knowledge photos on Flickr

Camp Mazinaw opened in the 1940s and was located immediately south of the current Bon Echo Provincial Park on the old Highway #41. Initially it was a 6 week camp for 60 boys and was in operation for about 50 years.

The founder was PK Hambly who purchased 3 separate properties and opened the camp in 1940 during the war. Times were tough so cutting lumber supplemented the camp income. The original Hambly cottage is now part of Paul and Martha McLean's home.

The highly respected camp made a significant impact on many of the boys lives. Several notable men have fond memories of their summers at Camp Mazinaw. One of the most recognized campers would be Steve Paikin (The Agenda with Steve Paikin) Jim Smart- former owner of Smart's Marina was a cabin mate with Steve.

The boys instruction was of paramount importance. In 1946 Fred Hagan was appointed Arts & Craft Instructor at Camp Mazinaw and later taught at the Ontario College of Art in the 1950s and 60s. With his knowledge of art and crafts he built much of the furniture in Lodge. In 1951 Fred Hagan painted several painting of the Mazinaw the same year as Casson. It is unknown if they painted together.

Three men ran the camp until the 1970s (Hambly, Reginaud Blackstock 'Blackie' and Harry Hull). Blackie was famous for his canoeing expertise. He instructed at Pinecrest YMCA Camp prior to coming to Camp Mazinaw. He also was a teacher at Pickering College.

In the 1950s there were some financial problems and some lots were sold. The men were better teachers than businessmen and financing was sometimes difficult.

Brian Blackstock and Paul McLean eventually took over running the camp. Hambly died in 1976 and McLean purchased Hambly's shares in the camp. Blackie died in 1978 and Brian Blackstock inherited Blackie's shares. Harry Hull was a silent partner- he enjoyed being at Camp Mazinaw. In 1987 Paul and Martha McLean ran the camp and purchased the remaining shares from Harry Hull. By 1990 most of the Lodge was torn down.

Much of the above information was obtained from an interviews with Paul and Martha McLean in July 2008 and Jim Smart in August 2008.

Part of the Bon Echo Provincial Park Album

Note: Commercial use of this image is prohibited without CDHS permission. All CDHS Flickr content is available for personal use providing our Rights Statement is followed:

pioneer.mazinaw.on.ca/flickr_statement.php

Forsaken Knowledge by Abdurrahman AL-SAGGAF

Some books are best left unread...

Passing on Knowledge by Mattijn Franssen

13 14

Knowledge by Daniel Voyager

slurl.com/secondlife/Serendipity Acres/96/170/35

Knowledge by Borja Santacruz Fabregues

Knowledge Artnote "Love" by Marusa Art

Knowledge III by Esther Hernandez

11 18

Light Dancing 110124 by Photographer Theophilus Raynsford Mann 馬天亮攝影師

Director Theophilus Raynsford Mann

~ a Taiwanese social reformer, philosopher, photographer, and film director

“Do Everything for My People”

馬天亮導演

~ 臺灣的社會改革者，哲學家，攝影師，和電影導演

《造福人民》

SUMMARY

Theophilus Raynsford Mann is a naturalist, occultist, Buddhist and Taoist. In 1982, Mann developed a technique for abstract photography, applied “Rayonism” into photographic works. Mann staged 32 individual, extraordinary exhibitions around Taiwan, who was the first exhibitor around Formosa. Mann’s works is the beginning of modernization in the modern abstract arts in the world. At the University of Oxford, Mann’s attractive topic was “A View of Architectural History: Towns through the Ages from Winchester through London Arrived at Oxford in England”; also an author at the University of California, Berkeley and the University of Michigan in the United States; an alumnus from Christ Church College at the University of Oxford in England, the University of Glamorgan in Wales, and National Taiwan University in Taipei on Taiwan. Mann’s works have been quoted by the scholars many times, making Mann one of the highly cited technological, artistic, and managing public administrators in the academia. Mann was listed in “Taiwan Who’s Who In Business” © 1984, 1987, 1989 Harvard Management Service.

Education in Taiwan and a Brief of Latest Generation of History in Taiwan / Formosa

In 1980, Mann obtained his postgraduate certificate from the Graduate Institute of Electrical Engineering of National Taiwan University in Taipei; successfully completed another graduate studies in Information dBase III Plus and Taiwanese Traditional Chinese Mandarin Information System at National Sun Yat-Sen University in Kaohsiung in 1989.

Early Career

In 1989, Mann instituted Mann’s Office of Electrical Engineer, he settled himself in electrical technology and industries as a chief engineer in his early years. He put his professional and precise knowledge to good account in business management. A formal business management with business relationship established to provide for regular services, dealings, and other commercial transactions and deed. He had many customers having a business and credit relationship with his firm then he was a successful engineer.

Study Abroad and Immigration into the United Kingdom

In 1998, Mann studied abroad when he arrived in Great Britain; he studied at School of Built Environment, the University of Glamorgan, Wales for a master of science in real estate appraisal. Until the summer of 2000, Mann completed an academic course on “Towns through the Ages” from Christ Church at the University of Oxford.

PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS

Mann is a naturalist; he trusts spiritual naturalism and naturalistic spirituality, which teaches that “the unknown” created this wonderful world. “The unknown” arranged the nature with its law so that everything in nature is kept balanced and in order. However, human beings failed to control themselves, deliberately went against the law of nature, and resulted in disasters, which we deserved. He also is an occultist, a Taoist, and a Buddhist; but in Britain, he frequently goes to Christian and Catholic churches, where he makes friends with pastors and fathers as well as churchgoers. In his mind, he recognizes “Belief is truth held in the mind; faith is a fire in the heart”. He is always a freethinker, does not accept traditional, social, and religious teaching, but based on his ideas: a thought or conception that potentially and actually exists in his mind as a product of mental activity - his opinion, conviction, and principle. If people have not come across eastern classics and philosophy, we are afraid that people would never understand Theophilus Raynsford Mann. People cannot judge an eastern philosopher based on western ways of thinking. He studies I Ching discovering eastern classics of ancient origin consisting of 64 interrelated hexagrams along with commentaries. The hexagrams embody Taoist philosophy by describing all nature and human endeavour in terms of the interaction of yin and yang, and the classics may be consulted as an oracle.

Back in the 1990s when Mann just arrived at England, he had been offered places to do Ph.D. and LL.M. degrees (degree in Law and Politics of the European Union) by several western professors in the Great Britain. He has met all the requirements for postgraduate admissions to study at UK’s universities.

During his time at Oxford, he learnt a lot of British culture and folk-custom while carrying out research with many British and Western professors, experts, and archaeologists. This proves that Mann understands various aspects in British society, culture, and lifestyles. Of course, he does not fully understand about the perspectives of thinking of a typical British. For example, what would be the most valuable in life for a British person? What would a British want to gain from life? What is the goal in life for a British? Is it fortune or a lover? Alternatively, perhaps honour? On the other hand, maybe being able to travel around the world and see the world?

FAIRNESS and JUSTICE

As Theophilus Raynsford Mann’s saying are:

“Touching Fairness and Justice”

Feel good about themselves, but do not know the sufferings of the people...

Who can get easy life like them?

What is profile of modern society?

What type and style is truly solemn for this society identify?

Where “the characterization” is? Who can see? Did you see it?

《感動的公平與正義》

自我感覺良好, 不知民間疾苦...

誰能得到安逸的生活如同他們一樣？

這是個什麼樣子的社會？

這個社會認定什麼樣的類型和風格是真正莊重的?

「特徵」在那裡？誰可以看到？你看到了嗎？

Jurisprudence and Political Philosophy and Perspectives

Mann ever studied judicial review and governmental action, the impact of law and legal techniques, constitutional mechanisms for the protection of basic rights, and ensuring the integrity of commercial activity, the impact of law and legal techniques on government, policymaking, and administration, as well as the creation of markets. He tries to understand these critical trends in the political development of modern state. Mann will combine both theoretical and empirical approaches, and the conditions for democratic transition and the nature of state development in the ‘post-industrial’ era of globalisation and economic integration.

According as Mann’s legal experiences, he comprehend that “the knowledge of the law is like a deep well, out of which each man draught according to the strength of his understanding”, and, law and arbitrary power are in eternal enmity. He is also sure law and institutions are constantly tending to gravitate like clocks; they must be occasionally cleansed, and wound up, and set to true time.

The government issues a decree - an authoritative order having the force of law, which charged with putting into effect a country's laws and the administering of its functions. Any of the officials promulgate a law or put into practice relating to the government charged with the execution and administration of the nation's laws then they announce and carry out the creation of any order or new policy that will be responsible for the people.

Mann had knowledge in connexion with construction law; he also understands architectural arts, and as well learnt the forms by combining materials and parts include as an integral part concerning modern construct. I ever built urban buildings and rural architecture in different styles under new housing and building projects by the governmental administration and construction corporations.

Right now, Mann studies the problems caused by ethnic disputes and human armed conflicts in the modern society resulted code of mixed civil and criminal procedure. He wishes an agreement or a treaty to end human hostilities - the absence of war and other hostilities around the world. The interrelation and arrangement of freedom from quarrels and disagreement become harmonious relations living in peace with each other. Actually, erect peace in more friendly ways of making friendships for modern human society is comfortable in my ideal. It is like building monolithic architecture: houses and buildings for the people. Mann would like to do “something beautiful for `the unknown`”.

In the ethnic disagreement and armed conflicts as concerning the poor people and children notwithstanding they live through a bad environment on any of poor or crowded village or town in a particular manner - lived frugally. However, after years of industrialisation as a more educated population, becomes more aware of global plenum, continuing to be alive. Environmental groups are increasing and lobbing government will legislate to stop bad environmental and social practices. The establishments of human rights’ wide and untiring efforts will be alleviated people’s suffering. And as well the poor people shall meet and debate sustainable development and for a concerted government led action towards sustainability is an example that the younger generation are concerned for the future. It shall be making the younger easier for their life and make better on their lives, and help them to build a better future.

In present world, Mann really knows the full meanings of “Fundamental Human Rights and Equal Opportunities for the People”. He thinks ethics is the moral code governing the daily conduct of the individual toward those about him / her. It represents those rules or principles by which men and women live and work in a spirit of mutual confidence and service. Without going into the question of how an ethical code was formulated or why anybody should obey it, we can look at the matter in a common-sense fashion with reference to its influence upon our legal affairs. In brief, from the law point of view, a reputable ethical code embodies the qualities of accuracy, dependability, fair play, sound judgement, and service. It is based upon honesty.

No person can have an ethical code that concerns him / her alone. Living in society, as he / she must, a person encounters others whose rights must be respected as well as his / her own. An honest regard for the rights of others is an essential element of any decent code of ethics, and one that anyone must observe if anybody intends to follow that code. After all, ethics is not something apart from human beings. Indeed, there is no such thing apart from our actions and us. It is the duty, therefore, of every man and woman in legal affairs to see that his daily associations with others are truly in conformity with the plain meaning of the Ten Commandments: “Thou shalt not barratry, thou shalt not bear false witness, thou shalt not receive illegal fee and the rest”.

The knowledge Mann has, in connection with legal affairs, was usually come from his precious experiences of his past over ten year’s law and political careers. In an interval regarded as a distinct period of 1980s, he studied mixed civil and crime, and the code of mixed civil and criminal procedure for the problems caused by ethnic disputes and human armed conflicts in the modern society. He was especially one who maintains the language and customs of the group, and social security in Taiwan.

Since 30 July of 1988, Mann settled himself in law as a chief executive and scrivener at Central Legal, Real Estate, and Accounting Services Office; it is in the equivalent to a solicitor of the United Kingdom. The Office provided full legal, accounting, real estate, and commercial services to the public. He did his job as a person legally appointed by another to act as his or her agent in the transaction of business, specifically one qualified and licensed to act for plaintiffs and defendants in legal proceedings and affairs. Over and above Mann was a chairman and executive consultant at Taiwan Credit Information Company®, founded in 1994. The company offered services to the public in response to need and demand in the area of credit information.

Mann had excellent experiences in political and law work was pertaining to mixed civil and crime, the code of mixed civil and criminal procedure, construction, and commercial law abroad. The experiences of legal services related to the rights of private individuals and legal proceedings concerning these rights as distinguished. In the criminal proceedings, he did many cases for the defendants. Although an act committed or omitted in violation of a law forbidding or commanding it and for which punishment is imposed upon conviction; but he also laid legal claim, required as useful, just, proper, or necessary to the defendants under the human rights in the meantime. This provision ensures to the defendant a real voice in the subject.

The men whose judgement we respect are those who do not allow prejudices, preferences, or personalities to influence their decisions. Profit and self-aggrandisement are likewise ignored in their determination to reach an equitable and fair settlement. What are the basic principles upon which good judgement is founded? A keen intellect, a normal emotionally, a through understanding of human nature, experience of law work, sincerity, and integrity.

Developed a Technique for Abstract Photography and Abstractionist

In 1982, Mann developed a technique for abstractive photography, which applied “rayonism” to the photographic works. In November of 1984, Mann was 26-year-old, he instructed many professors and students of National Taiwan Normal University in photography of abstract impressionism and rayonnisme in Taipei, Taiwan. The word “rayonnisme” is French for rayonism - a style of abstract painting developed in 1911 in Russia.

Photographic Exhibitions

Theophilus Raynsford Mann Photographic Exhibition of “Rayonnisme / Rayonism” Tour - Invitational Exhibition of Taiwan 1983-84.

一九八三〜八四年中華民國臺灣馬天亮攝影巡迴邀請展

Theophilus Raynsford Mann Photographic Exhibition of Rayonism (32 individual exhibitions) 1983~1985.

馬天亮『光影』攝影特展（個人展32場）1983〜1985年.

Mann staged 32 individual, extraordinary exhibitions and annual special exhibitions on photography of abstractive image and Rayonnisme around Taiwan / Formosa. Mann was the first exhibitor around the country. All of the invited displays were by the Taiwan’s Government, cultural and artistic organisations, and sponsors. Mann’s earliest exhibition took place in the National Taiwan Arts Education Center (Museum) on 19 December 1983 when Mann was 25 years old; Mann was the youngest exhibitor in the history of the Center in any solo exhibitions. The Center that was opened in March 1957, kept a collection of Mann’s work. It is currently updating the Center’s internal organisation and strengthening co-operation with leading centers and museums around the world. Meanwhile, it widened the center’s scope to increase its emphasis on Taiwan’ regional culture and folk arts.

Modernization in the Modern Abstract Arts of Taiwan

Mann’s works is the beginning of modernization in the modern abstract arts of Taiwan, China and greater Chinese society in the world. The use of “modernisation” as a concept that is opposed to “Traditional” of “Conservative” ideas began with the approach of the 20th century. It spreads rapidly through academic circles, and was broadly accepted as a means to reform society. Chinese Manchu Qing (Ching) dynasty’s first steps toward modernisation began in the Tung-chih era (1862-1874) with the “Self-Empowerment Movement”. During the late 19th century, as late Manchu dynasty was confronted on all sides by foreign aggression, voices throughout society debated the most effective means to reform and strengthen the country. Some advocated “combining the best of East and West”, while others went so far as to call for “complete Westernisation”. Taiwan was at the centre of these waves of reform. Faced with direct threats against the island by foreign enemies, the Chinese Ching dynasty court took special steps to push Taiwan’s modernisation.

In a role just like that of a gardener wanting to create a rich and fertile environment for the seeds of culture, one in which Mann may sprout, grow and bloom. Mann aims to provide an educational stimulus for society by introducing his works - Mann can express the neo-romantic spirit deftly from various creations and supporting international artistic exchanges. Mann believes that the first step in creating such a new and independent state is the real emergence of culture and arts, for which the art and science of designing and erecting buildings, and fine arts (including photography and motion picture) of the civilization is a good measurement of success. For the foreseeable future, Mann should be continuing to forge ahead, working diligently and unceasingly towards its mission of raising China and Formosa / Taiwan’s culture in his spare time.

Became an Author and a Scholar

In 1980, Theophilus Raynsford Mann completed his first book - scenario original “The Soul's Sentimentalizing”, also named: “Hun Yun : Jin Qi Tu Rui” 電影原著《魂韻》(衿契吐蕊) then Mann was at the age of 22. In 1983, The General Library of the University of California, Berkeley in the United States of America, collected and kept Mann’s writings - scenario original 「魂韻 : 衿契吐蕊」“Hun Yun : jin qi tu rui”, included a musical composition of his own – “Sonate Nr. 1 C-dur op. 3 für Klavier (piano)”, composed on 3rd April 1977 then Mann was 18 years old. The works were published in 1980; the theme was based on “The Soul's Sentimentalizing”. Another masterpiece was an Album of Academic Work for News

Publication “Theophilus Raynsford Mann Photographic Exhibition of Rayonnisme / Rayonism”, published in 1985. The Hathi Trust Digital Library, the University of Michigan also collected and kept Mann’s writings.

Authorship

Mann’s articles and writings were published in more than 200 different kinds of domestic and foreign magazines, newspapers, and periodicals, in the period between May of 1972 and 1990s. It was all started when Mann was just 13-year-old. Many of which have been very influential. These have been quoted by Western and Eastern scholars many times in the last few years, making Mann one of the highly cited technological, artistic, and managing public administrators in the world in the late 20th and early 21st century. The Ministry of the Interior in Taiwan had registered Mann’s professional writings and given him two certificates of copyright. The numbers are 33080 and 33081 on 4th July of 1985; and Taiwan’s Gazette of The Presidential Office issue No. 4499, featured his writings on 4th September 1985.

Became an Academic and Film Director

Today, Mann is a professor at Space Time Life Research Academy, a photographer (portrait, fashion, commercial, digital, architectural, abstract photography), film director, and computer engineer now live and work in London; and most currently engage in his vocational professions of ‘Consultant of Immigration and Translations’. Mann is an author at the University of California, Berkeley, and the University of Michigan; an alumnus from Christ Church at the University of Oxford, the University of Glamorgan, and National Taiwan University in Taipei.

Director Works:

FILMS:

Abstract Films:

www.youtube.com/watch?v=M0ghIxV0LBo&feature=youtu.be

www.youtube.com/watch?v=PC_r2CO-UJs&feature=youtu.be

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www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Ph8qb2Wjps&feature=youtu.be

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www.youtube.com/watch?v=IN1e07X4AEc&feature=youtu.be

www.youtube.com/watch?v=DmCVSjG1KEk&feature=youtu.be

www.flickr.com/photos/124141020@N05/17553751944/in/photos...

www.youtube.com/watch?v=zoG3cxICeEY

www.flickr.com/photos/124141020@N05/17797502869/in/datepo...

www.youtube.com/watch?v=pkcmrMmF_gc&feature=youtu.be

www.flickr.com/photos/124141020@N05/18115536036/in/photos...

www.youtube.com/watch?v=2xFOdzM3T9Y&feature=youtu.be

www.flickr.com/photos/124141020@N05/17525813743/in/photos...

www.youtube.com/watch?v=a48BPHplf4Q&feature=youtu.be

www.flickr.com/photos/124141020@N05/17576816593/in/photos...

Documentary Films:

www.youtube.com/watch?v=flSg_KZC8T4&feature=youtu.be

www.flickr.com/photos/124141020@N05/17482109753/in/photos...

www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tcpkc6niMiY&feature=youtu.be

www.flickr.com/photos/124141020@N05/18201816521/in/photos...

www.youtube.com/watch?v=vWjYRRTsltI&feature=youtu.be

www.flickr.com/photos/124141020@N05/18208449565/in/photos...

www.youtube.com/watch?v=1mcPNaQtWu8&feature=youtu.be

www.flickr.com/photos/124141020@N05/17883706816/

www.youtube.com/watch?v=RApsQA2Km1w

Theophilus Raynsford Mann 馬天亮導演 - YouTube

www.youtube.com/watch?v=ijotODxZkNo&list=LLosvuIOImSV...

www.youtube.com/channel/UCosvuIOImSVgFru84i9omOQ/videos

www.youtube.com/playlist?list=LLosvuIOImSVgFru84i9omOQ

Bing Videos

www.bing.com/videos/search?q=Theophilus+Raynsford+Mann&am...

Yahoo Video

video.search.yahoo.com/search/video;_ylt=A2KLqIJi82hVnk0A...

Google Search

www.google.co.uk/search?client=aff-cs-360se&ie=UTF-8&...

Drama Films:

“The Soul's Sentimentalizing” of the feature film is based on the scenario original “The Soul's Sentimentalizing” (preparation)

FASHION SHOWS:

ART EXHIBITIONS:

Musician Work:

MUSIC COMPOSITION:

PHOTOGRAPHIC ALBUMS:

www.youtube.com/watch?v=ijotODxZkNo

英國倫敦浴佛節佛陀雕塑藝術, music “Gymnopedie No. 3”, “Gymnopédies”

www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQqyefiuAYY

BOOKS:

Scenario Original「魂韻」(衿契吐蕊) “Hun yun: jin qi tu rui” © December 1980, © 1981, © 1983 (Date of First Publication: 31 December 1980, Second Edition on 29 July 1981, Date of Revision: Revised Edition on 8 May 1983), Languages: Chinese (traditional), and English language.

Album of Academic Work for News Publication: “TianLiang Maa (Theophilus Raynsford Mann) Photographic Exhibitions of Rayonnisme” © May 1985

新聞出版之學術著作專輯「馬天亮『光影』“Rayonism” 攝影展」© May 1985

New version of scenario original “The Soul's Sentimentalizing” (to be published)

「曾經輝煌到頂天立地」 “The Indomitable Spirit Was Brilliant to Successful” (The indomitable spirit was brilliant to towering a great height from earth reaching the sky!

Individual biography, to be published)

“My Life, My History, and My Love” (based on a legend, to be published, a film scenario will be developed later)

「感動的公平與正義」“Touching Fairness and Justice” (political science and social studies, to be published)

「氣壯山海‧頂天立地‧民富國強‧白金時代」 “Full of power and grandeur thrusts onto the mountain and ocean, towering a great height from earth reaching the sky for my people with good fortune and my country become stronger, builds a platinum era - white golden age.” (Chinese version for my way towards national election)

Research Interests:

University of Oxford

Research Studies in Archaeology:

Mann’s attractive topic was “A View of Architectural History: Towns through the Ages from Winchester through London Arrived at Oxford in England”.

National Taiwan University

Graduate Certificate,

Graduate Institute of Electrical Engineering:

Mann’s monograph of seminar was “Applied the sequence control in the electric power distribution engineering”.

University of Glamorgan

M.Sc. Course,

Master of Science in Real Estate Appraisal:

Mann’s thesis - major subject, with relevant construction law was “The Assignment is under Economics of Construction Management in Architecture”.

National Sun Yat-Sen University

Postgraduate Certificate,

Postgraduate Studies in Computing:

Mann’s required subject was Information dBase III Plus and Taiwanese Traditional Mandarin Chinese Information System. He combined academic course work and practical laboratory sessions in “Applied Mandarin Phonetic Symbols into Traditional Taiwanese Personal Computer and Its Information System”.

Associations:

Member of The Kaohsiung Life Line Association since 11 January 1979, an association established in the USA.

Member of The Society of Youth Writers, Tien (Catholic) Educational Center, Taipei since 1980.

Since 1980, a member of Chinese Taipei Film Archive (CTFA, National Film Archive, Taiwan; founded in 1978), The Motion Picture Foundation, R.O.C. (member of Fédération Internationale des Archives du Film, FIAF; The International Federation of Film Archives was founded in Paris in 1938 by the British Film Institute, the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, the Cinémathèque Française and the Reichsfilmarchiv in Berlin.)

Commissioner of the cinema, photography, radio, and television committee of The Culture and Arts Association (Chinese Writers and Artists Association) of Taiwan ever since September 1983.

Classic member, the membership is equivalent to a doctorate membership of the Chinese Institute of Electrical Engineering since 23 March 1984.

On 15 March 1989, Mann promoted and founded the Consortium Juridical Person Mr. Theophilus Raynsford Mann Social Benefit Foundation 財團法人馬天亮先生社會公益基金會籌備處 (Social Charity 社會慈善事業) in Taiwan.

near.archives.gov.tw/cgi-bin/near2/nph-redirect?rname=tre...

Classic member, the membership is equal to a professor or associate professor of The Chinese Institute of Engineers since 30 September 1991.

Honours:

中華民國企業名人錄編纂委員會, 哈佛企業管理顧問公司.

On 26 August 1985, Mann was awarded a professional certificate of the Outdoor Artistry Activities issued by Education Bureau, Kaohsiung City Government, Taiwan. He acquired awards and certificates of honour about twenty times from National Taiwan Arts Education Center (Museum) on 24 December 1983; Kaohsiung Municipal Social Education Center on 17 March 1984, Kaohsiung Cultural Center, Taipei Cultural Center (Taipei Municipal Social Education Hall); and Taiwan Province Government, Taipei City Government, Kaohsiung City Government, and many cultural centres and art galleries, and so on.

Careers:

Honorary Professor at Space Time Life Research Academy, 7 June 2012 to present; Professor at Space Time Life Research Academy, 1 September 2011 to 1 June 2012 in London, United Kingdom:

Academia,

Teaching and Research:

business management and consultant, political philosophy, Chinese classics, Chinese humanities, modern Chinese language and literature, photography (portrait, fashion, commercial, digital, architectural, abstract photography), visual arts and film production.

www.facebook.com/stlres

教學與研究：

企業管理及顧問、政治哲學、中華經典 (古典漢學、文學、藝術、語言) 、中華人文、中華現代語言與文學、攝影 (人像、時裝、商業、數位/數碼、建築、抽象攝影) ，視覺藝術和製作影片。

Consultant and Translator at Eternal Life Consultants of Immigration and Translations Services, 10 March 2004 to present in London, United Kingdom:

consultants of immigration, translations, and legal services.

www.facebook.com/elcits

永生移民顧問翻譯服務社的移民諮詢顧問和翻譯：

移民事務，翻譯和法律服務。

Computer Hardware and Networking Engineer at Mann Office of Electrical Engineer, 8 March 2004 to present in London, United Kingdom:

Computer Engineering and Network Services. Repairing of Motherboards, Monitors, Power Supplies, CD-ROM Drives; UPS, Hard Disk Drives, H.D.D Data Recovery; BIOS Programming, and all types of Computer Hardware and Software Solutions.

www.facebook.com/maaelec

計算機工程和網絡服務。維修主機板，顯示器，電源供應器，光碟機/光盘驱动器，不斷電系統，硬碟/硬盘，硬盤數據恢復，基本輸入輸出系統編程，以及所有類型的電腦/計算機硬體/硬件和軟體/軟件解決方案。

Film Director and Photographer at Shapely Studio of Creative & Cultural Industries, 2 April 2007 to present in London, United Kingdom:

1) Photo, Video and Film Production; 2) Graphic Design, Web Design, Social Networking, Social Media and Advertising; 3) Architectural Design and Interior Design.

www.facebook.com/sscci

Reformer and Philosopher at Taiwanese Social Reformer and Philosopher, 7 April 2012 (location: Los Angeles, California) to present in London, United Kingdom:

Social Reform in Taiwan

www.facebook.com/twreform

Website

mtltwp.pixnet.net/album/set/1265174

album.blog.yam.com/mtltwp

photo.roodo.com/photos/mtltwp/albums/small/100469.html

www.facebook.com/hunyun22/info

www.facebook.com/hy22tss/info

www.facebook.com/tsstrm/info

Sonate Nr. 1 C-dur op. 3 für Klavier (piano) by Theophilus Raynsford Mann (TianLiang Maa 馬天亮) © 1977, © 1980, © 1981, © 1983. The Sonate composed on 3rd April 1977 then Mann was 18-year-old. The work was published in 1980; the theme was based on “The Soul's Sentimentalizing”.

Website

mtltwp.pixnet.net/album/set/1265208

www.facebook.com/sonate1c/info

www.facebook.com/piano1c/info

LINKS:

University of California, Berkeley

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Rampage ( Entry to TTPESs Build a Hero Contest) by TheMooseFigs

6 1

Name- Phil Grimes

Universe- DC (Villain)

Age- 45

Weapons- His own personal modified Shotgun

Allies- Hammerhead

Enemies- People that get in his way, People he does not like

Skills/ Abilities- Weapons knowledge, does not fear many things, never gives up

Back Story:

Phil grew up in a household with abusive alcoholic parents. He lived in the worst part of Gotham and he was forced to live on his own since he was eleven. He was takin in by a swamp hermit named Russel Stigs (Hammerhead). Russel taught him how to live with what you have and how to stand up for himself. When he turned 40, him and Russel decided to get into the crime business to get some income. Together with Russel, now known as Hammerhead, they robbed stores and mugged the citizens of Gotham. Batman regularly take Russel and Hammerhead down, but they always break out and come up with another scheme.

The fruit of the Tree of Knowledge by Sangeeta_2010

7 22

Students have given apples to their teachers on the first day of school for over a century. But exactly how the apple earned this distinction is not entirely clear.

The most common explanation is that in the 16th through 18th centuries in Denmark, Sweden and the US, poorer farming folk would pay their children's teachers with food - most notably with common and plentiful apples and potatoes. Another is that farmers gave teachers this food to supplement the teachers' low incomes; as teachers' wages went up, the amount of food went down. Eventually, students brought in that one apple out of tradition more than anything else.

Another consideration is that in the retelling of the story of Adam and Eve. Eve is said to have eaten an apple from the Tree of Knowledge. The apple is not actually mentioned in the book of Genesis; only "the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge." Regardless, the apple story stuck. Since teachers offer knowledge to their students, the apple -as the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge — makes the perfect symbol.

Some people point out that when young children learn the alphabet, each letter is associated with a word they already know: A is for Apple, B is for Ball, and so on. So the apple is a symbol of the letter A, which is also the grade that most students want. So perhaps some students came to the conclusion that if they gave their teachers an A at the beginning of the school year, the teachers might return the favour and give them an A at the end of the year.

Knowledge by Tim Shields

3 2

Inside an Indigo Books store, the word "knowledge" is painted on the wall in large block letters above the massive magazine stand. The room was very quiet despite being full of shoppers. The only sound that made everyone look in my direction was the distinctive shutter click of my camera.

knowledge by davebias

5 1

Polaroid SX-70 Alpha 1 Land Camera with Polaroid 600 film and ND pack filter

keos by tbhpyrhe

12 8

Learning and Applying Knowledge

Mental Wave Effect tutorial

Knowledge Center Exterior by University of Nevada, Reno

Knowledge Center daytime

Trees of knowledges by Antoine

4 2

Meiji university - Nakano campus

USSLIBERTY.com by LZ-128

5 2

"Accidents don't occur through repeated attacks by surface vessels and aircraft. It obviously was a decision made pretty high up on the Israeli side, because it involved combined forces. The ship was flying an American flag. My judgment was that somewhere along the line some fairly senior official gave the go ahead. I personally did not accept the Israeli explanation."

-- US Secretary of State Dean Rusk,

"...the board of inquiry (concluded) that the Israelis knew exactly what they were doing in attacking the Liberty."

-- CIA Director Richard Helms in his book A Look Over my Shoulder

"It was no accident."

-- CIA Director Richard Helms in interview for Navy Times, 6/26/2002.

That the attack was deliberate "just wasn't a disputed issue" within the National Security Agency

-- Former NSA Director retired Army Lieutenant General William Odom on 3 March 2003 in an interview for Naval Institute Proceedings

Former NSA/CIA Director Admiral Bobby Inman "flatly rejected" the Cristol/Israeli claims that the attack was an accident

-- 5 March 2003 interview for Naval Institute Proceedings

"I have never believed that the attack on the USS Liberty was a case of mistaken identity. That is ridiculous. Israel knew perfectly well that the ship was American."

-- Admiral Thomas H. Moorer, former Chief of Naval Operations and later Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff writing for Americans for Middle East Understanding, June 8, 1997

"To suggest that they [the IDF] couldn't identify the ship is ... ridiculous. ... Anybody who could not identify the Liberty could not tell the difference between the White House and the Washington Monument."

-- Admiral Thomas Moorer, Chief of Naval Operations and later Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff, quoted in The Washington Post, June 15, 1991, p. 14

Of four former NSA/CIA seniors with inside knowledge, none was aware of any agency official who dissented from the position that the attack was deliberate

-- David Walsh, writing in Naval Institute Proceedings

"That the Liberty could have been mistaken for the Egyptian supply ship El Quseir is unbelievable"

-- Special Assistant to the President Clark Clifford, in his report to President Lyndon Johnson

"Inconceivable that it was an accident. 3 strafing passes, 3 torpedo boats. Set forth facts. Punish Israelis responsible"

-- Clark Clifford, Secretary of Defense under Lyndon Johnson, in Minutes of NSC Special Committee Meeting, 9 June 1967

"A nice whitewash for a group of ignorant, stupid and inept [expletive deleted]."

-- Handwritten note of August 26, 1967, by NSA Deputy Director Louis W. Tordella reacting to the Israeli court decision exonerating Israelis of blame for the Liberty attack. Dr. Tordella expressed the view that the attack was deliberate and that the Israeli government attempted to cover it up to authors James Ennes and James Bamford and to Congressman George Mahon (D-Texas), and in an internal memorandum for the record. He noted "a nice whitewash for a group of ignorant, stupid and inept (redacted)" in the margin of the official Israeli excuse for the attack as noted in the NSA Gerhard report 1982)

"The attack was clearly deliberate."

-- General Marshall Carter, former director, National Security Agency, in a telephone interview with James Ennes

"My immediate reaction was it was not an accident. It had to be a deliberate attack."

-- Lucius Battle, in BBC Documentary "Dead in the Water".

"....did not buy the Israeli 'mistake' explanations either. Nobody believes that explanation." When informed by author Bamford of gruesome war crime (killing of large numbers of POWs) at nearby El Arish, Morrison saw the connection. "That would be enough," he said. "They wouldn't want us in on that. You've got the motive. What a hell of a thing to do."

-- Major General John Morrison, US Air Force, Deputy Chief NSA Operations during the attack and later Chief of NSA Operations as reported in Body of Secrets by James Bamford, p233.

"I can tell you for an absolute certainty (from intercepted communications) that they knew they were attacking an American ship."

-- Oliver Kirby, former deputy director for operations/production, National Security Agency. Kirby participated in NSA's investigation of the attack and reviewed translations of intercepted communications between pilots and their headquarters which he reports show conclusively that they knew their target was an American ship.

On the strength of intercept transcripts of pilots' conversations during the attack, the question of the attack's deliberateness "just wasn't a disputed issue" within the agency.

-- Lieutenant General William E. Odom, former director, National Security Agency, interview with David Walsh on March 3, 2003, reported in Naval Institute Proceedings, June, 2003

Inman said he "flatly rejected" the Cristol thesis that the attack was an accident. "It is just exceedingly difficult to believe that [USS Liberty] was not correctly identified" based on his talks with NSA seniors at the time having direct knowledge of intercepted communications. No NSA official could be found who dissented from the "deliberate" conclusion.

-- Admiral Bobby Ray Inman, USN, Director National Security Agency 1977-1981, reported in Proceedings, June, 2003

"I found it hard to believe that it was, in fact, an honest mistake on the part of the Israeli air force units. I still find it impossible to believe that it was."

-- Paul C. Warnke, Undersecretary of the Navy and later general legal counsel to the Department of Defense.

"In many years, I have wanted to believe that the attack on the Liberty was pure error. It appears to me that it was not a pure case of mistaken identity. . . . I think it is about time that the State of Israel and the United States government provide the crew members of the Liberty, and the rest of the American people, the facts of what happened and why it came about that the Liberty was attacked 30 years ago today." Later, McGonagle remarked, "USS Liberty is the only US Navy ship attacked by a foreign nation, involving large loss of life...that has never been accorded a full Congressional hearing."

-- Captain William L. McGonagle, Commanding Officer, USS Liberty, speaking at Arlington National Cemetery June 8, 1997.

"The Israelis told us 24 hours before that ...if we didn't move it, they would sink it. Unfortunately, the ship was not moved, and by the time the message arrived the ship was taking on water."

-- John Stenbit, Assistant Secretary of Defense for C3Im in an address to the AFEI/NDAI Conference for Net Centric Operations, Wednesday, April 16, 2003

Walter Deeley, NSA department head, conducted still-classified investigation of the attack and remarked later in telephone interview that he regards the attack as deliberate.

-- NSA Department Head Walter Deeley

"The highest officials of the [Johnson] administration, including the President, believed it 'inconceivable' that Israel's 'skilled' defense forces could have committed such a gross error."

-- Lyndon Johnson's biographer Robert Dallek in Flawed Giant, Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 430-31

Never before in the history of the United States Navy has a Navy Board of Inquiry ignored the testimony of American military eyewitnesses and taken, on faith, the word of their attackers.

-- Captain Richard F. Kiepfer, Medical Corps, US Navy (retired), USS Liberty Survivor

"The evidence was clear. Both Admiral Kidd and I believed with certainty that this attack...was a deliberate effort to sink an American ship and murder its entire crew.... It was our shared belief. . .that the attack. . .could not possibly have been an accident.... I am certain that the Israeli pilots [and] their superiors. . .were well aware that the ship was American."

-- Captain Ward Boston, JAGC, US Navy (retired), senior legal counsel to the US Navy Court of Inquiry

According to Kidd's legal counsel, Captain Ward Boston, USN, Kidd discussed with him his belief that the attackers were aware they were attacking an American ship. The Court ruled otherwise because they were so directed by Washington.

-- Admiral Isaac C. Kidd, President of the Navy Court of Inquiry, as reported in Navy Times, 6/26/2002

"I feel the Israelis knew what they were doing. They knew they were shooting at a U.S. Navy ship."

-- Captain Ward Boston, legal counsel to the Navy Court of Inquiry, as reported in . Navy Times, 6/26/2002

"No one in the White House believed that the attack was an accident."

-- George Christian, Press Secretary to President Lyndon Johnson in letter to James Ennes, 1978.

After reviewing the Court of Inquiry in his official capacity as legal counsel to the convening authority, concluded that the evidence did not support the findings that the attack was an accident and declined to recommend that his Commander sign and forward it to Washington.

-- Rear Admiral (then captain) Merlin Staring, Staff Legal Office for Commander in Chief US Naval Forces Europe and later Chief Judge Advocate General of the Navy. Statement to Navy Times, 3 June 2002 and elsewhere

"The Congress never investigated this matter, and I don't detect much enthusiasm for getting into it now."

-- Senator Adlai Stevenson III in letter to James Ennes dated September 9, 1980

"From what I have read, I can't tolerate for one minute that this was an accident! ... What have we done about the Liberty? Have we become so placid, so far as Israel is concerned or so far as that area is concerned, that we will take the killing of 37 (sic) American boys and the wounding of a lot more and the attack on an American ship in the open sea in good weather? We have seemed to say: 'Oh, well, boys will be boys.' What are you going to do about it? It is most offensive to me!

-- Senator Bourke Hickenlooper; From transcript of July 1967 Senate Foreign Relations Hearing on Foreign Assistance Act of 1967.

"I have read the Navy investigation of the Liberty, and the evidence adduced there, and I have read the Israeli court of inquiry records, and based upon their own records of the investigation, I cannot agree that it was accidental."

-- Senator Bourke Hickenlooper; From transcript of May, 1968, Senate Foreign Relations Hearing on Foreign Assistance Act of 1968, page 444.

"American leaders did not have the courage to punish Israel for the blatant murder of its citizens. . . . The Liberty's presence and function were well known to Israel's leaders. ...Israel's leaders concluded that nothing they might do would offend the Americans to the point of reprisal. If American leaders did not have the courage to punish Israel for the blatant murder of American citizens, it seemed clear that their American friends would let them get away with almost anything.

-- George Ball, under secretary of state at the time writing in The Passionate Attachment: America's Involvement with Israel, pages 57-58.

"I don't think that there's any doubt that it was deliberate.... [It is] one of the great cover-ups of our military history."

-- David G. Nes, the deputy head of the American mission in Cairo at the time

"How much better if Congress would....call to account those who were involved in spreading lies about the tragedy."

-- James Akins, former US Ambassador to Saudi Arabia James Akins in Special Report, The Israeli Attack on the USS Liberty, June 8, 1967, The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, December, 1999

"It's an American ship!" the pilot of an Israeli Mirage fighter-bomber radioed Tel Aviv as he sighted the USS Liberty on June 8, 1967. Israeli headquarters ordered the pilot to attack the American ship.

-- former US Ambassador to Lebanon Dwight Porter describing transcripts of communications he saw, reported in syndicated column "Remembering the Liberty" by Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, November 6, 1991.

"The historical event which took place in June 1967 can hardly be called enigmatic and mysterious. ...It is difficult to understand that the Israelis could not identity the USS Liberty, since the ship had a unique antenna and equipment and especially since the Israelis had identified the ship with long term observation."

-- Translated from a taped interview with Sergeev Oleg Korneevitch, retired Colonel, Soviet GRU.

"The government of Israel intentionally attacked the ship. ...The attack was not legally justified. ...(there were) two further violations of international law...the use of unmarked military aircraft (and)...the wanton destruction of life rafts."

-- Walter L. Jacobsen, Lieutenant Commander, US Navy, in Naval Law Review, Vol 36, Winter 1986

"Certain facts are clear. The attack was no accident. The Liberty was assaulted in broad daylight by Israeli forces who knew the ship's identity. ...The public, however, was kept in the dark. Even before the American public learned of the attack, U.S. government officials began to promote an account satisfactory to Israel. The American Israel Public Affairs Committee worked through Congressmen to keep the story under control. The President of the United States, Lyndon B. Johnson, ordered and led a cover-up so thorough that years after he left office the episode is still largely unknown...."

-- Paul Findley, author and former Member of Congress 1961-1983 in They Dare to Speak Out, by Paul Findley, 1985, page 166

"Is the Liberty episode being erased from history. So it would seem...What has happened to our prying journalistic corps and our editors, normally so indignant of attempted suppression of the news?...We believe that a joint select committee of Congress should investigate the strange case of the USS Liberty..."

-- William F. Buckley, journalist and publisher, National Review, June 27, 1967

"The attack on the USS Liberty was planned and there is and was a cover-up." "If the very valuable lessons of the Liberty were known, the capture of the USS Pueblo could not have happened."

-- Lloyd M. "Pete" Bucher, US Navy, Commanding Officer USS Pueblo when captured by North Korea in January 1968, in telephone conversations with James Ennes and on September 6, 2002, with Richard Schmucker.

"It is clear that the Israelis knew that they were attacking a vessel of the US Navy, especially as it was flying a large Stars and Stripes at the time. The fact that they spent six hours reconnoitering and executing the attack, which included machine-gunning the lifeboats, attests to the deadly intent of the operation.

-- Andrew and Leslie Cockburn, Dangerous Liaison, the Inside Story of the US-Israeli Covert Relationship, by Andrew and Leslie Cockburn, p152.

"A. Jay Cristol's virtual minority of one assessment is not supported by the detailed non-technical common sense evidence to the contrary in Body of Secrets (by James Bamford). "There is nothing surprising in Bamford's conclusion that the attack was deliberate. Liberty survivors have made that case convincingly for years."

-- Professor Hayden Peake, author, former CIA officer and member, Association of Former Intelligence Officers, The Intelligencer, Vol. 12, No.1, Summer 2001

Survivors of the attack are unanimous in their conviction that the attack was deliberate. Among other things, their belief is based upon the intense pre-attack reconnaissance, the fact that the firing continued from close range long after the attackers examined the ship and its markings from a few feet away, and because the Israeli version of events as reported to the United States is grossly untrue.

-- USS Liberty survivors

Several Air Force intelligence analysts who have come forward to report that they saw real-time transcripts of communications from the attacking forces which show clearly that they were aware they were attacking an American ship. Others who saw these transcripts include Dwight Porter and Oliver Kirby, mentioned above, and several top officials of the American intelligence community.

-- Former US Air Force intelligence analysts Ron Gotcher, Steve Forslund, Richard Block and pilot Charles Tiffany

Published doctoral thesis establishes that the attack was deliberate.

-- John Borne, PhD, adjunct professor of history, NY University.

Rejects the US Navy Court of Inquiry as inadequate, declares that the attack was apparently deliberate, and calls upon the United States to conduct a complete and thorough investigation.

-- Resolution #508 of the American Legion at its 49th annual national convention in August, 1967

"The [Navy Court of Inquiry] leaves a good many questions unanswered."

-- The New York Times, July 1, 1967

"The naval inquiry is not good enough."

-- The Washington Post, June 30, 1967

"They must have known...that Liberty was an American ship."

-- The Washington Star, June 30, 1967

"The action was planned in advance"

-- Drew Pearson and Jack Anderson in The Washington Post, June 30, 1967

"Only the blind or the trigger happy could have made such a mistake"

-- The National Observer

"The attack was deliberate. Those responsible should be court-martialed on charges of murder."

-- California Congressman Craig Hosmer in the Congressional Record--House, June 29, 1967, p. 17893

"How can this be treated so lightly? What complaint have we registered?

-- Mississippi Congressman Thomas G. Abernethy in the Congressional Record--House, June 29m, 1967, pp. 17894-5

"Certain facts are clear. The attack was no accident. The Liberty was assaulted in broad daylight by Israeli forces who knew the ship's identity. ...The President of the United States led a cover-up so thorough that years after he left office, the episode was still largely unknown to the public -- and the men who suffered and died have gone largely unhonored."

-- Paul Findley, They Dare to Speak Out, Lawrence Hill & Co., 1985, p166

The story has been hushed up."

-- Louisiana Congressman John R. Rarick in the Congressional Record--House, September 19, 1967, pp. 12170-6

Myanmar - Yangon - Shwedagon Pagoda - Reclining Buddha - 50d by Manfred Sommer

Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama, Shakyamuni, or simply the Buddha, was a sage on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in northeastern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.

The word Buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "Buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in a Yuga era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of the present age. Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the śramaṇa movement common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kosala.

Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.

CONTENTS

HISTORICAL SIDDHARTA GAUTAMA

Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajasattu, who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain tirthankara. Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, the Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of other influential śramaṇa schools of thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jainism, and Ajñana. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahavira, Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose viewpoints the Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with and influenced by. Indeed, Sariputta and Moggallāna, two of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, were formerly the foremost disciples of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, the skeptic. There is also evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Uddaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques. While the general sequence of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" is widely accepted, there is less consensus on the veracity of many details contained in traditional biographies.

The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE. More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death. These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all historians.

The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE. It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch. According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowadays in modern-day Nepal, and raised in the Shakya capital of Kapilavastu, which may have been in either present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India. He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagar.

No written records about Gautama have been found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One Edict of Asoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edicts mentions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Maurya era and which may be the precursors of the Pāli Canon. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Gāndhārī language using the Kharosthi script on twenty-seven birch bark manuscripts and date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.

TRADITIONAL BIOGRAPHIES

BIOGRAPHICAL SOURCES

The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacarita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā. Of these, the Buddhacarita is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE. The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE. The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE. The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra, and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. The Nidānakathā is from the Theravada tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century by Buddhaghoṣa.

From canonical sources, the Jataka tales, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts. The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from the Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.

NATURE OF TRADITIONAL DEPICTIONS

In the earliest Buddhists texts, the nikāyas and āgamas, the Buddha is not depicted as possessing omniscience (sabbaññu) nor is he depicted as being an eternal transcendent (lokottara) being. According to Bhikkhu Analayo, ideas of the Buddha's omniscience (along with an increasing tendency to deify him and his biography) are found only later, in the Mahayana sutras and later Pali commentaries or texts such as the Mahāvastu. In the Sandaka Sutta, the Buddha's disciple Ananda outlines an argument against the claims of teachers who say they are all knowing while in the Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta the Buddha himself states that he has never made a claim to being omniscient, instead he claimed to have the "higher knowledges" (abhijñā). The earliest biographical material from the Pali Nikayas focuses on the Buddha's life as a śramaṇa, his search for enlightenment under various teachers such as Alara Kalama and his forty five year career as a teacher.

Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supra-mundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma". Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.

Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:

It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist. British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure. Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.

BIOGRAPHY

CONCEPTION AND BIRTH

The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, in present-day Nepal to be the birthplace of the Buddha. He grew up in Kapilavastu. The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India, or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal. Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.

Gautama was born as a Kshatriya, the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan", whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Maya (Māyādevī), Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side, and ten months later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.

The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak. Buddha's Birthday is called Buddha Purnima in Nepal and India as he is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great sadhu. By traditional account, this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. Kondañña, the youngest, and later to be the first arhat other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.

While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Suryavansha (Solar dynasty) of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition. The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic. The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the śramanic Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.

EARLY LIFE AND MARRIAGE

Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati. By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.

When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account, she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.

RENUNCIATION AND ASCETIC LIFE

At the age of 29, the popular biography continues, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his father's efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome aging, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.

Accompanied by Channa and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace for the life of a mendicant. It's said that, "the horse's hooves were muffled by the gods" to prevent guards from knowing of his departure.

Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbisara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimbisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment.

He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation. After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ārāḍa Kālāma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practice, and moved on to become a student of yoga with Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka Rāmaputra). With him he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on.

Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practising self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha was rescued by a village girl named Sujata and she gave him some payasam (a pudding made from milk and jaggery) after which Siddhartha got back some energy. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's ploughing. He attained a concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhāna.

AWAKENING

According to the early Buddhist texts, after realizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way - a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta. In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata. Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.

Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree - now known as the Bodhi tree - in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth. Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment. According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").

According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths", which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states, or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.

According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) - a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons - immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.

FORMATION OF THE SANGHA

After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika — two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan - who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.

He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.

All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.

TRAVELS AND TEACHING

For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.

The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.

The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.

Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.

Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:

"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."

The Buddha is said to have replied:

"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."

Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.

Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.

In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.The king's death and cremation was to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.

MAHAPARINIRVANA

According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha. Mettanando and Von Hinüber argue that the Buddha died of mesenteric infarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning. The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns.

Waley suggests that Theravadin's would take suukaramaddava (the contents of the Buddha's last meal), which can translate as pig-soft, to mean soft flesh of a pig. However, he also states that pig-soft could mean "pig's soft-food", that is, after Neumann, a soft food favoured by pigs, assumed to be a truffle. He argues (also after Neumann) that as Pali Buddhism was developed in an area remote to the Buddha's death, the existence of other plants with suukara- (pig) as part of their names and that "(p)lant names tend to be local and dialectical" could easily indicate that suukaramaddava was a type of plant whose local name was unknown to those in the Pali regions. Specifically, local writers knew more about their flora than Theravadin commentator Buddhaghosa who lived hundreds of years and kilometres remote in time and space from the events described. Unaware of an alternate meaning and with no Theravadin prohibition against eating animal flesh, Theravadins would not have questioned the Buddha eating meat and interpreted the term accordingly.

Ananda protested the Buddha's decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Kuśināra (present-day Kushinagar, India) of the Malla kingdom. The Buddha, however, is said to have reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king that resounded with joy:

44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds - the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of "Eat, drink, and be merry!"

The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddha's final words are reported to have been: "All composite things (Saṅkhāra) are perishable. Strive for your own liberation with diligence" (Pali: 'vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā'). His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present.

According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa, the coronation of Emperor Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of the Buddha. According to two textual records in Chinese (十八部論 and 部執異論), the coronation of Emperor Aśoka is 116 years after the death of the Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 545 BCE, because the reign of Emperor Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, the date of the Buddha's death is 13 May 544 BCE. whereas in Thai tradition it is 11 March 545 BCE.

At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader. Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with the two chief disciples Maudgalyayana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha.

While in the Buddha's days he was addressed by the very respected titles Buddha, Shākyamuni, Shākyasimha, Bhante and Bho, he was known after his parinirvana as Arihant, Bhagavā/Bhagavat/Bhagwān, Mahāvira, Jina/Jinendra, Sāstr, Sugata, and most popularly in scriptures as Tathāgata.

BUDDHA AND VEDAS

Buddha's teachings deny the authority of the Vedas and consequently [at least atheistic] Buddhism is generally viewed as a nāstika school (heterodox, literally "It is not so") from the perspective of orthodox Hinduism.

RELICS

After his death, Buddha's cremation relics were divided amongst 8 royal families and his disciples; centuries later they would be enshrined by King Ashoka into 84,000 stupas. Many supernatural legends surround the history of alleged relics as they accompanied the spread of Buddhism and gave legitimacy to rulers.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

An extensive and colorful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have "the 32 Signs of the Great Man".

The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as "handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive." (D, I:115)

"It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotama's appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant." (A, I:181)

A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by the Buddha's physical presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances.

Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the Digha Nikaya's Lakkhaṇa Sutta (D, I:142). In addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddha's first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, Narasīha Gāthā ("The Lion of Men").

Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes.

NINE VIRTUES

Recollection of nine virtues attributed to the Buddha is a common Buddhist meditation and devotional practice called Buddhānusmṛti. The nine virtues are also among the 40 Buddhist meditation subjects. The nine virtues of the Buddha appear throughout the Tipitaka, and include:

- Buddho – Awakened

- Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened

- Vijja-carana-sampano – Endowed with higher knowledge and ideal conduct.

- Sugato – Well-gone or Well-spoken.

- Lokavidu – Wise in the knowledge of the many worlds.

- Anuttaro Purisa-damma-sarathi – Unexcelled trainer of untrained people.

- Satthadeva-Manussanam – Teacher of gods and humans.

- Bhagavathi – The Blessed one

- Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is "one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is completely liberated through final knowledge."

TEACHINGS

TRACING THE OLDEST TEACHINGS

Information of the oldest teachings may be obtained by analysis of the oldest texts. One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pali Canon and other texts. The reliability of these sources, and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute. According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.

According to Schmithausen, three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:

"Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials;"

"Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism;"

"Cautious optimism in this respect."

DHYANA AND INSIGHT

A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight. Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36

CORE TEACHINGS

According to Tilmann Vetter, the core of earliest Buddhism is the practice of dhyāna. Bronkhorst agrees that dhyana was a Buddhist invention, whereas Norman notes that "the Buddha's way to release [...] was by means of meditative practices." Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development.

According to the Mahāsaccakasutta, from the fourth jhana the Buddha gained bodhi. Yet, it is not clear what he was awakened to. "Liberating insight" is a later addition to this text, and reflects a later development and understanding in early Buddhism. The mentioning of the four truths as constituting "liberating insight" introduces a logical problem, since the four truths depict a linear path of practice, the knowledge of which is in itself not depicted as being liberating:

[T]hey do not teach that one is released by knowing the four noble truths, but by practicing the fourth noble truth, the eightfold path, which culminates in right samadhi.

Although "Nibbāna" (Sanskrit: Nirvāna) is the common term for the desired goal of this practice, many other terms can be found throughout the Nikayas, which are not specified.

According to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term "the middle way". In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in the description of the eightfold path.

According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the four truths became a substitution for prajna, or "liberating insight", in the suttas in those texts where "liberating insight" was preceded by the four jhanas. According to Bronkhorst, the four truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight". Gotama's teachings may have been personal, "adjusted to the need of each person."

The three marks of existence may reflect Upanishadic or other influences. K.R. Norman supposes that these terms were already in use at the Buddha's time, and were familiar to his listeners.

The Brahma-vihara was in origin probably a brahmanic term; but its usage may have been common to the Sramana traditions.

LATER DEVELOPMENTS

In time, "liberating insight" became an essential feature of the Buddhist tradition. The following teachings, which are commonly seen as essential to Buddhism, are later formulations which form part of the explanatory framework of this "liberating insight":

- The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an ingrained part of existence; that the origin of suffering is craving for sensuality, acquisition of identity, and fear of annihilation; that suffering can be ended; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path is the means to accomplish this;

- The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration;

- Dependent origination: the mind creates suffering as a natural product of a complex process.

OTHER RELIGIONS

Some Hindus regard Gautama as the 9th avatar of Vishnu. The Buddha is also regarded as a prophet by the Ahmadiyya Muslims and a Manifestation of God in the Bahá'í Faith. Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Lao Tzu.

The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisattva via Arabic Būdhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph. The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha. Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November) — though not in the Roman Missal — and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August).

Disciples of the Cao Đài religion worship the Buddha as a major religious teacher. His image can be found in both their Holy See and on the home altar. He is revealed during communication with Divine Beings as son of their Supreme Being (God the Father) together with other major religious teachers and founders like Jesus, Laozi, and Confucius.

In the ancient Gnostic sect of Manichaeism the Buddha is listed among the prophets who preached the word of God before Mani.

WIKIPEDIA

Knowledge by Jason Why

~10-06-14 Tanah Lot Temple #5~ by Farley Roland Endeman

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October 4, Saraswati, is celebrated by the Balinese people bringing offerings to their holy books and scrolls in their houses, while students celebrate it at school, usually in the morning, and the office-workers in their office. The philosophy of Saraswati day is that the most important thing for human life is knowledge.

October 5, Banyu Pinaruh, The day after Saraswati Day is Banyu Pinaruh day. "Banyu" means water and "Pinaruh" mean wisdom. In other words, we must have wisdom which always flows like water and which is useful for human kind. We pray for Dewi Saraswati (manifestation of God) to give us cleverness and wisdom. The people usually take a bath in the sea or a lake or river and drink traditional medicine which is made from many various leaves which is very good for our health. The philosophy of Banyu Pinaruh day is the second most important thing for human life is good health.

October 5, Idul Adha, is a very important day for Muslims around the world, including those here in Bali. The occassion is Idul Adha, a day which celebrates Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son for Allah (this religion seems to get off on pain for some reason). Allah allowed Abraham to kill a goat instead, so Muslims celebrate by visiting the masjid (mosque) then eating goat satay.

October 8, Pagerwesi, Four days after Saraswati Day, on Buda (or Wednesday), Kliwon, Wuku Sinta, is Pagerwesi day. "Pager" meaning fence and "Wesi" meaning iron. On this day, Balinese pray to Sang Hyang Pramesti Guru (manifestation of God). All Balinese have offerings to their Sanggah (temple in their home) and at all of their temples. This is the second biggest holiday after Galungan day for the Balinese. The philosophy of this celebration is that they must keep knowledge, health, food, cloth and gold high in their lives to keep the universe in balance.

October 8, Purnama Kapat, Purnama, or full moon in Bali is always a special day for ceremonies and festivities. Hundreds of temples all over the island celebrate their anniversary on a specific full moon each year. Since full moon is also considered as an auspicious day, hundreds of ceremonies are held in all corner of the island on this sacred day.

October 18, Tumpek Landep, Taking place on the Saturday of Landep in the second week of the Pakuwon, Tumpek Landep is a day of offerings to the weapons of war in Bali. These include guns or other weapons and in particular, the sacred kris.Taking place on the Saturday of Landep in the second week of the Pakuwon, Tumpek Landep is a day of offerings to the weapons of war in Bali. These include guns or other weapons and in particular, the sacred kris.Taking place on the Saturday of Landep in the second week of the Pakuwon, Tumpek Landep is a day of offerings to the weapons of war in Bali. These include guns or other weapons and in particular, the sacred kris.

October 22, Budha Cemeng Ukir, is the day of Sang Hyang Manik Galih who descended as Sang Hyang Ongkara Mreta to the physical world, the Balinese Hindus pray to Dewa Sang Hyang Sri Nini for prosperity and protection with special offerings. The intended cleansing of the mind starts with a special ceremony called metirtha gocara which is performed with a canang offering and wangi-wangian, sweet smelling incense and flowers at the sangga of the family temple and the plankiran (wall temple) of the bedroom.

October 23, Tilem Kapat, On this day extra offerings are made around the family compound, as well as some offerings placed on the ground at the entrance to the house compound. The towering 'sesajen' offerings are also often taken to the village temple. Depending on the time of year, many temples then hold various forms of entertainment for the village - dancing, wayang puppet performances, arja plays - to coincide with the special prayers for Tilem.

October 28, Anggara Kasih Kulantir, is a reocccuring, auspicious cleansing day for the mind of the individual family members and for the physical world and all creatures that inhabit it. At Anggara Kliwon the Balinese Hindus meditate and pray to Dewa Ludra for support to cleanse one's mind and the physical world in which one is reincarnated. Afterwards a special ceremony called metirtha gocara is held which is performed with a canang offering and wangi-wangian, sweet smelling incense and flowers at the sangga of the family temple and the plankiran (wall temple) of the bedroom.

Knowledge by Iñakisesupone

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Knowledge cotton apparel 8wpi corduroys gold brown by alias corduroyman

House of Knowledge by Ben Tucker

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House of Knowledge - Statue by Jaume Plensa on display currently at Chatsworth House

knowledge by Alexandru Verenca

Laying Knowledge by Eric Gitonga

The wise lay up knowledge, but the mouth of a fool brings ruin near. Proverbs 10:14

Not a knowledge at all, I.10 – Toned cyanotype by Hlynur Helgason

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This is part of a series of toned cyanotypes based on images generated with a prompt referencing Jacques Derrida’s On Grammatology, about the connoction of text to knowledge.

Cyanotype, toned with red pine bark extract, 21 x 21 cm on 28 x 18 cm sheet Saunders Waterford 300g HP natural paper, limited edition of 16. Stable diffusion generated the original image, further post-produced in On1 Resize AI, Affinity Design, and Capture One. PiezoDN produced the digital negative. More information here: hlynur.art/arkifa/not-a-knowledge-at-all/

Knowledge is Power by James Provost

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Textbook Example

Sharing knowledge by Wessex Archaeology

SAMPHIRE archaeologist Andrew Roberts sharing knowledge at Girvan with Harbour Master Roddy Leach during community engagement in 2015.

Image by Abby Mynett, Wessex Archaeology.

To find out more about this project follow this link

Pig of Knowledge! by Open Library

The expositor

or, Many mysteries unravelled. Delineated in a series of letters, between a friend and his correspondent, comprising the learned pig, invisible lady and acoustic temple, philosophical swan, penetrating spy glasses, optical and magnetic, and various other curiosities on similar principles: also, a few of the most wonderful feats as performed by the art of legerdemain, with some reflections on ventriloquism

Relay For Life of Second Life 2021 - RFL Knowledge by Wildstar Beaumont

Thirst for knowledge by Vincent Ge

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ILFORD DELTA 3200 pulled to 1600

Self develop: 8 mins in Ilford DD-X 1:4, 20 deg

Leica M2

Leica SUMMICRON Rigid 1:2/50mm

B+W medium yellow 022 filter (2X)

Straight negative scan

Méthode Boscher ou La Journée des Tout Petits. by marieln_l.

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FAFM : K : Knowledge.

Livre sur lequel j'ai appris à lire, écrire et compter. Les inscriptions manuelles sont celles de ma mère au début de sa carrière d'institutrice.

I learnt how to read, write and count with this book published in 1949.

My mother had written a few words starting with K ; she must have thought there weren't enough examples in the book.

Knowledge Nation 100 luncheon by Knowledge Society

The discussion panel (L–R): Danny Gilligan, Co-founder and CEO, Reinventure Group; Ken Boal, Vice-President, Australia and NZ, Cisco; Paul Kelly, Editor-at-Large, The Australian; Professor Tanya Monro, Deputy Vice-Chancellor, Research and Innovation, University of South Australia; and Andrew Harding, CEO, Rio Tinto Iron Ore © Knowledge Society 2015. Photograph by Rick Stevens

The Knowledge Nation 100 luncheon – on 10 December at Doltone House in Sydney – celebrated the Knowledge Nation 100. The Knowledge Nation 100 are the rock stars of Australia’s new economy – the visionaries, intellects, founders and game changers building the industries and institutions that will underwrite the nation’s future prosperity.

The luncheon was addressed by the Prime Minister of Australia, the Hon Malcolm Turnbull MP.

Patchouli Knowledge (Touhouvania) by CALSSARA

me as Patchouli Knowledge from Touhouvania (Koumajou Densetsu II)

photo by Catspassion

facebook.com/calssara.cosplay

calssara.deviantart.com

calssara.com

THIS PHOTO IS UNDER COPYRIGHT!

DO NOT USE WITHOUT PERMISSION!

Sharing just with FULL credit of cosplayer's and photographer's name and website link !!!!

trust your knowledge? by N P

DSC01101_DxO

Patchouli Knowledge (Touhouvania) by CALSSARA

me as Patchouli Knowledge from Touhouvania (Koumajou Densetsu II)

photo by Catspassion

facebook.com/calssara.cosplay

calssara.deviantart.com

calssara.com

THIS PHOTO IS UNDER COPYRIGHT!

DO NOT USE WITHOUT PERMISSION!

Sharing just with FULL credit of cosplayer's and photographer's name and website link !!!!

Day of a Wisdom . *Explored* by Apypudyn Alwy

Had a pretty much learning process this week . Now need focus on photo editing and need more to learn .

Thanks Flickr for take my photo as one of interesting photo .

Follow me on Instagram : apypuddyn

my Facebook : www.facebook.com/afifuddin.alwi

Knowledge by Erwin

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knowledge is power the none power we cannot understand - My Art Journal 2011-07-1 #041 by Peter Seelig

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knowledge is power and knowledge is more none knowledge as knowledge is the objectivity of understanding that we cannot understand ist die verfluchte wahheit dass jede wahrheit immer nur die warheit einer wahrheit ist eine lüge ist

#draw365 #artjournal by @peter_seelig

my art journal: 2011-07 Lugano part 1

Knowledge of Velocity by Gianpierre Soto

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GP Images by Gianpierre Soto is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License.

Knowledge vs Numbers by iBSSR who loves comments on his images

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A good decision is based on knowledge and not on numbers.

Knowledge is power by Xing chasing the light

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Pentax me super

Takumar 1.4/50

Kodak GOLD 200

Library Great Library of Celsus in Ephesus Turkey WM Vadim Indeikin 720X480 by Mary Harrsch

Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Vadim Indeikin

Knowledges that make me suffer by Alexander ♕ Baranov

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The most difficult thing in this picture were books. For this selfie I brough all available books from my home. It's almost half of the picture. The other difficult thing was make books stand. It was not easy. But nevertheless I'm glad that this picture done)

Photograph for project malstra.ru

Knowledge meets Power by Ollie Morris

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Shot with Lee's Big Stopper

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