pigmentation photos on Flickr

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We found these three yesterday. The black adder is a melanistic Adder which was born with an increased amount of black pigmentation in the body. These darker forms occur more frequently in adders than they do in the smooth or grass snakes and could have advantages over the normal coloured adders. It's likely their colour offers better camouflage when hunting. Also their bodies warm up faster when basking, although they can also loose heat more quickly.

At Laguna Colorada by Northern Adventures

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Laguna Colorada (Red Lagoon) is a shallow salt lake in the southwest of the altiplano of Bolivia, within Eduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserve and close to the border with Chile.

The lake contains borax islands, whose white color contrasts with the reddish color of its waters, which is caused by red sediments and pigmentation of some algae.

Laguna Colorada is one of the Ramsar Wetlands of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention signed in 1971.

James's Flamingos abound in the area. Also it is possible to find Andean and Chilean flamingos, but in a minor quantity.

(Wikipedia)

-----

We took the backward route from Tupiza northwards to the Reserva Nacional de Fauna Andina Eduardo Avaroa and further to Salar de Uyuni salt plain; snow-covered volcanoes at the horizon line, red-coloured rocks and sand, colorful lagunas, and slow 4WD journey through the land of thin air - that's Bolivia southern part of Altiplano.

Laguna Colorada is most likely the most stunning of the colorful lakes; we spent there a night and thus got a chance for slow silent walks around, admiring its unforgettable stunning beauty...

GREEN ANOLE RED THROATED LIZARD. Красногорлая Ящерка Восточного Техаса (10) by komissarov_a

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American Green Red-Throated Anole. “Американский Хамелеон»

HUMPBACK WHALES: 2015 by John C. Bruckman

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HUMPBACK WHALES: 2015

COOL FACTS:

•Males sing complex songs on wintering grounds in Hawaii that can last up to 20 minutes and be heard 20 miles (30 km) away!

•In the Pacific, humpbacks migrate seasonally from Alaska to Hawaii--they can complete the 3,000-mile (4,830 km) trip in as few as 36 days!

•Humpback whales are well known for their long pectoral fins, which can be up to 15 feet (4.6 m) in length. Their scientific name, Megaptera novaeangliae, means "big-winged New Englander" as the New England population was the one best known to Europeans. These long fins give them increased maneuverability; they can be used to slow down or even go backwards.

•Several hunting methods involve using air bubbles to herd, corral, or disorient fish. One highly complex variant, called "bubble netting" is unique to humpbacks. This technique is often performed in groups with defined roles for distracting, scaring, and herding before whales lunge at prey corralled near the surface.

•Their body coloration is primarily dark grey, but individuals have a variable amount of white on their pectoral fins and belly. This variation is so distinctive that the pigmentation pattern on the undersides of their "flukes" is used to identify individual whales, similar to a human fingerprint.

•Humpback whales are the favorite of whale watchers, as they frequently perform aerial displays, such as breaching (jumping out of the water), or slapping the surface with their pectoral fins, tails, or heads.

•Humpback whales travel great distances during their seasonal migration, the farthest migration of any mammal. The longest recorded migration was 5,160 miles (8,300 km); seven animals, including a calf, completed this trek from Costa Rica to Antarctica.

•Also on wintering grounds, males sing complex songs that can last up to 20 minutes and be heard 20 miles (30 km) away. A male may sing for hours, repeating the song several times. All males in a population sing the same song, but that song continually evolves over time. Humpback whale singing has been studied for decades, but scientists still understand very little about its function.

Source: www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/whales/humpback-whal...

Bouya Blan (leucistic alligator) by greyloch

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Not an albinistic alligator (has no Melatonin for color and lots of physical problems) but a leucistic alligator (reduced pigmentation via a recessive gene but otherwise normal). White tigers fall into this category as well. Click on the links for better definitions of these conditions.

According the Gatorland signs, the four white gators they have are handfuls. This one is Bouya Blan (Creole for "White Fog") but the most dangerous one is his brother, Feros Zombi; they need to have two handlers in with him at all times to deflect his attacks. Whoa!

Lizzie by Patrick Marioné

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le Mascaret, Rixensart

Polar Bear - Yummy! by Mandi A. Miles

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Polar Bear

"Region: America

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Ursidae

Genus: Ursus

Scientific Name: Ursus maritimus

Description : Polar bears are considered the largest land carnivores in the world, matched only by very large individual Kodiak brown bears. Both sexes differ in size throughout their range; males being much larger than females and continuing to grow for a longer period of time. These bears have long, massive skulls, necks and bodies with long legs and large paws. Ears and tail are short. The nose is more prominent or “Roman” with a black rhinarium (nose pad). The tongue is black and the eyes brown. The surface of the skin is also black. Fur colour varies slightly with the season: new coats grown just prior to the winter season are very white appearing as slightly creamy white against the stark white of their icy winter environment. This pelage is thick, coarse and long with dense underfur. Guard hairs, found throughout the pelage, are shiny, almost glossy, oily and waterproof and have hollow shafts. Polar bears moult annually between the end of May and August. The coat becomes thinner and has a yellow wash or is almost a golden colour. Male polar bears weigh between 400 – 600 kg, and have been recorded up to a maximum of 800 kg. Females are smaller than the males weighing up to 300 kg, and when pregnant up to 460 kg. Polar bears are 2.5 – 3.5 m long.

Distribution : The polar bear is circumpolar in distribution, inhabiting all Arctic seas and coastlines. It is found on the pack-ice off the Alaskan coast north of Bering Strait, off the coasts of Greenland and along the Eurasian Arctic coast from Spitsbergen to Wrangell Island. Rare stragglers reach Iceland. Individual bears have been seen on the frozen Arctic Ocean as far as latitude 88 degrees North, only 2 degrees from the North Pole. In Canada, they are found along the Arctic coasts from Alaska to Labrador and from the tip of James Bay to northern Ellesmere Island. Polar bears do roam as far as 150 kilometres inland into the coniferous forests, where they live very differently from the polar bears which belong to the high Arctic.

Habitat : They prefer areas of annual ice, which they use as a hunting platform and protective cover. This includes snow-drifted pressure ridges, refrozen cracks and areas of open water surrounded by ice. In areas where the pack ice melts by mid to late summer they come inland and live in coniferous forest areas. Here they remain until the ice re-freezes. Areas of solidly frozen sea ice and the open seas are avoided. Generally they are most common along coastal areas. Some do enter the permanent pack ice.

Food : The ringed seal is by far the most common prey. They also eat bearded seal, harp seal and hooded seal. Young walrus are sometimes taken. During the summer months they feed upon the shoreline carrion, fish, mussels, crabs, starfish, lemmings and the eggs and nestling young of waterfowl and cliff-dwelling birds. They will also graze on kelp, grasses and eat mushrooms and crowberries.

Reproduction and Development : Normally they are solitary animals outside the breeding season, the exception being a mother with cubs. Polar bears mate in mid-summer. Females first start to breed at 3 to 5 years of age. In April and May adult females are in oestrus and ready to accept a mate. They are polyandrous, meaning one female will mate with more than one male in one breeding season. Males fight among themselves for the female’s attention and a couple will pair off for a period of a few days to two weeks. With females, delayed implantation occurs, the fertilized egg does not implant in the uterus until mid-September to mid-October. Embryonic development begins at this time. Gestation periods, therefore, vary a great deal when including this period of delay. Females choose suitable locations to build their maternity dens in mid-October and retreat to them for the winter season. They give birth to one to four cubs somewhere between late November and early January. Twins are most common. The newborns are small; 25 to 30 cm long and weigh less than 1 kg. They are covered with very fine hair, appearing almost naked and their eyes are closed. Their eyes open at 6 weeks. Growth is very quick; at two months their fur has thickened; they weigh about 5 kg and move about the den. By mid-March to early April, when the den is opened, the cubs weigh about 10 kg and are surprisingly strong. The cubs suckle for nine months, occasionally one year. They are very dependent on their mother and stay with her for two years. At that time they weigh 90 - 180 kg and are half grown.

Adaptations : Polar bears are wonderfully adapted to their Arctic surroundings.

Locomotion. On land a shuffling walk may be increased to a rolling gallop of 40 km/h and can outrun caribou over a short distance. Bears are often seen standing high on their hind legs, necks stretched to scan the landscape. On thin ice, legs are spread to distribute body mass. Thickly padded and furred soles allow the bear to move quietly as well as providing good traction. Small bumps and cavities on the soles act like suction cups keeping bears from slipping on the ice. The claws are used to dig into icy slopes and to grip prey. They are strong swimmers, paddling with their forefeet only and trailing their hind feet which act as a rudder. They can stay submerged for over one minute, keeping their eyes open. They swim at a speed of approximately 6.4 km/h, often covering long distances.

Insulation. Polar bears have a thick layer of sub-cutaneous fat and very dense underfur with several layers of glossy guard hair on the outside. Their pelt is much thicker in winter and provides excellent insulation. The fat layer also adds to buoyancy in the water. Water is shed easily from the oily waterproof fur. Small, furry ears have a heavy network of blood vessels, keeping them warm and conserving heat. The tail is short and rounded also conserving heat. Fur is very dense around the soles of the feet.

Pelage. The creamy white appearance of the coat allows the bear to be inconspicuous when hunting seal. Each hair is similar to an optical fibre; colourless and hollow. Being translucent, it reflects the heat from the sun down to the base of the hair, where it is absorbed by the black skin. Whiteness comes from reflection of light rather than pigmentation.

Hunting. Bears use their keen sense of smell to detect seal breathing holes. These can be up to a kilometer away and covered by a layer of snow and ice. They will stand or lie by the seal’s blowhole in the ice for hours; they may swim towards seals resting on the ice flows with only their nose showing above the water. They will dive quietly, then swim up to the ice edge and jump out on the seal, and will also crawl towards a sunbathing seal using every piece of raised ice to conceal the approach.

Denning. Both sexes occupy dens for shelter. Topographic factors influence the den sites. In Canadian core areas, dens frequently occur on south-facing slopes where northerly prevailing winds create the best drifts, where the wind-chill is least and insulation from received solar radiation is greatest. One of the three largest denning areas worldwide is in Canada. There are three main types of winter refuges: maternity dens, temporary dens and winter shelters. During the winter any bear may dig a temporary den and use it for a few days during a storm, or take shelter in a natural cavity. Winter shelters are used for longer periods of time as resting places. This type of shelter is usually roomier with additional features such as alcoves, porches and ventilation holes. Bears do not hibernate in the strict sense of the word; they have the ability to slow down their metabolism to conserve energy at any time of year. The state of self-induced lethargy while in the shelter allows them to preserve their vital fat reserves. During this time, the body temperature of the polar bear decreases by a few degrees from normal and the respiration rates are markedly reduced. Maternity dens are built and occupied by pregnant females and can vary in size. The denning chamber is at the upper end of an entrance tunnel 1 to 2 m long. It averages 1.5 m in diameter with a height of 90 to 100cm in the middle. Drifting snow seals the entrance. The chamber is higher than the tunnel, trapping bear body heat inside. Dens not only provide a safe place to give birth to her cubs, but are also a place of protection for the cubs during their first few months. During this time she does not leave the den, remaining with her cubs and living on her reserves of fat. In the spring, with her fat severely depleted she must leave to find food to sustain herself and her cubs. After they leave the maternity den she will build temporary refuges in which to nurse, rest and shelter her young cubs and warms them as they all sleep together. She heads with her cubs towards the nearest supply of food, this is usually pack ice.

Sight and sounds. Polar bears have good eyesight. Their eyes have inner eyelids that keep the glare of the sun on snow and ice from blinding them. When defending a food source from other bears they use a deep growl. They hiss and snort to show aggression. Angry bears use loud roars and growls. Mothers scold cubs with a low growl.

Threats to Survival : Polar bears are one of the animals most threatened by global warming. They depend entirely on sea ice as a platform from which to hunt seals. Reduction of the total ice cover in the Arctic is a serious concern globally. When the ice does not form or forms too late in the season many polar bears starve. In Hudson Bay, scientists have found the main cause of death for cubs to be either lack of food or lack of fat on nursing mothers. Exploitation of minerals and fossil fuels in the Arctic pose a continuous threat. Of the oil and natural gas deposits globally, 20% are located in the Arctic. As the ice cap recedes these become more accessible. Countries are competing which each other in claiming ownership of Arctic and its resources. This can only result in further and more drastic impact on polar bear habitat.

Status : IUCN: Vulnerable; CITES: Appendix II; COSEWIC: Special Concern

Zoo Diet : Toronto Zoo carnivore diet, dog chow, jumbo smelt and herring, carrots, bean sprouts, Vitamin E and Thiamine supplements."

- Courtesy of the Metro Toronto Zoo

Please! No usage allowed without the consent of Mandi A. Miles

Based out of Flesherton, ON, please write for prices and information!

Miles Away Photography

Fortitude_4844 by 2HandzUp1913

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2013

While in DC for our Centennial Celebration. The nephew and I took a trip to Howard University where it all started for Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc. Pictured here is me standing in front of "Lady Fortitude"

"Lady Fortitude"

On April 28, 1979, members of Alpha Chapter, Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Incorporated, a national public service sorority founded at Howard University in 1913, unveiled a sculpture in the Valley Mall at 3:15 p.m. to honor its founders.

Called "Fortitude," the steel-fabricated sculpture, created by James King, stands 12 feet and 6 inches in height and has an amazing 12 feet arm to arm span. The sculpture symbolizes the attributes of strength, courage, hope, wisdom, beauty and femininity as depicted by the 22 founders of Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Incorporated.

The art expression is sculpted in corten steel. The metal grows in beauty with age and through the process of oxidization, the color changes from silver to a rustic red-orange to a dark rich bronze tone. The total process can take about two to three years.

The figure is shown pushing forward as the tension of her thighs portrays strength. Her outreached hand denotes receiving of love and the giving of oneself to others. Her facial features depict courage and determination. Her color tone represents the glorious gradations of pigmentations of the Black woman. The total form not only denotes fortitude but stands to inspire women, in particular Black women, to move forcefully to meet the challenges of life.

The sculptor James King is one of the nation's most gifted sculptors. He was born in Chicago and was educated at a number of elite universities around the world, including The Art Institute of Chicago, Goethe Institute and The University of Vienna.

{Reference: www.howard.edu/library/imagesofthecapstone/Lady_Fortitude...}

This image is taken from United States Naval Medical Bulletin Vol. 25, Nos. 1-4, 1927 by Medical Heritage Library, Inc.

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Go to the Book with image in the Internet Archive

Title: United States Naval Medical Bulletin Vol. 25, Nos. 1-4, 1927

Creator: U.S. Navy. Bureau of Medicine and Surgery

Publisher:

Sponsor:

Contributor:

Date: 1927-01

Language: eng

Table of Contents

Number 1

PREFACE v

NOTICE TO SERVICE CONTRIBUTORS vi

SPECIAL ARTICLES:

Posture.

By Lieut. G. E. Mott, Medical Corps, United States Navy 1

Medical Tactics in Naval Warfare —Part III— Continued.

By Commander W. L. Mann, Medical Corps, United States Navy, and Maj. A.

D. Tuttle, Medical Corps, United States Army 20

Identification by the Teeth.

By J. H. Taylor, Identification Section, Bureau of Navigation, Navy

Department 49

An Analysis of the Annual Physical Examination of a Group of Officers.

By Lieut. Commander L. G. Roddis and Lieut. (Junior Grade) G. A.

Cooper, Medical Corps, United States Navy 54

Dressing Sterilizers with Special Reference to Temperature, Pressure,

and Chamber Air Exhaustion During the Process of Sterilization.

By Lieut. Commander J. Harper, Medical Corps, United States Navy 62

Calcium Hypochlorite for Lyster Bags.

By Lieut. E. M. Steger, Medical Corps, United States Navy 6S

The Use of Modified Milk in Infant Feeding.

By Lieut. Commander W. H. Short, Medical Corps, United States Navy 73

Aviation Crashes at Pensacola— 1925-26.

By Lieut. J. D. Benjamin, Medical Corps, United States Navy.. 86

Climatic Bubo.

By Lieut. Commander W. H. Whitmore, Medical Corps, United States Navy

89

Ideas on Recruiting.

By Lieut. J. G. Smith, Medical Corps, United States Navy 102

CLINICAL NOTES:

One Thousand Operations During a Shore Cruise.

By Lieut. Commander G. F. Cottle, Medical Corps, United States Navy 105

Filariasis.

By Lieut. Commander H. V. Hughens, Medical Corps, United States Navy. .

111

Bismuto-Yatren A and B in the Treatment of Yaws.

By Lieut. Commander R. P. Parsons, Medical Corps, United States Navy

117

Addison's Disease Without the Usual Pigmentation of the Skin.

By Commander E. C. White and Lieut. (Junior Grade) W. F. James, Medical

Corps, United States Navy 122

Scurvy.

By Lieut. Commander L. J. Roberts, Medical Corps, United States Navy

126

Early Pulmonary Tuberculosis With Negative X-ray Findings.

By Lieut. J. D. Blackwood, jr., Medical Corps, United States Navy 128

Cholecystography.

By Lieut. O. B. Spalding, Medical Corps, United States Navy.. 131

Syphilis.

By Lieut, (junior grade) B. W. Harris, Medical Corps, United States

Navy 134

Yaws Sera and the Kahn Precipitation Test, Experiments With.

By Pharmacist F. O. Huntsinger, United States Navy 135

NOTES AND COMMENTS:

Commendation for articles in the Bulletin—Treatment of burns — Parasitic

infections in China—Effect of elevation of temperature on spirochetes —Rabies

—-American Relief Administration in Russia, 1921-1923— Forecasting smallpox

epidemics in India —Helium-oxygen mixture in diving —Treatment of pernicious

anemia by diet —International meeting on cancer control, September 20-24, 1926

—American College of Surgeons —Resignation after special courses—Study courses

for Hospital Corps ratings 137-160

NURSE CORPS:

Laboratory Experiences with Epidemic Cerebrospinal Meningitis.

By Nurse S. Ruth Hassler, United States Navy 161

Help from the Laboratory.

By Nurse Ruth B. Meutzer, United States Navy 164

Some Interesting Laboratory Work.

By Nurse Frances C. Bonner, United States Navy 166

BOOK NOTICES 169

PREVENTIVE MEDICINE, STATISTICS:

Reactions incidental to the administration of 91,707 doses of

neoarsphenamine and other arsenical compounds in the United States Navy—Food

poisoning on board U. S. S. "Concord" May 13, 1926—Food poisoning

following a barbecue —Food poisoning at marine barracks, navy yard,

Philadelphia, Pa., May 21, 1926 — Influenza in Guam —Efficacy of B. typhosus

vaccine in controlling typhoid fever in Guam 177

Public Health Activities Against Tropical Diseases.

By Dr. Pedro N. Ortiz, commissioner of health, Porto Rico 208

Scarlet fever attack rate among contacts, Detroit, Mich.—Health of the

Navy— Statistics 220

Number 2

PREFACE---------------- --------- ------- - ------------- ------ vii

NOTICE TO SERVICE CONTRIBUTORS____________________________ viii

SPECIAL ARTICLES: .

MEDICINE IN TURKEY.

By Commander C. W. 0 . Bunker, Medical Corps, United States

Navy------------------------·------ 229

COLOR-BLINDNESS.

By Capt. E. H. H. Old, Medical Corps, United States Navy______ 253

ETIOLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE PRODUCTION OF MAXILLARY ANTRUM DISEASE.

By G. B. Trible, M. D., F. A. C. S., former commander, medical Corps,

United States Navy________ 266

BUREAU OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY'S EXHIBIT, SESQUICENTENNIAL,

PHILADELPHIA, 1926.

By Capt. R. C. Holcomb, Medical Corps, United States Navy____ 272

MALARIA IN HAITI.

By Capt. O. S. Butler, and Lieut. E. Peterson, Medical Corps, United

States Navy_____________ 278

INSTITUTIONAL POLICIES AS APPLIED TO A YEAR'S DENTAL ACTIVITIES.

By Lieut. Commander J. L. Brown, Dental Corps, United States

Navy________________ __________ 288

RECURRENCE OF INGUINAL HERNIA.

By Lieut. Commander K. E. Lowman, Medical Corps, United States Navy

------------------------- 300

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON CEREBROSPINAL FEVER.

By Lieut. Commander Paul Richmond, Medical Corps, United States

Navy__________________ 304

THEORIES CONCERNING THE MECHANISM OF THE INSULIN EFFECT ON CARBOHYDRATE

METABOLISM.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) H. Phillips, Medical Corps, United States

Navy--------------------------- 309

THE WASSERMANN REACTION FOLLOWING THE USE OF BISMUTH IN THE TREATMENT

OF YAWS AND SYPHILIS.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) C. D. Middlestadt, Medical Corps, United

States Navy _______________ 315.

THE TUBERCULOUS VETERANS' BUREAU PATIENT.

By Lieut. J. D. Blackwood, jr., Medical Corps, United States

Navy--------------------------------------- 319

CLINICAL NOTES:

OCULAR ENUCLEATION.

By Commander C. B. Camerer, and Lieut. Commander B. P. Davis, Medical

Corps, United States Navy________________ 325

TREATMENT OF AN IRREDUCIBLE DISLOCATED LOWER JAW OF 98 DAYS' DURATION.

By Lieut. Commander M. D. Willcutts, Medical Corps, United States Navy

------------------ 331

TRAUMATIC RUPTURE OF THE SPLEEN.

By Commander L. W. Johnson, Medical Corps, United States

Navy-------------------------------- 336

DIATHERMY IN SHOCK.

By Commander G. F. Cottle, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 340

SPONTANEOUS RUPTURE OF THE HEART.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) G. 'w. Cooper, Medical Corps, United States

Navy ------------------------------- 343

MERCUROCHROME-220 SOLUBLE, FOREIGN PROTEIN, AND SUGAR IN ACUTE

GONORRHEAL URETHRITIS, WITH A STUDY OF THE BLOOD CELLULAR CHANGES DURING THE

REACTION.

By Lieut. Commander L. H. Williams, and Lieut. (Junior Grade) G. F.

Cooper, Medical Corps, United States Navy _________ 352

GLANDULAR FEVER WITH INGUINAL ADENOPATHY.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) C. C. Yanquell, Medical Corps, United States

Navy ___________358

A CASE OF ACQUIRED HYDROCEPHALUS.

By Capt. E. O. White, Medical Corps, United States Navy ____ 361

CARCINOMA OF THE STOMACH WITH LARGE RETROPERITONEAL TUMOR.

By Lieut. Commander W. H. Whitmore, Medical Corps, United States Navy----------------

365

HEXAMETHYLENAMINE IN MENINGEAL INFECTIONS.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) A. E. Bruuschwig, Medical Corps, United States

Navy ________369

REINFECTION IN SYPHILIS.

By Lieut. O. P. Archambeault, Medical Corps, United States Navy--------------------------------------372

AN UNUSUAL BULLET WOUND. ·

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) P. H. Golberg, Medical Corps, United States

Navy __________374

THE NAVAL RESERVE -------------------------------------------- 375

NURSE CORPS:

THE PENSACOLA HURRICANE.

By Chief Nurse Mary J. McCloud, United States Navy ______ 379

MY FIRST EXPERIENCE IN A HURRICANE.

By Reserve Nurse Luama A. MacFarland, United States Navy _ 382

A HURRICANE THRILL.

By Nurse Ellen E. Wells and Nurse Mary Hennemeier, United States Navy

-------------------383

AN EPIDEMIC OF IMPETIGO CONTAGIOSA.

By Nurse Caroline W. Spofford, United States Navy _________ 385

NOTES AND COMMENTS:

A new section of the BULLETIN-Change in character of –examinations for

promotion-Hospital Corps instruction-Duty at sea – Handling poisons-Laboratory

technicians-The Henry S. Wellcome medal and prize for 1927-Micro-Kahn

reactions-Streptococcus cardioarthritidis--Progress in dermatology-Mitral

regurgitation- Cutaneous leishmaniasis

and the phlebotomus-Medicinals and dyes-Rectal feeding-Epidemic

encephalitis-Catarrhal jaundice- Excoriation of the skin about intestinal

fistulae-Ethylene

anesthesia-Sodoku in the treatment of general paresis—Carbuncles of the

neck-Gye's theory of cancer-$100,000 offered for conquest of cancer-The Sofie

A. Nordoff-Jung cancer prize ____387

BOOK NOTICES ------------------- 413

TOTAL FUEL REQUIREMENT IN HEALTH.

By Commander J. R. Phelps, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 431

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON SMALLPOX AND VACCINATION.

BY Surg. J. P. Leake, United States Public Health Service______ 461

A fatal case of food poisoning caused by fried oysters contaminated

with a paratyphoid B. bacillus-Outbreak of food poisoning in the wardroom mess

of the U. S. S. Richmond, caused by chicken

salad contaminated with B. enteritidis-------------------------- 475

R EPORT OF AN OUTBREAK OF FISH POISONING ON BOARD THE U. S. S. “CALIFORNIA.''

By Capt. J. L. Neilson, Medical Corps, United States Navy ------ 480

AN OUTBREAK OF FOOD POISONING CAUSED BY BOILED SMOKED TONGUE.

By Lieut. Commander W. A. Fort, Medical Corps, United States Navy -------------------------------------

484

Report of an outbreak of food poisoning caused by cheese-Outbreak of

food poisoning caused by corned-beef hash at the United States destroyer base,

San Diego, Calif. _______________ 486

REPORT OF POISONING BY TRINITROTOLUENE AMONG ENLISTED MEN ENGAGED IN

TRANSFERRING T. N. T. FROM STORAGE TO U. S. S. "NITRO."

By Lieut. Commander T. A. Fortescue, Medical Corps, United States

Navy_______________________________________________ 491

An epidemic of jaundice in San Diego, Calif.-Health of the Navy___ 494

Number 3

PREFACE ---------------------------------------------------------- v

NOTICE TO SERVICE CONTRIBUTORS--------------------------- vi

SPECIAL ARTICLES :

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON AVOIDABLE DROWNING.

By Lieut. Commander R. B. Miller, Medical Corps, United States Navy

___________505

FLIES AND THEIR ERADICATION.

By Lieut. Commander E. C. Carr, Medical Corps, United States

Navy----------------------------- 528

ACTIVITIES OF THE UNITED STATES NAVAL MEDICAL SUPPLY DEPOT.

By Capt. D. C. Cather, Medical Corps, United States Navy ___ 542

RETINITIS PIGMENTOSA.

By Commander C. B. Camerer, Medical Corps, United States

Navy---------------------------------- 562

PREMATURE CONTRACTIONS OF THE HEART.

By Capt. E. C. White, Medical Corps, United States Navy ___ 567

ROENTGEN RAY EXAMINATION IN SUSPECTED CHRONIC APPENDICITIS.

By Lieut. P. P. Maher, Medical Corps, United States Navy ____ 573

COMPARISON OF THE KAHN AND KOLMER REACTIONS.

By Lieut. Commander P. Richmond, jr., Medical Corps, United States

Navy--------------------585

COMMENTS ON THE ORIGIN OF DISABILITY.

By Lieut. Commander Lewis W. Johnson, Medical Corps, United States

Navy--------------------------------- 588

DEPARTMENT OF SANITATION, MARINE BARRACKS, QUANTICO, VA.

By Capt. W. M. Garton, Medical Corps, United States Navy ___593

CLINICAL NOTES :

CHOLECYSTOGRAPHY,

By Lieut. G. B. Larson, Medical Corps, United States Navy __597

THROMBO-ANGIITIS OBLITERANS.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) R. A. Schneiders, Medical Corps, United States

Navy----------------------------605

THE DEBT OF SURGICAL DIAGNOSIS TO THE X RAY.

By Commander G. F. Cottle, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 614

THE TREATMENT OF CHANOROIDS AND OTHER LESIONS WITH AMMONIACAL

SILVER NITRATE AND FORMALIN.

By Commander P. G. White, Dental Corps, and Lieut. (Junior Grade) J. Q.

Owsley, Medical Corps, United States Navy _____ 619

SUMMARY OF SEVENTY CASES OF GONOCOCCUS INFECTION TREATED WITH

MERCUROCHROME-220 SOLUBLE TOGETHER WITH SUGAR AND FOREIGN PROTEIN.

By Lieut. Commander L. H. Williams and Lieut. W. D. Small, Medical

Corps, United States Navy------621

TREATMENT OF ENCEPHALITIS LETHARGICA.

By Harold S. Hulbert, M. D. -------------------------------624

MULTIPLE UNERUPTED AND IMPACTED CUSPID AND BICUSPID TEETH.

By Lieut. Commander M. W. Mangold, Dental Corps, United States

Navy----------------- ------------------ 625

MIXED VENEREAL INFECTIONS.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) G. F. Cooper, Medical Corps, United States

Navy-----------------------------626

CAISSON DISEASE DURING HELMET DIVING.

By Lieut. Commander W. M. Anderson, Medical Corps, United States Navy

--- ------------------------ 628

ANTERIO-VENOUS ANEURYSM OF THE COMMON CAROTID ARTERY AND INTERNAL

JUGULAR VEIN: OPERATION WITH CONSERVATION OF THE ARTERY.

By Commander F. X. Koltes, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 630

CREEPING ERUPTION.

By Lieut. Commander H. L. Shinn, Medical Corps, United States Navy

___________________632

DEATH BY LIGHTNING.

By Lieut. J. D. Benjamin, Medical Corps, United States Navy _634

DEVICE FOR TRANSFERRING PATIENTS FROM SHIPS.

By Master Rigger Thomas Schofield _______________________ _ 635

AN ECONOMICAL AND PRACTICAL UTENSIL STERILIZER.

By Chief Pharmacist Charles Peek, United States Navy ______ _637

THE NAVAL RESERVE-------------------------------------------- 639

NURSE CORPS:

HOSPITAL HOUSEKEEPING.

By Chief Nurse Nell I. Disert, United States Navy ________ ___ _ 649

DIETS AND THE NURSE.

By J. Beatrice Bowman, Superintendent, Navy Nurse Corps __ 651

DIETETICS AT NAVAL HOSPITALS.

By Nurse Anna F. Patten, United States Navy _______________ 655

NOTES AND COMMENTS:

Comments on " Some observations on avoidable drowning

"-Hypertension- Unrecognized syphilitic myocarditis- Tuberculosis

hospitalization- Microbic dissociation-Bacteriological nomenclature - Carbon

dioxide in hiccough-Diathermy in pneumonia-Answering examination

questions-Medical ethics-Alcoholic content of brain-Electric shock-Acid and

alkali burns-Antiseptics and the nasal flora of rabbits-Annam swelling- The

metric system-Eye test for hypersensitiveness to serum-Research on

pharmacological

problems- Syphilis not caused by vaccination-Line of duty ____ 661

BOOK NOTICES--- - - --------- - - --- ------ - - - -------- ------

--------- 697

PREVENTIVE MEDICINE, STATISTICS :

Digest of the views of medical officers regarding venereal-disease

problems as recorded in various annual sanitary reports for 1926- Two deaths

following inoculation with B. typhosus vaccine- Report

of outbreak of cereb1'ospinal fever at United States naval training

station, San Diego, Calif., December, 1926-January, 1927-Report of outbreak of

scarlet fever at United States naval training station, Hampton Roads, Va.-Fatal

poisoning by arseniuretted hydrogen in the galvanizing shop at the navy yard,

Puget Sound, Wash.-Data useful in estimating the amount of food wasted by men

eating in hospital wards and in a general mess-Outbreak of food poisoning at

United States naval training station, Hampton Roads, Va., attributed to canned

Vienna sausages-Epidemic of influenza among natives of Samoa in August, 1926-

Health of the Navy --------------------------------------------

Number 4

PREFACE--------------------------------------- --------------- VII

NOTICE TO SERVICE CONTRIBUTORS----------------------------- viii

SPECIAL ARTICLES :

CHINESE MILITARY MEDICINE.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) J. L. McClartney, Medical Corps (Vol. G),

United States Naval Reserve-------- 783

ABDOMINAL WOUNDS AND INJURIES.

By Commander Lucius W. Johnson, Medical Corps, United States Navy

---------------------------- 816

AVIATION HYGIENE.

By Commander R. G. Davis, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 832

GOITER.

By Commander C. E. Henry, M. D., F. A. C. P., Medical Corps (Vol. S),

United States Naval Reserve __ 837

COMMENTS CONCERNING THE DUTIES OF THE COMMANDING OFFICER OF A NAVAL

HOSPITAL.

By Capt. A. Farenholt, Medical Corps, United States Navy______ 844

THE BUDGET AND THE BUREAU OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY ACCOUNTING SYSTEM.

By Chief Pharmacist B. E. Irwin, United States Navy_________ 851

ELECTROCARDIOGRAM IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF THE CARDIAC ARRHYTHMIAS.

By Lieut. Commander R. L. Nattkemper, Medical Corps, United States Navy

------------------- 862

SIPPY TREATMENT FOR PEPTIC ULCER IN NAVAL HOSPITALS.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) A. E. Brunschwig, Medical Corps, United States

Navy ------ ------------------ 871

By Lieut. Commander W. H. Whitemore and Lieut. (Junior Grade) O. A.

Smith, Medical Corps, United States Navy______ 875

LOCAL ANESTHESIA IN EYE, EAR, NOSE, AND THROAT WORK.

By Lieut. Commander F. L. Young, Medical Corps (Vol. G), United States

Naval Reserve-------------- 879

ENDARTERITIS, ACUTE, FROM ELECTRIC SHOCK.

By Lieut. P. F. Dickens, Medical Corps, United States Navy____ 881

ACUTE OSTEOMYELITIS WITH METASTASIS.

By Lieut. G. G. Herman, Medical Corps, United States Navy____ 883

ABDOMINAL HODGKIN'S DISEASE.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) W. D. C. Day, Medical Corps, United States

Navy--------------------- 886

A NEEDLE FOR ANESTHESIA OF THE MAXILLARY NERVE.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) J. Connolly, Dental Corps, United States Navy

------- --- --- ----- 889

POISONING FROM SOAP-VINE.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) G. F . Cooper, Medical Corps, United States

Navy - - ------- ---------- 892

THE DIRECT DIAGNOSIS OF PERICARDITIS WITH EFFUSION.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) C. G. Dyke, Medical Corps, United States

Navy--- -------- - --- --- -- 894

WHAT SHOULD THE DIAGNOSIS BE?

By Lieut. Commander C. A. Andrus, Medical Corps, United States Navy-----

---------------------- 896

MULTIPLE SCROTAL FISTULAE FOLLOWING RUPTURE OF THE BLADDER WITH

STRICTURE OF URETHRA. OPERATION AND RESTORATION OF FUNCTION.

By Lieut. Commander L. H. Williams, Medical Corps, United States

Navy------ - - ----------------897

TRAUMATIC RUPTURE OF THE SPLEEN.

By Commander F. X. Koltes, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 898

APPENDIX ABSCESS V. PYONEPHROSIs.

By Commander G. F. Cottle, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 900

MERCUROCHROME IN A CASE WITHOUT DIAGNOSIS.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) B. W. Harris, Medical Corps, United States Navy--------------------------903

GREASE RACK FOR AUTOMOBILES.

By Capt. A. Farenholt, Medical Corps, United States Navy ____ 908

NAVAL RESERVE:

Hospital units- Recent appointments _____________________________ 909

NURSE CORPS:

THE LECTURES ON ACCOUNTING FROM A NURSE'S POINT OF VIEW.

By Chief Nurse Mabel T. Cooper, United States Navy _________ 913

ADDRESS TO THE CLASS OF 1926 HAITIAN GENERAL HOSPITAL TRAINING SCHOOL

FOR NURSES.

By Capt. C. St. J. Butler, Medical Corps, United States Navy __ 918

A NAVY NURSE IN THE NEAR EAST.

By Mabell S. C. Smith--------------------------- 920

DIETETICS.

By Nurse Anna P. Smith, United States Navy ________________ 921

DIETETICS.

By Nurse Mary J. Miney, United States Navy ________________ 923

NOTES AND COMMENTS :

Correction-Report on treatment of Chinese wounded-Skin tests in asthma-

Treponematosis-The physiological effects of tropical climate-History of medical

practice in the State of Illinois-Mercurochrome- Water

supplies-Seasickness-Cholera in Shanghai in 1926--Fracture of the

skull-Senescence and senility-Bismuth in the treatment of syphilis-Pressure

method of vaccination - Ventilators- Neurosyphilis-Tennis leg-Tea in treatment

of burns-European influenza epidemic at end-Visit of the Relief to Washington-Aviation

instruction for Hospital Corpsmen_ ______ 927

BOOK NOTICES----------------------- ------------------------------ 959

PREVENTIVE MEDICINE, STATISTICS :

A STUDY OF TWO THOUSAND HEALTH RECORDS CONTAINING ENTRIES FOR SYPHILIS.

By Lieut. Commander H. H. Montgomery, Medical Corps, United States Navy-------------------------------973

MEASURES OF OUTSTANDING IMPORTANCE IN THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF

MALARIA.

By Commander M.A. Stuart, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 996

Outbreak of infectious diarrhea in the Battle Fleet, April, 1927, not

investigated at the time of occurrence----An epidemic of malaria at the United

States Naval Station, Olongapo, P. I.- Two deaths from rabies contracted by

playing with a dog which was incubating the disease, in Hankow, China-Frequency

of rabies-An outbreak of mumps among midshipmen at the United States Naval

Academy-Health of the Navy_________ 1010

INDEX TO SUBJECTS ----------------------------------------- 1035

INDEX TO AUTHORS-------- ------------------------------------- 1047

If you have questions concerning reproductions, please contact the Contributing Library.

Note: The colors, contrast and appearance of these illustrations are unlikely to be true to life. They are derived from scanned images that have been enhanced for machine interpretation and have been altered from their originals.

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Cultura yombe, RDC, maschera femminile ngobudi,- nganga diphomba . Legno, pigmenti naturali. Prov. Collezione privata, Parigi inv. map-mp-m019 by map museo di arti primarie

2

Cultura Yombe (R.d.C.) maschera femminile ngobudi,- nganga diphomba

l Kongo (o Bakongo) storicamente abitano la costa occidentale dell'Africa centrale, ora confinata nella parte meridionale della Repubblica Democratica del Congo e nel nord dell'Angola. I Kongo mantengono una cultura religiosa animista basata sui culti degli antenati e sull'adorazione del dio supremo Nzambi. Il popolo Kongo è diviso in diverse sotto etnie, tra cui Beembe, Bwende, Vili, Sundi e i creatori di questa maschera, gli Yombe. Mentre in tutto il territorio In tutto il territorio del Kongo, il Nganga (veggente) possedeva una o più figure di potere o nkisi, solo nelle regioni occidentali abitate dagli Yombe questa figura rituale possedeva anche una o più maschere. Il loro ruolo era quello di mediare il controllo dei poteri relativi all'opera di nkisi. L'uso di queste maschere era limitato a una certa area culturale, il che spiega la loro estrema rarità. Conosciute come ngobudi, le maschere Yombe possono essere considerate come ritratti idealizzati del veggente, o anche come una letterale "interfaccia" che separa il veggente dai suoi stessi poteri magici. L'aspetto della più belle tra queste maschere è caratterizzato da un fortissimo naturalismo, caratterizzate per la loro pigmentazione bicolore, e per la serenità che emana dall'espressione

Il nganga diphomba, svolge un ruolo importante nella società Yombe, rilevando e punendo la stregoneria. La maggior parte dei principali mali sociali sono attribuiti alla stregoneria nelle culture Kongo, inclusi siccità, criminalità e incidenti. La società degli indovini indossa due tipi di maschere per identificare e punire gli stregoni, maschi (con la barba) e femmine (con il ciuffo). Entrambe le maschere evocano gli spiriti degli antenati al fine di proteggere il veggente. Con la maschera si dipingono il corpo e indossano una gonna di piume di turaco e una cintura di sonagli di ottone. Usano la loro stregoneria (kundu) per individuare il colpevole e contrastare le loro maledizioni.

Tali maschere possono essere utilizzate anche dalla Khimba Society nei rituali di iniziazione degli adulti, probabilmente dallo stesso nganga diphomba.

TThroughout the Kongo territory, the nganga (seer) possessed one or several power figures or nkisi. It is only in the western regions inhabited by the Yombe that the nganga also possessed one or several masks. Their role was to mediate the control of powers relating to the work of nkisi.The use of these masks was limited to a certain cultural area, which explains their extreme rarity. Known as ngobudi, Yombe masks may be considered as idealized portraits of the seer, or even as a literal ‘interface’ separating the seer from his own magical powers. The appearance of the best of these masks is characterized by a very strong naturalism. These masks are more remarkable for their bicolor - often black-and-white - pigmentation, and the serenity that emanates from the expression.

The Kongo (or Bakongo) is a populous nation historically inhabiting the west coast of central Africa, now confined to the southern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo and northern Angola. The Kongo maintain an animistic religion based on ancestor cults and worship of the supreme god Nzambi. The Kongo people are divided into several subethnicities, including Beembe, Bwende, Vili, Sundi, and the makers of this mask, the Yombe.The nganga diphomba, or diviner, plays an important role in Yombe society, detecting and punishing sorcery. Most major social ills are attributed to sorcery in Kongo cultures, including drought, crime, and accidents. The society of diviners wears two kinds of masks to identify and punish sorcerers, male (with a beard) and female (with a topknot). Both masks evoke ancestor spirits for the protection fo the diviner. With the mask, they paint their bodies and wear a skirt of turaco feathers and a belt of brass bells. They use their own sorcery (kundu) to detect the culprit and counteract their curses.Such masks may also be also used by the Khimba Society in adult initiation rituals, probably by the nganga diphomba himself.

fonte www.maskmuseum.org/ , Christie’s

Lizzie by Patrick Marioné

3

le Mascaret, Rixensart

Albino Alligator by Steve Maciejewski

5 13

Albino Alligator at the Cape May County Park & Zoo

Albinism (from Latin albus, "white"; see extended etymology, also called achromia, achromasia, or achromatosis) is a congenital disorder characterized by the complete or partial absence of pigment in the skin, hair and eyes due to absence or defect of an enzyme involved in the production of melanin. Albinism results from inheritance of recessive gene alleles and is known to affect all vertebrates, including humans. While an organism with complete absence of melanin is called an albino ,an organism with only a diminished amount of melanin is described as albinoid.

Albinism is associated with a number of vision defects, such as photophobia, nystagmus and astigmatism. Lack of skin pigmentation makes the organism more susceptible to sunburn and skin cancers.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albino

A Rare Gem by Brian Dallner

40 2

Ellie was the first woman to contact me about being part of my 2% project. From the very first email and becoming acquainted with her over several weeks prior to and during the shoot, it was evident that she was very genuine and has a lot of positive personality traits that are, unfortunately, becoming rare in today’s society.

Another rarity is her colouring. Red hair and blue eyes are the rarest colour combination on the planet. 2% of the global population has red hair, but only .17% have red hair and blue eyes. To top all that, she also has another feature in her eyes called Central Heterochromia (more than one eye colour). This genetic variance affects the pigmentation of the eyes and in Ellie’s case, created a golden ring in her iris around the pupils while the rest of the iris is blue. This creates a beautiful brilliance in Ellie’s eyes that really stand out! Heterochromia affects only 1% of the global population. Go full screen for a better view.

Please check out her other pictures in my Ellie album.

India - Telangana - Hyderabad - Market - Pomegranate Seller - 2 by Manfred Sommer

The pomegranate (/ˈpɒmᵻɡrænᵻt/), botanical name Punica granatum, is a fruit-bearing deciduous shrub or small tree growing between 5 and 8 m tall.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the fruit is typically in season from September to February, and in the Southern Hemisphere from March to May. As intact arils or juice, pomegranates are used in cooking, baking, meal garnishes, juice blends, smoothies, and alcoholic beverages, such as cocktails and wine.

The pomegranate originated in the region of modern-day Iran and has been cultivated since ancient times throughout the Mediterranean region and northern India. It was introduced into America (Spanish America) in the late 16th century and California by Spanish settlers in 1769.

Today, it is widely cultivated throughout the Middle East and Caucasus region, north Africa and tropical Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia, the drier parts of southeast Asia, and parts of the Mediterranean Basin. It is also cultivated in parts of California and Arizona. In recent years, it has become more common in the commercial markets of Europe and the Western Hemisphere.

ETYMOLOGY

The name pomegranate derives from medieval Latin pōmum "apple" and grānātum "seeded". Perhaps stemming from the old French word for the fruit, pomme-grenade, the pomegranate was known in early English as "apple of Grenada" - a term which today survives only in heraldic blazons. This is a folk etymology, confusing Latin granatus with the name of the Spanish city of Granada, which derives from Arabic.

Garnet derives from Old French grenat by metathesis, from Medieval Latin granatum as used in a different meaning "of a dark red color". This derivation may have originated from pomum granatum describing the color of pomegranate pulp or from granum referring to "red dye, cochineal".

The French term for pomegranate, grenade, has given its name to the military grenade.

DESCRIPTION

A shrub or small tree growing 6 to 10 m high, the pomegranate has multiple spiny branches, and is extremely long-lived, with some specimens in France surviving for 200 years. P. granatum leaves are opposite or subopposite, glossy, narrow oblong, entire, 3–7 cm long and 2 cm broad. The flowers are bright red and 3 cm in diameter, with three to seven petals. Some fruitless varieties are grown for the flowers alone.

The edible fruit is a berry, intermediate in size between a lemon and a grapefruit, 5–12 cm in diameter with a rounded shape and thick, reddish skin. The number of seeds in a pomegranate can vary from 200 to about 1400. Each seed has a surrounding water-laden pulp — the edible sarcotesta that forms from the seed coat — ranging in color from white to deep red or purple. The seeds are "exarillate", i.e., unlike some other species in the order, Myrtales, no aril is present. The sarcotesta of pomegranate seeds consists of epidermis cells derived from the integument. The seeds are embedded in a white, spongy, astringent membrane.

CULTIVATION

P. granatum is grown for its fruit crop, and as ornamental trees and shrubs in parks and gardens. Mature specimens can develop sculptural twisted-bark multiple trunks and a distinctive overall form. Pomegranates are drought-tolerant, and can be grown in dry areas with either a Mediterranean winter rainfall climate or in summer rainfall climates. In wetter areas, they can be prone to root decay from fungal diseases. They can be tolerant of moderate frost, down to about −12 °C.

Insect pests of the pomegranate can include the pomegranate butterfly Virachola isocrates and the leaf-footed bug Leptoglossus zonatus, and fruit flies and ants are attracted to unharvested ripe fruit. Pomegranate grows easily from seed, but is commonly propagated from 25– to 50-cm hardwood cuttings to avoid the genetic variation of seedlings. Air layering is also an option for propagation, but grafting fails.

VARIETIES

P. granatum var. nana is a dwarf variety of P. granatum popularly planted as an ornamental plant in gardens and larger containers, and used as a bonsai specimen tree. It could well be a wild form with a distinct origin. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. The only other species in the genus Punica is the Socotran pomegranate (P. protopunica), which is endemic to the island of Socotra. It differs in having pink (not red) flowers and smaller, less sweet fruit.

CULTIVARS

P. granatum has more than 500 named cultivars, but evidently has considerable synonymy in which the same genotype is named differently across regions of the world.[15]

Several characteristics between pomegranate genotypes vary for identification, consumer preference, preferred use, and marketing, the most important of which are fruit size, exocarp color (ranging from yellow to purple, with pink and red most common), seed-coat color (ranging from white to red), hardness of seed, maturity, juice content and its acidity, sweetness, and astringency.

CULTURAL HISTORY

Pomegranate is native to a region from Iran to northern India. Pomegranates have been cultivated throughout the Middle East, South Asia, and Mediterranean region for several millennia, and also thrive in the drier climates of California and Arizona.

Carbonized exocarp of the fruit has been identified in early Bronze Age levels of Jericho in the West Bank, as well as late Bronze Age levels of Hala Sultan Tekke on Cyprus and Tiryns.[citation needed] A large, dry pomegranate was found in the tomb of Djehuty, the butler of Queen Hatshepsut in Egypt; Mesopotamian cuneiform records mention pomegranates from the mid-third millennium BC onwards.

It is also extensively grown in South China and in Southeast Asia, whether originally spread along the route of the Silk Road or brought by sea traders. Kandahar is famous in Afghanistan for its high-quality pomegranates.

Although not native to Korea or Japan, the pomegranate is widely grown there and many cultivars have been developed. It is widely used for bonsai because of its flowers and for the unusual twisted bark the older specimens can attain. The term "balaustine" (Latin: balaustinus) is also used for a pomegranate-red color.

The ancient city of Granada in Spain was renamed after the fruit during the Moorish period and today the province of Granada uses pomegranate as a charge in heraldry for its canting arms.

Spanish colonists later introduced the fruit to the Caribbean and America (Spanish America), but in the English colonies, it was less at home: "Don't use the pomegranate inhospitably, a stranger that has come so far to pay his respects to thee," the English Quaker Peter Collinson wrote to the botanizing John Bartram in Philadelphia, 1762. "Plant it against the side of thy house, nail it close to the wall. In this manner it thrives wonderfully with us, and flowers beautifully, and bears fruit this hot year. I have twenty-four on one tree... Doctor Fothergill says, of all trees this is most salutiferous to mankind."

The pomegranate had been introduced as an exotic to England the previous century, by John Tradescant the elder, but the disappointment that it did not set fruit there led to its repeated introduction to the American colonies, even New England. It succeeded in the South: Bartram received a barrel of pomegranates and oranges from a correspondent in Charleston, South Carolina, 1764. John Bartram partook of "delitious" pomegranates with Noble Jones at Wormsloe Plantation, near Savannah, Georgia, in September 1765. Thomas Jefferson planted pomegranates at Monticello in 1771: he had them from George Wythe of Williamsburg.

CULINARY USE

After the pomegranate is opened by scoring it with a knife and breaking it open, the seeds are separated from the peel and internal white pulp membranes. Separating the seeds is easier in a bowl of water because the seeds sink and the inedible pulp floats. Freezing the entire fruit also makes it easier to separate. Another effective way of quickly harvesting the seeds is to cut the pomegranate in half, score each half of the exterior rind four to six times, hold the pomegranate half over a bowl, and smack the rind with a large spoon. The seeds should eject from the pomegranate directly into the bowl, leaving only a dozen or more deeply embedded seeds to remove. The entire seed is consumed raw, though the watery, tasty sarcotesta is the desired part. The taste differs depending on the variety or cultivar of pomegranate and its ripeness.

Pomegranate juice can be sweet or sour, but most fruits are moderate in taste, with sour notes from the acidic tannins contained in the juice. Pomegranate juice has long been a popular drink in Europe, the Middle East and is now widely distributed in the United States and Canada.

Grenadine syrup long ago consisted of thickened and sweetened pomegranate juice, now is usually a sales name for a syrup based on various berries, citric acid, and food coloring, mainly used in cocktail mixing. In Europe, Bols still manufactures grenadine syrup with pomegranate. Before tomatoes, a New World fruit, arrived in the Middle East, pomegranate juice, molasses, and vinegar were widely used in many Iranian foods, and are still found in traditional recipes such as fesenjān, a thick sauce made from pomegranate juice and ground walnuts, usually spooned over duck or other poultry and rice, and in ash-e anar (pomegranate soup).

Pomegranate seeds are used as a spice known as anardana (from Persian: anar + dana‎‎, pomegranate + seed), most notably in Indian and Pakistani cuisine. Dried whole seeds can often be obtained in ethnic Indian subcontinent markets. These seeds are separated from the flesh, dried for 10–15 days, and used as an acidic agent for chutney and curry preparation. Ground anardana is also used, which results in a deeper flavoring in dishes and prevents the seeds from getting stuck in teeth. Seeds of the wild pomegranate variety known as daru from the Himalayas are regarded as quality sources for this spice.

Dried pomegranate seeds, found in some natural specialty food markets, still contain some residual water, maintaining a natural sweet and tart flavor. Dried seeds can be used in several culinary applications, such as trail mix, granola bars, or as a topping for salad, yogurt, or ice cream.

In the Caucasus, pomegranate is used mainly for juice. In Azerbaijan, a sauce from pomegranate juice narsharab, (from Persian: (a)nar + sharab‎‎, lit. "pomegranate wine") is usually served with fish or tika kabab. In Turkey, pomegranate sauce (Turkish: nar ekşisi) is used as a salad dressing, to marinate meat, or simply to drink straight. Pomegranate seeds are also used in salads and sometimes as garnish for desserts such as güllaç. Pomegranate syrup or molasses is used in muhammara, a roasted red pepper, walnut, and garlic spread popular in Syria and Turkey.

In Greece, pomegranate (Greek: ρόδι, rodi) is used in many recipes, including kollivozoumi, a creamy broth made from boiled wheat, pomegranates, and raisins, legume salad with wheat and pomegranate, traditional Middle Eastern lamb kebabs with pomegranate glaze, pomegranate eggplant relish, and avocado-pomegranate dip. Pomegranate is also made into a liqueur, and as a popular fruit confectionery used as ice cream topping, mixed with yogurt, or spread as jam on toast. In Cyprus and Greece, and among the Greek Orthodox Diaspora, ρόδι (Greek for pomegranate) is used to make koliva, a mixture of wheat, pomegranate seeds, sugar, almonds, and other seeds served at memorial services.

In Mexico, they are commonly used to adorn the traditional dish chiles en nogada, representing the red of the Mexican flag in the dish which evokes the green (poblano pepper), white (nogada sauce) and red (pomegranate seeds) tricolor.

IN TRADITIONAL MEDICINE

In the Indian subcontinent's ancient Ayurveda system of traditional medicine, the pomegranate is frequently described as an ingredient in remedies.

In folk medicine pomegranate has been thought a contraceptive and abortifacient when the seeds or rind are eaten, or when as a vaginal suppository.

NUTRITION

A 100-g serving of pomegranate seeds provides 12% of the Daily Value (DV) for vitamin C, 16% DV for vitamin K and 10% DV for folate (table).

Pomegranate seeds are an excellent source of dietary fiber (20% DV) which is entirely contained in the edible seeds. People who choose to discard the seeds forfeit nutritional benefits conveyed by the seed fiber and micronutrients.

Pomegranate seed oil contains punicic acid (65.3%), palmitic acid (4.8%), stearic acid (2.3%), oleic acid (6.3%), and linoleic acid (6.6%).

RESEARCH

JUICE

The most abundant phytochemicals in pomegranate juice are polyphenols, including the hydrolyzable tannins called ellagitannins formed when ellagic acid and/or gallic acid binds with a carbohydrate to form pomegranate ellagitannins, also known as punicalagins.

The red color of juice can be attributed to anthocyanins, such as delphinidin, cyanidin, and pelargonidin glycosides. Generally, an increase in juice pigmentation occurs during fruit ripening.

The phenolic content of pomegranate juice is adversely affected by processing and pasteurization techniques.

PEEL

Compared to the pulp, the inedible pomegranate peel contains as much as three times the total amount of polyphenols, including condensed tannins, catechins, gallocatechins and prodelphinidins.

The higher phenolic content of the peel yields extracts for use in dietary supplements and food preservatives.

Health claims

Despite limited research data, manufacturers and marketers of pomegranate juice have liberally used evolving research results for product promotion. In February 2010, the FDA issued a Warning Letter to one such manufacturer, POM Wonderful, for using published literature to make illegal claims of unproven anti-disease benefits.

SYMBOLISM

ANCIENT EGYPT

Ancient Egyptians regarded the pomegranate as a symbol of prosperity and ambition. According to the Ebers Papyrus, one of the oldest medical writings from around 1500 BC, Egyptians used the pomegranate for treatment of tapeworm and other infections.

ANCIENT GREECE

The Greeks were familiar with the fruit far before it was introduced to Rome via Carthage. In Ancient Greek mythology, the pomegranate was known as the "fruit of the dead", and believed to have sprung from the blood of Adonis.

The myth of Persephone, the goddess of the underworld, prominently features the pomegranate. In one version of Greek mythology, Persephone was kidnapped by Hades and taken off to live in the underworld as his wife. Her mother, Demeter (goddess of the Harvest), went into mourning for her lost daughter, thus all green things ceased to grow. Zeus, the highest-ranking of the Greek gods, could not allow the Earth to die, so he commanded Hades to return Persephone. It was the rule of the Fates that anyone who consumed food or drink in the underworld was doomed to spend eternity there. Persephone had no food, but Hades tricked her into eating six pomegranate seeds while she was still his prisoner, so she was condemned to spend six months in the underworld every year. During these six months, while Persephone sits on the throne of the underworld beside her husband Hades, her mother Demeter mourns and no longer gives fertility to the earth. This was an ancient Greek explanation for the seasons. Dante Gabriel Rossetti's painting Persephona depicts Persephone holding the fatal fruit. The number of seeds Persephone ate varies, depending on which version of the story is told. The number ranges from three to seven, which accounts for just one barren season if it is just three or four seeds, or two barren seasons (half the year) if she ate six or seven seeds.

The pomegranate also evoked the presence of the Aegean Triple Goddess who evolved into the Olympian Hera, who is sometimes represented offering the pomegranate, as in the Polykleitos' cult image of the Argive Heraion (see below). According to Carl A. P. Ruck and Danny Staples, the chambered pomegranate is also a surrogate for the poppy's narcotic capsule, with its comparable shape and chambered interior. On a Mycenaean seal illustrated in Joseph Campbell's Occidental Mythology 1964, figure 19, the seated Goddess of the double-headed axe (the labrys) offers three poppy pods in her right hand and supports her breast with her left. She embodies both aspects of the dual goddess, life-giving and death-dealing at once. The Titan Orion was represented as "marrying" Side, a name that in Boeotia means "pomegranate", thus consecrating the primal hunter to the Goddess. Other Greek dialects call the pomegranate rhoa; its possible connection with the name of the earth goddess Rhea, inexplicable in Greek, proved suggestive for the mythographer Karl Kerenyi, who suggested the consonance might ultimately derive from a deeper, pre-Indo-European language layer.

In the 5th century BC, Polycleitus took ivory and gold to sculpt the seated Argive Hera in her temple. She held a scepter in one hand and offered a pomegranate, like a 'royal orb', in the other. "About the pomegranate I must say nothing," whispered the traveller Pausanias in the 2nd century, "for its story is somewhat of a holy mystery." In the Orion story, Hera cast pomegranate-Side (an ancient city in Antalya) into dim Erebus — "for daring to rival Hera's beauty", which forms the probable point of connection with the older Osiris/Isis story.[citation needed] Since the ancient Egyptians identified the Orion constellation in the sky as Sah the "soul of Osiris", the identification of this section of the myth seems relatively complete. Hera wears, not a wreath nor a tiara nor a diadem, but clearly the calyx of the pomegranate that has become her serrated crown.[citation needed] The pomegranate has a calyx shaped like a crown. In Jewish tradition, it has been seen as the original "design" for the proper crown. In some artistic depictions, the pomegranate is found in the hand of Mary, mother of Jesus.

A pomegranate is displayed on coins from the ancient city of Side, Pamphylia.

Within the Heraion at the mouth of the Sele, near Paestum, Magna Graecia, is a chapel devoted to the Madonna del Granato, "Our Lady of the Pomegranate", "who by virtue of her epithet and the attribute of a pomegranate must be the Christian successor of the ancient Greek goddess Hera", observes the excavator of the Heraion of Samos, Helmut Kyrieleis.

In modern times, the pomegranate still holds strong symbolic meanings for the Greeks. On important days in the Greek Orthodox calendar, such as the Presentation of the Virgin Mary and on Christmas Day, it is traditional to have at the dinner table polysporia, also known by their ancient name panspermia, in some regions of Greece. In ancient times, they were offered to Demeter[citation needed] and to the other gods for fertile land, for the spirits of the dead and in honor of compassionate Dionysus.[citation needed] When one buys a new home, it is conventional for a house guest to bring as a first gift a pomegranate, which is placed under/near the ikonostasi (home altar) of the house, as a symbol of abundance, fertility, and good luck. Pomegranates are also prominent at Greek weddings and funerals.[citation needed] When Greeks commemorate their dead, they make kollyva as offerings, which consist of boiled wheat, mixed with sugar and decorated with pomegranate. It is also traditional in Greece to break a pomegranate on the ground at weddings and on New Years. Pomegranate decorations for the home are very common in Greece and sold in most home goods stores.

ANCIENT ISRAEL AND JUDAISM

Pomegranates were known in Ancient Israel as the fruits which the scouts brought to Moses to demonstrate the fertility of the "promised land". The Book of Exodus describes the me'il ("robe of the ephod") worn by the Hebrew high priest as having pomegranates embroidered on the hem alternating with golden bells which could be heard as the high priest entered and left the Holy of Holies. According to the Books of Kings, the capitals of the two pillars (Jachin and Boaz) that stood in front of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem were engraved with pomegranates. Solomon is said to have designed his coronet based on the pomegranate's "crown" (calyx).

It is traditional to consume pomegranates on Rosh Hashana because, with its numerous seeds, it symbolizes fruitfulness. Also, it is said to have 613 seeds, which corresponds with the 613 mitzvot or commandments of the Torah.[61] This particular tradition is referred to in the opening pages of Ursula Dubosarsky's novel Theodora's Gift.

The pomegranate appeared on the ancient coins of Judea. When not in use, the handles of Torah scrolls are sometimes covered with decorative silver globes similar in shape to "pomegranates" (rimmonim). Some Jewish scholars believe the pomegranate was the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden.[60] Pomegranates are one of the Seven Species (Hebrew: שבעת המינים, Shiv'at Ha-Minim) of fruits and grains enumerated in the Hebrew Bible (Deuteronomy 8:8) as being special products of the Land of Israel. The pomegranate is mentioned in the Bible many times, including this quote from the Songs of Solomon, "Thy lips are like a thread of scarlet, and thy speech is comely: thy temples are like a piece of a pomegranate within thy locks." (Song of Solomon 4:3). Pomegranates also symbolize the mystical experience in the Jewish mystical tradition, or kabbalah, with the typical reference being to entering the "garden of pomegranates" or pardes rimonim; this is also the title of a book by the 16th-century mystic Moses ben Jacob Cordovero.

IN EUROPEAN CHRISTIAN MOTIFS

In the earliest incontrovertible appearance of Christ in a mosaic, a 4th-century floor mosaic from Hinton St Mary, Dorset, now in the British Museum, the bust of Christ and the chi rho are flanked by pomegranates. Pomegranates continue to be a motif often found in Christian religious decoration. They are often woven into the fabric of vestments and liturgical hangings or wrought in metalwork. Pomegranates figure in many religious paintings by the likes of Sandro Botticelli and Leonardo da Vinci, often in the hands of the Virgin Mary or the infant Jesus. The fruit, broken or bursting open, is a symbol of the fullness of Jesus' suffering and resurrection.

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, pomegranate seeds may be used in kolyva, a dish prepared for memorial services, as a symbol of the sweetness of the heavenly kingdom.

IN THE QUR´AN

According to the Qur'an, pomegranates grow in the gardens of paradise (55:68). The Qur'an also mentions pomegranates three times.(6:99, 6:141, 55:68)

AFGHANISTAN

Pomegranate, a favorite fall and winter fruit in Afghanistan, has mainly two varieties: one that is sweet and dark red with hard seeds growing in and around Kandhar province, and the other that has soft seeds with variable color growing in the central/northern region. The largest market for Afghan pomegranates is India followed by Pakistan, Russia, United Arab Emirates and Europe.

ARMENIA

The pomegranate is one of the main fruits in Armenian culture (the others being apricot and grapes). Its juice is famous with Armenians in food and heritage. The pomegranate is the symbol of Armenia and represents fertility, abundance and marriage. For example, the fruit played an integral role in a wedding custom widely practiced in ancient Armenia: a bride was given a pomegranate fruit, which she threw against a wall, breaking it into pieces. Scattered pomegranate seeds ensured the bride future children. In Karabakh, it was customary to put fruits next to the bridal couple during the first night of marriage, among them the pomegranate, which was said to ensure happiness. It is likely that newlyweds also enjoyed pomegranate wine. The symbolism of the pomegranate is that it protected a woman from infertility and protected a man's virility. Both homemade and commercial wine is made from pomegranate in Armenia. The Color of Pomegranates (1969) is a movie directed by Sergei Parajanov. It is a biography of the Armenian ashug Sayat-Nova (King of Song) which attempts to reveal the poet's life visually and poetically rather than literally.

AZERBAIJAN

Pomegranate is considered one of the symbols of Azerbaijan. Annually in October, a cultural festival is held in Goychay, Azerbaijan known as the Goychay Pomegranate Festival. The festival features Azerbaijani fruit-cuisine mainly the pomegranates from Goychay, which is famous for its pomegranate growing industry. At the festival, a parade is held with traditional Azerbaijani dances and Azerbaijani music. Pomegranate was depicted on the official logo of the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan. Nar the Pomegranate was one of the two mascots of these games. Pomegranates also featured on the jackets worn by Azerbaijani male athletes at the games' opening ceremony.

IRAN AND ANCIENT PERSIA

Pomegranate was the symbol of fertility in ancient Persian culture.[citation needed] In Persian mythology, Isfandiyar eats a pomegranate and becomes invincible. In the Greco-Persian Wars, Herodotus mentions golden pomegranates adorning the spears of warriors in the phalanx. Even in today's Iran, pomegranate may imply love and fertility.

Iran produces pomegranates as a common crop.[citation needed] Its juice and paste have a role in some Iranian cuisines, e.g. chicken, ghormas and refreshment bars. Pomegranate skins may be used to stain wool and silk in the carpet industry.

Pomegranate Festival is an annual cultural and artistic festival held during October in Tehran[citation needed] to exhibit and sell pomegranates, food products and handicrafts.

PAKISTAN

The pomegranate (known as "anār" in Urdu) is a popular fruit in Pakistan. It is grown in Pakistan and is also imported from Afghanistan.

INDIA

In some Hindu traditions, the pomegranate (Hindi: anār) symbolizes prosperity and fertility, and is associated with both Bhoomidevi (the earth goddess) and Lord Ganesha (the one fond of the many-seeded fruit). The Tamil name maadulampazham is a metaphor for a woman's mind. It is derived from, maadhu=woman, ullam=mind, which means as the seeds are hidden, it is not easy to decipher a woman's mind.

CHINA

Introduced to China during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), the pomegranate (Chinese: 石榴; pinyin: shíliu) in olden times was considered an emblem of fertility and numerous progeny. This symbolism is a pun on the Chinese character 子 (zǐ) which, as well as meaning seed, also means "offspring" thus a fruit containing so many seeds is a sign of fecundity. Pictures of the ripe fruit with the seeds bursting forth were often hung in homes to bestow fertility and bless the dwelling with numerous offspring, an important facet of traditional Chinese culture.

WIKIPEDIA

Germany - Lower Saxony - Potato Planting - 5 by Manfred Sommer

1

The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial nightshade Solanum tuberosum. In many contexts, potato refers to the edible tuber, but it can also refer to the plant itself. Common or slang terms include tater, tattie and spud. Potatoes were introduced to Europe in the second half of the 16th century by the Spanish. Today they are a staple food in many parts of the world and an integral part of much of the world's food supply. As of 2014, potatoes were the world's fourth-largest food crop after maize (corn), wheat, and rice.

Wild potato species can be found throughout the Americas, from the United States to southern Chile. The potato was originally believed to have been domesticated independently in multiple locations, but later genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species traced a single origin for potatoes. In the area of present-day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia, from a species in the Solanum brevicaule complex, potatoes were domesticated approximately 7,000–10,000 years ago. In the Andes region of South America, where the species is indigenous, some close relatives of the potato are cultivated.

Following millennia of selective breeding, there are now over 1,000 different types of potatoes. Over 99% of presently cultivated potatoes worldwide descended from varieties that originated in the lowlands of south-central Chile, which have displaced formerly popular varieties from the Andes.

The importance of the potato as a food source and culinary ingredient varies by region and is still changing. It remains an essential crop in Europe, especially eastern and central Europe, where per capita production is still the highest in the world, while the most rapid expansion in production over the past few decades has occurred in southern and eastern Asia, with China and India leading the world in overall production as of 2014.

Being a nightshade similar to tomatoes, the vegetative and fruiting parts of the potato contain the toxin solanine and are not fit for human consumption. Normal potato tubers that have been grown and stored properly produce glycoalkaloids in amounts small enough to be negligible to human health, but if green sections of the plant (namely sprouts and skins) are exposed to light, the tuber can accumulate a high enough concentration of glycoalkaloids to affect human health.

ETYMOLOGY

The English word potato comes from Spanish patata (the name used in Spain). The Spanish Royal Academy says the Spanish word is a hybrid of the Taíno batata (sweet potato) and the Quechua papa (potato). The name originally referred to the sweet potato although the two plants are not closely related. The 16th-century English herbalist John Gerard referred to sweet potatoes as "common potatoes", and used the terms "bastard potatoes" and "Virginia potatoes" for the species we now call "potato". In many of the chronicles detailing agriculture and plants, no distinction is made between the two. Potatoes are occasionally referred to as "Irish potatoes" or "white potatoes" in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes.

The name spud for a small potato comes from the digging of soil (or a hole) prior to the planting of potatoes. The word has an unknown origin and was originally (c. 1440) used as a term for a short knife or dagger, probably related to the Latin "spad-" a word root meaning "sword"; cf. Spanish "espada", English "spade" and "spadroon". It subsequently transferred over to a variety of digging tools. Around 1845, the name transferred to the tuber itself, the first record of this usage being in New Zealand English. The origin of the word "spud" has erroneously been attributed to an 18th-century activist group dedicated to keeping the potato out of Britain, calling itself The Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet (S.P.U.D.). It was Mario Pei's 1949 The Story of Language that can be blamed for the word's false origin. Pei writes, "the potato, for its part, was in disrepute some centuries ago. Some Englishmen who did not fancy potatoes formed a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet. The initials of the main words in this title gave rise to spud." Like most other pre-20th century acronymic origins, this is false, and there is no evidence that a Society for the Prevention of Unwholesome Diet ever existed.

CHARACTERISTICS

Potato plants are herbaceous perennials that grow about 60 cm high, depending on variety, with the leaves dying back after flowering, fruiting and tuber formation. They bear white, pink, red, blue, or purple flowers with yellow stamens. In general, the tubers of varieties with white flowers have white skins, while those of varieties with colored flowers tend to have pinkish skins. Potatoes are mostly cross-pollinated by insects such as bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, though a substantial amount of self-fertilizing occurs as well. Tubers form in response to decreasing day length, although this tendency has been minimized in commercial varieties.

After flowering, potato plants produce small green fruits that resemble green cherry tomatoes, each containing about 300 seeds. Like all parts of the plant except the tubers, the fruit contain the toxic alkaloid solanine and are therefore unsuitable for consumption. All new potato varieties are grown from seeds, also called "true potato seed", "TPS" or "botanical seed" to distinguish it from seed tubers. New varieties grown from seed can be propagated vegetatively by planting tubers, pieces of tubers cut to include at least one or two eyes, or cuttings, a practice used in greenhouses for the production of healthy seed tubers. Plants propagated from tubers are clones of the parent, whereas those propagated from seed produce a range of different varieties.

GENETICS

There are about 5,000 potato varieties worldwide. Three thousand of them are found in the Andes alone, mainly in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, and Colombia. They belong to eight or nine species, depending on the taxonomic school. Apart from the 5,000 cultivated varieties, there are about 200 wild species and subspecies, many of which can be cross-bred with cultivated varieties. Cross-breeding has been done repeatedly to transfer resistances to certain pests and diseases from the gene pool of wild species to the gene pool of cultivated potato species. Genetically modified varieties have met public resistance in the United States and in the European UnionThe major species grown worldwide is Solanum tuberosum (a tetraploid with 48 chromosomes), and modern varieties of this species are the most widely cultivated. There are also four diploid species (with 24 chromosomes): S. stenotomum, S. phureja, S. goniocalyx, and S. ajanhuiri. There are two triploid species (with 36 chromosomes): S. chaucha and S. juzepczukii. There is one pentaploid cultivated species (with 60 chromosomes): S. curtilobum. There are two major subspecies of Solanum tuberosum: andigena, or Andean; and tuberosum, or Chilean. The Andean potato is adapted to the short-day conditions prevalent in the mountainous equatorial and tropical regions where it originated; the Chilean potato, however, native to the Chiloé Archipelago, is adapted to the long-day conditions prevalent in the higher latitude region of southern Chile.

The International Potato Center, based in Lima, Peru, holds an ISO-accredited collection of potato germplasm. The international Potato Genome Sequencing Consortium announced in 2009 that they had achieved a draft sequence of the potato genome. The potato genome contains 12 chromosomes and 860 million base pairs, making it a medium-sized plant genome. More than 99 percent of all current varieties of potatoes currently grown are direct descendants of a subspecies that once grew in the lowlands of south-central Chile. Nonetheless, genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species affirms that all potato subspecies derive from a single origin in the area of present-day southern Peru and extreme Northwestern Bolivia (from a species in the Solanum brevicaule complex). The wild Crop Wild Relatives Prebreeding project encourages the use of wild relatives in breeding programs. Enriching and preserving the gene bank collection to make potatoes adaptive to diverse environmental conditions is seen as a pressing issue due to climate change.

Most modern potatoes grown in North America arrived through European settlement and not independently from the South American sources, although at least one wild potato species, Solanum fendleri, naturally ranges from Peru into Texas, where it is used in breeding for resistance to a nematode species that attacks cultivated potatoes. A secondary center of genetic variability of the potato is Mexico, where important wild species that have been used extensively in modern breeding are found, such as the hexaploid Solanum demissum, as a source of resistance to the devastating late blight disease. Another relative native to this region, Solanum bulbocastanum, has been used to genetically engineer the potato to resist potato blight.

Potatoes yield abundantly with little effort, and adapt readily to diverse climates as long as the climate is cool and moist enough for the plants to gather sufficient water from the soil to form the starchy tubers. Potatoes do not keep very well in storage and are vulnerable to moulds that feed on the stored tubers and quickly turn them rotten, whereas crops such as grain can be stored for several years with a low risk of rot. The yield of Calories per acre (about 9.2 million) is higher than that of maize (7.5 million), rice (7.4 million), wheat (3 million), or soybean (2.8 million).

VARIETIES

There are close to 4,000 varieties of potato including common commercial varieties, each of which has specific agricultural or culinary attributes. Around 80 varieties are commercially available in the UK. In general, varieties are categorized into a few main groups based on common characteristics, such as russet potatoes (rough brown skin), red potatoes, white potatoes, yellow potatoes (also called Yukon potatoes) and purple potatoes.

For culinary purposes, varieties are often differentiated by their waxiness: floury or mealy baking potatoes have more starch (20–22%) than waxy boiling potatoes (16–18%). The distinction may also arise from variation in the comparative ratio of two different potato starch compounds: amylose and amylopectin. Amylose, a long-chain molecule, diffuses from the starch granule when cooked in water, and lends itself to dishes where the potato is mashed. Varieties that contain a slightly higher amylopectin content, which is a highly branched molecule, help the potato retain its shape after being boiled in water. Potatoes that are good for making potato chips or potato crisps are sometimes called "chipping potatoes", which means they meet the basic requirements of similar varietal characteristics, being firm, fairly clean, and fairly well-shaped.

The European Cultivated Potato Database (ECPD) is an online collaborative database of potato variety descriptions that is updated and maintained by the Scottish Agricultural Science Agency within the framework of the European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR)—which is run by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI).

PIGMENTATION

Dozens of potato cultivars have been selectively bred specifically for their skin or, more commonly, flesh color, including gold, red, and blue varieties that contain varying amounts of phytochemicals, including carotenoids for gold/yellow or polyphenols for red or blue cultivars. Carotenoid compounds include provitamin A alpha-carotene and beta-carotene, which are converted to the essential nutrient, vitamin A, during digestion. Anthocyanins mainly responsible for red or blue pigmentation in potato cultivars do not have nutritional significance, but are used for visual variety and consumer appeal. Recently, as of 2010, potatoes have also been bioengineered specifically for these pigmentation traits.

GENETICALLY ENGINEERED POTATOES

Genetic research has produced several genetically modified varieties. 'New Leaf', owned by Monsanto Company, incorporates genes from Bacillus thuringiensis, which confers resistance to the Colorado potato beetle; 'New Leaf Plus' and 'New Leaf Y', approved by US regulatory agencies during the 1990s, also include resistance to viruses. McDonald's, Burger King, Frito-Lay, and Procter & Gamble announced they would not use genetically modified potatoes, and Monsanto published its intent to discontinue the line in March 2001.

Waxy potato varieties produce two main kinds of potato starch, amylose and amylopectin, the latter of which is most industrially useful. BASF developed the Amflora potato, which was modified to express antisense RNA to inactivate the gene for granule bound starch synthase, an enzyme which catalyzes the formation of amylose. Amflora potatoes therefore produce starch consisting almost entirely of amylopectin, and are thus more useful for the starch industry. In 2010, the European Commission cleared the way for 'Amflora' to be grown in the European Union for industrial purposes only—not for food. Nevertheless, under EU rules, individual countries have the right to decide whether they will allow this potato to be grown on their territory. Commercial planting of 'Amflora' was expected in the Czech Republic and Germany in the spring of 2010, and Sweden and the Netherlands in subsequent years. Another GM potato variety developed by BASF is 'Fortuna' which was made resistant to late blight by adding two resistance genes, blb1 and blb2, which originate from the Mexican wild potato Solanum bulbocastanum. In October 2011 BASF requested cultivation and marketing approval as a feed and food from the EFSA. In 2012, GMO development in Europe was stopped by BASF.

In November 2014, the USDA approved a genetically modified potato developed by J.R. Simplot Company, which contains genetic modifications that prevent bruising and produce less acrylamide when fried than conventional potatoes; the modifications do not cause new proteins to be made, but rather prevent proteins from being made via RNA interference.

HISTORY

The potato was first domesticated in the region of modern-day southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia between 8000 and 5000 BC. It has since spread around the world and become a staple crop in many countries.

The earliest archaeologically verified potato tuber remains have been found at the coastal site of Ancon (central Peru), dating to 2500 BC. The most widely cultivated variety, Solanum tuberosum tuberosum, is indigenous to the Chiloé Archipelago, and has been cultivated by the local indigenous people since before the Spanish conquest.

According to conservative estimates, the introduction of the potato was responsible for a quarter of the growth in Old World population and urbanization between 1700 and 1900. In the Altiplano, potatoes provided the principal energy source for the Inca civilization, its predecessors, and its Spanish successor. Following the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, the Spanish introduced the potato to Europe in the second half of the 16th century, part of the Columbian exchange. The staple was subsequently conveyed by European mariners to territories and ports throughout the world. The potato was slow to be adopted by European farmers, but soon enough it became an important food staple and field crop that played a major role in the European 19th century population boom. However, lack of genetic diversity, due to the very limited number of varieties initially introduced, left the crop vulnerable to disease. In 1845, a plant disease known as late blight, caused by the fungus-like oomycete Phytophthora infestans, spread rapidly through the poorer communities of western Ireland as well as parts of the Scottish Highlands, resulting in the crop failures that led to the Great Irish Famine. Thousands of varieties still persist in the Andes however, where over 100 cultivars might be found in a single valley, and a dozen or more might be maintained by a single agricultural household.

PRODUCTION

In 2016, world production of potatoes was 377 million tonnes, led by China with over 26% of the world total (see table). Other major producers were India, Russia, Ukraine and the United States. It remains an essential crop in Europe (especially eastern and central Europe), where per capita production is still the highest in the world, but the most rapid expansion over the past few decades has occurred in southern and eastern Asia.

NUTRITION

A raw potato is 79% water, 17% carbohydrates (88% is starch), 2% protein, and contains negligible fat (see table). In an amount measuring 100 grams, raw potato provides 322 kilojoules (77 kilocalories) of energy and is a rich source of vitamin B6 and vitamin C (23% and 24% of the Daily Value, respectively), with no other vitamins or minerals in significant amount (see table). The potato is rarely eaten raw because raw potato starch is poorly digested by humans. When a potato is baked, its contents of vitamin B6 and vitamin C decline notably, while there is little significant change in the amount of other nutrients.

Potatoes are often broadly classified as having a high glycemic index (GI) and so are often excluded from the diets of individuals trying to follow a low-GI diet. The GI of potatoes can vary considerably depending on the cultivar or cultivar category (such as "red", russet, "white", or King Edward), growing conditions and storage, preparation methods (by cooking method, whether it is eaten hot or cold, whether it is mashed or cubed or consumed whole), and accompanying foods consumed (especially the addition of various high-fat or high-protein toppings). In particular, consuming reheated or cooled potatoes that were previously cooked may yield a lower GI effect.

In the UK, potatoes are not considered by the National Health Service (NHS) as counting or contributing towards the recommended daily five portions of fruit and vegetables, the 5-A-Day program.

COMPARISON TO OTHER STAPLE FOODS

This table shows the nutrient content of potatoes next to other major staple foods, each one measured in its respective raw state, even though staple foods are not commonly eaten raw and are usually sprouted or cooked before eating. In sprouted and cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains (or other foods) may be different from the values in this table. Each nutrient (every row) has the highest number highlighted to show the staple food with the greatest amount in a 100-gram raw portion.

TOXICITY

Potatoes contain toxic compounds known as glycoalkaloids, of which the most prevalent are solanine and chaconine. Solanine is found in other plants in the same family, Solanaceae, which includes such plants as deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), henbane (Hyoscyamus niger) and tobacco (Nicotiana spp.), as well as the food plants eggplant and tomato. These compounds, which protect the potato plant from its predators, are generally concentrated in its leaves, flowers, sprouts, and fruits (in contrast to the tubers). In a summary of several studies, the glycoalkaloid content was highest in the flowers and sprouts and lowest in the tuber flesh. (The glycoalkaloid content was, in order from highest to lowest: flowers, sprouts, leaves, skin, roots, berries, peel [skin plus outer cortex of tuber flesh], stems, and tuber flesh.)

Exposure to light, physical damage, and age increase glycoalkaloid content within the tuber. Cooking at high temperatures—over 170 °C—partly destroys these compounds. The concentration of glycoalkaloids in wild potatoes is sufficient to produce toxic effects in humans. Glycoalkaloid poisoning may cause headaches, diarrhea, cramps, and, in severe cases, coma and death. However, poisoning from cultivated potato varieties is very rare. Light exposure causes greening from chlorophyll synthesis, giving a visual clue as to which areas of the tuber may have become more toxic. However, this does not provide a definitive guide, as greening and glycoalkaloid accumulation can occur independently of each other.

Different potato varieties contain different levels of glycoalkaloids. The Lenape variety was released in 1967 but was withdrawn in 1970 as it contained high levels of glycoalkaloids. Since then, breeders developing new varieties test for this, and sometimes have to discard an otherwise promising cultivar. Breeders try to keep glycoalkaloid levels below 200 mg/kg). However, when these commercial varieties turn green, they can still approach solanine concentrations of 1000 mg/kg. In normal potatoes, analysis has shown solanine levels may be as little as 3.5% of the breeders' maximum, with 7–187 mg/kg being found. While a normal potato tuber has 12–20 mg/kg of glycoalkaloid content, a green potato tuber contains 250–280 mg/kg and its skin has 1500–2200 mg/kg.

GROWTH AND CULTIVATION

SEED POTATOES

Potatoes are generally grown from seed potatoes, tubers specifically grown to be free from disease and to provide consistent and healthy plants. To be disease free, the areas where seed potatoes are grown are selected with care. In the US, this restricts production of seed potatoes to only 15 states out of all 50 states where potatoes are grown. These locations are selected for their cold, hard winters that kill pests and summers with long sunshine hours for optimum growth. In the UK, most seed potatoes originate in Scotland, in areas where westerly winds prevent aphid attack and thus prevent spread of potato virus pathogens.

PHASES OF GROWTH

Potato growth is divided into five phases. During the first phase, sprouts emerge from the seed potatoes and root growth begins. During the second, photosynthesis begins as the plant develops leaves and branches. In the third phase, stolons develop from lower leaf axils on the stem and grow downwards into the ground and on these stolons new tubers develop as swellings of the stolon. This phase is often, but not always, associated with flowering. Tuber formation halts when soil temperatures reach 27 °C; hence potatoes are considered a cool-season, or winter, crop. Tuber bulking occurs during the fourth phase, when the plant begins investing the majority of its resources in its newly formed tubers. At this phase, several factors are critical to a good yield: optimal soil moisture and temperature, soil nutrient availability and balance, and resistance to pest attacks. The fifth and final phase is the maturation of the tubers: the plant canopy dies back, the tuber skins harden, and the sugars in the tubers convert to starches.

CHALLENGES

New tubers may start growing at the surface of the soil. Since exposure to light leads to an undesirable greening of the skins and the development of solanine as a protection from the sun's rays, growers cover surface tubers. Commercial growers cover them by piling additional soil around the base of the plant as it grows (called "hilling" up, or in British English "earthing up"). An alternative method, used by home gardeners and smaller-scale growers, involves covering the growing area with organic mulches such as straw or plastic sheets.

Correct potato husbandry can be an arduous task in some circumstances. Good ground preparation, harrowing, plowing, and rolling are always needed, along with a little grace from the weather and a good source of water. Three successive plowings, with associated harrowing and rolling, are desirable before planting. Eliminating all root-weeds is desirable in potato cultivation. In general, the potatoes themselves are grown from the eyes of another potato and not from seed. Home gardeners often plant a piece of potato with two or three eyes in a hill of mounded soil. Commercial growers plant potatoes as a row crop using seed tubers, young plants or microtubers and may mound the entire row. Seed potato crops are rogued in some countries to eliminate diseased plants or those of a different variety from the seed crop.

Potatoes are sensitive to heavy frosts, which damage them in the ground. Even cold weather makes potatoes more susceptible to bruising and possibly later rotting, which can quickly ruin a large stored crop.

PESTS

The historically significant Phytophthora infestans (late blight) remains an ongoing problem in Europe and the United States. Other potato diseases include Rhizoctonia, Sclerotinia, black leg, powdery mildew, powdery scab and leafroll virus.

Insects that commonly transmit potato diseases or damage the plants include the Colorado potato beetle, the potato tuber moth, the green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), the potato aphid, beet leafhoppers, thrips, and mites. The potato cyst nematode is a microscopic worm that thrives on the roots, thus causing the potato plants to wilt. Since its eggs can survive in the soil for several years, crop rotation is recommended.

During the crop year 2008, many of the certified organic potatoes produced in the United Kingdom and certified by the Soil Association as organic were sprayed with a copper pesticide to control potato blight (Phytophthora infestans). According to the Soil Association, the total copper that can be applied to organic land is 6 kg/ha/year.

According to an Environmental Working Group analysis of USDA and FDA pesticide residue tests performed from 2000 through 2008, 84% of the 2,216 tested potato samples contained detectable traces of at least one pesticide. A total of 36 unique pesticides were detected on potatoes over the 2,216 samples, though no individual sample contained more than 6 unique pesticide traces, and the average was 1.29 detectable unique pesticide traces per sample. The average quantity of all pesticide traces found in the 2,216 samples was 1.602 ppm. While this was a very low value of pesticide residue, it was the highest amongst the 50 vegetables analyzed.

HARVEST

At harvest time, gardeners usually dig up potatoes with a long-handled, three-prong "grape" (or graip), i.e., a spading fork, or a potato hook, which is similar to the graip but with tines at a 90° angle to the handle. In larger plots, the plow is the fastest implement for unearthing potatoes. Commercial harvesting is typically done with large potato harvesters, which scoop up the plant and surrounding earth. This is transported up an apron chain consisting of steel links several feet wide, which separates some of the dirt. The chain deposits into an area where further separation occurs. Different designs use different systems at this point. The most complex designs use vine choppers and shakers, along with a blower system to separate the potatoes from the plant. The result is then usually run past workers who continue to sort out plant material, stones, and rotten potatoes before the potatoes are continuously delivered to a wagon or truck. Further inspection and separation occurs when the potatoes are unloaded from the field vehicles and put into storage.

Immature potatoes may be sold as "creamer potatoes" and are particularly valued for taste. These are often harvested by the home gardener or farmer by "grabbling", i.e. pulling out the young tubers by hand while leaving the plant in place. A creamer potato is a variety of potato harvested before it matures to keep it small and tender. It is generally either a Yukon Gold potato or a red potato, called gold creamers or red creamers respectively, and measures approximately 2.5 cm in diameter. The skin of creamer potatoes is waxy and high in moisture content, and the flesh contains a lower level of starch than other potatoes. Like potatoes in general, they can be prepared by boiling, baking, frying, and roasting. Slightly older than creamer potatoes are "new potatoes", which are also prized for their taste and texture and often come from the same varieties.

Potatoes are usually cured after harvest to improve skin-set. Skin-set is the process by which the skin of the potato becomes resistant to skinning damage. Potato tubers may be susceptible to skinning at harvest and suffer skinning damage during harvest and handling operations. Curing allows the skin to fully set and any wounds to heal. Wound-healing prevents infection and water-loss from the tubers during storage. Curing is normally done at relatively warm temperatures 10 to 16 °C with high humidity and good gas-exchange if at all possible.

STORAGE

Storage facilities need to be carefully designed to keep the potatoes alive and slow the natural process of decomposition, which involves the breakdown of starch. It is crucial that the storage area is dark, ventilated well and, for long-term storage, maintained at temperatures near 4 °C. For short-term storage, temperatures of about 7 to 10 °C are preferred.

On the other hand, temperatures below 4 °C convert the starch in potatoes into sugar, which alters their taste and cooking qualities and leads to higher acrylamide levels in the cooked product, especially in deep-fried dishes. The discovery of acrylamides in starchy foods in 2002 has led to international health concerns. They are believed to be probable carcinogens and their occurrence in cooked foods is being studied for potentially influencing health problems.

Under optimum conditions in commercial warehouses, potatoes can be stored for up to 10–12 months. The commercial storage and retrieval of potatoes involves several phases: first drying surface moisture; wound healing at 85% to 95% relative humidity and temperatures below 25 °C; a staged cooling phase; a holding phase; and a reconditioning phase, during which the tubers are slowly warmed. Mechanical ventilation is used at various points during the process to prevent condensation and the accumulation of carbon dioxide.

When stored in homes unrefrigerated, the shelf life is usually a few weeks.

If potatoes develop green areas or start to sprout, trimming or peeling those green-colored parts is inadequate to remove copresent toxins, and such potatoes are no longer edible.

YIELD

The world dedicated 18.6 million ha in 2010 for potato cultivation. The average world farm yield for potato was 17.4 tonnes per hectare, in 2010. Potato farms in the United States were the most productive in 2010, with a nationwide average of 44.3 tonnes per hectare. United Kingdom was a close second.

New Zealand farmers have demonstrated some of the best commercial yields in the world, ranging between 60 and 80 tonnes per hectare, some reporting yields of 88 tonnes potatoes per hectare.

There is a big gap among various countries between high and low yields, even with the same variety of potato. Average potato yields in developed economies ranges between 38–44 tonnes per hectare. China and India accounted for over a third of world's production in 2010, and had yields of 14.7 and 19.9 tonnes per hectare respectively. The yield gap between farms in developing economies and developed economies represents an opportunity loss of over 400 million tonnes of potato, or an amount greater than 2010 world potato production. Potato crop yields are determined by factors such as the crop breed, seed age and quality, crop management practices and the plant environment. Improvements in one or more of these yield determinants, and a closure of the yield gap, can be a major boost to food supply and farmer incomes in the developing world.

USES

Potatoes are prepared in many ways: skin-on or peeled, whole or cut up, with seasonings or without. The only requirement involves cooking to swell the starch granules. Most potato dishes are served hot but some are first cooked, then served cold, notably potato salad and potato chips (crisps). Common dishes are: mashed potatoes, which are first boiled (usually peeled), and then mashed with milk or yogurt and butter; whole baked potatoes; boiled or steamed potatoes; French-fried potatoes or chips; cut into cubes and roasted; scalloped, diced, or sliced and fried (home fries); grated into small thin strips and fried (hash browns); grated and formed into dumplings, Rösti or potato pancakes. Unlike many foods, potatoes can also be easily cooked in a microwave oven and still retain nearly all of their nutritional value, provided they are covered in ventilated plastic wrap to prevent moisture from escaping; this method produces a meal very similar to a steamed potato, while retaining the appearance of a conventionally baked potato. Potato chunks also commonly appear as a stew ingredient. Potatoes are boiled between 10 and 25 minutes, depending on size and type, to become soft.

OTHER THAN FOR EATING

Potatoes are also used for purposes other than eating by humans, for example:

Potatoes are used to brew alcoholic beverages such as vodka, poitín, or akvavit.

They are also used as fodder for livestock. Livestock-grade potatoes, considered too small and/or blemished to sell or market for human use but suitable for fodder use, have been called chats in some dialects. They may be stored in bins until use; they are sometimes ensiled. Some farmers prefer to steam them rather than feed them raw and are equipped to do so efficiently.

Potato starch is used in the food industry as a thickener and binder for soups and sauces, in the textile industry as an adhesive, and for the manufacturing of papers and boards.

Maine companies are exploring the possibilities of using waste potatoes to obtain polylactic acid for use in plastic products; other research projects seek ways to use the starch as a base for biodegradable packaging.

Potato skins, along with honey, are a folk remedy for burns in India. Burn centres in India have experimented with the use of the thin outer skin layer to protect burns while healing.

Potatoes (mainly Russets) are commonly used in plant research. The consistent parenchyma tissue, the clonal nature of the plant and the low metabolic activity provide a very nice "model tissue" for experimentation. Wound-response studies are often done on potato tuber tissue, as are electron transport experiments. In this respect, potato tuber tissue is similar to Drosophila melanogaster, Caenorhabditis elegans and Escherichia coli: they are all "standard" research organisms.

Potatoes have been delivered with personalized messages as a novelty. Potato delivery services include Potato Parcel and Mail A Spud.

WIKIPEDIA

Scalp Micro-Pigmentation by Becks by Adrenalin Park Custom Tattoo and Body Piercing

Himba by breath.climb.au

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My wife and I were travelling from South Africa to Kenya.

We were lucky enough to visit a Himba tribe. The people were beautiful and had their own distinctive style. The women and children would put red mud on their skin and in their hair for the pigmentation.

"Sugar Robber" (Bald-faced Hornet) by Orland Park Birdie Girl

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Don't mess with "my" sugar source or you will regret it!