Ligne C4 - Arrêt : Greneraie

Exploitant : SEMITAN

Réseau TAN - Nantes

Durham is a cathedral city and civil parish in the county of Durham, England. It is the county town and contains the headquarters of Durham County Council, the unitary authority which governs the district of County Durham. It had a population of 48,069 at the 2011 Census.

 

The city was built on a meander of the River Wear, which surrounds the centre on three sides and creates a narrow neck on the fourth. The surrounding land is hilly, except along the Wear's floodplain to the north and southeast.

 

Durham was founded in 995 by Anglo-Saxon monks seeking a place safe from Viking raids to house the relics of St Cuthbert. The church the monks built lasted only a century, as it was replaced by the present Durham Cathedral after the Norman Conquest; together with Durham Castle it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. From the 1070s until 1836 the city was part of the County Palatine of Durham, a semi-independent jurisdiction ruled by the prince bishops of Durham which acted as a geopolitical buffer between the kingdoms of England and Scotland. In 1346, the Battle of Neville's Cross was fought half a mile west of the city, resulting in an English victory. In 1650, the cathedral was used to house Scottish prisoners after their defeat at the Battle of Dunbar. During the Industrial Revolution, the Durham coalfield was heavily exploited, with dozens of collieries operating around the city and in nearby villages. Although these coal pits have now closed, the annual Durham Miners' Gala continues and is a major event for the city and region. Historically, Durham was also known for the manufacture of hosiery, carpets, and mustard.

 

The city is the home of Durham University, which was founded in 1832 and therefore has a claim to be the third-oldest university in England. The university is a significant employer in the region, alongside the local council and national government at the land registry and passport office. The University Hospital of North Durham and HM Prison Durham are also located close to the city centre. The city also has significant tourism and hospitality sectors.

 

Toponymy

The name "Durham" comes from the Brythonic element dun, signifying a hill fort and related to -ton, and the Old Norse holme, which translates to island. The Lord Bishop of Durham takes a Latin variation of the city's name in his official signature, which is signed "N. Dunelm". Some attribute the city's name to the legend of the Dun Cow and the milkmaid who in legend guided the monks of Lindisfarne carrying the body of Saint Cuthbert to the site of the present city in 995 AD. Dun Cow Lane is said to be one of the first streets in Durham, being directly to the east of Durham Cathedral and taking its name from a depiction of the city's founding etched in masonry on the south side of the cathedral. The city has been known by a number of names throughout history. The original Nordic Dun Holm was changed to Duresme by the Normans and was known in Latin as Dunelm. The modern form Durham came into use later in the city's history. The north-eastern historian Robert Surtees chronicled the name changes in his History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham but states that it is an "impossibility" to tell when the city's modern name came into being.

 

Durham is likely to be Gaer Weir in Armes Prydein, derived from Brittonic cajr meaning "an enclosed, defensible site" (cf. Carlisle; Welsh caer) and the river-name Wear.

 

History

Early history

Archeological evidence suggests a history of settlement in the area since roughly 2000 BC. The present city can clearly be traced back to AD 995, when a group of monks from Lindisfarne chose the strategic high peninsula as a place to settle with the body of Saint Cuthbert, that had previously lain in Chester-le-Street, founding a church there.

 

City origins, the Dun Cow story

Local legend states that the city was founded in A.D. 995 by divine intervention. The 12th-century chronicler Symeon of Durham recounts that after wandering in the north, Saint Cuthbert's bier miraculously came to a halt at the hill of Warden Law and, despite the effort of the congregation, would not move. Aldhun, Bishop of Chester-le-Street and leader of the order, decreed a holy fast of three days, accompanied by prayers to the saint. During the fast, Saint Cuthbert appeared to a certain monk named Eadmer, with instructions that the coffin should be taken to Dun Holm. After Eadmer's revelation, Aldhun found that he was able to move the bier, but did not know where Dun Holm was.

 

The legend of the Dun Cow, which is first documented in The Rites of Durham, an anonymous account about Durham Cathedral, published in 1593, builds on Symeon's account. According to this legend, by chance later that day, the monks came across a milkmaid at Mount Joy (southeast of present-day Durham). She stated that she was seeking her lost dun cow, which she had last seen at Dun Holm. The monks, realising that this was a sign from the saint, followed her. They settled at a wooded "hill-island" – a high wooded rock surrounded on three sides by the River Wear. There they erected a shelter for the relics, on the spot where Durham Cathedral would later stand. Symeon states that a modest wooden building erected there shortly thereafter was the first building in the city. Bishop Aldhun subsequently had a stone church built, which was dedicated in September 998. This no longer remains, having been supplanted by the Norman structure.

 

The legend is interpreted by a Victorian relief stone carving on the north face of the cathedral and, more recently, by the bronze sculpture 'Durham Cow' (1997, Andrew Burton), which reclines by the River Wear in view of the cathedral.

 

Medieval era

During the medieval period the city gained spiritual prominence as the final resting place of Saint Cuthbert and Saint Bede the Venerable. The shrine of Saint Cuthbert, situated behind the High Altar of Durham Cathedral, was the most important religious site in England until the martyrdom of St Thomas Becket at Canterbury in 1170.

 

Saint Cuthbert became famous for two reasons. Firstly, the miraculous healing powers he had displayed in life continued after his death, with many stories of those visiting the saint's shrine being cured of all manner of diseases. This led to him being known as the "wonder worker of England". Secondly, after the first translation of his relics in 698 AD, his body was found to be incorruptible. Apart from a brief translation back to Holy Island during the Norman Invasion the saint's relics have remained enshrined to the present day. Saint Bede's bones are also entombed in the cathedral, and these also drew medieval pilgrims to the city.

 

Durham's geographical position has always given it an important place in the defence of England against the Scots. The city played an important part in the defence of the north, and Durham Castle is the only Norman castle keep never to have suffered a breach. In 1314, the Bishopric of Durham paid the Scots a 'large sum of money' not to burn Durham. The Battle of Neville's Cross took place around half a mile west of the city on 17 October 1346 between the English and Scots and was a disastrous loss for the Scots.

 

The city suffered from plague outbreaks in 1544, 1589 and 1598.

 

Bishops of Durham

Owing to the divine providence evidenced in the city's legendary founding, the Bishop of Durham has always enjoyed the formal title "Bishop by Divine Providence" as opposed to other bishops, who are "Bishop by Divine Permission". However, as the north-east of England lay so far from Westminster, the bishops of Durham enjoyed extraordinary powers such as the ability to hold their own parliament, raise their own armies, appoint their own sheriffs and Justices, administer their own laws, levy taxes and customs duties, create fairs and markets, issue charters, salvage shipwrecks, collect revenue from mines, administer the forests and mint their own coins. So far-reaching were the bishop's powers that the steward of Bishop Antony Bek commented in 1299 AD: "There are two kings in England, namely the Lord King of England, wearing a crown in sign of his regality and the Lord Bishop of Durham wearing a mitre in place of a crown, in sign of his regality in the diocese of Durham". All this activity was administered from the castle and buildings surrounding the Palace Green. Many of the original buildings associated with these functions of the county palatine survive on the peninsula that constitutes the ancient city.

 

From 1071 to 1836 the bishops of Durham ruled the county palatine of Durham. Although the term "prince bishop" has been used as a helpful tool in the understanding the functions of the bishops of Durham in this era, it is not a title they would have recognised. The last bishop to rule the palatinate, Bishop William Van Mildert, is credited with the foundation of Durham University in 1832. Henry VIII curtailed some of the bishop's powers and, in 1538, ordered the destruction of the shrine of Saint Cuthbert.

 

A UNESCO site describes the role of the bishops in the "buffer state between England and Scotland":

 

From 1075, the Bishop of Durham became a Prince-Bishop, with the right to raise an army, mint his own coins, and levy taxes. As long as he remained loyal to the king of England, he could govern as a virtually autonomous ruler, reaping the revenue from his territory, but also remaining mindful of his role of protecting England’s northern frontier.

 

Legal system

The bishops had their own court system, including most notably the Court of Chancery of the County Palatine of Durham and Sadberge. The county also had its own attorney general, whose authority to bring an indictment for criminal matters was tested by central government in the case of R v Mary Ann Cotton (1873). Certain courts and judicial posts for the county were abolished by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873. Section 2 of the Durham (County Palatine) Act 1836 and section 41 of the Courts Act 1971 abolished others.

 

Civil War and Cromwell (1640 to 1660)

The city remained loyal to King Charles I in the English Civil War – from 1642 to the execution of the king in 1649. Charles I came to Durham three times during his reign of 1625–1649. Firstly, he came in 1633 to the cathedral for a majestic service in which he was entertained by the Chapter and Bishop at great expense. He returned during preparations for the First Bishops' War (1639). His final visit to the city came towards the end of the civil war; he escaped from the city as Oliver Cromwell's forces got closer. Local legend stated that he escaped down the Bailey and through Old Elvet. Another local legend has it that Cromwell stayed in a room in the present Royal County Hotel on Old Elvet during the civil war. The room is reputed to be haunted by his ghost. Durham suffered greatly during the civil war (1642–1651) and Commonwealth (1649–1660). This was not due to direct assault by Cromwell or his allies, but to the abolition of the Church of England and the closure of religious institutions pertaining to it. The city has always relied upon the Dean and Chapter and cathedral as an economic force.

 

The castle suffered considerable damage and dilapidation during the Commonwealth due to the abolition of the office of bishop (whose residence it was). Cromwell confiscated the castle and sold it to the Lord Mayor of London shortly after taking it from the bishop. A similar fate befell the cathedral, it being closed in 1650 and used to incarcerate 3,000 Scottish prisoners, who were marched south after the Battle of Dunbar. Graffiti left by them can still be seen today etched into the interior stone.

 

At the Restoration in 1660, John Cosin (a former canon) was appointed bishop (in office: 1660–1672) and set about a major restoration project. This included the commissioning of the famous elaborate woodwork in the cathedral choir, the font cover and the Black Staircase in the castle. Bishop Cosin's successor Bishop Lord Nathaniel Crewe (in office: 1674–1721) carried out other renovations both to the city and to the cathedral.

 

18th century

In the 18th century a plan to turn Durham into a seaport through the digging of a canal north to join the River Team, a tributary of the River Tyne near Gateshead, was proposed by John Smeaton. Nothing came of the plan, but the statue of Neptune in the Market Place was a constant reminder of Durham's maritime possibilities.

 

The thought of ships docking at the Sands or Millburngate remained fresh in the minds of Durham merchants. In 1758, a new proposal hoped to make the Wear navigable from Durham to Sunderland by altering the river's course, but the increasing size of ships made this impractical. Moreover, Sunderland had grown as the north east's main port and centre for shipping.

 

In 1787 Durham infirmary was founded.

 

The 18th century also saw the rise of the trade-union movement in the city.

 

19th century

The Municipal Corporations Act 1835 gave governing power of the town to an elected body. All other aspects of the Bishop's temporal powers were abolished by the Durham (County Palatine) Act 1836 and returned to the Crown.

 

The Representation of the People Act 2000 and is regarded as the second most senior bishop and fourth most senior clergyman in the Church of England. The Court of Claims of 1953 granted the traditional right of the bishop to accompany the sovereign at the coronation, reflecting his seniority.

 

The first census, conducted in 1801, states that Durham City had a population of 7,100. The Industrial Revolution mostly passed the city by. However, the city was well known for carpet making and weaving. Although most of the mediaeval weavers who thrived in the city had left by the 19th century, the city was the home of Hugh MacKay Carpets’ factory, which produced the famous brands of axminster and tufted carpets until the factory went into administration in April 2005. Other important industries were the manufacture of mustard and coal extraction.

 

The Industrial Revolution also placed the city at the heart of the coalfields, the county's main industry until the 1970s. Practically every village around the city had a coal mine and, although these have since disappeared as part of the regional decline in heavy industry, the traditions, heritage and community spirit are still evident.

 

The 19th century also saw the founding of Durham University thanks to the benevolence of Bishop William Van Mildert and the Chapter in 1832. Durham Castle became the first college (University College, Durham) and the bishop moved to Auckland Castle as his only residence in the county. Bishop Hatfield's Hall (later Hatfield College, Durham) was added in 1846 specifically for the sons of poorer families, the Principal inaugurating a system new to English university life of advance fees to cover accommodation and communal dining.

 

The first Durham Miners' Gala was attended by 5,000 miners in 1871 in Wharton Park, and remains the largest socialist trade union event in the world.

 

20th century

Early in the 20th century coal became depleted, with a particularly important seam worked out in 1927, and in the following Great Depression Durham was among those towns that suffered exceptionally severe hardship. However, the university expanded greatly. St John's College and St Cuthbert's Society were founded on the Bailey, completing the series of colleges in that area of the city. From the early 1950s to early 1970s the university expanded to the south of the city centre. Trevelyan, Van Mildert, Collingwood, and Grey colleges were established, and new buildings for St Aidan's and St Mary's colleges for women, formerly housed on the Bailey, were created. The final 20th century collegiate addition came from the merger of the independent nineteenth-century colleges of the Venerable Bede and St Hild, which joined the university in 1979 as the College of St Hild and St Bede. The 1960s and 70s also saw building on New Elvet. Dunelm House for the use of the students' union was built first, followed by Elvet Riverside, containing lecture theatres and staff offices. To the southeast of the city centre sports facilities were built at Maiden Castle, adjacent to the Iron Age fort of the same name, and the Mountjoy site was developed, starting in 1924, eventually containing the university library, administrative buildings, and facilities for the Faculty of Science.

 

Durham was not bombed during World War II, though one raid on the night of 30 May 1942 did give rise to the local legend of 'St Cuthbert's Mist'. This states that the Luftwaffe attempted to target Durham, but was thwarted when Cuthbert created a mist that covered both the castle and cathedral, sparing them from bombing. The exact events of the night are disputed by contemporary eyewitnesses. The event continues to be referenced within the city, including inspiring the artwork 'Fogscape #03238' at Durham Lumiere 2015.

 

'Durham Castle and Cathedral' was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1986. Among the reasons given for the decision were 'Durham Cathedral [being] the largest and most perfect monument of "Norman" style architecture in England', and the cathedral's vaulting being an early and experimental model of the gothic style. Other important UNESCO sites near Durham include Auckland Castle, North of England Lead Mining Museum and Beamish Museum.

 

Historical

The historic city centre of Durham has changed little over 200 years. It is made up of the peninsula containing the cathedral, palace green, former administrative buildings for the palatine and Durham Castle. This was a strategic defensive decision by the city's founders and gives the cathedral a striking position. So much so that Symeon of Durham stated:

 

To see Durham is to see the English Sion and by doing so one may save oneself a trip to Jerusalem.

 

Sir Walter Scott was so inspired by the view of the cathedral from South Street that he wrote "Harold the Dauntless", a poem about Saxons and Vikings set in County Durham and published on 30 January 1817. The following lines from the poem are carved into a stone tablet on Prebends Bridge:

 

Grey towers of Durham

Yet well I love thy mixed and massive piles

Half church of God, half castle 'gainst the Scot

And long to roam those venerable aisles

With records stored of deeds long since forgot.

 

The old commercial section of the city encompasses the peninsula on three sides, following the River Wear. The peninsula was historically surrounded by the castle wall extending from the castle keep and broken by two gatehouses to the north and west of the enclosure. After extensive remodelling and "much beautification" by the Victorians the walls were removed with the exception of the gatehouse which is still standing on the Bailey.

 

The medieval city was made up of the cathedral, castle and administrative buildings on the peninsula. The outlying areas were known as the townships and owned by the bishop, the most famous of these being Gilesgate (which still contains the mediaeval St Giles Church), Claypath and Elvet.

 

The outlying commercial section of the city, especially around the North Road area, saw much change in the 1960s during a redevelopment spearheaded by Durham City Council; however, much of the original mediaeval street plan remains intact in the area close to the cathedral and market place. Most of the mediaeval buildings in the commercial area of the city have disappeared apart from the House of Correction and the Chapel of Saint Andrew, both under Elvet Bridge. Georgian buildings can still be found on the Bailey and Old Elvet most of which make up the colleges of Durham University.

Exploitant : RATP

Réseau : RATP

Ligne : N53

Lieu : Gare Saint-Lazare (Paris, F-75)

Lien TC Infos : tc-infos.fr/vehicule/2777

«Children — are the Victims of Adult Vices» (sculptor: Shemiakin M.M., architect: Efimov A.V.)

 

Children Are the Victims of Adult Vices - is a group of sculptures created by Russian artist Mihail Chemiakin. The sculptures are located in a park in Bolotnaya Square, Balchug, 2000 feet south of the Moscow Kremlin behind the British Ambassador's residence. Chemiakin said that, «[The sculpture] ... was conceived and carried out by me as a symbol and a call to fight for the salvation of present and future generations.»

 

A spectator sees before him 15 pieces: two children with a blindfold playing hide and seek but around them are three-meter allegorical monsters, which are depicted as human figures with the heads of fish and animals. As explained by the sculptor Shemyakin, that's the historically established traditions to portray the vices: of drug addiction, prostitution, theft, alcoholism, ignorance, propaganda of violence, pseudoscientists, indifference, sadism, for the forgetful, child labor exploitation, poverty, war.

 

The figures are perceptibly closing in on two unaware playmates, a girl and a boy, with the centrepiece figure being «Indifference».

 

The sculpture was commissioned by then-Mayor Yuri Luzhkov and sponsored by the state-owned oil company Rosneft, [amid some controversy]in 2001 in the park, named for the 800th anniversary of Moscow. Some Muscovites worried that the graphic imagery would frighten children.

exploiting the fear in this manner is playing with fire / exploiter la peur de cette manière, c'est jouer avec le feu

 

Serie... See the world

 

rolleiflex 2.8D + Ilford Delta 3200

Véhicule : MERCEDES-BENZ O350 Tourismo 15RHD €5

Identification : (CT-789-CC)

Exploitant : Osicars by Cheze

 

Réseau : Navettes VinExpo 2017

Dépôt : n.c.

Ligne : 3 Mériadeck

Service : n.c.

Destination : Coupure

 

Salon VINEXPO 2017 - Affrètement pour KEOLIS Gironde.

 

19/06/2017 14:10

Parc des Expositions ; Bordeaux

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

The Yokosuka J1Y was a land-based interceptor for the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service (IJN/大日本帝國海軍航空隊, Dai-Nippon Teikoku Kaigun Kōkū-tai) that was based upon a research aircraft and introduced into service during the final months of WWII. Work on the J1Y commenced at the Yokosuka Naval Air Technical Arsenal (海軍航空技術廠, Kaigun Kōkū Gijutsu-shō) during 1942 and 1943, in the midst of the Second World War. The J1Y was initially intended to test the benefits of different aircraft layouts in order to exploit the available engines’ potential further, albeit the aircraft had been designed from the start in a fashion that was suitable for combat and easily adaptable into a light fighter aircraft. It would eventually be developed into Yokusuka’s only fighter project.

 

The J1Y was an unorthodox twin-boom pusher configuration fighter aircraft. It featured a mid-mounted wing, a tricycle landing gear arrangement, and was furnished with heavy forward-firing armament. The fuselage was primarily composed of plywood for the forward section and aluminum throughout the aft section, in order to save critical war material. The advantages of the pusher design were of an unobstructed forward view for the pilot, while the armament could also be concentrated in the nose, so that most of the aircraft’s heavy elements were concentrated around the mutual center of gravity. However, a major drawback was difficulty in escaping from the aircraft in an emergency, as the pilot could get drawn into the propeller blades, and the tail surfaces posed an imminent danger, too.

 

The J1Y1 test aircraft was powered by a 700 kW (940 hp) Nakajima Sakae 12 engine. A pair of intakes in the wings’ roots ducted cooling air to the engine, which was mounted at the egg-shaped fuselage’s tail, as well as to a pair of oil coolers that were buried in the thickened wing roots. Despite the aircraft’s tubby shape, it was a very clean design with an excellent weight distribution.

During the ensuing tests and flight trials in late 1943, the J1Y1 proved to be superior to the comparable Mitsubishi A6M2 “Zero” in many respects, so that the Imperial Japanese Navy Aviation Bureau (海軍航空本部, Kaigun Kōkū Hombu) became interested enough to eventually order a fully capable combat aircraft variant in early 1944: the J1Y2.

 

Development of the J1Y2 lasted until mid-1944. Outwardly, the aircraft differed only slightly from the J1Y1 test aircraft, of which four had been built. The internal structure was strengthened, esp. around the engine mount, because the fighter version was to be powered by the Mitsubishi Kinsei Model 48 radial engine which delivered 1,080 hp (810 kW). Since this engine had a slightly bigger diameter, the tight cowling had to be modified and now featured small bulges for its fourteen-cylinder heads, creating a characteristic ring of small bumps around the rear fuselage. The dorsal carburetor air scoop had to be enlarged, too.

The J1Y1’s four-blade propeller was replaced by a six-blade propeller – a measure that was necessary to convert the engine’s raised power output into sufficient propulsion, while exploiting the limited possible propeller disc diameter between the tail booms and keeping sufficient ground clearance.

Armor plates were added to the nose section and behind the pilot’s seat, but protection remained relatively light. In order to extend the J1Y1’s limited range of only 750 km (470 mi, 400 nmi), two additional 150l fuel tanks were added to the inner wings behind the landing gear wells, partly extending into the tail booms, even though they were not self-sealing like the main fuel tank behind the cockpit. Tilting air brakes were installed on the wings, enabling the J1Y1 to manoeuvre into a stable firing position behind slower aircraft. Armament consisted of a pair of 20 mm Type 99-2 cannon, flanking the front wheel well, supplemented by a pair of 7.7 mm (.303 in) Type 97 machine guns, which were rather intended as spotting rifles: they fired tracer rounds with the same trajectory as the 20 mm rounds, and gave off a flash and puff of white smoke on impact, so that 20 mm ammunition could be saved. Upon IJN introduction in August 1944, the J1Y was christened “Akaei” (アカエイ, “Stingray”). The Allied reporting name was "Ron"

 

However, teething development problems stemming from the Kasei engine cooling system and the main undercarriage members led to a slowdown in production. And when the Boeing B-29 Superfortress appeared, the J1Y2’s performance, esp. at height, was not sufficient anymore. Being not suited for high-altitude operations, and lacking internal space to accommodate a turbocharger, the IJN’s interest in the aircraft waned and resources were rather allocated to more promising types like the Mitsubishi J2M, despite its development problems, too. However, the J1Y2’s heavy gun armament supplied effective firepower and the use of dive and zoom tactics allowed it to score occasionally. It was also a very agile aircraft, esp. at medium altitude, so that production switched in January 1945, after 75 J1Y2s had been built, to the J1Y3.

 

The ultimate variant of the “Akaei” featured a new, even more powerful Mitsubishi Kinsei 62 engine with 1,163 kW (1,560 hp). Outwardly, this variant differed from its predecessor by a different exhaust arrangement: instead of the J1Y2’s two exhaust pipes, the J1Y3 featured individual exhaust, hidden under seven aerodynamic fairings, in order to exploit residual thrust and therefore further improve performance – resulting in even more bumps and fairing around the engine cowling. For the more powerful engine, and also because of cooling problems, the carburetor scoop was enlarged even more, so that an auxiliary cooling intake could be integrated.

Even though the armament nominally remained unchanged, supply shortages and field modifications in order to lighten the aircraft saw many J1Y3s with only two Type 99 cannons installed and the empty machine gun ports faired over. Some J1Y3s also carried gun 13.2 mm (.51 in) Type 3 heavy machine guns instead of the cannons, becoming designated J1Y3a. Due to ammunition shortages, some machines were converted in field workshops to this standard, too.

 

The J1Y3 arrived at IJN units in March 1945, but only a few were operational until the end of hostilities in the PTO, probably only around 40 aircraft were eventually delivered.

  

General characteristics:

Crew: 1

Length: 30 ft 9 in (9.37 m)

Wingspan: 38 ft (12 m)

Height: 8 ft 10 in (2.69 m)

Wing area: 262 ft² (24.3 m²)

Empty weight: 2,839 kg (6,259 lb)

Gross weight: 3,211 kg (7,079 lb)

 

Powerplant:

1× Mitsubishi Kinsei 62 14 cylinder radial engine with 1,163 kW (1,560 hp)

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 640 km/h (397 mph, 346 kn) at at 6,096 m (20,000 ft)

560 km/h (348 mph, 303 kn) at sea level

Cruising speed: 495 km/h (308 mph, 267 kn)

Range: 1,078 km (670 mi, 582 nmi) at 272 km/h (169 mph; 147 kn) at 457 m (1,500 ft)

Ferry range: 1,190 km (740 mi, 640 nmi)

Service ceiling: 10,200 m (33,500 ft)

Rate of climb: 15 m/s (3,000 ft/min)

 

Armament:

2× 20 mm belt-fed Type 99-2 Mark 4 cannon with 125 RPG and

2× 7.7 mm (.303 in) Type 97 machine guns with 250 RPG in the lower fuselage

2× hardpoints under the outer wings for 60 kg (132 lb.) bombs

or 200 l (53 US gal; 44 imp gal) drop tanks

  

The kit and its assembly:

This build followed a spontaneous inspiration, and it became another contribution to the “in the navy” group build at whatifmodlers.com in early 2020. I actually had the Vampire kit already stashed away for a while, and the plan to convert it into a propeller-driven aircraft with a radial engine and a pusher configuration à la Saab 21 had been there – but I lacked an idea for an operator, so that I could build the background story around it. With the “in the navy” theme, it suddenly clicked – why not the IJN? The Vampire is a rather compact and slender aircraft, so there’s IMHO some Japanese “style” in the design, and after the torturous build of HMS Cerberus I wanted some kind of relief.

 

The Vampire kit is the vintage Heller mold from 1979, but actually in a mid-Nineties Revell re-boxing. Like many other Heller kits, it comes with raised panels, but detail is sufficient (nice dashboard, landing gear is O.K., and the kit comes with separate air brakes) – the molds seem to be a bit worn, though, I guess a “true” old Heller kit is more crisp and would be the better choice.

 

At the core of the conversion plan was the implantation of a radial engine in place of the jet exhaust. I found a donor part from a Hobby Boss MC.200 Saetta – a bit vintage, but it had the right diameter and I actually liked the ring of bulges on the cowling. Internally, a styrene tube adapter was added for a freely spinning propeller.

 

While adding a prop to a jet seems to be an easy task, the real challenge behind such a conversion are the many other changes that have to be made to the airframe. This includes a (considerably) longer landing gear and the respective wells, but also the tail surfaces. There’s also the question how the new radial engine actually breathes, where exhausts can be located, and a cooling system is necessary, too.

 

Work started with the search for new landing gear struts, and I also used different wheels – for instance, the main wheels come from a Hasegawa F9F Panther, while the front wheel comes from a Frog He 162 and is probably 35 years old(!). In order to make the longer struts fit into the airframe, I elongated the wells in the wings towards the fuselage, so that the track width was reduced – but with the Vampire’s small airframe and original wide stance, this was no serious problem. From the inside, they were faired with styrene profile material, and the extended covers were scratched – esp. the parts for the wings, with their bulges for the tail boom tips, were fiddly.

 

In order to move the overall look a bit further away from the Vampire, I completely changed the fin arrangement. The original, rounded and rather small fins and the bullet-shaped fairings that hold the stabilizer outside of the original exhaust blast were deleted. Once the wings and the tail booms were added to the fuselage, the stabilizer was mounted between the booms, in a slightly lower position. For the new fins I wanted a layout that would, beyond a more squarish shape that would better match the wings, protect the propeller. Therefore, I used stabilizers from a KP Yak-23; each was cut into two pieces, tailored further to match the rest of the aircraft, and glued in positions above and underneath the booms. Looks quite weird, as if the aircraft had been designed upside down, but it’s a rather pragmatic solution that has already been used on some pusher designs in the past.

 

The six-blade propeller was scratched from a spinner, carved from a thick piece of sprue, plus a metal axis and six single blades that were taken from the rather wacky one-piece propellers of Airfix’s Ki-46 kit.

 

Hollow steel needles were used as barrels for the Type 99 cannons in the lower fuselage.

  

Painting and markings:

Once more, a rather conservative approach – and the IJN was not creative when it came to liveries. Almost every aircraft carried a typical dark green over light grey scheme, with minimal individual markings or tactical codes. I wanted to stay true to this concept but decided to simplify the scheme even more since this would be a late-war aircraft, pressed into service under rather dire supply circumstances. This resulted in a NMF livery (basis is Tamiya XF-60, which turned out soemwaht grainy, plus some Polished Aluminum Metallizer from Humbrol on top), with only the upper surfaces camouflaged with IJN Green (ModelMaster) without primer underneath, resulting in a somewhat flaky and worn look. Since they are rather slender, the tail booms were completely painted in IJN green, too.

 

The yellow ID markings on the wings’ leading edges were created with decal material (TL Modellbau), the cockpit interior as well as the landing gear wells were painted with a mix of silver and blue, mimicking the typical “aodake iro” protective clear lacquer of Japanese IJN aircraft. The struts were painted black, according to A6M museum exhibits. The propeller blades ware painted in a red-brown primer, a mix of Humbrol 160 and 180.

 

Markings were taken from a PrintScale Yokosuka N1K2 decal sheet and mixed from two aircraft. Placing the fuselage hinomaru was tricky – the natural choice would have been the tail booms, but they’d be very small, so I rather put them on the fuselage under the cockpit. With the individual aircraft number added to the meatball, it looks now like a racing aircraft, though...

 

Finally, the kit received some soot stains and dry-brushing with aluminum, and everything was sealed with semi-gloss acrylic varnish from Italeri - even though the result is a little too glossy for my taste, but I left it that way.

  

A rather quick build, but structurally not much from the Vampire was changed. The new engine was relatievly easy to integrate - the other small bits like the fins, the propeller and esp. the landing gear took more time. The result looks quite odd - the whole thing has also a certain German touch? Could have worked well with a BMW 801 engine, too!

 

The Exploits River is one of four large rivers that drain central Newfoundland. In the historic past, it served as the main route taken by the Beothuk Indians on their travels to the coast for the summer and to the interior for the fall caribou hunt and their winter camps.

 

This image was taken using a graduated neutral density filter to handle the extreme in tones.

 

A rain shower is approaching from the left.

FORD Transit (1991) / CHAUSSEE DE WAVRE / PHOTO JEAN-PIERRE MARISSENS

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

The Yokosuka J1Y was a land-based interceptor for the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service (IJN/大日本帝國海軍航空隊, Dai-Nippon Teikoku Kaigun Kōkū-tai) that was based upon a research aircraft and introduced into service during the final months of WWII. Work on the J1Y commenced at the Yokosuka Naval Air Technical Arsenal (海軍航空技術廠, Kaigun Kōkū Gijutsu-shō) during 1942 and 1943, in the midst of the Second World War. The J1Y was initially intended to test the benefits of different aircraft layouts in order to exploit the available engines’ potential further, albeit the aircraft had been designed from the start in a fashion that was suitable for combat and easily adaptable into a light fighter aircraft. It would eventually be developed into Yokusuka’s only fighter project.

 

The J1Y was an unorthodox twin-boom pusher configuration fighter aircraft. It featured a mid-mounted wing, a tricycle landing gear arrangement, and was furnished with heavy forward-firing armament. The fuselage was primarily composed of plywood for the forward section and aluminum throughout the aft section, in order to save critical war material. The advantages of the pusher design were of an unobstructed forward view for the pilot, while the armament could also be concentrated in the nose, so that most of the aircraft’s heavy elements were concentrated around the mutual center of gravity. However, a major drawback was difficulty in escaping from the aircraft in an emergency, as the pilot could get drawn into the propeller blades, and the tail surfaces posed an imminent danger, too.

 

The J1Y1 test aircraft was powered by a 700 kW (940 hp) Nakajima Sakae 12 engine. A pair of intakes in the wings’ roots ducted cooling air to the engine, which was mounted at the egg-shaped fuselage’s tail, as well as to a pair of oil coolers that were buried in the thickened wing roots. Despite the aircraft’s tubby shape, it was a very clean design with an excellent weight distribution.

During the ensuing tests and flight trials in late 1943, the J1Y1 proved to be superior to the comparable Mitsubishi A6M2 “Zero” in many respects, so that the Imperial Japanese Navy Aviation Bureau (海軍航空本部, Kaigun Kōkū Hombu) became interested enough to eventually order a fully capable combat aircraft variant in early 1944: the J1Y2.

 

Development of the J1Y2 lasted until mid-1944. Outwardly, the aircraft differed only slightly from the J1Y1 test aircraft, of which four had been built. The internal structure was strengthened, esp. around the engine mount, because the fighter version was to be powered by the Mitsubishi Kinsei Model 48 radial engine which delivered 1,080 hp (810 kW). Since this engine had a slightly bigger diameter, the tight cowling had to be modified and now featured small bulges for its fourteen-cylinder heads, creating a characteristic ring of small bumps around the rear fuselage. The dorsal carburetor air scoop had to be enlarged, too.

The J1Y1’s four-blade propeller was replaced by a six-blade propeller – a measure that was necessary to convert the engine’s raised power output into sufficient propulsion, while exploiting the limited possible propeller disc diameter between the tail booms and keeping sufficient ground clearance.

Armor plates were added to the nose section and behind the pilot’s seat, but protection remained relatively light. In order to extend the J1Y1’s limited range of only 750 km (470 mi, 400 nmi), two additional 150l fuel tanks were added to the inner wings behind the landing gear wells, partly extending into the tail booms, even though they were not self-sealing like the main fuel tank behind the cockpit. Tilting air brakes were installed on the wings, enabling the J1Y1 to manoeuvre into a stable firing position behind slower aircraft. Armament consisted of a pair of 20 mm Type 99-2 cannon, flanking the front wheel well, supplemented by a pair of 7.7 mm (.303 in) Type 97 machine guns, which were rather intended as spotting rifles: they fired tracer rounds with the same trajectory as the 20 mm rounds, and gave off a flash and puff of white smoke on impact, so that 20 mm ammunition could be saved. Upon IJN introduction in August 1944, the J1Y was christened “Akaei” (アカエイ, “Stingray”). The Allied reporting name was "Ron"

 

However, teething development problems stemming from the Kasei engine cooling system and the main undercarriage members led to a slowdown in production. And when the Boeing B-29 Superfortress appeared, the J1Y2’s performance, esp. at height, was not sufficient anymore. Being not suited for high-altitude operations, and lacking internal space to accommodate a turbocharger, the IJN’s interest in the aircraft waned and resources were rather allocated to more promising types like the Mitsubishi J2M, despite its development problems, too. However, the J1Y2’s heavy gun armament supplied effective firepower and the use of dive and zoom tactics allowed it to score occasionally. It was also a very agile aircraft, esp. at medium altitude, so that production switched in January 1945, after 75 J1Y2s had been built, to the J1Y3.

 

The ultimate variant of the “Akaei” featured a new, even more powerful Mitsubishi Kinsei 62 engine with 1,163 kW (1,560 hp). Outwardly, this variant differed from its predecessor by a different exhaust arrangement: instead of the J1Y2’s two exhaust pipes, the J1Y3 featured individual exhaust, hidden under seven aerodynamic fairings, in order to exploit residual thrust and therefore further improve performance – resulting in even more bumps and fairing around the engine cowling. For the more powerful engine, and also because of cooling problems, the carburetor scoop was enlarged even more, so that an auxiliary cooling intake could be integrated.

Even though the armament nominally remained unchanged, supply shortages and field modifications in order to lighten the aircraft saw many J1Y3s with only two Type 99 cannons installed and the empty machine gun ports faired over. Some J1Y3s also carried gun 13.2 mm (.51 in) Type 3 heavy machine guns instead of the cannons, becoming designated J1Y3a. Due to ammunition shortages, some machines were converted in field workshops to this standard, too.

 

The J1Y3 arrived at IJN units in March 1945, but only a few were operational until the end of hostilities in the PTO, probably only around 40 aircraft were eventually delivered.

  

General characteristics:

Crew: 1

Length: 30 ft 9 in (9.37 m)

Wingspan: 38 ft (12 m)

Height: 8 ft 10 in (2.69 m)

Wing area: 262 ft² (24.3 m²)

Empty weight: 2,839 kg (6,259 lb)

Gross weight: 3,211 kg (7,079 lb)

 

Powerplant:

1× Mitsubishi Kinsei 62 14 cylinder radial engine with 1,163 kW (1,560 hp)

 

Performance:

Maximum speed: 640 km/h (397 mph, 346 kn) at at 6,096 m (20,000 ft)

560 km/h (348 mph, 303 kn) at sea level

Cruising speed: 495 km/h (308 mph, 267 kn)

Range: 1,078 km (670 mi, 582 nmi) at 272 km/h (169 mph; 147 kn) at 457 m (1,500 ft)

Ferry range: 1,190 km (740 mi, 640 nmi)

Service ceiling: 10,200 m (33,500 ft)

Rate of climb: 15 m/s (3,000 ft/min)

 

Armament:

2× 20 mm belt-fed Type 99-2 Mark 4 cannon with 125 RPG and

2× 7.7 mm (.303 in) Type 97 machine guns with 250 RPG in the lower fuselage

2× hardpoints under the outer wings for 60 kg (132 lb.) bombs

or 200 l (53 US gal; 44 imp gal) drop tanks

  

The kit and its assembly:

This build followed a spontaneous inspiration, and it became another contribution to the “in the navy” group build at whatifmodlers.com in early 2020. I actually had the Vampire kit already stashed away for a while, and the plan to convert it into a propeller-driven aircraft with a radial engine and a pusher configuration à la Saab 21 had been there – but I lacked an idea for an operator, so that I could build the background story around it. With the “in the navy” theme, it suddenly clicked – why not the IJN? The Vampire is a rather compact and slender aircraft, so there’s IMHO some Japanese “style” in the design, and after the torturous build of HMS Cerberus I wanted some kind of relief.

 

The Vampire kit is the vintage Heller mold from 1979, but actually in a mid-Nineties Revell re-boxing. Like many other Heller kits, it comes with raised panels, but detail is sufficient (nice dashboard, landing gear is O.K., and the kit comes with separate air brakes) – the molds seem to be a bit worn, though, I guess a “true” old Heller kit is more crisp and would be the better choice.

 

At the core of the conversion plan was the implantation of a radial engine in place of the jet exhaust. I found a donor part from a Hobby Boss MC.200 Saetta – a bit vintage, but it had the right diameter and I actually liked the ring of bulges on the cowling. Internally, a styrene tube adapter was added for a freely spinning propeller.

 

While adding a prop to a jet seems to be an easy task, the real challenge behind such a conversion are the many other changes that have to be made to the airframe. This includes a (considerably) longer landing gear and the respective wells, but also the tail surfaces. There’s also the question how the new radial engine actually breathes, where exhausts can be located, and a cooling system is necessary, too.

 

Work started with the search for new landing gear struts, and I also used different wheels – for instance, the main wheels come from a Hasegawa F9F Panther, while the front wheel comes from a Frog He 162 and is probably 35 years old(!). In order to make the longer struts fit into the airframe, I elongated the wells in the wings towards the fuselage, so that the track width was reduced – but with the Vampire’s small airframe and original wide stance, this was no serious problem. From the inside, they were faired with styrene profile material, and the extended covers were scratched – esp. the parts for the wings, with their bulges for the tail boom tips, were fiddly.

 

In order to move the overall look a bit further away from the Vampire, I completely changed the fin arrangement. The original, rounded and rather small fins and the bullet-shaped fairings that hold the stabilizer outside of the original exhaust blast were deleted. Once the wings and the tail booms were added to the fuselage, the stabilizer was mounted between the booms, in a slightly lower position. For the new fins I wanted a layout that would, beyond a more squarish shape that would better match the wings, protect the propeller. Therefore, I used stabilizers from a KP Yak-23; each was cut into two pieces, tailored further to match the rest of the aircraft, and glued in positions above and underneath the booms. Looks quite weird, as if the aircraft had been designed upside down, but it’s a rather pragmatic solution that has already been used on some pusher designs in the past.

 

The six-blade propeller was scratched from a spinner, carved from a thick piece of sprue, plus a metal axis and six single blades that were taken from the rather wacky one-piece propellers of Airfix’s Ki-46 kit.

 

Hollow steel needles were used as barrels for the Type 99 cannons in the lower fuselage.

  

Painting and markings:

Once more, a rather conservative approach – and the IJN was not creative when it came to liveries. Almost every aircraft carried a typical dark green over light grey scheme, with minimal individual markings or tactical codes. I wanted to stay true to this concept but decided to simplify the scheme even more since this would be a late-war aircraft, pressed into service under rather dire supply circumstances. This resulted in a NMF livery (basis is Tamiya XF-60, which turned out soemwaht grainy, plus some Polished Aluminum Metallizer from Humbrol on top), with only the upper surfaces camouflaged with IJN Green (ModelMaster) without primer underneath, resulting in a somewhat flaky and worn look. Since they are rather slender, the tail booms were completely painted in IJN green, too.

 

The yellow ID markings on the wings’ leading edges were created with decal material (TL Modellbau), the cockpit interior as well as the landing gear wells were painted with a mix of silver and blue, mimicking the typical “aodake iro” protective clear lacquer of Japanese IJN aircraft. The struts were painted black, according to A6M museum exhibits. The propeller blades ware painted in a red-brown primer, a mix of Humbrol 160 and 180.

 

Markings were taken from a PrintScale Yokosuka N1K2 decal sheet and mixed from two aircraft. Placing the fuselage hinomaru was tricky – the natural choice would have been the tail booms, but they’d be very small, so I rather put them on the fuselage under the cockpit. With the individual aircraft number added to the meatball, it looks now like a racing aircraft, though...

 

Finally, the kit received some soot stains and dry-brushing with aluminum, and everything was sealed with semi-gloss acrylic varnish from Italeri - even though the result is a little too glossy for my taste, but I left it that way.

  

A rather quick build, but structurally not much from the Vampire was changed. The new engine was relatievly easy to integrate - the other small bits like the fins, the propeller and esp. the landing gear took more time. The result looks quite odd - the whole thing has also a certain German touch? Could have worked well with a BMW 801 engine, too!

 

Ganesha, also spelled Ganesh, and also known as Ganapati and Vinayaka, is a widely worshipped deity in the Hindu pantheon. His image is found throughout India and Nepal. Hindu sects worship him regardless of affiliations. Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains, Buddhists, and beyond India.

 

Although he is known by many attributes, Ganesha's elephant head makes him easy to identify. Ganesha is widely revered as the remover of obstacles, the patron of arts and sciences and the deva of intellect and wisdom. As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rituals and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as patron of letters and learning during writing sessions. Several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography.

 

Ganesha emerged as a distinct deity in the 4th and 5th centuries CE, during the Gupta Period, although he inherited traits from Vedic and pre-Vedic precursors. He was formally included among the five primary deities of Smartism (a Hindu denomination) in the 9th century. A sect of devotees called the Ganapatya arose, who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity. The principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa.

 

ETYMOLOGY AND OTHER NAMES

Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati and Vighneshvara. The Hindu title of respect Shri is often added before his name. One popular way Ganesha is worshipped is by chanting a Ganesha Sahasranama, a litany of "a thousand names of Ganesha". Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. At least two different versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama exist; one version is drawn from the Ganesha Purana, a Hindu scripture venerating Ganesha.

 

The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana, meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system and isha, meaning lord or master. The word gaņa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva. The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation. Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the Gaņas" to mean "Lord of Hosts" or "Lord of created categories", such as the elements. Ganapati, a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of gaṇa, meaning "group", and pati, meaning "ruler" or "lord". The Amarakosha, an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha : Vinayaka, Vighnarāja (equivalent to Vighnesha), Dvaimātura (one who has two mothers), Gaṇādhipa (equivalent to Ganapati and Ganesha), Ekadanta (one who has one tusk), Heramba, Lambodara (one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), and Gajanana; having the face of an elephant).

 

Vinayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak (aṣṭavināyaka). The names Vighnesha and Vighneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) refers to his primary function in Hindu theology as the master and remover of obstacles (vighna).

 

A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai. A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a "child" while pillaiyar means a "noble child". He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk", also "elephant tooth or tusk". Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have originally meant "the young of the elephant", because the Pali word pillaka means "a young elephant".

 

In the Burmese language, Ganesha is known as Maha Peinne, derived from Pali Mahā Wināyaka. The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is Phra Phikhanet or Phra Phikhanesuan, both of which are derived from Vara Vighnesha and Vara Vighneshvara respectively, whereas the name Khanet (from Ganesha) is rather rare.

 

In Sri Lanka, in the North-Central and North Western areas with predominantly Buddhist population, Ganesha is known as Aiyanayaka Deviyo, while in other Singhala Buddhist areas he is known as Gana deviyo.

 

ICONOGRAPHY

Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art. Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time. He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down or on an elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations.

 

Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the 6th century. The 13th century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900–1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973–1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost, and another similar statue is dated c. 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal. Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature. A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century. Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a pasha (noose) in the other upper arm.

 

The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (abhaya mudra). The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme.

 

COMMON ATTRIBUTES

Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art. Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head. One of his popular forms, Heramba-Ganapati, has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known. While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories. The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created by Parvati using clay to protect her and Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant. Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source. Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva's laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.

 

Ganesha's earliest name was Ekadanta (One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken. Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk. The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the Mudgala Purana, which states that the name of Ganesha's second incarnation is Ekadanta. Ganesha's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries). This feature is so important that, according to the Mudgala Purana, two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it: Lambodara (Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) and Mahodara (Great Belly). Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly. The Brahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., cosmic eggs) of the past, present, and future are present in him. The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms. Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts. His earliest images had two arms. Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries. The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms. According to the Ganesha Purana, Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vasuki around his neck. Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha's forehead may be a third eye or the Shaivite sectarian mark , which consists of three horizontal lines. The Ganesha Purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead. A distinct form of Ganesha called Bhalachandra includes that iconographic element. Ganesha is often described as red in color. Specific colors are associated with certain forms. Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise on Hindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations as Heramba-Ganapati and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage). Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualized as blue during meditation in that form.

 

VAHANAS

The earliest Ganesha images are without a vahana (mount/vehicle). Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana, Ganesha uses a mouse (shrew) in five of them, a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation as Vikata, and Shesha, the divine serpent, in his incarnation as Vighnaraja. Mohotkata uses a lion, Mayūreśvara uses a peacock, Dhumraketu uses a horse, and Gajanana uses a mouse, in the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana. Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse, elephant, tortoise, ram, or peacock.

 

Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse, shrew or rat. Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet. The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation. The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag. The names Mūṣakavāhana (mouse-mount) and Ākhuketana (rat-banner) appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama.

 

The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpret Gaṇapati's mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes tamoguṇa as well as desire". Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolizes those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish. Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word mūṣaka (mouse) is derived from the root mūṣ (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of vighna (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as Vigneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk grāma-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence. Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places.

 

ASSOCIATIONS

 

OBSTACLES

Ganesha is Vighneshvara or Vighnaraja or Vighnaharta (Marathi), the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order. He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Paul Courtright says that "his task in the divine scheme of things, his dharma, is to place and remove obstacles. It is his particular territory, the reason for his creation."

 

Krishan notes that some of Ganesha's names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time. Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of the Ganapatyas, to this shift in emphasis from vighnakartā (obstacle-creator) to vighnahartā (obstacle-averter). However, both functions continue to be vital to his character.

 

BUDDHI (KNOWLEDGE)

Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning. In Sanskrit, the word buddhi is a feminine noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect. The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha's names in the Ganesha Purana and the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya. This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama that Ganesha says are especially important. The word priya can mean "fond of", and in a marital context it can mean "lover" or "husband", so the name may mean either "Fond of Intelligence" or "Buddhi's Husband".

 

AUM

Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Aum, also spelled Om. The term oṃkārasvarūpa (Aum is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound. The Ganapati Atharvashirsa attests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows:

 

(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trinity) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire [Agni] and air [Vāyu]. You are the sun [Sūrya] and the moon [Chandrama]. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and Swargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).

 

Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body in iconography and the shape of Aum in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts.

 

FIRST CHAKRA

According to Kundalini yoga, Ganesha resides in the first chakra, called Muladhara (mūlādhāra). Mula means "original, main"; adhara means "base, foundation". The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests. This association is also attested to in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Courtright translates this passage as follows: "[O Ganesha,] You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [mūlādhāra cakra]." Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara. Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby "governing the forces that propel the wheel of life".

 

FAMILY AND CONSORTS

Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son of Shiva and Parvati, the Puranic myths give different versions about his birth. In some he was created by Parvati, in another he was created by Shiva and Parvati, in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati's bath water that had been thrown in the river.

 

The family includes his brother the war god Kartikeya, who is also called Subramanya, Skanda, Murugan and other names. Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the first born. In northern India, Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, when worship of him declined significantly in northern India. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers and may reflect sectarian tensions.

 

Ganesha's marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories. One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried brahmacari. This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India. Another pattern associates him with the concepts of Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity); these qualities are sometimes personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha's wives. He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: daşi). Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, Sarasvati or Śarda (particularly in Maharashtra). He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lakshmi. Another pattern, mainly prevalent in the Bengal region, links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo.

 

The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had begotten two sons: Kşema (prosperity) and Lābha (profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to be Śubha (auspiciouness) and Lābha. The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma, the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma's cult as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity.

 

WOSHIP AND FESTIVALS

Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions; especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business. K.N. Somayaji says, "there can hardly be a [Hindu] home [in India] which does not house an idol of Ganapati. [..] Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country". Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity.

 

Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity, and Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies. Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin performances of arts such as the Bharatnatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha. Mantras such as Om Shri Gaṇeshāya Namah (Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah (Om, Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts).

 

Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as modaka and small sweet balls (laddus). He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a modakapātra. Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with red sandalwood paste (raktacandana) or red flowers. Dūrvā grass (Cynodon dactylon) and other materials are also used in his worship.

 

Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesh Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in the śuklapakṣa (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of bhādrapada (August/September) and the Gaṇeśa jayanti (Gaṇeśa's birthday) celebrated on the cathurthī of the śuklapakṣa (fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of māgha (January/February)."

 

GANESH CHATURTI

An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesha Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September. The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising Ganesha's visit. The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi, when idols (murtis) of Ganesha are immersed in the most convenient body of water. Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, or 7th day. In 1893, Lokmanya Tilak transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event. He did so "to bridge the gap between the Brahmins and the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them" in his nationalistic strivings against the British in Maharashtra. Because of Ganesha's wide appeal as "the god for Everyman", Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule. Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions, and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day. Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra. The festival also assumes huge proportions in Mumbai, Pune, and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples.

 

TEMPLES

In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as an acolyte or subordinate deity (pãrśva-devatã); as a deity related to the principal deity (parivāra-devatã); or as the principal deity of the temple (pradhāna), treated similarly as the highest gods of the Hindu pantheon. As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati’s doorkeeper. In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (lit. "eight Ganesha (shrines)") in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city of Pune, each of these eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore and legend. The eight shrines are: Morgaon, Siddhatek, Pali, Mahad, Theur, Lenyadri, Ozar and Ranjangaon.

 

There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations: Wai in Maharashtra; Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Jodhpur, Nagaur and Raipur (Pali) in Rajasthan; Baidyanath in Bihar; Baroda, Dholaka, and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following: Kanipakam in Chittoor; the Jambukeśvara Temple at Tiruchirapalli; at Rameshvaram and Suchindram in Tamil Nadu; at Malliyur, Kottarakara, Pazhavangadi, Kasargod in Kerala, Hampi, and Idagunji in Karnataka; and Bhadrachalam in Andhra Pradesh.

 

T. A. Gopinatha notes, "Every village however small has its own image of Vighneśvara (Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, below pīpaḹa (Sacred fig) trees [...], in a niche [...] in temples of Viṣṇu (Vishnu) as well as Śiva (Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in Śiva temples [...]; the figure of Vighneśvara is invariably seen." Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, including southeast Asia, Nepal (including the four Vinayaka shrines in the Kathmandu valley), and in several western countries.

 

RISE TO PROMINENCE

 

FIRST APEARANCE

Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries. Shanti Lal Nagar says that the earliest known iconic image of Ganesha is in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra, which has been dated to the Gupta period. His independent cult appeared by about the 10th century. Narain summarizes the controversy between devotees and academics regarding the development of Ganesha as follows:

 

What is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaņeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaņeśa's Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.

 

POSSIBLE INFLUENCES

Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:

 

In the post 600 BC period there is evidence of people and places named after the animal. The motif appears on coins and sculptures.

 

Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that, "although by the second century CE the elephant-headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut."

 

One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vinayakas (Vināyakas). In Hindu mythology, the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties but who were easily propitiated. The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. Krishan is one of the academics who accepts this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, "He is a non-vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering". Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear in Indian art and coinage as early as the 2nd century. According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of Sri Lanka in the early pre-Christian era.

 

A metal plate depiction of Ganesha had been discovered in 1993, in Iran, it dated back to 1,200 BCE. Another one was discovered much before, in Lorestan Province of Iran.

 

First Ganesha's terracotta images are from 1st century CE found in Ter, Pal, Verrapuram and Chandraketugarh. These figures are small, with elephant head, two arms, and chubby physique. The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times (2nd-3rd centuries CE).

 

VEDIC AND EPIC LITERATURE

The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit: gaṇapati) occurs twice in the Rig Veda, but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for Brahmanaspati, according to commentators. While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today. In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to Bṛhaspati—who is the deity of the hymn—and Bṛhaspati only". Equally clearly, the second passage (RV 10.112.9) refers to Indra, who is given the epithet 'gaṇapati', translated "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts)." However, Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha .

 

Two verses in texts belonging to Black Yajurveda, Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā (2.9.1) and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (10.1), appeal to a deity as "the tusked one" (Dantiḥ), "elephant-faced" (Hastimukha), and "with a curved trunk" (Vakratuņḍa). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th century commentator Sayana explicitly establishes this identification. The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk (vakratuṇḍa) and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane, and a club, is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says "we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin". However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions. Thapan reports that these passages are "generally considered to have been interpolated". Dhavalikar says, "the references to the elephant-headed deity in the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā have been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity".

 

Ganesha does not appear in Indian epic literature that is dated to the Vedic period. A late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata says that the sage Vyasa (Vyāsa) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on condition that Vyasa recite the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed, but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata, in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix. The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during preparation of the critical edition. Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for Vyāsa's dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation. Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, and Moriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in South Indian manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend. The term vināyaka is found in some recensions of the Śāntiparva and Anuśāsanaparva that are regarded as interpolations. A reference to Vighnakartṛīṇām ("Creator of Obstacles") in Vanaparva is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.

 

PURANIC PERIOD

Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas "defy precise chronological ordering", the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life are in the late texts, c. 600–1300. Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant's head are in the later Puranas, which were composed from c. 600 onwards. He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries.

 

In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that:

 

Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding Gaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.

 

Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century, when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. The 9th-century philosopher Adi Shankara popularized the "worship of the five forms" (Panchayatana puja) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition. This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, and Surya. Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.

 

SCRIPTURES

Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism, some Brahmins (brāhmaṇas) chose to worship Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed the Ganapatya tradition, as seen in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana.

 

The date of composition for the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana - and their dating relative to one another - has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comments about dating and provides her own judgement. "It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries", she says, "but was later interpolated." Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the Ganesha Purana to be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.

 

R.C. Hazra suggests that the Mudgala Purana is older than the Ganesha Purana, which he dates between 1100 and 1400. However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the Mudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, the Mudgala Purana specifically mentions the Ganesha Purana as one of the four Puranas (the Brahma, the Brahmanda, the Ganesha, and the Mudgala Puranas) which deal at length with Ganesha. While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions. Another highly regarded scripture, the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during the 16th or 17th centuries.

 

BEYOND INDIA AND HINDUISM

Commercial and cultural contacts extended India's influence in western and southeast Asia. Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who reached foreign lands as a result.

 

Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures. From approximately the 10th century onwards, new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders. The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.

 

Hindus migrated to Maritime Southeast Asia and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them. Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in Hindu art of Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional influences. The spread of Hindu culture to southeast Asia established Ganesha in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina, Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region. In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of the Chams in Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles. Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success.

 

Before the arrival of Islam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practiced. Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region.

 

Ganesha appears in Mahayana Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name. His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period. As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, he is often shown dancing. This form, called Nṛtta Ganapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet. In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known as Heramba, is popular; he has five heads and rides a lion. Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him. A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is tshogs bdag. In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot by Mahākāla, (Shiva) a popular Tibetan deity. Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, and sometimes dancing. Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In northern China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531. In Japan, where Ganesha is known as Kangiten, the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806.

 

The canonical literature of Jainism does not mention the worship of Ganesha. However, Ganesha is worshipped by most Jains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of Kubera. Jain connections with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections. The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century. A 15th-century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of Ganapati images. Images of Ganesha appear in the Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Exploitant : Keolis Dijon Mobilités

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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Located on the island of Great Britain, it is bordered by the Irish Sea to the north and west, England to the east, the Bristol Channel to the south, and the Celtic Sea to the south-west. As of 2021, it had a population of 3.2 million. It has a total area of 21,218 square kilometres (8,192 sq mi) and over 2,700 kilometres (1,680 mi) of coastline. It is largely mountainous with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), its highest summit. The country lies within the north temperate zone and has a changeable, maritime climate. Its capital and largest city is Cardiff.

 

A distinct Welsh culture emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, and Wales was briefly united under Gruffudd ap Llywelyn in 1055. After over 200 years of war, the conquest of Wales was completed by King Edward I of England in 1283, though Owain Glyndŵr led the Welsh Revolt against English rule in the early 15th century, and briefly re-established an independent Welsh state with its own national parliament (Welsh: senedd). In the 16th century the whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. Distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the late 19th and early 20th century by David Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism and the Labour Party. Welsh national feeling grew over the century: a nationalist party, Plaid Cymru, was formed in 1925, and Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg, the Welsh language society, in 1962. A governing system of Welsh devolution is employed in Wales, of which the most major step was the formation of the Senedd (Welsh Parliament, formerly the National Assembly for Wales) in 1998, responsible for a range of devolved policy matters.

 

At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, development of the mining and metallurgical industries transformed the country from an agricultural society into an industrial one; the South Wales Coalfield's exploitation caused a rapid expansion of Wales's population. Two-thirds of the population live in South Wales, including Cardiff, Swansea, Newport, and the nearby valleys. The eastern region of North Wales has about a sixth of the overall population, with Wrexham being the largest northern city. The remaining parts of Wales are sparsely populated. Since the decline of the country's traditional extractive and heavy industries, the public sector, light and service industries, and tourism play major roles in its economy. Agriculture in Wales is largely livestock-based, making Wales a net exporter of animal produce, contributing towards national agricultural self-sufficiency.

 

Both Welsh and English are official languages. A majority of the population of Wales speaks English. Welsh is the dominant language in parts of the north and west, with a total of 538,300 Welsh speakers across the entire country. Wales has four UNESCO world heritage sites, of which three are in the north.

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I was originally enrolled into the GETTY IMAGES collection as a contributor on April 9th 2012, and when links with FLICKR were terminated in March 2014, I was retained and fortunate enough to be signed up via a second contract, both of which have proved to be successful with sales of my photographs all over the world now handled exclusively by them.

    

On November 12th 2015 GETTY IMAGES unveiled plans for a new stills upload platform called ESP (Enterprise Submission Platform), to replace the existing 'Moment portal', and on November 13th I was invited to Beta test the new system prior to it being officially rolled out in December. ESP went live on Tuesday December 15th 2015 and has smoothed out the upload process considerably.

  

These days I take a far more leisurely approach to my photographic exploits, a Nikon D850 FX Pro body as my trusted companion, I travel light with less constraints and more emphasis on the pure capture of the beauty that I see, more akin to my original persuits and goals some five decades previously when starting out. I would like to say a huge and heartfelt 'THANK YOU' to GETTY IMAGES, and the 32.809+ Million visitors to my FLICKR site.

  

***** Selected for sale in the GETTY IMAGES COLLECTION on June 8th 2016

  

CREATIVE RF gty.im/537772954 MOMENT OPEN COLLECTION**

  

This photograph became my 3,701st frame to be selected for sale in the Getty Images collection and I am very grateful to them for this wonderful opportunity.

  

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This photograph of a Mother Bull Wood Bison and her calf, was taken an altitude of Five hundred and sixty six metres, at 14:08pm on Wednesday May 11th 2016 past Muncho Lake Provincial Partk and heading towards Liard River Hot springs at Mile 475 on the Alaska Highway 97,British Columbia, Canada.

  

Often referred to incorrectly as Buffalo, the Bull Wood Bison roams the plains along the Alaska Highway, and I was fortunate to have a few encounters with these huge,majestic beauties, having several of the herd pass close by me at one point. These are the largestnative terrestrial Mammals in North America and are commonly regerred to as the American Bison. At six years, a mature Bull can exceed 2metres at the shoulder and weigh 900kgs.

  

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Nikon D800 300mm 1/320s f/10.0 iso320 RAW (14Bit) Hand held with Nikon VR Vibration rfeduction enabled. Nikon back focus button enabled. AF-C Continuous point focus with 3-D tracking. Manual exposure. Matrix metering. Auto white balance. Nikon AF Fine tune on (+10).

  

Nikkor AF-S 200-500mm f/5.6G ED VR. Power up 95mm UV filter. Nikon MB-D12 battery grip. Two Nikon EN-EL15 batteries. Nikon DK-17M 1.2x Magnifying Eyepiece. Nikon DK-19 soft rubber eyecup. Digi-Chip 64GB Class 10 UHS-1 SDXC card. Lowepro Transporter camera strap. Lowepro Vertex 200 AW Photo/ 15.4" Notebook Backpack camera bag. Nikon GP-1 GPS unit.

     

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LATITUDE: N 59d 21m 25.68s

LONGITUDE: W 125d 57m 34.37s

ALTITUDE: 566.0m

  

RAW (TIFF) FILE SIZE: 103.00MB

PROCESSED (JPeg) SIZE: 28.76MB

  

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PROCESSING POWER:

 

Nikon D800 Firmware versions A 1.10 B 1.10 L 2.009 (Lens distortion control version 2)

 

HP 110-352na Desktop PC with AMD Quad-Core A6-5200 APU processor. AMD Radeon HD8400 graphics. 8 GB DDR3 Memory with 1TB DATA storage. 64-bit Windows 10. Verbatim USB 2.0 1TB desktop hard drive. WD My Passport Ultra 1tb USB3 Portable hard drive. Nikon ViewNX2 Version 2.10.3 64bit. Adobe photoshop Elements 8 Version 8.0 64bit.

   

HMS Exploit entering Corpach sea lock. An Archer-class patrol vessel that is part of the Coastal Forces Squadron.

US military in row over Facebook breast-feeding picture

 

BBC News

1 June 2012

Last updated at 23:36 ET

 

The Washington National Guard has criticised two servicewomen for being photographed in military uniform while breast-feeding their babies.

 

The photos were posted on the Facebook website by a support group at Fairchild Air Force Base called Mom2Mom.

 

The group's leader, Trysta Chavez, said the photos were meant to promote World Breast-Feeding Week in August.

 

Military officials said it was a breach of the rules to use the uniform to promote non-military causes.

 

National Guard spokesman Captain Keith Kosik told the BBC that there was no regulation against breast-feeding in uniform.

 

But he said the National Guard took issue with the uniform being used "by an outside entity for a cause", regardless if it was a positive one.

 

Capt Kosik said the women were unlikely to face disciplinary action.

 

The Mom2Mom group posted a message on their Facebook page defending their actions, and insisting that they supported the military "110%".

 

"The military photographs were never meant to exploit, promote or to use the uniform to help our group," the message said.

 

"These were for our local community to raise awareness for World Breast-Feeding Week in August. Our mission is to help raise awareness, educate and support breast-feeding mothers."

 

The photos, taken by another military spouse at Fairchild, quickly went viral after being posted online.

 

"It's sad that this is such an issue," Ms Chavez said. "It's a taboo really."

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De geboorte van de moderne beeldhouwkunst

 

Constantin Brancusi (Hobita, Roemenië 1876-1957 Parijs, Frankrijk) wordt beschouwd als de grondlegger van de moderne beeldhouwkunst. Na een academische kunstopleiding in Roemenië reisde hij door Europa en vestigde zich op 28-jarige leeftijd in Parijs. Daar werd hij opgemerkt door beeldhouwer Auguste Rodin en werkte hij in 1907 kort als een van diens assistenten, voordat hij vertrok om zijn eigen ideeën na te streven.

 

In de daaropvolgende jaren ontwikkelde Brancusi een nieuwe benadering van beeldhouwen die een blijvende invloed zou hebben. Zijn stijl legde de nadruk op direct beeldhouwen en polijsten om de essentie van zijn materialen (steen, hout, gips en brons) te onthullen. Hij wilde dat de eenvoud van zijn vormen de uiterlijke verschijningsvormen overstijgt en universele archetypen uitdrukt. De elementaire geometrie wordt voortdurend versterkt door het stapelen van sokkels en bases en door een spel van reflecties te creëren dat de kijker in het werk trekt.

 

(…) De tentoonstelling (de eerste Brancusi-retrospectief in Nederland in 50 jaar), die in zeven secties is opgedeeld, toont de belangrijkste revoluties die Brancusi teweegbracht: het overstijgen van het zichtbare, het heruitvinden van portretkunst en dierensculptuur, en het benutten van de relatie tussen sculptuur en ruimte, de ambiguïteit van vormen, het spel van licht en serialiteit.

Bron: informatiepaneel bij de ingang van de tentoonstelling.

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Torso van een jong meisje III, 1925

Brancusi koos ervoor om witte onyx, een kristallijn gesteente, te slijpen en te polijsten om de doorschijnende gloed van de jeugd op te roepen. Hij maximaliseerde de formele abstractie van het stuk door de ronde heupen te reduceren tot een uitlopende ovaal, die eindigt in een vlak gedeelte. Verheven en versterkt door een dubbele sokkel – een perfecte kubus van kalksteen op een eikenhouten zandloper – bereikt Torso van een jong meisje III (Torse de jeune fille III) totale perfectie van vorm en symmetrie.

Bron: Tekst bij het werk in de tentoonstelling

 

------------------------------------

 

The birth of modern sculpture

 

Constantin Brancusi (Hobita, Romania 1876-1957 Paris, France) is seen as the founder of modern sculpture. Following an academic art education in Romania, he traveled across Europe to settle in Paris at the age of 28. There, he was spotted by sculptor Auguste Rodin and worked briefly as one of his assistants in 1907 before leaving to pursue his own ideas.

 

Over the next few years, Brancusi invented a new approach to sculpture that was to have a lasting influence. His idiom emphasized direct carving and polishing to reveal the quintessence of his materials (stone, wood, plaster and bronze). He intended the simplicity of his forms to transcend outward appearances and express universal archetypes. Their elementary geometry is constantly invigorated by stacking plinths and bases on top of each other and by creating a a play of reflections that draws the viewer into the work.

 

(…) Arranged in seven sections, the exhibition (the first Brancusi retrospective in the Netherlands in 50 years) showcases the major revolutions brought about by Brancusi: transcending the visible, reinventing portraiture and animal sculpture, and exploiting the relationship of the sculpture to space, the ambiguity of forms, the play of light, and seriality.

Source: info panel at the exhibition’s entrance

----------------

Torso of a Young Girl III, 1925

Brancusi chose to cut and polish white onyx, a crystalline rock, to evoke the translucent glow of youth. He maximized the formal abstraction of the piece, reducing the rounded hips to a flared oval, terminated by a flat section. Elevated and enhanced by a double plinth – a perfect cube of limestone on a oak hourglass – Torso of a Young Girl III (Torse de jeune fille III) achieves total perfection of form an symmetry.

Source: Text accompanying the work in the exhibition

Ligne Illico 3 - Arrêt : Aquarium

Exploitant : RTCR

Réseau Yélo - La Rochelle

Processed with VSCOcam with a6 preset

Tumor angiogenesis (the exploitation of healthy cells to form new blood vessels) is a vital area of cancer research.

 

The two-panel image above shows one such promising lead from recent lab studies with endothelial cells, specialized cells that line the inside of all blood vessels. In tumors, endothelial cells are induced to issue non-stop SOS signals that falsely alert the body to dispatch needed materials to rescue these cells. The endothelial cells then use the help to replicate and sprout new blood vessels.

 

The left panel demonstrates the basics of this growth process under normal conditions. Endothelial cells (red and blue) were cultured under special conditions that help them grow in the lab. When given the right cues, those cells sprout spiky extensions to form new vessels.

 

But in the right panel, the cells can’t sprout. The reason is because the cells are bathed in a molecule called miR-30c, which isn’t visible in the photo. These specialized microRNA molecules—and humans make a few thousand different versions of them—control protein production by binding to and disabling longer RNA templates, called messenger RNA.

 

Read more: directorsblog.nih.gov/2019/09/05/using-microrna-to-starve...

 

Credit: Dudley Lab, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville

 

NIH support from: National Cancer Institute; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute

Ligne 77 - Arrêt : Gent Dampoort

Exploitant : Parmentier Autobus

Réseau De Lijn - Flandres (Belgique) - Gand

Exploitant : Keolis Argenteuil Boucles de Seine

Réseau : IDF Mobilités – Argenteuil – Boucles de Seine

Lieu : Centre Opérationnel Bus d'Argenteuil (Argenteuil, F-95)

Lien TC Infos : tc-infos.fr/vehicule/14531

Exploitant : SAVAC

Réseau : SQYBUS

Ligne : 465

Lieu : Gare de Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines (Montigny-le-Bretonneux, F-78)

Lien TC Infos : tc-infos.fr/id/23702

Exploits River, Central NL, Canada

In Asia transports are exploited in any different ways than in the West and still all up to the extreme. India does not refrain from habit and it's normal to see three people on a scooter, darting in the city traffic. Sometimes this practice becomes a painting, because of the colors and the transparency of patterned on the air.

-------------------------------------

In Asia i mezzi di trasporto sono sfruttati in modi diversi da quelli a cui siamo abituati in Occidente e comunque tutti fino allo stremo. L'India non si esime da questo quadro e vedere almeno tre persone a bordo di uno scooter che sfreccia nel traffico cittadino è la normalità. Solo che talvolta questa consuetudine diventa un quadro, per i colori e la leggera trasparenza dei tessuti modellati dall'aria.

Catch up with my recent birding exploits at my blog page - stonefactionbirding2014.blogspot.co.uk/

 

Barnacle Goose at Gaddon Loch, Fife.

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!

 

Some background:

Both the T-62 and T-64 were innovative in their own ways, but not successful in the long run because of their cost, complicated features, rushed production, or primitive FCS. The T-54/55 had been a highly successful export for the Soviet Union, but so far, nothing replaced it in this area. Due to their age and the never-ending competition between ammo and armor with the west, a new MBT with a large gun was needed. This model had to incorporate some innovations but had to be mature enough to exploit them fully and be fast enough to catch up with other vehicles. Overall, WARPAC quickly needed a replacement for its aging fleet of T-54/55s (the T-62 was only adopted by Bulgaria and the T-64 was even denied to the Warsaw Pact allies). So a “mobilization” model was called for, even though the T-64 was still in development.

 

Although in its general shape the T-72 superficially resembled previous designs, and especially the T-62 (small turret, low hull, very long gun), there were many differences in the drivetrain, turret design, engine, main gun and equipment. Compared to western standards, its specifics were regarded as drawbacks, being too small, cramped and uncomfortable. It was believed in the west the crewmen had to be of small stature (1.60 m or 5ft 3in), but after the fall of the iron curtain, it appeared to have been officially 1.75 m (5ft 9in). For its designers and commanders, the vehicle was in line with the experience of the Soviet armored forces during the “Great Patriotic War”. The USSR modeled its tanks along a specific tactical use. Tanks were generally low, nimble and fast, being difficult to hit, contrary to western tanks, which were, comparatively, at least 50 cm (1ft 8in) taller – and the T-72 was even 60 cm lower than its potential opponents!

 

The height requirement also helped to keep the total weight largely under the NATO practice. This allowed a great deal of mobility despite an aged V-12 diesel. For example, two T-72 could cross a bridge instead of waiting in line to cross it one at a time. This low profile was a problem when fording rivers more than 5 meters (16 ft) deep and a comprehensive sealing procedure, a snorkel and tightly waterproof interior were needed. These fittings also helped NBC protection, rendered possible by a synthetic fabric made of boron compound lining which reduced (but did not) radiations. There was also an extensive air filter system with safety valves and constant over-pressure. This helped eliminate any poisonous contamination as well as residual fumes that could leak out from the autoloader. Overall vision was not outstanding, with a set of extremely small periscope viewports. The hull construction called for an RHA (rolled homogenous armor) hull made of cast steel.

 

Crew comfort was seen as unnecessary, due to the survivability rates on the battlefield. The same law applied to a relatively non-refined interior and the simple, rugged, but efficient firing equipment, which was designed for mass production and easy maintenance. Any fragile and/or non-standard piece of equipment was therefore eliminated before production. This explained not only the production scale itself - much bigger than their western counterparts - but also the tank’s export success. Such manufacturing principles allowed costs to be kept very low, and at the same time produced a rugged piece of equipment which was durable, with part standardization (= interchangeability) and relatively low-tech, which was an advantage in many pre-industrial countries, both for maintenance and upgrades.

 

The hull’s basic RHA construction was augmented by spaced armor, which was upgraded to the T-64 standard composite armor in 1979. In the early 1980s, T-72s received additional add-on armor along with rubber side skirts, and, in the late 1980s, full ERA made of active protective tiles was generalized. At the origin, the basic cast armor was about 280 mm (11 in) at the thickest, with the nose up to 80 mm (3.1 in) and the glacis made of a 200 mm (7.9 in) thick laminated armor, well inclined. This gave a virtual equivalent of 500–600 mm (20–24 in) thickness against direct fire.

 

The turret was small in comparison to the T-62 and even the T-55, due to the elimination of the loader and its replacement by an auto-loader. The latter picked-up its rounds directly from a horizontal storage area (horizontally auto-fed), contrary to the faster and much more complex vertical actuators of the T-64 main gun automatic loader. The commander cupola was situated to the right rear, with four vision blocks, one periscope (later equipped with infrared sight), and a standard night illuminator. The gunner’s hatch was situated on the right-hand side and slightly angled down to the turret side.

 

The V12 was basically derived from the WW2 era 500 hp T-34 engine. Rugged and well-tested, it was also shared with the T-54/55 and T-62 families, meaning a lot of parts were interchangeable. It was capable of 780 hp (582 kW), which made the T-72 look underpowered compared to western tanks of the time, but its performances were kept high due to the lightweight hull. It was also much faster and nimbler than the T-62 and even the T-55. This engine was coupled to a synchromesh, hydraulically assisted, seven forward/one reverse gears transmission. The steering system is a traditional dual-tiller layout, rather than the steering wheel/yoke familiar in the west, imposing constant two-hands handling. By the 1980s, the powerplant upgraded to the new 840 bhp (630 kW) V-84 diesel.

 

The suspension set was a moderately new one, combining traditional torsion bars and shock dampers on the last and two first roadwheel sets. There were six evenly spaced sets of rubberized roadwheels per side. These roadwheels were completely redesigned and partly hollow, like the T-64 roadwheels, but made of steel rather than aluminum, due to costs and durability. They were also smaller and much lighter than the traditional “starfish” model, imposing four sets of return rollers to support the upper tracks. The tracks themselves were similar to the previous models, but not advanced like those of the T-64.

 

By 1973, the T-72 was accepted for service and over 25,000 units were built, but the production lines never really shut down. The T-72, in its modernized form, now represents the bulk of the Russian armored forces, and was adopted by the best armored units in all Eastern Europe forces. It was widely exported despite its price -double of that of a T-55- because it represented a good compromise, not complicated to operate and maintain, with many commonalities with previous models. It was a real upgrade in firepower, protection, speed and even fire accuracy compared to previous models, and even contemporary western MBTs. Unlike the T-62, the T-72 became an instant hit, was well-modernized over decades and is still frontline today, in thirty-six armies, including the Iraq.

 

Due to a ban on weapons deliveries after the Iran-Iraq war (where Iraq lost some 60 T-72Ms), a covert agreement was found to pass Czech-built M1 parts for a local assembly which was done as the “Asad Babil” or “Lion of Babylon”. There were armed with downgraded FCS and LRF, and a poor-quality glacis plate armor. Like the “Saddam”, a local adaptation of the M1 (downgraded for desert warfare), some suspensions’ shock absorbers were removed and a local-built searchlight was added on the right-hand-side. Saddams and Asad Babils were seen in action by 1991 and again in 2001 gulf war. Iraq had about 1000 T-72s, M, M1, but also the locally built Saddam and Asad Babil in 1990. After 2003, their numbers had dwindled to 375, and only 125 were listed in the new Iraqi Army - even though there were negotiations to procure up to 2.000 revamped T-72 by 2009.

 

But this deal did not come to fruition, and in 2010 twelve mothballed Iraqi T-72 survivors, mostly only hulls with engines but without a turret or armament, were modified into anti-aircraft systems, through the adaptation of the British Marksman short range air defense system developed by Marconi.

 

The Marksman system consists of a turret which carries a Marconi Series 400 radar and two Swiss Oerlikon 35 mm anti-aircraft autocannons. It is similar to the German Gepard system in terms of performance, ammunition carried and effective range of the ammunition, and intended to provide low-level air-defense for tank battalions.

The Marconi 400 series frequency agile surveillance and tracking X/J-band radar is able to detect targets out to 12 km in search mode and 10 km in tracking mode. The additional laser distance measure device functions up to 8 km. The turret can traverse a full 360 degrees and has an elevation range of −10 to +85 degrees. The magazines hold 460 fragmentation rounds and 40 armor-piercing anti-tank rounds. The vehicle is operated by only three crew members: commander, gunner, and driver. The commander and the gun operator in the turret both have gyro-stabilized optical aiming devices, and there are three communication radios in the vehicle for fire guidance and communications. The Swiss 35 mm Oerlikon anti-aircraft guns have a rate of fire of 18 rounds per second and the fragmentation round has a muzzle velocity of 1,175 m/s. The effective range of the weapons is 4,000 meters. For self-defense, the vehicle is also equipped with eight Wegmann 76 mm smoke dischargers, a 7.62 mm assault rifle, and a flare gun.

 

In 2014 the Iraqi Army's T-72 battle tanks and the Marksman SPAAGs were actively involved in the Iraqi Civil War, an armed conflict which began in January 2014 with the Iraqi insurgency and which escalated into a civil war with the conquest of Fallujah, Mosul, Tikrit and in the major areas of northern Iraq by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL, also known as ISIS or IS). Even though no enemy aircraft were deployed, the T-72 Marksman SPAAGs proved to be very effective against lightly or unarmored vehicles and semi-fortified dugouts at medium range. The conflict ended in December 2017.

  

Specifications:

Crew: Three (commander, gunner, driver)

Weight: 47.2 tonnes (52.1 short tons)

Length: 8.06 m (26 ft 3 in) with turret forward and guns in march position

6.95 m (22 ft 10 in) hull only

Width: 3.59 m (11 ft 9 in)

Height: 4.46 metres (14 ft 7 1/2 in)

Suspension: torsion-bar

Ground clearance: 0.49 m (19 in)

Fuel capacity: 1,200 L (320 U.S. gal; 260 imp gal)

 

Engine:

V-92S2F V12 Diesel engine with 1,130 hp (840 kW)

 

Transmission:

Synchromesh, hydraulically assisted, with 7 forward and 1 reverse gears

 

Armor:

Steel and composite armour with ERA

250 mm (10 in) maximum in the hull front

 

Performance:

Speed:

- Maximum, road: 80 km/h (50 mph)

- Sustained, road: 60 km/h (37 mph)

- Cross country: up to 45 km/h (28 mph)

Operational range: 460 km (290 mi)

700 km (430 mi) with additional fuel drums

Power/weight: 18 hp/t

 

Armament:

2× 35 mm Oerlikon autocannon with 460 fragmentation rounds and 40 anti-tank rounds

  

The kit and its assembly:

Well, this is a rather simple, whiffy tank model. I have always been a fan of AA tanks, but there are only a few model kits in 1:72 scale, esp. of modern vehicles like the German Gepard, the American Sargeant Baker or the Finnish T-55 Marksman.

 

However, recently the German short run producer Silesian Models released a resin aftermarket conversion set with the Marksman turret, and I immediately was hooked and started wondering with which hull I could combine it? The resin set is actually intended for an M60 chassis, and while I found it to be a good idea I wanted a personal alternative. Using the Finnish T-55 variant as benchmark, I wondered if the Marksman system could be combined with a more modern hull of Soviet/Russian origin, and the omnipresent T-72 became an almost natural choice. Searching for a potential operator I eventually came across the New Iraqi Army, which operated the T-72 since the Eighties kept it in service until today.

 

The conversion is very simple and straightforward. The Modelcollect T-72 chassis was built OOB, using optional parts from the kit for the eight spoke wheels and a simple glacis plate without ERA. The side skirts were cut back.

A curious feature of the kit is the lower hull: it is a white metal piece instead of injected plastic, and the suspension parts are an integral part of this piece. This creates no major problem, though, and lowers the kit's CoG. You just need some superglue in order to attach the wheels and the upper hull parts, even though the latter can simple be attached in a snap-fit style. Overall detailling is superb and the fit is very good, too.

 

The nicely detailed Silesian Models resin Marksman turret went together well, too, even though the gun barrels were slightly bent. Some cleaning was necessary, but that has to be expected from such a short run kit. The turret also comes with an adapter plate for the M60 turret bearing, but it turned out to be too wide for the T-72 hull. So I simply cut out the T-72 kit's turret underside and glued it under the Marksman turret - and this worked very well and even had the bonus that I did not have to modify the kit's original turret bearing.

The only other addition are the wire antennae on the Marksman turret, made from heated sprue material.

  

Painting and markings:

Very straightforward, too. I used real life Iraqi T-72s as benchmark and chose a typical desert scheme, with an overall sand tone on top of which some brown mottles had been added. For the sand tone I used a car color: a Sixties Volkswagen tone called "Mexicobeige", applied with a rattle can. The brown mottles were later added with a small brush and they were mixed from Humbrol 29 (RAF Dark Earth) and 66 (Olive Drab) in a 2:1 ratio.

 

The Arabian tactical code number actually belongs to a MiG-29 (from a Begemot sheet), while the New Iraqi Army flag and the grey/green marking were printed with an inkjet at home on white decal paper.

 

The kit received a light dry-brushing treatment with Humbrol 168 (Hemp) and also a light wash with a highly thinned mix of red brown and grey. A coat of matt acrylic varnish sealed the model.

 

After the track segments had been mounted, the running gear was dusted with fine artist pigments, and another dusting treatment was finally applied to the upper hull, too, once the tank model had been fully assembled.

  

An interesting result, and even though the T-72/Marksman combo is fictional, the resulting SPAAG looks very plausible, even "natural"? The modern Iraqi colors and markings suit it well, too. Besides, a relatively quick and pleasant build/conversion, completed in less than five days.

In honor of the month of the military child, the 3rd Military Intelligence Battalion (Aerial Exploitation) hosted a military child appreciation day on April 21. The unit hosted an open house tailored to children.

 

Both children and family members were treated to static displays consisting of unit equipment, vehicles, and reconnaissance aircraft. Children (and parents) were able to climb behind the wheel of an LMTV and a HEMMT. They were also able to pose for photos with M4 training aids otherwise known as ‘rubber ducks’.

B Company, 3rd MI BN (AE) had a static display of their GUARDRAIL RC-12 reconnaissance aircraft and A Company 3rd MI BN (AE) had a static display of their DHC-7 Airborne Reconnaissance Low (ARL) multi- mission aircraft. Under the watchful eyes of Soldiers, who volunteered their time to demonstrate the equipment, the children were able to go inside unit aircraft and learn about the responsibilities and missions of their military parents.

 

While the 3rd MI BN (AE) aircraft and military vehicles made an impression, the USAG-Humphreys Military Police working dogs made a guest appearance and held a working dog demonstration. The MP’s demonstrated how their dogs are trained to sniff for drugs and to attack on command.

 

Military children are a critical part of the Army family and it was great for Soldiers to have the interaction with an enthusiastic audience and teach the children about the unit and its mission.

 

The event concluded with a Family Readiness Group Potluck Dinner. Children and Spouses, of the 3rd MI BN (AE) are looking forward to another fun filled open house this summer.

 

Courtesy photos

 

For more information on U.S. Army Garrison Humphreys and living and working in Korea visit: USAG-Humphreys' official web site or check out our online videos.

 

Title: British Gangster & Exploitation Paperbacks Of The Postwar Years Vol 2.

Author: Maurice Flanagan.

Publisher: Zeon Books.

Date: 1997.

Artist: H. W. Perl.

NEW: The only thing you have to do is use our online generator. MODERN COMBAT 5 BLACKOUT generator saves you a lot of time as well as money. Thanks to the team of developers & hackers who managed to find some loopholes & exploit the server of MODERN COMBAT 5 BLACKOUT. #ModernCombat5BlackoutHack #generator #today #usegenerator #gamecheat #ModernCombat5BlackoutCheat #hacked #iphone #cheat #hacked #free #reddit #TagsForLikes #like4like #facebook #lol #legit #ModernCombat5Blackout #android #games #gamehack #ios #hack |||| Visit Here To Hack MODERN COMBAT 5 BLACKOUT : bit.ly/1R7vXAE ift.tt/1VmVU3K

Ligne Caméléon T3b - Arrêt : Canal Saint-Denis

Exploitant : RATP

Réseau RATP - Paris

Big music festivals used to be more orderly--

"Yeah, so you got Creative Commons on your side. Yeah, so the band and artist said it was CC too, and they never made a penny outta it? Ain't they the fools.

 

Read our conditions, and remember, we decide. See them fat lawyers over there? We'll grass you over to the trolls so they can litigate til you run outta money. We're the judge, and if we take you down, there ain't a thing you can do about it. You gonna try fighting it, pretty thing? Go on, you gonna try? I dares yer."

 

YT: "Your dispute wasn't approved.

The claimant has reviewed their claim and has confirmed it was valid.

You may be able to appeal this decision, but if the claimant disagrees with your appeal, you could end up with a strike on your account."

 

As I provided evidence about the music on my video with my original dispute, it seems rather unlikely the claimant is going to suddenly realise they have made an unfortunate error 24 hours later. I know the artist hasn't made a penny out of it, so why should others monetise it?

 

'Shot' at Missing Mile Dark Rural Community: maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Soap/80/127/27

 

'Less than Zilch'. Proudly Creative Commons on Vimeo: vimeo.com/136958109

Agora Line (08/2000) du réseau TGL exploité par Semitul.

Ce bus a auparavant circulé à Mâcon.

Translation / Traduction 🇬🇧 UK

● 1st tram with the Ilévia color.

● 2nd day of exploitation to the Ilévia color.

● 3rd Delivered ( Color ).

Bye Bye Transpole, Hello Ilévia ( New brand since February 28th, 2019 )

 

Translation / Traduction 🇫🇷 Fr.

● 1er tramway avec la couleur Ilévia.

● 2ème jour d'exploitation Tram n° 01 au nouvelle couleur Ilévia.

● 3ème livrée ( couleur ).

Bye Bye Transpole, Hello Ilévia ( Nouvelle marque depuis le 28 février 2019 )

 

Tramway de Lille Roubaix Tourcoing.

Parc : 24 Tramways

 

Fiche technique :

- Longueur : 29.6 mètres

- Largeur : 2,4 mètres

- Hauteur : 3,425 mètres

- Masse à vide : 40 tonnes

- Capacité avant ◄ 2015 : 200 personnes

( 50 assises et 150 debout )

- Capacité évolué après rénovation ( voir ci-dessous )

- Capacité après ► 2016 : 245 personnes

( 40 assises et 205 debout )

- Vitesse maxi : 80 km/h

- Captage : pantographe unijambiste Faiveley

- Ecartement : voie métrique ( 1 mètre )

- Constructeur : Breda Costruzioni Ferroviaire

Source : Trans'Lille

www.translille.com/spip.php?article4

 

Exploitant ►Ilévia ( Site officiel )

www.ilevia.fr/fr/?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIsK7duc3k4AIViZ3VCh3HD...

 

Ilévia ( Wikipédia )

fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il%C3%A9via

 

Tramway de Lille - Roubaix - Tourcoing ( Wikipédia )

fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tramway_de_Lille_-_Roubaix_-_Tourcoing

 

Breda ( Wikipédia )

fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breda_VLC

fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breda_costruzioni_ferroviarie

 

Liste des tramways de France

fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_des_tramways_de_France

 

Moomo Design Blog take on Fur Neil poster

Some choice pages from an early 70's catalog found amongst my grandfather's belongings.

 

SHAMELESS PROMOTION:

Please check out the independent documentary about my close friend Charlie Styles. Please visit the web site at:

 

www.highpoweredmutant.com/SweetVictoryEntertainment/HIGH_...

Exploitant : Transdev TVO

Réseau : R'Bus (Argenteuil)

Ligne : 9

Lieu : Gare d'Argenteuil (Argenteuil, F-95)

Lien TC Infos : tc-infos.fr/id/37467

The exploitation rights for this text are the property of the Vienna Tourist Board. This text may be reprinted free of charge until further notice, even partially and in edited form. Forward sample copy to: Vienna Tourist Board, Media Management, Invalidenstraße 6, 1030 Vienna; media.rel@wien.info. All information in this text without guarantee.

Author: Andreas Nierhaus, Curator of Architecture/Wien Museum

Last updated January 2014

Architecture in Vienna

Vienna's 2,000-year history is present in a unique density in the cityscape. The layout of the center dates back to the Roman city and medieval road network. Romanesque and Gothic churches characterize the streets and squares as well as palaces and mansions of the baroque city of residence. The ring road is an expression of the modern city of the 19th century, in the 20th century extensive housing developments set accents in the outer districts. Currently, large-scale urban development measures are implemented; distinctive buildings of international star architects complement the silhouette of the city.

Due to its function as residence of the emperor and European power center, Vienna for centuries stood in the focus of international attention, but it was well aware of that too. As a result, developed an outstanding building culture, and still today on a worldwide scale only a few cities can come up with a comparable density of high-quality architecture. For several years now, Vienna has increased its efforts to connect with its historical highlights and is drawing attention to itself with some spectacular new buildings. The fastest growing city in the German-speaking world today most of all in residential construction is setting standards. Constants of the Viennese architecture are respect for existing structures, the palpability of historical layers and the dialogue between old and new.

Culmination of medieval architecture: the Stephansdom

The oldest architectural landmark of the city is St. Stephen's Cathedral. Under the rule of the Habsburgs, defining the face of the city from the late 13th century until 1918 in a decisive way, the cathedral was upgraded into the sacral monument of the political ambitions of the ruling house. The 1433 completed, 137 meters high southern tower, by the Viennese people affectionately named "Steffl", is a masterpiece of late Gothic architecture in Europe. For decades he was the tallest stone structure in Europe, until today he is the undisputed center of the city.

The baroque residence

Vienna's ascension into the ranks of the great European capitals began in Baroque. Among the most important architects are Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt. Outside the city walls arose a chain of summer palaces, including the garden Palais Schwarzenberg (1697-1704) as well as the Upper and Lower Belvedere of Prince Eugene of Savoy (1714-22). Among the most important city palaces are the Winter Palace of Prince Eugene (1695-1724, now a branch of the Belvedere) and the Palais Daun-Kinsky (auction house in Kinsky 1713-19). The emperor himself the Hofburg had complemented by buildings such as the Imperial Library (1722-26) and the Winter Riding School (1729-34). More important, however, for the Habsburgs was the foundation of churches and monasteries. Thus arose before the city walls Fischer von Erlach's Karlskirche (1714-39), which with its formal and thematic complex show façade belongs to the major works of European Baroque. In colored interior rooms like that of St. Peter's Church (1701-22), the contemporary efforts for the synthesis of architecture, painting and sculpture becomes visible.

Upgrading into metropolis: the ring road time (Ringstraßenzeit)

Since the Baroque, reflections on extension of the hopelessly overcrowed city were made, but only Emperor Franz Joseph ordered in 1857 the demolition of the fortifications and the connection of the inner city with the suburbs. 1865, the Ring Road was opened. It is as the most important boulevard of Europe an architectural and in terms of urban development achievement of the highest rank. The original building structure is almost completely preserved and thus conveys the authentic image of a metropolis of the 19th century. The public representational buildings speak, reflecting accurately the historicism, by their style: The Greek Antique forms of Theophil Hansen's Parliament (1871-83) stood for democracy, the Renaissance of the by Heinrich Ferstel built University (1873-84) for the flourishing of humanism, the Gothic of the Town Hall (1872-83) by Friedrich Schmidt for the medieval civic pride.

Dominating remained the buildings of the imperial family: Eduard van der Nüll's and August Sicardsburg's Opera House (1863-69), Gottfried Semper's and Carl Hasenauer's Burgtheater (1874-88), their Museum of Art History and Museum of Natural History (1871-91) and the Neue (New) Hofburg (1881-1918 ). At the same time the ring road was the preferred residential area of mostly Jewish haute bourgeoisie. With luxurious palaces the families Ephrussi, Epstein or Todesco made it clear that they had taken over the cultural leadership role in Viennese society. In the framework of the World Exhibition of 1873, the new Vienna presented itself an international audience. At the ring road many hotels were opened, among them the Hotel Imperial and today's Palais Hansen Kempinski.

Laboratory of modernity: Vienna around 1900

Otto Wagner's Postal Savings Bank (1903-06) was one of the last buildings in the Ring road area Otto Wagner's Postal Savings Bank (1903-06), which with it façade, liberated of ornament, and only decorated with "functional" aluminum buttons and the glass banking hall now is one of the icons of modern architecture. Like no other stood Otto Wagner for the dawn into the 20th century: His Metropolitan Railway buildings made ​​the public transport of the city a topic of architecture, the church of the Psychiatric hospital at Steinhofgründe (1904-07) is considered the first modern church.

With his consistent focus on the function of a building ("Something impractical can not be beautiful"), Wagner marked a whole generation of architects and made Vienna the laboratory of modernity: in addition to Joseph Maria Olbrich, the builder of the Secession (1897-98) and Josef Hoffmann, the architect of the at the western outskirts located Purkersdorf Sanatorium (1904) and founder of the Vienna Workshop (Wiener Werkstätte, 1903) is mainly to mention Adolf Loos, with the Loos House at the square Michaelerplatz (1909-11) making architectural history. The extravagant marble cladding of the business zone stands in maximal contrast, derived from the building function, to the unadorned facade above, whereby its "nudity" became even more obvious - a provocation, as well as his culture-critical texts ("Ornament and Crime"), with which he had greatest impact on the architecture of the 20th century. Public contracts Loos remained denied. His major works therefore include villas, apartment facilities and premises as the still in original state preserved Tailor salon Knize at Graben (1910-13) and the restored Loos Bar (1908-09) near the Kärntner Straße (passageway Kärntner Durchgang).

Between the Wars: International Modern Age and social housing

After the collapse of the monarchy in 1918, Vienna became capital of the newly formed small country of Austria. In the heart of the city, the architects Theiss & Jaksch built 1931-32 the first skyscraper in Vienna as an exclusive residential address (Herrengasse - alley 6-8). To combat the housing shortage for the general population, the social democratic city government in a globally unique building program within a few years 60,000 apartments in hundreds of apartment buildings throughout the city area had built, including the famous Karl Marx-Hof by Karl Ehn (1925-30). An alternative to the multi-storey buildings with the 1932 opened International Werkbundsiedlung was presented, which was attended by 31 architects from Austria, Germany, France, Holland and the USA and showed models for affordable housing in greenfield areas. With buildings of Adolf Loos, André Lurçat, Richard Neutra, Gerrit Rietveld, the Werkbundsiedlung, which currently is being restored at great expense, is one of the most important documents of modern architecture in Austria.

Modernism was also expressed in significant Villa buildings: The House Beer (1929-31) by Josef Frank exemplifies the refined Wiener living culture of the interwar period, while the house Stonborough-Wittgenstein (1926-28, today Bulgarian Cultural Institute), built by the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein together with the architect Paul Engelmann for his sister Margarete, by its aesthetic radicalism and mathematical rigor represents a special case within contemporary architecture.

Expulsion, war and reconstruction

After the "Anschluss (Annexation)" to the German Reich in 1938, numerous Jewish builders, architects (female and male ones), who had been largely responsible for the high level of Viennese architecture, have been expelled from Austria. During the Nazi era, Vienna remained largely unaffected by structural transformations, apart from the six flak towers built for air defense of Friedrich Tamms (1942-45), made ​​of solid reinforced concrete which today are present as memorials in the cityscape.

The years after the end of World War II were characterized by the reconstruction of the by bombs heavily damaged city. The architecture of those times was marked by aesthetic pragmatism, but also by the attempt to connect with the period before 1938 and pick up on current international trends. Among the most important buildings of the 1950s are Roland Rainer's City Hall (1952-58), the by Oswald Haerdtl erected Wien Museum at Karlsplatz (1954-59) and the 21er Haus of Karl Schwanzer (1958-62).

The youngsters come

Since the 1960s, a young generation was looking for alternatives to the moderate modernism of the reconstruction years. With visionary designs, conceptual, experimental and above all temporary architectures, interventions and installations, Raimund Abraham, Günther Domenig, Eilfried Huth, Hans Hollein, Walter Pichler and the groups Coop Himmelb(l)au, Haus-Rucker-Co and Missing Link rapidly got international attention. Although for the time being it was more designed than built, was the influence on the postmodern and deconstructivist trends of the 1970s and 1980s also outside Austria great. Hollein's futuristic "Retti" candle shop at Charcoal Market/Kohlmarkt (1964-65) and Domenig's biomorphic building of the Central Savings Bank in Favoriten (10th district of Vienna - 1975-79) are among the earliest examples, later Hollein's Haas-Haus (1985-90), the loft conversion Falkestraße (1987/88) by Coop Himmelb(l)au or Domenig's T Center (2002-04) were added. Especially Domenig, Hollein, Coop Himmelb(l)au and the architects Ortner & Ortner (ancient members of Haus-Rucker-Co) ​​by orders from abroad the new Austrian and Viennese architecture made a fixed international concept.

MuseumQuarter and Gasometer

Since the 1980s, the focus of building in Vienna lies on the compaction of the historic urban fabric that now as urban habitat of high quality no longer is put in question. Among the internationally best known projects is the by Ortner & Ortner planned MuseumsQuartier in the former imperial stables (competition 1987, 1998-2001), which with institutions such as the MUMOK - Museum of Modern Art Foundation Ludwig, the Leopold Museum, the Kunsthalle Wien, the Architecture Center Vienna and the Zoom Children's Museum on a wordwide scale is under the largest cultural complexes. After controversies in the planning phase, here an architectural compromise between old and new has been achieved at the end, whose success as an urban stage with four million visitors (2012) is overwhelming.

The dialogue between old and new, which has to stand on the agenda of building culture of a city that is so strongly influenced by history, also features the reconstruction of the Gasometer in Simmering by Coop Himmelb(l)au, Wilhelm Holzbauer, Jean Nouvel and Manfred Wehdorn (1999-2001). Here was not only created new housing, but also a historical industrial monument reinterpreted into a signal in the urban development area.

New Neighborhood

In recent years, the major railway stations and their surroundings moved into the focus of planning. Here not only necessary infrastructural measures were taken, but at the same time opened up spacious inner-city residential areas and business districts. Among the prestigious projects are included the construction of the new Vienna Central Station, started in 2010 with the surrounding office towers of the Quartier Belvedere and the residential and school buildings of the Midsummer quarter (Sonnwendviertel). Europe's largest wooden tower invites here for a spectacular view to the construction site and the entire city. On the site of the former North Station are currently being built 10,000 homes and 20,000 jobs, on that of the Aspangbahn station is being built at Europe's greatest Passive House settlement "Euro Gate", the area of ​​the North Western Railway Station is expected to be developed from 2020 for living and working. The largest currently under construction residential project but can be found in the north-eastern outskirts, where in Seaside Town Aspern till 2028 living and working space for 40,000 people will be created.

In one of the "green lungs" of Vienna, the Prater, 2013, the WU campus was opened for the largest University of Economics of Europe. Around the central square spectacular buildings of an international architect team from Great Britain, Japan, Spain and Austria are gathered that seem to lead a sometimes very loud conversation about the status quo of contemporary architecture (Hitoshi Abe, BUSarchitektur, Peter Cook, Zaha Hadid, NO MAD Arquitectos, Carme Pinós).

Flying high

International is also the number of architects who have inscribed themselves in the last few years with high-rise buildings in the skyline of Vienna and make St. Stephen's a not always unproblematic competition. Visible from afar is Massimiliano Fuksas' 138 and 127 meters high elegant Twin Tower at Wienerberg (1999-2001). The monolithic, 75-meter-high tower of the Hotel Sofitel at the Danube Canal by Jean Nouvel (2007-10), on the other hand, reacts to the particular urban situation and stages in its top floor new perspectives to the historical center on the other side.

Also at the water stands Dominique Perrault's DC Tower (2010-13) in the Danube City - those high-rise city, in which since the start of construction in 1996, the expansion of the city north of the Danube is condensed symbolically. Even in this environment, the slim and at the same time striking vertically folded tower of Perrault is beyond all known dimensions; from its Sky Bar, from spring 2014 on you are able to enjoy the highest view of Vienna. With 250 meters, the tower is the tallest building of Austria and almost twice as high as the St. Stephen's Cathedral. Vienna, thus, has acquired a new architectural landmark which cannot be overlooked - whether it also has the potential to become a landmark of the new Vienna, only time will tell. The architectural history of Vienna, where European history is presence and new buildings enter into an exciting and not always conflict-free dialogue with a great and outstanding architectural heritage, in any case has yet to offer exciting chapters.

Info: The folder "Architecture: From Art Nouveau to the Presence" is available at the Vienna Tourist Board and can be downloaded on www.wien.info/media/files/guide-architecture-in-wien.pdf.

Exploitant : Transdev TVO

Réseau : R'Bus (Argenteuil)

Ligne : 3

Lieu : Pont de Bezons (Bezons, F-95)

Lien TC Infos : tc-infos.fr/id/25202

White House senior advisors, members of tech companies, and the Five Eyes alliance participate in a meeting with victims of child sexual exploitation Thursday, March 5, 2020, in the Indian Treaty Room in the Eisenhower Executive Office Building of the White House. (Official White House Photo by Andrea Hanks)

Ça a la couleur, la forme et ça ressemble à un système d'exploitation bien connu, mais ce n'est pas le système d'exploitation bien connu.

Tout se passe à Millau, capitale de la défense des petits contre les gros. Et dire que le logo Microsoft aurait pu provenir de cette terre. Étonnant non?

View this on Flickr's geotagging map

 

Late April 1998. Raymond Skinner prepares his canoe at the head of navigation of the Wolf River. This is in the upper part of the Holly Springs National Forest in Benton County, Mississippi. The river flows north from there into West Tennessee's Fayette County and into Memphis, where it spills into the Mississippi.

 

This photo is licensed under Creative Commons-attribution-noncommercial. To use this image, you must give "Gary Bridgman" or "garybridgman.com" as a legible photo credit. You may not use this image for commercial purposes without my expressed permission

 

There are a lot more images of our exploits on the Wolf River here.

 

Here is my account of this canoe trip, published in Oxford Town and the the Wolf River Conservancy's newsletter in the summer of 1998.

  

A River Creeps Through It

 

by Gary Bridgman

 

OT editor's note: On May 1, 1998, Ole Miss graduate student, William "Fitz" FitzGerald, became the first person in recorded history to travel the entire length of the Wolf River. WRC board member and Oxford, MS, resident, Gary Bridgman, became the second person to do this...about three seconds later (he was in the back of the canoe), as the two completed the "Wolf River Survey." Gary and Fitz hiked and paddled from Baker's Pond to the foot of Union Avenue to help raise awareness about the river as a whole. Sponsors included the Wolf River Conservancy, Outdoors Inc., Ghost River Canoe Rentals, and BellSouth Mobility. What follows is Gary's rather unscientific, non-chronological account of the trip.

 

There's a distinction between being drunk on a river and being drunk with a river. One does not need alcohol or drugs to have mind altering (or life changing) experiences in a canoe. Fast moving streams like the Nantahala and the Ocoee are what I call "adrenaline rivers," while the Wolf is an "endorphin river." It offers canoeists a priceless glimpse of what all other rivers' headwaters in this region looked like before the Corps of Engineers channelized them.

 

William Faulkner described such swampy, untamed rivers as "the thick, slow, black, unsunned streams almost without current, which once each year ceased to flow at all and then reversed, spreading, drowning the rich land and subsiding again, leaving it still richer." They are intoxicating, to say the least.

 

The Wolf River is teeming with wildlife and wetland vegetation, but my favorite part about our recent "expedition" was not its biodiversity, but its psychodiversity: all the interesting people I met in the process --- interesting people like the two cops who almost busted us for vagrancy.

 

"Good Cop/Bad Cop"

Memphis, May 1, 8 miles from the Mississippi River: "Hey! Get up! MPD!" shouts a Memphis police officer.

 

William FitzGerald ("Fitz") and I are stumbling out of the tent into the glare of their Mag-Lites, my left leg is still tangled in my sleeping bag.

 

"What are you doing here?" the other officer calmly asks.

 

It's 3 a.m. We are camped illegally in a city park located on the Wolf, having built an equally illegal campfire. I've explained that we aren't vagrants and that there is a canoe hidden in the tall grass over there and that we're paddling the entire length of this river on behalf of the Wolf River Conservancy.

 

Now the policemen are more relaxed. They're even giving me pointers on how to delay being raped or murdered in case some of the local toughs come by. (It didn't look like a rough neighborhood from the river.)

 

We had been at it for six days by the time the police woke us up in Kennedy Park: hiking and paddling (and wading) some 90 miles by that point. Just a few more miles to go to reach the Mississippi River . . . .

 

"Thirteen Weeks Earlier"

 

Moscow, Tenn., January 24: The whole thing started when my friend Chris Stahl, who runs a canoe rental service on the Wolf River, asked me how he could attract more people to the river. "Canoe the whole thing in one lick, man," I said, not very helpfully.

 

Chris was asking me for ideas about popular day trips for families and church groups, not about some kind of pilgrimage out of the heart of darkness into the middle of industrial North Memphis. There were remote sections of that river no one had navigated in decades --- too shallow, too narrow, too overgrown, too full of fallen trees. We could count on crawling out of the canoe to lift it over logs several hundred times in the process.

 

Chris liked my thinking anyhow, but business commitments and common sense kept him on the shore for most of the trip. So I enlisted Fitz to make the trip with me instead. From January onward, one or both of us spent nearly every weekend scouting different sections of the river and meeting peculiar people.

 

Walnut, Miss., February 8: "You can put this in the Bible if you want to, but I like snakes more than I like most people," said one man we met while scouting a swamp. "You can trust a cottonmouth; all you have to do is know how his mind works." He viewed our "People's Republic of Oxford" Lafayette County license tags with suspicion, wondering if we were more "dope smoking a__holes" trespassing on his land, but we've since developed an interesting friendship.

 

"Gary, so far I think you're a decent person, but if you ever cross me, I can give away one of my motorcycles to someone in Memphis who'll do anything to you that I ask!" Great. I gave up being a Republican for this?

 

"The Trip Begins"

 

Baker's Pond, Holly Springs National Forest, April 25, 98 miles from the Mississippi River: We had to hike around and wade through 18 miles of swampy bottomland this first day of the actual trip. (Our canoes were waiting for us downstream).

 

When we scrambled up to the first dirt road that crossed the Wolf, a nice lady in curlers skidded her old pickup truck to a halt beside us. "Are y'all the canoe people?" she asked with a disbelieving smile. We were now 30 seconds into our 15 minutes of fame.

 

Canaan, Mississippi, April 26, 80 miles from the Mississippi River: This was the hardest day of canoeing in my short life. Fitz and I were joined by Ray Skinner (pictured above) and Bill Lawrence, who is something of a Yoda or Ben Kenobe figure in the uppermost Wolf and an invaluable guide to us for this section. We pulled our gear-heavy canoe out of the shallow water and over fallen trees almost every 150 feet of river channel. We only made five miles that day. It rained its butt off that night, which was good. Come Hell or high water, I'll take the latter.

 

"More Cops, Three Mayors, and a Waitress"

 

LaGrange, Tenn., April 27, 60 miles from the Mississippi River: I was driven up to town from the river bottom by a Fayette County sheriff's deputy at the end of a long, but very productive day --- triple the mileage of the day before. The deputy had been dispatched at the request of Mayor John Huffman of nearby Piperton, Tennessee.

 

John, who is also the president of the Wolf River Conservancy, was having a lot of fun keeping track of us via walkie-talkies. Here's an excerpt from and e-mail he copied to dozens of people two hours later: "Who would like to bet that this was the only time in young Bridgman's life that he was happy to find out that the Law was looking for him? With the lightning and heavy rain present in Fayette County, they are no doubt thinking about how it might of been if they had not made it to LaGrange and been forced to camp along the river."

 

Actually --- at that very moment --- I was thinking about pouring another glass of cabernet while that massive thunderstorm was making the lights flicker. Fitz and I were holed up in a bed & breakfast two miles upland, owned by a Conservancy member. I refilled the glass of LaGrange's mayor, Lucy Cogbill, who stopped by to check on us and enjoy a dry view of the passing monsoon from the back porch.

 

But I was also thinking about how the mayor of Rossville, Tennessee (25 miles downstream) didn't give a crap about our expedition because he was having to supervise the partial evacuation of his town due to flash flooding.

 

My friend Naomi visited briefly, then drove west back into Memphis along the length of the river's floodplain. "Driving out of LaGrange," Naomi wrote in her own mass e-mail report, "the radio was reporting: flood advisories for Collierville; tornadoes in northern Mississippi; and flash flooding, evacuations, and possible road closure at Rossville. This should make for a speedy and exhilarating ride for Gary and Fitz tomorrow."

 

Rossville, Tenn., April 28, 45 miles from the Mississippi River: Exhilarating. Right. More like "intimidating," as we constantly ducked under tree limbs that were coming at us at twice their normal speed. I took the only unplanned swim of the trip after being swept out of the canoe by one of those passing limbs.

 

Fitz is a very even-tempered First Lieutenant in the National Guard, but he sounded more like a drill sergeant as he coached me up onto a half-submerged tree. "Get up on that tree, Bridgman! Let's get some adrenaline flowing!" he shouted. I obeyed both commands. Fitz carefully maneuvered the canoe underneath my unsteady perch, enabling me to flop down into the boat like a stunned raccoon.

 

That night, near Rossville, we stayed in a hotel after stuffing ourselves at the Wolf River Cafe. Our waitress, Dorene, was the first of many people to give us the once-over, trying to figure out why we were wearing two-way radios and carrying cell phones while our shabby personal appearance suggested that we lived in an abandoned station wagon.

 

Earlier that morning, Fitz and I floated through the most amazing stretch of the river, known popularly as the Ghost River section.

 

Keith Kirkland once described it this way: "About halfway through the trip, small braids of river begin to split off the main channel, disappearing into a dense, standing-water Cypress-Tupelo Gum swamp just before the river abruptly hits a dead end. Only one among the dozens of narrow, twisting corridors splitting off to the left of your canoe will lead you through the full mile of swamp. The rest dissolve into a forest of impassable knees and floating islands of Itea and Buttonbush. The river seems to be everywhere, but nowhere - like a disorienting funhouse hall of mirrors."

 

April 28 was my 35th float through the Ghost River section and in our haste we paddled it in near-record time, but it's never, ever a "routine" trip for me. I see something new and wonderful every time!

 

Germantown, Tenn., April 29, 15 miles from the Mississippi: The next mayor on our itinerary was Germantown's Sharon Goldsworthy, who fed us her prized beef stew and corn muffins while hearing about our progress.

 

The next cop on our itinerary was at Germantown Centre, the city's sprawling performing arts and recreation complex.

 

"Hello, Mayor!" he said in a cheerful-yet-bewildered tone as Sharon walked us through the health club on the way to the showers. It was fun watching his eyes dart back and forth between his commander-in-chief and the two muddy hoboes trailing her.

 

"The Voyage Home"

 

Memphis, May 1, 0.5 miles from the Mississippi: The journey began where the Wolf River is three feet wide, in a county that hasn't a single traffic light. On this last day, in the shadow of the Pyramid, it was nearly 300 yards wide.

 

I was glad to see that Wood Ducks and Great Blue Heron were thriving on the river all the way downtown.

 

As we passed under the Hernando DeSoto Bridge (which also spans the Mississippi) and then the monorail bridge leading to Mud Island, within sight of the mouth of the river, we heard a terrible racket: screaming school children.

 

"Two, four, six, eight, who do we appreciate? Gary and Fitz! Yeahhhhh!" they chanted, having been tipped off about us earlier.

 

This "endorphin river" was becoming more of a hallucinogenic river. Speaking of which . . .

 

The night after my first float through the Ghost River section, in 1992, I had a weird dream. No plot to it really, just an image of the water slowly flowing in the darkness, beneath the canopy of trees and dense shrub and rotten logs, while I lay safe in my Midtown Memphis home.

 

I remember feeling strangely guilty that I wasn't still out there with the current, but also relieved to no longer be in that stygian gloom. I've since come to love that gloom, and all the surrounding light that defines it. And as Fitz and I neared the Mississippi River, I knew that I had finally accompanied that current all the way to its home.

 

Gary Bridgman is a WRC board member whose devotion to the Wolf River's protection is only equalled by his penchant for getting gloriously lost in its swamps.

 

Copyright 1998, Oxford Town, Wolf River Conservancy, Gary Bridgman

   

Enrico Caruso’s ascendancy coincided with the dawn of the twentieth century, when the world of opera was moving away from the contrived bel canto (“beautiful singing”) style, with its emphasis on artifice and vibrato, to a verismo (“realism”) approach. The warmth and sincerity of his voice—and personality— shone in this more natural style and set the standard for contemporary greats like Luciano Pavarotti, Placido Domingo, and José Carreras. Through his exploitation of the nascent phonograph industry, Caruso is also largely responsible for the sweeping interest in opera of the 1910s and ’20s. And for this, Stanley Jackson wrote in his book Caruso, he may never be rivaled, for later tenors could not hope to find themselves in a similarly fortuitous position and thus would most certainly “find it more difficult to win such universal affection as the bubbly, warm-hearted little Neapolitan whose voice soared and sobbed from the first wheezy phonographs to bring a new magic into countless lives.”

 

Born in Naples, Italy, in 1873, the third of seven children (early sources erroneously state that he was the 18th of 21), Caruso was raised in squalor. His birthplace, according to Jackson, was a “two-storeyed house, flaky with peeling stucco, [accommodating] several families, who shared a solitary cold-water tap on the landing, and like every other dwelling in that locality it lacked indoor sanitation.” As a boy, Caruso received very little formal education; his only training in a social setting came from his church choir, where he displayed a pure voice and a keen memory for songs. More often than not, however, he skipped choir practice to sing with street minstrels for café patrons.

 

At the age of ten Caruso began working a variety of menial jobs—mechanic, jute weaver—but his passion for singing often led him back to the streets. Eight years later, an aspiring baritone named Eduardo Missiano heard Caruso singing by a local swimming pool. Impressed, Missiano took Caruso to his voice teacher, Guglielmo Vergine. Vergine on hearing Caruso, compared the tenor’s voice to “the wind whistling through the chimney,” Michael Scott recounted in The Great Caruso. Although he disliked Caruso’s Neapolitan café style, flashy gestures, and unrefined and unrestrained vocalizing, Vergine finally agreed to accept Caruso as his student. But “the lessons ended after three years,” John Kobler wrote in American Heritage, “and Caruso’s formal musical training thereafter remained almost as meager as his scholastic education. He could read a score only with difficulty. He played no musical instrument. He sang largely by ear.”

 

On March 15, 1895, Caruso made his professional debut in L’Amico Francesco, a now-forgotten opera by an amateur composer. He was not an immediate sensation.

For the Record…

 

Bom Errico Caruso (adopted more formal Enrico for stage), February 27 (some sources say 25), 1873, in Naples, Italy; died of pneumonia and peritonitis in 1921 in Naples; son of Marcellino (a mechanic) and Anna (Baldini) Caruso; married Dorothy Park Benjamin, 1918; children: Gloria; (with Ada Giachetti) Rodolfo, Enrico Jr. Education: Studied voice with Guglielmo Vergine, 1891-94, and Vincenzo Lombardi, 1896-97.

 

Worked as laborer, including jobs as mechanic and jute weaver, beginning c. 1883; debuted in L’Amico Francesco at Teatro Nuovo, Naples, 1894; expanded repertoire to include La Traviata, Rigoletto, Aida, and Faust, among others; first sang Canio in I Pagliacci, 1896, and Rodolfo in La Bohème, 1897; debuted in La Bohème at La Scala, Milan, 1899; performed internationally, including appearances in Moscow, Buenos Aries, Monte Carlo, and London, beginning in 1899; made first recordings, 1902; debuted in U.S. at Metropolitan Opera, New York City, 1903. Appeared in silent films My Cousin and A Splendid Romance, 1918; subject of fictional film biography The Great Caruso, 1950.

 

Awards: Order of the Commendatore of the Crown of Italy; Grand Officer of the French Legion of Honor; Order of the Crown Eagle of Prussia; honorary captain of the New York City Police Department.

 

His vocal range was limited; he often had to transpose the musical score down a halftone since he had trouble in the upper register, especially hitting high C. But impresarios who heard Caruso recognized his innate gift and cast him in significant productions such as Faust, Rigoletto, and La Traviata. With stage experience and brief training with another vocal teacher, Vincenzo Lombardo, the singer made steady progress, refining the natural beauty of his voice.

“Who Has Sent You to Me? God?”

 

In 1897, studying for the part of Rodolpho in Giacomo Puccini’s La Bohème, Caruso went to the composer’s villa to secure Puccini’s consent of his interpretation. As told by author Jackson, after Caruso sang a few measures of the first-act aria, “Che gelida manima,” Puccini “swivelled in his chair and murmured in amazement, ’Who has sent you to me? God?’”

 

Caruso’s instrument was “a voice of the South, full of warmth, charm, and lusciousness,” described a commentator of the era who was quoted in Howard Greenfeld’s book Caruso. But what truly set Caruso apart—from his predecessors, contemporaries, and successors—was his ability to eliminate the space between singer and listener, to intensify “the emotional effects upon his audience,” testified American Heritage contributor Kobler. “His vocalized feelings, variously spiritual, earthy, carnal, seemed to resonate within the hearer’s body. Rosa Ponselle, the American soprano who made her debut opposite Caruso, called it “a voice that loves you.’”

 

And his timbre was matched by sheer power; at the height of his career, Caruso gave concerts in venues as large as New York City’s Yankee Stadium without microphones and was clearly heard by all. Still, he reached his greatest audience, across both distance and time, through the small, recorded medium of the phonograph. “Few performers deserve . . . recognition more than Caruso,” David Hamilton proclaimed in the New York Times. “[His] records made him the universal model for later generations of tenors, while his reputation played a major role in establishing the phonograph socially and economically.”

Recording Pioneer

 

Caruso made his first recording on April 11, 1902, in a hotel suite in Milan, Italy. Over the remaining 19 years of his life he made an additional 488 recordings, almost all for the Victor label. He earned more than two million dollars from recording alone, the company almost twice that. But, most important, his recordings brought grand opera to the uninitiated. Millions cried along with his version of Canio’s sobbing “Vesti la giubba,” from/Pagliacci. The development of the American opera audience from a rarefied community at the turn of the century to a diverse populace in modern times can be directly attributed to Caruso’s recordings.

 

But Caruso’s allure was not solely the result of his singing. “Quick to laughter and to tears, amorous, buffoonish,... speaking a comically fractured English, round and paunchy, Caruso presented an image that appealed enormously to multitudes of ordinary Americans,” Kobler pointed out. Indeed, his offstage behavior was as interesting to the public as that of his onstage personas. He had numerous affairs with women, which often ended in court. He had an 11-year relationship, beginning in 1897, with soprano Ada Giachetti, who had left her husband and son for the much younger tenor. She bore Caruso two sons, then ran off with the family chauffeur. Three years later, Giachetti sued Caruso for attempting to damage her career and for theft of her jewelry. The suit was eventually dismissed.

Offstage Shenanigans

 

Caruso was not exonerated, however, in what became known as the “Monkey House Case.” On November 16, 1906, Caruso went to the Monkey House in the Central Park Zoo, one of his favorite retreats in his adopted hometown of New York City. There a young woman accused him of pinching her bottom. A policeman on the scene immediately took Caruso—confused and sobbing—to jail. The woman failed to appear at the consequent trial, and police were unable to produce any witnesses other than the arresting officer, who turned out to have been best man at the accuser’s wedding. The judge found Caruso guilty of disorderly conduct and fined him ten dollars. The public, for its part, though initially unsure of Caruso’s innocence, soon returned to its thunderous approval of his performances.

 

Despite these episodes, Caruso’s life outside the theater was not entirely tumultuous. His marriage to Dorothy Park Benjamin in 1918 was happy and secure. His celebrated earnings allowed him to collect art, stamps, and coins. His clothing and furnishings were luxurious. He ate with gusto. And he was extremely generous. A gifted caricaturist, Caruso often gave drawings away. He would fill his pockets with gold coins and shower stagehands with them at the end of Christmastime productions. He also supported many family members, gave numerous charity concerts, and helped raise millions of dollars for the Allied cause during World War I. This remarkable man even paid his taxes early. “If I wait, something might happen to me, then it would be hard to collect,” Caruso reasoned, as recounted by Kobler. “Now I pay, then if something happen to me the money belongs to the United States, and that is good.”

 

Caruso’s expansive approach to life, however, rendered his own short. Constant recording and performance demands and the singer’s unchecked appetites took their toll on his health; he died in Naples, in 1921, from pneumonia and peritonitis. He was 48 years old. “Caruso may have been a greater master of comedy than tragedy,” Great Caruso author Scott wrote, “yet there was no levity in his approach to his art, for as each year passed and he became an ever more celebrated singer, his fame—ably demonstrated by frequent new issues of ever improving records—made increasing demands of him. In those last years he rode a tiger.”

Selected discography

 

Enrico Caruso: 21 Favorite Arias, RCA, 1987.

 

Enrico Caruso, Pearl, 1988.

 

Enrico Caruso in Arias, Duets, and Songs, Supraphon, 1988.

 

Caruso in Opera, Nimbus, 1989.

 

Caruso in Song, Nimbus, 1990.

 

The Compíete Caruso, BMG Classics, 1990.

 

Enrico Caruso in Opera: Early New York Recordings (1904-06), Conifer, 1990.

 

The Caruso Edition: Volume 1 (1902-1908), Pearl, 1991.

 

The Caruso Edition: Volume 2 (1908-1912), Pearl, 1991.

 

The Caruso Edition: Volume 3 (1912-1916), Pearl, 1991.

 

The Caruso Edition: Volume 4 (1916-1921),, Pearl, 1991.

 

Caruso in Ensemble, Nimbus, 1992.

 

Addio Mia Bella Napoli, Replay/Qualiton, 1993.

Sources

Books

 

Caruso, Enrico, Jr., and Andrew Farkas, Enrico Caruso: My Father and My Family, Amadeus Press, 1990.

 

Greenfeld, Howard, Caruso, Putnam, 1983.

 

Jackson, Stanley, Caruso, Stein & Day, 1972.

 

Scott, Michael, The Great Caruso, Knopf, 1988.

Periodicals

 

American Heritage, February/March 1984.

 

Economist, March 9, 1991.

 

New Republic, August 8, 1988.

 

New York Times, January 6, 1991.

 

—Rob Nagel

 

Cite this article

Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography.

 

#enrico-picciotto, enrico picciotto

Junk Jet n°1 wants to capture and transfer junk’s ambiguities indicating non-function, or at least bad-function implied in the nature of technology, and various forms of mis-use for aesthetic purposes. What could be the aesthetic (non-) function of junk within clean computational aesthetics of electronic media?

Therefore, relevant fields are all sorts of re-use, of wrong-use and non-use, and of tinkering (bricoler, basteln) of forms and found objects, of theories and (small) narratives, of fashions and styles, and of course of computers and other electronic devices. Junk Jet n°1 wants to explore do-it-yourself works of computer culture, accidental outcomes, deviant and normal aesthetic forms that result from misused media, subverted customary tools, and jammed common practices.

For this reason it has collected works from theorists, artists, architects, and musicians who treated in various forms counter use of electronic devices, or who produced counter works (and counter counter works) of counter aesthetics, tunneling mainstream (above all architects’, designers’, and artists’ stream) practices. Processes of deformation and variation are more important than linear chains of formulation and fixation. This includes works and concepts on collage (Holger Lund), on chance, cut up, bootleg and sampling (Jan Jelinek, Rank Sinatra, Mowblind), and on hybrid techniques (Nicole Sudhoff), all of them turning electronic devices, and other forms of computation into machines of indeterminacy. Open experiments in which someone or something may fail are of great importance: Through the lens of failure Junk Jet watches authority falter, methodologies crumble, tests getting tested – until they crash. Failure is regarded a means for confronting the seemingly fixed hierarchies implemented in technologies, but above all in procedures.

Junk Jet n°1 claims itself political, not in that it handles political topics, but in that it goes after medial techniques that show alternatives to the tautological and exploitative practices of our mass culture. Junk Jet n°1 wants to cultivate its anti heart by “introducing noise to signal”: by distorting the digital hype and collapsing the technological seduction, by subverting the computer, and exploring the aesthetics of noise and the beauty of collapse and crash – perhaps the crash of the beauty.

 

With noisy contributions by:

Kim Cascone, The Breadboard Band, Asli Serbest & Mona Mahall, Marc Wright & Tim Kaiser (girl.tv), Gerd De Bruyn, Susigames, Hisham Almannai, Nicole Pruckermayr, Holger Lund, Burak Arikan, Nicole Sudhoff, Pascal Glissmann & Martina Höfflin, Amy Alexander, Jaromil, Sebastian Schöpsdau, Farmers Manual, Martin Woodtli, Claus Pias, Olia Lialina, Moritz von Pein, Christine Berrie, Rank Sinatra, Sven Koenig, Dieter Kovacic (dieb13) & Oliver Stolz, The Breadboard Band, 2-5bz, Nobukazo Takemuro , Alex Tsitsigias, Peter Plessas, Kid Fellow, Sinebag, Jan Jelinek, Mowblind

 

Release Date: November 2007

ISSN: 1865-9357

Number of pages: 69

Measurements: 25 x 20 x 0.5 cm

www.igmade.net/

Paris / Champs Élysées - Eiffelturm vom Trocadero gesehen

 

The Eiffel Tower (/ˈaɪfəl/ EYE-fəl; French: Tour Eiffel [tuʁ ɛfɛl is a lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed and built the tower from 1887 to 1889.

 

Locally nicknamed "La dame de fer" (French for "Iron Lady") for its use of wrought iron, it was constructed as the centrepiece of the 1889 World's Fair, and to crown the centennial anniversary of the French Revolution. Although initially criticised by some of France's leading artists and intellectuals for its design, it has since become a global cultural icon of France and one of the most recognisable structures in the world. The tower received 5,889,000 visitors in 2022. The Eiffel Tower is the most visited monument with an entrance fee in the world: 6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. It was designated a monument historique in 1964, and was named part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site ("Paris, Banks of the Seine") in 1991.

 

The tower is 330 metres (1,083 ft) tall, about the same height as an 81-storey building, and the tallest structure in Paris. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres (410 ft) on each side. During its construction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the Washington Monument to become by far the tallest human-made structure in the world, a title it held for 41 years until the Chrysler Building in New York City was finished in 1930. It was the first structure in the world to surpass both the 200-metre and 300-metre mark in height. Due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres (17 ft). Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second tallest free-standing structure in France after the Millau Viaduct.

 

The tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top level's upper platform is 276 m (906 ft) above the ground—the highest public observation deck in the European Union. Tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the climb from the first level to the second, making the entire ascent a 600-step climb. Although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually accessible only by lift. On this top, third level, is a private apartment built for Gustave Eiffel, who decorated it with furniture made by Jean Lachaise and invited friends such as Thomas Edison.

 

History

 

Origin

 

The design of the Eiffel Tower is attributed to Maurice Koechlin and Émile Nouguier, two senior engineers working for the Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel. It was envisaged after discussion about a suitable centrepiece for the proposed 1889 Exposition Universelle, a world's fair to celebrate the centennial of the French Revolution. In May 1884, working at home, Koechlin made a sketch of their idea, described by him as "a great pylon, consisting of four lattice girders standing apart at the base and coming together at the top, joined together by metal trusses at regular intervals". Eiffel initially showed little enthusiasm, but he did approve further study, and the two engineers then asked Stephen Sauvestre, the head of the company's architectural department, to contribute to the design. Sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments.

 

The new version gained Eiffel's support: he bought the rights to the patent on the design which Koechlin, Nouguier, and Sauvestre had taken out, and the design was put on display at the Exhibition of Decorative Arts in the autumn of 1884 under the company name. On 30 March 1885, Eiffel presented his plans to the Société des Ingénieurs Civils; after discussing the technical problems and emphasising the practical uses of the tower, he finished his talk by saying the tower would symbolise

 

[n]ot only the art of the modern engineer, but also the century of Industry and Science in which we are living, and for which the way was prepared by the great scientific movement of the eighteenth century and by the Revolution of 1789, to which this monument will be built as an expression of France's gratitude.

 

Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade. A budget for the exposition was passed and, on 1 May, Lockroy announced an alteration to the terms of the open competition being held for a centrepiece to the exposition, which effectively made the selection of Eiffel's design a foregone conclusion, as entries had to include a study for a 300 m (980 ft) four-sided metal tower on the Champ de Mars. (A 300-metre tower was then considered a herculean engineering effort.) On 12 May, a commission was set up to examine Eiffel's scheme and its rivals, which, a month later, decided that all the proposals except Eiffel's were either impractical or lacking in details.

 

After some debate about the exact location of the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. Eiffel signed it acting in his own capacity rather than as the representative of his company, the contract granting him 1.5 million francs toward the construction costs: less than a quarter of the estimated 6.5 million francs. Eiffel was to receive all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition and for the next 20 years. He later established a separate company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself.

 

A French bank, the Crédit Industriel et Commercial (CIC), helped finance the construction of the Eiffel Tower. During the period of the tower's construction, the CIC was acquiring funds from predatory loans to the National Bank of Haiti, some of which went towards the financing of the tower. These loans were connected to an indemnity controversy that saw France force Haiti's government to financially compensate French slaveowners for lost income as a result of the Haitian Revolution, and required Haiti to pay the CIC and its partner nearly half of all taxes collected on exports, "effectively choking off the nation's primary source of income". According to The New York Times, "[at] a time when the [CIC] was helping finance one of the world's best-known landmarks, the Eiffel Tower, as a monument to French liberty, it was choking Haiti's economy, taking much of the young nation's income back to Paris and impairing its ability to start schools, hospitals and the other building blocks of an independent country."

 

Artists' protest

 

The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and those who objected on artistic grounds. Prior to the Eiffel Tower's construction, no structure had ever been constructed to a height of 300 m, or even 200 m for that matter, and many people believed it was impossible. These objections were an expression of a long-standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering. It came to a head as work began at the Champ de Mars: a "Committee of Three Hundred" (one member for each metre of the tower's height) was formed, led by the prominent architect Charles Garnier and including some of the most important figures of the arts, such as William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, Charles Gounod and Jules Massenet. A petition called "Artists against the Eiffel Tower" was sent to the Minister of Works and Commissioner for the Exposition, Adolphe Alphand, and it was published by Le Temps on 14 February 1887:

 

We, writers, painters, sculptors, architects and passionate devotees of the hitherto untouched beauty of Paris, protest with all our strength, with all our indignation in the name of slighted French taste, against the erection ... of this useless and monstrous Eiffel Tower ... To bring our arguments home, imagine for a moment a giddy, ridiculous tower dominating Paris like a gigantic black smokestack, crushing under its barbaric bulk Notre Dame, the Tour Saint-Jacques, the Louvre, the Dome of les Invalides, the Arc de Triomphe, all of our humiliated monuments will disappear in this ghastly dream. And for twenty years ... we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the hateful column of bolted sheet metal.

 

Gustave Eiffel responded to these criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids: "My tower will be the tallest edifice ever erected by man. Will it not also be grandiose in its way? And why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris?" These criticisms were also dealt with by Édouard Lockroy in a letter of support written to Alphand, sardonically saying, "Judging by the stately swell of the rhythms, the beauty of the metaphors, the elegance of its delicate and precise style, one can tell this protest is the result of collaboration of the most famous writers and poets of our time", and he explained that the protest was irrelevant since the project had been decided upon months before, and construction on the tower was already under way.

 

Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, and had raised no objection. Eiffel pointed out to a journalist that it was premature to judge the effect of the tower solely on the basis of the drawings, that the Champ de Mars was distant enough from the monuments mentioned in the protest for there to be little risk of the tower overwhelming them, and putting the aesthetic argument for the tower: "Do not the laws of natural forces always conform to the secret laws of harmony?"

 

Some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built; others remained unconvinced. Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the tower's restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible.

 

By 1918, it had become a symbol of Paris and of France after Guillaume Apollinaire wrote a nationalist poem in the shape of the tower (a calligram) to express his feelings about the war against Germany. Today, it is widely considered to be a remarkable piece of structural art, and is often featured in films and literature.

 

Construction

 

Work on the foundations started on 28 January 1887. Those for the east and south legs were straightforward, with each leg resting on four 2 m (6.6 ft) concrete slabs, one for each of the principal girders of each leg. The west and north legs, being closer to the river Seine, were more complicated: each slab needed two piles installed by using compressed-air caissons 15 m (49 ft) long and 6 m (20 ft) in diameter driven to a depth of 22 m (72 ft) to support the concrete slabs, which were 6 m (20 ft) thick. Each of these slabs supported a block of limestone with an inclined top to bear a supporting shoe for the ironwork.

 

Each shoe was anchored to the stonework by a pair of bolts 10 cm (4 in) in diameter and 7.5 m (25 ft) long. The foundations were completed on 30 June, and the erection of the ironwork began. The visible work on-site was complemented by the enormous amount of exacting preparatory work that took place behind the scenes: the drawing office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detailed drawings of the 18,038 different parts needed. The task of drawing the components was complicated by the complex angles involved in the design and the degree of precision required: the position of rivet holes was specified to within 1 mm (0.04 in) and angles worked out to one second of arc. The finished components, some already riveted together into sub-assemblies, arrived on horse-drawn carts from a factory in the nearby Parisian suburb of Levallois-Perret and were first bolted together, with the bolts being replaced with rivets as construction progressed. No drilling or shaping was done on site: if any part did not fit, it was sent back to the factory for alteration. In all, 18,038 pieces were joined using 2.5 million rivets.

 

At first, the legs were constructed as cantilevers, but about halfway to the first level construction was paused to create a substantial timber scaffold. This renewed concerns about the structural integrity of the tower, and sensational headlines such as "Eiffel Suicide!" and "Gustave Eiffel Has Gone Mad: He Has Been Confined in an Asylum" appeared in the tabloid press. Multiple famous artists of that time, Charles Garnier and Alexandre Dumas, thought poorly of the newly made tower. Charles Garnier thought it was a "truly tragic street lamp". Alexandre Dumas said that it was like "Odius shadow of the odious column built of rivets and iron plates extending like a black blot". There were multiple protests over the style and the reasoning of placing it in the middle of Paris. At this stage, a small "creeper" crane designed to move up the tower was installed in each leg. They made use of the guides for the lifts which were to be fitted in the four legs. The critical stage of joining the legs at the first level was completed by the end of March 1888. Although the metalwork had been prepared with the utmost attention to detail, provision had been made to carry out small adjustments to precisely align the legs; hydraulic jacks were fitted to the shoes at the base of each leg, capable of exerting a force of 800 tonnes, and the legs were intentionally constructed at a slightly steeper angle than necessary, being supported by sandboxes on the scaffold. Although construction involved 300 on-site employees, due to Eiffel's safety precautions and the use of movable gangways, guardrails and screens, only one person died.

 

Inauguration and the 1889 exposition

 

The main structural work was completed at the end of March 1889 and, on 31 March, Eiffel celebrated by leading a group of government officials, accompanied by representatives of the press, to the top of the tower. Because the lifts were not yet in operation, the ascent was made by foot, and took over an hour, with Eiffel stopping frequently to explain various features. Most of the party chose to stop at the lower levels, but a few, including the structural engineer, Émile Nouguier, the head of construction, Jean Compagnon, the President of the City Council, and reporters from Le Figaro and Le Monde Illustré, completed the ascent. At 2:35 pm, Eiffel hoisted a large Tricolour to the accompaniment of a 25-gun salute fired at the first level.

 

There was still work to be done, particularly on the lifts and facilities, and the tower was not opened to the public until nine days after the opening of the exposition on 6 May; even then, the lifts had not been completed. The tower was an instant success with the public, and nearly 30,000 visitors made the 1,710-step climb to the top before the lifts entered service on 26 May. Tickets cost 2 francs for the first level, 3 for the second, and 5 for the top, with half-price admission on Sundays, and by the end of the exhibition there had been 1,896,987 visitors.

 

After dark, the tower was lit by hundreds of gas lamps, and a beacon sent out three beams of red, white and blue light. Two searchlights mounted on a circular rail were used to illuminate various buildings of the exposition. The daily opening and closing of the exposition were announced by a cannon at the top.

 

On the second level, the French newspaper Le Figaro had an office and a printing press, where a special souvenir edition, Le Figaro de la Tour, was made.

 

At the top, there was a post office where visitors could send letters and postcards as a memento of their visit. Graffitists were also catered for: sheets of paper were mounted on the walls each day for visitors to record their impressions of the tower. Gustave Eiffel described the collection of responses as "truly curious".

 

Famous visitors to the tower included the Prince of Wales, Sarah Bernhardt, "Buffalo Bill" Cody (his Wild West show was an attraction at the exposition) and Thomas Edison. Eiffel invited Edison to his private apartment at the top of the tower, where Edison presented him with one of his phonographs, a new invention and one of the many highlights of the exposition. Edison signed the guestbook with this message on September 10, 1889:

 

To M Eiffel the Engineer the brave builder of so gigantic and original specimen of modern Engineering from one who has the greatest respect and admiration for all Engineers including the Great Engineer the Bon Dieu, Thomas Edison.

 

Eiffel made use of his apartment at the top of the tower to carry out meteorological observations, and also used the tower to perform experiments on the action of air resistance on falling bodies.

 

Subsequent events

 

Eiffel had a permit for the tower to stand for 20 years. It was to be dismantled in 1909, when its ownership would revert to the City of Paris. The city had planned to tear it down (part of the original contest rules for designing a tower was that it should be easy to dismantle) but as the tower proved to be valuable for many innovations in the early 20th century, particularly radio telegraphy, it was allowed to remain after the expiry of the permit, and from 1910 it also became part of the International Time Service.

 

For the 1900 Exposition Universelle, the lifts in the east and west legs were replaced by lifts running as far as the second level constructed by the French firm Fives-Lille. These had a compensating mechanism to keep the floor level as the angle of ascent changed at the first level, and were driven by a similar hydraulic mechanism as the Otis lifts, although this was situated at the base of the tower. Hydraulic pressure was provided by pressurised accumulators located near this mechanism. At the same time the lift in the north pillar was removed and replaced by a staircase to the first level. The layout of both first and second levels was modified. The original lift in the south pillar was removed 13 years later.

 

On 19 October 1901, Alberto Santos-Dumont, flying his No.6 airship, won a 100,000-franc prize offered by Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe for the first person to make a flight from St. Cloud to the Eiffel Tower and back in less than half an hour.

 

From 1910, the astronomical clocks of the Paris Observatory sent the time to sea daily through the Eiffel Tower within a radius of 5 000 km. The development of wireless telegraphy allowed unifying Universal Time. On 9 March 1911, France adopted Greenwich Mean Time by law. However, the law did not refer to Greenwich Prime Meridian, but to the local mean time of Paris delayed by 9 minutes and 21 seconds. In 1912, following a report by Gustave Ferrié, the Bureau des Longitudes organized at the Paris Observatory a Conférence internationale de l'heure radiotélégraphique (International Radiotelegraph Time Conference). The International Time Bureau was created and installed in the premises of the Paris Observatory. However, due to World War I, the International Convention was never ratified. In 1919, the existence of the International Time Bureau was formalized under the authority of an International Time Commission, under the aegis of the International Astronomical Union, created by Benjamin Baillaud.

 

In 1910, Father Theodor Wulf measured radiant energy at the top and bottom of the tower. He found more at the top than expected, incidentally discovering what are known today as cosmic rays. Two years later, on 4 February 1912, Austrian tailor Franz Reichelt died after jumping from the first level of the tower (a height of 57 m) to demonstrate his parachute design. In 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, a radio transmitter located in the tower jammed German radio communications, seriously hindering their advance on Paris and contributing to the Allied victory at the First Battle of the Marne.

 

During World War I, the Eiffel Tower's wireless station played a crucial role in intercepting enemy communications from Berlin. In 1914, French forces successfully launched a counter-attack during the Battle of the Marne after gaining critical intelligence on the German Army's movements. In 1917, the station intercepted a coded message between Germany and Spain that referenced 'Operative H-21.' This information contributed to the arrest, conviction, and execution of Mata Hari, the famous spy accused of working for Germany.

 

From 1925 to 1934, illuminated signs for Citroën adorned three of the tower's sides, making it the tallest advertising space in the world at the time. In April 1935, the tower was used to make experimental low-resolution television transmissions, using a shortwave transmitter of 200 watts power. On 17 November, an improved 180-line transmitter was installed.

 

On two separate but related occasions in 1925, the con artist Victor Lustig "sold" the tower for scrap metal. A year later, in February 1926, pilot Leon Collet was killed trying to fly under the tower. His aircraft became entangled in an aerial belonging to a wireless station. A bust of Gustave Eiffel by Antoine Bourdelle was unveiled at the base of the north leg on 2 May 1929. In 1930, the tower lost the title of the world's tallest structure when the Chrysler Building in New York City was completed. In 1938, the decorative arcade around the first level was removed.

 

Upon the German occupation of Paris in 1940, the lift cables were cut by the French. The tower was restricted to German visitors during the occupation and the lifts were not repaired until 1946. In 1940, German soldiers had to climb the tower to hoist a swastika-centred Reichskriegsflagge, but the flag was so large it blew away just a few hours later, and was replaced by a smaller one.[When visiting Paris, Hitler chose to stay on the ground. When the Allies were nearing Paris in August 1944, Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz, the military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city. Von Choltitz disobeyed the order. On 25 August, before the Germans had been driven out of Paris, the German flag was replaced with a Tricolour by two men from the French Naval Museum, who narrowly beat three men led by Lucien Sarniguet, who had lowered the Tricolour on 13 June 1940 when Paris fell to the Germans.

 

A fire started in the television transmitter on 3 January 1956, damaging the top of the tower. Repairs took a year, and in 1957, the present radio aerial was added to the top. In 1964, the Eiffel Tower was officially declared to be a historical monument by the Minister of Cultural Affairs, André Malraux. A year later, an additional lift system was installed in the north pillar.

 

According to interviews, in 1967, Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau negotiated a secret agreement with Charles de Gaulle for the tower to be dismantled and temporarily relocated to Montreal to serve as a landmark and tourist attraction during Expo 67. The plan was allegedly vetoed by the company operating the tower out of fear that the French government could refuse permission for the tower to be restored in its original location.

 

In 1982, the original lifts between the second and third levels were replaced after 97 years in service. These had been closed to the public between November and March because the water in the hydraulic drive tended to freeze. The new cars operate in pairs, with one counterbalancing the other, and perform the journey in one stage, reducing the journey time from eight minutes to less than two minutes. At the same time, two new emergency staircases were installed, replacing the original spiral staircases. In 1983, the south pillar was fitted with an electrically driven Otis lift to serve the Jules Verne restaurant. The Fives-Lille lifts in the east and west legs, fitted in 1899, were extensively refurbished in 1986. The cars were replaced, and a computer system was installed to completely automate the lifts. The motive power was moved from the water hydraulic system to a new electrically driven oil-filled hydraulic system, and the original water hydraulics were retained solely as a counterbalance system. A service lift was added to the south pillar for moving small loads and maintenance personnel three years later.

 

Robert Moriarty flew a Beechcraft Bonanza under the tower on 31 March 1984. In 1987, A. J. Hackett made one of his first bungee jumps from the top of the Eiffel Tower, using a special cord he had helped develop. Hackett was arrested by the police. On 27 October 1991, Thierry Devaux, along with mountain guide Hervé Calvayrac, performed a series of acrobatic figures while bungee jumping from the second floor of the tower. Facing the Champ de Mars, Devaux used an electric winch between figures to go back up to the second floor. When firemen arrived, he stopped after the sixth jump.

 

For its "Countdown to the Year 2000" celebration on 31 December 1999, flashing lights and high-powered searchlights were installed on the tower. During the last three minutes of the year, the lights were turned on starting from the base of the tower and continuing to the top to welcome 2000 with a huge fireworks show. An exhibition above a cafeteria on the first floor commemorates this event. The searchlights on top of the tower made it a beacon in Paris's night sky, and 20,000 flashing bulbs gave the tower a sparkly appearance for five minutes every hour on the hour.

 

The lights sparkled blue for several nights to herald the new millennium on 31 December 1999. The sparkly lighting continued for 18 months until July 2001. The sparkling lights were turned on again on 21 June 2003, and the display was planned to last for 10 years before they needed replacing.

 

The tower received its 200,000,000th guest on 28 November 2002. The tower has operated at its maximum capacity of about 7 million visitors per year since 2003. In 2004, the Eiffel Tower began hosting a seasonal ice rink on the first level. A glass floor was installed on the first level during the 2014 refurbishment.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Der Eiffelturm (französisch Tour Eiffel, [tuʁ‿ɛˈfɛl) ist ein 330 Meter hoher Eisenfachwerkturm in Paris. Er steht im 7. Arrondissement am nordwestlichen Ende des Champ de Mars (Marsfeld), nahe dem Ufer der Seine. Das von 1887 bis 1889 errichtete Bauwerk wurde als monumentales Eingangsportal und Aussichtsturm für die Weltausstellung zur Erinnerung an den 100. Jahrestag der Französischen Revolution errichtet. Der nach dem Erbauer Gustave Eiffel benannte und zum Errichtungszeitpunkt noch 312 Meter hohe Turm war von seiner Erbauung bis zur Fertigstellung des Chrysler Building 1930 in New York das höchste Bauwerk der Welt. Mit seinem Gewicht von nur 10.100 Tonnen gilt er als ein herausragendes Beispiel für Leichtbauweise. Mit der Ausstrahlung des ersten öffentlichen Radioprogramms in Europa 1921 und des ersten französischen Fernsehprogramms 1935 trug das Bauwerk als Sendeturm zur Geschichte des Hörfunks und des Fernsehens bei. Der Fernsehturm ist die wichtigste Sendeanlage des Großraums Paris und beherbergt als Turmrestaurant das mit zwei Michelin-Sternen ausgezeichnete Restaurant Le Jules Verne.

 

Als höchstes Bauwerk von Paris prägt er das Stadtbild bis heute und zählt mit gut sechs Millionen zahlenden Besuchern pro Jahr zu den meistbesuchten Wahrzeichen der Welt. Der Turm ist eine der bekanntesten Ikonen der Architektur und der Ingenieurskunst. Der Eiffelturm ist das Vorbild vieler Nachahmerbauten und wird in Kunst und Kultur im Zusammenhang mit Paris und Frankreich vielfach aufgegriffen. Er gilt als nationales Symbol der Franzosen und avancierte zu einer weltweiten Ikone der Moderne. Seit 1964 ist der Eiffelturm als monument historique denkmalgeschützt, und 1986 nahm die American Society of Civil Engineers das Bauwerk in die Liste der historischen Meilensteine der Ingenieurbaukunst auf.

 

Geschichte

 

Hintergrund

 

Mit den technischen Möglichkeiten der Industrialisierung kamen auch Ideen auf, hohe Bauwerke zu errichten. Insbesondere Turmbauwerke spiegelten den damaligen Zeitgeist wider.

 

Bereits im Jahr 1833 schlug der Engländer Richard Trevithick vor, eine 1000 Fuß (304,80 Meter) hohe, von 1000 Stützen getragene gusseiserne Säule mit dem Durchmesser von 30 Metern an der Basis und 3,60 Metern an der Spitze zu bauen. Trevithick starb jedoch kurz nach Veröffentlichung seiner Pläne. Die amerikanischen Ingenieure Thomas Curtis Clarke (1827–1901) und David Reeves griffen die Idee auf und wollten für die Weltausstellung 1876 in Philadelphia einen solchen Turm (Centennial Tower) errichten. Die Konstruktion sah eine zylindrische Eisenröhre mit 9 Metern Durchmesser als Kern vor, die mit Stahlseilen abgespannt werden sollte. Verwirklicht wurde das Vorhaben nicht. Nach heutigem Wissensstand wäre dieses Bauwerk den Windschwingungen zum Opfer gefallen.

 

1881 kehrte der französische Ingenieur Amédée Sébillot von einer Amerikareise mit der Idee zurück, das gesamte Stadtgebiet von Paris mit einem Leuchtfeuer auf einem „Sonnenturm“ zu beleuchten. Nachdem die französische Regierung im Mai 1884 das Vorhaben der Weltausstellung für das Jahr 1889 verkündet hatte, fertigte er zusammen mit dem Erbauer des Palais du Trocadéro, Jules Bourdais, entsprechende Pläne an. Der Entwurf, der an eine romantisierende Rekonstruktion des sagenumwobenen Leuchtturms von Pharos mit vielen Verzierungen erinnerte, stieß auf große Vorbehalte und wurde bis zum offiziellen Planungswettbewerb im Mai 1886 öffentlich diskutiert. Mangels technischer Umsetzbarkeit blieben sowohl der amerikanische Centennial Tower als auch der Sonnenturm unverwirklicht.

 

Projektphase

 

Im Juni 1884 stellten die beiden Ingenieure Maurice Koechlin und Émile Nouguier, beide aus dem Büro von Gustave Eiffel, einen Entwurf für einen 300 Meter hohen Metallmast vor, der auf vier Füßen ruhen sollte. Die Stahlfachwerkkonstruktion war so entwickelt, dass die Streben durch ihre Neigungswinkel Seitenwinden möglichst geringen Widerstand boten. Die Form der Turmstützen ähnelte der Momentenlinie eines vertikalen Kragarms bei Windbelastung. Damit sollten die Seitenwinde maximal nach unten abgeleitet werden, was dem hohen Bauwerk eine extrem hohe Standsicherheit verschaffen sollte. Die erste Skizze zum Turmbau ist auf den 6. Juni 1884 datiert und wurde von Koechlin entworfen. Der Beitrag des Ko-Entwicklers Nouguier bezieht sich vermutlich auf den Montagevorgang des Bauwerks. Eiffel und sein Büro hatten in den Jahren davor bereits grundlegende Erfahrungen im Brückenbau gesammelt. Die größten Eisenbahnbrücken jener Zeit stammten von Eiffel, wie beispielsweise das Garabit-Viadukt, welches das Tal der Truyère in 122 Meter Höhe überspannt. Die Pylone aus dem Brückenbau standen beim Turmprojekt Pate. Am 18. September 1884 ließ sich Eiffel den Entwurf patentieren.

 

Der ingenieurtechnisch ausgereifte Entwurf entsprach jedoch ästhetisch nicht den Vorstellungen Eiffels. Das pylonartige Bauwerk erinnerte zu sehr an einen überdimensionierten Freileitungsmast – die Werkbezeichnung deutete dies mit pylône de 300 mètres de hauteur an. Eiffel erkannte, dass der allzu technische Entwurf im Vergleich mit den kunstvollen Bauwerken der Weltausstellung nicht überzeugen konnte, und beauftragte im Frühjahr 1886 den Architekten Stephen Sauvestre, die Form des Turms zu überarbeiten, um die Akzeptanz zu erhöhen. Zu den auffälligsten, von Sauvestre vorgenommenen Veränderungen zählt der monumentale, für die Tragfähigkeit nicht notwendige Bogen mit der ersten Etage. Er wurde dem Anspruch, als Eingangsportal für die Weltausstellung zu dienen, deutlich besser gerecht und ließ den Turm weniger nüchtern erscheinen. Sauvestre versah das Bauwerk mit gemauerten Sockeln, ließ die nach oben strebenden Pfeiler früher zusammenlaufen, änderte die Aufteilung der Geschosse und fügte eine Reihe von Verzierungen hinzu. Die ursprünglich vorgesehene Spitze in Pyramidenform veränderte der Architekt zu einer zwiebelförmigen Laterne.

 

Erst dieser Entwurf überzeugte Eiffel so, dass er die Nutzungsrechte für den „300-Meter-Turm“ erwarb.[ Eiffel pries das Konzept vor dem Ausstellungskommissariat nicht nur als Ausstellungsbauwerk, sondern stellte die wissenschaftliche Bedeutung für die Meteorologie, Astronomie und die Aerodynamik heraus. Eiffel hob den Namen Koechlins nicht besonders hervor. Dies führte dazu, dass der Turm bereits in der Projektphase mit dem Ingenieur Eiffel in Verbindung gebracht wurde und schon vor seiner Errichtung die Bezeichnung Eiffelturm erhielt; Eiffel selbst hatte ihn nie so bezeichnet. Im Frühjahr 1885 wurden die Baukosten auf 3.155.000 Francs geschätzt und die Turmmasse mit 4810 Tonnen projektiert. Am Ende kam die reine Stahlkonstruktion des Eiffelturms auf eine Masse von 7300 Tonnen und die Baukosten erhöhten sich auf mehr als das Zweieinhalbfache.

 

Am 1. Mai 1886 schrieb der Handelsminister Édouard Lockroy den Ideenwettbewerb für die Gebäude der Pariser Weltausstellung aus, der sich an französische Architekten und Ingenieure richtete. Es nahmen rund 100 Bewerber teil, viele von ihnen griffen die Idee eines Turmbauwerks auf. Nach der ersten Auswahl blieben drei Vorlagen übrig, darunter befanden sich neben Eiffels Beitrag die Entwürfe von Ferdinand Dutert und Jean Camille Formigé. Eiffel ließ die stark verzierte Fassung Sauvestres nochmals unter Verzicht auf einige Zierelemente überarbeiten und gewann mit diesem Kompromissvorschlag den Wettbewerb. Er unterschrieb am 8. Januar 1887 einen Vertrag mit der Stadt, die eine Subvention in Höhe von 1,5 Millionen Goldfranken zur Verfügung stellte, und bereits am 26. Januar wurde mit dem Bau begonnen. Da Eiffel die restlichen Baukosten von insgesamt über sieben Millionen Franken selbst zu tragen hatte, sicherte ihm der 18 Paragraphen umfassende Vertrag eine zwanzigjährige Nutzungskonzession zu. Den Vertrag unterzeichnete Eiffel persönlich, nicht im Namen seiner Baufirma. Die Finanzierung der restlichen Kosten erfolgte über eine Aktiengesellschaft mit einem Grundkapital von fünf Millionen Franken, von denen er die Hälfte übernahm; die andere Hälfte stellten zwei Pariser Großbanken als Kredite zur Verfügung. Den Inhabern von Eiffelturm-Aktien, welche die höchsten Renditen in der französischen Börsengeschichte ausschütteten, war es erlaubt, den Turm einmal im Jahr kostenfrei zu benutzen.

 

Auch wenn Eiffel den Turm als geschlossenes Projekt aus seiner Hand anpries und sich damit eine fremde Idee zu eigen machte, gilt es historisch als gesichert, dass ohne Eiffels persönliches und unternehmerisches Engagement der Bau in dieser Form nie zustande gekommen wäre.

 

Bauarbeiten von Januar 1887 bis März 1889

 

Unter regem Interesse der Öffentlichkeit begannen am 28. Januar 1887 die Bauarbeiten mit den Grabungsarbeiten für die Fundamente. Dafür wurden insgesamt 30.973 Kubikmeter Erdreich ausgehoben. Da die Fundamente unter dem Niveau des Seineflussbetts gründen, verwendete man einen sogenannten Senkkasten. Dabei wird Druckluft in die wasserdichte Metallverschalung geleitet, damit die Arbeiten unterhalb des Wasserspiegels ausgeführt werden konnten. Dieses auf den Bergbauingenieur Jules Triger zurückgehende Verfahren hatte Gustave Eiffel bereits 1857 beim Bau der 500 Meter langen Eisenbahnbrücke von Bordeaux erprobt, und wandte es bei den zwei zur Seine ausgerichteten Pfeilerfundamenten an.

 

Eiffel verwendete als Baumaterial im Puddelverfahren produziertes Schmiedeeisen, was zu seiner besonderen Haltbarkeit beigetragen hat. Da die Eisenverbindung mit geringem Kohlenstoffgehalt nicht geschweißt, sondern nur genietet werden konnte, ließ Eiffel in seinem Firmensitz in Levallois-Perret die notwendigen Einzelteile im Baukastenprinzip vorproduzieren und in Paris vor Ort zusammensetzen. Die Teile wurden exakt berechnet, geschnitten und mit den Löchern für das spätere Nieten versehen. Für die Vorproduktion bis zur Errichtung hatte Eiffel einen festen Ablaufplan. Fehlerhafte Teile wurden wieder zur Fabrik zurückgeschickt und nicht vor Ort angepasst. Ein Stab von etwa 40 technischen Zeichnern, Architekten und Ingenieuren erfasste in 700 Gesamtansichten und 3.600 Werkzeichnungen das gesamte, aus 18.038 Einzelteilen bestehende Bauwerk.

 

Am 1. Juli 1887 begann die Errichtung der vier Turmfüße. Die zunächst freitragend montierten Sparren wurden von 30 Meter hohen provisorischen Baugerüsten getragen. Am 7. Dezember 1887 erfolgte die Montage der ersten Etage, auf deren Höhe ein 45 Meter hohes Gerüst zur Abstützung der Horizontalbalken diente. Oberhalb der Etage stützten sich die Strebepfeiler von selbst. Alle Werkstücke wurden von dampfgetriebenen Kränen auf den Führungsschienen positioniert, auf denen später die unteren Fahrstühle verkehren sollten. Einer der heikelsten Bauabschnitte war die Verbindung der vier horizontalen Tragbalken in der ersten Etage. Für deren exakte Ausrichtung nutzte Eiffel sogenannte Sandkisten, mit denen die Träger millimetergenau ausgependelt werden konnten. In zwei Pfeilern befanden sich manuell mit Handpumpen bedienbare hydraulisch verstellbare Hubspindeln, mit denen die Sparren auf ihre Position gebracht wurden. Damit war eine sehr präzise Justierung der Balken möglich. Nachdem die Tragpfeiler fest miteinander verbunden waren, ersetzte man die Hubspindeln durch verankerte Stahlkeile. Die sorgfältige Planung und Ausführung führte dazu, dass die Nietlöcher erst ab einer Höhe von 57 Metern angepasst werden mussten. Vermutlich wurde die hohe Präzision durch Zusammenlegen der Teile in der Werkstatt und anschließendes Aufreiben der Nietlöcher erzielt. Eiffel selbst führte dazu aus:

 

„[…] bei unserem Verfahren waren alle Löcher im voraus mit großer Genauigkeit gebohrt, die Montage durch die Löcher selbst reguliert, und durch Zusammenheften, d. h. durch gewaltsames Eintreiben einer großen Zahl von Stahldornen in die Löcher, führte man die Zusammenfügung herbei.“

 

Am 14. August 1888 wurde die zweite Etage errichtet und der sich nach oben anschließende Teil freitragend montiert. Gleichzeitig stattete man die Plattformen aus. Die im Werk vorgebohrten Einzelteile wurden vor Ort mit konischen Dornen unter Schlageinwirkung in ihre endgültige Position gebracht. Insgesamt halten im Eiffelturm 2,5 Millionen Niete die Bauteile zusammen. Das Vernieten führten jeweils vier Männer durch. Der erste Arbeiter ließ den Niet heißstauchen und brachte ihn mithilfe einer kleinen Esse zum Glühen. Als zweiten Schritt führte ein anderer Arbeiter den Niet an das Bohrloch. Ein dritter schlug den Schließkopf in Form. In einem letzten Schritt wurde der Bolzen gestaucht.

 

An den Bauarbeiten waren bis zu 250 Personen beteiligt, rund 150 davon waren für das Vernieten der Bauteile vor Ort eingesetzt. Neben Zimmerleuten befanden sich unter den Bauarbeitern auch Schornsteinfeger, da sie das Arbeiten in großen Höhen gewohnt waren. Die Arbeitsschichten dauerten in den Wintermonaten neun und in den Sommermonaten zwölf Stunden. Im September 1888 kam es zu einem Streik der Arbeiter; drei Monate später legten sie erneut die Arbeit nieder und forderten mehr Lohn. Gustave Eiffel verhandelte mit ihnen und richtete in der ersten bereits fertiggestellten Plattform eine Kantine für sie ein. Während der gesamten Arbeiten kam es zu einem einzigen tödlichen Unfall. Ein italienischer Arbeiter verunglückte beim Einbau der Aufzüge nach der offiziellen Eröffnung.

 

Gleichzeitig mit der freitragenden Montage der obersten Stockwerke ab Dezember 1888 wurden die Plattformen ausgestattet. Nachdem am 15. März die Laterne auf der Spitze des Turms errichtet worden war, konnten wenige Tage später, am 31. März 1889, planmäßig wenige Wochen vor Eröffnung der Weltausstellung, die Arbeiten abgeschlossen werden.

 

Proteste und Widerstand gegen die Errichtung

 

Bereits vor dem Baubeginn formierte sich unter Intellektuellen und Künstlern Widerstand gegen den Bau des Eiffelturms. Der Kunst- und Kulturhistoriker Jacob Burckhardt sah in dem Bauwerk eine Reklame für die gedankenlosen Tagediebe in ganz Europa und Amerika. Zahlreiche Persönlichkeiten, darunter Charles Gounod, Alexandre Dumas, Charles Garnier, William Adolphe Bouguereau und auch Guy de Maupassant als einer der stärksten Kritiker, veröffentlichten am 14. Februar 1887, wenige Tage nach Baubeginn, in der damals renommierten Zeitung Le Temps einen Protest der Künstler:

 

„Wir Schriftsteller, Maler, Bildhauer, Architekten und leidenschaftliche Liebhaber der bisher unangetasteten Schönheit von Paris protestieren im Namen des verkannten französischen Geschmacks mit aller Kraft gegen die Errichtung des unnötigen und ungeheuerlichen Eiffelturms im Herzen unserer Hauptstadt, den die oft vom gesunden Menschenverstand und Gerechtigkeitsgefühl inspirierte Spottlust der Volksseele schon den Turm zu Babel getauft hat. […] Um zu begreifen, was wir kommen sehen, muss man sich einen Augenblick einen schwindelerregenden, lächerlichen Turm vorstellen, der wie ein riesiger, düsterer Fabrikschlot Paris überragt, muss sich vorstellen, wie alle unsere Monumente gedemütigt, alle unsere Bauten verkleinert werden, bis sie in diesem Alptraum verschwinden. […]“

 

Das Protestschreiben blieb kein Einzelfall; weitere begleiteten die Bauarbeiten. Léon Bloy beschrieb den Eiffelturm als „wirklich tragische Straßenlaterne“, Paul Verlaine als „Skelett von einem Glockenturm“ und François Coppée als „Eisenmast mit starrer Takelage, unvollkommen, konfus und unförmig“. Die starke Ablehnung richtete sich zum einen gegen die für die damalige Zeit immense Höhe, zum anderen empfand man die offen zur Schau gestellte Konstruktionsweise aus Eisen mit fehlender Fassade als geradezu skandalös.

 

Ein weiterer Kritikpunkt der Gegner war der Umstand, dass der Turm nicht wie die andere Festarchitektur nach der Ausstellung wieder abgebaut werden, sondern dauerhaft stehen bleiben sollte. Der Protest, der vor allem aus akademisch-elitären Kreisen kam, ließ sich auch durch Eiffels gewieftes Entgegenkommen nicht beruhigen, den Turm für einen Bruchteil der Baukosten in Einzelteile zu zerlegen und ihn an anderer Stelle wieder aufzubauen. Jeder praktische Aspekt, der sich den Notwendigkeiten des Alltags unterwarf, konnte dem hehren Kunstbegriff der Traditionalisten nicht genügen – Industrie und Kunst hatten in ihren Augen strikt getrennt zu bleiben. In der breiten Masse war der Eiffelturm von Anfang an sehr beliebt und die Baustelle wurde rege besucht.

 

Neben polemischen Schriften, Behauptungen und (angeblichen oder tatsächlichen) Befürchtungen gab es auch Techniker, die befürchteten, die Fundamente des Turms wären für sein Gewicht zu schwach. Ein Mathematiker prophezeite seinen Einsturz, sobald er eine Höhe von 228 Metern überschreite. Ein Anlieger am Champ de Mars strengte einen Prozess gegen den Staat und die Stadt an, aus Angst, der Eiffelturm könne einstürzen und sein Haus zerstören. Das Gericht erlaubte den Weiterbau nur mit der Auflage, dass Gustave Eiffel bei etwaigen Schäden haften müsse.

 

Eröffnung und Reaktionen

 

Am Eröffnungstag, dem 31. März 1889, bestieg Gustave Eiffel – da der Aufzug noch nicht fertiggestellt war – mit einer Delegation gegen 13:30 Uhr den Turm und hisste an dessen Spitze eine französische Trikolore, die 7 Meter lang und 4,40 Meter breit war.

 

Der in der Presse offen ausgetragene Protest gegen den Eiffelturm verstummte nach seiner Eröffnung fast vollständig und schlug teilweise sogar in Begeisterung und Stolz um. In einer Pressemeldung hieß es dazu:

 

„Vor der vollendeten Tatsache – und was für eine Tatsache! – müssen wir uns beugen. Auch ich, wie viele andere, habe gesagt und geglaubt, der Eiffelturm sei ein Wahnsinn, aber es ist ein großartiger und stolzer Wahnsinn. Gewiss, diese ungeheure Masse erdrückt die übrige Ausstellung, und wenn man wieder aufs Marsfeld hinaustritt, scheinen einem die riesigen Kuppeln und Galerien winzig klein. Aber was wollt ihr? Der Eiffelturm spricht die Fantasie an, er ist etwas Unerwartetes, etwas Fantastisches, das unserer Kleinheit schmeichelt. Als er kaum in Angriff genommen war, unterzeichneten die berühmtesten Künstler und Schriftsteller, von Meissonier bis Zola, einen flammenden Protest gegen den Turm als furchtbares Verbrechen gegen die Kunst. Würden sie ihn heute noch unterzeichnen? Nein, gewiss nicht, und es wäre ihnen lieber, dieses Dokument des Zorns existierte nicht. Und was das Volk, was die guten Bürger betrifft, so lässt sich ihr Empfinden in einem Satz zusammenfassen, den ich aus dem Munde eines braven Manns vernommen habe, nachdem er fünf Minuten lang mit offenen Munde vor dem Turm gestanden hatte: „Enfoncé l’Europe!“ [Europa kann einpacken!]“

 

Heinrich Schliemann, dem ein Aufstieg auf den Eiffelturm bereits vor der offiziellen Eröffnung ermöglicht worden war, pries das Bauwerk in einem Brief an Rudolf Virchow am 24. Mai 1889 als Wunderwerk der ingenieurtechnischen Fähigkeiten, ohne das der vierte Teil der Ausstellung – Schliemann meinte die vierte Weltausstellung in Paris – keinen Reiz hätte. Trotz der Euphorie, die ihn als gelungene nationale Selbstdarstellung und Demonstration des technischen Fortschritts rühmte, blieb auch unversöhnliche Kritik. Auf jeden Fall erregte er die Gemüter jener Zeit sehr stark und übte eine enorme Anziehungskraft auf die Menschen aus, so der französische Philosoph, Schriftsteller und Literaturkritiker Roland Barthes.

 

Für die breite Öffentlichkeit war der Turm erst seit dem Eröffnungstag der Weltausstellung, dem 15. Mai 1889, zugänglich. Das Eintrittsgeld betrug 1889 für die erste Etage zwei, für die zweite drei und für die dritte fünf Francs. Der Eintritt zur Weltausstellung kostete einen Franc. Insgesamt bestiegen während der Weltausstellung 1889 1.896.987 Menschen den Eiffelturm. Damit amortisierten sich seine Baukosten bereits zu drei Vierteln. Zahlreiche prominente Persönlichkeiten der Zeitgeschichte statteten dem höchsten Bauwerk der Welt ebenfalls einen Besuch ab. Am Eröffnungstag erschien eine Sonderausgabe der Tageszeitung Le Figaro direkt aus dem Eiffelturm. Die Redaktion hatte ihre Arbeitsräume aus diesem Anlass in der zweiten Aussichtsplattform eingerichtet. Besucher, welche die Zeitung an diesem Tag direkt bei der Redaktion kauften, erhielten eine signierte Ausgabe als „Zertifikat“ für ihre Turmbesteigung. Zum Zeitpunkt der Eröffnung und Schließung jedes Messetages wurde jeweils ein Schuss einer Salutkanone von der Spitze des Turms abgefeuert.

 

Der erste Eintrag im Gästebuch des Eiffelturms war der des britischen Kronprinzen, des späteren Königs Eduard VII., der am 10. Juni 1889 den Turm zusammen mit fünf Familienmitgliedern bestieg und den Eiffel persönlich führte. Am 1. August 1889 besuchte der damalige Schah von Persien Nāser ad-Din Schāh das neue Bauwerk. Außerdem finden sich dort die Unterschriften des Prinzen Georg von Griechenland, des späteren Königs von Belgien Albert I., des russischen Zaren Nikolaus II., Sarah Bernhardts und des japanischen Kaisersohnes Yoshihito. Der Erfinder Thomas Edison überreichte Gustave Eiffel am 10. September 1889 eine Widmung für die „Errichtung des gigantischen und originellen Musterstücks moderner Baukunst“ und nahm bei seinem Besuch die Stimme Eiffels auf. In der dritten Plattform unterhalb der Turmspitze ist dieses Ereignis im ehemaligen Büro Eiffels mit Wachsfiguren nachgebildet. Auch Mahatma Gandhi, der damals in London studierte, bestieg während der Weltausstellung den Eiffelturm.

 

Als der Eiffelturm eröffnet wurde, war er mit einer Gesamthöhe von damals 312 Metern das höchste Bauwerk der Welt und löste damit das 169,3 Meter hohe Washington Monument, einen Obelisken aus weißem Marmor in den Vereinigten Staaten, als Rekordhalter ab. Das höchste begehbare Gebäude jener Zeit war die 167,5 Meter hohe Synagoge Mole Antonelliana in Turin, die 1888 fertiggestellt wurde.

 

Die ersten 20 Jahre

 

Der Erfolg und das Fortbestehen des Eiffelturms über die zwanzigjährige Konzession hinaus war ungewiss. Eiffel versuchte immer wieder durch die Einbindung von Gelehrten und eigene Forschungen den Nutzen des Bauwerkes darzulegen.

 

Am 5. November 1898 konnten Eugène Ducretet und Ernest Roger eine drahtlose Telegraphenverbindung zwischen dem Eiffelturm und dem vier Kilometer entfernten Panthéon herstellen. Die elektromagnetische Informationsübermittlung blieb zunächst rein militärischen Zwecken vorbehalten. Im selben Jahr wurde auf dem Eiffelturm eine Wetterwarte eingerichtet. Durch den enormen Höhenunterschied von 300 Metern war es möglich, vielfältige physikalische Experimente durchzuführen. So wurden zur Justage von Luftdruckmessern ein übergroßes Manometer installiert, spektroskopische Messungen durchgeführt, ein Foucaultsches Pendel eingerichtet und Windgeschwindigkeit und Atmosphärentemperatur gemessen. Sogar Experimente zur Heilwirkung von Höhenluft führte man durch. Für seine astronomischen und physiologischen Beobachtungen richtete Eiffel ein eigenes Büro in der dritten Plattform ein. Besondere Bekanntheit erlangten Eiffels Messungen zur Aerodynamik. Eine erste Versuchsreihe begann er 1903: Er spannte zwischen der zweiten Plattform und dem Erdboden ein Kabel, an dem er verschiedene Profile nach unten gleiten ließ. 1904 konnten Zeitsignale auf der Wellenlänge 2000 Meter mit unterschiedlichen Apparaten empfangen werden. 1909 erweiterte er seine Studien durch Eröffnung eines Windkanals am Fuße des Turms und einer größeren Anlage an der Rue Boileau im Jahre 1912.

 

Für die Weltausstellung 1900, die zum fünften Mal in Paris stattfinden sollte, erwog Eiffel verschiedene Umbaupläne. Die allgemeine Empfindung der Ästhetik des Turmes hatte sich in den wenigen Jahren seines Bestehens derart gewandelt, dass seine Optik wegen ihrer Modernität und Radikalität überholt wirkte. Gefragt waren üppigere Formen, wie in der Belle Époque üblich. Die Ausstellung zeichnete sich insgesamt durch eine retrospektive Ausrichtung aus und war damit eher eine Schlussfeier des 19. als eine Eröffnungsfeier des 20. Jahrhunderts.

 

Aus diesem Grund versuchten Veranstalter und Architekten den Eiffelturm hinter einer Stilhülle zu verbergen. Die Vorschläge dazu reichten von relativ moderaten Veränderungen wie dem Anbringen von Schnörkeln, Wimpeln, Balkonen und Girlanden bis hin zu massiven Umbauplänen, die eine völlige Neukonzeption des Turms vorsahen. Der Entwurf von Guillemonats sah beispielsweise vor, den Turm bis zur ersten Plattform abzutragen und einen riesigen Globus darauf zu errichten. Zum massivsten Umbauvorschlag mit der Projektbezeichnung „la Tour Eifel (sic!) dans le mont Samson“ zählt der eines gewissen Samson, der den Turm als Stützgerüst für einen künstlichen Berg vorsah und den Eiffelturm damit komplett hinter einer Bergkulisse mit Dörfern, Straßen und Vegetation hätte verschwinden lassen. Abgesehen von der Tatsache, dass Samson nicht wusste, wie man den Eiffelturm korrekt buchstabierte, zeugte auch die wenig professionell ausgeführte Planskizze von mangelnder Seriosität. Der Umbauvorschlag von Gautier wollte den Eiffelturm als Stützkonstruktion für ein riesenhaftes pagodenähnliches Tor verwenden. Sowohl ein Abriss als auch die angestrebten Umbauvorschläge scheiterten am Eigentumsrecht Eiffels.

 

Am 28. Dezember 1897 einigte man sich schließlich, den Eiffelturm weitgehend unverändert in die Weltausstellung zu integrieren. Sein technisches Aussehen wurde lediglich durch eine neue Lichtinstallation, welche die Konturen des Bauwerks hervorhob, zu überspielen versucht. Eiffel beließ es dabei, das Bauwerk nach oben hin in abgetönter orangeroter Farbe neu zu streichen und den Plattformen ein neues äußeres Aussehen zu geben. Neben einer neuen Aufzuganlage stellte er auch seinen Salon in der dritten Plattform der Öffentlichkeit zur Verfügung. Doch zur Weltausstellung zog der Turm mit etwa einer Million nur noch halb so viele Besucher an; die Zahl sank in den Folgejahren weiter ab und pendelte sich bis zu Beginn des Ersten Weltkriegs auf jährlich rund 180.000 ein. Rein wirtschaftlich gesehen spielte es eine untergeordnete Rolle, denn die Baukosten des Eiffelturms waren bereits nach eineinhalb Jahren amortisiert. Eiffel war durch sein alleiniges Vermarktungsrecht und sein prosperierendes Unternehmen bereits mehrfacher Millionär geworden und konnte sich neben einem Stadtpalais in Paris weitere Häuser in Sèvres, Beaulieu-sur-Mer an der Côte d’Azur und in Vevey am Genfersee leisten.

 

Neben der wissenschaftlichen Nutzung wuchs vor allem auch der militärische Wert des Turmes. Am 15. Dezember 1893 erlaubte Eiffel dem Kriegsminister Auguste Mercier, auf dem Turm Antennen zu befestigen, und übernahm sogar deren Kosten. Am 21. Januar 1904 unterstützte er Hauptmann Gustave-Auguste Ferrié, einen Offizier der Pioniertruppen, die drahtlose Telegrafie für die militärische Nutzung voranzutreiben. Ferrié richtete das militärische Netzwerk ein und wurde zum zweitwichtigsten Mann neben Eiffel. Nachdem bereits 1898 eine drahtlose Verbindung hergestellt worden war, wurden 1903 zwischen dem Eiffelturm und einigen Militäranlagen in Paris weitere Funkverbindungen geschaffen und ein Jahr später wurde die Verbindung in den Osten Frankreichs erweitert. 1906 wurde ein Radiosender auf dem Turm eingerichtet. Die nach 20 Jahren ausgelaufene Konzession wurde am 1. Januar 1910 um weitere 70 Jahre verlängert. Mit der gestiegenen strategischen Bedeutung war auch der Fortbestand des Eiffelturms gesichert; sie war sogar ausschlaggebend für die Fortsetzung der Konzession, denn der wissenschaftliche Nutzen blieb real betrachtet eher bescheiden.

 

Entwicklung zur bedeutenden Sehenswürdigkeit

1937 bis 1979

 

Während der Weltfachausstellung 1937, die bereits im Zeichen der konkurrierenden Weltmächte und des drohenden Konfliktes mit dem „Dritten Reich“ stand, wurde unterhalb der ersten Plattform des Eiffelturms ein riesiger, von dem Architekten André Grasset gestalteter Kronleuchter aufgehängt. Darüber hinaus tauchte man den Turm mit 30 Projektoren in ein weißes Licht mit blauen und roten Blitzen. Die Veranstaltung war die letzte der sechs Weltausstellungen in Paris. Der Eiffelturm war seit 1889 fester Bestandteil der Ausstellungsarchitektur, zog aber mit jedem Mal weniger Besucher an.

 

Beim Staatsbesuch des britischen Königs Georg VI. im Jahr 1938 wurde ihm zu Ehren der Union Jack seitlich am Turm gehisst. Die 120 Kilogramm schwere Flagge war 30 Meter breit und 40 Meter lang.

 

Mit der Besetzung von Paris 1940 wurden die Aufzugkabel abgetrennt. Eine Reparatur war aufgrund der mangelnden Güterversorgung während des Zweiten Weltkrieges praktisch unmöglich. Für die deutschen Truppen und Adolf Hitler bedeutete dies, dass sie den Eiffelturm nur über die Treppe besteigen konnten. Deutsche Soldaten erhielten den Auftrag, bis zur Spitze hochzusteigen, um eine Hakenkreuzflagge an der Spitze des Turms zu hissen. Da sie zu groß war, wurde sie bereits nach wenigen Stunden weggeweht und etwas später durch eine kleinere ersetzt. Auf der ersten Aussichtsplattform ließ die Wehrmacht zudem ein Transparent mit der Aufschrift „Deutschland siegt auf allen Fronten“ anbringen. Als Hitler Paris am 24. Juni 1940 selbst besuchte, zog er es vor, den Eiffelturm nicht zu besteigen. Darauf hieß es, dass Hitler zwar Frankreich, aber nicht den Eiffelturm erobert habe. Auch die Hakenkreuzflagge wurde während der Besatzungszeit von einem Franzosen in einer heimlichen Aktion durch die französische Trikolore ersetzt. Trotz der Widrigkeiten inszenierten die Deutschen den Eiffelturm zu propagandistischen Zwecken. Hitler ließ sich zusammen mit weiteren namhaften Größen seines Regimes wie beispielsweise Albert Speer und Arno Breker in verschiedenen Posen vor dem Eiffelturm fotografieren, um vor der heimischen Bevölkerung den Sieg über die Franzosen zu demonstrieren.

 

Wie schon während des Ersten Weltkrieges blieb der Turm auch während des Zweiten Weltkrieges für die Öffentlichkeit geschlossen. US-amerikanische Truppen befreiten Paris am 25. August 1944 und installierten auf der zweiten Etage des Eiffelturms ihre Sendestationen, um mit deren Hilfe mit den Streitkräften am Ärmelkanal kommunizieren zu können. Nach der Wiedereröffnung für den Publikumsverkehr im Juni 1946 bestiegen in dem folgenden halben Jahr über 600.000 Besucher den Turm. Mit dem stärker werdenden Tourismus stieg auch die Besucherzahl anhaltend auf jährlich über eine Million und steigerte sich in den folgenden Jahrzehnten kontinuierlich.

 

Die 1950er Jahre waren geprägt durch das sich durchsetzende Medium des Fernsehens. Im April 1952 wurde das erste Mal eine Livesendung von Paris nach London gesendet. Die technische Schwierigkeit bestand in der Überbrückung der unterschiedlichen Übertragungsstandards zwischen Frankreich und Großbritannien. Mit der Sendung schrieb der Eiffelturm ein weiteres Mal Fernsehgeschichte. Die Show moderierten Georges de Caunes und Jacqueline Joubert vom französischen Fernsehen und Miss Reeves von der BBC. Ein Jahr später folgte der nächste Meilenstein mit der Einrichtung des Eurovision-Verbundes. Damit konnte am 2. Juni die Krönung von Elisabeth II. an alle Teilnehmerstaaten der Eurovision übertragen werden; in Frankreich wurde die Zeremonie landesweit vom Eiffelturm aus ausgestrahlt. 1956 brach im Senderaum ein Feuer aus und zerstörte die Turmspitze sowie die Sendeeinrichtungen. Im Folgejahr errichtete man neue Antennenplattformen und installierte neue Antennen. Nach dem Umbau strahlte der Turm Radio- und drei Fernsehprogramme aus. Seine neue Antenne erhöhte das Wahrzeichen auf insgesamt 320,75 Meter.

 

Zum 75-jährigen Jubiläum des Eiffelturms im Jahr 1964 lud die Betreibergesellschaft insgesamt 75 um das Jahr der Errichtung des Turms 1889 geborene Pariser Bürger zu einer festlichen Gala ein. Zu den berühmtesten Gästen zählte Maurice Chevalier.

 

Im Laufe der Jahre wurden nicht nur zu den Jubiläen besondere Ereignisse am Eiffelturm veranstaltet. Durch die vermehrte Vergabe von Dreherlaubnissen für Kinofilme stieg der Status des Bauwerks weiter. Neben immer wieder außergewöhnlichen, meist sportlichen Aktionen wurde der Eiffelturm auch zunehmend im Alltagsleben der Pariser verankert, beispielsweise durch die Eröffnung einer Schlittschuhbahn in der ersten Etage im Winter.

 

Aufgrund des traditionellen, an akademisch-klassizistischen Idealen orientierten Kunstverständnisses in Frankreich tat sich der Eiffelturm auch noch im fortgeschrittenen 20. Jahrhundert schwer mit seiner Anerkennung als Kulturdenkmal. Erst am 24. Juni 1964 wurde das Bauwerk in das Inventaire des monuments historiques eingetragen.

 

Seit 1980: Kulturerbe der UNESCO und Umbaumaßnahmen

Nachdem zum 1. Januar 1980 die an Eiffel vergebene und inzwischen auf seinen Erben übergegangene Konzession ausgelaufen war, übernahm die Société nouvelle d’exploitation de la tour Eiffel (SNTE), eine zu 100 % der Stadt Paris gehörende Tochtergesellschaft, den Betrieb des Wahrzeichens. Sie kümmert sich seither um die Erhaltung und Vermarktung des Bauwerks. Am 9. September 1983 wurde der hundertmillionste Besucher des Eiffelturms mit einem Geschenk begrüßt. Die Sängerin Mireille Mathieu überreichte der Frau die Schlüssel für einen Citroën BX.

 

Seit 1991 gehört das Seineufer mit seinen Bauwerken zwischen dem Pont de Sully und dem Pont d’Iéna am Eiffelturm in Paris zum Kulturerbe der UNESCO.

 

Im Jahr 2000 übernahm die Rundfunkgesellschaft TDF die Montage von UHF-Antennen und ließ seine Gesamthöhe von 318,7 Meter auf seine zwischenzeitliche Höhe von 324 Meter anwachsen. 2005 strahlte der Eiffelturm erstmals digitales Fernsehen aus. Die SNTE ging zum 1. Januar 2006 für zunächst zehn Jahre in die Société d’exploitation de la tour Eiffel (SETE) über. Von Februar 2012 bis 2013 wurden umfangreiche Renovierungen und Umgestaltungen in der ersten Plattform durchgeführt, die zu diesem Zeitpunkt von etwa der Hälfte der Besucher gemieden wurde. Unter anderem wurden in Anlehnung an die ursprünglichen Glassäle drei überdachte kastenförmige, dunkelrote Pavillons – teilweise mit Glasboden – aus Stahl und Glas konstruiert, die an den Seitenwänden zwischen den Pfeilern und parallel zu ihnen verlaufen. Während der 25 Millionen Euro teuren Umbaumaßnahmen wurde der Besucherbetrieb weiter aufrechterhalten. Darüber hinaus wurden Behindertenaufzüge und eine Konferenzhalle eingerichtet.

 

Im Herbst 2017 wurde mit dem Bau einer Einfriedung rund um den Eiffelturm begonnen. Zwei klare Glaswände – zur Seine und gegenüber zum Marsfeld hin – sind 3 m hoch und 6,5 cm dick und dienen als Schutz vor Beschuss. An den zwei anderen Seiten wurden 3,24 m hohe Metallzäune errichtet, deren Pfeiler schräg stehen und so die konische Form des Turms widerspiegeln. Die Errichtung – sie wurde am 14. Juni 2018 von der Betreibergesellschaft Sete präsentiert – hat 35 Mio. Euro gekostet und wurde im Dezember 2018 abgeschlossen. Geplant wurde die Glaswand vom in Paris lebenden und aus Graz stammenden Architekten Dietmar Feichtinger mit der Absicht, „die Einzäunung so diskret wie möglich zu gestalten.“ Schon bisher mussten Besucher vor dem Besteigen des Turms durch Sicherheitsschleusen gehen.

 

(Wikipedia)

Patrouilleur type Archer.

Patrol vessel Archer class.