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Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
Al-Insan
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Surat Al-Insan (Arabic: سورة الإنسان) (Man) or Ad-Dahr (Time) is the 76th sura of the Qur'an with 31 ayat (verses).
Time - Verses 1 to 10 of 31 - سورة الإنسان
76:1 هَلْ أَتَىٰ عَلَى الْإِنْسَانِ حِينٌ مِنَ الدَّهْرِ لَمْ يَكُنْ شَيْئًا مَذْكُورًا
Has there not been over Man a long period of Time, when he was nothing - (not even) mentioned?
76:2 إِنَّا خَلَقْنَا الْإِنْسَانَ مِنْ نُطْفَةٍ أَمْشَاجٍ نَبْتَلِيهِ فَجَعَلْنَاهُ سَمِيعًا بَصِيرًا
Verily We created Man from a drop of mingled sperm, in order to try him: So We gave him (the gifts), of Hearing and Sight.
76:3 إِنَّا هَدَيْنَاهُ السَّبِيلَ إِمَّا شَاكِرًا وَإِمَّا كَفُورًا
We showed him the Way: whether he be grateful or ungrateful (rests on his will).
76:4 إِنَّا أَعْتَدْنَا لِلْكَافِرِينَ سَلَاسِلَ وَأَغْلَالًا وَسَعِيرًا
For the Rejecters we have prepared chains, yokes, and a blazing Fire.
76:5 إِنَّ الْأَبْرَارَ يَشْرَبُونَ مِنْ كَأْسٍ كَانَ مِزَاجُهَا كَافُورًا
As to the Righteous, they shall drink of a Cup (of Wine) mixed with Kafur,-
76:6 عَيْنًا يَشْرَبُ بِهَا عِبَادُ اللَّهِ يُفَجِّرُونَهَا تَفْجِيرًا
A Fountain where the Devotees of Allah do drink, making it flow in unstinted abundance.
76:7 يُوفُونَ بِالنَّذْرِ وَيَخَافُونَ يَوْمًا كَانَ شَرُّهُ مُسْتَطِيرًا
They perform (their) vows, and they fear a Day whose evil flies far and wide.
76:8 وَيُطْعِمُونَ الطَّعَامَ عَلَىٰ حُبِّهِ مِسْكِينًا وَيَتِيمًا وَأَسِيرًا
And they feed, for the love of Allah, the indigent, the orphan, and the captive,-
76:9 إِنَّمَا نُطْعِمُكُمْ لِوَجْهِ اللَّهِ لَا نُرِيدُ مِنْكُمْ جَزَاءً وَلَا شُكُورًا
(Saying),"We feed you for the sake of Allah alone: no reward do we desire from you, nor thanks.
76:10 إِنَّا نَخَافُ مِنْ رَبِّنَا يَوْمًا عَبُوسًا قَمْطَرِيرًا
"We only fear a Day of distressful Wrath from the side of our Lord."
76:11 فَوَقَاهُمُ اللَّهُ شَرَّ ذَٰلِكَ الْيَوْمِ وَلَقَّاهُمْ نَضْرَةً وَسُرُورًا
But Allah will deliver them from the evil of that Day, and will shed over them a Light of Beauty and (blissful) Joy.
إِنَّا نَخَافُ مِنْ رَبِّنَا يَوْمًا عَبُوسًا قَمْطَرِيرًا
"We only fear a Day of distressful Wrath from the side of our Lord."
76:11 فَوَقَاهُمُ اللَّهُ شَرَّ ذَٰلِكَ الْيَوْمِ وَلَقَّاهُمْ نَضْرَةً وَسُرُورًا
But Allah will deliver them from the evil of that Day, and will shed over them a Light of Beauty and (blissful) Joy.
76:12 وَجَزَاهُمْ بِمَا صَبَرُوا جَنَّةً وَحَرِيرًا
And because they were patient and constant, He will reward them with a Garden and (garments of) silk.
76:13 مُتَّكِئِينَ فِيهَا عَلَى الْأَرَائِكِ لَا يَرَوْنَ فِيهَا شَمْسًا وَلَا زَمْهَرِيرًا
Reclining in the (Garden) on raised thrones, they will see there neither the sun's (excessive heat) nor (the moon's) excessive cold.
76:14 وَدَانِيَةً عَلَيْهِمْ ظِلَالُهَا وَذُلِّلَتْ قُطُوفُهَا تَذْلِيلًا
And the shades of the (Garden) will come low over them, and the bunches (of fruit), there, will hang low in humility.
76:15 وَيُطَافُ عَلَيْهِمْ بِآنِيَةٍ مِنْ فِضَّةٍ وَأَكْوَابٍ كَانَتْ قَوَارِيرَا
And amongst them will be passed round vessels of silver and goblets of crystal,-
76:16 قَوَارِيرَ مِنْ فِضَّةٍ قَدَّرُوهَا تَقْدِيرًا
Crystal-clear, made of silver: they will determine the measure thereof (according to their wishes).
76:17 وَيُسْقَوْنَ فِيهَا كَأْسًا كَانَ مِزَاجُهَا زَنْجَبِيلًا
And they will be given to drink there of a Cup (of Wine) mixed with Zanjabil,-
76:18 عَيْنًا فِيهَا تُسَمَّىٰ سَلْسَبِيلًا
A fountain there, called Salsabil.
76:19 وَيَطُوفُ عَلَيْهِمْ وِلْدَانٌ مُخَلَّدُونَ إِذَا رَأَيْتَهُمْ حَسِبْتَهُمْ لُؤْلُؤًا مَنْثُورًا
And round about them will (serve) youths of perpetual (freshness): If thou seest them, thou wouldst think them scattered Pearls.
76:20 وَإِذَا رَأَيْتَ ثَمَّ رَأَيْتَ نَعِيمًا وَمُلْكًا كَبِيرًا
And when thou lookest, it is there thou wilt see a Bliss and a Realm Magnificent.
76:21 عَالِيَهُمْ ثِيَابُ سُنْدُسٍ خُضْرٌ وَإِسْتَبْرَقٌ وَحُلُّوا أَسَاوِرَ مِنْ فِضَّةٍ وَسَقَاهُمْ رَبُّهُمْ شَرَابًا طَهُورًا
Upon them will be green Garments of fine silk and heavy brocade, and they will be adorned with Bracelets of silver; and their Lord will give to them to drink of a Wine Pure and Holy.
رَأَيْتَ ثَمَّ رَأَيْتَ نَعِيمًا وَمُلْكًا كَبِيرًا
And when thou lookest, it is there thou wilt see a Bliss and a Realm Magnificent.
76:21 عَالِيَهُمْ ثِيَابُ سُنْدُسٍ خُضْرٌ وَإِسْتَبْرَقٌ وَحُلُّوا أَسَاوِرَ مِنْ فِضَّةٍ وَسَقَاهُمْ رَبُّهُمْ شَرَابًا طَهُورًا
Upon them will be green Garments of fine silk and heavy brocade, and they will be adorned with Bracelets of silver; and their Lord will give to them to drink of a Wine Pure and Holy.
76:22 إِنَّ هَٰذَا كَانَ لَكُمْ جَزَاءً وَكَانَ سَعْيُكُمْ مَشْكُورًا
"Verily this is a Reward for you, and your Endeavour is accepted and recognised."
76:23 إِنَّا نَحْنُ نَزَّلْنَا عَلَيْكَ الْقُرْآنَ تَنْزِيلًا
It is We Who have sent down the Qur'an to thee by stages.
76:24 فَاصْبِرْ لِحُكْمِ رَبِّكَ وَلَا تُطِعْ مِنْهُمْ آثِمًا أَوْ كَفُورًا
Therefore be patient with constancy to the Command of thy Lord, and hearken not to the sinner or the ingrate among them.
76:25 وَاذْكُرِ اسْمَ رَبِّكَ بُكْرَةً وَأَصِيلًا
And celebrate the name of thy Lord morning and evening,
76:26 وَمِنَ اللَّيْلِ فَاسْجُدْ لَهُ وَسَبِّحْهُ لَيْلًا طَوِيلًا
And part of the night, prostrate thyself to Him; and glorify Him a long night through.
76:27 إِنَّ هَٰؤُلَاءِ يُحِبُّونَ الْعَاجِلَةَ وَيَذَرُونَ وَرَاءَهُمْ يَوْمًا ثَقِيلًا
As to these, they love the fleeting life, and put away behind them a Day (that will be) hard.
76:28 نَحْنُ خَلَقْنَاهُمْ وَشَدَدْنَا أَسْرَهُمْ وَإِذَا شِئْنَا بَدَّلْنَا أَمْثَالَهُمْ تَبْدِيلًا
It is We Who created them, and We have made their joints strong; but, when We will, We can substitute the like of them by a complete change.
76:29 إِنَّ هَٰذِهِ تَذْكِرَةٌ فَمَنْ شَاءَ اتَّخَذَ إِلَىٰ رَبِّهِ سَبِيلًا
This is an admonition: Whosoever will, let him take a (straight) Path to his Lord.
76:30 وَمَا تَشَاءُونَ إِلَّا أَنْ يَشَاءَ اللَّهُ إِنَّ اللَّهَ كَانَ عَلِيمًا حَكِيمًا
But ye will not, except as Allah wills; for Allah is full of Knowledge and Wisdom.
76:31 يُدْخِلُ مَنْ يَشَاءُ فِي رَحْمَتِهِ وَالظَّالِمِينَ أَعَدَّ لَهُمْ عَذَابًا أَلِيمًا
He will admit to His Mercy whom He will; But the wrong-doers,- for them has He prepared a grievous Penalty
وَمَا تَشَاءُونَ إِلَّا أَنْ يَشَاءَ اللَّهُ إِنَّ اللَّهَ كَانَ عَلِيمًا حَكِيمًا
But ye will not, except as Allah wills; for Allah is full of Knowledge and Wisdom.
76:31 يُدْخِلُ مَنْ يَشَاءُ فِي رَحْمَتِهِ وَالظَّالِمِينَ أَعَدَّ لَهُمْ عَذَابًا أَلِيمًا
He will admit to His Mercy whom He will; But the wrong-doers,- for them has He prepared a grievous Penalty
سورة الإنسان
من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة
اذهب إلى: تصفح, ابحث
« سورة الإنسان »
الترتيب في القرآن 76
عدد الآيات 31
عدد الكلمات 243
عدد الحروف 1065
الجزء {{{جزء}}}
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النزول مدنية
نص سورة الإنسان في ويكي مصدر
السورة في مجموعها هتاف رخي ندي إلى الطاعة، والالتجاء إلى الله ، وابتغاء رضاه ، وتذكر نعمته ، والإحساس بفضله ، واتقاء عذابه ، واليقظة لابتلائه ، وإدراك حكمته في الخلق والإنعام والابتلاء والإملاء ...
وهي تبدأ بلمسة رقيقة للقلب البشري : أين كان قبل أن يكون ؟ من الذي أوجده ؟ ومن الذي جعله شيئاً مذكوراً في هذا الوجود ؟ بعد أن لم يكن له ذكر ولا وجود : ( هل أتى على الإنسان حين من الدهر لم يكن شيئاً مذكورا ؟ )
تتلوها لمسة أخري من حقيقة أصله ونشأته ، وحكمة الله في خلقه ، وتزويده بطاقاته ومداركه : ( إنا خلقنا الأنسان من نظفة أمشاج نبتليه فجعلناه سميعاً بصيرا )
ولمسة ثالثة عن هدايته إلى الطريق ، وعونه على الهدى ، وتركه بعد ذلك لمصيره الذي يختاره : ( إنا هديناه السبيل إما شاكراً وإما كفوراً ) ..
وبعد هذه اللمسات الثلاث الموحية ، في القلب من تفكير عميق ، ونظرة إلى الوراء ، ثم نظرة إلى الأمام ، ثم التحرج والتدبر عند اختبار الطريق .. بعد هذه اللمسات الثلاث تأخد السورة في الهتاف للإنسان وهو على الطريق لتحذيره من طريق النار .. وترغيبه في طريق الجنة بكل صور الترغيب ، وبكل هواتف الراحة والمتاع والنعيم والتكريم : ( إنا أعتدنا للكافرين سلاسل وأغلالأً وسعيرا . إن الأبرار يشربون من كأس كان مزاجها كافورا ، عيناً يشرب بها عباد الله يفجرونها تفجيرا ) .
وقبل ان تمضي في عرض صور المتاع ترسم سمات هؤلاء الأبرار في عبارات كلها انعطاف ورقة وجمال وخشوع يناسب ذلك النعيم الهانىء الرغيد : ( يوفون بالنذر ، ويخافون يوماً كان شره مستطيرا ، ويطعمون الطعام - على حبه -مسكيناً ويتيماً وأسيراً . إنما نطعمكم لوجه الله لانريد منكم جزاء ولا شكورا . : إنا نخاف من ربنا يوماً عبوساً قمطريرا)
ثم تعرض جزاء هؤلاء القائمين بالعزائم والتكاليف ، الخائفين من اليوم العبوس القمطرير ، الخيرين المطعمين على حاجتهم إلى الطعام ، يبتغون وجه الله وحده ، لايريدوم شكوراً من أحد ، إنما يتقون اليوم العبوس القمطرير !
تعرض جزاء هؤلاء الخائفين الوجلين المطعمين المؤثرين . فإذا هو الأمن والرخاء والنعيم الرغيد ( فوقاهم الله شر ذلك اليوم ، ولقاهم نضرة وسرورا ، وجزاهم بما صبروا جنة وحريرا . متكئين فيها على الأرائك لايرون فيها برداً ولا زمهريرا . ودانية عليهم قطوفها وذللت قطوفها تذليلا . ويطاف عليهم بآنية من فضة وأكواب كانت قوارير ، قوارير من فضة قدروها تقديرا . ويسقون فيها كأساً كان مزاجها زنجبيلا ، عيناً فيها تسمى سلسبيلا . ويطوف عليهم ولدان مخلدون إذا رأيتهم حسبتهم لؤلؤ منثورا . وإذا رأيت ثم رأيت نعيماً وملكاً كبيرا . عليهم ثياب سندس خضر واستبرق ، وحلو أساور من فضة وسقاهم ربهم شراباً طهورا . إن هذا كان لكم جزاء وكان سعيكم مشكورا )
فإذا انتهى معرض النعيم اللين الرغيد الهانىء الودود ، اتجه الخطاب إلى رسول الله - صلى الله عليه وسلم -_لثبيته على الدعوة - في وجه الإعراض والكفر والتكذيب - وتوجيه إلى الصبر وانتظار حكم الله في الأمر ، والاتصال بربه والاستمداد منه كلما طال الطريق : ( إنا نحن نزلنا عليك القرآن تنزيلا . فاصبر لحكم ربك ولا تطع منهم آثماً أو كفورا . واذكر اسم ربك بكرة وأصيلا ، ومن الليل فاسجد له وسبحه ليلا طويلا ) ..
ثم تذكيرهم باليوم الثقيل الذي لايحسبون حسابه ، والذي يخافه الأبرار ويتقونه ، والتلويح لهم بهوان أمرهم على الله ، الذي خلقهم ومنحهم ماهم فيه من القوة ، وهو قادر على الذهاب بهم ، والإتيان بقوم آخرين ، لولا تفضله عليهم بالبقاء ، لتمضي مشيئة الابتلاء . ويلوح لهم في الختام بعاقبة هذا الابتلاء : ( إن هؤلاء يحبون العاجلة ويذرون وراءهم يوماً ثقيلا . نحن خلقناهم وشددنا أسرهم وإذا شئنا بدلنا أمثالهم تبديلا . إن هذه تذكرة فمن شاء اتخد إلى ربه سبيلا . وما تشاءون إلا أن يشاء الله ، إن الله كان عليماً حكيما . يدخل من يشاء في رحمته والظالمين أعد لهم عذاباً أليما ) ..
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
هَلْ أَتَى عَلَى الْإِنسَانِ حِينٌ مِّنَ الدَّهْرِ لَمْ يَكُن شَيْئاً مَّذْكُوراً{1} إِنَّا خَلَقْنَا الْإِنسَانَ مِن نُّطْفَةٍ أَمْشَاجٍ
نَّبْتَلِيهِ فَجَعَلْنَاهُ
سَمِيعاً بَصِيراً{2} إِنَّا هَدَيْنَاهُ السَّبِيلَ إِمَّا شَاكِراً وَإِمَّا كَفُوراً{3}
صدق الله العظيم سورة الانسان
نعم ... ربى ....
قبل ميلادنا ... الجسدى
من رحم الام ... لم يكن لنا وجود
فوق الارض ... وتحت الشمس
ولم يكن لنا نصيب
فى الهواء ... و الماء ... و الطعام
ولم يكن لنا وجود
بين البشر
نعم ... ربى
قد كان هناك ... حين من الدهر
لم نكن شيئا مذكورا
نعم ... ربى
بعد موتنا .... الجسدى
من رحم الكون ....... الى البرزخ
لم يعد لنا ... وجود
فوق الارض ... وتحت الشمس
لم يعد لنا ... نصيب
من الهواء ... و الماء ... والطعام
لم يعد ... لنا وجود
بين البشر
نعم .... ربى
قد جاء ... حين من الدهر
لم نكن شيئا ... مذكورا
الحمد لله ... و الشكر لله
الواحد الاحد الفرد الصمد لم يلد ولم يولد
ولم يكن له كفؤا احد
واشهد ان لا اله الا الله
واشهد ان محمد رسول الله
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
هَلْ أَتَى عَلَى الْإِنسَانِ حِينٌ مِّنَ الدَّهْرِ لَمْ يَكُن شَيْئاً مَّذْكُوراً{1} إِنَّا خَلَقْنَا الْإِنسَانَ مِن نُّطْفَةٍ أَمْشَاجٍ نَّبْتَلِيهِ
فَجَعَلْنَاهُ سَمِيعاً بَصِيراً{2} إِنَّا هَدَيْنَاهُ السَّبِيلَ إِمَّا شَاكِراً وَإِمَّا كَفُوراً{3}
صدق الله العظيم سورة الانسان
1 هَلْ أَتَىٰ عَلَى الْإِنسَانِ حِينٌ مِّنَ الدَّهْرِ لَمْ يَكُن شَيْئًا مَّذْكُورًا
2 إِنَّا خَلَقْنَا الْإِنسَانَ مِن نُّطْفَةٍ أَمْشَاجٍ نَّبْتَلِيهِ فَجَعَلْنَاهُ سَمِيعًا بَصِيرًا
3 إِنَّا هَدَيْنَاهُ السَّبِيلَ إِمَّا شَاكِرًا وَإِمَّا كَفُورًا
4 إِنَّا أَعْتَدْنَا لِلْكَافِرِينَ سَلَاسِلَ وَأَغْلَالًا وَسَعِيرًا
5 إِنَّ الْأَبْرَارَ يَشْرَبُونَ مِن كَأْسٍ كَانَ مِزَاجُهَا كَافُورًا
6 عَيْنًا يَشْرَبُ بِهَا عِبَادُ اللَّهِ يُفَجِّرُونَهَا تَفْجِيرًا
7 يُوفُونَ بِالنَّذْرِ وَيَخَافُونَ يَوْمًا كَانَ شَرُّهُ مُسْتَطِيرًا
8 وَيُطْعِمُونَ الطَّعَامَ عَلَىٰ حُبِّهِ مِسْكِينًا وَيَتِيمًا وَأَسِيرًا
9 إِنَّمَا نُطْعِمُكُمْ لِوَجْهِ اللَّهِ لَا نُرِيدُ مِنكُمْ جَزَاءً وَلَا شُكُورًا
10 إِنَّا نَخَافُ مِن رَّبِّنَا يَوْمًا عَبُوسًا قَمْطَرِيرًا
11 فَوَقَاهُمُ اللَّهُ شَرَّ ذَٰلِكَ الْيَوْمِ وَلَقَّاهُمْ نَضْرَةً وَسُرُورًا
12 وَجَزَاهُم بِمَا صَبَرُوا جَنَّةً وَحَرِيرًا
13 مُّتَّكِئِينَ فِيهَا عَلَى الْأَرَائِكِ ۖ لَا يَرَوْنَ فِيهَا شَمْسًا وَلَا زَمْهَرِيرًا
14 وَدَانِيَةً عَلَيْهِمْ ظِلَالُهَا وَذُلِّلَتْ قُطُوفُهَا تَذْلِيلًا
15 وَيُطَافُ عَلَيْهِم بِآنِيَةٍ مِّن فِضَّةٍ وَأَكْوَابٍ كَانَتْ قَوَارِيرَا
16 قَوَارِيرَ مِن فِضَّةٍ قَدَّرُوهَا تَقْدِيرًا
17 وَيُسْقَوْنَ فِيهَا كَأْسًا كَانَ مِزَاجُهَا زَنجَبِيلًا
18 عَيْنًا فِيهَا تُسَمَّىٰ سَلْسَبِيلًا
19 ۞ وَيَطُوفُ عَلَيْهِمْ وِلْدَانٌ مُّخَلَّدُونَ إِذَا رَأَيْتَهُمْ حَسِبْتَهُمْ لُؤْلُؤًا مَّنثُورًا
20 وَإِذَا رَأَيْتَ ثَمَّ رَأَيْتَ نَعِيمًا وَمُلْكًا كَبِيرًا
21 عَالِيَهُمْ ثِيَابُ سُندُسٍ خُضْرٌ وَإِسْتَبْرَقٌ ۖ وَحُلُّوا أَسَاوِرَ مِن فِضَّةٍ وَسَقَاهُمْ رَبُّهُمْ شَرَابًا طَهُورًا
22 إِنَّ هَـٰذَا كَانَ لَكُمْ جَزَاءً وَكَانَ سَعْيُكُم مَّشْكُورًا
23 إِنَّا نَحْنُ نَزَّلْنَا عَلَيْكَ الْقُرْآنَ تَنزِيلًا
24 فَاصْبِرْ لِحُكْمِ رَبِّكَ وَلَا تُطِعْ مِنْهُمْ آثِمًا أَوْ كَفُورًا
25 وَاذْكُرِ اسْمَ رَبِّكَ بُكْرَةً وَأَصِيلًا
26 وَمِنَ اللَّيْلِ فَاسْجُدْ لَهُ وَسَبِّحْهُ لَيْلًا طَوِيلًا
27 إِنَّ هَـٰؤُلَاءِ يُحِبُّونَ الْعَاجِلَةَ وَيَذَرُونَ وَرَاءَهُمْ يَوْمًا ثَقِيلًا
28 نَّحْنُ خَلَقْنَاهُمْ وَشَدَدْنَا أَسْرَهُمْ ۖ وَإِذَا شِئْنَا بَدَّلْنَا أَمْثَالَهُمْ تَبْدِيلًا
29 إِنَّ هَـٰذِهِ تَذْكِرَةٌ ۖ فَمَن شَاءَ اتَّخَذَ إِلَىٰ رَبِّهِ سَبِيلًا
30 وَمَا تَشَاءُونَ إِلَّا أَن يَشَاءَ اللَّهُ ۚ إِنَّ اللَّهَ كَانَ عَلِيمًا حَكِيمًا
31 يُدْخِلُ مَن يَشَاءُ فِي رَحْمَتِهِ ۚ وَالظَّالِمِينَ أَعَدَّ لَهُمْ عَذَابًا أَلِيمًا
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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USS Milwaukee (CL-5).jpg
USS Milwaukee (CL-5), an Omaha-class cruiser.
Class overview
Name: Omaha-class cruiser
Operators:
United States Navy
Soviet Navy (Loaned USS Milwaukee)
Preceded by: Chester class
Succeeded by: Brooklyn class
Planned: 10
Completed: 10
Scrapped: 10
General characteristics
Type: Light cruiser
Displacement: 7,050 tons
Length: 556 ft 6 in (169.62 m)
Beam: 55 ft 4 in (16.87 m)
Draft: 20 ft 0 in (6.10 m)
Speed: 35 knots (65 km/h)
Armament:
12× 6 in (152 mm)/53 cal guns (8x1, 2x2)
4 × 3 in (76 mm)/50 cal guns
6 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes (2x3)
The Omaha-class cruisers were a class of light cruisers built for the United States Navy. The oldest class of cruiser still in service with the Navy at the outbreak of World War II, the Omaha class was an immediate post-World War I design.
Contents
1 History
2 Ships of the class
3 Omaha alternatives
4 References
5 External links
History
1942 ship recognition chart for the Omaha-class
Maneuvers conducted in January 1915 made it clear that the US Atlantic Fleet lacked the fast cruisers necessary to provide information on the enemy's position and to deny the enemy information of the fleet's own position and to screen friendly forces. Built to scout for a fleet of battleships, the Omaha's featured high speed (35 knots) for cooperation with destroyers, and 6-inch (152 mm) guns to fend off any destroyers the enemy might send against them. Displacing 7,050 tons, they were just over 555 feet long.
The Omaha class was designed specifically in response to the British Centaur-class cruisers. Although from a modern viewpoint, a conflict between the US and Great Britain seems implausible, US Navy planners during this time and up to the mid-1930s considered Britain to be a formidable rival for power in the Atlantic, and the possibility of armed conflict between the two countries plausible enough to merit appropriate planning measures. (it has been suggested that the Washington Naval Treaty may have actually prevented such a war from occurring, thereby indirectly affecting the outcome of World War II.)
Due to their age, the Omaha class mounted four smokestacks, a look remarkably similar to the old four-stacker destroyers. Their armament showed the slow change from casemate-mounted weapons to turret-mounted guns. They held a full twelve 6"/53 caliber guns, of which four were mounted in two twin turrets, one fore and one aft, and the remaining eight in casemates; four on each side. Launched in 1920, the USS Omaha (designated C-4 and later CL-4) had a displacement of just over 7,100 long tons. The cruisers emerged with a distinctly archaic appearance owing to their World War I-type stacked twin casemate-mount cannons and were among the last broadside cruisers designed anywhere.
As a result of the design changes placed on the ship mid-construction, the Omaha that entered the water in 1920 was a badly overloaded design that, even at the beginning, had been rather tight. The ships were insufficiently insulated, too hot in the tropics and too cold in the north. Sacrifices in weight savings in the name of increased speed led to severe compromise in the habitability of the ship. While described as a good ship in a seaway, the low freeboard led to frequent water ingestion over the bow and in the torpedo compartments and lower aft casements. The lightly built hulls leaked, so that sustained high-speed steaming contaminated the oil tanks with sea water.
These drawbacks notwithstanding, the US Navy took a great deal of pride in the Omaha class. The Omaha class possessed ample underwater protection against torpedo attack. They also featured improved compartmentalization; propulsion machinery was laid out on the unit system, with alternating groups of boiler rooms and engine rooms, in order to prevent immobilization by a single torpedo hit. Magazines were the first to be placed on centerline, below the waterline. A serious flaw in these ships' subdivision was the complete lack of watertight bulkheads anywhere above the main deck or aft on the main deck.
Originally designed to serve as a scout, they served throughout the interwar period as leaders of fleet flotillas, helping them resist enemy destroyer attack. Tactical scouting became the province of cruiser aircraft, and the distant scouting role was taken over by the new heavy cruisers spawned by the Washington Naval Treaty. Thus, the Omaha's never performed their designed function. They were relegated to the fleet-screening role, where their high speed and great volume of fire were most appreciated.
Due to the large topweight lasting on these ships, compounded by the high-mounted catapults, the Navy removed the two lower aft firing casemate-mounted 6-inch guns in 1939, fairing over the casemates port and starboard.
These were the oldest class of cruisers still in service with the Navy in 1941. Both Detroit and Raleigh were at Pearl Harbor during the attack, with Raleigh being torpedoed. Detroit, along with the USS Phoenix were the only large ships to get out of the harbor during the attack. All were modified during the war with additional 20mm and 40mm anti aircraft guns and radar.
Ships of the class
The following ships of the class were constructed.[1]
USS Omaha (CL-4) - Launched 24 Feb 1923
USS Milwaukee (CL-5) - Launched 20 Jun 1923
USS Cincinnati (CL-6) - Launched 1 Jan 1924
USS Raleigh (CL-7) - Launched 6 Feb 1924
USS Detroit (CL-8) - Launched 31 Jul 1923
USS Richmond (CL-9) - Launched 2 Jul 1923
USS Concord (CL-10) - Launched 3 Nov 1923
USS Trenton (CL-11) - Launched 19 Apr 1924
USS Marblehead (CL-12) - Launched 8 Sep 1924
USS Memphis (CL-13) - Launched 4 Feb 1925
Omaha alternatives
The U.S. Navy was not entirely pleased with the Omaha class, so a new design was drawn up that was derived from it.[citation needed] This new class replaced the 6 inch guns with four turrets (2 forward, 2 aft) each with two 6 inch guns.
Two other Omaha versions were also designed. The first, intended to function as a monitor, had two 14 inch guns in 2 single turrets, while the other design had four 8 inch guns in two twin turrets. The second design eventually evolved into the Pensacola class cruiser.
Summer holiday 2014
In and around Berlin Germany
Berlin
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This article is about the capital of Germany. For other uses, see Berlin (disambiguation).
Berlin
State of Germany
Clockwise: Charlottenburg Palace, Fernsehturm Berlin, Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, Alte Nationalgalerie, Potsdamer Platz and Brandenburg Gate.
Clockwise: Charlottenburg Palace, Fernsehturm Berlin, Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, Alte Nationalgalerie, Potsdamer Platz and Brandenburg Gate.
Flag of Berlin
Flag Coat of arms of Berlin
Coat of arms
Location within European Union and Germany
Location within European Union and Germany
Coordinates: 52°31′N 13°23′ECoordinates: 52°31′N 13°23′E
Country
Germany
Government
• Governing Mayor
Michael Müller (SPD)
• Governing parties
SPD / CDU
• Votes in Bundesrat
4 (of 69)
Area
• City
891.85 km2 (344.35 sq mi)
Elevation
34 m (112 ft)
Population (December 2013)[1]
• City
3,517,424
• Density
3,900/km2 (10,000/sq mi)
Demonym
Berliner
Time zone
CET (UTC+1)
• Summer (DST)
CEST (UTC+2)
Postal code(s)
10115–14199
Area code(s)
030
ISO 3166 code
DE-BE
Vehicle registration
B[2]
GDP/ Nominal
€109.2 billion (2013) [3]
NUTS Region
DE3
Website
berlin.de
Berlin (/bərˈlɪn/; German pronunciation: [bɛɐ̯ˈliːn] ( listen)) is the capital of Germany and one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.5 million people,[4] Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union.[5] Located in northeastern Germany on the River Spree, it is the center of the Berlin-Brandenburg Metropolitan Region, which has about 4.5 million residents from over 180 nations.[6][7][8][9] Due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one third of the city's area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers and lakes.[10]
First documented in the 13th century, Berlin became the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1417), the Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1918), the German Empire (1871–1918), the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) and the Third Reich (1933–1945).[11] Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world.[12] After World War II, the city was divided; East Berlin became the capital of East Germany while West Berlin became a de facto West German exclave, surrounded by the Berlin Wall (1961–1989).[13] Following German reunification in 1990, the city was once more designated as the capital of all Germany, hosting 158 foreign embassies.[14]
Berlin is a world city of culture, politics, media, and science.[15][16][17][18] Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the service sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations, and convention venues.[19][20] Berlin serves as a continental hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination.[21] Significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction, and electronics.
Modern Berlin is home to renowned universities, orchestras, museums, entertainment venues, and is host to many sporting events.[22] Its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions.[23] The city is well known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts, and a high quality of living.[24] Over the last decade Berlin has seen the upcoming of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene.[25]
20th to 21st centuries[edit]
Street, Berlin (1913) by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner
After 1910 Berlin had become a fertile ground for the German Expressionist movement. In fields such as architecture, painting and cinema new forms of artistic styles were invented. At the end of World War I in 1918, a republic was proclaimed by Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building. In 1920, the Greater Berlin Act incorporated dozens of suburban cities, villages, and estates around Berlin into an expanded city. The act increased the area of Berlin from 66 to 883 km2 (25 to 341 sq mi). The population almost doubled and Berlin had a population of around four million. During the Weimar era, Berlin underwent political unrest due to economic uncertainties, but also became a renowned center of the Roaring Twenties. The metropolis experienced its heyday as a major world capital and was known for its leadership roles in science, the humanities, city planning, film, higher education, government, and industries. Albert Einstein rose to public prominence during his years in Berlin, being awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921.
Berlin in ruins after World War II (Potsdamer Platz, 1945).
In 1933, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power. NSDAP rule effectively destroyed Berlin's Jewish community, which had numbered 160,000, representing one-third of all Jews in the country. Berlin's Jewish population fell to about 80,000 as a result of emigration between 1933 and 1939. After Kristallnacht in 1938, thousands of the city's persecuted groups were imprisoned in the nearby Sachsenhausen concentration camp or, starting in early 1943, were shipped to death camps, such as Auschwitz.[39] During World War II, large parts of Berlin were destroyed in the 1943–45 air raids and during the Battle of Berlin. Around 125,000 civilians were killed.[40] After the end of the war in Europe in 1945, Berlin received large numbers of refugees from the Eastern provinces. The victorious powers divided the city into four sectors, analogous to the occupation zones into which Germany was divided. The sectors of the Western Allies (the United States, the United Kingdom and France) formed West Berlin, while the Soviet sector formed East Berlin.[41]
The Berlin Wall in 1986, painted on the western side. People crossing the so-called "death strip" on the eastern side were at risk of being shot.
All four Allies shared administrative responsibilities for Berlin. However, in 1948, when the Western Allies extended the currency reform in the Western zones of Germany to the three western sectors of Berlin, the Soviet Union imposed a blockade on the access routes to and from West Berlin, which lay entirely inside Soviet-controlled territory. The Berlin airlift, conducted by the three western Allies, overcame this blockade by supplying food and other supplies to the city from June 1948 to May 1949.[42] In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was founded in West Germany and eventually included all of the American, British, and French zones, excluding those three countries' zones in Berlin, while the Marxist-Leninist German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in East Germany. West Berlin officially remained an occupied city, but it politically was aligned with the Federal Republic of Germany despite West Berlin's geographic isolation. Airline service to West Berlin was granted only to American, British, and French airlines.
The fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989. On 3 October 1990, the German reunification process was formally finished.
The founding of the two German states increased Cold War tensions. West Berlin was surrounded by East German territory, and East Germany proclaimed the Eastern part as its capital, a move that was not recognized by the western powers. East Berlin included most of the historic center of the city. The West German government established itself in Bonn.[43] In 1961, East Germany began the building of the Berlin Wall between East and West Berlin, and events escalated to a tank standoff at Checkpoint Charlie. West Berlin was now de facto a part of West Germany with a unique legal status, while East Berlin was de facto a part of East Germany. John F. Kennedy gave his "Ich bin ein Berliner" – speech in 1963 underlining the US support for the Western part of the city. Berlin was completely divided. Although it was possible for Westerners to pass from one to the other side through strictly controlled checkpoints, for most Easterners travel to West Berlin or West Germany prohibited. In 1971, a Four-Power agreement guaranteed access to and from West Berlin by car or train through East Germany.[44]
In 1989, with the end of the Cold War and pressure from the East German population, the Berlin Wall fell on 9 November and was subsequently mostly demolished. Today, the East Side Gallery preserves a large portion of the Wall. On 3 October 1990, the two parts of Germany were reunified as the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin again became the official German capital. In 1991, the German Parliament, the Bundestag, voted to move the seat of the (West) German capital from Bonn to Berlin, which was completed in 1999. Berlin's 2001 administrative reform merged several districts. The number of boroughs was reduced from 23 to twelve. In 2006 the FIFA World Cup Final was held in Berlin.
Jewish Museum, Berlin
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The Libeskind-designed Jewish Museum Berlin, to the left of the old Kollegienhaus (before 2005).
Outside of the Jewish Museum view
The Jewish Museum Berlin (Jüdisches Museum Berlin) is one of the largest Jewish Museums in Europe. In three buildings, two of which are new additions specifically built for the museum by architect Daniel Libeskind, two millennia of German-Jewish history are on display in the permanent exhibition as well as in various changing exhibitions. German-Jewish history is documented in the collections, the library and the archive, in the computer terminals at the museum's Rafael Roth Learning Center, and is reflected in the museum's program of events. The museum was opened in 2001 and is one of Berlin’s most frequented museums (almost 720,000 visitors in 2012).[1]
Opposite the building ensemble, the Academy of the Jewish Museum Berlin was built – also after a design by Libeskind – in 2011/2012 in the former flower market hall. The archives, library, museum education department, and a lecture hall can all be found in the academy.[2]
Princeton economist W. Michael Blumenthal, who was born in Oranienburg near Berlin and was later President Jimmy Carter's Secretary of the Treasury, has been the director of the museum since December 1997.[3]
Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).
Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..
Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is a family of single-seat, single-engine, all-weather, stealth, fifth-generation, multirole combat aircraft, designed for ground-attack and air-superiority missions. It is built by Lockheed Martin and many subcontractors, including Northrop Grumman, Pratt & Whitney, and BAE Systems.
The F-35 has three main models: the conventional takeoff and landing F-35A (CTOL), the short take-off and vertical-landing F-35B (STOVL), and the catapult-assisted take-off but arrested recovery, carrier-based F-35C (CATOBAR). The F-35 descends from the Lockheed Martin X-35, the design that was awarded the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program over the competing Boeing X-32. The official Lightning II name has proven deeply unpopular and USAF pilots have nicknamed it Panther, instead.
The United States principally funds F-35 development, with additional funding from other NATO members and close U.S. allies, including the United Kingdom, Italy, Australia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and formerly Turkey. These funders generally receive subcontracts to manufacture components for the aircraft; for example, Turkey was the sole supplier of several F-35 parts until its removal from the program in July 2019. Several other countries have ordered, or are considering ordering, the aircraft.
As the largest and most expensive military program ever, the F-35 became the subject of much scrutiny and criticism in the U.S. and in other countries. In 2013 and 2014, critics argued that the plane was "plagued with design flaws", with many blaming the procurement process in which Lockheed was allowed "to design, test, and produce the F-35 all at the same time," instead of identifying and fixing "defects before firing up its production line". By 2014, the program was "$163 billion over budget [and] seven years behind schedule". Critics also contend that the program's high sunk costs and political momentum make it "too big to kill".
The F-35 first flew on 15 December 2006. In July 2015, the United States Marines declared its first squadron of F-35B fighters ready for deployment. However, the DOD-based durability testing indicated the service life of early-production F-35B aircraft is well under the expected 8,000 flight hours, and may be as low as 2,100 flight hours. Lot 9 and later aircraft include design changes but service life testing has yet to occur. The U.S. Air Force declared its first squadron of F-35As ready for deployment in August 2016. The U.S. Navy declared its first F-35Cs ready in February 2019. In 2018, the F-35 made its combat debut with the Israeli Air Force.
The U.S. stated plan is to buy 2,663 F-35s, which will provide the bulk of the crewed tactical airpower of the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps in coming decades. Deliveries of the F-35 for the U.S. military are scheduled until 2037 with a projected service life up to 2070.
Development
F-35 development started in 1992 with the origins of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program and was to culminate in full production by 2018. The X-35 first flew on 24 October 2000 and the F-35A on 15 December 2006.
The F-35 was developed to replace most US fighter jets with the variants of a single design that would be common to all branches of the military. It was developed in co-operation with a number of foreign partners, and, unlike the F-22 Raptor, intended to be available for export. Three variants were designed: the F-35A (CTOL), the F-35B (STOVL), and the F-35C (CATOBAR). Despite being intended to share most of their parts to reduce costs and improve maintenance logistics, by 2017, the effective commonality was only 20%. The program received considerable criticism for cost overruns during development and for the total projected cost of the program over the lifetime of the jets.
By 2017, the program was expected to cost $406.5 billion over its lifetime (i.e. until 2070) for acquisition of the jets, and an additional $1.1 trillion for operations and maintenance. A number of design deficiencies were alleged, such as: carrying a small internal payload; performance inferior to the aircraft being replaced, particularly the F-16; lack of safety in relying on a single engine; and flaws such as the vulnerability of the fuel tank to fire and the propensity for transonic roll-off (wing drop). The possible obsolescence of stealth technology was also criticized.
Design
Overview
Although several experimental designs have been developed since the 1960s, such as the unsuccessful Rockwell XFV-12, the F-35B is to be the first operational supersonic STOVL stealth fighter. The single-engine F-35 resembles the larger twin-engined Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, drawing design elements from it. The exhaust duct design was inspired by the General Dynamics Model 200, proposed for a 1972 supersonic VTOL fighter requirement for the Sea Control Ship.
Lockheed Martin has suggested that the F-35 could replace the USAF's F-15C/D fighters in the air-superiority role and the F-15E Strike Eagle in the ground-attack role. It has also stated the F-35 is intended to have close- and long-range air-to-air capability second only to that of the F-22 Raptor, and that the F-35 has an advantage over the F-22 in basing flexibility and possesses "advanced sensors and information fusion".
Testifying before the House Appropriations Committee on 25 March 2009, acquisition deputy to the assistant secretary of the Air Force, Lt. Gen. Mark D. "Shack" Shackelford, stated that the F-35 is designed to be America's "premier surface-to-air missile killer, and is uniquely equipped for this mission with cutting-edge processing power, synthetic aperture radar integration techniques, and advanced target recognition".
Improvements
Ostensible improvements over past-generation fighter aircraft include:
Durable, low-maintenance stealth technology, using structural fiber mat instead of the high-maintenance coatings of legacy stealth platforms
Integrated avionics and sensor fusion that combine information from off- and on-board sensors to increase the pilot's situational awareness and improve target identification and weapon delivery, and to relay information quickly to other command and control (C2) nodes
High-speed data networking including IEEE 1394b and Fibre Channel (Fibre Channel is also used on Boeing's Super Hornet.
The Autonomic Logistics Global Sustainment, Autonomic Logistics Information System (ALIS), and Computerized maintenance management system to help ensure the aircraft can remain operational with minimal maintenance manpower The Pentagon has moved to open up the competitive bidding by other companies. This was after Lockheed Martin stated that instead of costing 20% less than the F-16 per flight hour, the F-35 would actually cost 12% more. Though the ALGS is intended to reduce maintenance costs, the company disagrees with including the cost of this system in the aircraft ownership calculations. The USMC has implemented a workaround for a cyber vulnerability in the system. The ALIS system currently requires a shipping-container load of servers to run, but Lockheed is working on a more portable version to support the Marines' expeditionary operations.
Electro-hydrostatic actuators run by a power-by-wire flight-control system
A modern and updated flight simulator, which may be used for a greater fraction of pilot training to reduce the costly flight hours of the actual aircraft
Lightweight, powerful lithium-ion batteries to provide power to run the control surfaces in an emergency
Structural composites in the F-35 are 35% of the airframe weight (up from 25% in the F-22). The majority of these are bismaleimide and composite epoxy materials. The F-35 will be the first mass-produced aircraft to include structural nanocomposites, namely carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy. Experience of the F-22's problems with corrosion led to the F-35 using a gap filler that causes less galvanic corrosion to the airframe's skin, designed with fewer gaps requiring filler and implementing better drainage. The relatively short 35-foot wingspan of the A and B variants is set by the F-35B's requirement to fit inside the Navy's current amphibious assault ship parking area and elevators; the F-35C's longer wing is considered to be more fuel efficient.
Costs
A U.S. Navy study found that the F-35 will cost 30 to 40% more to maintain than current jet fighters, not accounting for inflation over the F-35's operational lifetime. A Pentagon study concluded a $1 trillion maintenance cost for the entire fleet over its lifespan, not accounting for inflation. The F-35 program office found that as of January 2014, costs for the F-35 fleet over a 53-year lifecycle was $857 billion. Costs for the fighter have been dropping and accounted for the 22 percent life cycle drop since 2010. Lockheed stated that by 2019, pricing for the fifth-generation aircraft will be less than fourth-generation fighters. An F-35A in 2019 is expected to cost $85 million per unit complete with engines and full mission systems, inflation adjusted from $75 million in December 2013.
As someone looking down both barrels of 40 next month, I am of an age where technology is second nature whilst still having been brought up on good old books. If I'm busy and I want an answer yesterday then Google is my friend but If I am reading for pleasure, whether it's fact or fiction, give me a leather-bound tome any day.
The new LEGO Character Encyclopedia is here and it has Mr. Gold in it!
Link To Article: www.groovebricks.com/lego-minifigures-character-encyclope...
-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-Groove Bricks-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-
Website: www.groovebricks.com
Twitter: www.twitter.com/#!/groovebricks
Flickr: www.flickr.com/photos/groovebricks/
YouTube: www.youtube.com/user/groovebricks
Facebook: www.facebook.com/pages/Groove-Bricks/391878220866206
Pitys Reconstructs the Word, 2011
Installation (encyclopedia pages, wood, thread, blankets, books, limited edition broadside)
Dimensions variable
Part of the Installations exhibition at the Palos Verdes Art Center, Rolling Hills Estates, CA; December 9, 2011 through February 5, 2012
Words Submitted:
Al-embick, amazing, antidisestablishmentarism, archaic, bitchin’, blush, calendula, chapopote, chocolate, congruent, contemplation, eerie, enigma, Etiwanda, fecund, fret, haberdashery, lexicon, luddite, mauve, melt, midden, obscurantism, occupy, Ohiowa, paraphernalia, petrichor, raconteur, ridiculous, sesquicentennial, sesquicentennial, slurve, soliloquy, St. Elmo’s Fire, swag, synchromysticism, tech-savvy, tether, unique, universal constant, warmth, yeah
By:
Charlene Abeyta, Chloe Abeyta, Christina Abeyta, Edith Abeyta, Danielle Ashton, Marshall Astor, Amy Caterina, Gabriel Cifarelli, El Chavo, YaYa Chou, Paul Evans, Marta Feinstein, Kathi Flood, Michele Hubacek, Amy Inouye, Lauren Kasmer, Denise Katsenberger, Carolyn Liesy, Apio Ludicrus, Heather McLarty, Elana Mann, Susanna Meiers, Cynde Miller, Karen Neubert, Merry-Beth Noble, Danial Nord, Laurel Paley, Julia Parton, Stuart Rapeport, Vanessa Renwick, Sue Ann Robinson, Arturo Romo-Santillano, Lucinda S. Rudolph, Camilla Stacey, Robert Tower, Carrie Ungerman, Jonathan Ward, Lyn Watanabe, Hague Williams, Luanne Withee, Nan Wollman, Julie Zemel
Encyclopaedia londinensis, or, Universal dictionary of arts, sciences, and literature
London :Printed for the proprietor, by J. Adlard ..., sold at the Encyclopaedia Office ... by J. White ... and Champante and Whitrow ...,1810-1829.
An early volume of the famous Encyclopedia Britannica, another product of the remarkable Scottish Enlightenment, rather appropriately in the Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh, the city where this most famous of Anglophone encyclopedias was born. Even in this day when we can look something up almost instantly online there is still something wonderful about the concentrated knowledge of a good print encyclopedia
Summer holiday 2014
In and around Berlin Germany
Berlin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the capital of Germany. For other uses, see Berlin (disambiguation).
Berlin
State of Germany
Clockwise: Charlottenburg Palace, Fernsehturm Berlin, Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, Alte Nationalgalerie, Potsdamer Platz and Brandenburg Gate.
Clockwise: Charlottenburg Palace, Fernsehturm Berlin, Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, Alte Nationalgalerie, Potsdamer Platz and Brandenburg Gate.
Flag of Berlin
Flag Coat of arms of Berlin
Coat of arms
Location within European Union and Germany
Location within European Union and Germany
Coordinates: 52°31′N 13°23′ECoordinates: 52°31′N 13°23′E
Country
Germany
Government
• Governing Mayor
Michael Müller (SPD)
• Governing parties
SPD / CDU
• Votes in Bundesrat
4 (of 69)
Area
• City
891.85 km2 (344.35 sq mi)
Elevation
34 m (112 ft)
Population (December 2013)[1]
• City
3,517,424
• Density
3,900/km2 (10,000/sq mi)
Demonym
Berliner
Time zone
CET (UTC+1)
• Summer (DST)
CEST (UTC+2)
Postal code(s)
10115–14199
Area code(s)
030
ISO 3166 code
DE-BE
Vehicle registration
B[2]
GDP/ Nominal
€109.2 billion (2013) [3]
NUTS Region
DE3
Website
berlin.de
Berlin (/bərˈlɪn/; German pronunciation: [bɛɐ̯ˈliːn] ( listen)) is the capital of Germany and one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.5 million people,[4] Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union.[5] Located in northeastern Germany on the River Spree, it is the center of the Berlin-Brandenburg Metropolitan Region, which has about 4.5 million residents from over 180 nations.[6][7][8][9] Due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one third of the city's area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers and lakes.[10]
First documented in the 13th century, Berlin became the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1417), the Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1918), the German Empire (1871–1918), the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) and the Third Reich (1933–1945).[11] Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world.[12] After World War II, the city was divided; East Berlin became the capital of East Germany while West Berlin became a de facto West German exclave, surrounded by the Berlin Wall (1961–1989).[13] Following German reunification in 1990, the city was once more designated as the capital of all Germany, hosting 158 foreign embassies.[14]
Berlin is a world city of culture, politics, media, and science.[15][16][17][18] Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the service sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations, and convention venues.[19][20] Berlin serves as a continental hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination.[21] Significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction, and electronics.
Modern Berlin is home to renowned universities, orchestras, museums, entertainment venues, and is host to many sporting events.[22] Its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions.[23] The city is well known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts, and a high quality of living.[24] Over the last decade Berlin has seen the upcoming of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene.[25]
20th to 21st centuries[edit]
Street, Berlin (1913) by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner
After 1910 Berlin had become a fertile ground for the German Expressionist movement. In fields such as architecture, painting and cinema new forms of artistic styles were invented. At the end of World War I in 1918, a republic was proclaimed by Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building. In 1920, the Greater Berlin Act incorporated dozens of suburban cities, villages, and estates around Berlin into an expanded city. The act increased the area of Berlin from 66 to 883 km2 (25 to 341 sq mi). The population almost doubled and Berlin had a population of around four million. During the Weimar era, Berlin underwent political unrest due to economic uncertainties, but also became a renowned center of the Roaring Twenties. The metropolis experienced its heyday as a major world capital and was known for its leadership roles in science, the humanities, city planning, film, higher education, government, and industries. Albert Einstein rose to public prominence during his years in Berlin, being awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921.
Berlin in ruins after World War II (Potsdamer Platz, 1945).
In 1933, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power. NSDAP rule effectively destroyed Berlin's Jewish community, which had numbered 160,000, representing one-third of all Jews in the country. Berlin's Jewish population fell to about 80,000 as a result of emigration between 1933 and 1939. After Kristallnacht in 1938, thousands of the city's persecuted groups were imprisoned in the nearby Sachsenhausen concentration camp or, starting in early 1943, were shipped to death camps, such as Auschwitz.[39] During World War II, large parts of Berlin were destroyed in the 1943–45 air raids and during the Battle of Berlin. Around 125,000 civilians were killed.[40] After the end of the war in Europe in 1945, Berlin received large numbers of refugees from the Eastern provinces. The victorious powers divided the city into four sectors, analogous to the occupation zones into which Germany was divided. The sectors of the Western Allies (the United States, the United Kingdom and France) formed West Berlin, while the Soviet sector formed East Berlin.[41]
The Berlin Wall in 1986, painted on the western side. People crossing the so-called "death strip" on the eastern side were at risk of being shot.
All four Allies shared administrative responsibilities for Berlin. However, in 1948, when the Western Allies extended the currency reform in the Western zones of Germany to the three western sectors of Berlin, the Soviet Union imposed a blockade on the access routes to and from West Berlin, which lay entirely inside Soviet-controlled territory. The Berlin airlift, conducted by the three western Allies, overcame this blockade by supplying food and other supplies to the city from June 1948 to May 1949.[42] In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was founded in West Germany and eventually included all of the American, British, and French zones, excluding those three countries' zones in Berlin, while the Marxist-Leninist German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in East Germany. West Berlin officially remained an occupied city, but it politically was aligned with the Federal Republic of Germany despite West Berlin's geographic isolation. Airline service to West Berlin was granted only to American, British, and French airlines.
The fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989. On 3 October 1990, the German reunification process was formally finished.
The founding of the two German states increased Cold War tensions. West Berlin was surrounded by East German territory, and East Germany proclaimed the Eastern part as its capital, a move that was not recognized by the western powers. East Berlin included most of the historic center of the city. The West German government established itself in Bonn.[43] In 1961, East Germany began the building of the Berlin Wall between East and West Berlin, and events escalated to a tank standoff at Checkpoint Charlie. West Berlin was now de facto a part of West Germany with a unique legal status, while East Berlin was de facto a part of East Germany. John F. Kennedy gave his "Ich bin ein Berliner" – speech in 1963 underlining the US support for the Western part of the city. Berlin was completely divided. Although it was possible for Westerners to pass from one to the other side through strictly controlled checkpoints, for most Easterners travel to West Berlin or West Germany prohibited. In 1971, a Four-Power agreement guaranteed access to and from West Berlin by car or train through East Germany.[44]
In 1989, with the end of the Cold War and pressure from the East German population, the Berlin Wall fell on 9 November and was subsequently mostly demolished. Today, the East Side Gallery preserves a large portion of the Wall. On 3 October 1990, the two parts of Germany were reunified as the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin again became the official German capital. In 1991, the German Parliament, the Bundestag, voted to move the seat of the (West) German capital from Bonn to Berlin, which was completed in 1999. Berlin's 2001 administrative reform merged several districts. The number of boroughs was reduced from 23 to twelve. In 2006 the FIFA World Cup Final was held in Berlin.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is a family of single-seat, single-engine, all-weather, stealth, fifth-generation, multirole combat aircraft, designed for ground-attack and air-superiority missions. It is built by Lockheed Martin and many subcontractors, including Northrop Grumman, Pratt & Whitney, and BAE Systems.
The F-35 has three main models: the conventional takeoff and landing F-35A (CTOL), the short take-off and vertical-landing F-35B (STOVL), and the catapult-assisted take-off but arrested recovery, carrier-based F-35C (CATOBAR). The F-35 descends from the Lockheed Martin X-35, the design that was awarded the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program over the competing Boeing X-32. The official Lightning II name has proven deeply unpopular and USAF pilots have nicknamed it Panther, instead.
The United States principally funds F-35 development, with additional funding from other NATO members and close U.S. allies, including the United Kingdom, Italy, Australia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and formerly Turkey. These funders generally receive subcontracts to manufacture components for the aircraft; for example, Turkey was the sole supplier of several F-35 parts until its removal from the program in July 2019. Several other countries have ordered, or are considering ordering, the aircraft.
As the largest and most expensive military program ever, the F-35 became the subject of much scrutiny and criticism in the U.S. and in other countries. In 2013 and 2014, critics argued that the plane was "plagued with design flaws", with many blaming the procurement process in which Lockheed was allowed "to design, test, and produce the F-35 all at the same time," instead of identifying and fixing "defects before firing up its production line". By 2014, the program was "$163 billion over budget [and] seven years behind schedule". Critics also contend that the program's high sunk costs and political momentum make it "too big to kill".
The F-35 first flew on 15 December 2006. In July 2015, the United States Marines declared its first squadron of F-35B fighters ready for deployment. However, the DOD-based durability testing indicated the service life of early-production F-35B aircraft is well under the expected 8,000 flight hours, and may be as low as 2,100 flight hours. Lot 9 and later aircraft include design changes but service life testing has yet to occur. The U.S. Air Force declared its first squadron of F-35As ready for deployment in August 2016. The U.S. Navy declared its first F-35Cs ready in February 2019. In 2018, the F-35 made its combat debut with the Israeli Air Force.
The U.S. stated plan is to buy 2,663 F-35s, which will provide the bulk of the crewed tactical airpower of the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps in coming decades. Deliveries of the F-35 for the U.S. military are scheduled until 2037 with a projected service life up to 2070.
Development
F-35 development started in 1992 with the origins of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program and was to culminate in full production by 2018. The X-35 first flew on 24 October 2000 and the F-35A on 15 December 2006.
The F-35 was developed to replace most US fighter jets with the variants of a single design that would be common to all branches of the military. It was developed in co-operation with a number of foreign partners, and, unlike the F-22 Raptor, intended to be available for export. Three variants were designed: the F-35A (CTOL), the F-35B (STOVL), and the F-35C (CATOBAR). Despite being intended to share most of their parts to reduce costs and improve maintenance logistics, by 2017, the effective commonality was only 20%. The program received considerable criticism for cost overruns during development and for the total projected cost of the program over the lifetime of the jets.
By 2017, the program was expected to cost $406.5 billion over its lifetime (i.e. until 2070) for acquisition of the jets, and an additional $1.1 trillion for operations and maintenance. A number of design deficiencies were alleged, such as: carrying a small internal payload; performance inferior to the aircraft being replaced, particularly the F-16; lack of safety in relying on a single engine; and flaws such as the vulnerability of the fuel tank to fire and the propensity for transonic roll-off (wing drop). The possible obsolescence of stealth technology was also criticized.
Design
Overview
Although several experimental designs have been developed since the 1960s, such as the unsuccessful Rockwell XFV-12, the F-35B is to be the first operational supersonic STOVL stealth fighter. The single-engine F-35 resembles the larger twin-engined Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, drawing design elements from it. The exhaust duct design was inspired by the General Dynamics Model 200, proposed for a 1972 supersonic VTOL fighter requirement for the Sea Control Ship.
Lockheed Martin has suggested that the F-35 could replace the USAF's F-15C/D fighters in the air-superiority role and the F-15E Strike Eagle in the ground-attack role. It has also stated the F-35 is intended to have close- and long-range air-to-air capability second only to that of the F-22 Raptor, and that the F-35 has an advantage over the F-22 in basing flexibility and possesses "advanced sensors and information fusion".
Testifying before the House Appropriations Committee on 25 March 2009, acquisition deputy to the assistant secretary of the Air Force, Lt. Gen. Mark D. "Shack" Shackelford, stated that the F-35 is designed to be America's "premier surface-to-air missile killer, and is uniquely equipped for this mission with cutting-edge processing power, synthetic aperture radar integration techniques, and advanced target recognition".
Improvements
Ostensible improvements over past-generation fighter aircraft include:
Durable, low-maintenance stealth technology, using structural fiber mat instead of the high-maintenance coatings of legacy stealth platforms
Integrated avionics and sensor fusion that combine information from off- and on-board sensors to increase the pilot's situational awareness and improve target identification and weapon delivery, and to relay information quickly to other command and control (C2) nodes
High-speed data networking including IEEE 1394b and Fibre Channel (Fibre Channel is also used on Boeing's Super Hornet.
The Autonomic Logistics Global Sustainment, Autonomic Logistics Information System (ALIS), and Computerized maintenance management system to help ensure the aircraft can remain operational with minimal maintenance manpower The Pentagon has moved to open up the competitive bidding by other companies. This was after Lockheed Martin stated that instead of costing 20% less than the F-16 per flight hour, the F-35 would actually cost 12% more. Though the ALGS is intended to reduce maintenance costs, the company disagrees with including the cost of this system in the aircraft ownership calculations. The USMC has implemented a workaround for a cyber vulnerability in the system. The ALIS system currently requires a shipping-container load of servers to run, but Lockheed is working on a more portable version to support the Marines' expeditionary operations.
Electro-hydrostatic actuators run by a power-by-wire flight-control system
A modern and updated flight simulator, which may be used for a greater fraction of pilot training to reduce the costly flight hours of the actual aircraft
Lightweight, powerful lithium-ion batteries to provide power to run the control surfaces in an emergency
Structural composites in the F-35 are 35% of the airframe weight (up from 25% in the F-22). The majority of these are bismaleimide and composite epoxy materials. The F-35 will be the first mass-produced aircraft to include structural nanocomposites, namely carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy. Experience of the F-22's problems with corrosion led to the F-35 using a gap filler that causes less galvanic corrosion to the airframe's skin, designed with fewer gaps requiring filler and implementing better drainage. The relatively short 35-foot wingspan of the A and B variants is set by the F-35B's requirement to fit inside the Navy's current amphibious assault ship parking area and elevators; the F-35C's longer wing is considered to be more fuel efficient.
Costs
A U.S. Navy study found that the F-35 will cost 30 to 40% more to maintain than current jet fighters, not accounting for inflation over the F-35's operational lifetime. A Pentagon study concluded a $1 trillion maintenance cost for the entire fleet over its lifespan, not accounting for inflation. The F-35 program office found that as of January 2014, costs for the F-35 fleet over a 53-year lifecycle was $857 billion. Costs for the fighter have been dropping and accounted for the 22 percent life cycle drop since 2010. Lockheed stated that by 2019, pricing for the fifth-generation aircraft will be less than fourth-generation fighters. An F-35A in 2019 is expected to cost $85 million per unit complete with engines and full mission systems, inflation adjusted from $75 million in December 2013.
Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).
Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..
Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.
More experiments in bookmaking. Forgive the less than pretty photos, sometimes it's easier just to take photos with my phone and upload everything to Instagram. Still trying to keep my Flickr and blog updated though. Blogged about here: bbqweasel.blogspot.com.au/2017/08/more-mini-books.html
Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
Roadtrip, Koln(Cologne) Photokina and Luik(Liege)
Photokina
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 1920s sound-on-disc movie sound system, see Photokinema.
Photokina logo
South Entrance of the Cologne Trade Fair during Photokina 2008.
The Photokina (rendered in the promoters' branding as photokina) is the world's largest trade fair for the photographic and imaging industries. The first Photokina was held in Cologne, Germany, in 1950, and it is now held biennially in September at the koelnmesse Trade Fair and Exhibition Centre. Many photographic and imaging companies introduce and showcase state of the art imaging products at Photokina. The show has two main competitors, both annual shows held in different parts of the world. The CP+ show in Yokohama, Japan, originally the Japan Camera Show, has been held since the early 1960s. In the U.S., the main photography show is PMA@CES, which since 2012 has coincided with the International CES consumer electronics show in Las Vegas.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photokina
Cologne
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the German city. For the perfume, see Eau de Cologne. For other uses, see Cologne (disambiguation) and Köln (disambiguation).
Cologne
Köln
From top to bottom, left to right: Hohenzollern Bridge by night, Great St. Martin Church, Colonius TV-tower, Cologne Cathedral, Kranhaus buildings in Rheinauhafen, MediaPark
From top to bottom, left to right:
Hohenzollern Bridge by night, Great St. Martin Church, Colonius TV-tower, Cologne Cathedral, Kranhaus buildings in Rheinauhafen, MediaPark
Flag of Cologne
Flag Coat of arms of Cologne
Coat of arms
Cologne is located in Germany
Cologne
Cologne
Cologne within North Rhine-Westphalia [show]
North rhine w K.svg
Coordinates: 50°56′11″N 6°57′10″ECoordinates: 50°56′11″N 6°57′10″E
Country
Germany
State
North Rhine-Westphalia
Admin. region
Cologne
District
Urban districts of Germany
Founded
38 BC
Government
• Lord Mayor
Jürgen Roters (SPD)
Area
• Total
405.15 km2 (156.43 sq mi)
Elevation
37 m (121 ft)
Population (2013-12-31)[1]
• Total
1,034,175
• Density
2,600/km2 (6,600/sq mi)
Time zone
CET/CEST (UTC+1/+2)
Postal codes
50441–51149
Dialling codes
0221, 02203 (Porz)
Vehicle registration
K
Website
Cologne (English pronunciation: /kəˈloʊn/, German: Köln [kœln] ( listen), Colognian: Kölle [ˈkœɫə] ( listen)) is Germany's fourth-largest city (after Berlin, Hamburg, and Munich), and is the largest city both in the German Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and within the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Area, one of the major European metropolitan areas with more than ten million inhabitants.
Cologne is located on both sides of the Rhine River. The city's famous Cologne Cathedral (Kölner Dom) is the seat of the Catholic Archbishop of Cologne. The University of Cologne (Universität zu Köln) is one of Europe's oldest and largest universities.[2]
Cologne was founded and established in the first century AD, as the Roman Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium in Ubii territory.[3] It was the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior and the headquarters of the military in the region until occupied by the Franks in 462. During the Middle Ages it flourished as one of the most important major trade routes between east and west in Europe. Cologne was one of the leading members of the Hanseatic League and one of the largest cities north of the Alps in medieval and renaissance times. Up until World War II the city had undergone several other occupations by the French and also the British. Cologne was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II. The bombing reduced the population by 95% and destroyed almost the entire city. With the intention of restoring as many historic buildings as possible, the rebuilding has resulted in a very mixed and unique cityscape.
Cologne is a major cultural centre for the Rhineland; it is home to more than thirty museums and hundreds of galleries. Exhibitions range from local ancient Roman archeological sites to contemporary graphics and sculpture. The Cologne Trade Fair hosts a number of trade shows such as Art Cologne, imm Cologne, Gamescom, and the Photokina.
Liège
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the Belgian city. For other uses, see Liège (disambiguation).
"Liege" redirects here. For other uses, see Liege (disambiguation).
Liège
Municipality of Belgium
Liege View 03.jpg
Flag of Liège
Flag Coat of arms of Liège
Coat of arms
Liège is located in Belgium
Liège
Liège
Location in Belgium
Map of Liège[show]
LuikLocatie.png
Coordinates: 50°38′N 05°34′ECoordinates: 50°38′N 05°34′E
Country
Belgium
Community
French Community
Region
Wallonia
Province
Liège
Arrondissement
Liège
Government
• Mayor
Willy Demeyer (PS)
• Governing party/ies
PS – cdH
Area
• Total
69.39 km2 (26.79 sq mi)
Population (1 January 2013)[1]
• Total
195,576
• Density
2,800/km2 (7,300/sq mi)
Postal codes
4000–4032
Area codes
04
Website
Liège (French pronunciation: [ljɛʒ]; Dutch: Luik, [lœyk] ( listen); Walloon: Lidje; German: Lüttich; Latin: Leodium; Limburgish: Luuk; Luxembourgish: Léck) is a major city and a municipality in the European country of Belgium. It is located in the province of the same name, Liège, of which it is the capital and is part of the Walloon (French-speaking) region of Belgium.
The city is situated in the valley of the Meuse River, in the east of Belgium, not far from borders with the Netherlands and with Germany. At Liège the Meuse river meets the river Ourthe. The city is part of the sillon industriel, the former industrial backbone of Wallonia. It still is the principal economic and cultural centre of the region.
The Liège municipality (i.e. the city proper) includes the former communes of Angleur, Bressoux, Chênée, Glain, Grivegnée, Jupille-sur-Meuse, Rocourt, and Wandre. In November 2012, Liège had 198,280 inhabitants. The metropolitan area, including the outer commuter zone, covers an area of 1,879 km2 (725 sq mi) and had a total population of 749,110 on 1 January 2008.[2][3] This includes a total of 52 municipalities, among others, Herstal and Seraing. Liège ranks as the third most populous urban area in Belgium, after Brussels and Antwerp, and the fourth municipality after Antwerp, Ghent and Charleroi.[3]
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge
Station Luik-Guillemins
Ga naar: navigatie, zoeken
Station Luik-Guillemins
Relax ... take it easy (7757527444).jpg
Opening 1 mei 1842
Telegrafische code FL
Aantal perrons 9
Lijn(en) 34 - 36 - 37 - 125 (- HSL 2 - HSL 3)
Coördinaten 50° 37′ NB, 5° 34′ OL
Reizigerstellingen[1]
-Weekdag
-Zaterdag
-Zondag (2009)
15.153
7.590
7.508
Beheerder NMBS
Station Luik-Guillemins
Station Luik-Guillemins
Stationsinformatie NMBS - Live stationsbord
Portaal Portaalicoon Openbaar vervoer
2013
Station Luik-Guillemins (Frans: Liège-Guillemins) is het belangrijkste spoorwegstation van de stad Luik. Het station ligt op het einde van verschillende spoorlijnen. In reizigersaantallen is dit het op tien na drukste station in België en het op twee na drukste station van Wallonië, na Ottignies en Namen (reizigerstelling 2009)[2].
Het station is genoemd naar de wijk Guillemins, waarin het ligt. Deze wijk is op zijn beurt weer genoemd naar de kloosterorde van de Wilhelmieten, die daar in 1287 een klooster stichtte.
The entry on coffee from a 1950s encyclopedia that has been in our family for as long as I can remember.
Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).
Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..
Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.
Wiki: wikimapia.org/2086446/en/Nuraghe-Goni
'The Nuragic civilization, born and developed in Sardinia, the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, lasted from the Bronze Age (18th century BC) to the 2nd century AD. The civilization's name derives from its most characteristic monument, the nuraghe, a tower-fortress type of construction built in numerous exemplars starting from about 1800 BC.[Today some 7,000 nuraghes dot the Sardinian landscape.
No written records of this civilization have been discovered.'
-- Wikipedia
From my personal collection.
Here it is! Electronic Games Magazine 1984 Software Encyclopedia!!!
This issue is in a very solid Very-Fine (8.0) condition. It looks more like an 8.5 but very small tears by the staples brings it down in grade slightly
This is one of the toughest, if not toughest issue to find in the entire Electronic Games Magazine print run. Initially, I thought this was a little more rare than the first issue of EG and about the same rarity as the 1983 Software Encyclopedia and the 1983 Buyers Guide. However, it may be a little more rare than even those hard to find issues. I base this on my experience trying to track down this issue. It took so long to find and it seems, at least from the year 2005 to 2010 (the time frame I was actively looking for it) that only a very small handful were put up for sale on EBay and other select sites. Either way, it sure wasn't easy to come across.
Outside of the rarity this issue is full of reviews from all the awesomeness that was gaming in the year 1984. Not many photos of the games reviewed but tons of info! A great read and a wonderful trip down that good'ol memory lane! For referencing Video Gaming history you can't get much better than the software encyclopedias and buyers guide that Electronic Games Magazine published!
Actually, any issue of Electronic Games Magazine is great for retro gaming info! You will find no better publication to learn about the early history of the worlds greatest hobby!
THE ABOVE IMAGE IS NOT TO BE USED OR COPIED FOR ANY REASON WITHOUT EXPRESSES WRITTEN PERMISSION.
Palace of Fontainebleau
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Palace and Park of Fontainebleau
Name as inscribed on the World Heritage List
Location of Palace of Fontainebleau in France.
The Palace of Fontainebleau, located 55 kilometres from the centre of Paris, is one of the largest French royal châteaux. The palace as it is today is the work of many French monarchs, building on an early 16th-century structure of Francis I. The building is arranged around a series of courtyards. The commune of Fontainebleau has grown up around the remainder of the Forest of Fontainebleau, a former royal hunting park. This forest is now home to many endangered species of Europe.
The throne room, formerly the King’s bedroom from Henry IV to Louis XVI, it was converted into the throne room by Napoleon
The older château on this site was already used in the latter part of the 12th century by King Louis VII, for whom Thomas Becket consecrated the chapel. Fontainebleau was a favourite residence of Philip Augustus (Philip II) and Louis IX. The creator of the present edifice was Francis I, under whom the architect Gilles le Breton erected most of the buildings of the Cour Ovale, including the Porte Dorée, its southern entrance. The king also invited the architect Sebastiano Serlio to France, and Leonardo da Vinci. The Gallery of Francis I, with its frescoes framed in stucco by Rosso Fiorentino, carried out between 1522 and 1540, was the first great decorated gallery built in France. Broadly speaking, at Fontainebleau the Renaissance was introduced to France. The Salle des Fêtes, in the reign of Henry II, was decorated by the Italian Mannerist painters, Francesco Primaticcio and Niccolò dell'Abbate. Benvenuto Cellini's "Nymph of Fontainebleau", commissioned for the château, is at the Louvre.
Another campaign of extensive construction was undertaken by King Henry II and Catherine de' Medici, who commissioned architects Philibert Delorme and Jean Bullant. To the Fontainebleau of François I and Henry II, King Henry IV added the court that carries his name, the Cour des Princes, with the adjoining Galerie de Diane de Poitiers and the Galerie des Cerfs, used as a library. A "second school of Fontainebleau" decorators, less ambitious and original than the first, evolved from these additional projects. Henry IV pierced the wooded park with a 1200m canal (which can be fished today) and ordered the planting of pines, elms and fruit trees. The park stretches of an area more than 80 hectares, enclosed by walls and pierced rectilinear paths. Henry IV's gardener, Claude Mollet, trained at Château d'Anet, laid out patterned parterres. Preserved on the grounds is Henry IV's jeu de paume (real tennis court). It is the largest such court in the world, and one of the few publicly owned.
Philip the Fair (Philip IV), Henry III and Louis XIII were all born in the palace, and Philip died there. Christina of Sweden lived there for years, following her abdication in 1654. In 1685 Fontainebleau saw the signing of the Edict of Fontainebleau, which revoked the Edict of Nantes (1598). Royal guests of the Bourbon kings were housed at Fontainebleau, including Peter the Great of Russia and Christian VII of Denmark.
Revolution and Empire
By the late 18th century, the château had fallen into disrepair; during the French Revolution many of the original furnishings were sold, in the long Revolutionary sales of the contents of all the royal châteaux, intended as a way of raising money for the nation and ensuring that the Bourbons could not return to their comforts. Nevertheless, within a decade Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte began to transform the Château de Fontainebleau into a symbol of his grandeur, as an alternative to the empty Palace of Versailles, with its Bourbon connotations. Napoleon hosted Pope Pius VII there in 1804, when he came to consecrate the emperor, and again in 1812–1814, when he was Napoleon's prisoner. With modifications of the château's structure, including the cobblestone entrance wide enough for his carriage, Napoleon helped make the château the place that visitors see today. At Fontainebleau Napoleon abdicated for the first time, bade farewell to his Old Guard and went into exile in 1814.Fontainebleau was also the setting of the Second Empire court of his nephew Napoleon III.
Today
The château is now home to the Écoles d'Art Américaines, a school of art, architecture, and music for students from the United States. The school was founded by General Pershing when his men were stationed there during the First World War.
Palacio de Fontainebleau
Palacio y parque de Fontainebleau. Nombre descrito en la Lista del Patrimonio de la Humanidad.
Coordenadas48°24′07″N 02°41′53″E País Francia
La Sala de espectáculos del Palacio de Fontainebleau, en 1855.
El Palacio de Fontainebleau, en francés Château de Fontainebleau, es uno de los mayores palacios reales franceses. Está localizado en la ciudad de Fontainebleau, departamento de Sena y Marne, en el norte de Francia.
El palacio refleja, actualmente, las aportaciones constructivas y decorativas de varios monarcas franceses, a partir de una estructura inicial de Francisco I. El edificio se desarrolla alrededor de una serie de patios.
La ciudad de Fontainebleau creció en su entorno y en lo que restaba de la «floresta de Fontainebleau» (en español bosque de Fontainebleau), un antiguo parque real de caza.
Este palacio introdujo en Francia el Manierismo italiano, en la decoración de interiores y en los jardines, adaptándolo. El manierismo francés en la decoración de interiores del siglo XVI es conocido como «estilo Fontainebleau»: combina escultura, forja, pintura, estuco y carpintería. En jardinería supuso la introducción del parterre.
El ideal de belleza femenina en Fontainebleau es, también, manierista: una pequeña y graciosa cabeza en un cuello esbelto, torso y brazos exageradamente largos, pechos pequeños y altos; es casi un regreso a las bellezas del gótico tardío. Los nuevos ideales de Fontainebleau fueron plasmados en refinados y detallados grabados que circularon entre artistas y entendidos.
A través de los grabados realizados por la «Escuela de Fontainebleau», este nuevo estilo fue transmitido a otros centros del norte de Europa, especialmente en Amberes, Bélgica, Alemania y, más tarde, también Londres.
El viejo castillo que se erigía en este lugar ya era usado al final del siglo XII por el rey Luis VII, para quien Thomas Becket consagró la capilla. Fontainebleau fue una de las residencias favoritas de Felipe II y de Luis IX. El creador del edificio actual fue Francisco I, para quien el arquitecto Gilles le Breton construyó la mayor parte del Cour Ovale (Patio Ovalado), incluyendo la Porte Dorée (Puerta Dorada), en su entrada sur. Este rey también invitó a Sebastiano Serlio y Leonardo da Vinci. La Galería de Francisco I, con sus frescos hechos en estuco por Rosso Fiorentino, fue construida entre 1522 y 1540, siendo la primera gran galería decorada construida en Francia.
El Renacimiento fue introducido en Francia por el Palacio de Fontainebleau, por influencia de Enrique II y Catalina de Médici, que contrataron a los arquitectos Philibert Delorme y Jean Bullant, con los que llevaron a cabo una importante campaña de remodelaciones. La Salle des Fêtes (Salón de Baile) fue decorada por los pintores manieristas italianos Francesco Primaticcio y Niccolò dell'Abbate. La «Ninfa de Fontainebleau», de Benvenuto Cellini, encargada para el palacio, está en el Louvre.
Al Fontainebleau de Francisco I y Enrique II, Enrique IV añadió el patio que lleva su nombre, el Cour des Princes (Patio de los Príncipes), la Galerie de Diane de Poitiers (Galería de Diana de Poitiers) y la Galerie des Cerfs (Galería de los Ciervos), usada como biblioteca. Una «segunda escuela de decoradores de Fontainebleau», menos ambiciosa y original que la primera, estuvo involucrada en estos proyectos. Enrique IV perforó el parque forestal con un canal de 1200 metros, donde actualmente se puede pescar, y ordenó la plantación de pinos, olmos y frutales. Su jardinero, Claude Mollet, con habilidades ya probadas en el Château d'Anet, ejecutó los parterres.
Tres siglos después el palacio entró en decadencia; durante la Revolución francesa mucho del mobiliario original se dispersó en las ventas revolucionarias del contenido de todos los palacios reales, concebidas como una forma de conseguir dinero para la nación y asegurar que los Borbones no podrían volver a sus dominios. Dentro de la década siguiente, el emperador Napoleón Bonaparte comenzó a transformar el Château de Fontainebleau en un símbolo de su grandeza, como una alternativa al Palacio de Versalles que tenía connotaciones borbónicas. En Fontainebleau, Napoleón I de Francia firmó su abdicación, con el Tratado de Fontainebleau. Se despidió de su Vieja Guardia y partió al exilio.
Con modificaciones en la estructura del palacio, incluyendo la entrada de cantería suficientemente ancha para su carruaje, Napoleón ayudó a hacer del palacio el lugar que los visitantes conocen actualmente. Fontainebleau fue el escenario de la Corte del Segundo Imperio de su sobrino Napoleón III. Felipe IV, Enrique III y Luis XIII nacieron en este palacio, y el primer de estos reyes también murió aquí. Cristina de Suecia vivió en Fontainebleau durante varios años, después de abdicar en 1654. En 1685 Fontainebleau fue el escenario de la firma del Edicto de Fontainebleau, el cual revocó el Edicto de Nantes (1598). Huéspedes reales de los reyes de la dinastía de los Borbones fueron instalados en Fontainebleau: Pedro I de Rusia y Cristián VII de Dinamarca, y también, en la época de Napoleón, el Papa Pío VII, en 1804 cuando vino a consagrar a Napoleón como Emperador, y entre 1812 y 1814, cuando fue su prisionero.
Actualmente, parte del palacio alberga las Écoles d'Art Américaines (Escuelas de Artes Americanas), una escuela de arte, arquitectura y música para estudiantes de los EUA. Preservado en los campos está el jeu de paume (campo de tenis real) de Enrique IV. Es el mayor campo de tenis de este género en el mundo, y uno de los pocos de propiedad pública.
En 1981, el Château de Fontainebleau fue clasificado Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la Unesco.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Soviet War Memorial
Treptower Park
Established May 8, 1949
Location 52°29′15″N 13°28′06″ECoordinates: 52°29′15″N 13°28′06″E
near Berlin
Designed by Yakov Belopolsky
The Soviet War Memorial is a vast war memorial and military cemetery in Berlin's Treptower Park. It was built to the design of the Soviet architect Yakov Belopolsky to commemorate 7,000 of the 80,000 Soviet soldiers who fell in the Battle of Berlin in April–May 1945. It opened four years after World War II on May 8, 1949. The Memorial served as the central war memorial of East Germany.
The monument is one of three Soviet memorials built in Berlin after the end of the war. The other two memorials are the Tiergarten memorial, built in 1945 in the Tiergarten district of what later became West Berlin, and the Soviet War Memorial Schönholzer Heide in Berlin's Pankow district.
History
1949
Kranzniederlegung durch Leninpioniere, Komsomolzen und Thälmannpioniere, Juli 1989.
Protest-demonstration with around 250.000 Berliners against Neonazis, January 1990.
At the conclusion of World War II, three Soviet war memorials were built in the city of Berlin to commemorate Soviet deaths in World War II, especially the 80,000 that died during the Battle of Berlin. The memorials are not only commemorative, but also serve as cemeteries for those killed.
A competition was announced shortly after the end of the war for the design of the park. The competition attracted 33 entries, with the eventual design a hybrid of the submissions of the architect Jakow S. Belopolski, sculptor Yevgeny Vuchetich, painter Alexander A. Gorpenko and engineer Sarra S. Walerius. The sculptures, reliefs, and 2.5 meter diameter "Flammenschalen" (flame bowls) were cast at the Kunstgießerei Lauchhammer in 1948.[1] The memorial itself was built in Treptower Park on land previously occupied by a sports field. The memorial was completed in 1949. The stones and granite that were used in the construction came from the demolished New Reich Chancellery.[2]
Around the time of the fall of the Berlin Wall, unknown persons vandalized parts of the memorial with anti-Soviet graffiti. The PDS claimed that the vandals were right-wing extremists and arranged a demonstration on January 3, 1990; 250,000 GDR citizens participated. Through the demonstrations, the newly formed party stayed true to the communist roots of its founding party, and attempted to gain political influence.[3] PDS chairman Gregor Gysi took this opportunity to call for a Verfassungsschutz ("Constitution Protection") for the GDR, and questioned whether the Amt für Nationale Sicherheit (Department of National Security, the successor of the Stasi) should be reorganized or phased out. Historian Stefan Wolle believes that Stasi officers may have been behind the vandalism, since they feared for their jobs.[4]
As part of the Two Plus Four Agreement, Germany agreed to assume maintenance and repair responsibility for all war memorials in the country, including the Soviet memorial in Treptower Park. However, Germany must consult the Russian Federation before undertaking any changes to the memorial.
Since 1995, an annual vigil has taken place at the memorial on May 9, organized by (among others) the Bund der Antifaschisten Treptow e.V. ("Anti-fascist Coalition of Treptow"). The motto of the event is the "Day of Freedom", corresponding to Victory Day, a Russian holiday and the final surrender of German soldiers at the end of World War II.
Layout
The focus of the ensemble is a monument by Soviet sculptor Yevgeny Vuchetich: a 12-m tall statue of a Soviet soldier with a sword holding a German child, standing over a broken swastika. According to Marshal of the Soviet Union Vasily Chuikov, the Vuchetich statue commemorates the deeds of Sergeant of Guards Nikolai Masalov, who during the final storm on the center of Berlin risked his life under heavy German machine-gun fire to rescue a three-year-old German girl whose mother had apparently disappeared.[5]
Before the monument is a central area lined on both sides by 16 stone sarcophagi, one for each of the 16 Soviet Republics (in 1940–56 then up to the reorganization of the Karelo-Finnish SSR into the Karelian ASSR there were 16 "union republics") with relief carvings of military scenes and quotations from Joseph Stalin, on one side in Russian, on the other side the same text in German: "Now all recognize that the Soviet people with their selfless fight saved the civilization of Europe from fascist thugs. This was a great achievement of the Soviet people to the history of mankind". The area is the final resting place for some 5000 soldiers of the Red Army.
At the opposite end of the central area from the statue is a portal consisting of a pair of stylized Soviet flags built of red granite. These are flanked by two statues of kneeling soldiers.
Beyond the flag monuments is a further sculpture, along the axis formed by the soldier monument, the main area, and the flags, is another figure, of the Motherland weeping at the loss of her sons.
In recent years, the ensemble has undergone a thorough renovation. In 2003 the main statue was removed and sent to a workshop on the island of Rügen for refurbishment. It was replaced on May 4, 2004.
Coruja pronta para defender as suas crias.
A text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
The Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia) (ex-Athene cunicularia) is a small, long-legged owl found throughout open landscapes of North and South America. Burrowing owls can be found in grasslands, rangelands, agricultural areas, deserts, or any other dry, open area with low vegetation (Lewis 2005). They nest and roost in burrows, such as those abandoned by prairie dogs. Unlike most owls, burrowing owls are often active during the day. However, most hunting is done at dusk or at night.
Burrowing owls are able to live for at least 9 years in the wild and over 10 years in captivity.[citation needed] They are often killed by vehicles when crossing roads, and have many natural enemies, including badgers, coyotes, and snakes. They are also killed by both feral and domestic cats and dogs.
Burrowing owls have bright yellow eyes. The bill can be yellow or greenish depending on the subspecies. The legs are incompletely feathered, and the toes are grayish in color. They lack ear tufts and have a flattened facial disc. The owls have prominent white eyebrows and a white "chin" patch which they expand and display during certain behaviors.
Adult owls have brown upperparts with white spotting. The breast and belly are white with variable brown spotting or barring. Juvenile owls are similar in appearance, but they lack most of the white spotting above and brown barring below. Also, the young owls have a buff bar across the upper wing and their breast may be buffy rather than white.
Males and females are similar in size and appearance. However, adult males sometimes appear lighter in color because they spend more time outside the burrow during daylight, and their feathers become sun-bleached. The average adult is slightly larger than an American Robin, at 25 cm (10 inches) length, 53 cm (21 inches) wingspan, and 170g (6 oz) weight (Lewis 2005).
The typical "who who" call of a burrowing owl is associated with territory defense and breeding, often given by adult males to attract a female to a promising burrow. They also make other sounds, which are described as chucks, chattering, and screams. These sounds are usually accompanied by an up and down bobbing of the head. When alarmed, young birds will give a hissing call - a case of acoustic Batesian mimicry - that sounds like a rattlesnake (Haug et al. 1993).
Before European colonization, burrowing owls probably inhabited every suitable area of the New World, but they have experienced some restrictions in distribution since. They range from the southern portions of the western Canadian provinces through southern Mexico and western Central America. They are also found in Florida and many Caribbean islands. In South America, they are patchy in the northwest and through the Andes, but widely distributed from southern Brazil to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.
Burrowing owls are year-round residents in most of their range. Birds that breed in Canada and northern USA usually migrate south to Mexico and southern USA during winter months.
The burrowing owl is endangered in Canada[1], threatened in Mexico, and a species of special concern in Florida and most of the western USA. It is common and widespread in open regions of many Neotropical countries, where they sometimes even inhabit fields and parks in cities. In regions bordering the Amazon Rainforest they are spreading with deforestation. It is therefore listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.
The major reasons for declining populations in North America are control programs for prairie dogs and loss of habitat, although burrowing owls readily inhabit some anthropogenic landscapes, such as airport grasslands or golf courses (Korfanta et al. 2005).
Burrowing owls are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. They are also included in CITES Appendix II.
Genetic analysis of the two North American subspecies indicates that inbreeding is not a problem within those populations (Korfanta et al. 2005).
The nesting season begins in late March or April in North America. Burrowing owls are usually monogamous, but occasionally a male will have two mates (Lewis 2005). Pairs of owls will sometimes nest in loose colonies. Their typical breeding habitat is open grassland or prairie, but they can occasionally adapt to other open areas like airports, golf courses, and agricultural fields. Burrowing owls are slightly tolerant of human presence, often nesting near roads, farms, homes, and regularly maintained irrigation canals.
The owls nest in an underground burrow, hence the name Burrowing Owl. They use burrows created by other burrowing animals such as prairie dogs, ground squirrels, or badgers (Holt et al. 1999). If burrows are unavailable and the soil is not hard or rocky, the owls may excavate their own. Burrowing owls will also nest in shallow, underground, man-made structures that have easy access to the surface.
The female will lay as many as 8-12 eggs over a two week period. She will then incubate the eggs for three to four weeks while the male brings her food. After the eggs hatch both parents will feed the chicks. Four weeks after hatching, the chicks are able to make short flights and begin leaving the nest burrow. The parents will still help feed the chicks for 1 to 3 months. While most of the eggs will hatch, only four to five chicks usually survive to leave the nest.
During the nesting season, burrowing owls will line the burrow with mammal dung, usually from cattle. The dung helps to control the microclimate inside the burrow and to attract insects, which the owls may eat (Levey et al. 2004).
Site fidelity rates appear to vary among populations. In some locations, owls will frequently reuse a nest several years in a row. Owls in migratory northern populations are less likely to return to the same burrow every year. Also, as with many other birds, the female owls are more likely to disperse to a different site than are male owls (Lutz & Plumpton 1999).
The highly variable diet includes small mammals, small birds, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, and scorpions. But the owls mainly eat large insects and small rodents. Although burrowing owls often live in close proximity to ground squirrels, they rarely prey upon them. Unlike other owls, they also eat fruits and seeds, especially the fruit of tasajillo (Cylindropuntia leptocaulis) and other prickly pear and cholla cacti. When hunting they wait on a perch until they spot prey. Then they swoop down on prey or fly up to catch insects in flight. Sometimes they chase prey on foot across the ground.
The burrowing owl is sometimes separated in the monotypic genus Speotyto. This is based on an overall different morphology and karyotype. On the other hand, osteology and DNA sequence data suggests that the Burrowing Owl is just a terrestrial version of the Athene little owls, and it is today placed in that genus by most authorities.
A considerable number of subspecies have been described, but they differ little in appearance and the taxonomy of several needs to be validated (Holt et al. 1999). Most subspecies are found in the Andes and the Antilles. Only A. c. hypugaea and A. c. floridana are found in North America. Although distinct from each other, the relationship of the Floridan subspecies to (and its distinctness from) the Caribbean birds is not quite clear (Korfanta et al. 2005).
Um texto em português:
Coruja-buraqueira (Speotyto cunicularia).
Veja um vídeo clicando no endereço a seguir:
br.youtube.com/watch?v=BhCP0YqJDnY
Ficha Técnica
Nome comum: coruja-buraqueira, coruja-martelo, coruja-do-campo, caburé-de-cupim, caburé-do-campo, coruja-barata, coruja-buraqueira, coruja-do-campo, coruja-mineira, corujinha-buraqueira, corujinha-do-buraco, corujinha-do-campo, guedé, urucuera, urucuréia e urucuriá.
Nome científico: Speotyto cunicularia
Reino: Animal
Filo: Vertebrado
Classe: Aves
Ordem: Strigiformes
Família: Strigidae
Ave muito interessante e com características peculiares é tida pelo povo grego como a ave da sabedoria. Outros povos porém, acham que causa azar e arrepios seu canto quando rasga o silêncio noturno. Dizem ainda que é sinal de mal agouro e que o seu canto está pressagiando alguma tragédia, o que é pura crendice popular, pois o que se sabe é que as corujas são muito úteis ao homem predando pragas nas lavouras e controlando a população de ratos ao redor das cidades e no campo.
Pode girar seu pecoço em 270º
Características:
A coruja-buraqueira é muito comum pelos campos do Brasil.
Mede em torno de 20-30 cm com envergadura de 50-61cm e pesando em média 170g.
Com peito branco e plumagem amarelada o macho é ligeiramente maior que a fêmea, possuem cabeça arredondada e são aves muito tímidas.
Com olhos grandes e amarelos, a coruja-buraqueira tem a visão 100 vezes mais aguçada que a do homem e seus olhos estão dispostos frontalmente, como os do ser humano.
Quando necessita olhar algum objeto ao seu redor gira o pescoço em um ângulo de até 270 graus, aumentando assim o seu campo visual.
Essa disposição frontal, proporciona à coruja uma visão binocular (enxerga um objeto com ambos os olhos e ao mesmo tempo), isso significa que a coruja pode ver objetos em três dimensões, ou seja, altura, largura e profundidade.
Pode julgar distâncias similares ao ser humano e seu campo visual é de 110 graus, sendo 70 graus de visão binocular.
Os olhos da coruja-buraqueira são bem grandes, em algumas espécies de corujas até maiores que o próprio cérebro, a fim de melhorar sua eficiência em condições de baixa luminosidade, captando e processando melhor a luz disponível.
Além de sua privilegiada visão, a coruja-buraqueira é dona de uma audição potentíssima, conseguindo localizar e abater sua presa com apenas este sentido.
Abate preferencialmente pequenos roedores, insetos, anfíbios e pássaros. A coruja é uma ave de rapina, portanto mata para se alimentar. A tradução da palavra rapina é "roubo", o que caracteriza o fato de tais aves retirarem a vida de suas presas.
Rapineira e atenta à tudo
A coruja como a grande maioria dos animais possue território de caça. São ""equipadas "" com adaptações especiais que as tornam predadoras eficientes, sendo uma delas o vôo.
Sempre muito silenciosa e sorrateira, isso devido às penas especiais de sua asa, muito macias e em grande quantidade, conseguem cortar o ar e planar por muito tempo sendo muito discretas e imperceptíveis às suas presas.
A observação das presas se dá no alto de árvores ou em mourões de cercas nos pastos e até durante o vôo silencioso, quando fazem uma varredura na área de caça. Quando um alvo é avistado a coruja voa silenciosamente até ele, mantendo sua cabeça em linha reta ao alvo, quando então a joga para trás e empurra suas garras para frente a fim de prender seguramente sua presa. A força do impacto é violenta e certeira não dando chances à presa. Posteriormente a vítima é morta pela pressão do bico, num processo de abatimento de presas no solo.
O período reprodutivo da coruja-buraqueira começa nos meses de março e abril, os ninhos são feitos no solo, aproveitando antigas tocas de tatus ou simplesmente promovem a abertura de novos ninhos, num trabalho revezado entre o casal.
Os ninhos são escavados com os pés e bicos, formando uma galeria horizontal de até 3 m de profundidade por 30cm-60cm de largura.
Em média botam de 6 a 12 ovos, que são incubados por 28 dias pela fêmea; fica por conta do macho proteger o ninho e procurar alimento para toda a prole.
Com 14 dias os filhotes já ficam empoleirados na saída da cova, aos 44 dias saem do ninho e com 60 dias estão caçando pequenos insetos.
Informações do site: www.cuestajardins.com.br/?id=149&codigo=426&PHPSE...
English translation:
For sale - first hand!
Encyclopedia Britannica, complete set - 45 volumes!
Bargain, or to be sold to highest bidder
I don't need it anymore. I got married last week AND MY WIFE KNOWS EVERYTHING.
Encyclopaedia londinensis, or, Universal dictionary of arts, sciences, and literature
London :Printed for the proprietor, by J. Adlard ..., sold at the Encyclopaedia Office ... by J. White ... and Champante and Whitrow ...,1810-1829.
This encyclopedia is the best source of information and reference in a single volume, particularly for students of classes III to VIII. It provides the best of GK to its readers. Every piece of information is authentic - culled together from several areas of knowledge ranging from encyclopedias, fact books, year books, official government releases, internet and other reliable sources - and verified for accuracy.
Salient Features:
The best reference book for students, teachers and parents
Includes the most up-to-date facts & figures
Alphabetical order of entries in each chapter
'Believe It or Not' boxes contain over 100 amazing facts
Quiz at the end contains 200 important questions
Over 100 lavish & spectacular illustrations
Index contains around 200 direct & cross entries
Roadtrip, Koln(Cologne) Photokina and Luik(Liege)
Photokina
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 1920s sound-on-disc movie sound system, see Photokinema.
Photokina logo
South Entrance of the Cologne Trade Fair during Photokina 2008.
The Photokina (rendered in the promoters' branding as photokina) is the world's largest trade fair for the photographic and imaging industries. The first Photokina was held in Cologne, Germany, in 1950, and it is now held biennially in September at the koelnmesse Trade Fair and Exhibition Centre. Many photographic and imaging companies introduce and showcase state of the art imaging products at Photokina. The show has two main competitors, both annual shows held in different parts of the world. The CP+ show in Yokohama, Japan, originally the Japan Camera Show, has been held since the early 1960s. In the U.S., the main photography show is PMA@CES, which since 2012 has coincided with the International CES consumer electronics show in Las Vegas.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photokina
Cologne
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the German city. For the perfume, see Eau de Cologne. For other uses, see Cologne (disambiguation) and Köln (disambiguation).
Cologne
Köln
From top to bottom, left to right: Hohenzollern Bridge by night, Great St. Martin Church, Colonius TV-tower, Cologne Cathedral, Kranhaus buildings in Rheinauhafen, MediaPark
From top to bottom, left to right:
Hohenzollern Bridge by night, Great St. Martin Church, Colonius TV-tower, Cologne Cathedral, Kranhaus buildings in Rheinauhafen, MediaPark
Flag of Cologne
Flag Coat of arms of Cologne
Coat of arms
Cologne is located in Germany
Cologne
Cologne
Cologne within North Rhine-Westphalia [show]
North rhine w K.svg
Coordinates: 50°56′11″N 6°57′10″ECoordinates: 50°56′11″N 6°57′10″E
Country
Germany
State
North Rhine-Westphalia
Admin. region
Cologne
District
Urban districts of Germany
Founded
38 BC
Government
• Lord Mayor
Jürgen Roters (SPD)
Area
• Total
405.15 km2 (156.43 sq mi)
Elevation
37 m (121 ft)
Population (2013-12-31)[1]
• Total
1,034,175
• Density
2,600/km2 (6,600/sq mi)
Time zone
CET/CEST (UTC+1/+2)
Postal codes
50441–51149
Dialling codes
0221, 02203 (Porz)
Vehicle registration
K
Website
Cologne (English pronunciation: /kəˈloʊn/, German: Köln [kœln] ( listen), Colognian: Kölle [ˈkœɫə] ( listen)) is Germany's fourth-largest city (after Berlin, Hamburg, and Munich), and is the largest city both in the German Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and within the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Area, one of the major European metropolitan areas with more than ten million inhabitants.
Cologne is located on both sides of the Rhine River. The city's famous Cologne Cathedral (Kölner Dom) is the seat of the Catholic Archbishop of Cologne. The University of Cologne (Universität zu Köln) is one of Europe's oldest and largest universities.[2]
Cologne was founded and established in the first century AD, as the Roman Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium in Ubii territory.[3] It was the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior and the headquarters of the military in the region until occupied by the Franks in 462. During the Middle Ages it flourished as one of the most important major trade routes between east and west in Europe. Cologne was one of the leading members of the Hanseatic League and one of the largest cities north of the Alps in medieval and renaissance times. Up until World War II the city had undergone several other occupations by the French and also the British. Cologne was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II. The bombing reduced the population by 95% and destroyed almost the entire city. With the intention of restoring as many historic buildings as possible, the rebuilding has resulted in a very mixed and unique cityscape.
Cologne is a major cultural centre for the Rhineland; it is home to more than thirty museums and hundreds of galleries. Exhibitions range from local ancient Roman archeological sites to contemporary graphics and sculpture. The Cologne Trade Fair hosts a number of trade shows such as Art Cologne, imm Cologne, Gamescom, and the Photokina.
Liège
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the Belgian city. For other uses, see Liège (disambiguation).
"Liege" redirects here. For other uses, see Liege (disambiguation).
Liège
Municipality of Belgium
Liege View 03.jpg
Flag of Liège
Flag Coat of arms of Liège
Coat of arms
Liège is located in Belgium
Liège
Liège
Location in Belgium
Map of Liège[show]
LuikLocatie.png
Coordinates: 50°38′N 05°34′ECoordinates: 50°38′N 05°34′E
Country
Belgium
Community
French Community
Region
Wallonia
Province
Liège
Arrondissement
Liège
Government
• Mayor
Willy Demeyer (PS)
• Governing party/ies
PS – cdH
Area
• Total
69.39 km2 (26.79 sq mi)
Population (1 January 2013)[1]
• Total
195,576
• Density
2,800/km2 (7,300/sq mi)
Postal codes
4000–4032
Area codes
04
Website
Liège (French pronunciation: [ljɛʒ]; Dutch: Luik, [lœyk] ( listen); Walloon: Lidje; German: Lüttich; Latin: Leodium; Limburgish: Luuk; Luxembourgish: Léck) is a major city and a municipality in the European country of Belgium. It is located in the province of the same name, Liège, of which it is the capital and is part of the Walloon (French-speaking) region of Belgium.
The city is situated in the valley of the Meuse River, in the east of Belgium, not far from borders with the Netherlands and with Germany. At Liège the Meuse river meets the river Ourthe. The city is part of the sillon industriel, the former industrial backbone of Wallonia. It still is the principal economic and cultural centre of the region.
The Liège municipality (i.e. the city proper) includes the former communes of Angleur, Bressoux, Chênée, Glain, Grivegnée, Jupille-sur-Meuse, Rocourt, and Wandre. In November 2012, Liège had 198,280 inhabitants. The metropolitan area, including the outer commuter zone, covers an area of 1,879 km2 (725 sq mi) and had a total population of 749,110 on 1 January 2008.[2][3] This includes a total of 52 municipalities, among others, Herstal and Seraing. Liège ranks as the third most populous urban area in Belgium, after Brussels and Antwerp, and the fourth municipality after Antwerp, Ghent and Charleroi.[3]
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge
Station Luik-Guillemins
Ga naar: navigatie, zoeken
Station Luik-Guillemins
Relax ... take it easy (7757527444).jpg
Opening 1 mei 1842
Telegrafische code FL
Aantal perrons 9
Lijn(en) 34 - 36 - 37 - 125 (- HSL 2 - HSL 3)
Coördinaten 50° 37′ NB, 5° 34′ OL
Reizigerstellingen[1]
-Weekdag
-Zaterdag
-Zondag (2009)
15.153
7.590
7.508
Beheerder NMBS
Station Luik-Guillemins
Station Luik-Guillemins
Stationsinformatie NMBS - Live stationsbord
Portaal Portaalicoon Openbaar vervoer
2013
Station Luik-Guillemins (Frans: Liège-Guillemins) is het belangrijkste spoorwegstation van de stad Luik. Het station ligt op het einde van verschillende spoorlijnen. In reizigersaantallen is dit het op tien na drukste station in België en het op twee na drukste station van Wallonië, na Ottignies en Namen (reizigerstelling 2009)[2].
Het station is genoemd naar de wijk Guillemins, waarin het ligt. Deze wijk is op zijn beurt weer genoemd naar de kloosterorde van de Wilhelmieten, die daar in 1287 een klooster stichtte.
BUKAVU
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Costermansville/Costermansstad
Location in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Coordinates: 2°30′S 28°52′E
Country Democratic Republic of the Congo
Province South Kivu
Founded 1901
Government
• Mayor Nzita Kavungirwa
Area
• Total 60 km2 (20 sq mi)
Elevation 1,498 m (4,915 ft)
Population (2012)
• Total 806,940
• Density 13,000/km2 (35,000/sq mi)
Time zone Lubumbashi Time (UTC+2)
Website Official website (French) (** query broken URL)
Bukavu (former official names: Costermansville (French) and Costermansstad (Dutch)) is a city in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), lying at the extreme south-western edge of Lake Kivu, west of Cyangugu in Rwanda, and separated from it by the outlet of the Ruzizi River. It is the capital of the South Kivu province and as of 2012 it had an estimated population of 806,940.
Contents
1 History
2 Transport
3 Medical care
4 Status of women
5 Natural hazards
6 Climate
7 Other features
8 Personalities
9 References
10 External links
History
Lake Kivu, seen from Bukavu
Bukavu is part of the ancient territory of Bushi Kingdom, the main ethnic group of South-Kivu. It was governed by a “Muluzi” Nyalukemba, when the first Arabs, then the European arrived in Bushi at the end of the 19th century. (“Muluzi” or “Baluzi” in the plural means « the nobleman or nobility to Shi. It is equivalent to Watutsi or Tutsi in Kinyarwanda. Before the Europeans came in Bushi Kingdom, Bukavu was called “Rusozi”. The name Bukavu comes from the transformation of word 'bu 'nkafu ' (farm of cows) in Mashi, the language of Bashi.[citation needed] Bukavu was established in 1901 by the Belgian colonial authorities. Originally named "Costermansville" (in French) or "Costermansstad" (in Dutch) until 1954, it had a prominent European population under colonial rule. They were attracted by the subtropical climate (Lake Kivu is 1,500 metres above sea level) and scenic location (Bukavu is built on five peninsulas and has been described as "a green hand, dipped in the lake"). Many colonial villas have gardens sloping down to the shore.
By contrast, the main residential district for ordinary people, Kadutu, climbs up the hillside inland. The surrounding hills reach a height of 2,000 metres. Formerly an administrative centre for the whole of the Kivu region, the town lost some of its status as result of the growth of Goma.
Following the Rwandan Genocide, Hutu refugees and many members of the former Hutu-led government fled as part of the Great Lakes refugee crisis. The refugee camps around Goma and Bukavu became a center of the Hutu insurgency from the camps against the new Watutsi government of Rwanda. In November 1996 at the start of the First Congo War, Rwandan government forces consequently attacked the Hutu camps, and forces of the then Zaire government which allowed the insurgency. The Rwandan government supported rebels in Zaire led by Laurent Kabila who overthrew the Kinshasa government with their help, and then fell out with them, leading to the Second Congo War. Rwanda supported the rebel Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) against Kabila. The RCD was dominated by the Banyamulenge, and Bukavu which with the rest of Sud-Kivu was held by the RCD saw sporadic fighting between rebels and government forces and their proxies, including the Mayi-Mayi, especially in 1998 and 2004.
On June 3, 2004, protestors in several Congolese cities took to the streets to demonstrate against the United Nations for failing to prevent Bukavu from falling to Rwandan-backed RCD forces led by General Nkunda.[1] About 16,000 women were raped on a single weekend after General Nkunda told his troops "This city is yours for three days."[2] In September 2007 Nkunda, who had been persuaded to fall in line with the peace accords which ended the war and re-integrate his troops with the Congolese government forces, again rebelled and started attacking government troops north of Goma.
Bukavu an important transport hub and gateway to eastern DR Congo, but as a result of the wars the road network has deteriorated and highways to Goma, Kisangani and other towns have not been fully restored. As with Goma, close proximity to the paved road network of East Africa and the functioning eastern section of the Trans-African Highway to Mombasa may allow a faster recovery than other Congolese towns. Bukavu's proximity to the Lake Tanganyika ports of Bujumbura and Kalundu-Uvira give it an additional advantage, with access on the lake to the railheads of Kigoma (linked to Dar es Salaam) and Kalemie (rail link to Katanga, in need of rehabilitation). Isolation, largely due to bad road infrastructure, has been found to be an important determinant of wealth and/or development in South Kivu.[3]
Bukavu has numerous lakeside wharves and boat transport is used extensively in the Congolese waters of the lake in the absence of well maintained roads.
Kavumu Airport (ICAO code:FZMA, IATA code: BKY) located about 30 kilometres north is the domestic airport for Bukavu.
Medical care
Panzi Hospital
Bukavu is home to the Panzi Hospital, which is also the teaching hospital of the Evangelical University in Africa.
Bukavu is also home to the Catholic University of Bukavu's School of Medicine and General Reference teaching hospital.
The pharmaceutical factory Pharmakina owned by a German immigrant produces the antimalarial drug quinine and the generic AIDS medicament Afri-vir. Pharmakina also runs an AIDS diagnostic and treatment center.[4] With 740 employees and about 1000 free-lance workers Pharmakina is the largest employer in town.[5]
Status of women
Women continue to face major problems of violence in the wake of war in the eastern DRC. Fondation chirezi in August 2007 launched a project for women's trauma healing and care, based in Bukavu.
Natural hazards
Although not threatened by volcanoes as Goma is, Bukavu is equally in danger from a potential limnic eruption from Lake Kivu, in which vast quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide and methane could explode from the lake and threaten the lives of the 2 million people who live near the lake.[6]
Climate
Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as tropical wet and dry (Aw).[7]
[hide]Climate data for Bukavu
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high °C (°F) 25
(77) 25.1
(77.2) 25.1
(77.2) 24.6
(76.3) 24.7
(76.5) 25
(77) 25.7
(78.3) 26.8
(80.2) 26.6
(79.9) 25.6
(78.1) 25
(77) 24.8
(76.6) 25.33
(77.61)
Daily mean °C (°F) 19.8
(67.6) 19.9
(67.8) 19.9
(67.8) 19.6
(67.3) 19.9
(67.8) 19.6
(67.3) 19.5
(67.1) 20.4
(68.7) 20.5
(68.9) 20.1
(68.2) 19.8
(67.6) 19.7
(67.5) 19.89
(67.8)
Average low °C (°F) 14.7
(58.5) 14.7
(58.5) 14.7
(58.5) 14.7
(58.5) 15.1
(59.2) 14.2
(57.6) 13.4
(56.1) 14
(57) 14.5
(58.1) 14.7
(58.5) 14.6
(58.3) 14.6
(58.3) 14.49
(58.09)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 135
(5.31) 137
(5.39) 170
(6.69) 165
(6.5) 103
(4.06) 34
(1.34) 17
(0.67) 52
(2.05) 110
(4.33) 151
(5.94) 172
(6.77) 145
(5.71) 1,391
(54.76)
Source: Climate-Data.org, altitude: 1490m[7]
Other features
Entrance to Kahuzi-Biéga National Park
Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, a World Heritage Site and one of two homes of the Eastern Lowland Gorilla, is close to the city and can be accessed from the road to Kavumu. The park headquarters at Tshivanga is located 31 km from Bukavu.
BUKAVU
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Costermansville/Costermansstad
Location in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Coordinates: 2°30′S 28°52′E
Country Democratic Republic of the Congo
Province South Kivu
Founded 1901
Government
• Mayor Nzita Kavungirwa
Area
• Total 60 km2 (20 sq mi)
Elevation 1,498 m (4,915 ft)
Population (2012)
• Total 806,940
• Density 13,000/km2 (35,000/sq mi)
Time zone Lubumbashi Time (UTC+2)
Website Official website (French) (** query broken URL)
Bukavu (former official names: Costermansville (French) and Costermansstad (Dutch)) is a city in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), lying at the extreme south-western edge of Lake Kivu, west of Cyangugu in Rwanda, and separated from it by the outlet of the Ruzizi River. It is the capital of the South Kivu province and as of 2012 it had an estimated population of 806,940.
Contents
1 History
2 Transport
3 Medical care
4 Status of women
5 Natural hazards
6 Climate
7 Other features
8 Personalities
9 References
10 External links
History
Lake Kivu, seen from Bukavu
Bukavu is part of the ancient territory of Bushi Kingdom, the main ethnic group of South-Kivu. It was governed by a “Muluzi” Nyalukemba, when the first Arabs, then the European arrived in Bushi at the end of the 19th century. (“Muluzi” or “Baluzi” in the plural means « the nobleman or nobility to Shi. It is equivalent to Watutsi or Tutsi in Kinyarwanda. Before the Europeans came in Bushi Kingdom, Bukavu was called “Rusozi”. The name Bukavu comes from the transformation of word 'bu 'nkafu ' (farm of cows) in Mashi, the language of Bashi.[citation needed] Bukavu was established in 1901 by the Belgian colonial authorities. Originally named "Costermansville" (in French) or "Costermansstad" (in Dutch) until 1954, it had a prominent European population under colonial rule. They were attracted by the subtropical climate (Lake Kivu is 1,500 metres above sea level) and scenic location (Bukavu is built on five peninsulas and has been described as "a green hand, dipped in the lake"). Many colonial villas have gardens sloping down to the shore.
By contrast, the main residential district for ordinary people, Kadutu, climbs up the hillside inland. The surrounding hills reach a height of 2,000 metres. Formerly an administrative centre for the whole of the Kivu region, the town lost some of its status as result of the growth of Goma.
Following the Rwandan Genocide, Hutu refugees and many members of the former Hutu-led government fled as part of the Great Lakes refugee crisis. The refugee camps around Goma and Bukavu became a center of the Hutu insurgency from the camps against the new Watutsi government of Rwanda. In November 1996 at the start of the First Congo War, Rwandan government forces consequently attacked the Hutu camps, and forces of the then Zaire government which allowed the insurgency. The Rwandan government supported rebels in Zaire led by Laurent Kabila who overthrew the Kinshasa government with their help, and then fell out with them, leading to the Second Congo War. Rwanda supported the rebel Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) against Kabila. The RCD was dominated by the Banyamulenge, and Bukavu which with the rest of Sud-Kivu was held by the RCD saw sporadic fighting between rebels and government forces and their proxies, including the Mayi-Mayi, especially in 1998 and 2004.
On June 3, 2004, protestors in several Congolese cities took to the streets to demonstrate against the United Nations for failing to prevent Bukavu from falling to Rwandan-backed RCD forces led by General Nkunda.[1] About 16,000 women were raped on a single weekend after General Nkunda told his troops "This city is yours for three days."[2] In September 2007 Nkunda, who had been persuaded to fall in line with the peace accords which ended the war and re-integrate his troops with the Congolese government forces, again rebelled and started attacking government troops north of Goma.
Bukavu an important transport hub and gateway to eastern DR Congo, but as a result of the wars the road network has deteriorated and highways to Goma, Kisangani and other towns have not been fully restored. As with Goma, close proximity to the paved road network of East Africa and the functioning eastern section of the Trans-African Highway to Mombasa may allow a faster recovery than other Congolese towns. Bukavu's proximity to the Lake Tanganyika ports of Bujumbura and Kalundu-Uvira give it an additional advantage, with access on the lake to the railheads of Kigoma (linked to Dar es Salaam) and Kalemie (rail link to Katanga, in need of rehabilitation). Isolation, largely due to bad road infrastructure, has been found to be an important determinant of wealth and/or development in South Kivu.[3]
Bukavu has numerous lakeside wharves and boat transport is used extensively in the Congolese waters of the lake in the absence of well maintained roads.
Kavumu Airport (ICAO code:FZMA, IATA code: BKY) located about 30 kilometres north is the domestic airport for Bukavu.
Medical care
Panzi Hospital
Bukavu is home to the Panzi Hospital, which is also the teaching hospital of the Evangelical University in Africa.
Bukavu is also home to the Catholic University of Bukavu's School of Medicine and General Reference teaching hospital.
The pharmaceutical factory Pharmakina owned by a German immigrant produces the antimalarial drug quinine and the generic AIDS medicament Afri-vir. Pharmakina also runs an AIDS diagnostic and treatment center.[4] With 740 employees and about 1000 free-lance workers Pharmakina is the largest employer in town.[5]
Status of women
Women continue to face major problems of violence in the wake of war in the eastern DRC. Fondation chirezi in August 2007 launched a project for women's trauma healing and care, based in Bukavu.
Natural hazards
Although not threatened by volcanoes as Goma is, Bukavu is equally in danger from a potential limnic eruption from Lake Kivu, in which vast quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide and methane could explode from the lake and threaten the lives of the 2 million people who live near the lake.[6]
Climate
Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as tropical wet and dry (Aw).[7]
[hide]Climate data for Bukavu
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high °C (°F) 25
(77) 25.1
(77.2) 25.1
(77.2) 24.6
(76.3) 24.7
(76.5) 25
(77) 25.7
(78.3) 26.8
(80.2) 26.6
(79.9) 25.6
(78.1) 25
(77) 24.8
(76.6) 25.33
(77.61)
Daily mean °C (°F) 19.8
(67.6) 19.9
(67.8) 19.9
(67.8) 19.6
(67.3) 19.9
(67.8) 19.6
(67.3) 19.5
(67.1) 20.4
(68.7) 20.5
(68.9) 20.1
(68.2) 19.8
(67.6) 19.7
(67.5) 19.89
(67.8)
Average low °C (°F) 14.7
(58.5) 14.7
(58.5) 14.7
(58.5) 14.7
(58.5) 15.1
(59.2) 14.2
(57.6) 13.4
(56.1) 14
(57) 14.5
(58.1) 14.7
(58.5) 14.6
(58.3) 14.6
(58.3) 14.49
(58.09)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 135
(5.31) 137
(5.39) 170
(6.69) 165
(6.5) 103
(4.06) 34
(1.34) 17
(0.67) 52
(2.05) 110
(4.33) 151
(5.94) 172
(6.77) 145
(5.71) 1,391
(54.76)
Source: Climate-Data.org, altitude: 1490m[7]
Other features
Entrance to Kahuzi-Biéga National Park
Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, a World Heritage Site and one of two homes of the Eastern Lowland Gorilla, is close to the city and can be accessed from the road to Kavumu. The park headquarters at Tshivanga is located 31 km from Bukavu.
Go to Page 434 in the Internet Archive
Title: Larousse universel en 2 volumes : nouveau dictionnaire encyclopédique, Vol. 1
Creator: Larousse, Pierre, 1817-1875
Publisher: Paris : Librairie Larousse
Sponsor: Wellcome Library
Contributor: Wellcome Library
Date: 1922
Vol: Vol. 1
Language: fre
Description: 2 volumes : 31 cm
Plates printed on both sides
Tome 1, A-K: 63.733 articles.--14.008 gravures.--292 planches et tableaux synoptiques.--148 cartes.--54 planches photographiques: 300 chefs-d'œuvre des musées; t. 2, L-Z: 64.683 articles.--12.992 gravures.--340 planches et tableaux synoptiques.--126 cartes.--58 planches photographiques: 348 chefs-d'œuvre des musées
If you have questions concerning reproductions, please contact the Contributing Library.
Note: The colors, contrast and appearance of these illustrations are unlikely to be true to life. They are derived from scanned images that have been enhanced for machine interpretation and have been altered from their originals.
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