forms photos on Flickr

View allAll Photos Tagged forms

lichen forming soredia by George Shepherd

This lichen prouces soredia, small roughly spherical units made up of fungal hyphae and algal cells that are capable of reproducing the lichen assexually. In this case, the soredia are produced in localized regions of the thallus, rather confusingly called soralia (sing. soralium). The soralia are the more or less circular raised patches with a mealy texture seen in this image

form and color by Kejun Li

Reed is growing up intruding the fence which separates two different world. Two secondary colors not contrast with each other give an impression of obscurity of the picture.

Fundación Gruma y Gobierno del Estado signan convenio para la entrega de paquetes tecnológicos y paquetes alimenticios en beneficio de los agroproductores afectados por el estiaje by Gobierno Aguascalientes

De esta forma, destacó que gracias a los agroproductores aguascalentenses este es el sector con mayor crecimiento en los últimos años, posicionando diversas ramas agroindustriales en lugares muy importantes a nivel nacional, como es el caso de la producción de aves, leche, maíz forrajero y hortalizas, siempre siguiendo los más altos estándares de sanidad, lo que obliga a reconocer a los productores agropecuarios y agroindustriales porque han salido adelante a pesar de las adversidades climáticas que se intensificaron en el último año, provocando una muy alta siniestralidad principalmente en los cultivos de temporal.

Westgate Arcade, Halifax by Tim Green

Formed by taking a street and glassing it over.

Puente Ferroviario y Carretero Maule by CreationWithStyle

Puente Maule es un puente ferroviario fuera de servicio ubicado en el km 264 de la línea férrea que formaba parte del antiguo trazado del Ferrocarril al Sur de Chile. Construido durante los gobiernos de los presidentes Domingo Santa María y José Manuel Balmaceda, fue proyectado por el ingeniero civil Domingo V. Santa María y construido por la maestranza Lever, Murphy & Co. de Caleta Abarca, Viña del Mar. Entregado en 1885 después de un año de construcción, a la misma estructura luego en 1888 se le añadiría el Puente Carretero Maule, un segundo puente similar al anterior para tránsito de carretas.

Siendo Ministro de Interior don José Manuel Balmaceda, el gobierno hizo eco de distintas entidades que pedían el reemplazo de los puentes ferroviarios provisorios construidos en madera, principalmente los instalados sobre los ríos Lircay, Maule y Ñuble. Ya que, estos debían reconstruirse cada año luego de la crecidas veraniegas de dichos ríos, lo que perjudicaba el servicio de trenes hacia el sur suspendiendo sus operaciones incluso hasta durante 30 días.

El Maule fue construido por una comisión especial creada por el gobierno, quienes querían levantar un puente mixto, ferroviario y carretero, que compartiera fundaciones para mayor economía. El proyecto corrió a cargo de Domingo Víctor Santa María, ingeniero civil con estudios en Bélgica, junto con los ingenieros residentes Francisco Prado y Nicolás Tanco. Fue supervisado por Benjamín Vivanco, ingeniero de ferrocarriles para la sección de Curicó y el Maule. Es un error común relacionar a Gustavo Eiffel con la construcción de este puente, en la cual no tuvo injerencia, debido a que el francés si participó en otro puente sobre el río Maule cerca de Constitución.

Se comenzó la faena en enero de 1883 con la desviación del río en su ribera norte. Toda la obra de mampostería, estribos, cimientos y machones, fue construida por Santa María utilizando personal contratado por el gobierno con maquinaria arrendada a Lever Murphy y Cía. Esta se pensó para sostener tanto al puente ferroviario como al carretero. El 3 de febrero de ese mismo año se inicia la excavación del primer machón. Además el 30 de mayo, la misma Lever Murphy, gana la propuesta para construir la superestructura metálica del puente ferroviario de 1.320 toneladas de hierro forjado, la que sería puesta en obra y sujeta a pruebas de resistencia.

El puente se entregó oficialmente el 15 de marzo de 1885 no sin percances y retrasos en la mampostería por intensas lluvias en los inviernos de 1883 y 1884. Santa María presentó su memoria de la obra el 6 de junio, la cual quedó publicada en el Diario Oficial con esmerado detalle el 17 de junio de 1885. Fue probado antes de su apertura con un tren de 49 m de longitud y un peso 300 toneladas, tanto en reposo como a máxima velocidad (50 km/h). El puente mostró que el movimiento lateral fue de 6 mm en todos los tramos. Además la deflexión en los tramos de 60 m fue de 11 mm, y en los tramos de 50 m fue de 7,9 mm.

Fue inaugurado el mismo día que los puentes ferroviarios sobre el río Lircay, el sábado 11 de abril de 1885, por una extensa comitiva liderada por el entonces Ministro de Interior, José Manuel Balmaceda. De la ceremonia participaron representantes de gobierno, casi todos los ministros de estado, los ingenieros proyectistas y los socios de la empresa constructora, junto a centenares de personas que se reunieron en las riberas del río. El puente fue adornado para la ocasión con gigantes banderas chilenas que cerraban el paso hacia él y la comitiva almorzó en el mismo lugar luego de la ceremonia. Balmaceda, al momento de su discurso, destacó el trabajo de los chilenos en este tipo de obras e instó a los constructores a ensanchar sus talleres para numerosos futuros proyectos.

Originalmente en cada entrada del puente existían dos obeliscos, ya desaparecidos, con placas que recordaban la fecha de inauguración, ingenieros y constructores.

El puente ferroviario Maule fue considerado el primer puente de viga de celosía metálica remachada fabricado por chilenos. Ubicado entre las estaciones de Maule y San Javier, medía originalmente 440 m de largo en tramos de 50 y 60 m de luz, pero solo permanecen en pie unos 340. Su superestructura tuvo 4 vigas de rejilla tipo Warren con una longitud de 220 m cada una. Cada par de vigas sostenía originalmente un tablero de perfiles metálico, el cual soportaba la línea férrea y sus durmientes. El entramado metálico reposaba originalmente sobre estribos y machones de mampostería en piedra, los que fueron cambiados por estructuras de hormigón armado. Las fundaciones se proyectaron para soportar también la superestructura el Puente Carretero Maule, que fue añadido en 1888. El puente ferroviario además tuvo en su parte superior vigas contraviento en arco para evitar torsiones, instaladas justo en cada par de montantes.

Aparte de reparaciones periódicas, el puente no tuvo mayores modificaciones hasta 1909. Debido a un descarrilamiento de un tren de carga el 7 de septiembre de 1909, resultó parcialmente destruido el segundo tramo norte del puente ferroviario en unos 40 m. Si bien el tráfico fue restablecido prontamente en forma provisoria, el tramo afectado debió reconstruirse completamente. Las obras fueron encargadas a la Sociedad de Maestranzas y Galvanización y supervisadas por el administrador de la tercera sección de ferrocarriles, Francisco Sayagó, junto a los ingenieros Carlos Sibilla y Francisco Mardones. El puente fue entregado nuevamente a servicio el 25 de noviembre de 1909.

En 1993 se puso en servicio un nuevo puente carretero en la autopista, más ancho y fabricado en hormigón armado. Los puentes históricos fueron definitivamente dados de baja. El puente carretero fue clausurado con una barrera e informalmente quedó para uso peatonal. El antiguo puente ferroviario, o la vía sur a norte de la Panamericana entre 1956 y 1993, quedó como un desvío para fiscalización de camiones para el SII y el SAG. Así se mantuvieron hasta el año 2005, cuando el socavo de un machón motivó su clausura como medida de seguridad.

A petición del Municipio de San Javier de Loncomilla, por constituir un sobresaliente conjunto símbolo del progreso y talento de los ingenieros chilenos, los puentes proyectados por D. V. Santa María y construidos por Lever Murphy fueron declarados Monumento Histórico Nacional el 10 de septiembre de 1993, en virtud del decreto supremo n.º 635 del Ministerio de Educación de Chile, el cual también declara como monumento al actual puente ferroviario adyacente.

Debido a un sismo menor el 20 de febrero de 2006 colapsaron 112 metros de la superestructura de ambos puentes. Según artículos de prensa, meses antes la acción de las aguas estuvo socavando un machón cercano al estribo norte. El desnivel habría creado una torcedura de 20 cm en las vigas de su sección, justo las reconstruidas en 1909, motivando un cierre preventivo al público que utilizaba los monumentos como balneario en época estival. Dada la falta oportuna de reparaciones, un sismo ocurrido el 19 de febrero desestabilizó la estructura provocando su caída al río en la madrugada del día siguiente. Posteriormente personal de vialidad retiró los perfiles metálicos dañados, incluida una placa instalada al momento de inaugurar el puente carretero, manteniéndose en pie el resto

--------------------------------------------------------------------------

Maule Bridge is a railway bridge out of service located at km 264 of the railway line that was part of the old Southern Chile Railway route. Built during the governments of presidents Domingo Santa María and José Manuel Balmaceda, it was designed by the civil engineer Domingo V. Santa María and built by the Lever, Murphy & Co. factory of Caleta Abarca, Viña del Mar. Delivered in 1885 after one year of construction, to the same structure later in 1888 the Maule Carretero Bridge would be added, a second bridge similar to the previous one for cart traffic.

When Mr. José Manuel Balmaceda was Minister of the Interior, the government echoed different entities that requested the replacement of the temporary railway bridges built of wood, mainly those installed over the Lircay, Maule and Ñuble rivers. Since, these had to be rebuilt every year after the summer floods of said rivers, which harmed the train service to the south, suspending their operations even for up to 30 days.

The Maule was built by a special commission created by the government, who wanted to build a mixed railway and road bridge, which would share foundations for greater economy. The project was carried out by Domingo Víctor Santa María, a civil engineer with studies in Belgium, together with resident engineers Francisco Prado and Nicolás Tanco. It was supervised by Benjamín Vivanco, railway engineer for the Curicó and Maule section. It is a common error to relate Gustavo Eiffel to the construction of this bridge, in which he had no influence, because the Frenchman did participate in another bridge over the Maule River near Constitución.

The work began in January 1883 with the diversion of the river on its northern bank. All the masonry work, abutments, foundations and buttresses, was built by Santa María using personnel hired by the government with machinery leased from Lever Murphy y Cía. This was designed to support both the railway and road bridges. On February 3 of that same year, excavation of the first core began. Furthermore, on May 30, Lever Murphy herself won the proposal to build the metal superstructure of the railway bridge of 1,320 tons of wrought iron, which would be put into work and subject to strength tests.

The bridge was officially handed over on March 15, 1885, not without mishaps and delays in the masonry due to intense rains in the winters of 1883 and 1884. Santa María presented its report on the work on June 6, which was published in the Diario Official in careful detail on June 17, 1885. It was tested before its opening with a train 49 m long and weighing 300 tons, both at rest and at maximum speed (50 km/h). The bridge showed that lateral movement was 6 mm in all spans. Furthermore, the deflection in the 60 m sections was 11 mm, and in the 50 m sections it was 7.9 mm.

It was inaugurated on the same day as the railway bridges over the Lircay River, Saturday, April 11, 1885, by an extensive delegation led by the then Minister of the Interior, José Manuel Balmaceda. Government representatives, almost all state ministers, design engineers and partners of the construction company participated in the ceremony, along with hundreds of people who gathered on the banks of the river. The bridge was decorated for the occasion with giant Chilean flags that closed the way to it and the delegation had lunch in the same place after the ceremony. Balmaceda, at the time of his speech, highlighted the work of Chileans in this type of works and urged builders to expand their workshops for numerous future projects.

Originally, at each entrance to the bridge there were two obelisks, now gone, with plaques that remembered the date of inauguration, engineers and builders.

The Maule railway bridge was considered the first riveted metal truss girder bridge manufactured by Chileans. Located between the Maule and San Javier stations, it was originally 440 m long in sections of 50 and 60 m span, but only about 340 remain standing. Its superstructure had 4 Warren-type grid beams with a length of 220 m each. a. Each pair of beams originally supported a metal profile board, which supported the railway line and its sleepers. The metal framework originally rested on abutments and stone masonry buttresses, which were replaced by reinforced concrete structures. The foundations were designed to also support the superstructure of the Maule Road Bridge, which was added in 1888. The railway bridge also had arched windbreak beams in its upper part to avoid twisting, installed right on each pair of uprights.

Apart from periodic repairs, the bridge did not undergo major modifications until 1909. Due to a derailment of a freight train on September 7, 1909, the second northern section of the railway bridge was partially destroyed by about 40 m. Although traffic was promptly restored on a provisional basis, the affected section had to be completely rebuilt. The works were commissioned to the Sociedad de Maestranzas y Galvanización and supervised by the administrator of the third section of railways, Francisco Sayagó, together with the engineers Carlos Sibilla and Francisco Mardones. The bridge was returned to service on November 25, 1909.

In 1993, a new highway bridge was put into service, wider and made of reinforced concrete. The historic bridges were definitively decommissioned. The highway bridge was closed with a barrier and was informally left for pedestrian use. The old railway bridge, or the south to north route of the Panamericana between 1956 and 1993, was left as a detour for truck inspection for the SII and the SAG. They remained this way until 2005, when the damage caused by a pier led to their closure as a safety measure.

At the request of the Municipality of San Javier de Loncomilla, for constituting an outstanding symbol of the progress and talent of Chilean engineers, the bridges designed by D. V. Santa María and built by Lever Murphy were declared National Historical Monument on September 10, 1993, in by virtue of supreme decree No. 635 of the Chilean Ministry of Education, which also declares the current adjacent railway bridge as a monument.

Due to a minor earthquake on February 20, 2006, 112 meters of the superstructure of both bridges collapsed. According to press articles, months before the action of the waters was undermining a buttress near the northern abutment. The unevenness would have created a 20 cm twist in the beams of its section, precisely those rebuilt in 1909, motivating a preventive closure to the public who used the monuments as a spa in the summer. Given the lack of timely repairs, an earthquake that occurred on February 19 destabilized the structure, causing it to fall into the river in the early hours of the next day. Later, road personnel removed the damaged metal profiles, including a plaque installed when the highway bridge was inaugurated, leaving the rest standing.

Forms of Nature #7: Hummingbird by Kenneth Rougeau

Forms of Nature #7: Hummingbird

digital collage

by Kenneth Rougeau

The seventh image in the new "Forms of Nature" series of digital collages I'm currently creating using the fantastic illustrations of Ernst Haeckel, this one created from a single hummingbird. Prints are available in my Etsy store (artfamilia). At present, I'm planning several individual pieces and one large scale triptych for the series. More to come soon!

Zaha Hadid - Form in Motion exhibition 11.jpg by 準建築人手札網站 Forgemind ArchiMedia

準建築人手札網站 Forgemind ArchiMedia | 英國女建築師 Zaha Hadid 在費城美術館展覽 Form in Motion 展期 2011年9月20日~2012年3月25日

Cassia roxburghii - Red Cassia or Ceylon Senna (Pink Orange Form) by Black Diamond Images

Family : Fabaceae/Caesalpinioideae

Cassia roxburghii is a graceful tree with drooping branches that appear to be weighed down by its prolific canopy of clusters of pink, rose or orange flowers in axillary and terminal, often branched, racemes. The flower petals are approximately 1.3cm long.

Here in Cardwell in Tropical North Queensland,Australia where I saw this variety of this tree the upper surfaces of the branches were laden with pinkish orange flowers. The flowers were smaller than Cassia javanica, with conspicuous yellow stamens.

I later photographed a similar tree but with red flowers a few streets away after the owner of this tree directed me to the location.

The 2 slightly differently coloured flowering trees I saw were obviously young and no doubt would eventually get much larger. Red cassia or Ceylon Senna, as it is sometimes called, is native to Sri Lanka and southern India.

More Cassia roxburghii images.

FIELD GUIDE : FLOWERING TREES of the WORLD ----> Scientific Names DATABASE

Al Yuravage Retirement form IMS 1990 004 Insurance Lady by photographer695

Al Yuravage Retirement form IMS 1990

The Mersey Gateway Project (Photo update) Southern Pylon form traveller raised to deck level 8th April 2016 by Cassini2008

Southern Pylon form traveller raised to deck level .....Please note ALL pictures on this Photostream are Copyright Protected

Travertine-cemented conglomerate 1 by James St. John

Sedimentary rocks form by the solidification of loose sediments. Loose sediments become hard rocks by the processes of deposition, burial, compaction, dewatering, and cementation.

There are three categories of sedimentary rocks:

1) Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks form by the solidification of sediments produced by weathering & erosion of any previously existing rocks.

2) Biogenic sedimentary rocks form by the solidification of sediments that were once-living organisms (plants, animals, micro-organisms).

3) Chemical sedimentary rocks form by the solidification of sediments formed by inorganic chemical reactions.

Most sedimentary rocks have a clastic texture, but some are crystalline.

Seen here is conglomerate, a siliciclastic sedimentary rock consisting of a mix of large and small grains - it is poorly sorted. The larger grains (pebbles or cobbles or boulders) in conglomerates are rounded to subrounded in shape. The finer-grained matrix is usually sand or mud. Most conglomerates were deposited in stream/river environments or alluvial fan environments or some very shallow marine environments.

This specimen is unusual in that the pebbles have been cemented together by travertine - each clast is coated with a thin travertine crust. There is still significant porosity (empty space) between the pebbles. The intergranular areas lack sand or mud. In terms of the rock's origin, it's possible that hot spring water rich in dissolved calcium carbonate moved through a pebble deposit.

Provenance: unknown

Locality: unrecorded, but collected out-of-place in the western USA

sixth form show 2012 017 by FrieslandSchool

https://www.booking.com/hotel/rs/homestay-vukovic.en-gb.html Travel in Serbia Kopaonik 15 evr tel vaiber watsupp skype +38163233616 www.booking.com/hotel/rs/homestay-vukovic.ru.html#form_search Дорогие друзья, приезжайте на отдых в Сербию в Белград by valentina vukovic

form by koichi matsuo

Ginko leaf form ! by Follow the Urban Legend

Avison Ensemble performance workshop, Queen Elizabeth Sixth Form College, Darlington, Wednesday 20th September 2017 by Avison Ensemble

Our principal violinists, cellist and harpsichordist were at Queen Elizabeth Sixth Form College, Darlington, on Wednesday 20th September 2017 for a workshop on performance and interpretation. We greatly enjoyed working with the orchestra and soloists on three concertos – Bach’s Violin Concerto in A minor BWV 1041, Vivaldi’s Flute Concerto in D major ‘The Goldfinch’ RV428 and John Garth’s Cello Concerto No 2 in B flat major. It was an intensive workshop focusing on period interpretation, style and performance practices, and at the end of the workshop the orchestra presented a concert to an invited audience of students from other schools in the area. We were delighted to be involved in this workshop to engage and explore this wonderful music with enthusiastic young players.

We’re grateful to Dr Simon Fleming (Curriculum Leader for Music) and the staff at QESFC for inviting us to lead this workshop. QESFC has a thriving culture of music education and participation, and we’re delighted to have been involved in supporting their music learning.

www.qeliz.ac.uk/

The Avison Ensemble is the outstanding period instrument orchestra based in Newcastle upon Tyne, which plays and popularises the music of Charles Avison (1709-1770) and other English classical composers of the Baroque period, such as Garth, Arne and Herschel. The Ensemble also performs Purcell, Handel, Vivaldi, Corelli, Geminiani, Pergolesi, Teleman, Rameau, Bach, Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven.

www.avisonensemble.com

Padrés realizó la entrega de equipamiento educativo. by Guillermo Padrés Elías

La entrega forma parte del programa de la Transformación Educativa y consistió en el envío de 92 mil piezas de equipamiento.

Ver boletín del evento:

es.scribd.com/doc/257455107/02-03-2015-Entrega-Gobernador...

www.slideshare.net/GuillermoPadres/b031505

Entrega Gobernador Padrés el más grande equipamiento educativo

Forma parte de la Transformación Educativa y va para diferentes municipios donde se abatirá el rezago en mobiliario principalmente de mesabancos.

HERMOSILLO, SONORA, MARZO 02 DE 2015.- Con una inversión de 120 millones de pesos, el Gobernador Guillermo Padrés entregó y dio el banderazo de salida al equipamiento educativo más grande de su administración, con lo que se logra abatir un rezago muy importante en mobiliario y cerrar muy fuerte el ciclo escolar.

La entrega forma parte del programa de la Transformación Educativa y consistió en el envío de 92 mil piezas de equipamiento que se componen de 55 mil 500 mesabancos para niños de tercer grado en adelante, 17 mil espacios didácticos para niños de preescolar y 11 mil mesas trapezoidales para pequeños de segundo grado de preescolar.

Así como mil 500 pintarrones, sillas apilables, equipos secretariales y 2 mil 600 aires acondicionados tipo minisplit que harán frente a las inclemencias del clima en el próximo verano.

“Es una inversión de arriba de 120 millones de pesos, nunca se había visto una entrega tan grande de tantos artículos precisamente en fortalecimiento a la educación, con más de 92 mil piezas que se están mandando a las escuelas estamos logrando abatir gran parte de los rezagos”, expresó.

Previo al banderazo de los trailers cargados con el material, el Gobernador Padrés específicó que los materiales van para los niños y jóvenes de los municipios de Hermosillo, Puerto Peñasco, Guaymas, Agua Prieta, Navojoa, Santa Ana, San Luis Río Colorado y Caborca,

Acompañado del Secretario de Educación y Cultura, Jorge Luis Ibarra Mendivil y ante estudiantes de la primaria Margarita Romandía, el mandatario estatal reconoció el esfuerzo de los docentes y padres de familia para trabajar en conjunto en la Transformación Educativa.

“Tomamos una decisión de la cual me siento muy orgulloso de en mi carrera política, una de las decisiones más importantes, que es invertirle a la educación pública en el estado de Sonora, porque es la base de desarrollo en cualquier sociedad en México y en el mundo”, recalcó el Gobernador

El Secretario de Educación y Cultura, Jorge Luis Ibarra Mendívil, dijo que al inicio de la presente administración se tenía un déficit de 40 mil mesabancos en las escuelas con precarias instalaciones físicas en mayor parte de la entidad.

Estos años, con el esfuerzo del Gobierno del Estado y con este lanzamiento habremos entregado 120 mil mesabancos, que significan resolver problemáticas muy fuerte al interior de las escuelas que se nos agudizó en el ciclo 2013-2014, cuando tuvimos un crecimiento exponencial en escuelas secundarias de 16 mil niños adicionales a los estábamos recibiendo, dijo.

Estuvieron presentes el Director General del Instituto Sonorense de Infraestructura (ISIE), Luis Felipe Romero López; el Presidente de la Asociación Nacional de Padrés de Familia, Noé Delgado Molina; así como los dirigentes de las secciones 28 del SNTE, Francisco Javier Duarte Flores y de la sección 54, Jesús Jaime Rochin Carrillo.

Mamu Form 2 by Timothy Wilson

5 4

A Fat Halved Dollar from Mamu Rising, a film project scuttled.

Forming bricks by Julien Harneis

clouds all form a geometric shape - in progress by Tom Lauerman

natural forms by daffish

Glistening Form by J. E. Foster

3 3

A male Ruby topaz hummingbird shows off.

Folding Paper Bellows with Cylindrical Helix Square Form (4/9) by NeoSpica / NeoLiveArt

Folding Paper Bellows with Cylindrical Helix Square Form

youtu.be/CK_lwwzioyw

1 - Basic Helix Column.

2 - Accordion and Helix Short Column.

3 - Accordion and Helix Long Column.

4 - Accordion and Helix Long Column with Horizontal Flip Section.

5 - Accordion and Helix Two-Tier Column.

youtu.be/_-0vUx_kPvU

6 - Accordion and Helix Two-Tier Column with Horizontal Flip Section.

7 - Accordion and Helix with Union and Interleaves Patterns V1.

8 - Accordion and Helix with Union and Interleaves Patterns V2.

9 - Accordion and Helix with Union of Patterns.

#neospica #origami #tessellation #corrugation #paperfolding #paperfolds #spiral #origamiart #mathart #design #papersculpture #PaperStructures #Knife-Pleat #plissage #Papierfalten #helix #collapsible #Double #vase #cylinder

Youtube: www.youtube.com/c/NeoSpicaPaperStructures

Instagram: www.instagram.com/neospica_op/

Form in Light by Georg Geckert

7 6

This is a unique shape i found in the Red Dot Design Museum. It made great use of Light so did I make use of it.

Shot with my Nikon D5000 and a Sigma 17-70mm F2.8.

Set to 26mm at F3.5, 1/320s and ISO200.

Eames@Svensk Form by Play Olskool

Ice forming by Jessica Rosenkrantz

Wing Chun Sticky Hand Basic Rolling by Xiang Fuk Lin

via Blogger ipmanmovie.blogspot.com/2016/03/wing-chun-sticky-hand-bas...

www.hekkiboen.com

#Ip Man Movie, #Black Flag Wing Chun Movie, #Wing Chun Kung fu, #Wing Chun Technique, #Wing Chun Video, #Wing Chun Training, #Wing Chun Forms, #Wing Chun Dummy, #Wing Chun Schools, #Yim Wing Chun, #Ip Man Wing Chun

Fifth Form Prom by Bloxham School

Historic Fredericksburg Foundation Marker #2: Town Hall-Market House (1814-1816) by Dwayne Moyers, Realtor

The below description of Fredericksburg Town Hall was taken from the National Park Service Nomination Form for National Register of Historic Places.

"The Fredericksburg Town Hall and Market Square are the sole surviving antebellum

representatives in Virginia of the association between government and market that once

flourished in several of the state's town centers. The first town hall stood in the market square

from about 1763 until 1814, when it was demolished to make room for the second town hall.

This combined market house and administrative building was inspired by English examples. In

Virginia the concept was resurrected in the eighteenth century and became one model for

Virginia's governmental and civic architecture. The Fredericksburg Town Hall is a relatively

late example of the type, but it served its dual purposes well for most of the century. By the

late nineteenth century the development of grocery and produce stores rendered the market

functions of the building obsolete. Fredericksburg's Town Hall, however, continued to serve

as the center of local government until 1982.

Fredericksburg was established in 1728, incorporated as a town in 1782, and attained city

status in 1879. It is one of a handful of Virginia urban centers that were incorporated before

1785. Others include Williamsburg, Norfolk, Alexandria, Winchester, Richmond, and

Petersburg.' These towns--later cities--became important regional trading or governmental

centers. When the lots were first laid out in each town, one was set aside as a market area to

provide needed revenue. After the towns were incorporated, ordinances required the erection

of town halls to house the governmental offices necessary for the town's business. A few towns

built structures that contained not only offices for the public business on the upper floors, but

also market stalls on the ground floor.

In Fredericksburg, the market lot was bounded by present-day William, Princess Anne,

and Caroline streets. The area, located to the rear of the site of the first Town Hall, rapidly

developed into a thriving marketplace. It was centrally located near the town docks and

convenient for the tradespeople and farmers. Vendors and craftsmen rented space and set up

stalls to sell their goods. Public gatherings, musters of the militia, and other events took place

on the grounds.

By 1782, the interior spaces of the building were used for both town and market business.

The Town Hall served as a central gathering place not only for those doing business with

the town government, but for the social elite and political leaders of Fredericksburg. For

example, the Masons met there regularly and it was in the Town Hall that George Washington

was admitted to the society on 4 November 1752. Thirty years later, at the end of the

Revolutionary War, some of the senior officers, among them Washington, formed the Society

of the Cincinnati. The first meeting of the Virginia chapter of the society took place in the

Town Hall on 7-9 October 1783. Three months later, on 12 December 1783, the Peace Ball--

perhaps the most notable event to occur in the building--was held there and attended, according

to local tradition, by both George Washington and his mother, Mary Ball Washington."

See also: Christophany

Christians generally recognize the same Old Testament theophanies as the Jews.[10][11] In addition, there are at least two events seen as theophanies mentioned in the New Testament, the baptism and transfiguration of Jesus (epiphanies).[12][3][13] While some Eastern Orthodox Churches refer to the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist as "theophany",[14] some theologians discourage such usage, arguing that the entire life of Jesus must be seen as a prolonged theophany.[3]

Traditional analysis of the Biblical passages led Christian scholars to understand theophany as an unambiguous manifestation of God to man.[15] Otherwise, the more general term hierophany is used.[16]

Evangelical Christianity

Some modern evangelical Christian Bible commentators, such as Ron Rhodes, interpret "the angel of the Lord", who appears in several places throughout the Old Testament, to be the pre-incarnate Christ, which is Jesus before his manifestation into human form, as described in the New Testament. Adaptions to his hypothesis in current evangelical research and intercollegiate debate describe these manifestations as the post-incarnate Christ (yet to be published), as though in being a divine human capable of time travel He could foretell his later incarnation as having already lived it.[17] The term Christophany has also been coined to identify post-incarnate appearances of Christ in both the Old and New Testaments. 1 Peter 4 (v.6) allows for the interpretation that on the Son's Father-Spirit (as the third member of the trinity fulfilling the unity of various persons as Christ is crowned King of Kings) and being conferred from the cross with the words, "Eloi, Eloi! Lama Sabachtani", was thereby born or separated as the timeless Word (or angel) of God (John 1 and 5) with the character and memory of Christ, even giving permission for creation "Let there be.." (Genesis 1) . This also has been the traditional interpretation of the earliest Church Fathers as well as the apostle Paul himself, who identifies the rock that was with Moses in the desert, and the speaking burning bush, as being Christ. For a more thorough list of "God Sightings", or Theophanies, see the examples above under "Judaism, Hebrew Bible."

Latter Day Saint movement

Main article: First Vision

Joseph Smith, the prophet and founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, said that when he was 14 years old he was visited by God the Father and Jesus Christ in a grove of trees near his house, a Theophany in answer to his spoken prayer. [18] This "First Vision" is considered to be the founding event of the Latter Day Saint movement.[19] The Book of Mormon describes other hierophanies and Theophanies that occurred in the new world.[20]

For example, Blake Ostler analysed the Throne-Theophany of Lehi in the First Book of Nephi and concluded that the Theophanies in the Bible and the Book of Mormon have much in common.[21]

And being thus overcome with the Spirit, he was carried away in a Vision, even that he saw the Heavens open, and he thought he saw God sitting upon his Throne, surrounded with numberless concourses of angels in the attitude of singing and praising their God. And it came to pass that he saw One descending out of the midst of Heaven, and he beheld that his luster was above that of the sun at noon-day. And he also saw twelve others following him, and their brightness did exceed that of the stars in the firmament. And they came down and went forth upon the face of the earth; and the first came and stood before my father, and gave unto him a book, and bade him that he should read.[22]

Islam

The most important theophany in Islam is the Mi'raj, the Prophet's ascent into Heaven. He speaks to the Holy Spirit (Gabriel), sometimes called "a night journey from Mecca through Jerusalem."[23][24]

Druze Faith

Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad is considered the founder of the Druze and the primary author of the Druze manuscripts,[25] he proclaimed that God had become human and taken the form of man, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.[26][27][28][29][30] al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah is an important figure in the Druze faith whose eponymous founder ad-Darazi proclaimed him as the incarnation of God in 1018.[26][27]

Baháʼí Faith

Main article: Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)

The Baháʼí Faith believes that God is manifest in the prophets. The "Manifestation of God" is a concept that refers to prophets like Zoroaster, Gautama Buddha, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, the Báb, and Baháʼu'lláh.[31] The Manifestations of God are a series of personages who reflect the attributes of the divine in the human world, for the progress and advancement of human morals and civilization.[32]

In the 1914 publication titled The Reconciliation of Races and Religions, Thomas Kelly Cheyne, FBA (1841–1915), an ordained minister in the Church of England and Oxford University scholar, described Theophany within the context of the Baháʼí Faith.[33][34] Cheyne wrote, "...one feels that a Theology without a Theophany is both dry and difficult to defend. We want an avatar, i.e. a 'descent' of God in human form".[34]

A 1991 article in the Journal of Bahá’í Studies (JBS), described "Bahá’í theophanology" as "acceptance of the Prophet, or 'Manifestation of God,' who speaks on behalf of God."[35] The author explained that Bahá’u’lláh wrote a series of epistles in the 1860s to kings and rulers, including Pope Pius IX, Napoleon III, Tsar Alexander II of Russia, Queen Victoria, and Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, in a "forceful, theophanic voice" calling them to undertake reforms.[35] These letters were published in a compilation entitled Summons of the Lord of Hosts in 2002.[36] The JBS article described Bahá’u’lláh's "Theophanology" as "progressivist". He claimed "spiritual Authority" in these letters in which he warned western leaders of the dangers facing humanity should they choose to not act on His Guidance.[35]

Divine appearances to animals

Human religious lore includes ancient literary recordings of deities appearing to animals. Usually, the animals relay the experience to humans using human speech:

In numerous creation stories, a deity or deities speak with many kinds of animals, often prior to the formation of dry land on earth.[37]

In the Hindu Ramayana, the monkey leader Hanuman is informed by deities, and usually consciously addressed by them.[38]

In Chinese mythology, the Monkey King speaks with bodhisattvas, buddhas, and a host of Heavenly characters.[39]

Modern

Teofanía by Mexican artist Antonio García Vega

More recently, science fiction author Philip K. Dick reportedly had a Theophany on 3 February 1974,[40] which would become the basis for his semi-biographic works VALIS (1981) and Radio Free Albemuth (1985).[41][42]

In 1977, Michel Potay testified he witnessed five Theophanies. He published the text he says he received from God in "The Book", the second part of The Revelation of Ares.[citation needed]

There are a large number of modern cases which have been rendered into print, film, and otherwise conveyed to broad publics. Some cases have become popular books and media, including:

A Course in Miracles which is attested as divinely channeled[43]

The Attentive Heart: Conversations with Trees, in which the spirits contacted are resident in species that do not usually speak in the ordinary sense of human speech[44]

These instances are distinguished from cases in which divine encounters are explicitly considered fictional by the author, a frequent motif in speculative fiction such as in Julian May's Galactic Milieu Series.[45]

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophany

Lent (Latin: Quadragesima,[1] 'Fortieth') is the solemn Christian religious observance in the liturgical year in preparation for Easter. It echoes the 40 days Jesus spent fasting in the desert and enduring temptation by Satan, according to the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke, before beginning his public ministry.[2][3] Lent is usually observed in the Catholic, Lutheran, Moravian, Anglican, United Protestant and Orthodox Christian traditions, among others.[4][5][6][7] A number of Anabaptist, Baptist, Methodist, Reformed (including certain Continental Reformed, Presbyterian and Congregationalist churches), and nondenominational Christian churches also observe Lent, although many churches in these traditions do not.[8][9][10][11][12][13]

Which days are enumerated as being part of Lent differs between denominations (see below), although in all of them Lent is described as lasting for a total duration of 40 days, the number of days Jesus, as well as Moses and Elijah, went without food in their respective fasts.[14][15][16] In Lent-observing Western Christian denominations, Lent begins on Ash Wednesday and ends approximately six weeks later; depending on the Christian denomination and local custom, Lent concludes either on the evening of Maundy Thursday (Holy Thursday),[17] or at sundown on Holy Saturday, when the Easter Vigil is celebrated,[18] though in either case, Lenten fasting observances are maintained until the evening of Holy Saturday.[19] Sundays may or may not be excluded, depending on the denomination.[20] In Eastern Christianity – including Eastern Orthodox, Eastern Catholics, Eastern Lutherans, and Oriental Orthodox – Great Lent is observed continuously without interruption for 40 days starting on Clean Monday and ending on Lazarus Saturday before Holy Week.[21][6]

Lent is a period of repentance that necessarily ends with a great celebration of Easter. Thus, it is known in Eastern Orthodox circles as the season of "bright sadness" (Greek: χαρμολύπη, romanized: charmolypê).[22] The purpose of Lent is the preparation of the believer for Easter through prayer, fasting, and almsgiving (the three pillars of Lent),[23] as well as mortifying the flesh, repentance of sins, simple living, and self-denial.[24] In Lent, many Christians commit to fasting, as well as giving up certain luxuries in imitation of Christ's sacrifice during his journey into the desert for 40 days;[25][26][27] this is known as one's Lenten sacrifice.[28] Prior to the 6th century, Lent was normatively observed through the practice of the Black Fast, which enjoins fasting from food and liquids, with the allowance of one vegetarian meal after sunset.[29][30][31] This form of fasting continues in certain denominations, such as the Coptic Orthodox Church.[32]

Many Lent-observing Christians also add a Lenten spiritual discipline, such as reading a daily devotional or praying through a Lenten calendar, to draw themselves near to God.[33][34] Often observed (especially on Fridays) are the Stations of the Cross, a devotional commemoration of Christ's carrying the Cross and crucifixion. Many churches remove flowers from their altars and veil crucifixes, religious statues that show the triumphant Christ, and other elaborate religious symbols in violet fabrics in solemn observance of the event. The custom of veiling is typically practiced the last two weeks, beginning on the fifth Sunday of Lent (known as Judica Sunday or Passion Sunday) until Good Friday, when the cross is unveiled solemnly in the liturgy.

In most Lent-observing denominations, the last week of Lent is known as Holy Week, which begins with Palm Sunday. Following the New Testament narrative, Jesus' crucifixion is commemorated on Good Friday, and at the beginning of the next week the joyful celebration of Easter, the start of the Easter season, which recalls the Resurrection of Jesus. In some Christian denominations, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday form the Easter Triduum.[35]

Etymology

Lent observers, including a confraternity of penitents, carrying out a street procession during Holy Week, in Granada, Nicaragua. The violet color is often associated with penance and detachment. Similar Christian penitential practice is seen in other Christian countries, sometimes associated with fasting.[36]

The English word Lent is a shortened form of the Old English word lencten, meaning "spring season", as its Dutch language cognate lente (Old Dutch lentin)[37] still does today. A dated term in German, Lenz (Old High German lenzo), is also related. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, 'the shorter form (? Old Germanic type *laŋgito- , *laŋgiton-) seems to be a derivative of *laŋgo- long […] and may possibly have reference to the lengthening of the days as characterizing the season of spring'. The origin of the -en element is less clear: it may simply be a suffix, or lencten may originally have been a compound of *laŋgo- 'long' and an otherwise little-attested word *-tino, meaning "day".[26]

In languages spoken where Christianity was earlier established, such as Greek and Latin, the term signifies the period dating from the 40th weekday before Easter. In modern Greek the term is Σαρακοστή (Sarakostí), derived from the earlier Τεσσαρακοστή (Tessarakostí), meaning "fortieth". The corresponding word in Latin, quadragesima ("fortieth"), is the origin of the terms used in Latin-derived languages and in some others.

Examples in the Romance language group are: Catalan quaresma, French carême, Galician coresma, Italian quaresima, Occitan quaresma, Portuguese quaresma, Romanian păresimi, Sardinian caresima, Spanish cuaresma, and Walloon cwareme.[1] Examples in non-Latin-based languages are: Albanian kreshma, Basque garizuma, Croatian korizma, Irish and Scottish Gaelic carghas, Swahili kwaresima, Filipino kuwaresma, and Welsh c(a)rawys.[citation needed]

In other languages, the name used refers to the activity associated with the season. Thus it is called "fasting period" in Czech (postní doba), German (Fastenzeit), and Norwegian (fasten/fastetid), and it is called "The Great Fast" in Arabic (الصوم الكبير – al-ṣawm al-kabīr), Syriac (ܨܘܡܐ ܪܒܐ ṣawmā rabbā), Polish (wielki post), Russian (великий пост – vieliki post), Ukrainian (великий піст – velyky pist), and Hungarian (nagyböjt). Romanian, apart from a version based on the Latin term referring to the 40 days (see above), also has a "great fast" version: postul mare. Dutch has three options, one of which means fasting period, and the other two referring to the 40-day period indicated in the Latin term: vastentijd, veertigdagentijd and quadragesima, respectively.[1] In India, it is called चरम चालीसा (Charam Chalisa - meaning, "climax forty"). In Maltese, despite being a descendant of Arabic, the term Randan is used, which is distinctive when compared to the dialects of Arabic. Despite the centuries of Catholic influences, the term remains unchanged since the Arab occupation of Malta.

Origin

The pattern of fasting and praying for 40 days is seen in the Christian Bible, on which basis the liturgical season of Lent was established.[14][38] In the Old Testament, the prophet Moses went into the mountains for 40 days and 40 nights to pray and fast "without eating bread or drinking water" before receiving the Ten Commandments (cf. Exodus 34:28).[38] Likewise, the prophet Elijah went into the mountains for 40 days and nights to fast and pray "until he reached Horeb, the mountain of God" when "the word of the Lord came to him" (cf. 1 Kings 19:8–9).[38] The early Christian bishop Maximus of Turin wrote that as Elijah by "fasting continuously for a period of forty days and forty nights...merited to extinguish the prolonged and severe dryness of the whole world, doing so with a stream of rain and steeping the earth's dryness with the bounty of water from heaven", in the Christian tradition, this is interpreted as being "a figure of ourselves so that we, also fasting a total of forty days, might merit the spiritual rain of baptism...[and] a shower from heaven might pour down upon the dry earth of the whole world, and the abundant waters of the saving bath might saturate the lengthy drought of the Gentiles."[15] In the New Testament, Jesus went into the desert to fast and pray for 40 days and 40 nights; it was during this time that Satan tried to tempt him (cf. Matthew 4:1–3).[38] The 40-day and night fasts of Moses, Elijah, and Jesus prepared them for their work.[14]

Early Christianity records the tradition of fasting before Easter.[39] For the meal of the day consumed after sunset (when the fast is broken), the Apostolic Constitutions permit the consumption of "bread, vegetables, salt and water, in Lent" with "flesh and wine being forbidden."[39] The Canons of Hippolytus authorize only bread and salt to be consumed during Holy Week.[39] The practice of fasting and abstaining from alcohol, meat and lacticinia during Lent thus became established in the Church.[39]

In AD 339, Athanasius of Alexandria wrote that the Lenten fast was a 40-day fast that "the entire world" observed.[40] Saint Augustine of Hippo (AD 354–AD 430) wrote that: "Our fast at any other time is voluntary; but during Lent, we sin if we do not fast."[41] Church Father John Chrysostom (A.D. 347–407) stated that the early Christians did not consume meat for the whole duration of Lent.[39]

Three main prevailing theories exist on the finalization of Lent as a 40-day fast prior to the arrival of Easter Sunday: First, that it was created at the Council of Nicea in 325 and there is no earlier incarnation. Second, that it is based on an Egyptian Christian post-theophany fast. Third, a combination of origins syncretized around the Council of Nicea.[42] There are early references to periods of fasting prior to baptism. For instance, the Didache, a 1st or 2nd-century Christian text, commends "the baptizer, the one to be baptized, and any others that are able" to fast to prepare for the sacrament.[43]

For centuries it has been common practice for baptisms to take place on Easter, and so such references were formerly taken to be references to a pre-Easter fast. Tertullian, in his 3rd-century work On Baptism, indicates that Easter was a "most solemn day for baptism." However, he is one of only a handful of writers in the ante-Nicene period who indicates this preference, and even he says that Easter was by no means the only favored day for baptisms in his locale.[44]

Since the 20th century, scholars have acknowledged that Easter was not the standard day for baptisms in the early church, and references to pre-baptismal periods of fasting were not necessarily connected with Easter. There were shorter periods of fasting observed in the pre-Nicene church (Athanasius noted that the 4th-century Alexandrian church observed a period of fasting before Pascha [Easter]).[42] However it is known that the 40-day period of fasting – the season later named Lent – before Eastertide was clarified at the Nicene Council.[45] In 363-64 AD, the Council of Laodicea prescribed the Lenten fast as "of strict necessity".[40]

Date and duration

Some named days and day ranges around Lent and Easter in Western Christianity, with the fasting days of Lent numbered

The 40 days of Lent are calculated differently among the various Christian denominations that observe it, depending on how the date of Easter is calculated, but also on which days Lent is understood to begin and end, and on whether all the days of Lent are counted consecutively. Additionally, the date of Lent may depend on the calendar used by the particular church, such as the (revised) Julian or Gregorian calendars typically used by Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant churches, or the Ethiopian and Coptic calendars traditionally used by some Oriental Orthodox churches.

Roman Catholic Church

Since 1970, in the Roman Rite Lent starts on Ash Wednesday and ends on the evening of Holy Thursday with the Mass of the Lord's Supper. This comprises a period of 44 days. Historically, the fasting and abstinence were enjoined during the weekdays of Lent and with Sundays being days of abstinence;[20] the obligations of the Lenten fast continue through Good Friday and Holy Saturday, totaling 40 days (with the Eucharistic Fast applying as well).[46][47] Although Lent formally ends on Holy Thursday, Lenten fasting practices continue until the Easter Vigil and additionally, the celebration of Easter is preceded by the Paschal fast.[19][48]

In the Ambrosian Rite, Lent begins on the Sunday that follows what is celebrated as Ash Wednesday in the rest of the Latin Catholic Church, and ends as in the Roman Rite, thus being of 40 days, counting the Sundays but not Holy Thursday. The day for beginning the Lenten fast in the Ambrosian Rite is the Monday after Ash Wednesday. The special Ash Wednesday fast is transferred to the first Friday of the Ambrosian Lent. Until this rite was revised by Saint Charles Borromeo, the liturgy of the First Sunday of Lent was festive, celebrated in white vestments with chanting of the Gloria in Excelsis and Alleluia, in line with the recommendation in Matthew 6:16, "When you fast, do not look gloomy."[49][50][51]

During Lent, the Church discourages marriages, but couples may marry if they forgo the special blessings of the Nuptial Mass and limit social celebrations.[52]

The period of Lent observed in the Eastern Catholic Churches corresponds to that in other churches of Eastern Christianity that have similar traditions.

Protestantism and Western Orthodoxy

In Western traditions, the liturgical colour of the season of Lent is violet. Altar crosses and religious statuary which show Christ in his glory are traditionally veiled during this period in the Christian year.

In Protestant and Western Orthodox Churches that celebrate it, the season of Lent lasts from Ash Wednesday to the evening of Holy Saturday.[6][53] This calculation makes Lent last 46 days if the 6 Sundays are included, but only 40 days if they are excluded.[54] This definition is still that of the Moravian Church,[55] Lutheran Church,[56] Anglican Church,[57] Methodist Church,[18] Western Rite Orthodox Church,[58] United Protestant Churches,[59] and those of the Reformed Churches (i.e., Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, and Congregationalist) that observe Lent.[60][61] (In the Episcopal Church, the main U.S. branch of the Anglican Communion, the 1979 Book of Common Prayer identifies Holy Week--comprising Palm/Passion Sunday through Holy Saturday--as a separate season after Lent;[62] but the Days of Special Devotion, to be observed by special acts of discipline and self-denial, include the weekdays of, but not the Sundays in, both Lent and Holy Week,[63] so the practical effect is the same as the traditional 40-day calculation.)

Eastern Orthodoxy and Byzantine Rite

Main article: Great Lent

In the Byzantine Rite, i.e., the Eastern Orthodox Great Lent (Greek: Μεγάλη Τεσσαρακοστή or Μεγάλη Νηστεία, meaning "Great 40 Days" and "Great Fast" respectively) is the most important fasting season in the church year.[64]

The 40 days of Great Lent include Sundays, and begin on Clean Monday. The 40 days are immediately followed by what are considered distinct periods of fasting, Lazarus Saturday and Palm Sunday, which in turn are followed straightway by Holy Week. Great Lent is broken only after the Paschal (Easter) Divine Liturgy.

The Eastern Orthodox Church maintains the traditional Church's teaching on fasting. The rules for lenten fasting are the monastic rules. Fasting in the Orthodox Church is more than simply abstaining from certain foods. During the Great Lent Orthodox Faithful intensify their prayers and spiritual exercises, go to church services more often, study the Scriptures and the works of the Church Fathers in depth, limit their entertainment and spendings and focus on charity and good works.

Some other churches that follow the Byzantine Rite, including certain Eastern Catholic and Eastern Lutheran denominations have similar practices as those of Eastern Orthodoxy.

Oriental Orthodoxy

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Further information: Fasting in the Coptic Orthodox Church

Among the Oriental Orthodox, there are various local traditions regarding Lent. Those using the Alexandrian Rite, i.e., the Coptic Orthodox, Coptic Catholic, Ethiopian Orthodox, Ethiopian Catholic, Eritrean Orthodox, and Eritrean Catholic Churches, observe eight continuous weeks of fasting constituting three distinct consecutive fasting periods:

a Pre-Lenten fast in preparation for Great Lent

Great Lent itself

the Paschal fast during Holy Week which immediately follows Lent

As in the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the date of Easter is typically reckoned according to the Julian calendar, and usually occurs later than Easter according to Gregorian calendar used by Catholic and Protestant Churches.

Ethiopian Orthodoxy

Further information: Fasting in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church

In Ethiopian Orthodoxy, fasting (tsome) lasts for 55 continuous days before Easter (Fasika), although the fast is divided into three separate periods: Tsome Hirkal, the eight-day Fast of Heraclius, commemorating the fast requested by the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius before he reputedly set out to fight the Sassanian Empire and recover the True Cross which had been seized and taken from Jerusalem; Tsome Arba, 40 days of Lent; and Tsome Himamat, seven days commemorating Holy Week.[65][66][67] Fasting involves abstention from animal products (meat, dairy, and eggs), and refraining from eating or drinking before 3:00 pm.[65] Ethiopian devotees may also abstain from sexual activity and the consumption of alcohol.[65]

Quartodecimanism

Quartodeciman Christians end the fast of Lent on the Paschal full moon of the Hebrew calendar, in order to celebrate the Feast of Unleavened Bread beginning on the 14th of Nisan, whence the name derives. For this practice, they were excommunicated in the Easter controversy of the 2nd century A.D.

Associated customs

In many Christian countries, religious processions during the season of Lent are often accompanied by a military escort both for security and parade. Ceuta, Spain

Three traditional practices to be taken up with renewed vigour during Lent; these are known as the three pillars of Lent:[68]

prayer (justice toward God)

fasting (justice toward self)

almsgiving (justice toward neighbours)

Self-reflection, simplicity, and sincerity (honesty) are emphasised during the Lenten season.[24]

Pre-Lenten observances

Main articles: Pre-Lent and Carnival

During pre-Lent, it is customary for Christians to ponder what Lenten sacrifices they will make for Lent.[69]

The pre-Lenten period concludes with the opportunity for a last round of merrymaking, known as Carnival, Shrovetide, or Fastelavn, before the start of the sombre Lenten season. The traditions of carrying Shrovetide rods and consuming Shrovetide buns after attending church is celebrated.[70][71]

On the final day of the season, Shrove Tuesday or Mardi Gras, many traditional Christians, such as Catholics, Lutherans, Anglicans, and Methodists "make a special point of self-examination, of considering what wrongs they need to repent, and what amendments of life or areas of spiritual growth they especially need to ask God's help in dealing with."[72][73] During Shrovetide, many churches place a basket in the narthex to collect the previous year's Holy Week palm branches that were blessed and distributed during the Palm Sunday liturgies; on Shrove Tuesday, churches burn these palms to make the ashes used during the services held on the very next day, Ash Wednesday.[74]

In historically Lutheran nations, Shrovetide is known as Fastelavn. After attending the Mass on Shrove Sunday, congregants enjoy Shrovetide buns (fastelavnsboller), "round sweet buns that are covered with icing and filled with cream and/or jam."[70] Children often dress up and collect money from people while singing.[70] They also practice the tradition of hitting a barrel, which represents fighting Satan; after doing this, children enjoy the sweets inside the barrel.[70] Lutheran Christians in these nations carry Shrovetide rods (fastelavnsris), which "branches decorated with sweets, little presents, etc., that are used to decorate the home or give to children."[70]

In English-speaking countries such as the United Kingdom and Canada, the day before Lent is known as Shrove Tuesday, which is derived from the word shrive, meaning "to administer the sacrament of confession to; to absolve."[75] In these countries, pancakes are associated with Shrove Tuesday because they are a way to use up rich foods such as eggs, milk, and sugar – rich foods which are not eaten during the season.[76]

The Carnival celebrations which in many cultures traditionally precede Lent are seen as a last opportunity for excess before Lent begins. Some of the most famous are the Carnival of Barranquilla, the Carnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the Carnival of Venice, Cologne Carnival, the New Orleans Mardi Gras, the Rio de Janeiro carnival, and the Trinidad and Tobago Carnival.[citation needed]

In stark contrast to traditions of merrymaking and feasting, Oriental Orthodox Churches practice a pre-Lenten fast in preparation for Lent which is immediately followed by the fast of Great Lent without interruption.

Fasting and Lenten sacrifice

Jesus Tempted in the Wilderness (Jésus tenté dans le désert), James Tissot, Brooklyn Museum

Main article: Lenten sacrifice

See also: Christian dietary laws

There are traditionally 40 days in Lent; these are marked by fasting, both from foods and festivities, and by other acts of penance. Fasting is maintained for all 40 days of Lent (regardless of how they are enumerated; see above). Historically, fasting and abstinence have been maintained continuously for the weekdays of the whole Lenten season, with Sundays being days of abstinence only.[20] The making of a Lenten sacrifice, in which Christians give up a personal pleasure for the duration of 40 days, is a traditional practice during Lent.[77]

During Shrovetide and especially on Shrove Tuesday, the day before the start of the Lenten season, many Christians finalize their decision with respect to what Lenten sacrifices they will make for Lent.[69] Examples include practicing vegetarianism and teetotalism during Lent as a Lenten sacrifice.[78][79] While making a Lenten sacrifice, it is customary to pray for strength to keep it; many often wish others for doing so as well, e.g. "May God bless your Lenten sacrifice."[80] In addition, some believers add a regular spiritual discipline, to bring them closer to God, such as reading a Lenten daily devotional.[33]

For Catholics, Lutherans, Moravians, Anglicans, United Protestants, and Lent-observing Methodists and Reformed Christians, the Lenten penitential season ends after the Easter Vigil Mass or Sunrise service. Orthodox Christians also break their fast after the Paschal Vigil, a service which starts around 11:00 pm on Holy Saturday, and which includes the Paschal celebration of the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom. At the end of the service, the priest blesses cheese, eggs, flesh meats, and other items that the faithful have been abstaining from for the duration of Great Lent.

Lenten traditions and liturgical practices are less common, less binding, and sometimes non-existent among some liberal and progressive Christians.[81] A greater emphasis on anticipation of Easter Sunday is often encouraged more than the penitence of Lent or Holy Week.[82]

Some Christians as well as secular groups also interpret the Lenten fast in a positive tone, not as renunciation but as contributing to causes such as environmental stewardship and improvement of health.[83][84] Even some atheists find value in the Christian tradition and observe Lent.[85]

Lenten Black Fast

Historically, using the early Christian form known as the Black Fast, the observant does not consume food for a whole day until the evening, and at sunset, Christians traditionally break the Lenten fast of that day with a vegetarian supper (no food or drink is consumed in a day apart from that in the Lenten supper).[31][86][29][30] In India and Pakistan, many Christians continue this practice of fasting until sunset on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, with many fasting in this manner throughout the whole season of Lent.[87][88]

Daniel Fast

Christians of various traditions, including Catholics and Methodists, have voluntarily undertaken the Daniel Fast during the season of Lent, in which one abstains from "meat, fish, egg, dairy products, chocolates, ice creams, sugar, sweets, wine or any alcoholic beverages" (cf. Daniel 10:3).[89][90][91]

Lenten supper

After attending a worship service (often on Wednesday and Friday evenings), it is common for Christians of various denominations to conclude that day's Lenten fast together through a communal Lenten supper, which may be held in the church's parish hall. Lenten suppers ordinarily take place in the home setting during the 40 days of Lent during which a family (or individual) concludes that day's fast after a mealtime prayer.[92]

Abstinence from meat and animal products

Lenten suppers often consist of a vegetarian soup, bread, and water in order to maintain the season's focus on abstinence, sacrifice, and simplicity.

Fasting has historically included abstinence from alcohol, meat, lacticinia (dairy products), and other edible produce derived from animals (such as eggs), which has been enjoined continuously for the whole duration of the season including Sundays.[93][39] Church Father John Chrysostom stated that the early Christians did not consume meat for the whole duration of Lent.[39] Throughout Christendom, some adherents continue to mark the season with a traditional abstention from the consumption of meat (vegetarianism), most notably among Catholics, Lutherans, and Anglicans.[94][95] The form of abstention may vary depending on what is customary; some abstain from meat for 40 days, some do so only on Fridays, or some only on Good Friday itself.[94][32]

In Catholicism, lacticinia may be consumed by penitents in Spain and its colonised territories, per a pontifical decree of Pope Alexander VI. Until 1741, meat and lacticinia were otherwise forbidden for the whole season of Lent, including Sundays. In that year, Pope Benedict XIV allowed for the consumption of meat and lacticinia during certain fasting days of Lent.[96]

Abstinence from alcohol during the season of Lent has traditionally been enjoined "in remembrance of the Sacred Thirst of Our Lord on the Cross."[39][97][98]

Dispensations for the allowance of certain foods have been given throughout history, depending on the climate in that part of the world. For example, Giraldus Cambrensis, in his Itinerary of Archbishop Baldwin through Wales, reports that "in Germany and the arctic regions", "great and religious persons" eat the tail of beavers as "fish" because of its superficial resemblance to "both the taste and colour of fish." The animal was very abundant in Wales at the time.[99] Saint Thomas Aquinas allowed for the consumption of sweetened foods during Lent, because "sugared spices", such as comfits, were, in his opinion, digestive aids on par with medicine rather than food.[100]

Fasting practices are considerably relaxed in Western societies today, though in the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Catholic, and Eastern Lutheran Churches abstinence from all animal products including eggs, fish, fowl, and milk is still commonly practiced, so that, where this is observed, only vegetarian (or vegan) meals are consumed for the whole of Lent, 48 days in the Byzantine Rite. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church's practices require a fasting period that is a great deal longer, and there is some dispute over whether fish consumption is permissible.

In the traditions of Lent-observing Western Christian churches, abstinence from eating some form of food (generally meat, but not dairy or fish products) is distinguished from fasting. In principle, abstinence is to be observed in Western Christianity on Ash Wednesday and on every Friday of the year that is not a solemnity (a liturgical feast day of the highest rank); but in each country the episcopal conference can determine the form it is to take, perhaps replacing abstinence with other forms of penance.[101][102][103]

Sexual abstinence

The Coptic Orthodox Church, a denomination of Oriental Orthodox Christianity, teaches that during Lent believers "should refrain from physical relations to give themselves time for fasting and prayer (1 Corinthians 7:5)."[32] Also, the Eastern Orthodox Church enjoins abstinence from sexual relations during Lent.[104]

In Western Christianity, through the Middle Ages, Christians abstained from sexual relations during the whole of Lent.[105] In view of this, nine months after Lent, birth records were drastically low.[106] In Spain, according to researchers from the University of Valencia and the University of Alcalà, the custom of abstaining from sexual relations was widely practiced until the end of the Franco régime, though some Western Christians voluntarily continue this practice today.[107]

Specific fasting traditions by Christian denomination

Catholicism

Further information: Fasting in the Catholic Church

Prior to 1966, the Catholic Church allowed Catholics of fasting age to eat only one full meal a day throughout all forty days of Lent, except on the Lord's Day. Catholics were allowed to take a smaller meal, called a collation, which was introduced after the 14th century A.D., and a cup of some beverage, accompanied by a little bread, in the morning.[108] The 1917 Code of Canon Law allowed the full meal on a fasting day to be taken at any hour and to be supplemented by two collations, with the quantity and the quality of the food to be determined by local custom. Abstinence from meat was to be observed on Ash Wednesday and on Fridays and Saturdays in Lent.[109]

The Lenten fast ended on Holy Saturday at noon. Only those aged 21 to 59 were obliged to fast. As with all ecclesiastical laws, particular difficulties, such as strenuous work or illness, excused one from observance, and a dispensation from the law could be granted by a bishop or parish priest.[110] A rule of thumb is that the two collations should not add up to the equivalent of another full meal. Rather portions were to be: "sufficient to sustain strength, but not sufficient to satisfy hunger."[111]

In 1966, Pope Paul VI reduced the obligatory fasting days from all forty days of Lent to Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, abstinence days to Fridays and Ash Wednesday, and allowed episcopal conferences to replace abstinence and fasting with other forms of penitence such as charity and piety, as declared and established in his apostolic constitution Paenitemini; fasting on all forty days of Lent is still "strongly recommended", though not under pain of mortal sin.[112] This was done so that those in countries where the standard of living is lower can replace fasting with prayer, but "…where economic well-being is greater, so much more will the witness of asceticism have to be given…"[113]

This was made part of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, which made obligatory fasting for those aged between 18 and 59, and abstinence for those aged 14 and upward.[101] The Irish Catholic Bishops' Conference decided to allow other forms of Friday penance to replace that of abstinence from meat, whether in Lent or outside Lent, suggesting alternatives such as abstaining from some other food, or from alcohol or smoking; making a special effort at participating in family prayer or in Mass; making the Stations of the Cross; or helping the poor, sick, old, or lonely.[114]

The Catholic Bishops' Conference of England and Wales made a similar ruling in 1985[115] but decided in 2011 to restore the traditional year-round Friday abstinence from meat.[116] The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops has maintained the rule of abstention from meat on Friday only during Lent and considers poultry to be a type of meat but not fish or shellfish.[117][118]

The Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen (CMRI), a Sedevacantist Catholic congregation, requires fasting for its members on all of the forty days of the Christian season of repentance, Lent (except on the Lord's Day). The CMRI mandates under the pain of grave sin, abstinence from meat on Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, Holy Saturday and all Fridays of the year in general.[119]

Even during Lent, the rule about solemnities holds, so that the obligation of Friday abstinence does not apply on 19 and 25 March when, as usually happens, the solemnities of Saint Joseph and the Annunciation are celebrated on those dates. The same applies to Saint Patrick's Day, which is a solemnity in the whole of Ireland as well as in dioceses that have Saint Patrick as their principal patron saint. In some other places, too, where there are strong Irish traditions within the Catholic community, a dispensation is granted for that day.[120] In Hong Kong, where Ash Wednesday often coincides with Chinese New Year celebrations, a dispensation is then granted from the laws of fast and abstinence, and the faithful are exhorted to use some other form of penance.[121]

Lutheranism

Following the birth of Lutheranism in the Protestant Reformation, Lutheran church orders in the 16th century "retained the observation of the Lenten fast, and Lutherans have observed this season with a serene, earnest attitude."[122] Many Lutheran churches advocate fasting during Lent,[27][123] especially on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday.[124][27][125][126] A Handbook for the Discipline of Lent published by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, a mainline Lutheran denomination, offers a number of guidelines for fasting, abstinence, and other forms of self-denial during Lent:[94]

Fast on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday with only one simple meal during the day, usually without meat.

Refrain from eating meat (bloody foods) on all Fridays in Lent, substituting fish for example.

Eliminate a food or food group for the entire season. Especially consider saving rich and fatty foods for Easter.

Consider not eating before receiving Communion in Lent.

Abstain from or limit a favorite activity (television, movies etc.) for the entire season, and spend more time in prayer, Bible study, and reading devotional material.

Don't just give up something that you have to give up for your doctor or diet anyway. Make your fast a voluntary self-denial (i.e. discipline) that you offer to God in prayer.[94]

The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, a confessional Lutheran denomination, likewise encourages (but does not require) members to give things up for Lent, while emphasizing that the purpose of Lent is repentance from sin rather than minor acts of self-denial in themselves.[127][128]

Moravianism

Members of the Moravian Church voluntarily fast during the season of Lent, along with making a Lenten sacrifice for the season as a form of penitence.[129]

Reformed

John Calvin, the principal figure in the development of Reformed theology, critiqued the practice of Lent in his Institutes of the Christian Religion as a "superstitious observance," and observed that "Christ did not fast repeatedly (which he must have done had he meant to lay down a law for an anniversary fast), but once only, when preparing for the promulgation of the gospel."[130] Similarly, leading Reformed divines such as Samuel Rutherford rejected the obligation of Lent.[131]

The Directory for Public Worship produced by the Westminster Assembly in 1644 and approved by the Scottish Parliament in 1645 takes the position that "[t]here is no day commanded in scripture to be kept holy under the gospel but the Lord's day, which is the Christian Sabbath," and approves of fasting specifically "upon special emergent occasions" (cf. days of humiliation and thanksgiving).[132] Accordingly, and in keeping with the Reformed regulative principle of worship, the Reformed churches have historically not observed Lent.[133]

Some churches in the Reformed tradition observe Lent today.[26] For example, the Reformed Church in America, a Mainline Protestant denomination, describes the first day of Lent, Ash Wednesday, as a day "focused on prayer, fasting, and repentance," encouraging members to "observe a Holy Lent, by self-examination and penitence, by prayer and fasting, by practicing works of love, and by reading and reflecting on God's Holy Word."[134] Among Reformed Christians who do observe Lent, Good Friday, which is towards the end of the Lenten season, is an important day of communal fasting, as it is for many Episcopalians, Lutherans, and Methodists.[135]

Anglicanism

The Book of Common Prayer (1662) of the Church of England designates "All the Fridays in the Year, except Christmas Day" as days of fasting and abstinence, alongside the forty days of Lent, the Ember Days, the Rogation Days, and the vigils of feast days.[136] Saint Augustine's Prayer Book, a companion to the Book of Common Prayer, states that fasting is "usually meaning not more than a light breakfast, one full meal, and one half meal, on the forty days of Lent."[95] It further states that "the major Fast Days of Ash Wednesday and Good Friday, as the American Prayer-Book indicates, are stricter in obligation, though not in observance, than the other Fast Days, and therefore should not be neglected except in cases of serious illness or other necessity of an absolute character."[137]

Methodism

The historic Methodist homilies regarding the Sermon on the Mount stress the importance of the Lenten fast, which begins on Ash Wednesday.[138] The United Methodist Church therefore states that:

There is a strong biblical base for fasting, particularly during the 40 days of Lent leading to the celebration of Easter. Jesus, as part of his spiritual preparation, went into the wilderness and fasted 40 days and 40 nights, according to the Gospels.[139]

Good Friday, which is towards the end of the Lenten season, is traditionally an important day of communal fasting for Methodists.[135] Rev. Jacqui King, the minister of Nu Faith Community United Methodist Church in Houston explained the philosophy of fasting during Lent as "I'm not skipping a meal because in place of that meal I'm actually dining with God."[140]

The United Methodist Church teaches, in reference to one's Lenten sacrifice, that "On each Lord's Day in Lent, while Lenten fasts continue, the reverent spirit of Lent is tempered with joyful anticipation of the Resurrection."[141]

The liturgical book The Sunday Service of the Methodists (put together by John Wesley), as well as the Directions Given to Band Societies (25 December 1744), mandate fasting and abstinence from meat on all Fridays of the year (except Christmas Day, if it falls on a Friday).[142][143]

Other related fasting periods

The season of Lent begins on Ash Wednesday, most notably by the public imposition of ashes. In this photograph, a woman receives a cross of ashes on Ash Wednesday outside an Anglican church.

A Lutheran pastor distributes ashes during the Divine Service on Ash Wednesday.

The number 40 has many Biblical references:

Moses spent 40 days on Mount Sinai with God[144]

Elijah spent 40 days and nights walking to Mount Horeb[145]

God sent 40 days and nights of rain in the great flood of Noah[146]

The Hebrew people wandered 40 years in the desert while traveling to the Promised Land[147]

Jonah's prophecy of judgment gave 40 days to the city of Nineveh in which to repent or be destroyed[148]

Jesus retreated into the wilderness, where He fasted for 40 days, and was tempted by the devil.[149] He overcame all three of Satan's temptations by citing scripture to the devil, at which point the devil left him, angels ministered to Jesus, and He began His ministry. Jesus further said that His disciples should fast "when the bridegroom shall be taken from them",[150] a reference to his Passion.

It is the traditional belief that Jesus lay for 40 hours in the tomb,[50] which led to the 40 hours of total fasting that preceded the Easter celebration in the early Church[151] (the biblical reference to 'three days in the tomb' is understood by them as spanning three days, from Friday afternoon to early Sunday morning, rather than three 24-hour periods of time). Some Christian denominations, such as The Way International and Logos Apostolic Church of God,[152] as well as Anglican scholar E. W. Bullinger in The Companion Bible, believe Christ was in the grave for a total of 72 hours, reflecting the type of Jonah in the belly of the whale.[153]

One of the most important ceremonies at Easter is the baptism of the initiates on Easter Eve. The fast was initially undertaken by the catechumens to prepare them for the reception of this sacrament. Later, the period of fasting from Good Friday until Easter Day was extended to six days, to correspond with the six weeks of training necessary to give the final instruction to those converts who were to be baptized.[citation needed]

Converts to Christianity followed a strict catechumenate or period of instruction and discipline prior to receiving the sacrament of baptism, sometimes lasting up to three years.[154] In Jerusalem near the close of the fourth century, classes were held throughout Lent for three hours each day. With the legalization of Christianity (by the Edict of Milan) and its later imposition as the state religion of the Roman Empire, its character was endangered by the great influx of new members. In response, the Lenten fast and practices of self-renunciation were required annually of all Christians, both to show solidarity with the catechumens, and for their own spiritual benefit.[citation needed]

Almsgiving

Almsgiving is one of the three pillars of Lent.[23] The money that would normally go towards a luxury (given up as a Lenten sacrifice during Lent), is donated at church as an offering towards helping the poor.[155]

Prayer and devotion

A common practice is the singing of the Stabat Mater hymn in designated groups. Among Filipino Catholics, the recitation of the epic of Christ' passion, called Pasiong Mahal, is also observed. In many Christian countries, grand religious processions and cultural customs are observed,[156] such as the Stations of the Cross.[157] A custom of visiting seven churches during Holy Week to pray the Stations of the Cross and praying at each church, exists and has been done in an ecumenical context, involving Christians of the Catholic, Methodist, Episcopal and Salvationist traditions, among others.[158]

Omission of Gloria and Alleluia

The Gloria in excelsis Deo, which is usually said or sung on Sundays at Mass (or Communion) of the Roman, Lutheran, Methodist, and Anglican rites, is omitted on the Sundays of Lent (as well as Sundays of Advent), but continues in use on solemnities and feasts and on special celebrations of a more solemn kind.[159][160] Some Mass compositions were written especially for Lent, such as Michael Haydn's Missa tempore Quadragesimae, without Gloria, in D minor, and for modest forces, only choir and organ. The Gloria is used on Maundy Thursday, to the accompaniment of bells, which then fall silent until the Gloria in excelsis of the Easter Vigil.[161]

The Lutheran Divine Service, the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, the Anglican Churches, and the Presbyterian service of worship associate the Alleluia with joy and omit it entirely throughout Lent,[162][163] not only at Mass but also in the canonical hours and outside the liturgy. The word "Alleluia" at the beginning and end of the Acclamation Before the Gospel at Mass is replaced by another phrase.

Before 1970, the omission began with Septuagesima, and the whole Acclamation was omitted and was replaced by a Tract; and in the Liturgy of the Hours the word "Alleluia", normally added to the Gloria Patri at the beginning of each Hour – now simply omitted during Lent – was replaced by the phrase Laus tibi, Domine, rex aeternae gloriae (Praise to you, O Lord, king of eternal glory).

Until the Ambrosian Rite was revised by Saint Charles Borromeo the liturgy of the First Sunday of Lent was festive, celebrated with chanting of the Gloria and Alleluia, in line with the recommendation in Matthew 6:16, "When you fast, do not look gloomy."[49][50][51]

In the Byzantine Rite, the Gloria (Great Doxology) continues to be used in its normal place in the Matins service, and the Alleluia appears all the more frequently, replacing "God is the Lord" at Matins.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lent

Mig-21US 246 by David ilott