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Hunting one's own kind is the ultimate sin...
Featured on Life In Plastic: nerditis.com/2014/11/05/life-in-plastic-deluxe-toy-review...
The Treaty of Northampton ended the 1st War of Scottish Independence and also seemed to end forever the hopes of the Disinherited, but two things were to change this situation. Firstly, the death of King Robert Bruce in 1329, followed in 1330 by a palace coup in England, which saw the overthrow and execution of Roger Mortimer and the assumption of full powers by King Edward III. In Scotland, Robert's infant son, David II was king, bringing the inevitable tensions that follow from a royal minority. Edward, for the time being at least, maintained the peace with Scotland, but he was known to share the views of many of his countrymen that Northampton was a "turpis pax" - a shameful peace.
Edward III wrote to the young King David II requesting restoration of the lands of the 'Earl of Buchan' and the 'Lord of Liddesdale', but Edward must have realised that there was little chance of the Scots accepting Beaumont and Wake into their midst, and sure enough, King David's guardian Thomas Randolph, Earl of Moray, ignored the request. Beaumont now began to seek restitution by other means.
Following a visit to King Edward, Henry Beaumont obtained an important concession. Edward would not allow the Disinherited to cross the border in open breach of the Treaty of Northampton, but he would not stop them sailing from English ports. By the summer of 1332 all was ready and a small army of archers and men-at-arms sailed from various ports in Yorkshire, landing on the coast of Fife in August.
Soon after landing, the army, under the skillful command of Beaumont, confronted and defeated a much larger Scottish force at the Battle of Dupplin Moor in August 1332, using an effective, and murderous, combination of infantry and archers. Building on this victory, the army advanced on Scone, where Edward Balliol was crowned King of Scots on September 24th.
It quickly became clear that in the absence of any widespread support from sympathetic Scots, the adventure could only prosper with the open support of King Edward. As bait Balliol wrote to him offering to cede all of south-east Scotland to England. This proposal was carried south by Henry Beaumont and David de Strathbogie, who came to attend the meeting of Parliament at York. Before they could return Balliol and what was left of his army was surprised by a party of Bruce loyalists at Annan and chased out of the country. All of the expense and effort of the past years had come to nothing.
In January 1333 King Edward finally dropped the pretence of neutrality. Edward Balliol was formally recognised as King of Scots and was promised military aid. Subsidies were now paid to Beaumont and the others, to help prepare a fresh invasion and in July this army destroyed a fresh Scots army at the Battle of Halidon Hill, using the same battle tactics as used at Dupplin Moor. Once again the disinherited advanced into Scotland and this time, Henry Beaumont was able to reach Buchan where, according to Andrew Wyntoun:
"he repaired the old Comyn stronghold of Dundarg on the Aberdeenshire coast in 1333/4, which had been destroyed by Robert Bruce in 1308."
Taking back their estates was one thing, but holding them was entirely another. By September 1334 Edward Balliol, faced with a full-scale revolt, sent urgent appeals to England for yet more assistance. To make matters worse his followers, who had been brought together by greed for land, were driven apart by the very same thing. In a dispute over the estates of Alexander de Mowbray, killed at Annan in 1332, Balliol was unwise enough to quarrel with Beaumont who withdrew from Court in a fit of picque, to Dundarg. Balliol's regime now collapsed for the second time and he fled across the border.
Henry Beaumont, in the meantime, found himself besieged in Dundarg by Sir Andrew de Moray of Avoch and Bothwell, the new Guardian of Scotland. It is not known how much work Beaumont had been able to do to strengthen and prepare the castle in the time he had available, but probably not as much as he needed, assuming that no repair work had been done since Bruce slighted it in 1308. Archaeological excavations suggest the curtain wall at the front of the 'outwork' was not particularly thick, which may well have become a significant problem, as Andrew Moray is believed to have employed a siege gun or 'bombard cannon", the first documented use of an artillery piece in Scotland. The records refer to the use of a gyne, however this word refers to an 'engine' rather than a gun specifically, although the engine may have been a gun!
Under continual attack, and running short of supplies, including water, Andrew Murray having found and cut the water pipes that led into the castle, Henry Beaumont was compelled to surrender on 23 December 1334. After a brief imprisonment he was ransomed and returned to England in time for the summer campaign of 1335. While he certainly campaigned in Scotland again, it is uncertain if he ever saw Buchan again. He died in March 1340, his long struggle incomplete. His son John never claimed the lost earldom of Buchan and when Beaumont's wife, Alice de Comyn, died in 1349 the Comyn line of Buchan, which stretched back to the early thirteenth century, finally came to an end.
The upper part of the inner gatehouse was rebuilt about the middle of the sixteenth century, probably following the Coastal Defence Commission of 1550, and there is some evidence that it was provided with gunloops at this time. The only activity here since then has been the construction of the house in the early 20th century and periodic archaeological digs!
ift.tt/2fP42Zx #A Turkish villager before his execution by Bulgarian soldiers during the Balkan Wars(1913) [600 × 442] #history #retro #vintage #dh #HistoryPorn ift.tt/2faQwye via Histolines
ONSLAUGHT: Oh no, Autobot, I am not through with you, yet. Megatron will want some information, before you die.
HOUND: I have no intentions of dying, today, Onslaught. Do I, Skylynx?
ONSLAUGHT: Do you think me such a fool, to fall for that? I would have believed you smarter than that.
SKYLYNX: While my friend is nowhere near as smart as I, I do believe he is right on two things. He will not die, today. And I am the Autobot who will be sure of that.
Plaster and paint, 20-1 BC
Surviving furnishings from Cremona’s buildings indicate a luxurious standard of living. The recently excavated ‘House of the Nymphaeum’ belonged to a member of the local elite. Its courtyard was decorated with a fountain covered in mosaics. Remains of the upper foor, burned and collapsed during the attack, suggest a lavishly painted room. Vespasian rebuilt Cremona, but it never regained its former prosperity.
[British Museum]
Nero: the Man Behind the Myth
(May - Oct 2021)
Nero is known as one of Rome's most infamous rulers, notorious for his cruelty, debauchery and madness.
The last male descendant of the emperor Augustus, Nero succeeded to the throne in AD 54 aged just 16 and died a violent death at 30. His turbulent rule saw momentous events including the Great Fire of Rome, Boudicca's rebellion in Britain, the execution of his own mother and first wife, grand projects and extravagant excesses.
Drawing on the latest research, this major exhibition questions the traditional narrative of the ruthless tyrant and eccentric performer, revealing a different Nero, a populist leader at a time of great change in Roman society.
Through some 200 spectacular objects, from the imperial palace in Rome to the streets of Pompeii, follow the young emperor’s rise and fall and make up your own mind about Nero. Was he a young, inexperienced ruler trying his best in a divided society, or the merciless, matricidal megalomaniac history has painted him to be?
Nero was the 5th emperor of Rome and the last of Rome’s first dynasty, the Julio-Claudians, founded by Augustus (the adopted son of Julius Caesar). Nero is known as one of Rome’s most infamous rulers, notorious for his cruelty and debauchery. He ascended to power in AD 54 aged just 16 and died at 30. He ruled at a time of great social and political change, overseeing momentous events such as the Great Fire of Rome and Boudica’s rebellion in Britain. He allegedly killed his mother and two of his wives, only cared about his art and had very little interest in ruling the empire.
Most of what we know about Nero comes from the surviving works of three historians – Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio. All written decades after Nero’s death, their accounts have long shaped our understanding of this emperor’s rule. However, far from being impartial narrators presenting objective accounts of past events, these authors and their sources wrote with a very clear agenda in mind. Nero’s demise brought forward a period of chaos and civil war – one that ended only when a new dynasty seized power, the Flavians. Authors writing under the Flavians all had an interest in legitimising the new ruling family by portraying the last of the Julio-Claudians in the worst possible light, turning history into propaganda. These accounts became the ‘historical’ sources used by later historians, therefore perpetuating a fabricated image of Nero, which has survived all the way to the present.
Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December AD 37.
He was the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. Both Gnaeus and Agrippina were the grandchildren of Augustus, making Nero Augustus’ great, great grandson with a strong claim to power.
Nero was only two years old when his mother was exiled and three when his father died. His inheritance was taken from him and he was sent to live with his aunt. However, Nero’s fate changed again when Claudius became emperor, restoring the boy’s property and recalling his mother Agrippina from exile.
In AD 49 the emperor Claudius married Agrippina, and adopted Nero the following year. It is at this point that Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus changed his name to Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. In Roman times it was normal to change your name when adopted, abandoning your family name in favour of your adoptive father’s. Nero was a common name among members of the Claudian family, especially in Claudius’ branch.
Nero and Agrippina offered Claudius a politically useful link back to Augustus, strengthening his position.
Claudius appeared to favour Nero over his natural son, Britannicus, marking Nero as the designated heir.
When Claudius died in AD 54, Nero became emperor just two months before turning 17.
As he was supported by both the army and the senate, his rise to power was smooth. His mother Agrippina exerted a significant influence, especially at the beginning of his rule.
The Roman historians Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio all claim that Nero, fed up with Agrippina’s interference, decided to kill her.
Given the lack of eyewitnesses, there is no way of knowing if or how this happened. However, this did not stop historians from fabricating dramatic stories of Agrippina’s murder, asserting that Nero tried (and failed) to kill her with a boat engineered to sink, before sending his men to do the job.
Agrippina allegedly told them to stab her in the womb that bore Nero, her last words clearly borrowed from stage plays.
It is entirely possible, as claimed by Nero himself, that Agrippina chose (or was more likely forced) to take her own life after her plot against her son was discovered.
Early in his rule, Nero had to contend with a rebellion in the newly conquered province of Britain.
In AD 60–61, Queen Boudica of the Iceni tribe led a revolt against the Romans, attacking and laying waste to important Roman settlements. The possible causes of the rebellion were numerous – the greed of the Romans exploiting the newly conquered territories, the recalling of loans made to local leaders, ongoing conflict in Wales and, above all, violence against the family of Prasutagus, Boudica’s husband and king of the Iceni.
Boudica and the rebels destroyed Colchester, London and St Albans before being heavily defeated by Roman troops. After the uprising, the governor of Britain Suetonius Paulinus introduced harsher laws against the Britons, until Nero replaced him with the more conciliatory governor Publius Petronius Turpilianus.
The marriage between Nero and Octavia, aged 15 and 13/14 at the time, was arranged by their parents in order to further legitimise Nero’s claim to the throne. Octavia was the daughter of the emperor Claudius from a previous marriage, so when Claudius married Agrippina and adopted her son Nero, Nero and Octavia became brother and sister. In order to arrange their marriage, Octavia had to be adopted into another family.
Their marriage was not a happy one. According to ancient writers, Nero had various affairs until his lover Poppaea Sabina convinced him to divorce his wife. Octavia was first exiled then executed in AD 62 on adultery charges. According to ancient writers, her banishment and death caused great unrest among the public, who sympathised with the dutiful Octavia.
No further motives were offered for Octavia’s death other than Nero’s passion for Poppaea, and we will probably never know what transpired at court. The fact that Octavia couldn’t produce an heir while Poppaea was pregnant with Nero’s daughter likely played an important role in deciding Octavia’s fate.
On 19 July AD 64, a fire started close to the Circus Maximus. The flames soon encompassed the entire city of Rome and the fire raged for nine days. Only four of the 14 districts of the capital were spared, while three were completely destroyed.
Rome had already been razed by flames – and would be again in its long history – but this event was so severe it came to be known as the Great Fire of Rome.
Later historians blamed Nero for the event, claiming that he set the capital ablaze in order to clear land for the construction of a vast new palace. According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, Nero took in the view of the burning city from the imperial residence while playing the lyre and singing about the fall of Troy. This story, however, is fictional.
Tacitus, the only historian who was actually alive at the time of the Great Fire of Rome (although only 8 years old), wrote that Nero was not even in Rome when the fire started, but returned to the capital and led the relief efforts.
Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio all describe Nero as being blinded by passion for his wife Poppaea, yet they accuse him of killing her, allegedly by kicking her in an outburst of rage while she was pregnant.
Interestingly, pregnant women being kicked to death by enraged husbands is a recurring theme in ancient literature, used to explore the (self) destructive tendencies of autocrats. The Greek writer Herodotus tells the story of how the Persian king Cambyses kicked his pregnant wife in the stomach, causing her death. A similar episode is told of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Nero is just one of many allegedly ‘mad’ tyrants for which this literary convention was used.
Poppaea probably died from complications connected with her pregnancy and not at Nero’s hands. She was given a lavish funeral and was deified.
Centred on greater Iran, the Parthian empire was a major political and cultural power and a long-standing enemy of Rome. The two powers had long been contending for control over the buffer state of Armenia and open conflict sparked again during Nero’s rule. The Parthian War started in AD 58 and, after initial victories and following set-backs, ended in AD 63 when a diplomatic solution was reached between Nero and the Parthian king Vologases I.
According to this settlement Tiridates, brother of the Parthian king, would rule over Armenia, but only after having travelled all the way to Rome to be crowned by Nero.
The journey lasted 9 months, Tiridates’ retinue included 3,000 Parthian horsemen and many Roman soldiers. The coronation ceremony took place in the summer of AD 66 and the day was celebrated with much pomp: all the people of Rome saw the new king of Armenia kneeling in front of Nero. This was the Golden Day of Nero’s rule
In AD 68, Vindex, the governor of Gaul (France), rebelled against Nero and declared his support for Galba, the governor of Spain. Vindex was defeated in battle by troops loyal to Nero, yet Galba started gaining more military support.
It was at this point that Nero lost the support of Rome’s people due to a grain shortage, caused by a rebellious commander who cut the crucial food supply from Egypt to the capital. Abandoned by the people and declared an enemy of the state by the senate, Nero tried to flee Rome and eventually committed suicide.
Following his death, Nero’s memory was condemned (a practice called damnatio memoriae) and the images of the emperor were destroyed, removed or reworked. However, Nero was still given an expensive funeral and for a long time people decorated his tomb with flowers, some even believing he was still alive.
After Nero’s death, civil war ensued. At the end of the so-called ‘Year of the Four Emperors’ (AD 69), Vespasian became emperor and started a new dynasty: the Flavians.
[Francesca Bologna, curator, for British Museum]
Taken in the British Museum
Plaster and paint, 20-1 BC
Surviving furnishings from Cremona's buildings indicate a luxurious standard of living. The recently excavated 'House of the Nymphaeum' belonged to a member of the local elite. Its courtyard was decorated with a fountain covered in mosaics. Remains of the upper floor, burned and collapsed during the attack, suggest a lavishly painted room. Vespasian rebuilt Cremona, but it never regained its former prosperity.
[British Museum]
Nero: the Man Behind the Myth
(May - Oct 2021)
Nero is known as one of Rome's most infamous rulers, notorious for his cruelty, debauchery and madness.
The last male descendant of the emperor Augustus, Nero succeeded to the throne in AD 54 aged just 16 and died a violent death at 30. His turbulent rule saw momentous events including the Great Fire of Rome, Boudicca's rebellion in Britain, the execution of his own mother and first wife, grand projects and extravagant excesses.
Drawing on the latest research, this major exhibition questions the traditional narrative of the ruthless tyrant and eccentric performer, revealing a different Nero, a populist leader at a time of great change in Roman society.
Through some 200 spectacular objects, from the imperial palace in Rome to the streets of Pompeii, follow the young emperor’s rise and fall and make up your own mind about Nero. Was he a young, inexperienced ruler trying his best in a divided society, or the merciless, matricidal megalomaniac history has painted him to be?
Nero was the 5th emperor of Rome and the last of Rome’s first dynasty, the Julio-Claudians, founded by Augustus (the adopted son of Julius Caesar). Nero is known as one of Rome’s most infamous rulers, notorious for his cruelty and debauchery. He ascended to power in AD 54 aged just 16 and died at 30. He ruled at a time of great social and political change, overseeing momentous events such as the Great Fire of Rome and Boudica’s rebellion in Britain. He allegedly killed his mother and two of his wives, only cared about his art and had very little interest in ruling the empire.
Most of what we know about Nero comes from the surviving works of three historians – Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio. All written decades after Nero’s death, their accounts have long shaped our understanding of this emperor’s rule. However, far from being impartial narrators presenting objective accounts of past events, these authors and their sources wrote with a very clear agenda in mind. Nero’s demise brought forward a period of chaos and civil war – one that ended only when a new dynasty seized power, the Flavians. Authors writing under the Flavians all had an interest in legitimising the new ruling family by portraying the last of the Julio-Claudians in the worst possible light, turning history into propaganda. These accounts became the ‘historical’ sources used by later historians, therefore perpetuating a fabricated image of Nero, which has survived all the way to the present.
Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December AD 37.
He was the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. Both Gnaeus and Agrippina were the grandchildren of Augustus, making Nero Augustus’ great, great grandson with a strong claim to power.
Nero was only two years old when his mother was exiled and three when his father died. His inheritance was taken from him and he was sent to live with his aunt. However, Nero’s fate changed again when Claudius became emperor, restoring the boy’s property and recalling his mother Agrippina from exile.
In AD 49 the emperor Claudius married Agrippina, and adopted Nero the following year. It is at this point that Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus changed his name to Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. In Roman times it was normal to change your name when adopted, abandoning your family name in favour of your adoptive father’s. Nero was a common name among members of the Claudian family, especially in Claudius’ branch.
Nero and Agrippina offered Claudius a politically useful link back to Augustus, strengthening his position.
Claudius appeared to favour Nero over his natural son, Britannicus, marking Nero as the designated heir.
When Claudius died in AD 54, Nero became emperor just two months before turning 17.
As he was supported by both the army and the senate, his rise to power was smooth. His mother Agrippina exerted a significant influence, especially at the beginning of his rule.
The Roman historians Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio all claim that Nero, fed up with Agrippina’s interference, decided to kill her.
Given the lack of eyewitnesses, there is no way of knowing if or how this happened. However, this did not stop historians from fabricating dramatic stories of Agrippina’s murder, asserting that Nero tried (and failed) to kill her with a boat engineered to sink, before sending his men to do the job.
Agrippina allegedly told them to stab her in the womb that bore Nero, her last words clearly borrowed from stage plays.
It is entirely possible, as claimed by Nero himself, that Agrippina chose (or was more likely forced) to take her own life after her plot against her son was discovered.
Early in his rule, Nero had to contend with a rebellion in the newly conquered province of Britain.
In AD 60–61, Queen Boudica of the Iceni tribe led a revolt against the Romans, attacking and laying waste to important Roman settlements. The possible causes of the rebellion were numerous – the greed of the Romans exploiting the newly conquered territories, the recalling of loans made to local leaders, ongoing conflict in Wales and, above all, violence against the family of Prasutagus, Boudica’s husband and king of the Iceni.
Boudica and the rebels destroyed Colchester, London and St Albans before being heavily defeated by Roman troops. After the uprising, the governor of Britain Suetonius Paulinus introduced harsher laws against the Britons, until Nero replaced him with the more conciliatory governor Publius Petronius Turpilianus.
The marriage between Nero and Octavia, aged 15 and 13/14 at the time, was arranged by their parents in order to further legitimise Nero’s claim to the throne. Octavia was the daughter of the emperor Claudius from a previous marriage, so when Claudius married Agrippina and adopted her son Nero, Nero and Octavia became brother and sister. In order to arrange their marriage, Octavia had to be adopted into another family.
Their marriage was not a happy one. According to ancient writers, Nero had various affairs until his lover Poppaea Sabina convinced him to divorce his wife. Octavia was first exiled then executed in AD 62 on adultery charges. According to ancient writers, her banishment and death caused great unrest among the public, who sympathised with the dutiful Octavia.
No further motives were offered for Octavia’s death other than Nero’s passion for Poppaea, and we will probably never know what transpired at court. The fact that Octavia couldn’t produce an heir while Poppaea was pregnant with Nero’s daughter likely played an important role in deciding Octavia’s fate.
On 19 July AD 64, a fire started close to the Circus Maximus. The flames soon encompassed the entire city of Rome and the fire raged for nine days. Only four of the 14 districts of the capital were spared, while three were completely destroyed.
Rome had already been razed by flames – and would be again in its long history – but this event was so severe it came to be known as the Great Fire of Rome.
Later historians blamed Nero for the event, claiming that he set the capital ablaze in order to clear land for the construction of a vast new palace. According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, Nero took in the view of the burning city from the imperial residence while playing the lyre and singing about the fall of Troy. This story, however, is fictional.
Tacitus, the only historian who was actually alive at the time of the Great Fire of Rome (although only 8 years old), wrote that Nero was not even in Rome when the fire started, but returned to the capital and led the relief efforts.
Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio all describe Nero as being blinded by passion for his wife Poppaea, yet they accuse him of killing her, allegedly by kicking her in an outburst of rage while she was pregnant.
Interestingly, pregnant women being kicked to death by enraged husbands is a recurring theme in ancient literature, used to explore the (self) destructive tendencies of autocrats. The Greek writer Herodotus tells the story of how the Persian king Cambyses kicked his pregnant wife in the stomach, causing her death. A similar episode is told of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Nero is just one of many allegedly ‘mad’ tyrants for which this literary convention was used.
Poppaea probably died from complications connected with her pregnancy and not at Nero’s hands. She was given a lavish funeral and was deified.
Centred on greater Iran, the Parthian empire was a major political and cultural power and a long-standing enemy of Rome. The two powers had long been contending for control over the buffer state of Armenia and open conflict sparked again during Nero’s rule. The Parthian War started in AD 58 and, after initial victories and following set-backs, ended in AD 63 when a diplomatic solution was reached between Nero and the Parthian king Vologases I.
According to this settlement Tiridates, brother of the Parthian king, would rule over Armenia, but only after having travelled all the way to Rome to be crowned by Nero.
The journey lasted 9 months, Tiridates’ retinue included 3,000 Parthian horsemen and many Roman soldiers. The coronation ceremony took place in the summer of AD 66 and the day was celebrated with much pomp: all the people of Rome saw the new king of Armenia kneeling in front of Nero. This was the Golden Day of Nero’s rule
In AD 68, Vindex, the governor of Gaul (France), rebelled against Nero and declared his support for Galba, the governor of Spain. Vindex was defeated in battle by troops loyal to Nero, yet Galba started gaining more military support.
It was at this point that Nero lost the support of Rome’s people due to a grain shortage, caused by a rebellious commander who cut the crucial food supply from Egypt to the capital. Abandoned by the people and declared an enemy of the state by the senate, Nero tried to flee Rome and eventually committed suicide.
Following his death, Nero’s memory was condemned (a practice called damnatio memoriae) and the images of the emperor were destroyed, removed or reworked. However, Nero was still given an expensive funeral and for a long time people decorated his tomb with flowers, some even believing he was still alive.
After Nero’s death, civil war ensued. At the end of the so-called ‘Year of the Four Emperors’ (AD 69), Vespasian became emperor and started a new dynasty: the Flavians.
[Francesca Bologna, curator, for British Museum]
Taken in the British Museum
Maker:
Born:
Active: Hong Kong
Medium: albumen print
Size: 10 3/4" x 8"
Location: China
Object No. 2012.025
Shelf: A-22
Publication: Clark Worswick, Sheying, Shades of China 1850-1900, Turner , 2008, pg 32-33
L. Carrington Goodrich and N. Cameron "Portraits of China 1860-1912" Ed Aperture, New York, 1999, p.34.
C. Worswick and J. Spence "Imperial China Photographs 1850-1912" Ed Pennwick / Crown, London, 1978, p.63
Picturing Hong Kong: Photography 1855-1910, Asia Society Galleries, New York, 1997, pg 97
Andre Barret, Les Premiers Reporters Photographies 1848-1914, Editeur-Duponchelle, Paris, 1977, pg 161
Other Collections:
Notes: shows the decapitated heads & bodies of the Namoa Pirates who were executed on May 11, 1891 at Kowloon, Hong Kong, China. Note the British authorities posing with the bodies. About 50 armed pirates scuttled the" Namoa ", an English steamer. The attack was so rapid that the Chinese passengers who occupied the bridge could not resist. Captain and one passenger died in the attack. The attack took place between Hong Kong and Swatow in December 10, 1890.
To view our archive organized by Collections, visit: OUR COLLECTIONS
For information about reproducing this image, visit: THE HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY ARCHIVE
Enjoying a stay of execution after being made redundant in Southend in 2013, ARRIVA Kent & Surrey (New Enterprise) 3397 P267 FPK is seen on Lunsford Lane, between Lunsford Park and Larkfield whilst working school route 546. Monday 16th September 2013.
Route 546 worked by New Enterprise runs on Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday only from Mereworth, Kings Hill, West Mallling, East Malling, Larkfield and Leybourne to Hugh Cristie Technical College in Tonbridge.
Dennis Dart SLF 10.6m - Plaxton Pointer (Ex-Southend Transport DSL67 & ARRIVA Southend)
IMG_11684
This is a book design and execution that I created for Susan Kozel's book Closer published by the MIT press.
It was an assignment in a UCLA Design | Media Arts Class. The front portion of the book is comprised of all the text and images, clearly setup into a four row system, which aligns to the four flipbooks at the very back of the book.
And so beauty was killed, and from her body all the colors of the heavens were released, filling every particle in the world with her essence. Thus, through her death, she had become eternal.
+1 IN COMMENTS
This shot was.....interesting. Let's just say it's made up of 6 different images, and they're probably not the images you're thinking of.
Oh yeah, View On Black
鈴ヶ森死刑場 (Suzugamori Shikeijō) Suzugamori Execution Grounds is probably the most famous and most accessible execution grounds of Edo (the name of Tōkyō before 1868). It’s located on the old Tōkaidō highway, near the old post town of Shinagawa. In the Edo Period, it was located next to the sea at Edo Bay. Today the former killing floor is the only bit of land that is still preserved and it is designated as one of the 100 Historic Spots of Shinagawa.
The usual access point is here and is marked by a white sign with black writing and a copper roof. This is the intended entrance because it is closest to 大森海岸駅 (Ōmori Kaigan) Ōmori Beach Station. Ironically, there has been no beach here since the 1950's, as the land was extended out quite far into Edo/Tōkyō Bay.That said, the local families who have been here from the 50's and earlier still take pride in the seaside connection.
My article is here: markystar.wordpress.com/2013/07/23/suzugamori-execution-g...
“The scriptures present a God who delights in genocide, rape, slavery, and the execution of nonconformists, and for millennia those writings were used to rationalize the massacre of infidels, the ownership of women, the beating of children, dominion over animals, and the persecution of heretics and homosexuals. Humanitarian reforms such as the elimination of cruel punishment, the dissemination of empathy-inducing novels, and the abolition of slavery were met with fierce opposition in their time by ecclesiastical authorities and their apologists. The elevation of parochial values to the realm of the sacred is a license to dismiss other people’s interests, and an imperative to reject the possibility of compromise.”
― Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
(Note: These videos were taken far before the COVID-19 pandemic. To protect ourselves and our community we stay home except when absolutely necessary or for short walks away from other people!)
I first visited Dunnottar Castle summer 2017, this magnificent castle sits high on a hill, last time I visited I captured my shots from the cliffs overlooking the site, though today I made the journey up the hill and entered the castle walls , wow what a magnificent experience, just perfect with loads of great photo opportunities to capture real Scottish history,after two hours wandering around and capturing as many shots that caught my eye , I made my way home, a magnificent experience indeed.
Dunnottar Castle (Scottish Gaelic: Dùn Fhoithear, "fort on the shelving slope" is a ruined medieval fortress located upon a rocky headland on the north-east coast of Scotland, about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) south of Stonehaven.
The surviving buildings are largely of the 15th and 16th centuries, but the site is believed to have been fortified in the Early Middle Ages. Dunnottar has played a prominent role in the history of Scotland through to the 18th-century Jacobite risings because of its strategic location and defensive strength. Dunnottar is best known as the place where the Honours of Scotland, the Scottish crown jewels, were hidden from Oliver Cromwell's invading army in the 17th century. The property of the Keiths from the 14th century, and the seat of the Earl Marischal, Dunnottar declined after the last Earl forfeited his titles by taking part in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715.
The castle was restored in the 20th century and is now open to the public.
The ruins of the castle are spread over 1.4 hectares (3.5 acres), surrounded by steep cliffs that drop to the North Sea, 50 metres (160 ft) below. A narrow strip of land joins the headland to the mainland, along which a steep path leads up to the gatehouse.
The various buildings within the castle include the 14th-century tower house as well as the 16th-century palace. Dunnottar Castle is a scheduled monument, and twelve structures on the site are listed buildings.
History
Early Middle Ages
A chapel at Dunnottar is said to have been founded by St Ninian in the 5th century, although it is not clear when the site was first fortified, but in any case the legend is late and highly implausible. Possibly the earliest written reference to the site is found in the Annals of Ulster which record two sieges of "Dún Foither" in 681 and 694.
The earlier event has been interpreted as an attack by Brude, the Pictish king of Fortriu, to extend his power over the north-east coast of Scotland. The Scottish Chronicle records that King Domnall II, the first ruler to be called rí Alban (King of Alba), was killed at Dunnottar during an attack by Vikings in 900. King Aethelstan of Wessex led a force into Scotland in 934, and raided as far north as Dunnottar according to the account of Symeon of Durham. W. D. Simpson speculated that a motte might lie under the present caste, but excavations in the 1980s failed to uncover substantive evidence of early medieval fortification.
The discovery of a group of Pictish stones at Dunnicaer, a nearby sea stack, has prompted speculation that "Dún Foither" was actually located on the adjacent headland of Bowduns, 0.5 kilometres (0.31 mi) to the north.
Later Middle Ages
During the reign of King William the Lion (ruled 1165–1214) Dunnottar was a center of local administration for The Mearns. The castle is named in the Roman de Fergus, an early 13th-century Arthurian romance, in which the hero Fergus must travel to Dunnottar to retrieve a magic shield.
In May 1276 a church on the site was consecrated by William Wishart, Bishop of St Andrews. The poet Blind Harry relates that William Wallace captured Dunnottar from the English in 1297, during the Wars of Scottish Independence. He is said to have imprisoned 4,000 defeated English soldiers in the church and burned them alive.
In 1336 Edward III of England ordered William Sinclair, 8th Baron of Roslin, to sail eight ships to the partially ruined Dunnottar for the purpose of rebuilding and fortifying the site as a forward resupply base for his northern campaign. Sinclair took with him 160 soldiers, horses, and a corps of masons and carpenters.
Edward himself visited in July, but the English efforts were undone before the end of the year when the Scottish Regent Sir Andrew Murray led a force that captured and again destroyed the defences of Dunnottar.
In the 14th century Dunnottar was granted to William de Moravia, 5th Earl of Sutherland (d.1370), and in 1346 a licence to crenellate was issued by David II. Around 1359 William Keith, Marischal of Scotland, married Margaret Fraser, niece of Robert the Bruce, and was granted the barony of Dunnottar at this time. Keith then gave the lands of Dunnottar to his daughter Christian and son-in-law William Lindsay of Byres, but in 1392 an excambion (exchange) was agreed whereby Keith regained Dunnottar and Lindsay took lands in Fife.
William Keith completed construction of the tower house at Dunnottar, but was excommunicated for building on the consecrated ground associated with the parish church. Keith had provided a new parish church closer to Stonehaven, but was forced to write to the Pope, Benedict XIII, who issued a bull in 1395 lifting the excommunication.William Keith's descendents were created Earls Marischal in the mid 15th century, and they held Dunottar until the 18th century.
16th century rebuilding
Through the 16th century the Keiths improved and expanded their principal seats: at Dunnottar and also at Keith Marischal in East Lothian. James IV visited Dunnottar in 1504, and in 1531 James V exempted the Earl's men from military service on the grounds that Dunnottar was one of the "principall strenthis of our realme".
Mary, Queen of Scots, visited in 1562 after the Battle of Corrichie, and returned in 1564.
James VI stayed for 10 days in 1580, as part of a progress through Fife and Angus, during which a meeting of the Privy Council was convened at Dunnottar.
During a rebellion of Catholic nobles in 1592, Dunnottar was captured by a Captain Carr on behalf of the Earl of Huntly, but was restored to Lord Marischal just a few weeks later.
In 1581 George Keith succeeded as 5th Earl Marischal, and began a large scale reconstruction that saw the medieval fortress converted into a more comfortable home. The founder of Marischal College in Aberdeen, the 5th Earl valued Dunnottar as much for its dramatic situation as for its security.
A "palace" comprising a series of ranges around a quadrangle was built on the north-eastern cliffs, creating luxurious living quarters with sea views. The 13th-century chapel was restored and incorporated into the quadrangle.
An impressive stone gatehouse was constructed, now known as Benholm's Lodging, featuring numerous gun ports facing the approach. Although impressive, these are likely to have been fashionable embellishments rather than genuine defensive features.
Civil wars
Further information: Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms
In 1639 William Keith, 7th Earl Marischal, came out in support of the Covenanters, a Presbyterian movement who opposed the established Episcopal Church and the changes which Charles I was attempting to impose. With James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose, he marched against the Catholic James Gordon, 2nd Viscount Aboyne, Earl of Huntly, and defeated an attempt by the Royalists to seize Stonehaven. However, when Montrose changed sides to the Royalists and marched north, Marischal remained in Dunnottar, even when given command of the area by Parliament, and even when Montrose burned Stonehaven.
Marischal then joined with the Engager faction, who had made a deal with the king, and led a troop of horse to the Battle of Preston (1648) in support of the royalists.
Following the execution of Charles I in 1649, the Engagers gave their allegiance to his son and heir: Charles II was proclaimed king, arriving in Scotland in June 1650. He visited Dunnottar in July 1650, but his presence in Scotland prompted Oliver Cromwell to lead a force into Scotland, defeating the Scots at Dunbar in September 1650.
The Honours of Scotland
Charles II was crowned at Scone Palace on 1 January 1651, at which the Honours of Scotland (the regalia of crown, sword and sceptre) were used. However, with Cromwell's troops in Lothian, the honours could not be returned to Edinburgh. The Earl Marischal, as Marischal of Scotland, had formal responsibility for the honours, and in June the Privy Council duly decided to place them at Dunnottar.
They were brought to the castle by Katherine Drummond, hidden in sacks of wool. Sir George Ogilvie (or Ogilvy) of Barras was appointed lieutenant-governor of the castle, and given responsibility for its defence.
In November 1651 Cromwell's troops called on Ogilvie to surrender, but he refused. During the subsequent blockade of the castle, the removal of the Honours of Scotland was planned by Elizabeth Douglas, wife of Sir George Ogilvie, and Christian Fletcher, wife of James Granger, minister of Kinneff Parish Church. The king's papers were first removed from the castle by Anne Lindsay, a kinswoman of Elizabeth Douglas, who walked through the besieging force with the papers sewn into her clothes.
Two stories exist regarding the removal of the honours themselves. Fletcher stated in 1664 that over the course of three visits to the castle in February and March 1652, she carried away the crown, sceptre, sword and sword-case hidden amongst sacks of goods. Another account, given in the 18th century by a tutor to the Earl Marischal, records that the honours were lowered from the castle onto the beach, where they were collected by Fletcher's servant and carried off in a creel (basket) of seaweed. Having smuggled the honours from the castle, Fletcher and her husband buried them under the floor of the Old Kirk at Kinneff.
Meanwhile, by May 1652 the commander of the blockade, Colonel Thomas Morgan, had taken delivery of the artillery necessary for the reduction of Dunnottar. Ogilvie surrendered on 24 May, on condition that the garrison could go free. Finding the honours gone, the Cromwellians imprisoned Ogilvie and his wife in the castle until the following year, when a false story was put about suggesting that the honours had been taken overseas.
Much of the castle property was removed, including twenty-one brass cannons,[28] and Marischal was required to sell further lands and possessions to pay fines imposed by Cromwell's government.
At the Restoration of Charles II in 1660, the honours were removed from Kinneff Church and returned to the king. Ogilvie quarrelled with Marischal's mother over who would take credit for saving the honours, though he was eventually rewarded with a baronetcy. Fletcher was awarded 2,000 merks by Parliament but the sum was never paid.
Whigs and Jacobites
Religious and political conflicts continued to be played out at Dunnottar through the 17th and early 18th centuries. In 1685, during the rebellion of the Earl of Argyll against the new king James VII, 167 Covenanters were seized and held in a cellar at Dunnottar. The prisoners included 122 men and 45 women associated with the Whigs, an anti-Royalist group within the Covenanter movement, and had refused to take an oath of allegiance to the new king.
The Whigs were imprisoned from 24 May until late July. A group of 25 escaped, although two of these were killed in a fall from the cliffs, and another 15 were recaptured. Five prisoners died in the vault, and 37 of the Whigs were released after taking the oath of allegiance.
The remaining prisoners were transported to Perth Amboy, New Jersey, as part of a colonisation scheme devised by George Scot of Pitlochie. Many, like Scot himself, died on the voyage.
The cellar, located beneath the "King's Bedroom" in the 16th-century castle buildings, has since become known as the "Whigs' Vault".
Both the Jacobites (supporters of the exiled Stuarts) and the Hanoverians (supporters of George I and his descendents) used Dunnottar Castle. In 1689 during Viscount Dundee's campaign in support of the deposed James VII, the castle was garrisoned for William and Mary with Lord Marischal appointed captain.
Seventeen suspected Jacobites from Aberdeen were seized and held in the fortress for around three weeks, including George Liddell, professor of mathematics at Marischal College.
In the Jacobite Rising of 1715 George Keith, 10th Earl Marischal, took an active role with the rebels, leading cavalry at the Battle of Sheriffmuir. After the subsequent abandonment of the rising Lord Marischal fled to the Continent, eventually becoming French ambassador for Frederick the Great of Prussia. Meanwhile, in 1716, his titles and estates including Dunnottar were declared forfeit to the crown.
Later history
The seized estates of the Earl Marischal were purchased in 1720 for £41,172, by the York Buildings Company who dismantled much of the castle.
In 1761 the Earl briefly returned to Scotland and bought back Dunnottar only to sell it five years later to Alexander Keith, an Edinburgh lawyer who served as Knight Marischal of Scotland.
Dunnottar was inherited in 1852 by Sir Patrick Keith-Murray of Ochtertyre, who in turn sold it in July 1873 to Major Alexander Innes of Cowie and Raemoir for about £80,000.
It was purchased by Weetman Pearson, 1st Viscount Cowdray, in 1925 after which his wife embarked on a programme of repairs.
Since that time the castle has remained in the family, and has been open to the public, attracting 52,500 visitors in 2009.
Dunnottar Castle, and the headland on which is stands, was designated as a scheduled monument in 1970.In 1972 twelve of the structures at Dunnottar were listed.
Three buildings are listed at category A as being of "national importance": the keep; the entrance gateway; and Benholm's Lodging.
The remaining listings are at category B as being of "regional importance".[39] The Hon. Charles Anthony Pearson, the younger son of the 3rd Viscount Cowdray, currently owns and runs Dunnottar Castle which is part of the 210-square-kilometre (52,000-acre) Dunecht Estates.
Portions of the 1990 film Hamlet, starring Mel Gibson and Glenn Close, were shot there.
Description
Dunnottar's strategic location allowed its owners to control the coastal terrace between the North Sea cliffs and the hills of the Mounth, 3.5 kilometres (2.2 mi) inland, which enabled access to and from the north-east of Scotland.
The site is accessed via a steep, 800-metre (2,600 ft) footpath (with modern staircases) from a car park on the coastal road, or via a 3-kilometre (1.9 mi) cliff-top path from Stonehaven. Dunnottar's several buildings, put up between the 13th and 17th centuries, are arranged across a headland covering around 1.4 hectares (3.5 acres).
The dominant building, viewed from the land approach, is the 14th-century keep or tower house. The other principal buildings are the gatehouse; the chapel; and the 16th-century "palace" which incorporates the "Whigs' Vault".
Defences
The approach to the castle is overlooked by outworks on the "Fiddle Head", a promontory on the western side of the headland. The entrance is through the well-defended main gate, set in a curtain wall which entirely blocks a cleft in the rocky cliffs.
The gate has a portcullis and has been partly blocked up. Alongside the main gate is the 16th-century Benholm's Lodging, a five-storey building cut into the rock, which incorporated a prison with apartments above.
Three tiers of gun ports face outwards from the lower floors of Benholm's Lodging, while inside the main gate, a group of four gun ports face the entrance. The entrance passage then turns sharply to the left, running underground through two tunnels to emerge near the tower house.
Simpson contends that these defences are "without exception the strongest in Scotland", although later writers have doubted the effectiveness of the gun ports. Cruden notes that the alignment of the gun ports in Benholm's Lodging, facing across the approach rather than along, means that they are of limited efficiency.
The practicality of the gun ports facing the entrance has also been questioned, though an inventory of 1612 records that four brass cannons were placed here.
A second access to the castle leads up from a rocky cove, the aperture to a marine cave on the northern side of the Dunnottar cliffs into which a small boat could be brought. From here a steep path leads to the well-fortified postern gate on the cliff top, which in turn offers access to the castle via the Water Gate in the palace.
Artillery defences, taking the form of earthworks, surround the north-west corner of the castle, facing inland, and the south-east, facing seaward. A small sentry box or guard house stands by the eastern battery, overlooking the coast.
Tower house and surrounding buildings
The tower house of Dunnottar, viewed from the west
The late 14th-century tower house has a stone-vaulted basement, and originally had three further storeys and a garret above.
Measuring 12 by 11 metres (39 by 36 ft), the tower house stood 15 metres (49 ft) high to its gable. The principal rooms included a great hall and a private chamber for the lord, with bedrooms upstairs.
Beside the tower house is a storehouse, and a blacksmith's forge with a large chimney. A stable block is ranged along the southern edge of the headland. Nearby is Waterton's Lodging, also known as the Priest's House, built around 1574, possibly for the use of William Keith (died 1580), son of the 4th Earl Marischal.
This small self-contained house includes a hall and kitchen at ground level, with private chambers above, and has a projecting spiral stair on the north side. It is named for Thomas Forbes of Waterton, an attendant of the 7th Earl.
The palace
The palace, to the north-east of the headland, was built in the late 16th century and early to mid-17th century. It comprises three main wings set out around a quadrangle, and for the most part is probably the work of the 5th Earl Marischal who succeeded in 1581.
It provided extensive and comfortable accommodation to replace the rooms in the tower house. In its long, low design it has been compared to contemporary English buildings, in contrast to the Scottish tradition of taller towers still prevalent in the 16th century.
Seven identical lodgings are arranged along the west range, each opening onto the quadrangle and including windows and fireplace. Above the lodgings the west range comprised a 35-metre (115 ft) gallery. Now roofless, the gallery originally had an elaborate oak ceiling, and on display was a Roman tablet taken from the Antonine Wall.
At the north end of the gallery was a drawing room linked to the north range. The gallery could also be accessed from the Silver House to the south, which incorporated a broad stairway with a treasury above.
The basement of the north range incorporates kitchens and stores, with a dining room and great chamber above. At ground floor level is the Water Gate, between the north and west ranges, which gives access to the postern on the northern cliffs.
The east and north ranges are linked via a rectangular stair. The east range has a larder, brewhouse and bakery at ground level, with a suite of apartments for the Countess above. A north-east wing contains the Earl's apartments, and includes the "King's Bedroom" in which Charles II stayed. In this room is a carved stone inscribed with the arms of the 7th Earl and his wife, and the date 1654. Below these rooms is the Whigs' Vault, a cellar measuring 16 by 4.5 metres (52 by 15 ft). This cellar, in which the Covenanters were held in 1685, has a large eastern window, as well as a lower vault accessed via a trap-door in the floor.
Of the chambers in the palace, only the dining room and the Silver House remain roofed, having been restored in the 1920s. The central area contains a circular cistern or fish pond, 16 metres (52 ft) across and 7.6 metres (25 ft) deep, and a bowling green is located to the west.
At the south-east corner of the quadrangle is the chapel, consecrated in 1276 and largely rebuilt in the 16th century. Medieval walling and two 13th-century windows remain, and there is a graveyard to the south.
During the National Socialist dictatorship from 1938 to 1945 was in this building the place of execution, in which women and men from Austria as well as from many other European countries were beheaded for their political beliefs, national origin or because of their faith. Honor to all of the Victims! The city of Graz in 1988. Austrian League for Human Rights
Während der Nationalsozialistischen Gewaltherrschaft von 1938 bis 1945 befand sich in diesem Gebäude jene Hinrichtungsstätte, in der Frauen und Männer aus Österreich wie aus vielen anderen Europäischen Ländern wegen ihrer politischen Überzeugung, nationalen Herkunft oder wegen ihres Glaubens enthauptet wurden. Ehre Allen Opfern! Die Stadt Graz 1988. Österreichische Liga für Menschenrechte
(further information you can see by clicking on the link at the end of page!)
History and judicial organization
The Revolution of 1848 marked also the Austria jurisdiction of that time in a substantial manner with manifestations that act to the present day. The with this associated judicial organization brought then - here particularly interesting - most of all four court levels or court types: District Courts, Higher Civil Courts (Landesgerichte), Higher Regional Courts (Oberlandesgerichte) and a Supreme Court. To those four kinds of courts, the procedures of first instance - differentiated by sum in dispute or seriousness of the offense - and the review of judicial decisions on appeal were distributed in a manageable manner. That in the course of this the (only) Supreme Court already at the time of the monarchy could be found in Vienna is understandable, that it remained there from 1918 until today (apart from the period of National Socialism) is known.
The next level below the Supreme Court was and is formed by the High Regional Courts. In 1855 there were in the whole Empire nineteen, today there are four in Austria, namely in Vienna, Linz, Innsbruck and Graz. They act primarily as appellate courts. Next come the so-called courts of first instance. This generic term was necessary because there were, besides the regional courts also district courts - partly later - special courts for commercial, youth, labor and social welfare cases or should be. Of all these existed at the time of the monarchy, of course, already a significant number, in the area of present-day Austria were originally seventeen, today there are twenty after the Juvenile Court in Vienna had been dissolved in 2003 (Federal Law Gazette 30/2003). The district of the Higher Regional Court of Graz accounts for the Regional Court for Civil Matters and the National Criminal Court in Graz, the Klagenfurt Regional Court and the Regional Court of Leoben. The lowest level eventually was formed by the district courts. "Lowest" in this context is of course no rating but merely an expression of the position in the structure of jurisdiction. In Styria there were initially 45 district courts, including the district of the Provincial Court of Leoben 22 (Reich Law Gazette 339/1849). Those were merged over time. District courts are now still in Schladming, Liezen, Murau, Judenburg, Mürzzuschlag, Bruck/Mur and Leoben. Aside from court consolidations, modifications of the district sizes, responsibility shifts caused by changes in the value limits and also renamings there were naturally in the past 160 years repeatedly also suggestions or ideas for actual substantive changes of this Court System. For example, there was talk of dissolving the Courts of First Instance and to distribute their agendas to the district courts. Or these courts should be strengthened and therefore waived of the Higher Regional Court. Nothing of it gained majority, the from the mid-19th Century stemming basic system remained established and is valid until today .
THE REGIONAL COURT LEOBEN
After creating the legal basis for the new judicial organization, it was now about to implement them. It arose the familiar question of "where" and "with whom". The decision for Leoben was already on 25th July in 1849 published (Reich Law Gazette 339/1849) and also the top management for Upper Styria was very soon decided. As of 28/12/1849 the previous "Council of the Styrian state law" Dr. Heinrich Perissutti was appointed President of the Provincial Court of Leoben. He took on 18 February 1850 in Graz his oath of office and actually was taking up activities on 4 April 1850. He moved - then granted - to Leoben, there is evidence that he had lived at Unteren Platz, house number 121 (today Timmerdorfer lane 2). The accommodation question for the court in Leoben also could be settled successfully in a short time. This should move into the former Dominican monastery (now Land Registry 60327, Leoben register number 103), a building that was owned by the city of Leoben and the judiciary has been left to everlasting time for its own purposes (Treaty of 11 August 1853). This had to be adapted but only for the new task and it did take some time but, that is to say early summer 1856.
The aforementioned modifications of the judicial organization were in the first years in Leoben area relatively noticeable. Firstly, the High Regional Courts of Graz and Klagenfurt were merged with headquarters in Graz (1852 enacted and 1854 implemented) and on the other hand it came to a "downgrating" as to the label of the Provincial Court Leoben to a "district court" (19 January 1853).
The First World War, the downfall of the monarchy, the First Republic and the Corporate State brought in Upper Styria as to judicial organization only one significant, lasting change. The district courts Aflenz, Mautern and Obdach were merged with neighboring courts (Federal Law Gazette 187/1923, 276/1923). With the seizure of power by the Nazis in 1938 but went down the country's independent judiciary. Justice solely "In the name of the German people" should be distributed and probably to some extend it had a different status than before. Pure terminologically, the county court became a Higher District Court, the district courts have mutated into local courts (Journal of Laws for the country Austria 350/1938). What changed further was the area of the district. The Ausseerland was separated from Styria and the Gau (administrative district) of "Upper Danube" and thus to the district of the Higher District Court in Wels assigned.
After the end of the Second World War it came to the restoration of the on 13 March 1938 existing judicial organization, Bad Aussee, therefore, returned to the district of the Court of Leoben (State Gazette 47/1945). There were other changes. The most significant over time was probably that the1946 set up labor courts, which had replaced the earlier commercial courts, together with the arbitration courts of the Social Insurance and the mediation courts on 1 January 1987 merged in the ordinary jurisdiction (Federal Law Gazette 104/1985).
As already indicated, the terminology of the Leoben Court of Justice was subject to alterations. Beginning of 1849 had been created among other things the "Higher District Court" Leoben. With Order of 19 January 1853 (Reich Law Gazette 10/1853) to "District Court" downgraded, the Nazis transformed the term from 13 August 1938 (Journal of Laws for the country of Austria 350/1938 ) into "Higher District Court". The Court Organization Act of 3 July 1945 (State Gazette 47/1945) re-established the "District Court", until on the first of March 1993 the time came that the most original denomination "Higher District Court" was again brought back to life (Federal Law Gazette 91/1993). Without that during the whole period of the responsibilities and tasks anything really notheworthy would have changed, the Court in Leoben got three different names in five time periods.
justiz.gv.at/web2013/html/default/2c94848540b9d489014174b...
We came to Helgen, where they let us out. With horror I realized that we had arrived at a place of execution. The general wanted to have us all beheaded.
The other prisoners were Stormcloaks, who had fought against the Empire and were now sentenced to death.
And there was a thief who was shot when he tried to escape.
The first Stormcloak man was led to the executioner and beheaded. I felt sick.
Then it was my turn. They pulled me to the block and let me kneel down.
When I thought my end had come, a dragon appeared and spat fire. Soldiers. Stormcloaks and civilians ran screaming away.
The prisoner would stand on the trapdoor in the centre. The cell on the left is for the prisoner prior to execution, that on the right for the hangman (it contains a lever to open the trapdoor).
Description: Scene depicting the execution of the Earl of Strafford, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland on Tower Hill, 12 May 1641 for the act of treason.
With the Tower of London in the background, crowds of people surround the scaffold to watch the beheading. Letters indicating who is who can be found in both German and English. Those named include the Sheriffs of London, Earl of Strafford, his friends and kindred, as well as Doctor Usher, the Lord Primate of Ireland.
Date of Execution: c1641
Artist: Hollar, Wenceslaus (1607-1677)
Medium: engraving
Collection: print
Collage No: SC/PR/ S3/TOW/hil/p7489085
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"...the bodies of pirates [...] were not immediately cut down following death. Customarily, these corpses were left hanging on the nooses until at least three tides had washed over their heads.
"In the cases of the most notorious offenders, the Admiralty would order that their bodies were to be tarred and hung in chains at Cuckold's Point as a warning to all seafarers about the fate awaiting those who turned to piracy."
After public executions fell out of style, executions took place in various places in the Gaol. But the authorities worried about the riot that might ensue if the heroes of 1916 were executed in sight of prisoners, let alone the public. So this space, formerly used for breaking rocks, was the site for the firing squads