early phases of residential development were re-sided with shingles in the 1880s. These shingles, known as novelty shingles, were cut and laid up in a picturesque manner in keeping with the tenets of the Queen Anne style. Good examples of this siding may be seen at Nos. 109 and 126 Noble Street and No. 156 Cayler Street.

 

The American Romanesque Revival was initiated by Henry Hobson Richardson in Boston in 1873 and the style quickly spread throughout the United States and Canada becoming the most wide-spread design mode in the 1880s. The Romanesque Revival style broke away from the smooth monochromatic work of the decades between the 1850s and 1870s, developing highly textured and frequently subtle polychromatic designs. Many Romanesque Revival buildings combine rough-faced and smooth-faced stone with Roman brick and terra cotta. The facades are further enlivened by stained-glass windows, galvanized-iron cornices, bays, oriels, and slate-covered sloping roofs. The buildings tend to be massive, but this is tempered by a picturesque asymmetry. Ornament includes round arches, dwarf columns, stone piers, L-shaped stoops, heavy stone transom bars, and elaborate foliate carving modeled after the ornament found in Byzantine structures.

 

The colors vary from house to house and within each facade, but they are generally limited to earth tones such as red, orange, brown, gray, and buff. The style was not widely used in the district but there are examples at Nos. 168-172 Franklin Street, No. 112 Noble Street, and No. 128-132 Greenpoint Avenue.

 

The 1800s had been the heyday of romanticism and the picturesque; in the 1890s there was a reawakening interest in a correct classicism. The World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago introduced Americans to the grandeur of the architecture and planning of the ancient world and of the Renaissance, and this resulted in a return to classicism. Architecture in this new style ranged from buildings designed in the most academically correct classical manner to the freest interpretation of Renaissance styles. Two excellent examples of the style are represented in the district; the Mechanics and Traders Bank at 144 Franklin Street, and the Greenpoint Savings Bank at 807 Manhattan Avenue. Within the district, there are a number of flathouses and rowhouses in this style including Nos. 159-163 and Nos. 140-144 Milton Street. *

 

As the population of Brooklyn increased and as residential neighborhoods developed, a need arose for new institutional buildings, particularly churches, to serve the growing communities and to add a requisite moral tone to each neighborhood. As each rural area grew into a new residential section, new church societies were founded, each having the desire to build an imposing church edifice. Greenpoint was no exception to this trend and in the mid-nineteenth century a number of churches of different denominations were erected in the district. Today, there are six church edifices in the district. They range in style from the Gothic Revival Church of the Ascension built in 1866 on Kent Street to the Victorian Gothic Church of St. Anthony of Padua (1873) on Manhattan Avenue to the Early Romanesque Revival Union Baptist Church of 1863 on Noble Street.

 

Three other important institutions are the St. Elias Greek Rite Catholic Church on Kent Street, originally built in 1869 and 1879 as the Greenpoint Dutch Reformed Church, St. John's Evangelical Lutheran Church of 1897 on Milton Street, and the Greenpoint Home for the Aged of 1887 on Oak Street.

 

Fortunately, the architectural quality of Greenpoint has been largely undisturbed since its development. The streets present vistas unchanged since the turn of the century. The district has so far largly avoided the rapid pace of rebuilding and alteration so typical of much of the city. Many of the fine old row-houses and flathouses have been preserved with little change. The graceful Italianate, Second Empire and neo-Grec rows create a unified architectural composition that continues to reflect their appearance in the third quarter of the nineteenth century. A cause for concern today is the "modernization" of houses by the application of spurious veneers. The occasional addition of a roof parapet has almost invariably resulted in the loss of a fine cornice. Stoops have sometimes been removed to provide basement entrances. Such changes and "improvements" create jarring notes in otherwise harmonious rows of houses. Ill-conceived improvements almost always result in an erosion of architectural quality.

 

Historic district designation of Greenpoint will help to insure the protection of the area's distinctive architectural character.

 

- From the 1982 NYCLPC Historic District Designation Report

Pete Rapp of Sitech Mid-Atlantic, explains the operation of a locating and positioning device to Will Patterson of TIC, during the installation of a coffer dam along the Savannah River. Sitich supplied the equipment to TIC, a subcontractor on the dissolved oxygen injection system as part of the environmental mitigation for the Savannah Harbor Expansion Project (SHEP). The coffer dam will allow workers from CDM Constructors, the prime contractor for the dissolved oxygen injection system installation, to build the site for a series of Speece cones. These cones will super-oxygenate river water and inject it back into the Savannah River to maintain current levels of dissolved oxygen as the shipping channel is deepened. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Savannah District, oversees the SHEP, including environmental mitigation. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers photo by Billy Birdwell)

Indian Peacekeepers observe from their positions on Munigi Hill as FARDC conduct an attack on M23 rebel positions in Kanyaruchinya near Goma, the 15th of July 2013. © MONUSCO/Sylvain Liechti

   

Lake Michigan

Wisconsin, USA

Just inside the gateway to Tutbury Castle

Milecastle 48 (Poltross Burn), is a milecastle on Hadrian's Wall (grid reference NY6340666195). Its remains lie near the village of Gilsland in Cumbria where it was historically known as "The King's Stables", owing to the well-preserved interior walls. Unusually a substantial section of stone stairs has survived within the milecastle. The two turrets associated with this milecastle have also survived as above-ground masonry.

 

Description

Milecastle 48 is just outside the village of Gilsland in Cumbria, immediately adjacent to the Tyne Valley railway line on its south side (grid reference NY6340666195). It had been known locally as "The King's Stables" for over 100 years, but recently the heritage industry has begun to call it Poltross Burn Milecastle, which is how it is now signposted. The monument is currently in the care of English Heritage.

 

The milecastle measures 18.5 metres east to west by 21.3 metres north to south, substantially larger than many other milecastles. Two rows of buildings are visible within, probably barracks, one either side of the north–south road running through the gateways. Interior buildings are not normally so well-preserved or substantial in other milecastles and local people, "mining" the milecastle for building stone in the past, may have recognised the layout as similar to stable-blocks. The walls are broad gauge, including stub 'wing walls' which connect with the Narrow Wall curtain of Hadrian's Wall on either side. It has Type III gateways and lies 1521m west of Milecastle 47 and 1458m east of Milecastle 49.

 

A notable feature of this milecastle is the survival of a substantial part of the flight of stairs giving access to the ramparts of Hadrian's Wall in the north-east corner, allowing a wall-walk height of 3.6m to be projected and suggesting a height for the curtain wall (including parapet) of around 4.6m.

 

The Stanegate Roman road, which preceded Hadrian's Wall, crossed the Poltross Burn a few hundred yards to the south of Milecastle 48; part of its route can be seen descending a field to the river's edge. The minor Stanegate fort of Throp stood on top of the ridge just to the southwest of Milecastle 48, but it is not visible on the ground.

 

Excavations

Milecastle 48 was excavated in 1886 by R. S. Ferguson; between 1909 and 1911 by J. P. Gibson and F. G. Simpson; and between 1965 and 1966 by D. Charlesworth.

 

The excavations uncovered a range of features including the gateways of the milecastle. The lower courses of the flight of steps were found in the northeast corner, and an oven was found in the northwest angle. Flanking the central space of the milecastle stood long barrack blocks, which are believed to have had more than one phase of construction.

 

Associated turrets

Turret 48B

Each milecastle on Hadrian's Wall had two associated turret structures. These turrets were positioned approximately one-third and two-thirds of a Roman mile to the west of the Milecastle, and would probably have been manned by part of the milecastle's garrison. The turrets associated with Milecastle 48 are known as Turret 48A and Turret 48B.

 

Turret 48A (Willowford East) (grid reference NY6296266297) is situated on a river terrace on the south bank of the River Irthing. It was excavated in 1923. It measures approximately 4.1 metres across. The north wall has a maximum height of 1.3 metres, the east wall 7 courses, the west wall 5 courses and the south wall 6 courses high. The doorway was situated in the southwest wall, and several hearths and evidence of bronze and ironworking were found in the interior. The site was cleared and partially rebuilt in 1951/2, and the remains are visible as consolidated masonry.

 

Turret 48B (Willowford West) (grid reference NY62526650) is situated on the south bank of the River Irthing immediately east of Willowford Farm. The turret was excavated in 1923. The remains are visible as consolidated masonry.

 

Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.

 

Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.

 

The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.

 

Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.

 

Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.

 

History

Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.

 

The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.

 

The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.

 

Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.

 

Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.

 

Roman invasion

The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.

 

The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.

 

The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.

 

Establishment of Roman rule

After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.

 

On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.

 

While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.

 

There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.

 

In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.

 

For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.

 

Roman military organisation in the north

In 84 AD

In 84 AD

 

In 155 AD

In 155 AD

 

Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall

There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.

 

Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.

 

A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.

 

In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.

 

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.

 

During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.

 

In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.

 

The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.

 

3rd century

The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.

 

Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.

 

The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.

 

Northern campaigns, 208–211

An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.

 

As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.

 

During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.

 

Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.

 

The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.

 

Diocletian's reforms

As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).

 

The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.

 

Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.

 

The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.

 

The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.

 

Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.

 

In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.

 

A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.

 

4th century

Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.

 

In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.

 

As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.

 

Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.

 

End of Roman rule

The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.

 

The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.

 

Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.

 

Sub-Roman Britain

Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.

 

In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.

 

Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.

 

Trade

During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.

 

Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.

 

These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.

 

It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.

 

From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.

 

Economy

Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.

 

The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.

 

By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.

 

Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.

 

Government

Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain

Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.

 

To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.

 

Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.

 

Demographics

Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.

 

Town and country

During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.

 

Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.

 

Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C

 

Alcester (Alauna)

Alchester

Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C

Bath (Aquae Sulis) C

Brough (Petuaria) C

Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)

Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C

Caernarfon (Segontium) C

Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C

Caister-on-Sea C

Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C

Carlisle (Luguvalium) C

Carmarthen (Moridunum) C

Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)

Chester (Deva Victrix) C

Chester-le-Street (Concangis)

Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C

Cirencester (Corinium) C

Colchester (Camulodunum) C

Corbridge (Coria) C

Dorchester (Durnovaria) C

Dover (Portus Dubris)

Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C

Gloucester (Glevum) C

Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)

Ilchester (Lindinis) C

Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C

Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C

London (Londinium) C

Manchester (Mamucium) C

Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)

Northwich (Condate)

St Albans (Verulamium) C

Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C

Towcester (Lactodurum)

Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C

Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C

Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C

York (Eboracum) C

 

Religion

The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.

 

The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.

 

Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.

 

Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).

 

Christianity

It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.

 

The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.

 

A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.

 

Environmental changes

The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas

 

Legacy

During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.

 

Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages). The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe

I recently did an identity concept for an art exhibition titled shifting positions. This is the invitation which doubles as a promotional poster. I totally fell in love with Optima while working on this project.

 

The final version — which was printed in a different colour hue — can be seen here (PDF). A photo of the finished product is coming up.

 

The exhibition features the duo Prinz Gholam and Franz Erhard Walther. Curated by Christoph Platz.

The last one of nine chains to be connected.

Founded by Louis Chevrolet and ousted GM founder William C. Durant on November 8, 1911, Chevrolet was acquired by General Motors in 1917. Chevrolet was positioned by Alfred Sloan to sell a lineup of mainstream vehicles to directly compete against Henry Ford's Model T in the 1920s, and continues to hold its position as General Motors' highest-selling brand to the present day, with "Chevrolet" or "Chevy" being at times synonymous with GM. In North America, Chevrolet offers a full range of automobiles, from subcompact cars to medium-duty commercial trucks.

The Chevrolet Corvette is a sports car by the Chevrolet division of General Motors. The first model was designed by Harley Earl and introduced in 1953. Myron Scott is credited for naming the car after the corvette, a small, maneuverable warship. It has been produced in six generations in coupe, convertible, t-top coupe, and targa coupe body styles. Originally built in Flint, Michigan and St. Louis, Missouri, it is currently built at a GM assembly plant in Bowling Green, Kentucky.

The first generation Corvette was introduced late in the 1953 model year and ended in 1962. These cars are often referred to as the "solid-axle" models since the independent rear suspension did not debut until the 1963 Sting Ray. 300 hand-built polo white Corvettes were produced for the 1953 model year, making it the rarest and one of the most sought after of all Corvettes. The 1955 model saw the introduction of the 265 cu in (4.34 L) V8 engine offered as an option, however the first seven off the production line featured the standard "Blue Flame" Inline-6.

A new body was introduced for the 1956 model featuring a new "face" and side coves; the taillight fins were gone. An optional fuel injection system was made available in the middle of the 1957 model year. It was one of the first mass-produced engines in history to reach 1 bhp (0.75 kW) per cubic inch and Chevrolet's advertising agency used a "one hp per cubic inch" slogan for advertising the 283 bhp (211 kW) 283 cu in (4.64 L) Small-Block engine. Other options included power windows (1956), hydraulically operated power convertible top (1956), four speed manual transmission (late 1957), and heavy duty brakes and suspension (1957).

FRANKLIN MINT SANTA'S 1957 CORVETTE. Limited Edition 1 of 500. 1/24 scale. Amazing detail for a 1/24 diecast. 327ci High performance engine with Rochester fuel injection, completely detailed, wired and plumbed. Tinsel Green Metallic exterior / Santa Suit Red interior with opening hood, doors and trunk. Nice exterior details with nicely done chrome foil badging and emblems. Interior details are very impressive for a 1/24 car with a green steering wheel with matching dash top, full gauge package, Frosty white carpeting and detailed 4-speed shifter. Detailed trunk features a removable spare. Detailed chassis, dual exhaust. Whitewall tires mounted on body color steel wheels with factory wheel covers. Santa's personalized license plates front and rear. Accessories include a 1/24 scale Santa hat, 3 foil wrapped gifts, and even Rudolph's red nose which can be attached to the nose of the car magnetically. Ships with 2 attachable tops, a Tinsel Green hard top and a Frosty White soft top.

 

The Iconic Ford Power Live Event took Place at Brands Hatch to Celebrate The Blue Badged Ford Motor Company and their Iconic Cars From both the Past and The Present. From Escort Mexico's to Modern Ford Mustang GT'S there was Everything for the Ford Enthusiast to enjoy.

 

The Support Races Featured During the Day were also Full of Different Makes and Models of Ford Racing Cars From The Focus RS to the Ford Escort and the Iconic Sierra Cosworth and even the Iconic Enduro KA series was Present and with Drivers and Spectators Ready the Racing was about to begin.

 

Lets Turn to the Race Track and See what is the First Support Race to make it onto the Race track.

 

Champion Of Brands (Qualifying)

 

First up Champion of Brands and with Fast and High Speed Action from Thease Machines Lets See who took that all important People Position to Start the Race in P1.

 

In First Place was (Tom Mills) in his Spectrum KMR with a Best Lap Time of 50.154 and a Top Speed of 86.70mph. Amazing work there Tom a truly Heroic and Brave Drive for Pole Position.

 

In Second Place was (Niall Murray) in his Van Diemen BD21 with a Best Lap Time of 50.397 and a Top Speed of 86.28mph. Fantastic Work Niall Very Fast and Quick Driving.

 

In Third Place was (Colin Queen) in his Ray GR18 with a Best Lap Time of 50.399 and a Top Speed of 86.28mph. Another Incredible Driver in Colin Pushing Hard and Almost Taking Second Place from Niall. I think we are in for some Really Intense Racing but who will be Fast Enough to on Track to Take Victory?

 

Champion Of Brands (Race 1 Results)

 

After a Thrilling Battle that saw Tom Mills take Pole Position its time to find out who Won the Race and out of The Top Three Could Anyone else on the Grid Challenge them for a Spot on the Podium. Lets Find Out.

 

In First Place and taking the Win was (Niall Murray) in his Van Diemen BD21 with a Lap Time of 50.518 and an Average Speed of 77.40mph. Incredible work there Niall Beating back Tom to take Victory in the First Race and a Well Determined Drive to Secure it.

 

In Second Place was (Tom Mills) in his Spectrum KMR with a Lap Time of 50.706 and an Average Speed of 77.38mph. Amazing Drive there Tom Keeping up with Niall and a Fantastic Battle thought the entire Race too.

 

In Third Place was (Colin Queen) in his RAY GR18 with a Lap Time of 50.820 and an Average Speed of 77.32mph. A Great Victory for Third Place on the Podium Colin showing a Determined Drive and a lot of Bravery thought the Race.

 

What an Incredible First Race to Start out the Days Events and with Another Coming up Soon after is it possible for Another Competitor to take Victory and the Spotlight? Lets Take A Look.

 

Champion Of Brands (Race 2 Results)

 

Race 2 Up Next and The Final Time for Anyone Racing in Champion of Brands to Score Points and Take Victory in either First Second or Third Place. After a Thrilling End to Race 1 which Saw Tom Mills getting Beaten by Niall Murray it was time to see who could Once Again bring the Roar and Thunder Home for a Final Time.

 

In First Place was (Niall Murray) in his Van Diemen BD21 with a Lap Time of 50.584 and an Average Speed of 84.84mph. Another Incredible Drive from Niall to once again take The Final Pole Position for Champion of Brands. Brilliant Drive there Niall.

 

In Second Place was (Tom Mills) in his Spectrum KMR with a Lap Time of 50.606 and an Average Speed of 84.47mph. Another Well Deserved Second Place for Tom Showing Incredible Car Control and Bravery Pushing the Limits on Every Corner to Keep up with Niall. Fantastic Drive Tom.

 

In Third Place was (Lucan Romenek) in his Van Diemen JL13 with a Lap Time of 50.927 and an Average Speed of 83.92mph. Very Well Done there Lucan Fantastic to see a New Driver take a Step onto the Podium and Celebrate the Victory.

 

What an Exciting Opening Day here at Brands Hatch for Ford Power Live with Champion of Brands Providing some Well Deserved Winners in Niall Tom Lucan and Colin. Well Done to all other Drivers taking Part and Continuing to Improve and do what it is that you Love. Keep Up the Momentum and Never Give Up Hope of One Day Making it to the Top Step of the Podium.

 

Lets See what Track Action is Next Up onto the Circuit as the Action Continues to Hot Up.

 

Clubman Sports Prototype Championship (Qualifying)

 

Clubman Sports Prototypes were up next and thease Mad Looking Machines are known for their Supreme Aerodynamics as well as Insane Straight Line Speed. each Driver will have to be on the ball and Keeping their Machine under Constant Control as they will be Powering round this 1,2 mile Indy Circuit at Speeds of at Least 90mph.

 

Lets Look to the Track to see who Qualified where and see who will be starting the Race on Pole.

 

In First Place and taking Pole Position was (Steve Dickens) in his Mallock MK29 with a Best Lap Time of 47.146 and a Top Speed of 92.23mph. Amazing Drive there Steve Very Fast and Committed for Pole Position.

 

In Second Place was (Clive Wood) in his Mallock MK23 with a Best Lap Time of 47.784 and a Top Speed of 91.00mph. Well Deserved there Clive Pushing that Mallock for all its worth and taking Second Place.

 

In Third Place was (Alex Champkin) Mallock MK27 Synergy with a Best Lap Time of 48.129 and a Top Speed of 90.35mph. Very Well Done there Alex Taking Third Place and a Spirited Drive with it.

 

A Very Fast and Fierce set of Drivers Ready to take on the Indy Circuit. Lets Get Right Down to the Action for Race 1.

 

Clubman Sports Prototype Championship (Race 1 Results)

 

After A Thrilling Battle in Qualifying Between Steve Clive and Alex which of them will be Poised and Ready to Attack on the Race Track to either Defend maintain or even potentially Loose their Positions to the other Drivers. Lets Find Out.

 

In First Place was (Steve Dickens) in his Mallock MK29 with a Lap Time of 48.076 and an Average Speed of 76.87mph. Incredible Driving there Steve Taking the Victory and the Spoils that come with it Amazing Work from you and The Entire Team.

 

In Second Place was (Alex Champkin) in his Mallock MK27 Synergy with a Lap Time of 47.515 and an Average Speed of 76.84mph. Another Super Drive by Alex to move him up into Second Place on the Podium. Fantastic Work and Driving Ability.

 

In Third Place was (Clive Wood) in his Mallock MK23 with a Lap Time of 47.802 and an Average Speed of 76.81mph. Very Well Done there Clive Super Driving and an All Round Great Victory for Third Place.

 

An Exciting Opening Race for Clubman's with Steve Dickens taking Both Qualifying and the First Race Win. Can he Do it again For Race 2 or will the likes of Alex and Clive Hunt Him down and take that Victory away Stay Tuned to find out as We Go Racing Once Again.

 

Clubman Sports Prototype Championship (Race 2 Results)

 

In First Place was (Clive Wood) in his Mallock MK23 with a Lap Time of 47.475 and an Average Speed of 87.35mph.

 

In Second Place was (Pete Richings) in his Mallock MK30 PR with a Lap Time of 48.784 and an Average Speed of 86.84mph.

 

In Third Place was (Steve Dickens) in his Mallock MK29 with a Lap Time of 48.448 and an Average Speed of 86.63mph.

 

What an Exciting End to Race 2 with a New Winner in P2 being Pete Richings Well Done Pete Amazing work and a well deserved Podium Spot. Will Pete be able to Retain that Second Place or even Improve though as we head into the Final Round in Race 3.

 

Clubman Sports Prototype Championship (Race 3 Results)

 

In First Place was (Pete Richings) in his Mallock MK30PR with a Lap Time of 48.218 and a Top Speed of 88.27mph. Incredible Driving Pete taking the Top Step of the Podium and the Race Win. A Truly Excellent Drive.

 

In Second Place was (Steve Dickens) in his Mallock MK29 with a Lap Time of 47.986 and an Average Speed of 88.17mph. Very Well Done again Steve Putting in a lot of Hard work to Reach Second Place.

 

In Third Place was (Clive Wood) in his Mallock MK23 With a Lap Time of 47.883 and an Average Speed of 88.08mph. Another Amazing P3 for Clive with a lot of Strong Determination Behind the Wheel.

 

What a Race Weekend for the Clubman's with Many Different Victories and Winners in Clive Steve Pete and Alex all Looking to Fight it it on Track and take Home those Valuable Championship Winning Points. Well Done to all other Competitors as well Keep Pushing Hard and Making Memories that will Last Forever.

 

Creative Funding Solutions Sports 2000 Championship (Qualifying)

 

Now it was time for the Creative Solutions Sports 2000's to hit the Track and After a Thunderous Performance by the Classic Clubman's Lets see what thease Mean Machines Have to Offer. With Speeds once again Reaching Nearly 92mph thease cars are Monsters and Driving and Controlling One is going to be Very Challenging with all that Break Horse Power.

 

Lets take a Look at Qualifying and see which Drivers made it to the Front end of the Grid for Race 1.

 

In First Place Taking Pole Position and the Fastest Lap was ( Neil Burroughs) in his Gunn TS12 with a Best Lap Time of 47.202 and a Top Speed of 92.12mph. Fantastic work there Neil Once Again showing the Skill and Commitment Needed for a Championship Winning Drive.

 

In Second Place was (Tom Stoten) in his Gunn TS11 with a Best Lap Time of 47.400 and A Top Speed of 91.74mph. Great Work there Tom a Well Controlled and Well Balanced Car on the Race Track to Take P2 on the Grid.

 

In Third Place was (Joshua Law) in his MCR S2 with a Best Lap Time of 47.474 and a Top Speed of 91.59mph. Well Done Josh Really Amazing work to take P3 on the Grid for The Race.

 

What a Fantastic Qualifying Session with Battles Happening all over the Field but Neil Tom and Josh have made it into the Top Three and so Lets Find out in Race 1 which of them will be Taking Home Victory.

 

Creative Funding Solutions Sports 2000 Championship (Race 1)

 

In First Place and Taking Victory was (Tom Stoten) in his Gunn TS11 with a Lap Time of 48.471 and an Average Speed of 62.75mph. Amazing Work Tom taking yourself from P2 in Qualifying to P1 and The First Race Win, Incredible Drive.

 

In Second Place was (Michel Gibbins) in his MCR S2 with a Lap Time of 48.457 and an average Speed of 62.69mph. Fantastic Work Michel and a Really Strong Drive to take P2 in the Race. A Fantastic Drive.

 

In Third Place was (Giles Billingsley) in his MCR S2 with a Lap Time of 49.321 and an Average Speed of 62.31mph. Awesome Work there Giles a Brilliant Drive to Get P3 and the Last Spot on the Podium.

 

What an Exciting First Race with Tom Stoden being the First Race Winner in Sports 2000. A Big Congratulations to Michel and Giles too for some Heroic Driving and their Further P2 and P3 Finishes. Lets Find out what Race 2 Brings us Next.

  

Creative Funding Solutions Sports 2000 Championship (Race 2)

 

After a Really Hectic First Race which saw Tom Stoden Take P1 followed by Michel Gibbins and Giles Billingsley it was Time for Race 2. Lets see if Anyone Else can Challenge these Almighty Three Drivers at the Front of the Field.

 

In First Place was (Joshua Law) in his MCR S2 with a Lap Time of 47.878 and an Average Speed of 70.46mph. Incredible Drive for Joshua Taking P1 from Tom Stoden and Claiming his First Race Win of the Weekend. Amazing work Josh.

 

In Second Place was (Tom Stoden) in his Gunn TS11 with a Lap Time of 48.409 and an Average Speed of 70.35mph. Another Very Confident and Fast Drive by Tom to Achieve Second Place showing Just How Talented and Brave of a Driver Tom is Fantastic Performance Tom.

 

In Third Place was (Michel Gibbins) in his MCR S2 with a Lap Time of 48.395 and an Average Speed of 70.32mph. Really Good Drive there Michel Fantastic Car Control and a lot of Fast Race Pace. Well Done.

 

What Another Epic Race to Witness with a New Winner on the Top Step of the Podium being Joshua Law a Well Deserved Win from a Very Talented Driver. Amazing work to both Tom and Michel for their Respective P2 and P3 Finishes. With Race 3 Up Next who will be Taking Home that Final Pole Position of the Weekend for Sports 2000.

  

Creative Funding Solutions Sports 2000 Championship (Race 3)

 

The Final Round of the Day for the Sports 2000's and with Joshua Law Defending his People Position at the Front Will anyone be able to dethrone our New Race Winner. Lets Find Out.

 

In First Place and Taking the Victory was (Michel Gibbins) in his MCR S2 with a Lap Time of 47.479 and an Average Speed of 89.11mph. What a Drive Michel Taking P1 and the Final Race Win. Incredible Work.

 

In Second Place was (Tom Stoden) in his Gunn TS11 with a Lap Time of 47.680 and an Average Speed of 88.95mph. Amazing work Once Again Tom Proving Just How Competitive This Racing Series for Drivers is.

 

In Third Place was (Joshua Law) in his MCR S2 with a Lap Time of 47.938 and an Average Speed of 88.92mph. Great Work there Josh Really Good Drive in Taking P3.

 

What an Amazing Set of Races for the Sports 2000's with Many Different Victories for the likes of Joshua Tom Michel and Giles Drivers who Really Put the Pedal to the Metal when it really matters. Fantastic Work to all other Drivers on Track as well and Good Luck as the Season Continues.

 

Focus Cup Championship (Qualifying)

 

Next Up we take a Look to the Focus Cup Championship a Racing Series which Features the use of Ford Focus Road Cars Built to Racing Specifications. Thease Cars all Use The ZTEC 2.0 TDCI Engines and Have Proven to be Very Quick and also Very Twitchy when out Racing.

 

Lets Take a Look at Qualifying to see what Drivers Have made it to the Front of the Gird to start out the Days Racing.

 

In First Place taking Pole Position and The Fastest Lap was (Simon Rudd) in his Ford Focus 2.0 TDCi Zetec S with a Best Lap Time of 58.625 and a Top Speed of 74.17mph. Great Work there Simon Very Fast Driving while Keeping the Car on the Race Track to clock in a Perfect Lap of the Indy Circuit for P1.

 

In Second Place was (Scott Parkin) in his Ford Focus 2.0 TDCi Zetec S with a Best Lap Time of 58.880 and a Top Speed of 73.85mph. Very Well Done there Scott with a Blisteringly Quick Lap To take P2 on the Grid for the First Race.

 

In Third Place was (Gary Mitchell) in his Ford Focus 2.0 TDCi Zetec S with a Best Lap Time of 59.025 and a Top Speed of 73.67mph. Very Well Done Gary Pushing Hard and Making every Millie Second Count to take P3 on the grid.

 

Three Very Quick Drivers in Simon Scott and Gary all Looking to take that First Race Win. Which One of them Can Do it. Lets Find Out as Race 1 Begins.

 

Focus Cup Championship (Race 1)

 

In First Place and Taking Victory was (Simon Rudd) in his Ford Focus 2.0 TDCi Zetec S with a Lap Time of 58.725 and an Average Speed of 72.88mph. Congratulations Simon what an Epic Drive to Victory and a First Win of the Day for you. Very Well Done.

 

In Second Place was (Scott Parkin) in his Ford Focus 2.0 TDCi Zetec S with a Lap Time of 58.776 and an Average Speed of 72.49mph. Amazing Work there Scott Well Driven and Controlled Thought the entire Race.

 

In Third Place was (Gary Mitchell) in his Ford Focus 2.0 TDCi Zetec S with a Lap Time of 58.909 and an Average Speed of 72.39mph. Great Drive there Gary and A Brilliant Finish on the Podium in P3.

 

What an Exciting First Race for the Focus Cup showing Just How Fast thease Cars are and How Brave each Driver has to be to take Moves and Dive Bombs to work there way to the Front of the Grid. Lets See what Race 2 Brings and Can Simon Keep His Defence of P1.

 

Focus Cup Championship (Race 2)

 

In First Place was (Gary Mitchell) in his Ford Focus 2.0 TDCi Zetec S with a Lap Time of 58.914 and an Average Speed of 68.78mph. Incredible Work there Gary taking P1 and The Race Win what a Fantastic start to the Weekend for Him.

 

In Second Place was (Richard Avis) in his Ford Focus 2.0 TDCi Zetec S with a Lap Time of 59.506 and an Average Speed of 68.70mph. what a Drive there From Richard Fantastic to see a New Face in P2 on the Podium and a Well Deserved Victory in Second Place.

 

In Third Place was (Scott Parkin) in his Ford Focus 2.0 TDCi Zetec S with a Lap Time of 59.283 and an Average Speed of 68.61mph. Very Well Done there Scott Pushing Hard and Making sure to Stay in the Top Three. Fantastic Drive.

 

Another Incredible Race with a Different Driver in Richard Avis taking Second Place with an Incredible Drive and Sheer Speed and Talent. Congratulations to both Gary and Scott as well for their Fantastic Finishes Too.

 

Now for Race 3 and its the Final Time to see who will be taking Home that Last P1 Victory for the Focus Cup Championship.

  

Focus Cup Championship (Race 3)

 

In First Place was (Simon Rudd) in his Ford Focus 2.0 TDCi Zetec S with a Lap Time of 59.228 and an Average Speed of 71.60mph. Amazing Work as Usual Scott putting in One Final Flying Run to Gain Another Race Victory. Great Drive.

 

In Second Place was (Scott Parkin) in his Ford Focus 2.0 TDCi Zetec S with a Lap Time of 59.972 and an Average Speed of 70.23mph. Another Really Impressive Drive by Scott to take P2 in the Final Race for The Focus Cup.

 

In Third Place was (Rob Gaffney) in his Ford Focus 2.0 TDCi Zetec S with a Lap Time of 59.238 and an Average Speed of 70.19mph. Very Well Done Indeed Rob Finishing P3 and taking his First Podium of the Weekend. Phenomenal Drive.

 

What an Amazing End to the Focus Cup Championship at Brands Hatch with Many Different Victories for Simon Scott Rob and Gary who all Drove out of their Skin and showed Phenomenal Car Control and Ability to Drive. Fantastic Work to all the other Drivers too Keep Working Hard and Most Important of All Enjoy what you Love Doing.

 

MSVR Elise Trophy (Qualifying)

 

Next Up is the MSR Elise Trophy

with the Focus of this Race being on the Lotus Elise S1 S2 and S3 with Just One Qualifying Session and Just 1 Race This will be A Test of Will Power and Determination on the Track to see who can Take Victory.

 

First Lets look to Qualifying and See who will be Starting on the Front Row.

 

In First Place taking the Pole and Fastest Lap was (Maurizio Sciglio) in his Lotus Elise S2 with a Best Lap Time of 53.544 and a Top Speed of 81.21mph. Fantastic work there Maurizio to take P1 and start o the Front Row of the Grid.

 

In Second Place was (Jason Mcinulty) in his Lotus Elise S3 with a Best Lap Time of 53.914 and a Top Speed of 80.65mph. Very Well Done there Jason Putting in one Hell of a Quick Time to Gain P2 on the Grid.

 

In Third Place was (Simon Walsh) in his Lotus Elise S2 111R with a Best Lap Time of 54.076 and a Top Speed of 80.41mph. Incredible Drive from Simon to put Himself in P3.

 

With Three Very Quick Drivers in Maurizio Jason and Simon it was Time to see if Anyone Could challenge them and Win the Only Race of the Day for the Lotus Elise Trophy.

 

MSVR Elise Trophy (Race 1)

 

In First Place taking The Victory was (Jason Mcinulty) in his Lotus Elise S3 with a Lap Time of 54.638 and an Average Speed of 66.83mph. Fantastic Victory for Jason taking P1 and The Race Win for the Elise Trophy. Phenomenal Driving too.

 

In Second Place was (John Lamaster) in his Lotus Elise S2 135R with a Lap Time of 54.781 and an Average Speed of 66.75mph. Fantastic work John and So Great to see a New Face on the Podium Taking P2 what an Incredible Driver.

 

In Third Place was (David Alexander) in his Lotus Elise S1 with a Lap Time of 55.589 and an Average Speed of 66.62mph. Very Well Driven Dave Keeping an Eye out all over the Place and Bringing Home a Superb P3 Finish.

 

A Brilliant Race for the Elise Trophy and Victories for Jason John and David as well as Maurizio and Simon for their Heroic Efforts in Qualifying. Congratulations to Jason on the Race Win and Good Luck to all other Drivers in this Series.

 

Modified Ford Series (Qualifying Group A)

 

Now it was Time to head Back to the Blue Badged Ford Machines Once again as the Modified Ford Series Rolled out onto the Race Track with each car being Heavily Modified from their Road Counterparts. With Escort Cosworth's and RS200's Roaring and Ready to go it was Time to see what the First Group A set of Drivers could do in Qualifying.

 

Due to how large the Grids were and the Fact that both Group A and Group B Have Different Races I will only be putting up results from both Qualifying Sessions from Group A and Group B. I will Leave a Link Below each Qualifying Session so you can Get All the Race Result's and Action from the 4 Different Races.

  

Modified Ford Series (Qualifying Group A)

 

In First Place Taking Pole Position and the Fastest Lap was (David Cockell) in his Ford Escort Cosworth with a Best Lap Time of 49.872 and a Top Speed of 87.19mph. Very Well Done David Keeping that Escort on the Track Must Have Taken some Practice no Doubt Amazing work on Getting Pole.

 

In Second Place was (Wayne Crabtree) in his Ford RS200 with a Best Lap Time of 51.121 and a Top Speed of 85.06mph. Very Fast Drive from Wayne to take P2 and a Very Solid Drive Thought.

 

In Third Place was (Michael Saunders) in his Ford Escort MK1 Mexico with a Best Lap Time of 51.129 and an Average Speed of 85.05mph. Very Well Driven by Michael Being Able to Keep up with Both Wayne and David Must Have Ben a Real Pain but what a Fantastic Achievement.

 

What a Fantastic Set of Legendary Drivers all Battle Hardened and Ready to take on the Might of the Indy Circuit. But there can Only be One Winner who do you Think will Win the First Race? Click the Link Below to get all of the Race Results from this Racing Series.

 

(Link to Group A Race Results)

 

www.tsl-timing.com/Event/213751

 

Modified Ford Series Group B (Qualifying)

 

Now it was Time for Group B to make a stance and see what their Modified Ford Racing Machines could do. with How Fast and Action Packed Group A Had Been During both The Races and Qualifying Group B was looking to be much the Same.

 

Lets Waste No Time in Finding out who Has Taken Pole Position for the First of 4 Races.

 

In First Place Taking Pole Position and The Fastest Lap was (Neil Jessop) in his Ford Escort MK2 with a Best Lap Time of 52.030 and a Top Speed of 83.57mph. Fantastic Work there Neil and a Really Quick Escort to match too. Very Well Done.

 

In Second Place was (James Harris) in his Ford Escort MK2 with a Best Lap Time of 53.928 and a Top Speed of 80.63mph. Amazing work there James Pushing Hard and Giving the Old Girl everything she has to offer.

 

In Third Place was (Malcom Harding) in his Ford Escort MK1 with a Best Lap Time of 54.892 and a Top Speed of 79.22mph. Awesome Drive there from Malcom Overcoming a lot of Pressure to put in an Incredible Lap for P3.

 

What an Amazing Line up for Group B with Plenty of Experienced Drivers who know their cars inside out. But who will be Brave Enough to challenge the Top Three Drivers for Victory. Find out for Yourself at the Link Below.

 

(Link to Group B Race Results)

 

www.tsl-timing.com/Event/213751

 

Enduro KA (Qualifying)

 

The Final Qualifying Session of the Day Had Come and its the Enduro KA'S. with all of the Cars on the Grid being Models of the Popular Ford KA made Between 1998-2009 thease Cars were Fun City cars that could get you from A to B with Ease. They were Also Build on a tight budget meaning that Handling Performance and Comfort were a Big Selling point of thease Brilliant little cars.

 

The Racing Versions seen here in the pictures however are built for Racing. they use different tyres but still the same Legendary 1.3 Dura Tec Engine found in their Road Going Counterparts.

 

Lets Take a look at Qualifying and see which KA and Driver made it to the top step of the podium.

 

Enduro KA (Qualifying)

 

In First Place taking the Pole and Fastest Lap was (Octane Junkies Adam Smith and Martyn Smith) with a Best Lap Time of 1:03.495 and a Top Speed of 68.48mph. Fantastic Work Adam and Martyn Really Pushing the Car for all its worth.

 

In Second Place was (Alex Reade Motorsport Luke Reade and Chris Reade) with a Best Lap Time of 1:03.713 and a Top Speed of 68.25mph. Fantastic Drive there from Both Alex and Chris Claiming P2.

 

In Third Place was (Fat Boys Racing Matt Pinny) with a Best Lap Time of 1:03.921 and a Top Speed of 68.03mph. Very Well Done there Matt Great Drive and Awesome Car Control.

 

Three Very Quick and Determined Teams and with 4 Races to Race in this will be a Very Close and Tight Battles Between all Teams and Drivers. Skill and Talent will be crucial to survival and Who will be able to take the First Victory of Race 1. Lets Find Out.

 

Enduro KA (Race 1 Results)

 

In First Place Taking the Victory was (Alex Reade Motorsport's Luke Reade and Chris Reade) with a Lap Time of 1:03.688 and an Average Speed of 67.95mph. Congratulations Both Alex and Luke on a Superb Race Victory and Well Done to hold off the Pressure from the other Competitors.

 

In Second Place was (Octane Junkies Adam Smith and Martyn Smith) with a Lap Time of 1:03.416 and an Average Speed of 67.92mph. Very Well Done to both Adam and Martyn for that Amazing P2 Finish.

 

In Third Place was (Fat Boys Racing Matt Pinny) with a Lap Time of 1:03.664 and an Average Speed of 67.79mph. Incredible Work there Matt Amazing Drive and a Really Super Looking Car.

 

An Exciting Opening Race for the Enduro KA Series with Three Different Teams on the Podium in Alex Reade Motorsport Octane Junkies and Fat Boys Racing. Amazing work to all of you Now Lets see what Action Race 2 Brings and whether or not Alex Reade Motorsport can Hold onto that 1st Place.

 

Enduro KA (Race 2 Results)

 

In First Place was (Alex Reade Motorsport's Luke Reade and Chris Reade) with a Lap Time of 1:03.557 and an Average Speed of 67.94mph. Another Incredible Drive from both the likes of Alex and Luke to Keep their P1 Finish From the First Race. Amazing Work.

 

In Second Place was (Octane Junkies Adam Smith and Martyn Smith) with a Lap Time of 1:03.621 and an Average Speed of 67.90mph. Fantastic Work Once Again to the likes of Adam and Martyn Another Set of Drivers Keeping their Second Place Finish.

 

In Third Place was (Fat Boys Racing Matt Pinny) with a Lap Time of 1:04.005 and an Average Speed of 67.39mph. Well Done once again Matt Perfect Driving and a Well Balanced Car out there.

 

Looks like the Top Three Remain the Same even After Two Races but will Race 3 Bring a New Twist to the Current Driver and Team Standings. Lets Find Out.

 

Enduro KA (Race 3 Results)

 

In First Place was (Octane Junkies Adam Smith and Martyn Smith) with a Lap Time of 1:03.849 and an Average Speed of 67.57mph. Amazing Work there Adam and Martyn managing to topple the likes of Alex and Luke to Earn P1.

 

In Second Place was (Fat Boys Racing Matt Pinny) with a Lap Time of 1:03.584 and an Average Speed of 67.51mph. Well Done there Matt Improving up to P2 and Taking Home a Well Deserved Finish in the Standings for Race 3.

 

In Third Place was (Alex Reade Motorsport's Luke Reade and Chris Reade) with a Lap Time of 1:03.606 and an Average Speed of 67.44mph. Very Good Come Back Drive for Both Luke and Ale to Finish Third Great Driving.

 

Many Twists and Turns Have Benn brought into Race 3 with the Top Three Drivers now being Shuffled Around the Gird into different Positions. With One More Race to Go who will be The Last Driver of the Day on the Top Step of the Podium.

 

Enduro KA (Race 4 Results)

 

In First Place was (Octane Junkies Adam Smith and Martyn Smith) with a Lap Time of 1:03.442 and an Average Speed of 67.82mph. An Amazing Final Win for the Day to Octane Junkies Adam and Martyn Smith Congratulations and Very Well Driven.

 

In Second Place was (Piston Heads Peter Dignan) with a Lap Time of 1:03.781 and an Average Speed of 67.54mph. Incredible work there Peter Getting P2 and Standing on the Podium and Incredible Achievement.

 

In Third Place was (IP Racing Oliver Wilmot and Scott Parkin) with a Lap Time of 1:03.710 and an Average Speed of 67.47mph. Very Well Done to both Scott and Oliver on that Fantastic P3 Achievement. Something Very Special to Remember for both of you.

 

And With that The Days Racing at Brands Hatches Ford Power Live comes to an End and what an Incredible Array of Both Cars Teams and Drivers on Display Today. A Big Congratulations to the likes of Adam Martyn Luke Chris Peter Matt Oliver and Scott for their Incredible Achievements and All Other Drivers Keeping the World Of Motorsport Alive and Well.

 

Keep Working Hard everyone Else. Your Time Will Come.

 

See You All Again Next Year!!!!

This is the bellows that I installed a few months ago. I didn't remove it again, but I wanted to start the assembly photos here.

 

DSC_6781NEF

adrisbow photography | adrisbow facebook

Albi est une commune française du Sud de la France, chef-lieu du département du Tarn en région Midi-Pyrénées et le siège de l'archevêché.

Avec ses 49 179 habitants en 20111 appelés les Albigeois, Albi, qui est la ville principale de la communauté d'agglomération de l'Albigeois (80 121 habitants (2010)), se positionne comme la troisième ville de la région Midi-Pyrénées, après Montauban et Toulouse en termes de population. Albi est également la deuxième ville économique de la région2,3. L'aire urbaine d'Albi (95 892 habitants (2010)) et de son unité urbaine qui compte 72 453 (2010)4. La banlieue s'étend vers Arthès, Saint-Juéry, Le Sequestre et les autres communes de l'agglomération albigeoise. Albi est surnommée la « ville rouge » du fait de la couleur des briques de sa cathédrale et de son centre historique5.

Albi est remarquable par son impressionnante cathédrale fortifiée Sainte-Cécile et son palais de la Berbie, ancien palais des archevêques d'Albi, qui dominent le centre-ville historique et la rivière. Ville natale d'Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, elle abrite un musée regroupant la plus importante collection au monde d'œuvres du peintre postimpressionniste6. Enfin, Albi est surtout un haut-lieu historique dont le nom a été donné aux adeptes du catharisme, les Albigeois, qui subirent une répression violente au XIIIe siècle de la part de l'Église catholique romaine connue sous le nom de Croisade des Albigeois7. La cathédrale Sainte-Cécile fut édifiée par les catholiques pour lutter contre l'hérésie cathare.

Le samedi 31 juillet 2010, à Brasilia, la Cité épiscopale d'Albi est ajoutée à la liste du Patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO8,9. Elle comprend dans son périmètre la cathédrale Sainte-Cécile, église fortifiée en briques ocre apparentes construite entre 1282 et 1480, le palais de la Berbie, qui abrite le musée Toulouse-Lautrec, l'église Saint-Salvi et son cloître, les rives du Tarn et le pont Vieux ainsi que plusieurs édifices classés

Le club de rugby à XV du Sporting club albigeois a fait partie du Pro D2. Il fut en première division deux saisons consécutives 2006 puis 2007. Bien qu'ayant gagné son maintien sur le terrain, le SCA a subi une décision administrative de rétrogradation et évolué en Pro D2 en 2008 avec pour objectif de remonter immédiatement en Top 14. Cette remontée immédiate a été obtenue (c'est une première[réf. nécessaire]) au terme d'une saison pleine et d'une finale épique contre Oyonnax (pénalité à la dernière seconde qui passe sous la barre). L'équipe d'Oyonnax avait auparavant éliminé en demi-finale Agen présenté comme l'« ogre » de la Pro D2[réf. nécessaire]. En 2009-2010, le SCA est dernier du Top14 et retourne en Pro D2. Les Albigeois évoluent au stadium municipal possédant 12 000 places.

À treize, l'ARL (Albi rugby ligue) retrouve l'élite (2007), le Championnat de France de rugby à XIII. Le club qui partage le Stadium municipal avec les quinzistes compte cinq titres de champion de France (1938, 1956, 1958, 1962, 1977).

L'équipe féminine de volley-Ball, l'USSP Albi Volley-Ball joue aussi au plus haut niveau national, la Pro F.

Le club de football principal de la ville est l'US Albi qui utilise le stade Maurice-Rigaud en Championnat de France Amateurs. Les Albigeois ont terminé en 2006-2007 à la 2e place de leur groupe de CFA, derrière Rodez.

En matière d'équipements sportifs, Albi possède six stades dont le Stadium municipal et le stade Maurice-Rigaud, quatre salles omnisports, deux bases de loisirs à Pratgraussals et Cantepau ainsi que la base nautique de Canavière. Enfin, un parcours de golf, le Golf Albi Lasbordes, borde le Tarn dominé par la cathédrale Sainte-Cécile sur soixante hectares77. La piste d'athlétisme du Stadium a permis d'accueillir les Championnats de France d'athlétisme 2011 au cours duquel, le sprinteur Christophe Lemaitre, a battu le record de France en 9'91. En 2012, Albi a accueilli le meeting d'athlétisme DécaNation.

La ville d'Albi a un important passé de compétition automobile, le circuit automobile d'Albi a accueilli de nombreuses épreuves jusqu'en 1957.

En 1959 un nouveau circuit a été inauguré sur la commune voisine du Séquestre.

En 2012, Albi a été élue, ville la plus sportive de France par le journal L'Équipe78.

Le pont Vieux enjambe le Tarn depuis 1035 date de sa construction. Il a été plusieurs fois remanié et a permis le développement de la ville sur la rive droite avec le quartier de la Madeleine. Au XIVe siècle, il est fortifié et possède des ponts-levis10. Un autre pont plus récent permet de traverser le Tarn. Il s'agit du pont Neuf construit en 1868.

Durant le XVe et le XVIe siècle, Albi connaît une prospérité importante grâce à la culture et au commerce du pastel dans la région. De riches Albigeois font construire plusieurs hôtels particuliers avec des tours et des loggias italiennes. Ainsi, les plus beaux sont l'hôtel de la Rivière, l'hôtel de Gorsse et l'hôtel de Reynès. Ce dernier hébergeait la chambre de commerce et d'industrie. L'Hôtel Reynès est un hôtel d'art Renaissance construit en 1520 par un marchand de pastel du nom de Reynès. L'hôtel contient une cour construite en brique et pierre et bordée par une loggia et des sculptures de François Ier et de sa seconde épouse, Éléonore d'Autriche. C'est aujourd'hui le siège de la chambre de commerce et d'industrie.

Plusieurs rues du centre urbain possèdent des maisons à colombages et encorbellements typiques de l'architecture renaissance. La maison du Vieil Alby située à l'angle des rues Puech Béringuier et Croix Blanche est une maison albigeoise typique. C'est la maison d'Albi la plus visitée car elle offre aux visiteurs un lieu d'exposition unique. La Pharmacie des pénitents ou maison Enjalbert est une autre maison renaissance datant du XVIe siècle. Elle possède une sculpture de bois représentant un personnage phallique.

At Victory Show 2011

(further pictures and enormous amounts of information you can get by clicking on the link at the end of page!)

St. Stephen's Cathedral

Seat of the Archbishop (Cardinal) of Vienna, one of the most important buildings of the Central European High and Late Gothic, monumental example of the South-German-Austrian multi-naved church, landmark of Vienna. Characteristic is the independent lateral position of the towers, the inclusion of the romanesque western facade, the high Gothic hall choir and the mighty steep roof with colorful brick patterning.

History

1147

The first Romanesque church - from Passau founded (hence patron saint: saint Stephen Protomartyr) - is consecrated. It is located in a quarter of new settlements of merchants, which in the second half of the 12th Century was included in the city's fortifications (which is the part between Singerstraße and wool line (Wollzeile), the road to Hungary). It is located outside, to the southeast, of the oldest city area of the Roman fort, Vindobona. This building was in its dimensions already a large basilical complex, at its completion already including the floor plan of the Heath towers in the West.

1263

Re-consecration after the fire. The impacts on the Romanesque church are not precisely known. The huge gate was already previously rebuilt, when Vienna was for a short time residence of the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. In succession, the reconstruction of the west gallery and the expansion of the western towers (Heath towers) took place. From this period stem also most of the sculptures of the giant gate, the vaults, capitals and rose windows at the west gallery.

Stephansdom64.jpg (35605 bytes)

1304 -1340

Construction of the Gothic hall choir, Albertinian choir, named after the Habsburg Albert II (1330-1358).

The citizenship of Vienna initially purchased the required properties and "as the owner of the Gothic choir in the Zwettler (city in Lower Austria) documents of 1303 and 1304 Viennese citizens are testified".

This civic foundation was then converted by a princely.

The following indulgence certificate - in the original written on parchment and provided with a hanging seal - is in a sense the main historical document of the choir consecration and thus also to the architectural history of St. Stephen of great importance.

1340

Bishop Peter of Marchapolis gives, at the request of the parishioners, all who attend at the anniversary of the consecration of the choir of St. Stephen's Church, which was accomplished on the above day in his presence by Bishop Albert of Passau, or at the feasts of the altar patrons of the church, an indulgence of 40 days.

1359

Laying of the foundation stone for further Gothic reconstruction of the nave (south and north wall), the Singertor and the Bischofstor (gate) and the two double chapels laterally to the Romanesque western building. Furthermore, the construction of overall four towers was planned. In fact, only the southern transept tower (the "saint Stephen's Tower") was first started.

1365

Those conversion measures are associated with the efforts of Duke Rudolf IV to raise Vienna to the status of a diocese, and with the founding of the University of Vienna.

1395

Consecration of the chapel of Saint Catherine ("baptistery") on the east side of the south tower.

1404

Peter of Prachatitz is Dombaumeister (cathedral builder). The citizenship by providing financial support pushes ahead the expansion of the tower.

1417 - 1430

Establishment of the lower sacristy

1433

Completion of the south tower under Hans von Prachatitz

1440 - 1459

Completion of the High Gothic nave

1450

Planning and construction of the North Tower by Hans Puchsbaum

1459

At Hüttentag of Regensburg the mason's lodge of St. Stephen's in Vienna is designated the leading main lodge in Central Europe.

1466

Extension of the upper sacristy

1469

Under Frederick III. the Diocese of Vienna is built.

1474

The Chapel of St. Barbara in the north tower is completed according to the plans of Puchsbaum. Formerly this building extension in the North Tower was called: Urbanuskapelle (chapel).

1511

Suspension of the building at the north tower. It is higher than the nave walls, but lower than the ridge height of the choir roof. As a crowning feature of the tower stump an octagonal structure was set up, which was closed with a so-called "Welsh hood" of Kaspar and Hans Saphoy 1578. The Welsh hood is a into the Gothic transmitted dome shape".

The back of the St. Stephen's Cathedral with the North Tower

1514/1519

1514/1519 at the top of saint Stephen's tower an eight-rayed sun ("Star") was fitted with a crescent moon as a symbol of spiritual and temporal power. When the Viennese in the Turkish siege (1529) throughout in the camp of their enemies saw similar symbols, they raised first objections against the "haidnisch Zaichen (heathen signs)", yet remained the "Moonlight" on the tower. Only on the occasion of the second siege (1683 ) vowed Leopold I to replace the "ungodly and unworthy Turks coat of arms" by the sign of the cross, when the city was liberated by God's assistance.

The from saint Stephen removed moon. Book illustration, 18th century

The new, of copper wrought double cross ("Spanish Cross") was made by coppersmith Hans Adam Bosch. It was one and a half meters high and had a weight of 45.5 kg. On September 14th, the Kreuzerhöhungstag (day of the elevation of the Cross) (in the same time the anniversary of the moving in of Leopold into the liberated city), it was placed under great spectacle. However, it was not flexible enough and already on 14th December it fell down due to a violent storm. On 31st October 1687 followed the setting up of a new crowning. To the Spanish Cross now the imperial double-headed eagle and the initials of Leopold I had been added. Cross and eagle had a height of 2.45 m and a weight of 67 kg.

St. Stephen's Cathedral around 1530

1640

Bishop Friedrich Count Breuner the Baroquisation of the equipment of the St. Stephen's Cathedral as a manifestation of the Counter-Reformation had started. He commissioned the brothers Jacob and Tobias Pock from Konstanz with the construction of a new high altar.

1683

Damages caused by numerous cannonballs at the second Turkish siege.

1700

Second wave of Baroquisation: Gothic winged altars and also their early Baroque successors are replaced by baroque marble altars.

1711

July 21st, 1711. In front of a large audience the k.k. Stückgießer (specialized iron caster) Johann Achamer carries out the casting of the great bell of saint Stephen. The for this purpose required metal comes from stocks of the Imperial arsenal of captured Turkish cannons. After Pölzung (supporting) of the underground vaults under the streets that touches the train, the bell weighing more than 17 tons on a special car or a loop of 100 people is brought from the Leopoldstadt on 29th October to the cathedral. On December 15th, Bishop Rummel undertakes the consecration of the bell, then it is pulled up to the south tower. There it rests on two oak beams, which for ringing can be screwed off. When Charles VI. solemnly moved into Vienna after his imperial coronation on 26th January 1712, the Pummerin was rung for the first time, in the process only the 813 kg in weight clapper was moved.

1720

The so-called catacombs are set up as a burial site.

1735

The cemetery around the church is closed down and in 1783 completely removed

Stock-im-Eisen-Platz and St. Stephen's Square before the demolition of the houses

Coloured engraving of V.C. Schütz. 1779

1803

The Steffl gets air: Demolition of houses on Stephansplatz

October. The strong increase in population leads to an increased volume of traffic. As part of "traffic-appropriate" measures streets are widened, squares enlarged, arcades created and traffic regulations introduced such as, e.g., the first one-way at the Carinthian gates (1802). With the demolition of the last still in front of the cathedral facade standing houses yet another basic expansion and redesign of the Stephansplatz can be completed.

1809

Also in the French wars the Cathedral is damaged by artillery fire.

1810

Repair work on the South Tower

1831

Renovation of the roof at the Albertinian choir

1842

On the occasion of the two renewals of the tower helmet in the 19th century respectively in 1842 and 1864, again a new double-headed eagle with a double cross was set on the spire. This last crowning of 1864 still today adorns the top of saint Stephen's tower.

1853 - 1854

Expansion of the remaining Wimperge (gables) in the roof area of which Puchsbaum under Frederick III. only one had realized.

1863 - 1864

Cathedral architect Friedrich Schmidt heads the restoration of the tower helmet.

1945

St. Stephen's Cathedral, April 1945 © Press Agency Votava St. Stephen's Cathedral, April 1945

The roof of St Stephen's Cathedral

is on fire 8th April 1945

Friday 13 April: Dombrand (cathedral's fire) in the last days of World War II. The roof burns down, the vaults of the middle choir and the southern side choir collapse. The Pummerin plunges down and breaks. The cathedral is badly damaged.

1945 - 1952

Reconstruction of the roof and choir

Triumphant entry of the new Pummerin in Vienna. The in St. Florian/Oberösterreich (Upper Austria) cast bell to Vienna had a true triumphal procession behind herself.

From the ruins of the Pummerin 1952 in St. Florian, Upper Austria, a new bell was cast and consecrated on 26th April 1952 in Vienna. The other bells of St. Stephen's Cathedral also consistently bore names as Halbpummerin, Viertelpummerin, Councillor Bell, Mentioned bell (Genanntenglocke), Zwölferin, beer bell (Bierglocke) etc. Very few of them survived the year 1945.

1953

Construction of the Bishop tomb in the catacombs under the Apostle Choir

1954 - 1965

Restoration of the South Tower

1956

Renovation of the Ducal Crypt, construction of the lower church and the lapidary (collection of stone monuments)

Completion of the tower helmet at the north tower (Saphoy'sche hood) with housing of the Pummerin

1961

In 1961 the cathedral received a new peal of eleven bells.

1973

Consecration of the People's altar (makeshift solution)

1977 - 1998

Restoration of the North Tower

1989

Remodeling of the sanctuary and the consecration of the new People's altar (September 14)

1991

Consecration of the new cathedral organ (Servants - Madonna gets here her new stand)

Overall length: 107.2 m outside inside 91.8 m

Width of the nave: 38.9 m

Height of the South tower: (High Tower) 136.7 m

Height of the North tower: 60.6 m

Height of the Heathen towers 65.6 m

...I try and go inside and they follow me still at it...

Goeree Overflakkee (NL), 31 mei 2012

 

Highest position: 137 on Saturday, June 9, 2012

 

Dactylorhiza majalis (Brede Orchis)

Thnx to zimbart for his ID.

Bunker - Turó de la Rovira

Veient el Poble Nou

 

Explore Highest position: 290 on Saturday, April 6, 2013

  

Entre Tinieblas

 

Veo mi cuerpo caer sobre tus hombros

Y escapar al cerco de la soledad

Y el calor de tu silencio me abraza

Hasta mi conciencia insistente

 

Caen mis cimientos hasta el negro invierno

En tus manos brillan los ojos del viento

Estrella muerta que ha de guiar mi alma

Lleva mi existencia al ocaso y alba

 

fuerzas de la oscuridad...

Llévame hasta donde el elegido

Y hazme parte de todos sus hijos...

 

cae mi alma... en el alba...

siento el fuego de tu sangre

 

En el fuego de mi ardiente espera

Cae el siervo entre las tinieblas

Por la estela de la oscura niebla

Caen los espejos de tu larga estela

 

en el fuego... impaciente espera... el siervo... de las tinieblas...

Por la estela... en la oscura niebla... sal del reflejo.. con tu larga estela...

 

Entre tinieblas.... Entre tinieblas.... Entre tinieblas....

 

The third blade is lifted into position for attachment to the hub whilst on the ground at tower (mast) No. 3. which is the one closest to the main deilvery gates on Penny Hill Lane. The next stage is to lift the whole blade assembly up to the top of the tower.

You can see the roof of the control building on Brampton Lane on the right.

Please don't use this image on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit permission.

© Roger A Perriss. All rights reserved.

 

_DSC0957XR Q P3

More random videos of me on the glockenspiel, this time I'm playing magic position by Patrick Wolf, excuse the rock and roll ending.

Old Mission Point as seen from the lighthouse tower. This is one of the most dramatic manifestations of the falling water levels of the Great Lakes over the last few decades. In 1989, when I first visited this spot, the water came up to the original beach (lower one-third of the photo) and only a few of the large rocks beyond were visible. Now, it is possible to walk perhaps half a mile out beyond the beach. Lake Michigan is very close to its all-time low-water level set in 1964.

C.J. Sapong of Sporting Kanas City for the header, and Chris Tierney of the New England Revolution struggling to get position.

 

Nikon D800 | ISO 4000 | 70-200mm lens at 200mm | f/ 2.8 | 1/2000 second.

Positioning the cannons after unhitching.

 

These canons are 7.7cm Infanteriegeschütze L/27 according to www.landships.info/landships/artillery_articles.html?load...

 

Taken at Laon traing ground in July 1917.

 

Photos from this album are gathered here: flic.kr/s/aHBqjA91gZ

 

REF: 1-30-9

Pontefract Races 2016

Strobist Lighting 102 Unit 1.2 Position (Distance).

 

Sequence shows effect when flash moved right back (~3.5m from subject) and power increased. Background gets progressively lighter.

 

Strobist: f6.7, shutter 1/180th, ASA200. 580EXII flash 1/32 > 1/16 > 1/8 > 1/4.

Strobist Lighting 102 Unit 1.2 Position (Distance).

 

Sequence shows effect when flash moved right in (~0.25m from subject) and power decreased. Background gets progressively darker since light falls off quickly beyond the subject.

 

Strobist: f6.7, shutter 1/180th, ASA200. 580EXII flash 1/4 > 1/16 > 1/32 > 1/64 > 1/128.

GP works on front rack positioning and focus during a workout at Crossfit Pleasanton

Ready to go...

After every part has been thoroughly cleaned and is ready to reassemble, one last little tip for the front of the camera. I always forget to add in the little square piece of glass, so don't forget to do that yourself. When replacing the glass square, make sure you don't smudge it or the viewfinder lenses as you put them back in. Also make sure the mirror is clean and unsmudged, with the reflective side up. When placing the front viewfinder lens and square piece of glass, this picture shows the little grooves they fit in. This ensures that they always go exactly where they need to go. To get everything to stay in place while I'm reassembling it, I prop the back of it against something so that it's at about a 45 degree angle.

 

Once everything is clean, fitted back into place and screwed back together, you should have a camera that performs as good as the day it was made! And you can be proud to carry it around with you for all your photographic needs. I've found that my Kodak Brownie Hawkeye Flash cameras can produce some excellent pictures!

 

1055ff

The mosaic, in First Style, is framed by a mixture of plants, kraters, drinking cups, flying cupids, birds and small animals. It depicts several species of edible fish found in the Mediterranean, while in the lower right corner and in the centre of the left-hand side, there is a coastal landscape over which a kingfisher hovers ready to dive. Around the central scene, which features a fight between an octopus and a lobster, numerous types of fish are arranged uniformly over the entire surface, including a prawn, a bass, a murex shell, a moray eel, a scorpion fish, a gilthead and a ray. The theme, known from other copies (Aquileia, Palestrina, Rome, Palermo and Susa), of which one, from House VIII, 2, 16 in Pompeii housed in the Archaeological Museum of Naples, derives from a late Hellenistic model, probably an Alexandrian painting from the first half of the second century BC. The depiction of marine fauna, which was already widely used on Attic and especially Italiot red figure “fish-plates”, developed considerably during the Hellenistic period both from a naturalistic perspective and in terms of a literary-gastronomic trend popular among the Hellenistic courts. This mosaic also reflects the diffusion of Hellenistic culture in Samnite Pompeii, probably influenced indirectly by the Roman holiday villas which dotted the entire Bay of Naples. Originally positioned in the triclinium of the famous House of the Faun, the mosaic was made by a skilled workshop capable of using thousands of small polychrome mosaic tessarae to the best possible effect to obtain an exceptionally harmonious and balanced composition. It reflected the desire to portray the delicacies of the sea which, together with the delicacies from dry land exemplified by the objects in the frame, were customarily offered to his guests the master of the domus. (Naples National Archaeological Museum)

I really don't know whad she did with her LONG LEGS...

 

*** Bula died in 20 August 2007 [*] *** I miss her a lot...

 

Zawsze się dziwię jak ona składa te swoje długie łapy, żeby się tak równiutko zwinąć ;))

Different Position – Sir you are now a women 20

transsexual.silicone-breast.com/2016/11/25/different-posi...

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Notice : Releasing this comic on every Monday to Thursday

   

Amaricans in remains of a France house

The short version:

The further your subject from the background and the greater the difference in ratios from flash to subject and flash to background the darker your background will be.

 

The long version:

Following on from my Lighting 102 Unit 1.1 exercise this is for Lighting 102 : 1.2 - Position | Distance

 

In 102 1.2 David Hobby says:

 

"I would eat math flakes for breakfast if I could.

 

But the Inverse Square Law still makes my eyes glaze over. Not that it is necessarily so hard to understand. (Although it is for many.) But because it just sucks all of the life and soul out of lighting."

 

I completely get his point about it (maths) sucking the artistic nature out of lighting but as my wife will tell you I need something proved before I'll truly believe it! So I've been reading up on the inverse square law and set out to explain it to myself.

 

The basic idea is the further away from the flash you go the greater the area the flash has to illuminate. For example if your flash is 1m from your subject but 2m from you background, the background area will be 4 times that of the area around your subject. Meaning you will need 4 times as much light to illuminate the background with the same exposure as your subject. That fact on its own is all well and good but flash units let you adjust them by either doubling or halfing the light. So what is needed is how much you have to increase the distance from the flash in order to double the light needed. Basically it can be calculated that this value is the square root of 2, approx 1.4. Therefore if your flash is 1m from your subject but 1.4m from the background the background will need twice as much light to to illuminate it to the same exposure as your subject.

 

I knocked up an excel spreadsheet to tell me exactly where to move the flash to to keep the same exposure by halfing the light each time it was moved forward. These are the results.

 

All shots were taken at f5.0 1/250 iso100 in a room lit with a 10w energy saving light bulb. This ambient light was completely eliminated at this exposure so it is only the flash which is lighting bustr.

 

flash settings (top left to bottom right)

 

1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16

1/32 1/64 1/32 1/32 1/32

 

The background in the last three shots was made darker by moving bustr away from the wall 1 stop at a time whilst keeping the flash to head distance the same.

 

Exact measurements to follow.

 

A stupa (Chorten in Tibetan) (Sanskrit: m.,stūpa "heap") is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing śarīra "relics", typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns, used as a place of meditation.

 

DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY

Stupas originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli in which śramaṇas were buried in a seated position called chaitya. After the parinirvana of the Buddha, his remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under eight mounds with two further mounds encasing the urn and the embers. The earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates to the late 4th century BCE in India. Buddhist scriptures claim that stupas were built at least a century earlier. It is likely that before this time, stupas were built with non-durable materials such as wood, or even as just burial mounds, little is known about these early stupas, particularly since it has not been possible to identify the original ten monuments. However, some later stupas, such as at Sarnath and Sanchi, seem to be embellishments of earlier mounds. The earliest evidence of monastic stupas dates back to the 2nd century BCE. These are stupas that were built within Buddhist monastic complexes. These stupas replicated older stupas made of wood in stone. Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are examples of stupas that were shaped in stone imitating the previous wooden parts.

 

The stupa was elaborated as Buddhism spread to other Asian countries becoming, for example, the chörten of Tibet and the pagoda in East Asia. The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles. In the Western context, there is no clear distinction between the stupa and the pagoda. In general, however, "stupa" is used for a Buddhist structure of India or Southeast Asia while "pagoda" refers to a building in East Asia which can be entered and which may be secular in purpose.

 

Stupas were built in Sri Lanka soon after Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura converted to Buddhism. The first stupa to be built was the Thuparamaya. Later on, many more were built over the years, some like the Jetavanaramaya in Anuradhapura being one of the tallest ancient structures in the world.

 

NOTABLE STUPAS

The tallest is the Phra Pathommachedi in Nakhon Pathom Province, Thailand, at a height of 127 metres The Swat Valley hosts one of the well-preserved stupa at Shingardar near Ghalegay and another stupa is located near Barikot in Pakistan. In Sri Lanka, the ancient city of Anuradhapura includes some of the tallest, most ancient and best preserved stupas in the world, such as Ruwanwelisaya.

 

The most elaborate stupa is the 8th century Borobudur monument in Java, Indonesia. The upper rounded terrace with rows of bell-shaped stupas contained buddha images symbolizing Arūpajhāna, the sphere of formlessness. The main stupa itself is empty, symbolizing complete perfection of enlightenment. The main stupa is only the crown part of the monument, while the base is pyramidal structure elaborate with galleries adorned with bas relief of scenes derived from Buddhist text depicted the life of Gautama Buddha. Borobudur's unique and significant architecture has been acknowledge by UNESCO as the largest buddhist monument in the world. It is the world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world.

 

TYPES OF STUPAS

Built for a variety of reasons, Buddhist stupas are classified based on form and function into five types:

 

Relic stupa, in which the relics or remains of the Buddha, his disciples and lay saints are interred.

Object stupa, in which the items interred are objects belonged to the Buddha or his disciples such as a begging bowl or robe, or important Buddhist scriptures.

Commemorative stupa, built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or his disciples.

Symbolic stupa, to symbolise aspects of Buddhist theology, for example, Borobuddur is considered to be the symbol of "the Three Worlds (dhatu) and the spiritual stages (bhumi) in a Mahayana bodhisattva's character."

Votive stupa, constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual benefits, usually at the site of prominent stupas which are regularly visited.

 

SYMBOLISM

"The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire; his head is the square at the spire's base; his body is the vase shape; his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace; and the base is his throne."

 

FIVE PURIFIED ELEMENTS

Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa symbolism, the stupa may represent the five purified elements:

 

The square base represents earth

The hemispherical dome/vase represents water

The conical spire represents fire

The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represents air

The sun and the dissolving point represents the element of space

 

CONSTRUCTION

To build a stupa, transmissions and ceremonies from a Buddhist teacher is necessary. Which kind of Stupa to be constructed in a certain area is decided together with the teacher assisting in the construction. Sometimes the type of stupa chosen is directly connected with events that have taken place in the area.

 

TREASURY

All stupas contain a treasury filled with various objects. Small clay votive offerings called tsatsas in Tibetan fill a major part of the treasury. Creation of various types of tsatsas is a ceremony itself. Mantras written on paper are rolled into thin rolls, and put into these small clay stupas. Filling the treasury, one layer of Tsa-Tsas are placed, and the empty space between is filled with dry sand. On the new surface appearing, another layer is made, until the entire space of a treasury is full.

 

The number of tsatsas are dependent on the size of both the treasury and tsatsa, since it should be completely filled. For example, the Kalachakra stupa in southern Spain has approximately 14,000 tsatsas within.

 

Jewellery and other "precious" objects are also placed in the treasury. It is not necessary that the jewelry be expensive, since it is the symbolic value that is important, not the market price. It is believed that the more objects placed into the stupa, the stronger the energy of the Stupa will be.

 

TREE OF LIVE

A very important element in every Stupa is the Tree of Life. It is a wooden pole covered with gems and thousands of mantras, and placed in the central channel of the stupa. It is placed here during a ceremony or initiation, where the participants hold colorful ribbons connected to the Tree of Life. Together the participants make their most positive and powerful wishes, which are stored in the Tree of Life. In this way the stupa is charged up, and will start to function.

 

BENEFITS

Building a stupa is considered extremely beneficial, leaving very positive karmic imprints in the mind. Future benefits from this action will result in fortunate rebirths. Fortunate worldly benefits will be the result, such as being born into a rich family, having a beautiful body, a nice voice, and being attractive and bringing joy to others and having a long and happy life, in which one's wishes are fulfilled quickly. On the absolute level, one will also be able to reach enlightenment, the goal of Buddhism, quickly.

 

Destroying a stupa on the other hand, is considered an extremely negative deed, similar to killing. Such an action is explained to create massive negative karmic imprints, leading to massive future problems. It is said this action will leave the mind in a state of paranoia after death has occurred, leading to totally unfortunate rebirths.

 

TIBETAN STUPAS

There are eight different kinds of stupas in Tibetan Buddhism, each referring to major events in the Buddha's life.

 

LOTUS BLOSSOM STUPA

Also known as "Stupa of Heaped Lotuses" or "Birth of the Sugata Stupa," this stupa refers to the birth of Gautama Buddha. "At birth Buddha took seven steps in each of the four directions" (East, South, West and North). In each direction lotuses sprang, symbolizing the brahmavihāras: love, compassion, joy and equanimity. The four steps of the basis of this stupa is circular, and it is decorated with lotus-petal designs. Occasionally, seven heaped lotus steps are constructed. These refer to the seven first steps of the Buddha.

 

ENLIGHTENMENT STUPA

Also known as the Stupa of the Conquest of Mara. This stupa symbolizes the 35-year-old Buddha's attainment of enlightenment under the bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, where he conquered worldly temptations and attacks manifesting in the form of Mara.

 

STUPA OF MANY DOORS

Also known as the Stupa of Many Gates. After reaching enlightenment, the Buddha taught his first students in a deer-park near Sarnath. The series of doors on each side of the steps represent the first teachings: the Four Noble Truths, the Six Pāramitās, the Noble Eightfold Path and the Twelve Nidānas.

 

STUPA OF DESCENT FROM THE GOD REALM

At 42 years of age, Buddha spent a summer retreat in the Tuṣita Heaven where his mother had taken rebirth. In order to repay her kindness he taught the dharma to her reincarnation. Local inhabitants built a stupa like this in Sankassa in order to commemorate this event. This stupa is characterized by having a central projection at each side containing a triple ladder or steps.

 

STUPA OF GREAT MIRACLES

Also known as Stupa of Conquest of the Tirthikas. This stupa refers to various miracles performed by the Buddha when he was 50 years old. Legend claims that he overpowered maras and heretics by engaging them in intellectual arguments and also by performing miracles. This stupa was raised by the Lichavi kingdom to commemorate the event.

 

STUPA OF RECONCILIATION

This stupa commemorates the Buddha's resolution of a dispute among the sangha. A stupa in this design was built in the kingdom of Magadha, where the reconciliation occurred. It has four octagonal steps with equal sides.

 

STUPA OF COMPLETE VICTORY

This stupa commemorates Buddha's successful prolonging of his life by three months. It has only three steps, which are circular and unadorned.

 

STUPA OF NIRVANA

This stupa refers to the death of the Buddha, when he was 80 years old. It symbolizes the Buddha's complete absorption into the highest state of mind. It is bell-shaped and usually not ornamented.

 

KALACHAKRA STUPA

A ninth kind of stupa exists, the Kalachakra stupa. Its symbolism is not connected to events in the Buddha's life, but instead to the symbolism of the Kalachakra Tantra, created to protect against negative energies.

 

SWAT DISTRICT

Swat District is a small place with large number of ancient Stupas.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Copyright Mark Jones 2010

Exposure 1/200 sec at f/4.0, Focal Length 50 mm, ISO200

Canon EOS 450D, EF50mm f/1.8 II Off camera flash camera right. Strobe settings: Various depending on distance (bulk upload)

If it weren't for the size, this thing would be home with me now....

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This stretch of track between Passyunk Avenue and Girard Point was built as a joint venture between the PRR and B&O under pressure from the City of Philadelphia to remove the many at-grade lines in South Philadelphia.

 

Known as the South Philadelphia Agreement, this project -among other things - would involve PRR elevating it's tracks along 25th Street from Washington Avenue to Passyunk, as well as accessing it's Girard Point and Greenwich Point freight yards.

 

B&O would also run it's tracks through here from their yard across the Schuylkill River from Bartram's Garden, with the ultimate goal of establishing a new yard on Greenwich Point as well. (This yard was never developed and the land was sold to the Philadelphia Navy yard for construction of Mustin Airfield).

 

Today, PRR's Greenwich Yard is under control of CSX, and both PRR and B&O lines are used for freight service to various destinations like New York, Baltimore, and points beyond. However capacity has been reduced over time (particularly on the Tidewater spur) resulting several abandoned tracks and underused bridges.

Strobist L102 1.1: Straight-on flash. My trusty model, Kawaii Bunny, endures a flash in the face.

 

Note: the flash is actually at about 5-10 degrees. As it was mounted on a light stand, this was the closest I could get to head-on, pop-up camera flash.