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Location: Europe > Portugal > Algarve
Date Video Taken: October 25, 2017
© Copyright. You cannot use! Only Encyclopedia of Life (EOL)
An interpretation of the Avengers Encyclopedia in minifigure form. Uses a combination of parts from official, 3rd party customs, own customs and bootleg figures. Stay tuned for regular updates! flic.kr/s/aHskTb5euK
Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).
Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..
Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.
Landscape of a winter’s evening collage – at work in the studio.
Included in the first ever worldwide collection of work spaces at the Sketchbook Project.
The Children's Encyclopedia, edited by Arthur Mee, and published in 10 volumes by the Educational Book Company, London. It was published from 1908 to 1964.
Arthur Mee aimed to make learning interesting and enjoyable. The encyclopedia articles were clearly written and intended to develop character and sense of duty.
As someone looking down both barrels of 40 next month, I am of an age where technology is second nature whilst still having been brought up on good old books. If I'm busy and I want an answer yesterday then Google is my friend but If I am reading for pleasure, whether it's fact or fiction, give me a leather-bound tome any day.
The new LEGO Character Encyclopedia is here and it has Mr. Gold in it!
Link To Article: www.groovebricks.com/lego-minifigures-character-encyclope...
-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-Groove Bricks-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-
Website: www.groovebricks.com
Twitter: www.twitter.com/#!/groovebricks
Flickr: www.flickr.com/photos/groovebricks/
YouTube: www.youtube.com/user/groovebricks
Facebook: www.facebook.com/pages/Groove-Bricks/391878220866206
Pitys Reconstructs the Word, 2011
Installation (encyclopedia pages, wood, thread, blankets, books, limited edition broadside)
Dimensions variable
Part of the Installations exhibition at the Palos Verdes Art Center, Rolling Hills Estates, CA; December 9, 2011 through February 5, 2012
Words Submitted:
Al-embick, amazing, antidisestablishmentarism, archaic, bitchin’, blush, calendula, chapopote, chocolate, congruent, contemplation, eerie, enigma, Etiwanda, fecund, fret, haberdashery, lexicon, luddite, mauve, melt, midden, obscurantism, occupy, Ohiowa, paraphernalia, petrichor, raconteur, ridiculous, sesquicentennial, sesquicentennial, slurve, soliloquy, St. Elmo’s Fire, swag, synchromysticism, tech-savvy, tether, unique, universal constant, warmth, yeah
By:
Charlene Abeyta, Chloe Abeyta, Christina Abeyta, Edith Abeyta, Danielle Ashton, Marshall Astor, Amy Caterina, Gabriel Cifarelli, El Chavo, YaYa Chou, Paul Evans, Marta Feinstein, Kathi Flood, Michele Hubacek, Amy Inouye, Lauren Kasmer, Denise Katsenberger, Carolyn Liesy, Apio Ludicrus, Heather McLarty, Elana Mann, Susanna Meiers, Cynde Miller, Karen Neubert, Merry-Beth Noble, Danial Nord, Laurel Paley, Julia Parton, Stuart Rapeport, Vanessa Renwick, Sue Ann Robinson, Arturo Romo-Santillano, Lucinda S. Rudolph, Camilla Stacey, Robert Tower, Carrie Ungerman, Jonathan Ward, Lyn Watanabe, Hague Williams, Luanne Withee, Nan Wollman, Julie Zemel
An early volume of the famous Encyclopedia Britannica, another product of the remarkable Scottish Enlightenment, rather appropriately in the Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh, the city where this most famous of Anglophone encyclopedias was born. Even in this day when we can look something up almost instantly online there is still something wonderful about the concentrated knowledge of a good print encyclopedia
“Who Else Wants To Have Access To Over 700 Healing Foods At Their Disposal With The Ability To Cure Over 1,500 Diseases?”
Introducing:
The Encyclopedia Of Foods And Their Healing Power
This Encyclopedia is the result of the serious and in depth research into the science of foods and the healing power that they contain to treat and prevent disease.
"The over 700 foods researched, endowed with greatest healing power are grouped to try to prevent over 1,500 diseases according to the organ or part of the body that they can benefit most, from head to toe."
In this encyclopedia you will find...
Foods for the eyes
Foods rich in vitamins and minerals and particularly in provitamin ____, such as ____, _____, ____, have the power to feed us well and also to take care of our sight, giving the shine and beauty characteristic of good health to our look.
Foods for the nervous system
Due to competitive demands at work, the family and work problems existing, most of the world population suffers from stress, depression and fatigue. Therefore, it is more necessary than ever before to know that foods such as ____, ____, and others, with a high content in vitamin ____, tone and balance the nerves and muscles, encouraging intellectual activity.
Foods for the heart
The heart is one of the most important organs in the body. The risk of a heart attack is greater in rich countries than in poor ones, a diet rich in animal fats is contributing to this evil to a large extent. On the other hand, foods such as ____, or ____ protect arterial hypertension, arrhythmia's and cholesterol due to their content of unsaturated fatty acids, vitamin B6 and oligoelements such as ____, ____, ____, and _____.
Foods for the circulatory system
If the quality of our blood is good we will avoid many diseases. ____ clean and regenerate the blood. A good habit is that of eating one or two ____ every day. ____ is very suitable for curing anemia's that are usually caused by a low blood production in the bone marrow.
Foods for the respiratory system
The environmental pollution of our cities, together with the varied allergies, is producing many respiratory problems and diseases. To counteract bronchitis and asthma, we recommend ____, raw or in the form of a syrup and fresh or dried ____, these help to fight flu and bronchitis.
Foods for the digestive system
It is always good to have a smooth digestion, but particularly on journeys, before an examination or at moments when we need great concentration; we need a quick, easy digestion of the foods we have eaten. Therefore, you need to know that vegetable foods, such as for example, the ____ or the ____ will take care of your digestive tract, regulating the intestinal transit in cases of constipation or colitis.
Foods for the liver and gall bladder
The liver, like the heart, is a vital organ that is difficult to replace, therefore we must protect it to the maximum. We recommend the foods that are true protectors for the liver: ____ and ____, both encourage the production of bile and decongest the liver encouraging the detoxifying function of this gland, aiding the emptying of the gall bladder and they also prevent cancer!
Foods for the stomach
The stomach is the first organ that suffers from our nerves, concerns and eating errors, over the years harvesting ulcers, excessive acidity, gastritis, etc. To fight against these diseases and prevent them more, ____ and ____ have the power to heal gastro-duodenal ulcers and they are also an effective preventive for cancer.
Foods for the intestine
In the case of gastroenteritis, colitis or constipation, ____ are the ideal medicine, capable of cleaning and regulating the intestine; there is no doubt it is the queen of fruits. Like, the ____ reduces inflammation of the intestine and fights anemia.
Foods for the urinary tract
For urinary infections, the ____ treats and prevents cystitis, as does the ____, which is a source of living water. They are the best medicines for our kidneys to be purified and the blood enriched with minerals salts and vitamins.
Foods for the reproductive system
From a certain age our reproductive organs are a source of concern for both men and women. How good it is to know that there are foods such as ____ and ____ that soothe the disorders of the menopause and prevent breast cancer and prostate cancer, avoiding the degeneration of the cells.
Foods for the metabolic process
One of the concerns of our time is physical fitness, nobody likes being overweight. A good slimming diet, among the many that we offer in this encyclopedia so that in the summer we can show off a nice figure, is the ____ cure, eating only ____ one or two days a week will make you lose weight at the same time as purifying your organism and cleaning your blood.
____, that can be eaten all year long, in salads, juices and soups, will improve physical fitness and give you energy to resist fatigue and stress.
Foods for the musculo-skeletal system
Pain in all its forms, but particularly rheumatic pain in joints and bones is dealt with in depth in this encyclopedia. Two examples of powerful foods against the pain are the ____ that stops the inflammation of the joints and soothes the pain and the pulp of ripe ____, a true bone generator thanks to its mineral salts, such as ____, ____, and ____.
foods for the skin
Finally, we all like to look good and as young as possible and for this there are also foods that contain healing and preventive powers for our skin: The ___ as well as providing very few calories, is rich in protective substances for the skin, either eating it every day or applying it on the skin.
The ____, a delicious fruit, also feeds and protects the joints, thanks to its high content of vitamins __, __ and __, highly recommended for skin disorders.
Foods for infectious diseases
Our body has to fight against many bacteria and virus every day, we can provide ourselves with sufficient anti-infectious defenses by eating four ____ or ____ every day, which contain much more than vitamin __.
How to feed ourselves to avoid obesity
To avoid obesity, it is not only important to reduce the number of calories eaten, but also to know where these calories come from. Did you know that when you eat a cake or bun you get fatter than if you were to eat a portion of fruit, although the same amount of calories is being eaten in both cases?
What foods should we choose to not get fat? Why do some people seem to get fat more easily than others?
All the answers and natural treatments to control your weight can be found in the pages of this encyclopedia.
Reducing cholesterol
An excess of cholesterol in the blood is a great concern for the world population, however, this evil occurs due to a diet rich in animal fats. The easiest way to reduce cholesterol levels is explained in this work. The idea is to progressively replace ____ foods for one of the ____ orgin.
Foods that prevent cancer
It is calculated that 40% of all the cases of cancer that appear in developed countries are directly related to the foods that we eat. Certain foods can cause cancer, while others prevent it. Prevention of cancer is a task that effects each person individually. Choosing correctly the foods that we eat is the most effective way of preventing cancer. A diet rich in ____, ____, ____ and ____ and ____ is capable of neutralizing cancerous substances.
More Testimonials
Thank you for the encyclopedia books "The Foods With Their Healing Power and Medicinal Plants". I am Learning lots of information from them. This will be of great benefit to me when referring to the healing powers of foods. I will use this information in my chiropractic office when teaching about healthy eating to my patients. It is good to know that there are books that can provide this type of vital information to those who are willing to benefit from the information. Again thanks for these incredible books.
-Dr. Malcolm Hill
Please visit www.heisawesome.org
Tel. 786-307-4077
Vatican Museums
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
vte
The Vatican Museums (Italian: Musei Vaticani; Latin: Musea Vaticana) are Christian and art museums located within the city boundaries of the Vatican City. They display works from the immense collection amassed by popes throughout the centuries including several of the most renowned Roman sculptures and most important masterpieces of Renaissance art in the world. The museums contain roughly 70,000 works, of which 20,000 are on display,[3] and currently employ 640 people who work in 40 different administrative, scholarly, and restoration departments.[4]
Pope Julius II founded the museums in the early 16th century.[5] The Sistine Chapel, with its ceiling decorated by Michelangelo and the Stanze di Raffaello decorated by Raphael, are on the visitor route through the Vatican Museums. In 2017, they were visited by 6 million people, which combined makes it the 4th most visited art museum in the world.[6][7]
There are 54 galleries, or sale, in total,[citation needed] with the Sistine Chapel, notably, being the very last sala within the Museum. It is one of the largest museums in the world.
In 2017, the Museum's official website and social media presence was completely redone, in accord with current standards and appearances for modern websites.[8]
History
The Vatican Museums trace their origin to one marble sculpture, purchased in the 16th century: Laocoön and His Sons was discovered on 14 January 1506, in a vineyard near the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. Pope Julius II sent Giuliano da Sangallo and Michelangelo Buonarroti, who were working at the Vatican, to examine the discovery. On their recommendation, the pope immediately purchased the sculpture from the vineyard owner. The pope put the sculpture, which depicts the Trojan priest Laocoön and his two sons being attacked by giant serpents, on public display at the Vatican exactly one month after its discovery.
Benedict XIV founded the Museum Christianum, and some of the Vatican collections formed the Lateran Museum, which Pius IX founded by decree in 1854.[9]
The Museums celebrated their 500th anniversary in October 2006 by permanently opening the excavations of a Vatican Hill necropolis to the public.[10]
On 1 January 2017, Barbara Jatta became the Director of the Vatican Museums, replacing Antonio Paolucci who had been director since 2007.
Pinacoteca Vaticana
The art gallery was housed in the Borgia Apartment until Pope Pius XI ordered construction of a proper building. The new building, designed by Luca Beltrami, was inaugurated on 27 October 1932.[13] The museum has paintings including:
•Giotto's Stefaneschi Triptych
•Olivuccio di Ciccarello, Opere di Misericordia
•Raphael's Madonna of Foligno, Oddi Altarpiece and Transfiguration
•Leonardo da Vinci's St. Jerome in the Wilderness
•Caravaggio's Entombment
•Perugino's Madonna and Child with Saints and San Francesco al Prato Resurrection
•Filippo Lippi's Marsuppini Coronation
•Jan Matejko's Sobieski at Vienna
Collection of Modern Religious Art
The Collection of Modern Religious Art was added in 1973 and houses paintings and sculptures from artists like Carlo Carrà, Giorgio de Chirico, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Marc Chagall, Paul Klee, Salvador Dalí, and Pablo Picasso.[14]
Sculpture museums
The group of museums includes several sculpture museums surrounding the Cortile del Belvedere. These are the Gregoriano Profano Museum, with classical sculpture, and others as below:
Museo Pio-Clementino
A Roman naval bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste (Palestrina),[15] constructed c. 120 BC;[16] exhibited in the Pius-Clementine Museum (Museo Pio-Clementino) of the Vatican.
The museum takes its name from two popes; Clement XIV, who established the museum, and Pius VI, the pope who brought the museum to completion. Clement XIV came up with the idea of creating a new museum in Innocent VIII's Belvedere Palace and started the refurbishment work.[17]
Pope Clement XIV founded the Pio-Clementino museum in 1771, and originally it contained the Renaissance and antique works. The museum and collection were enlarged by Clement's successor Pius VI. Today, the museum houses works of Greek and Roman sculpture. Some notable galleries are:
•Greek Cross Gallery: (Sala a Croce Greca): with the porphyri sarcophagi of Constance and Saint Helen, daughter and mother of Constantine the Great.
•Sala Rotonda: shaped like a miniature Pantheon, the room has impressive ancient mosaics on the floors, and ancient statues lining the perimeter, including a gilded bronze statue of Hercules.
•Gallery of the Statues (Galleria delle Statue): as its name implies, holds various important statues, including Sleeping Ariadne and the bust of Menander. It also contains the Barberini Candelabra.
•Gallery of the Busts (Galleria dei Busti): Many ancient busts are displayed.
•Cabinet of the Masks (Gabinetto delle Maschere): The name comes from the mosaic on the floor of the gallery, found in Villa Adriana, which shows ancient theater masks. Statues are displayed along the walls, including the Three Graces.
•Sala delle Muse: Houses the statue group of Apollo and the nine muses, uncovered in a Roman villa near Tivoli in 1774, as well as statues by important ancient Greek or Roman sculptors. The centerpiece is the Belvedere Torso, revered by Michelangelo and other Renaissance men.[18]
•Sala degli Animali: So named because of the many ancient statues of animals.
Museo Chiaramonti
This museum was founded in the early 19th century by Pope Pius VII, whose surname before his election as pope was Chiaramonti. The museum consists of a large arched gallery in which are exhibited several statues, sarcophagi and friezes. The New Wing, Braccio Nuovo, built by Raffaele Stern, houses statues including the Augustus of Prima Porta, the Doryphoros, and The River Nile. The Galeria Lapidaria forms part of the Museo Chiaramonti, and contains over 3,000 stone tablets and inscriptions. It is accessible only with special permission, usually for the purpose of academic study.
Museo Gregoriano Etrusco[edit]
Founded by Pope Gregory XVI in 1836, this museum has eight galleries and houses important Etruscan pieces, coming from archaeological excavations.[19] The pieces include: vases, sarcophagus, bronzes and the Guglielmi Collection.
Museo Gregoriano Egiziano
This museum houses a large collection of artifacts from Ancient Egypt.[20] Such material includes papyruses, the Grassi Collection, animal mummies, and reproductions of the Book of the Dead.[21]
History
The Museo Gregoriano Egiziano was inaugurated on 2 February 1839 to commemorate the anniversary of Gregory XVI's accession to the papacy. The creation of the Museo Gregoriano Egiziano was particularly close to the pope's heart as he believed the understanding of ancient Egyptian civilisation was vital in terms of its scientific importance as well as its value in understanding the Old Testament. This feeling was expressed in a paper by the museum's first curator, the physiologist and Barnabite, Father Luigi Maria Ungarelli.[17]
Vatican Historical Museum
The Vatican Historical Museum (Italian: Museo storico vaticano) was founded in 1973 at the behest of Pope Paul VI,[22] and was initially hosted in environments under the Square Garden. In 1987, it moved to the main floor of the Apostolic Palace of the Lateran where it opened in March 1991.
The Vatican Historical Museum has a unique collection of portraits of the Popes from the 16th century to date, the memorable items of the Papal Military Corps of the 16–17th centuries and old religious paraphernalia related to rituals of the papacy. Also on display on the lower floor are the papamobili (Popemobiles); carriages and motorcars of Popes and Cardinals, including the first cars used by Popes.[23]
From Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia.
Henry Seymour Berry, 1st Baron Buckland (17 September 1877 – 23 May 1928) was a Welsh financier and industrialist.
Background:
The eldest of three sons, all born in Merthyr Tydfil to solicitor John Mathias Berry (born 2 May 1847; died 9 January 1917) and his wife Mary Ann Rowe (died 6 June 1922). He was the elder brother of newspaper magnates William Berry, 1st Viscount Camrose and Gomer Berry, 1st Viscount Kemsley.
Business career:
Berry worked for his father's business before becoming a protégé of industrialist D. A. Thomas (later 1st Viscount Rhondda) in 1915. He took on more responsibility when Thomas joined the cabinet, and within three years he was a director of over 60 companies. He acquired John Lysaght Ltd with his brother William Berry, D. R. Llewellyn and Lady Rhondda and was chairman until it became part of Guest, Keen and Nettlefolds in 1920. He subsequently became chairman of GKN in 1927.
Invested as a Knight of Grace, Order of St. John of Jerusalem (K.G.St.J.), he held the office of High Sheriff of Brecknockshire in 1924. He was elevated to the peerage as Baron Buckland, of Bwlch in the County of Brecon, on 16 July 1926.
Personal life:
He died in 1928 in Bwlch, Brecknockshire, from head injuries following a fall from a horse. He was survived by his wife, Gwladys Mary whom he married on 5 September 1907, and their five daughters: Cecily Eveline; Joan Sybil; Gwladys Eileen; Mary Lorraine; Dorothy Margaret. With no male heir, the title became extinct upon his death.
Memorial:
A memorial in his memory was erected in Merthyr Tydfil, outside the library. In 2010, plaques in memorial to his brothers were also added.
Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).
Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..
Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.
Free download under CC Attribution (CC BY 4.0). Please credit the artist and rawpixel.com.
Vibrant illustrations of flowers and plants from Edwards's Botanical Register (1829–1847) by Sydenham Edwards (1769–1819), and John Lindley (1799–1865). As a natural history illustrator, Edwards was said to produce a prodigious number of botanical plates and provided artwork for several encyclopedias. In this public domain collection, we bring you more than 100 stunning pieces of antique floral art. We have digitally enhanced his hand-colored engravings into high-resolution quality. Free to download under the CC0 license without any restrictions.
Higher resolutions with no attribution required can be downloaded: https://www.rawpixel.com/board/559028/edwardss-botanical-register-free-cc0-public-domain-botanical-illustrations?sort=curated&mode=shop&page=1
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Boyana Church*
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Exterior of the Boyana Church
State Party Bulgaria
Type Cultural
Criteria ii, iii
Reference 42
Region** Europe and North America
Inscription history
Inscription 1979 (3rd Session)
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List.
** Region as classified by UNESCO.
A fresco depicting St. Nicholas
A fresco depicting Desislava, a church patron
A view of Boyana church
The Boyana Church (Bulgarian: Боянска църква, Boyanska tsarkva) is a medieval Bulgarian Orthodox church situated on the outskirts of Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria, in the Boyana quarter. The east wing of the two-storey church was originally constructed in the late 10th or early 11th century, then the central wing was added in the 13th century under the Second Bulgarian Empire, the whole building being finished with a further expansion to the west in the middle of the 19th century. The church owes its world fame mainly to its frescoes from 1259. They form a second layer over the paintings from earlier centuries and represent one of the most complete and well-preserved monuments of Eastern European mediaeval art. A total of 89 scenes with 240 human images are depicted on the walls of the church. The name of the painter is recently discovered during restoration. The inscription reads: "zograph Vassilii from the village Subonosha, Sersko and his apprentice Dimitar".
National Museum of History director Bozhidar Dimitrov stated: "The renovation revealed a rare inscription under a layer of plaster on one of the church walls: 'I, Vasiliy' inscribed. We now know the painter with certainty. The 13th-century 'Boyana master' was the only painter among the kings and nobles whose names were read out on a regular basis during sermons at the church." Restorator Grigoriy Grigorov stated the reason: "The Christian Orthodox religion forbids the painter from manifesting himself, as in the eyes of the priests it is God who guides his hand. But this painter inscribed his name, knowing that the believers could not see it."
18 scenes in the narthex depict the life of Saint Nicholas. The painter here drew certain aspects of contemporary lifestyle. In The Miracle at Sea, the ship and the sailors' hats recall the Venetian fleet. The portraits of the patrons of the church — Sebastocrator Kaloyan and his wife Desislava, as well as those of Bulgarian tsar Constantine Tikh and Tsaritsa Irina, are thought to be among the most impressive and lifelike frescoes in the church, and are located on the north wall of the church.
Besides the first layer of 11th-12th century frescoes, of which only fragments are preserved, and the famous second layer of murals from 1259, the church also has a smaller number of later frescoes from the 14th and 16th-17th century, as well as from 1882.
The monument was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1979. The frescoes were restored and cleaned in 1912-1915 by an Austrian and a Bulgarian specialist, as well in 1934 and 1944. The church was closed for the public in 1977 in order to be conservated and restored and once again opened in 2000.
The church patrons' inscription in Middle Bulgarian from 1259 reads:[1]
“
+взъдвиже сѧ ѿ земѧ и създа сѧ прѣчисты хра
мъ ст҃аго иерарха х҃ва николы ст҃аго и великѡ
славнагѡ мѫченика хв҃а пантелеимѡна тече
ниемъ и трѹдомъ и любовиаѧ многоаѫ калѡ
ѣнѣ севастократора братѹчѧди цр҃ва внѹкъ ст҃а
стефана кралѣ србьскаго написа же сѧ при цр҃
вство блгарское при благовѣрнем и бг҃очь
стивѣмъ и хр҃столюбивѣмъ цр҃и костан
динѣ асѣна едикто з҃ в лѣто
.ѕ҃.ѱ.ѯ҃з҃
”
“ This immaculate temple of the Holy Christ's hierarch Nicholas and of the Christ's holy and most glorious martyr Panteleimon was erected from the ground and created with the funds, care and great love of Kaloyan, sebastokrator, cousin of the Tsar, grandson of Saint Stephen, King of Serbia. This was written in the Bulgarian Empire under the pious and devout Tsar Constantine Asen. Indiction 7 of the year 6767 [1259]. ”
Contents
* 1 Architecture
* 2 Frescoes
o 2.1 First layer
o 2.2 Second layer
o 2.3 Late frescoes
o 2.4 Full restoration
* 3 External links
* 4 References
[edit] Architecture
The Boyana Church was built in three stages: in the late 10th and early 11th, the mid-13th, and the mid-19th centuries. The oldest section (the eastern church) is a small one-apse cross-vaulted church with inbuilt cruciform supports. It was built in the late 10th and early 11th century. The second section, which adjoins the eastern church, was commissioned by Sebastocrator Kaloyan and his wife Dessislava and in the mid-13th century. This building belongs to the two-floor tomb-church type. It consists of a ground-floor family sepulchre with a semi-cylindrical vault and two arcosolia on the north and south walls, and an upper-floor family chapel identical in design to the eastern church. The exterior is decorated with ceramic ornaments. The last section was built on donations from the local community in the mid-19th century.
[edit] Frescoes
[edit] First layer
A ship in a fresco in Boyana church
Constantin Tikh of Bulgaria and Eirene of Nicaea
Jesus Christ Pantocrator a fresco from 1259
The first layer of frescoes, which originally covered the entire eastern church, dates from the 11th-12th-century. Fragments of those frescoes have been preserved in the lower parts of the apse and the north wall, and in the upper part of the west wall and the south vault.
[edit] Second layer
According to the donor’s inscription on the north wall of the second section, the second layer of frescoes dates from 1259. Those frescoes were painted over the earlier layer by a team of unknown artists, who also decorated the two floors of the building commissioned by Sebastocrator Kaloyan.
The Boyana Church owes its world fame above all to the frescoes from 1259, which demonstrate the exceptional achievements of mediaeval Bulgarian culture. The majority of the more than 240 figures depicted here display individuality, remarkable psychological insight and vitality. The frescoes follow the canon of icon-painting established by the Seventh Ecumenical Council held in Nicaea in 787.
The frescoes in the oldest section of the church include a magnificent representation of Christ Pantocrator in the dome. The drum below shows a host of angels, with the Four Evangelists - Matthew, Mark, Luke and John - portrayed in the pendentives. Four images of Christ adorn the face of the arches: Christ Emmanuel; Christ, The Ancient of Days; and the acheiropoietic (“made without hands”) Holy Mandylion and Holy Tile. Next come scenes from the Major Feast Days and the Passions of Christ. Among the full-length portrayals of saints in the first tier, there are ten warrior saints. The Virgin Enthroned, surrounded by archangels, is represented in the altar conch. Below are four church fathers: St. Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great, John Chrysostom and Patriarch Germanus. The frescoes flanking the altar show the deacons Laurentius, Euplius and Stephen, as well as St. Nicholas, the patron of the ground floor of the church - one of the most popular saints and the patron saint of sailors, merchants and bankers.
The life of St. Nicholas is depicted in 18 scenes in the narthex (the second section of the church). The unknown artist included elements of contemporary life in those scenes, and many of the figures are quite realistic - especially their countenances. The lunette above the entrance of the narthex displays the Virgin and Child, St. Anna and St. Joachim, and Christ Blessing. St. Catherine, St. Marina, St. Theodore the Studite and St. Pachomius are portrayed in the lower tiers on the walls. The south arcosolium features the scene of Christ Disputing with the Doctors, and the north one, the Presentation of the Virgin. Two highly revered Bulgarian saints are also represented in the narthex - St. John of Rila (the oldest surviving representation of the saint) and St. Paraskeva (Petka). The hermit St. Ephraim Syrus appears among the monks portrayed here. The expressive realistic portraits of the donors Sebastocrator Kaloyan and his wife Dessislava, and of the Bulgarian Tsar Constantine Asen Tikh and Tsaritsa Irina - painted with precision, extraordinary skill and feeling - are among the oldest portraits of figures from Bulgarian history.
Today the name “Boyana Master” stands for the team of unknown artists who decorated the church and mastered their art in the studios of the Turnovo School of Painting. The frescoes are genuine masterpieces with a flawless technique, psychological depth, complexity and realism. Boyana is the only and the most impressive wholly preserved monument of the Turnovo School of Painting from the 13th century.
According to many leading experts, the world famous frescoes in the Boyana Church played an important role in the development of mediaeval Bulgarian and European painting.
[edit] Late frescoes
Christ among the scribes
Some parts of the church were overpainted, and the majority of those frescoes have survived to the present day. The later frescoes include a scene of the Presentation of the Virgin from the 14th century, a portrait of St. Nicholas from the 16th-17th century, and representations of the two patron saints of the Boyana Church - St. Nicholas and St. Panteleimon - from 1882.
[edit] Full restoration
The Boyana Church was officially opened in the February 10, 2008 official ceremony which formally ended the (2006-2008) 400,000 leva ( 200 000 EUR) restoration works, with funding of the initiative "The eternal buildings of Bulgaria". The Church has now an air-conditioning system to keep the temperature at 17-18 degrees Celsius (62-64 Fahrenheit), while the special lighting system does not emits heat, and visitors are only allowed 15 minutes for entries. Currently under the management of the National Museum of History, Culture Minister Stefan Danailov marked its full opening on October 2, 2008. It is now open 7 days a week from 9:30 am to 17:30 pm, with admission of 10 leva per person.
[edit] External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Boyana Church
* Official website of the Boyana Church
* Boyana Church at whc.unesco.org
* The Boyana Church — virtual tour
* Photos of the Boyana Church
[edit] References
1. ^ news.yahoo.com, UNESCO-listed Boyana church reveals identity of its medieval master
2. ^ a b afp.google.com, UNESCO-listed Boyana church reveals identity of its medieval master
3. ^ international.ibox, The Newly Restored Boyana Church Opened Today
4. ^ sofiaecho.com/article, Boyana church fully restored and awaits visitors
v • d • e
World Heritage Sites in Bulgaria
Boyana Church · Madara Rider · Nesebar (Nessebar) · Pirin National Park · Rila Monastery · Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo · Srebarna Nature Reserve · Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak · Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari
Flag of Bulgaria
Coordinates: 42°38′39″N 23°15′56″E / 42.64417°N 23.26556°E / 42.64417; 23.26556
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyana_Church"
Categories: World Heritage Sites in Bulgaria | Churches in Sofia | Visitor attractions in Sofia | 100 Tourist Sites of Bulgaria | Vitosha
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The entry on coffee from a 1950s encyclopedia that has been in our family for as long as I can remember.
Cathédrale de l'Incarnation (Grenade)
source WIKIPEDIA
La cathédrale de l'Incarnation de Grenade est un édifice de la Renaissance, bâti à partir du xvie siècle dans la ville espagnole de Grenade, en Andalousie. Cette cathédrale, considérée comme la toute première église construite en style Renaissance en Espagne1, fut envisagée dès le règne des Rois catholiques, et sa construction fut commencée sous Charles Ier, pour s’achever en 1704, sous le règne de Philippe V.
Dédiée au mystère de l'Incarnation, elle est le siège de la province ecclésiastique de Grenade, dont l'archevêque étend son autorité sur les diocèses d'Almería, Carthagène, Guadix, Jaén et Malaga. La cathédrale est classée Monument national depuis 1929.
Suite à la reconquête de la ville en 1492, les Rois Catholiques envisagent la construction d'une cathédrale sur le site de l'ancienne grande mosquée nasride de Grenade. Dès le 21 mai 1492 est fondée l'église cathédrale de Grenade, siège du nouveau diocèse. En 1505, la construction est projetée, et sa conception est confiée à Juan Gil de Hontañón et à Enrique Egas, qui travaillent déjà sur la Chapelle royale de la ville. Les travaux commencent en 1518. Les deux architectes prévoient la construction d'un édifice gothique, sur le modèle de la Cathédrale de Tolède, comme cela est encore le cas en de nombreux endroits d'Espagne (Ségovie, Salamanque...). Leur projet est néanmoins abandonné en 1523, peu après le début du chantier.
On adopte alors les plans de l'architecte Diego de Siloé, qui travaille déjà sur le monastère de San Jerónimo à Grenade4. Diego de Siloé prévoit de reprendre les bases du dessein antérieur, et d'élever à parptir de celui-ci un édifice pleinement renaissance. Il va mener les travaux de 1528 jusqu'à sa mort, en 1563. Divers architectes se succèdent pour diriger le chantier, selon les plans maniéristes élaborés par leur prédécesseur : Juan de Maeda, Alonso Cano et Teodoro Ardemans.
En 1590, une première modification importante du plan initial intervient. En raison des fondations trop fragiles, le projet d'élever deux hautes tours de 80 mètres pour encadrer la façade, est abandonné en 1590 sur ordre de Philippe II. Seule une tour a été bâtie ; elle est arasée, sa hauteur se limitant à 51 mètres. En 1665, Alonso Cano parvient à convaincre le chapitre de modifier le projet initial. La construction prend alors une allure plus baroque. Suite au décès de Cano en 1667, la direction du chantier est confiée à Melchior de Aguirre, qui achève l’œuvre en juillet 1703.
La cathédrale de Grenade prend place au cœur du centre historique de la ville, entre la Gran vía Colón et la Calle Reyes Católicos. Entourée par des édifices d'importance comme la Chapelle royale (Capilla Real), la bourse de commerce (Lonja) ou l'ancien marché de la soie (Alcaicería), elle trône sur la place de las Pasiegas, qui offre bien peu de recul pour contempler la grandiose façade de l'édifice. Diego de Siloé a conçu un vaste édifice de 115 mètres sur 67, qui constitue : « "(…)un ensemble alliant pureté, élégance des formes, et blancheur immaculée de la pierre." »
Le monument représente un des sommets de l'architecture de la Renaissance en Espagne, tout en intégrant des éléments décoratifs puisés dans l'art gothique (plan et voûtes) et l'art baroque (façade), témoignant de la longueur du chantier, qui s'est étalé sur près de deux-cents ans. Son influence fut très importante dans les constructions de ce type postérieures en Andalousie.
ENGLISH
Granada Cathedral
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The cathedral of Granada.
Granada Cathedral, or the Cathedral of the Incarnation (Spanish: Catedral de Granada, Catedral de la Anunciación) is the cathedral in the city of Granada, capital of the province of the same name in the Autonomous Region of Andalusia, Spain. The cathedral is the seat of the Archdiocese of Granada.
Unlike most cathedrals in Spain, construction of this cathedral had to await the acquisition of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada from its Muslim rulers in 1492; while its very early plans had Gothic designs, such as are evident in the Royal Chapel of Granada by Enrique Egas, the construction of the church in the main occurred at a time when Spanish Renaissance designs were supplanting the Gothic regnant in Spanish architecture of prior centuries. Foundations for the church were laid by the architect Egas starting from 1518 to 1523 atop the site of the city's main mosque; by 1529, Egas was replaced by Diego de Siloé who labored for nearly four decades on the structure from ground to cornice, planning the triforium and five naves instead of the usual three. Most unusually, he created a circular capilla mayor rather than a semicircular apse, perhaps inspired by Italian ideas for circular 'perfect buildings' (e.g. in Alberti's works). Within its structure the cathedral combines other orders of architecture. It took 181 years for the cathedral to be built.
Subsequent architects included Juan de Maena (1563-1571), followed by Juan de Orea (1571-1590), and Ambrosio de Vico (1590-?). In 1667 Alonso Cano, working with Gaspar de la Peña, altered the initial plan for the main façade, introducing Baroque elements. The magnificence of the building would be even greater, if the two large 81 meter towers foreseen in the plans had been built; however the project remained incomplete for various reasons, among them, financial.
The Cathedral had been intended to become the royal mausoleum by Charles I of Spain of Spain, but Philip II of Spain moved the site for his father and subsequent kings to El Escorial outside of Madrid.
The main chapel contains two kneeling effigies of the Catholic King and Queen, Isabel and Ferdinand by Pedro de Mena y Medrano. The busts of Adam and Eve were made by Alonso Cano. The Chapel of the Trinity has a marvelous retablo with paintings by El Greco, Jusepe de Ribera and Alonso Cano.
ESPANOL
La Santa Iglesia Catedral Metropolitana de la Anunciación de Granada es un templo católico de la ciudad española de Granada, comunidad autónoma de Andalucía, sede de la archidiócesis de la ciudad. El templo es una de las obras cumbres del Renacimiento español.
Nave central, capilla mayor y bóvedas de la catedral de Granada.
Durante el renacimiento, el Reino de Granada, al igual que Galicia, conformó un centro artístico independiente del estilo predominante en el resto de la península, el herrerianismo.
Con el reinado de Carlos I de España se llevarán a cabo numerosas construcciones en la ciudad de Granada, dada la intención del monarca en convertir a la urbe en el modelo de ciudad del siglo XVI. Así la construcción de la catedral de Granada será coetánea a las de el palacio cristiano de la Alhambra, la Universidad y la chancillería (actual sede del Tribunal Superior de Justicia de Andalucía - TSJA).
Columnas y bóvedas de la catedral de Granada.
El primer proyecto fue encomendado en 1506 a Enrique Egas que concibió un templo de estilo gótico, tomando como modelo la Catedral de Toledo. Las obras comenzaron, bajo la dirección del propio Egas, con la colocación solemne de la primera piedra el 25 de marzo de 1523. Sin embargo, fue Diego de Siloé quien, en 1529, se encargó de las obras, que se concluirán en 1563, presentando un nuevo proyecto mucho más ambicioso. El autor trazó las líneas renacentistas de todo el edificio sobre los cimientos góticos, con girola y cinco naves en lugar de las tres habituales, combinando en su estructura elementos de otros órdenes arquitectónicos.
Con la llegada de la política centralista de Felipe II y, especialmente, con la expulsión de los moriscos de 1609, la región perdió gran parte de su fuerza económica y quedó relegada frente a otros centros locales. Sin embargo, sí se continuó desarrollando proyectos artísticos de importancia. Es el caso de la reforma de la fachada principal emprendida por Alonso Cano (1601 – 1667) en 1664 en la que se introdujeron elementos barrocos.
La magnificencia del proyecto hubiese sido aún mayor si se hubieran erigido las dos grandes torres de ochenta y un metros de altura previstas en los planos. El proyecto no fue terminado por diversos problemas, entre ellos la muerte de Alonso Cano en 1667, y otros económicos, por lo que finalmente, en 1684, la Catedral quedó con una torre, formada solo por tres cuerpos en lugar de los seis previstos y con un total de cincuenta y siete metros de altura.
Interior de la catedral de Granada antes de que se suprimiera el coro. Fotografía de J. Laurent, ca. 1881.
En 1706 Francisco de Hurtado Izquierdo y posteriormente su colaborador José Bada construyeron el actual sagrario de la catedral. En él, el autor rompió su tendencia rococó, respetando la sobriedad de líneas y la estructura clásica del resto del conjunto.
La catedral de Granada es de planta rectangular debido a que sus cinco naves cubren por completo el crucero, que no llega a destacar sobre la planta. Las cinco naves están escalonadas en alturas, siendo mayor la central. En los pies de la catedral, se sitúan las dos torres, siendo la del lado izquierdo, llamada torre de san Miguel, un contrafuerte que sustituyó a la torre prevista en ese lado.
La capilla mayor está compuesta por una serie de columnas corintias sobre cuyo capitel se encuentra el entablamento y sobre éste, la bóveda, que alberga, al igual que los espacios inferiores sobre las columnas, una serie de ventanales con delicadas vidrieras.
La fachada está constituida por una estructura encuadrada en forma de arco del triunfo con portadas y lienzos de empotrados. Está formada por tres ejes coronados por arcos de medio punto sostenidos sobre pilastras, de forma similar a San Andrés de Mantua de Leon Battista Alberti. Las pilastras no tienen capiteles sino resaltes esculpidos en la pared, así como medallones de mármol adosados. Encima de la puerta principal se ubica un tondo en mármol de José Risueño sobre la Anunciación. Destaca también la presencia en la parte superior de un jarrón con azucenas, aludiendo al carácter virginal y puro de la madre de Dios.
El sagrario, elevado entre 1706 y 1759, sigue las proporciones clásicas del conjunto, manteniendo las columnas múltiples del crucero las formas del orden compuesto de Siloé.
Stepantsminda
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Kazbegi)
"Kazbegi" redirects here. For other meanings, see Kazbegi.
Stepantsminda
სტეფანწმინდა
Stepantsminda
სტეფანწმინდა
Location of Stepantsminda in Georgia
Coordinates: 42°39′27″N 44°38′43″ECoordinates: 42°39′27″N 44°38′43″E
Country Georgia
MkhareMtskheta-Mtianeti
Elevation1,740 m (5,710 ft)
Population (2002)
• Total1,820
Time zoneGeorgian Time (UTC+4)
Stepantsminda (Georgian: სტეფანწმინდა; formerly Kazbegi, ყაზბეგი), is a small town in the Mtskheta-Mtianeti region of north-eastern Georgia. Historically and ethnographically, the town is part of the Khevi province. It is the center of the Kazbegi Municipality.
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Geography and climate
3 History
4 Landmarks
5 Border crossing point to Russia
6 References
7 External links
[edit]Etymology
Stepantsminda was named after a Georgian Orthodox monk named Stephan, who constructed a hermitage at this location on what later became the Georgian Military Road.
[edit]Geography and climate
The town is located along the banks of the Thergi River, 157 kilometers (98 mi) to the north of Tbilisi at an elevation of 1,740 meters (5,710 feet) above sea level. Stepantsminda’s climate is moderately humid with relatively dry, cold winters and long and cool summers. The average annual temperature is 4.9 degrees Celsius. January is the coldest month with an average temperature of -5.2 degrees Celsius while July is the warmest month with an average temperature of 14.4 degrees Celsius. The absolute minimum recorded temperature is -34 degrees Celsius and the absolute maximum is 32 degrees Celsius. Stepantsminda’s average annual precipitation is 790 mm. (31.1 inches). The town is dominated by large mountains on all sides. The most notable mountain of the region, Mount Kazbek, lies immediately to the west of town. The second most prominent peak, Mt. Shani, rises to an elevation of 4,451 meters (14,600 feet) above sea level, 9 kilometers to the east of Stepantsminda. The town is located 10 kilometers to the south of the famous Darial Gorge.
[edit]History
The Gergeti Trinity Church, the main cultural landmark of Stepantsminda.
According to tradition, Stepantsminda, literally "Saint Stephan", was named so after a Georgian Orthodox monk Stephan, who constructed a hermitage at this location on what later became the Georgian Military Highway. It came under the control of a local feudal magnate, the Chopikashvili clan, who were in charge of collecting tolls on travelers in the area in the late 18th century. After the expansion of the Russian Empire into the Kingdom of Georgia in the early 19th century, the people of the region revolted against Russian rule. However, the local lord Gabriel Chopikashvili, son of Kazi-Beg, remained steadfast in his loyalty to Russia and helped to suppress the revolt. In return, he was promoted to officer in the Russian Army. He adopted the surname Kazbegi, and the village under his control was also frequently referred to as "Kazbegi". The name was officially changed to Kazbegi already under the Soviet rule in 1925. Gabriel Chopikashvili-Kazbegi's grandson was the famed Georgian writer Alexander Kazbegi, who was born in this town. In 2006, the town reverted to its original name of Stepantsiminda.
[edit]Landmarks
Stepantsiminda is known for its scenic location in the Greater Caucasus mountains, and is a center for trekkers and mountain climbing. Local attractions include the Kazbegi Museum and Ethnographic Museum in town, and the Gergeti Trinity Church outside of town, as well as Mount Kazbegi itself and the alpine meadows and forests of the surrounding Kazbegi Nature Reserve.
Gergeti Trinity Church
[edit]Border crossing point to Russia
Georgian part of the border crossing point.
There is Georgian part "Kazbegi" of border crossing point to Russian Federation "Kazbegi" - "Verchni Lars". The crossing was opened 01.03.2010. It works: winter period (01-NOV - 28-FEB) from 07 am till 07pm, summer period (01-MAR - 31-OCT) from 06 am till 10pm. The customs is multilateral, for all citizens of the World. The crossborder road is in mountain tunnel, so it is impossible to cross the border on foot. No information about possibility to cross the border by cycle.
Vatican Museums
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
vte
The Vatican Museums (Italian: Musei Vaticani; Latin: Musea Vaticana) are Christian and art museums located within the city boundaries of the Vatican City. They display works from the immense collection amassed by popes throughout the centuries including several of the most renowned Roman sculptures and most important masterpieces of Renaissance art in the world. The museums contain roughly 70,000 works, of which 20,000 are on display,[3] and currently employ 640 people who work in 40 different administrative, scholarly, and restoration departments.[4]
Pope Julius II founded the museums in the early 16th century.[5] The Sistine Chapel, with its ceiling decorated by Michelangelo and the Stanze di Raffaello decorated by Raphael, are on the visitor route through the Vatican Museums. In 2017, they were visited by 6 million people, which combined makes it the 4th most visited art museum in the world.[6][7]
There are 54 galleries, or sale, in total,[citation needed] with the Sistine Chapel, notably, being the very last sala within the Museum. It is one of the largest museums in the world.
In 2017, the Museum's official website and social media presence was completely redone, in accord with current standards and appearances for modern websites.[8]
History
The Vatican Museums trace their origin to one marble sculpture, purchased in the 16th century: Laocoön and His Sons was discovered on 14 January 1506, in a vineyard near the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. Pope Julius II sent Giuliano da Sangallo and Michelangelo Buonarroti, who were working at the Vatican, to examine the discovery. On their recommendation, the pope immediately purchased the sculpture from the vineyard owner. The pope put the sculpture, which depicts the Trojan priest Laocoön and his two sons being attacked by giant serpents, on public display at the Vatican exactly one month after its discovery.
Benedict XIV founded the Museum Christianum, and some of the Vatican collections formed the Lateran Museum, which Pius IX founded by decree in 1854.[9]
The Museums celebrated their 500th anniversary in October 2006 by permanently opening the excavations of a Vatican Hill necropolis to the public.[10]
On 1 January 2017, Barbara Jatta became the Director of the Vatican Museums, replacing Antonio Paolucci who had been director since 2007.
Pinacoteca Vaticana
The art gallery was housed in the Borgia Apartment until Pope Pius XI ordered construction of a proper building. The new building, designed by Luca Beltrami, was inaugurated on 27 October 1932.[13] The museum has paintings including:
•Giotto's Stefaneschi Triptych
•Olivuccio di Ciccarello, Opere di Misericordia
•Raphael's Madonna of Foligno, Oddi Altarpiece and Transfiguration
•Leonardo da Vinci's St. Jerome in the Wilderness
•Caravaggio's Entombment
•Perugino's Madonna and Child with Saints and San Francesco al Prato Resurrection
•Filippo Lippi's Marsuppini Coronation
•Jan Matejko's Sobieski at Vienna
Collection of Modern Religious Art
The Collection of Modern Religious Art was added in 1973 and houses paintings and sculptures from artists like Carlo Carrà, Giorgio de Chirico, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Marc Chagall, Paul Klee, Salvador Dalí, and Pablo Picasso.[14]
Sculpture museums
The group of museums includes several sculpture museums surrounding the Cortile del Belvedere. These are the Gregoriano Profano Museum, with classical sculpture, and others as below:
Museo Pio-Clementino
A Roman naval bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste (Palestrina),[15] constructed c. 120 BC;[16] exhibited in the Pius-Clementine Museum (Museo Pio-Clementino) of the Vatican.
The museum takes its name from two popes; Clement XIV, who established the museum, and Pius VI, the pope who brought the museum to completion. Clement XIV came up with the idea of creating a new museum in Innocent VIII's Belvedere Palace and started the refurbishment work.[17]
Pope Clement XIV founded the Pio-Clementino museum in 1771, and originally it contained the Renaissance and antique works. The museum and collection were enlarged by Clement's successor Pius VI. Today, the museum houses works of Greek and Roman sculpture. Some notable galleries are:
•Greek Cross Gallery: (Sala a Croce Greca): with the porphyri sarcophagi of Constance and Saint Helen, daughter and mother of Constantine the Great.
•Sala Rotonda: shaped like a miniature Pantheon, the room has impressive ancient mosaics on the floors, and ancient statues lining the perimeter, including a gilded bronze statue of Hercules.
•Gallery of the Statues (Galleria delle Statue): as its name implies, holds various important statues, including Sleeping Ariadne and the bust of Menander. It also contains the Barberini Candelabra.
•Gallery of the Busts (Galleria dei Busti): Many ancient busts are displayed.
•Cabinet of the Masks (Gabinetto delle Maschere): The name comes from the mosaic on the floor of the gallery, found in Villa Adriana, which shows ancient theater masks. Statues are displayed along the walls, including the Three Graces.
•Sala delle Muse: Houses the statue group of Apollo and the nine muses, uncovered in a Roman villa near Tivoli in 1774, as well as statues by important ancient Greek or Roman sculptors. The centerpiece is the Belvedere Torso, revered by Michelangelo and other Renaissance men.[18]
•Sala degli Animali: So named because of the many ancient statues of animals.
Museo Chiaramonti
This museum was founded in the early 19th century by Pope Pius VII, whose surname before his election as pope was Chiaramonti. The museum consists of a large arched gallery in which are exhibited several statues, sarcophagi and friezes. The New Wing, Braccio Nuovo, built by Raffaele Stern, houses statues including the Augustus of Prima Porta, the Doryphoros, and The River Nile. The Galeria Lapidaria forms part of the Museo Chiaramonti, and contains over 3,000 stone tablets and inscriptions. It is accessible only with special permission, usually for the purpose of academic study.
Museo Gregoriano Etrusco[edit]
Founded by Pope Gregory XVI in 1836, this museum has eight galleries and houses important Etruscan pieces, coming from archaeological excavations.[19] The pieces include: vases, sarcophagus, bronzes and the Guglielmi Collection.
Museo Gregoriano Egiziano
This museum houses a large collection of artifacts from Ancient Egypt.[20] Such material includes papyruses, the Grassi Collection, animal mummies, and reproductions of the Book of the Dead.[21]
History
The Museo Gregoriano Egiziano was inaugurated on 2 February 1839 to commemorate the anniversary of Gregory XVI's accession to the papacy. The creation of the Museo Gregoriano Egiziano was particularly close to the pope's heart as he believed the understanding of ancient Egyptian civilisation was vital in terms of its scientific importance as well as its value in understanding the Old Testament. This feeling was expressed in a paper by the museum's first curator, the physiologist and Barnabite, Father Luigi Maria Ungarelli.[17]
Vatican Historical Museum
The Vatican Historical Museum (Italian: Museo storico vaticano) was founded in 1973 at the behest of Pope Paul VI,[22] and was initially hosted in environments under the Square Garden. In 1987, it moved to the main floor of the Apostolic Palace of the Lateran where it opened in March 1991.
The Vatican Historical Museum has a unique collection of portraits of the Popes from the 16th century to date, the memorable items of the Papal Military Corps of the 16–17th centuries and old religious paraphernalia related to rituals of the papacy. Also on display on the lower floor are the papamobili (Popemobiles); carriages and motorcars of Popes and Cardinals, including the first cars used by Popes.[23] Vatican Museums
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
vte
The Vatican Museums (Italian: Musei Vaticani; Latin: Musea Vaticana) are Christian and art museums located within the city boundaries of the Vatican City. They display works from the immense collection amassed by popes throughout the centuries including several of the most renowned Roman sculptures and most important masterpieces of Renaissance art in the world. The museums contain roughly 70,000 works, of which 20,000 are on display,[3] and currently employ 640 people who work in 40 different administrative, scholarly, and restoration departments.[4]
Pope Julius II founded the museums in the early 16th century.[5] The Sistine Chapel, with its ceiling decorated by Michelangelo and the Stanze di Raffaello decorated by Raphael, are on the visitor route through the Vatican Museums. In 2017, they were visited by 6 million people, which combined makes it the 4th most visited art museum in the world.[6][7]
There are 54 galleries, or sale, in total,[citation needed] with the Sistine Chapel, notably, being the very last sala within the Museum. It is one of the largest museums in the world.
In 2017, the Museum's official website and social media presence was completely redone, in accord with current standards and appearances for modern websites.[8]
History
The Vatican Museums trace their origin to one marble sculpture, purchased in the 16th century: Laocoön and His Sons was discovered on 14 January 1506, in a vineyard near the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. Pope Julius II sent Giuliano da Sangallo and Michelangelo Buonarroti, who were working at the Vatican, to examine the discovery. On their recommendation, the pope immediately purchased the sculpture from the vineyard owner. The pope put the sculpture, which depicts the Trojan priest Laocoön and his two sons being attacked by giant serpents, on public display at the Vatican exactly one month after its discovery.
Benedict XIV founded the Museum Christianum, and some of the Vatican collections formed the Lateran Museum, which Pius IX founded by decree in 1854.[9]
The Museums celebrated their 500th anniversary in October 2006 by permanently opening the excavations of a Vatican Hill necropolis to the public.[10]
On 1 January 2017, Barbara Jatta became the Director of the Vatican Museums, replacing Antonio Paolucci who had been director since 2007.
Pinacoteca Vaticana
The art gallery was housed in the Borgia Apartment until Pope Pius XI ordered construction of a proper building. The new building, designed by Luca Beltrami, was inaugurated on 27 October 1932.[13] The museum has paintings including:
•Giotto's Stefaneschi Triptych
•Olivuccio di Ciccarello, Opere di Misericordia
•Raphael's Madonna of Foligno, Oddi Altarpiece and Transfiguration
•Leonardo da Vinci's St. Jerome in the Wilderness
•Caravaggio's Entombment
•Perugino's Madonna and Child with Saints and San Francesco al Prato Resurrection
•Filippo Lippi's Marsuppini Coronation
•Jan Matejko's Sobieski at Vienna
Collection of Modern Religious Art
The Collection of Modern Religious Art was added in 1973 and houses paintings and sculptures from artists like Carlo Carrà, Giorgio de Chirico, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Marc Chagall, Paul Klee, Salvador Dalí, and Pablo Picasso.[14]
Sculpture museums
The group of museums includes several sculpture museums surrounding the Cortile del Belvedere. These are the Gregoriano Profano Museum, with classical sculpture, and others as below:
Museo Pio-Clementino
A Roman naval bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste (Palestrina),[15] constructed c. 120 BC;[16] exhibited in the Pius-Clementine Museum (Museo Pio-Clementino) of the Vatican.
The museum takes its name from two popes; Clement XIV, who established the museum, and Pius VI, the pope who brought the museum to completion. Clement XIV came up with the idea of creating a new museum in Innocent VIII's Belvedere Palace and started the refurbishment work.[17]
Pope Clement XIV founded the Pio-Clementino museum in 1771, and originally it contained the Renaissance and antique works. The museum and collection were enlarged by Clement's successor Pius VI. Today, the museum houses works of Greek and Roman sculpture. Some notable galleries are:
•Greek Cross Gallery: (Sala a Croce Greca): with the porphyri sarcophagi of Constance and Saint Helen, daughter and mother of Constantine the Great.
•Sala Rotonda: shaped like a miniature Pantheon, the room has impressive ancient mosaics on the floors, and ancient statues lining the perimeter, including a gilded bronze statue of Hercules.
•Gallery of the Statues (Galleria delle Statue): as its name implies, holds various important statues, including Sleeping Ariadne and the bust of Menander. It also contains the Barberini Candelabra.
•Gallery of the Busts (Galleria dei Busti): Many ancient busts are displayed.
•Cabinet of the Masks (Gabinetto delle Maschere): The name comes from the mosaic on the floor of the gallery, found in Villa Adriana, which shows ancient theater masks. Statues are displayed along the walls, including the Three Graces.
•Sala delle Muse: Houses the statue group of Apollo and the nine muses, uncovered in a Roman villa near Tivoli in 1774, as well as statues by important ancient Greek or Roman sculptors. The centerpiece is the Belvedere Torso, revered by Michelangelo and other Renaissance men.[18]
•Sala degli Animali: So named because of the many ancient statues of animals.
Museo Chiaramonti
This museum was founded in the early 19th century by Pope Pius VII, whose surname before his election as pope was Chiaramonti. The museum consists of a large arched gallery in which are exhibited several statues, sarcophagi and friezes. The New Wing, Braccio Nuovo, built by Raffaele Stern, houses statues including the Augustus of Prima Porta, the Doryphoros, and The River Nile. The Galeria Lapidaria forms part of the Museo Chiaramonti, and contains over 3,000 stone tablets and inscriptions. It is accessible only with special permission, usually for the purpose of academic study.
Museo Gregoriano Etrusco[edit]
Founded by Pope Gregory XVI in 1836, this museum has eight galleries and houses important Etruscan pieces, coming from archaeological excavations.[19] The pieces include: vases, sarcophagus, bronzes and the Guglielmi Collection.
Museo Gregoriano Egiziano
This museum houses a large collection of artifacts from Ancient Egypt.[20] Such material includes papyruses, the Grassi Collection, animal mummies, and reproductions of the Book of the Dead.[21]
History
The Museo Gregoriano Egiziano was inaugurated on 2 February 1839 to commemorate the anniversary of Gregory XVI's accession to the papacy. The creation of the Museo Gregoriano Egiziano was particularly close to the pope's heart as he believed the understanding of ancient Egyptian civilisation was vital in terms of its scientific importance as well as its value in understanding the Old Testament. This feeling was expressed in a paper by the museum's first curator, the physiologist and Barnabite, Father Luigi Maria Ungarelli.[17]
Vatican Historical Museum
The Vatican Historical Museum (Italian: Museo storico vaticano) was founded in 1973 at the behest of Pope Paul VI,[22] and was initially hosted in environments under the Square Garden. In 1987, it moved to the main floor of the Apostolic Palace of the Lateran where it opened in March 1991.
The Vatican Historical Museum has a unique collection of portraits of the Popes from the 16th century to date, the memorable items of the Papal Military Corps of the 16–17th centuries and old religious paraphernalia related to rituals of the papacy. Also on display on the lower floor are the papamobili (Popemobiles); carriages and motorcars of Popes and Cardinals, including the first cars used by Popes.[23]
Vatican Museums
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
vte
The Vatican Museums (Italian: Musei Vaticani; Latin: Musea Vaticana) are Christian and art museums located within the city boundaries of the Vatican City. They display works from the immense collection amassed by popes throughout the centuries including several of the most renowned Roman sculptures and most important masterpieces of Renaissance art in the world. The museums contain roughly 70,000 works, of which 20,000 are on display,[3] and currently employ 640 people who work in 40 different administrative, scholarly, and restoration departments.[4]
Pope Julius II founded the museums in the early 16th century.[5] The Sistine Chapel, with its ceiling decorated by Michelangelo and the Stanze di Raffaello decorated by Raphael, are on the visitor route through the Vatican Museums. In 2017, they were visited by 6 million people, which combined makes it the 4th most visited art museum in the world.[6][7]
There are 54 galleries, or sale, in total,[citation needed] with the Sistine Chapel, notably, being the very last sala within the Museum. It is one of the largest museums in the world.
In 2017, the Museum's official website and social media presence was completely redone, in accord with current standards and appearances for modern websites.[8]
History
The Vatican Museums trace their origin to one marble sculpture, purchased in the 16th century: Laocoön and His Sons was discovered on 14 January 1506, in a vineyard near the basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome. Pope Julius II sent Giuliano da Sangallo and Michelangelo Buonarroti, who were working at the Vatican, to examine the discovery. On their recommendation, the pope immediately purchased the sculpture from the vineyard owner. The pope put the sculpture, which depicts the Trojan priest Laocoön and his two sons being attacked by giant serpents, on public display at the Vatican exactly one month after its discovery.
Benedict XIV founded the Museum Christianum, and some of the Vatican collections formed the Lateran Museum, which Pius IX founded by decree in 1854.[9]
The Museums celebrated their 500th anniversary in October 2006 by permanently opening the excavations of a Vatican Hill necropolis to the public.[10]
On 1 January 2017, Barbara Jatta became the Director of the Vatican Museums, replacing Antonio Paolucci who had been director since 2007.
Pinacoteca Vaticana
The art gallery was housed in the Borgia Apartment until Pope Pius XI ordered construction of a proper building. The new building, designed by Luca Beltrami, was inaugurated on 27 October 1932.[13] The museum has paintings including:
•Giotto's Stefaneschi Triptych
•Olivuccio di Ciccarello, Opere di Misericordia
•Raphael's Madonna of Foligno, Oddi Altarpiece and Transfiguration
•Leonardo da Vinci's St. Jerome in the Wilderness
•Caravaggio's Entombment
•Perugino's Madonna and Child with Saints and San Francesco al Prato Resurrection
•Filippo Lippi's Marsuppini Coronation
•Jan Matejko's Sobieski at Vienna
Collection of Modern Religious Art
The Collection of Modern Religious Art was added in 1973 and houses paintings and sculptures from artists like Carlo Carrà, Giorgio de Chirico, Vincent van Gogh, Paul Gauguin, Marc Chagall, Paul Klee, Salvador Dalí, and Pablo Picasso.[14]
Sculpture museums
The group of museums includes several sculpture museums surrounding the Cortile del Belvedere. These are the Gregoriano Profano Museum, with classical sculpture, and others as below:
Museo Pio-Clementino
A Roman naval bireme depicted in a relief from the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste (Palestrina),[15] constructed c. 120 BC;[16] exhibited in the Pius-Clementine Museum (Museo Pio-Clementino) of the Vatican.
The museum takes its name from two popes; Clement XIV, who established the museum, and Pius VI, the pope who brought the museum to completion. Clement XIV came up with the idea of creating a new museum in Innocent VIII's Belvedere Palace and started the refurbishment work.[17]
Pope Clement XIV founded the Pio-Clementino museum in 1771, and originally it contained the Renaissance and antique works. The museum and collection were enlarged by Clement's successor Pius VI. Today, the museum houses works of Greek and Roman sculpture. Some notable galleries are:
•Greek Cross Gallery: (Sala a Croce Greca): with the porphyri sarcophagi of Constance and Saint Helen, daughter and mother of Constantine the Great.
•Sala Rotonda: shaped like a miniature Pantheon, the room has impressive ancient mosaics on the floors, and ancient statues lining the perimeter, including a gilded bronze statue of Hercules.
•Gallery of the Statues (Galleria delle Statue): as its name implies, holds various important statues, including Sleeping Ariadne and the bust of Menander. It also contains the Barberini Candelabra.
•Gallery of the Busts (Galleria dei Busti): Many ancient busts are displayed.
•Cabinet of the Masks (Gabinetto delle Maschere): The name comes from the mosaic on the floor of the gallery, found in Villa Adriana, which shows ancient theater masks. Statues are displayed along the walls, including the Three Graces.
•Sala delle Muse: Houses the statue group of Apollo and the nine muses, uncovered in a Roman villa near Tivoli in 1774, as well as statues by important ancient Greek or Roman sculptors. The centerpiece is the Belvedere Torso, revered by Michelangelo and other Renaissance men.[18]
•Sala degli Animali: So named because of the many ancient statues of animals.
Museo Chiaramonti
This museum was founded in the early 19th century by Pope Pius VII, whose surname before his election as pope was Chiaramonti. The museum consists of a large arched gallery in which are exhibited several statues, sarcophagi and friezes. The New Wing, Braccio Nuovo, built by Raffaele Stern, houses statues including the Augustus of Prima Porta, the Doryphoros, and The River Nile. The Galeria Lapidaria forms part of the Museo Chiaramonti, and contains over 3,000 stone tablets and inscriptions. It is accessible only with special permission, usually for the purpose of academic study.
Museo Gregoriano Etrusco[edit]
Founded by Pope Gregory XVI in 1836, this museum has eight galleries and houses important Etruscan pieces, coming from archaeological excavations.[19] The pieces include: vases, sarcophagus, bronzes and the Guglielmi Collection.
Museo Gregoriano Egiziano
This museum houses a large collection of artifacts from Ancient Egypt.[20] Such material includes papyruses, the Grassi Collection, animal mummies, and reproductions of the Book of the Dead.[21]
History
The Museo Gregoriano Egiziano was inaugurated on 2 February 1839 to commemorate the anniversary of Gregory XVI's accession to the papacy. The creation of the Museo Gregoriano Egiziano was particularly close to the pope's heart as he believed the understanding of ancient Egyptian civilisation was vital in terms of its scientific importance as well as its value in understanding the Old Testament. This feeling was expressed in a paper by the museum's first curator, the physiologist and Barnabite, Father Luigi Maria Ungarelli.[17]
Vatican Historical Museum
The Vatican Historical Museum (Italian: Museo storico vaticano) was founded in 1973 at the behest of Pope Paul VI,[22] and was initially hosted in environments under the Square Garden. In 1987, it moved to the main floor of the Apostolic Palace of the Lateran where it opened in March 1991.
The Vatican Historical Museum has a unique collection of portraits of the Popes from the 16th century to date, the memorable items of the Papal Military Corps of the 16–17th centuries and old religious paraphernalia related to rituals of the papacy. Also on display on the lower floor are the papamobili (Popemobiles); carriages and motorcars of Popes and Cardinals, including the first cars used by Popes.[23]
Nº 4.
Peugeot 504 (1971).
"Voitures françaises" - Hachette.
Escala 1/43.
Norev.
France.
Año 2002.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Peugeot 504
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"The Peugeot 504 is a mid-size, front-engine, rear wheel drive automobile manufactured and marketed by Peugeot for model years 1968-1983 over a single generation, primarily in four-door sedan and wagon configurations — but also with two-door coupe, convertible and pickup truck variants.
The 504 was noted for its robust body structure, long suspension travel, and torque tube drive shaft — enclosed in a rigid tube attached at each end to the gearbox housing and differential casing, relieving drive train torque reactions. The 504 ultimately achieved widespread popularity in far-flung rough-terrain countries — including Brazil, Argentina, Australia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Cameroon, Benin, Kenya and Nigeria.
More than three million 504s were manufactured in its European production, with production continuing globally under various licensing arrangements — including 27,000 assembled in Kenya and 425,000 assembled in Nigeria, using knock-down kits — with production extending into 2006.
Having debuted as Peugeot's flagship at the 1968 Paris Salon, the 504 received the 1969 European Car of the Year.
In 2013, the LA Times called it "Africa's workhorse."
(...)
-------------------
Peugeot 504
Manufacturer
Peugeot SA
Also called
Guangzhou-Peugeot GP 7200
Production
European France: 1968–1983
Argentina: 1969–1999
South Africa: 1970–1985
China: 1989–1997
Nigeria: 1968–2006
Kenya: 1968–2004
Taiwan: 1979–1984
Assembly
Sochaux, France
Buenos Aires, Argentina (Sevel)
Melbourne, Australia (Renault Australia Pty Ltd.)
Los Andes, Chile
Canton, China
Cairo, Egypt (AAV)
Mombasa, Kenya
Thames, New Zealand
Kaduna, Nigeria
Setúbal, Portugal (Movauto)
Natalspruit, Transvaal, South Africa
Pretoria, South Africa (Sigma)
Changhua, Taiwan
La Marsa, Tunisia (STAFIM)
Designer
Aldo Brovarone at Pininfarina
Class
Large family car (D)
Body style
4-door saloon
5-door estate
2-door coupé
2-door convertible
2-door coupé utility (pickup)
Layout
FR layout
Engine
1.8 L I4
2.0 L I4
1.9 L I4 diesel
2.1 L I4 diesel
2.3 L I4 diesel
2.7 L V6
Transmission
4-speed manual
3-speed automatic ZF 3HP12
3-speed automatic ZF 3HP22
3-speed automatic GM 407 (V6)
5-speed manual
Dimensions
Wheelbase
2,740 mm (108 in)
(saloon/berline)
Length
4,486.3 mm (176.63 in)
(saloon/berline)
4,800 mm (190 in)
(break)
Width
1,690 mm (67 in)
Height
1,460 mm (57 in)
Curb weight
1,200–1,300 kg (2,600–2,900 lb)
Chronology
Predecessor
Peugeot 404
Successor
Peugeot 505
Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peugeot_504
More info:
les-peugeot-mythique.com/la-peugeot-504-berline/
www.autoevolution.com/peugeot/504/
lautomobileancienne.com/peugeot-504-1968-1983/
stubs-auto.fr/peugeot/peugeot-504-1968-1983/
elblogdeautosdenelsonmuntz.blogspot.com.es/2016/08/peugeo...
Summer holiday 2014
In and around Berlin Germany
Berlin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the capital of Germany. For other uses, see Berlin (disambiguation).
Berlin
State of Germany
Clockwise: Charlottenburg Palace, Fernsehturm Berlin, Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, Alte Nationalgalerie, Potsdamer Platz and Brandenburg Gate.
Clockwise: Charlottenburg Palace, Fernsehturm Berlin, Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, Alte Nationalgalerie, Potsdamer Platz and Brandenburg Gate.
Flag of Berlin
Flag Coat of arms of Berlin
Coat of arms
Location within European Union and Germany
Location within European Union and Germany
Coordinates: 52°31′N 13°23′ECoordinates: 52°31′N 13°23′E
Country
Germany
Government
• Governing Mayor
Michael Müller (SPD)
• Governing parties
SPD / CDU
• Votes in Bundesrat
4 (of 69)
Area
• City
891.85 km2 (344.35 sq mi)
Elevation
34 m (112 ft)
Population (December 2013)[1]
• City
3,517,424
• Density
3,900/km2 (10,000/sq mi)
Demonym
Berliner
Time zone
CET (UTC+1)
• Summer (DST)
CEST (UTC+2)
Postal code(s)
10115–14199
Area code(s)
030
ISO 3166 code
DE-BE
Vehicle registration
B[2]
GDP/ Nominal
€109.2 billion (2013) [3]
NUTS Region
DE3
Website
berlin.de
Berlin (/bərˈlɪn/; German pronunciation: [bɛɐ̯ˈliːn] ( listen)) is the capital of Germany and one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.5 million people,[4] Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union.[5] Located in northeastern Germany on the River Spree, it is the center of the Berlin-Brandenburg Metropolitan Region, which has about 4.5 million residents from over 180 nations.[6][7][8][9] Due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one third of the city's area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers and lakes.[10]
First documented in the 13th century, Berlin became the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1417), the Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1918), the German Empire (1871–1918), the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) and the Third Reich (1933–1945).[11] Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world.[12] After World War II, the city was divided; East Berlin became the capital of East Germany while West Berlin became a de facto West German exclave, surrounded by the Berlin Wall (1961–1989).[13] Following German reunification in 1990, the city was once more designated as the capital of all Germany, hosting 158 foreign embassies.[14]
Berlin is a world city of culture, politics, media, and science.[15][16][17][18] Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the service sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations, and convention venues.[19][20] Berlin serves as a continental hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination.[21] Significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction, and electronics.
Modern Berlin is home to renowned universities, orchestras, museums, entertainment venues, and is host to many sporting events.[22] Its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions.[23] The city is well known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts, and a high quality of living.[24] Over the last decade Berlin has seen the upcoming of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene.[25]
20th to 21st centuries[edit]
Street, Berlin (1913) by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner
After 1910 Berlin had become a fertile ground for the German Expressionist movement. In fields such as architecture, painting and cinema new forms of artistic styles were invented. At the end of World War I in 1918, a republic was proclaimed by Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building. In 1920, the Greater Berlin Act incorporated dozens of suburban cities, villages, and estates around Berlin into an expanded city. The act increased the area of Berlin from 66 to 883 km2 (25 to 341 sq mi). The population almost doubled and Berlin had a population of around four million. During the Weimar era, Berlin underwent political unrest due to economic uncertainties, but also became a renowned center of the Roaring Twenties. The metropolis experienced its heyday as a major world capital and was known for its leadership roles in science, the humanities, city planning, film, higher education, government, and industries. Albert Einstein rose to public prominence during his years in Berlin, being awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921.
Berlin in ruins after World War II (Potsdamer Platz, 1945).
In 1933, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power. NSDAP rule effectively destroyed Berlin's Jewish community, which had numbered 160,000, representing one-third of all Jews in the country. Berlin's Jewish population fell to about 80,000 as a result of emigration between 1933 and 1939. After Kristallnacht in 1938, thousands of the city's persecuted groups were imprisoned in the nearby Sachsenhausen concentration camp or, starting in early 1943, were shipped to death camps, such as Auschwitz.[39] During World War II, large parts of Berlin were destroyed in the 1943–45 air raids and during the Battle of Berlin. Around 125,000 civilians were killed.[40] After the end of the war in Europe in 1945, Berlin received large numbers of refugees from the Eastern provinces. The victorious powers divided the city into four sectors, analogous to the occupation zones into which Germany was divided. The sectors of the Western Allies (the United States, the United Kingdom and France) formed West Berlin, while the Soviet sector formed East Berlin.[41]
The Berlin Wall in 1986, painted on the western side. People crossing the so-called "death strip" on the eastern side were at risk of being shot.
All four Allies shared administrative responsibilities for Berlin. However, in 1948, when the Western Allies extended the currency reform in the Western zones of Germany to the three western sectors of Berlin, the Soviet Union imposed a blockade on the access routes to and from West Berlin, which lay entirely inside Soviet-controlled territory. The Berlin airlift, conducted by the three western Allies, overcame this blockade by supplying food and other supplies to the city from June 1948 to May 1949.[42] In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was founded in West Germany and eventually included all of the American, British, and French zones, excluding those three countries' zones in Berlin, while the Marxist-Leninist German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in East Germany. West Berlin officially remained an occupied city, but it politically was aligned with the Federal Republic of Germany despite West Berlin's geographic isolation. Airline service to West Berlin was granted only to American, British, and French airlines.
The fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989. On 3 October 1990, the German reunification process was formally finished.
The founding of the two German states increased Cold War tensions. West Berlin was surrounded by East German territory, and East Germany proclaimed the Eastern part as its capital, a move that was not recognized by the western powers. East Berlin included most of the historic center of the city. The West German government established itself in Bonn.[43] In 1961, East Germany began the building of the Berlin Wall between East and West Berlin, and events escalated to a tank standoff at Checkpoint Charlie. West Berlin was now de facto a part of West Germany with a unique legal status, while East Berlin was de facto a part of East Germany. John F. Kennedy gave his "Ich bin ein Berliner" – speech in 1963 underlining the US support for the Western part of the city. Berlin was completely divided. Although it was possible for Westerners to pass from one to the other side through strictly controlled checkpoints, for most Easterners travel to West Berlin or West Germany prohibited. In 1971, a Four-Power agreement guaranteed access to and from West Berlin by car or train through East Germany.[44]
In 1989, with the end of the Cold War and pressure from the East German population, the Berlin Wall fell on 9 November and was subsequently mostly demolished. Today, the East Side Gallery preserves a large portion of the Wall. On 3 October 1990, the two parts of Germany were reunified as the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin again became the official German capital. In 1991, the German Parliament, the Bundestag, voted to move the seat of the (West) German capital from Bonn to Berlin, which was completed in 1999. Berlin's 2001 administrative reform merged several districts. The number of boroughs was reduced from 23 to twelve. In 2006 the FIFA World Cup Final was held in Berlin.
Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).
Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..
Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.
Wiki : Temple of Jupiter Ammon, Oasis of Siwah www.greece.org/alexandria/alexander/Pages/siwa.html
This encyclopedia is the best source of information and reference in a single volume, particularly for students of classes III to VIII. It provides the best of GK to its readers. Every piece of information is authentic - culled together from several areas of knowledge ranging from encyclopedias, fact books, year books, official government releases, internet and other reliable sources - and verified for accuracy.
Salient Features:
The best reference book for students, teachers and parents
Includes the most up-to-date facts & figures
Alphabetical order of entries in each chapter
'Believe It or Not' boxes contain over 100 amazing facts
Quiz at the end contains 200 important questions
Over 100 lavish & spectacular illustrations
Index contains around 200 direct & cross entries
François Mitterrand
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Mitterrand" redirects here. For other uses, see Mitterrand (disambiguation).
François Maurice Adrien Marie Mitterrand (French: [fʁɑ̃swa mɔʁis mitɛˈʁɑ̃] ( listen)) (26 October 1916 – 8 January 1996) was the 21st President of France and ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra, serving from 1981 until 1995. He is the longest-serving President of France and, as leader of the Socialist Party, the first figure from the left elected President under the Fifth Republic.
Reflecting family influences, Mitterrand started political life on the Catholic nationalist right. He served under the Vichy Regime in its earlier years. Subsequently, however, he joined the Resistance, moved to the left, and held ministerial office repeatedly under the Fourth Republic. He opposed de Gaulle's establishment of the Fifth Republic. Although at times a politically isolated figure, Mitterrand outmanoeuvred rivals to become the left's standard bearer in every presidential election from 1965 to 1988, except 1969. Elected President in the May 1981 presidential election, he was re-elected in 1988 and held office until 1995.
Mitterrand invited the Communist Party into his first government, a controversial move at the time. In the event, the Communists were boxed in as junior partners and, rather than taking advantage, saw their support erode. They left the cabinet in 1984. Early in his first term, Mitterrand followed a radical economic program, including nationalization of key firms, but after two years, with the economy in crisis, he reversed course. His foreign and defense policies built on those of his Gaullist predecessors. His partnership with German Chancellor Helmut Kohl advanced European integration via the Maastricht Treaty, but he accepted German reunification only reluctantly. During his time in office he was a strong promoter of culture and implemented a range of costly "Grands Projets". He was twice forced by the loss of a parliamentary majority into "cohabitation governments" with conservative cabinets led, respectively, by Jacques Chirac (1986–88), and Édouard Balladur (1993–95). Less than eight months after leaving office, Mitterrand died from the prostate cancer he had successfully concealed for most of his presidency.
Beyond making the French left electable, Mitterrand presided over the rise of the Socialist Party to dominance of the left, and the decline of the once-mighty Communist Party (as a share of the popular vote in the first presidential round, the Communists shrank from a peak of 21.27% in 1969 to 8.66% in 1995, at the end of Mitterrand's second term, and to 1.93% in the 2007 election).
Le Coup d’État permanent
AuteurFrançois Mitterrand
GenreEssai politique
Pays d'origine France
ÉditeurPlon
CollectionLes Débats de notre temps
Date de parution1964
Nombre de pages285
modifier
Le Coup d'État permanent est un essai de l'homme politique français François Mitterrand, publié par l'éditeur Plon en 1964 pendant la présidence de Charles de Gaulle.
Dans ce livre, Mitterrand dénonce la pratique du pouvoir personnel par le général de Gaulle. Il ne se contente pas de critiquer la lettre de la Constitution : il reproche plutôt au général de Gaulle d'avoir trahi la promesse de 1958, selon laquelle le président est un arbitre. Selon Mitterrand, le chef de l'État est devenu tout-puissant : il montre la faiblesse du gouvernement et du Parlement, marginalisés par le président de la République. Dès 1949, Mitterrand s'inquiète de la création du RPF, qu'il juge trop au service exclusif de la personne de De Gaulle. Aussi, lors des débats au terme desquels l'Assemblée nationale lui confie la rédaction d'une nouvelle Constitution, Mitterrand exprime son opposition, puis il appelle à voter non lors du référendum du 28 septembre 19581. Si en 1958, il connaît sa seule défaite aux élections législatives, son opposition au référendum de 1962 paie enfin, puisqu'il retrouve son siège de député de la Nièvre1.
François Mitterrand insiste aussi sur les abus en matière de justice et de police, le gaullisme devenant « de Gaulle plus la police »2,1. Il dénonce par exemple l'utilisation de provocateurs, la multiplication des bavures et brutalités policières, les officines en tous genres (comme le SAC et les réseaux Foccart), les tribunaux d'exception (Haut Tribunal militaire, remplacé par une Cour militaire de justice puis par la Cour de sûreté de l'État, cette dernière ayant été supprimée dès l'été 1981 par la gauche), le mépris du Conseil constitutionnel et du Conseil d'État, ou encore le recours abusif au délit d'offense au chef de l'État.
Les préfaciers de la réédition de 2010 rappellent que Mitterrand a déjà voté contre la Constitution de la Quatrième République, critiquant ce « régime anachronique ». Si le livre est souvent présenté comme une dénonciation de l'élection présidentielle au suffrage universel, il ne contient pas de tel jugement, Mitterrand jugeant le principe « acceptable en soi3 ». En revanche, il dénonce les conditions de ce choix qui procède non d'une délibération parlementaire, mais d'un texte élaboré par l'exécutif, ce qui est anticonstitutionnel dénonce le président du Sénat Gaston Monnerville, qui accuse le Premier ministre de forfaiture en violant le texte de la Constitution en vigueur1.
Le livre connaît un grand écho qui permet à François Mitterrand d'incarner la meilleure opposition à de Gaulle. Alors que Gaston Defferre et Pierre Mendès-France insistent sur la critique du programme gaullien, François Mitterrand fait le choix d'affronter l'essence même du régime gaulliste. Cela le fera choisir comme le candidat de gauche pour l'élection présidentielle de 1965, où son accession au second tour le rendra incontournable pour les échéances futures1.
Otro detalle de esquina derrumbada con parte del revestimiento aún en voladizo.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A view of the pyramids at Giza from the plateau to the south of the complex. From left to right, the three largest are: the Pyramid of Menkaure, the Pyramid of Khafre and the Great Pyramid of Khufu. The three smaller pyramids in the foreground are subsidiary structures associated with Menkaure's pyramid.
U23 G17
r O24
Unicode:
Pyramid
in hieroglyphs
A view of the Pyramid of Khafre from the Sphinx.
The Egyptian pyramids are ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located in Egypt.
As of November 2008, sources cite either 118 or 138 as the number of identified Egyptian pyramids.[1][2] Most were built as tombs for the country's pharaohs and their consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.[3][4][5]
The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are found at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis. The earliest among these is the Pyramid of Djoser (constructed 2630 BC–2611 BC) which was built during the third dynasty. This pyramid and its surrounding complex were designed by the architect Imhotep, and are generally considered to be the world's oldest monumental structures constructed of dressed masonry.[6]
The most famous Egyptian pyramids are those found at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Several of the Giza pyramids are counted among the largest structures ever built.[7] The Pyramid of Khufu at Giza is the largest Egyptian pyramid. It is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence.
Contents
1 Historical development
2 Pyramid symbolism
3 Number and location of pyramids
3.1 Abu Rawash
3.2 Giza
3.3 Zawyet el-Aryan
3.4 Abu Sir
3.5 Saqqara
3.6 Dahshur
3.7 Mazghuna
3.8 Lisht
3.9 Meidum
3.10 Hawara
3.11 el-Lahun
3.12 El-Kurru
3.13 Nuri
3.14 Construction dates
4 Construction techniques
5 See also
6 References
7 Bibliography
8 External links
Historical development
The Mastabat al-Fir’aun at Saqqara
By the time of the Early Dynastic Period, those with sufficient means were buried in bench-like structures known as mastabas.[8][9]
The second historically-documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed to the architect Imhotep, who planned what Egyptologists believe to be a tomb for the pharaoh Djoser. Imhotep is credited with being the first to conceive the notion of stacking mastabas on top of each other, creating an edifice composed of a number of "steps" that decreased in size towards its apex. The result was the Pyramid of Djoser, which was designed to serve as a gigantic stairway by which the soul of the deceased pharaoh could ascend to the heavens. Such was the importance of Imhotep's achievement that he was deified by later Egyptians.[10]
The most prolific pyramid-building phase coincided with the greatest degree of absolutist rule. It was during this time that the most famous pyramids, the Giza pyramid complex, were built. Over time, as authority became less centralized, the ability and willingness to harness the resources required for construction on a massive scale decreased, and later pyramids were smaller, less well-built and often hastily constructed.
Long after the end of Egypt's own pyramid-building period, a burst of pyramid-building occurred in what is present-day Sudan, after much of Egypt came under the rule of the kings of Napata. While Napatan rule was brief, ending in 661 BC, Egyptian culture made an indelible impression, and during the later Kingdom of Meroë (approximately in the period between 300 BCE – 300 CE), this flowered into a full-blown pyramid-building revival, which saw more than two hundred Egyptian-inspired indigenous royal pyramid-tombs constructed in the vicinity of the kingdom's capital cities.
Al-Aziz Uthman (1171–1198) tried to destroy the Giza pyramid complex. He gave up after damaging the Pyramid of Menkaure because the task proved too huge.[11]
Pyramid symbolism
Diagram of the interior structures of the Great Pyramid. The inner line indicates the pyramid's present profile, the outer line indicates the original profile.
The shape of Egyptian pyramids is thought to represent the primordial mound from which the Egyptians believed the earth was created. The shape of a pyramid is thought to be representative of the descending rays of the sun, and most pyramids were faced with polished, highly reflective white limestone, in order to give them a brilliant appearance when viewed from a distance. Pyramids were often also named in ways that referred to solar luminescence. For example, the formal name of the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur was The Southern Shining Pyramid, and that of Senwosret at el-Lahun was Senwosret is Shining.
While it is generally agreed that pyramids were burial monuments, there is continued disagreement on the particular theological principles that might have given rise to them. One suggestion is that they were designed as a type of "resurrection machine."[12]
The Egyptians believed the dark area of the night sky around which the stars appear to revolve was the physical gateway into the heavens. One of the narrow shafts that extend from the main burial chamber through the entire body of the Great Pyramid points directly towards the center of this part of the sky. This suggests the pyramid may have been designed to serve as a means to magically launch the deceased pharaoh's soul directly into the abode of the gods.[12]
All Egyptian pyramids were built on the west bank of the Nile, which, as the site of the setting sun, was associated with the realm of the dead in Egyptian mythology.[13]
Number and location of pyramids
In 1842, Karl Richard Lepsius produced the first modern list of pyramids – see Lepsius list of pyramids – in which he counted 67. A great many more have since been discovered. As of November 2008, 118 Egyptian pyramids have been identified.[3]
The location of Pyramid 29, which Lepsius called the "Headless Pyramid", was lost for a second time when the structure was buried by desert sands subsequent to Lepsius' survey. It was found again only during an archaeological dig conducted in 2008.[14]
Many pyramids are in a poor state of preservation or buried by desert sands. If visible at all, they may appear as little more than mounds of rubble. As a consequence, archaeologists are continuing to identify and study previously unknown pyramid structures.
The most recent pyramid to be discovered was that of Sesheshet at Saqqara, mother of the Sixth Dynasty pharaoh Teti. The discovery was announced by Zahi Hawass, Secretary General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, on 11 November 2008.[4][15]
All of Egypt's pyramids, except the small Third Dynasty pyramid of Zawyet el-Amwat (or Zawyet el-Mayitin), are sited on the west bank of the Nile, and most are grouped together in a number of pyramid fields. The most important of these are listed geographically, from north to south, below.
Abu Rawash
Main article: Abu Rawash
The largely destroyed Pyramid of Djedefre
Abu Rawash is the site of Egypt's most northerly pyramid (other than the ruins of Lepsius pyramid number one)[5]— the mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre, son and successor of Khufu. Originally it was thought that this pyramid had never been completed, but the current archaeological consensus is that not only was it completed, but that it was originally about the same size as the Pyramid of Menkaure, which would have placed it among the half-dozen or so largest pyramids in Egypt.
Its location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying – which began in Roman times – has left little apart from about 15 courses of stone superimposed upon the natural hillock that formed part of the pyramid's core. A small adjacent satellite pyramid is in a better state of preservation.
Giza
Main article: Giza pyramid complex
Map of Giza pyramid complex.
Aerial view of Giza pyramid complex
Giza is the location of the Pyramid of Khufu (also known as the "Great Pyramid" and the "Pyramid of Cheops"); the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Kephren); the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices known as "Queen's pyramids"; and the Great Sphinx of Giza.
Of the three, only Khafre's pyramid retains part of its original polished limestone casing, near its apex. This pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction – it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume.
The Giza pyramid complex has been a popular tourist destination since antiquity, and was popularized in Hellenistic times when the Great Pyramid was listed by Antipater of Sidon as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Today it is the only one of those wonders still in existence.
Zawyet el-Aryan
See also: Zawyet el'Aryan
This site, halfway between Giza and Abu Sir, is the location for two unfinished Old Kingdom pyramids. The northern structure's owner is believed to be pharaoh Nebka, while the southern structure, known as the Layer Pyramid, may be attributable to the Third Dynasty pharaoh Khaba, a close successor of Sekhemkhet. If this attribution is correct, Khaba's short reign could explain the seemingly unfinished state of this step pyramid. Today it stands around 17 m (56 ft) high; had it been completed, it is likely to have exceeded 40 m (130 ft).
Abu Sir
Main article: Abusir
The Pyramid of Sahure at Abu Sir, viewed from the pyramid's causeway.
There are a total of fourteen pyramids at this site, which served as the main royal necropolis during the Fifth Dynasty. The quality of construction of the Abu Sir pyramids is inferior to those of the Fourth Dynasty – perhaps signaling a decrease in royal power or a less vibrant economy. They are smaller than their predecessors, and are built of low-quality local limestone.
The three major pyramids are those of Niuserre, which is also the best preserved, Neferirkare Kakai and Sahure. The site is also home to the incomplete Pyramid of Neferefre. Most of the major pyramids at Abu Sir were built similar construction techniques, comprising a rubble core surrounded by steps of mud bricks with a limestone outer casing. The largest of these 5th-Dynasty pyramids, the Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai, is believed to have been built originally as a step pyramid some 70 m (230 ft) high and then later transformed into a "true" pyramid by having its steps filled in with loose masonry.
Saqqara
Main article: Saqqara
The Pyramid of Djoser
Major pyramids located here include the Pyramid of Djoser – generally identified as the world's oldest substantial monumental structure to be built of dressed stone – the Pyramid of Userkaf, the Pyramid of Teti and the Pyramid of Merikare, dating to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt. Also at Saqqara is the Pyramid of Unas, which retains a pyramid causeway that is one of the best-preserved in Egypt. Together with the pyramid of Userkaf, this pyramid was the subject of one of the earliest known restoration attempts, conducted by Khaemweset, a son of Ramesses II.[16] Saqqara is also the location of the incomplete step pyramid of Djoser's successor Sekhemkhet known as the Buried Pyramid. Archaeologists believe that had this pyramid been completed, it would have been larger than Djoser's.
South of the main pyramid field at Saqqara is a second collection of later, smaller pyramids, including those of Pepi I, Isesi, Merenre, Pepi II and Ibi. Most of these are in a poor state of preservation.
The Fourth Dynasty pharaoh Shepseskaf either did not share an interest in, or have the capacity to undertake pyramid construction like his predecessors. His tomb, which is also sited at south Saqqara, was instead built as an unusually large mastaba and offering temple complex. It is commonly known as the Mastabat al-Fir’aun.[17]
A previously unknown pyramid was discovered at north Saqqara in late 2008. Believed to be the tomb of Teti's mother, it currently stands approximately 5 m (16 ft) high, although the original height was closer to 14 m (46 ft).
Dahshur
Main article: Dahshur
Sneferu's Red Pyramid
This area is arguably the most important pyramid field in Egypt outside Giza and Saqqara, although until 1996 the site was inaccessible due to its location within a military base, and was relatively unknown outside archaeological circles.
The southern Pyramid of Sneferu, commonly known as the Bent Pyramid, is believed to be the first Egyptian pyramid intended by its builders to be a "true" smooth-sided pyramid from the outset; the earlier pyramid at Meidum had smooth sides in its finished state – but it was conceived and built as a step pyramid, before having its steps filled in and concealed beneath a smooth outer casing of dressed stone.
As a true smooth-sided structure, the Bent Pyramid was only a partial success – albeit a unique, visually imposing one; it is also the only major Egyptian pyramid to retain a significant proportion of its original smooth outer limestone casing intact. As such it serves as the best contemporary example of how the ancient Egyptians intended their pyramids to look.
Several kilometeres to the north of the Bent Pyramid is the last – and most successful – of the three pyramids constructed during the reign of Sneferu; the Red Pyramid is the world's first successfully completed smooth-sided pyramid. The structure is also the third largest pyramid in Egypt – after the pyramids of Khufu and Khafra at Giza.
Also at Dahshur is the pyramid known as the Pyramid of Amenemhat III, as well as a number of small, mostly ruined subsidiary pyramids.
Mazghuna
Main article: Mazghuna
Located to the south of Dahshur, several mudbrick pyramids were built in this area in the late Middle Kingdom, perhaps for Amenemhat IV and Sobekneferu.
Lisht
Main article: el-Lisht
The pyramid of Amenemhet I at Lisht
Two major pyramids are known to have been built at Lisht – those of Amenemhat I and his son, Senusret I. The latter is surrounded by the ruins of ten smaller subsidiary pyramids. One of these subsidiary pyramids is known to be that of Amenemhat's cousin, Khaba II.[18] The site which is in the vicinity of the oasis of the Faiyum, midway between Dahshur and Meidum, and about 100 kilometres south of Cairo, is believed to be in the vicinity of the ancient city of Itjtawy (the precise location of which remains unknown), which served as the capital of Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty.
Meidum
Main article: Meidum
The pyramid at Meidum
The pyramid at Meidum is one of three constructed during the reign of Sneferu, and is believed by some to have been started by that pharaoh's father and predecessor, Huni. However, that attribution is uncertain, as no record of Huni's name has been found at the site.
It was constructed as a step pyramid, and then later converted into the first "true" smooth-sided pyramid when the steps were filled in, and an outer casing added.
The pyramid suffered several catastrophic collapses in ancient and medieval times; medieval Arab writers described it as having seven steps – although today only the three uppermost of these remain, giving the structure its odd, tower-like appearance. The hill on which the pyramid is situated is not a natural landscape feature – it is the small mountain of debris created when the lower courses and outer casing of the pyramid gave way.
Hawara
Main article: Hawara
The Pyramid of Amenemhet III at Hawarra
Amenemhat III was the last powerful ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty, and the pyramid he built at Hawarra, near the Faiyum, is believed to post-date the so-called "Black Pyramid" built by the same ruler at Dahshur. It is the Hawarra pyramid that is believed to have been Amenemhet's final resting place.
el-Lahun
Main article: el-Lahun
The Pyramid of Senusret II. The pyramid's natural limestone core is clearly visible as the yellow stratum at its base.
The pyramid of Senusret II at el-Lahun is the southernmost royal-tomb pyramid structure in Egypt. Its builders reduced the amount of work necessary to construct it by ingeniously using as its foundation and core a 12-meter-high natural limestone hill.
El-Kurru
Main article: El-Kurru
Pharaoh Piye's pyramid at El-Kurru
Piye, the first ruler of the Egyptian 25th dynasty, built a pyramid at El-Kurru. He was the first Egyptian pharaoh to be buried in a pyramid in centuries.
Nuri
Main article: Nuri
Egyptian Pharaoh Taharqa's pyramid at Nuri
Taharqa, a legitimate ruler and Pharaoh of Egypt, built his pyramid at Nuri. It was the largest in the area (North Sudan).
Construction dates
Drawing showing transportation of a colossus. The water poured in the path of the sledge, long dismissed by Egyptologists as ritual, but now confirmed as feasible, served to increase the stiffness of the sand, and likely reduced by 50% the force needed to move the statue.[19]
The following table lays out the chronology of the construction of most of the major pyramids mentioned here. Each pyramid is identified through the pharaoh who ordered it built, his approximate reign, and its location.
Pyramid / Pharaoh Reign Field
Djoser c. 2670 BC Saqqara
Sneferu c. 2612–2589 BC Dashur
Sneferu c. 2612–2589 BC Meidum
Khufu c. 2589–2566 BC Giza
Djedefre c. 2566–2558 BC Abu Rawash
Khafre c. 2558–2532 BC Giza
Menkaure c. 2532–2504 BC Giza
Userkaf c. 2494–2487 BC Saqqara
Sahure c. 2487–2477 BC Abu Sir
Neferirkare Kakai c. 2477–2467 BC Abu Sir
Nyuserre Ini c. 2416–2392 BC Abu Sir
Amenemhat I c. 1991–1962 BC Lisht
Senusret I c. 1971–1926 BC Lisht
Senusret II c. 1897–1878 BC el-Lahun
Amenemhat III c. 1860–1814 BC Hawara
Khendjer c. 1764–1759 BC Saqqara
Piye c. 721 BC El-Kurru
Taharqa c. 664 BC Nuri
Construction techniques
Main article: Egyptian pyramid construction techniques
Constructing the pyramids involved moving huge quantities of stone. The quarried blocks were likely transported to the construction site by wooden sleds, with sand in front of the sled wetted to reduce friction. Droplets of water created bridges between the grains of sand, helping them stick together.[20]
The 43 acres site was first occupied by the Three Coins Motel, which opened in 1963. The Bonanza Hotel and Casino opened on the site in July 1967. It was later renamed the New Bonanza Hotel and Casino in 1973 shortly before construction of the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino, owned by Kirk Kerkorian, began.
The MGM Grand opened on December 5, 1973 with 2,084 rooms for the then-staggering cost of $106m and was the largest hotel in the world at that time as one of Las Vegas's first megaresorts. Dean Martin was the entertainer on opening night. When the hotel was built, it set a new standard of size and luxury in Las Vegas, and is considered to have made the biggest impact on Las Vegas until the construction of Steve Wynn's Mirage Hotel in the late 1980s.
The hotel had a movie theme to reflect Kirk Kerkorian's interest in movies from his ownership of MGM and the hotel's use of MGM in its name. It was also one of the Strip's most popular entertainment destinations. It featured two large theaters: The Ziegfeld Stage and the Celebrity Room. The Ziegfeld regularly featured productions by famed Las Vegas choreographer Donn Arden including the long running Jubilee! and Hallelujah Hollywood. Sergio Franchi was the first entertainer signed to star in the Celebrity Room (three-year contract starting February 1974). Franchi's frequent co-star was comedian Joan Rivers. The Celebrity Room also hosted such acts as The Carpenters and Barry Manilow. The Dean Martin Celebrity Roast shows were filmed at the hotel.
On November 21, 1980 the MGM Grand suffered a fire that started in a casino restaurant and traveled up into the hotel, killing 87 guests and employees. The Grand was rebuilt in only eight months, and remodeling added a tower which opened in 1981. The fire made such an impact on hotel safety that it led to the implementation of fire safety improvements worldwide.
The hotel was sold in 1986 to Bally Manufacturing for $594m, and the property's name was changed to Bally's (the MGM Grand name was transferred to the former Marina Hotel, now known as MGM Grand Las Vegas). Bally Entertainment was purchased in 1995 by Hilton Hotels Corporation.
On April 17, 1997, ground was broken on a sister property, Paris Las Vegas. In September 1999, the new resort was opened and tightly integrated with Bally's property by a promenade. For many years, the two resorts operated under a single gaming license.
Hilton's casino resorts division was subsequently spun off and became Caesars Entertainment, Inc. in 2003. The hotel's North tower was renovated in 2004. Harrah's Entertainment (now Caesars Entertainment Corporation) acquired the property with its purchase of Caesars in June 2005.
-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.
LAKE KIVU
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Lake Kivu
Coordinates 2°0′S 29°0′ECoordinates: 2°0′S 29°0′E
Type Rift Valley lakes, Meromictic
Primary outflows Ruzizi River
Catchment area 2,700 km2 (1,000 sq mi)
Basin countries Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Max. length 89 km (55 mi)[1]
Max. width 48 km (30 mi)[1]
Surface area 2,700 km2 (1,040 sq mi)[1]
Average depth 240 m (787 ft)
Max. depth 480 m (1,575 ft)
Water volume 500 km3 (120 cu mi)
Surface elevation 1,460 m (4,790 ft)
Islands Idjwi
Settlements Goma, Congo
Bukavu, Congo
Kibuye, Rwanda
Cyangugu, Rwanda
Lake Kivu with Goma in the background
Lake Kivu is one of the African Great Lakes. It lies on the border between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Rwanda, and is in the Albertine Rift, the western branch of the East African Rift. Lake Kivu empties into the Ruzizi River, which flows southwards into Lake Tanganyika. The name comes from kivu which means "lake" in some Bantu languages, just like the words tanganyika or nyanza.[citation needed]
Contents
1 History
2 Geography
3 Chemistry
3.1 Methane extraction
4 Biology and fisheries
5 See also
6 References
History
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2012)
People on the shore at Gisenyi
The first European to visit the lake was German Count Adolf von Götzen in 1894. Since then it has been caught up in the conflict between Hutu and Tutsi people in Rwanda, and their allies in DR Congo, which led to the 1994 Rwandan Genocide and the First and Second Congo Wars. Lake Kivu gained notoriety as a place where many of the victims of the genocide were dumped.
Geography
The lake covers a total surface area of some 2,700 km2 (1,040 sq mi) and stands at a height of 1,460 metres (4,790 ft) above sea level. Some 1 370 km2 or 58% of the lake's waters lie within DRC borders. The lake bed sits upon a rift valley that is slowly being pulled apart, causing volcanic activity in the area, and making it particularly deep: its maximum depth of 480 m (1,575 ft) is ranked eighteenth in the world.
The world's tenth-largest inland island, Idjwi, lies in Lake Kivu, as does the tiny island of Tshegera, which also lies within the boundaries of Virunga National Park; while settlements on its shore include Bukavu, Kabare, Kalehe, Sake, and Goma in Congo, and Gisenyi, Kibuye, and Cyangugu in Rwanda.
Chemistry
Lake Kivu is a fresh water lake and, along with Cameroonian Lake Nyos and Lake Monoun, is one of three that experience limnic eruptions. Around the lake, geologists found evidence of massive biological extinctions about every thousand years, caused by outgassing events. The trigger for lake overturns in Lake Kivu's case is unknown, but volcanic activity is suspected. The gaseous chemical composition of exploding lakes is unique to each lake; in Lake Kivu's case, methane and carbon dioxide due to lake water interaction with a volcano. The amount of methane is estimated to be 65 cubic kilometers (if burnt over one year, it would give an average power of about 100 gigawatts for the whole period). There is also an estimated 256 cubic kilometers of carbon dioxide. The water temperature is 24°C, and the pH level is about 8.6.[2] The methane is reported to be produced by microbial reduction of the volcanic CO2.[3] The risk from a possible Lake Kivu overturn is catastrophic, dwarfing other documented lake overturns at Lakes Nyos and Monoun, because of the approximately two million people living in the lake basin.
Cores from the Bukavu Bay area of the lake reveal that the bottom has layered deposits of the rare mineral monohydrocalcite interlain with diatoms, on top of sapropelic sediments with high pyrite content. These are found at three different intervals. The sapropelic layers are believed to be related to hydrothermal discharge and the diatoms to a bloom which reduced the carbon dioxide levels low enough to precipitiate monohydrocalcite.[4]
Scientists hypothesize that sufficient volcanic interaction with the lake's bottom water that has high gas concentrations would heat water, force the methane out of the water, spark a methane explosion, and trigger a nearly simultaneous release of carbon dioxide.[5][6] The carbon dioxide would then suffocate large numbers of people in the lake basin as the gases roll off the lake surface. It is also possible that the lake could spawn lake tsunamis as gas explodes out of it.[7][8]
The risk posed by Lake Kivu began to be understood during the analysis of more recent events at Lake Nyos. Lake Kivu's methane was originally thought to be merely a cheap natural resource for export, and for the generation of cheap power. Once the mechanisms that caused lake overturns began to be understood, so did awareness of the risk the lake posed to the local population.
An experimental vent pipe was installed at Lake Nyos in 2001 to remove gas from the deep water, but such a solution for the much larger Lake Kivu would be considerably more expensive. No plan has been initiated to reduce the risk posed by Lake Kivu.[dubious – discuss] The approximately 500 million tonnes of carbon dioxide in the lake is a little under 2 percent of the amount released annually by human fossil fuel burning. Therefore the process of releasing it could potentially have costs beyond building and operating the system.
Methane extraction
Methane extraction platform.
Lake Kivu has recently been found to contain approximately 55 billion cubic metres (1.94 trillion cubic feet) of dissolved biogas at a depth of 300 metres (1,000 ft). Until 2004, extraction of the gas was done on a small scale, with the extracted gas being used to run boilers at a brewery, the Bralirwa brewery in Gisenyi.[9][10] As far as large-scale exploitation of this resource is concerned, the Rwandan government has negotiated with a number of parties to produce methane from the lake.
In 2011 ContourGlobal, a U.S. based energy company focused on emerging markets, secured project financing to initiate a large-scale methane extraction project. The project will be run through a local Rwandan entity called KivuWatt, using an offshore barge platform to extract, separate, and clean the gasses obtained from the lake bed before pumping purified methane via an underwater pipeline to on-shore gas engines. Stage one of the project aims to build and supply three "gensets" along the lake shore, totaling 25MW of electrical capacity. Initial project operations are scheduled to commence in 2012.[11] In addition to managing gas extraction, KivuWatt will also manage the electrical generation plants and on-sell the electrical power to the Rwandan government under the terms of a long-term Power Purchase Agreement (PPA). This allows KivuWatt to control a vertically integrated energy offering from point of extraction to point of sale into the local grid. Extraction is said to be cost-effective and relatively simple because once the gas-rich water is pumped up, the dissolved gases (primarily carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and methane) begin to bubble out as the water pressure gets lower. This project is expected to increase Rwanda's energy generation capability by as much as 20 times, and will enable Rwanda to sell electricity to neighboring African countries.[10] The firm was awarded the 2011 Africa Power deal of the year for innovation in the financing arrangements it obtained from various sources for the KivuWatt project. [12] .[13]
A problem associated with the prevalence of methane is that of mazuku.
Biology and fisheries
Fishing boats on Lake Kivu, 2009.
Reflection of the sky on Lake Kivu
The fish fauna in Lake Kivu is relatively poor with 28 species, including four introduced species.[14] The natives are the Lake Rukwa minnow (Raiamas moorii), four species of Barbus (B. altianalis, B. apleurogramma, B. kerstenii and B. pellegrini), an Amphilius catfish, two Clarias catfish (C. liocephalus and C. gariepinus), Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and 15 endemic Haplochromis cichlids.[14] The introduced species are three cichlids, the longfin tilapia (Oreochromis macrochir), O. leucostictus and redbreast tilapia (Coptodon rendalli), and a clupeid, the Lake Tanganyika sardine, Limnothrissa miodon.[14]
The exploitable stock of the Lake Tanganyika sardine was estimated at 2000–4000 tons per year.[15] It was introduced to Lake Kivu in the late 1959 by a Belgian Engineer A. Collart. At present, Lake Kivu is the sole natural lake in which L. miodon, a sardine originally restricted to Lake Tanganyika, has been introduced initially to fill an empty niche. Prior to the introduction, no planktivorous fish was present in the pelagic waters of Lake Kivu. In the early 1990s, the number of fishers on the lake was 6,563, of which 3,027 were associated with the pelagic fishery and 3,536 with the traditional fishery. Widespread armed conflict in the surrounding region from the mid-1990s resulted in a decline in the fisheries harvest.[16]
Following this introduction, the sardine has gained substantial economic and nutritional importance for the lakeside human population but from an ecosystem standpoint, the introduction of planktivorous fish may result in important modifications of plankton community structure. Recent observations showed the disappearance during the last decades of a large grazer, Daphnia curvirostris, and the dominance of mesozooplankton community by three species of cyclopoid copepod: Thermocyclops consimilis, Mesocyclops aequatorialis and Tropocyclops confinis.[17][18]
The first comprehensive phytoplankton survey was released in 2006.[19] With an annual average chlorophyll a in the mixed layer of 2.2 mg m-3 and low nutrient levels in the euphotic zone, the lake is clearly oligotrophic. Diatoms are the dominant group in the lake, particularly during the dry season episodes of deep mixing. During the rainy season, the stratified water column, with high light and lower nutrient availability, favour dominance of cyanobacteria with high numbers of phototrophic picoplankton.[19][20][21][22] The actual primary production is 0.71 g C m-2 d-1 (~ 260 g C m-2 y-1).[23]
A study of evolutionary genetics showed that the cichlids from lakes in northern Virunga (e.g., Edward, George, Victoria) would have evolved in a "proto-lake Kivu", much older than the intense volcanic activity (20,000-25,000 years ago) which cut the connection.[24] The elevation of the mountains west of the lake (which is currently the Kahuzi-Biega National Park, one of the largest reserves of eastern lowland (or Grauer's) gorillas in the world), combined with the elevation of the eastern rift (located in eastern Rwanda) would be responsible for drainage of water from central Rwanda in the actual Lake Kivu. This concept of "proto-lake Kivu" was challenged by lack of consistent geological evidence,[25] although the cichlid's molecular clock suggests the existence of a lake much older than the commonly cited 15,000 years.
Lake Kivu is the home of four species of freshwater crab, including two non-endemics (Potamonautes lirrangensis and P. mutandensis) and two endemics (P. bourgaultae and P. idjwiensis).[26] Among Rift Valley lakes, Lake Tanganyika is the only other with endemic freshwater crabs.[26]
Navona Square (Piazza Navona).
Following, a text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
Piazza Navona is a city square in Rome, Italy. It is built on the site of the Stadium of Domitian, built in first century AD, and follows the form of the open space of the stadium.[1] The ancient Romans came there to watch the agones ("games"), and hence it was known as 'Circus Agonalis' (competition arena). It is believed that over time the name changed to 'in agone' to 'navone' and eventually to 'navona'.
Defined as a public space in the last years of 15th century, when the city market was transferred to it from the Campidoglio, the Piazza Navona is a significant example of Baroque Roman architecture and art. It features sculptural and architectural creations: in the center stands the famous Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi or Fountain of the Four Rivers (1651) by Gian Lorenzo Bernini; the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone by Francesco Borromini and Girolamo Rainaldi; and the Pamphilj palace also by Rainaldi and which features the gallery frescoed by Pietro da Cortona.
The Piazza Navona has two additional fountains: at the southern end is the Fontana del Moro with a basin and four Tritons sculpted by Giacomo della Porta (1575) to which, in 1673, Bernini added a statue of a Moor, or African, wrestling with a dolphin, and at the northern end is the Fountain of Neptune (1574) created by Giacomo della Porta. The statue of Neptune in the northern fountain, the work of Antonio Della Bitta, was added in 1878 to make that fountain more symmetrical with La Fontana del Moro in the south.
At the southwest end of the piazza is the ancient 'speaking' statue of Pasquino. Erected in 1501, Romans could leave lampoons or derogatory social commentary attached to the statue.
During its history, the piazza has hosted theatrical events and other ephemeral activities. From 1652 until 1866, when the festival was suppressed, it was flooded on every Saturday and Sunday in August in elaborate celebrations of the Pamphilj family. The pavement level was raised in the 19th century and the market was moved again in 1869 to the nearby Campo de' Fiori. A Christmas market is held in the piazza.
Other monuments on the Piazza Navona are:
Stabilimenti Spagnoli
Palazzo de Cupis
Palazzo Torres Massimo Lancellotti
Church of Nostra Signora del Sacro Cuore
Palazzo Braschi (Museo di Roma)
Sant'Agnese in Agone
Literature and films
The piazza is featured in Dan Brown's 2000 thriller Angels and Demons, in which the Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi "The Fountain of the four rivers"(the Danube, the Gange, the Nile and the River Plate) is listed as one of the Altars of Science. During June 2008, Ron Howard directed several scenes of the film adaptation of Angels and Demons on the southern section of the Piazza Navona, featuring Tom Hanks.
The piazza is featured in several scenes of director Mike Nichols' 1970 adaptation of Joseph Heller's novel, Catch-22.
The Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi was used in the 1990 film Coins in the Fountain. The characters threw coins into the fountain as they made wishes. The Trevi Fountain was used in the 1954 version of the film.
Praça Navona.
A seguir, um texto em português, da Wikipédia a Enciclopédia livre:
A Praça Navona (em italiano: Piazza Navona) é uma das mais célebres praças de Roma. A sua forma assemelha-se à dos antigos estádios da Roma Antiga, seguindo a planificação do Estádio de Domiciano (também denominado entre os italianos de Campomarzio, em virtude da natureza rude e esforçada dos exercícios - manejo de armas - e desportos atléticos que aí se realizavam). Albergaria até 20 mil espectadores sentados nas bancadas. A origem do nome deve-se ao nome pomposo que lhe foi dado ao tempo do Imperador Domiciano (imperador entre 81-96 d.c.): "Circo Agonístico" (do étimo grego Agonia, que significa precisamente - exercício, luta, combate). Actualmente o nome corresponde à corruptela da forma posterior in agone, depois nagone e finalmente navone, que por mero acaso significa também "grande navio" na língua italiana.
As casas que entretanto e com o passar dos anos foram sendo construídas sobre as bancadas, delimitariam e circunscreveriam até à actualidade o tão afamado Circo Agonístico.
A Navona passou de fato a caracterizar-se como praça nos últimos anos do século XV, quando o mercado da cidade foi transferido do Capitólio para aí. Foi remodelada para um estilo monumental por vontade do Papa Inocêncio X, da família Pamphili e é motivo de orgulho da cidade de Roma durante o período barroco. Sofreu intervenções de Gian Lorenzo Bernini (a famosa Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi (Fonte dos Quatro Rios, 1651) ao centro); de Francesco Borromini e Girolamo Gainaldi (a igreja de Sant'Agnese in Agone); e de Pietro de Cortona, que pintou a galeria no Palácio Pamphilj, sede da embaixada do Brasil na Itália desde 1920.
O mercado tradicional voltou a ser transferido em 1869 para o Campo de' Fiori, embora a praça mantenha também um papel fundamental em servir de palco para espectáculos de teatro e corridas de cavalos. A partir de 1652, em todos os Sábados e Domingos de Agosto, a praça tornava-se num lago para celebrar a própria família Pamphili.
A praça dispõe ainda duas outras fontes esculpidas por Giacomo della Porta - a Fontana di Nettuno (1574), na área norte da praça, e a Fontana del Moro (1576), na área sul.
Na extremidade norte da praça, por debaixo dos edifícios, foram postas a descoberto ruínas antiquíssimas, a uma cota muito abaixo da actual, comprovando a primeva utilização daquele imenso terreiro. Outros monumentos com entrada para a praça:
Stabilimenti Spagnoli
Palazzo de Cupis
Palazzo Torres Massimo Lancellotti
Church of Nostra Signora del Sacro Cuore
Curiosidades
Na Piazza Navona, está localizado o Palazzo Pamphilj, propriedade da República Federativa do Brasil, sede da Embaixada Brasileira e da Missão Diplomática do Brasil para a Itália.
The second installment in David Meltzer's Agency series.
Essex House was based in Los Angeles and specialized in highbrow erotica. Many new publishing houses sprang up after the U.S. Supreme Court finally permitted the open publishing of adult fiction. Essex House was one of the best, though short-lived (1968-1969). Its young editor, Brian Kirby, also edited the books of the sister imprint, Brandon House. Many Essex House novelists were young serious writers (several of them poets) who used scenarios drawn from sf and fantasy as settings for their stories. About half of the 42 titles published by Essex House were sf/fantasy. They include novels by Richard E. Geis, David Meltzer, Michael Perkins and Hank Stine, along with Philip Jose Farmer. [Source: The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction at www.sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/essex_house]
Text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Clown loach
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Cypriniformes
Family: Cobitidae
Genus: Chromobotia
Species: C. macracanthus
Binomial name
Chromobotia macracanthus
(Bleeker, 1852)
The clown loach, Chromobotia macracanthus, or tiger botia is a tropical freshwater fish belonging to the Cobitidae (loach) family. It is the sole member of the Chromobotia genus. It originates in inland waters in Indonesia on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo. It is a popular fish in the freshwater aquarium trade and is sold worldwide. [1]
* 1 Taxonomy and naming
* 2 Description and behavior
* 3 Distribution and habitat
* 4 In the aquarium
* 5 See also
* 6 References
The fish was first described as Cobitis macracanthus by Pieter Bleeker in 1852. In 1989, the scientific name was changed to Botia macracanthus.[2] In 2004, Dr. Maurice Kottelat split the Botia genus, containing 47 different species, into seven separate genera, resulting in the clown loach being placed into a genus of its own, Chromobotia.[3]
The genus Chromobotia derives its name from the Greek word chromo, meaning "color", and the regional Asian word botia, meaning "warrior" or "soldier". The specific epithet macracanthus is derived from the Greek word macros, meaning "large" and the Latin word acanthus, meaning "thorny", referring to the large spines below the fish's eyes. The "Clown loach" common name comes from the fish's bright colors resembling a clown's makeup, and the fish's ability to entertain observers with its comical behavior when kept in an aquarium.[2]
Description and behavior:
Information about the maximum size of the clown loach varies, with some estimates ranging from 11 to 14 inches (40 to 50 cm), and with typical adult sizes ranging from 7 to 10 inches (15 to 20 cm).[4] The fish's body is long and laterally compressed, with an arched dorsal surface and a flat ventral surface. Its head is large and its mouth faces downward with thick, fleshy lips, and four pairs of barbels. The barbels on the lower jaw are small and difficult to see.
The body is whitish-orange to reddish-orange, with three thick, black, vertical bands. The first band runs from the top of the head and through the eye. The second band lies between the head and the dorsal fin, and wraps around to the belly, and the third band covers the start of the caudal peduncle and extends to the anal fin. There is some regional color variation in the species; the pelvic fins on fish from Borneo are reddish orange and black, while the pelvic fins on fish from Sumatra are entirely reddish orange.[5]
The fish is sexually dimorphic, with females being slightly plumper than males. In addition, the tips of the tail on the male curve inwards slightly, whereas the females have straight tips.[2]
The fish has a movable spine that lies in a groove below the eye, which may be extended as a defense mechanism. The spine may cause a painful wound, but is not venomous.
Distribution and habitat:
Clown loaches originate in Indonesia, on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo. For the greater part of the year, the fish lives in murky or blackwater rivers and lakes, but breeding adults migrate to smaller waterways to spawn annually.[4] They are especially predominant in the flood plains of the hill country.[6]
In its native habitat, the fish is found in water with a temperature range of 77 to 86 °F (25 to 30 °C), a pH between 5.0 and 8.0, and water hardness between 5 and 12 dH.[1]
In the aquarium:
A harmless, very active, social fish, they are best kept in groups of 5 or more and due to their potential size a 100 gallon aquarium should be the minimum size used. They also associate themselves easily with Panda corydoras and school together in currents. These fish have bifurcated subocular (located under the eyes) spines, which are used as a defence mechanism. If a loach deploys its spines while caught in a net, untangling it is difficult and can cause severe injury. It is also a good idea when moving larger specimens to double or triple bag them or use a solid container. Some owners have been stabbed while trying to catch or touch these fish. When kept in groups smaller than 5, they may spend more time hiding under obstacles in the water.
They are also found to make clicking noises when excited or eating. Sometimes they lie on their sides on the bottom of the tank or swim upside down and appear to be dead. This is a common event and the aquarist should be aware of this fact or unnecessary removal may occur.
If you have noticed that your clown loaches do not come out of hiding, there are some easy things to adjust so that your clown loaches will be more comfortable. A good tank setup for a clown loach should include ample shade, real plants, hiding places and other peaceful fishes. Make sure the environment is not too bright. Provide shade from tank lighting. The tank should not be next to a window. An example tank will have a powerhead to create a current for them to swim against as well as cover to stay under while doing so. Clown loaches are keen observers of other fish in the aquarium; they observe and react accordingly. If other fish are skittish and hide, clowns will observe this and do the same. Make sure that other fish in your community tank are docile and not prone to hide.
Because clown loaches come from rivers and streams, they are accustomed to having other fishes and plants in their environment. Not having plants and/or other fishes can cause clown loaches to become stressed and to go into hiding. Another important thing to remember is that since they do come from a fast moving river environment, they need a tank with lots of clear, well filtered and fast moving water which can be achieved with proper filtration and the use of powerheads.
Two juvenile clown loaches with ich. Characteristically, for this stage of infestation, both are hiding in an ornament.
Two juvenile clown loaches with ich. Characteristically, for this stage of infestation, both are hiding in an ornament.
Before introducing clown loaches to your tank, make sure the fish you currently have are compatible because aggressive fish will stress your clown loaches and may need to be removed. Clown loaches are particularly susceptible to Ichthyophthirius (ich), so they must be watched closely when initially introducing them to a tank and when new fish are added. Ich usually deals the typical clown loach a poor prognosis since the standard treatment is especially toxic to the clown's "skin-type" and the dose must be halved and is therefore less effective.
A variety of food should be provided for clown loaches, and their behaviour should be observed during feeding. In a community tank other fish may take the food before it reaches the bottom, where the clown loaches feed. Most clown loaches accept commercial flake food and sinking pellets as their dietary staple, but thrive with a variety of food: live (worms, brine shrimp, small snails), plant matter, freeze-dried (tubifex worms, especially if it is fortified) and frozen brine shrimp (always thaw frozen food to aquarium temperature).
Clown loaches are also regarded as a natural way of controlling an infestation of small snails in the aquarium. This being said, a person considering them for this purpose must also consider their future needs with regard to a large aquarium. A person getting clowns to remove snails in a smaller tank might be better served with one of the many other botia species that are as effective at the task but remain much smaller. Despite that utilitarian purpose, clown loaches are usually kept for reasons of appearance and personality.
Origem do texto em português: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre
Bótia Palhaço (Botia macracanthus ou Botia macracantha) é um peixe geralmente criado como animal de estimação em aquários. É um dos integrantes mais colorido do gênero Botia.
Esse peixe chama a atenção devido ao contraste formado pela listras verticais que possui no corpo e o avermelhado das nadadeiras, o que lhe rendeu o apelido de "Coridora de Luxo", apesar das bótias e coridoras não fazerem parte da mesma família. Ao contrário das outras bótias, a Botia macracantha demonstra-se bastante ativa quando está em grupo, o que torna imprescindível ter no mínimo três indivíduos desse peixe no aquário, caso contrário se mostra um peixe tímido e assustadiço que passa o dia escondido, talvez devido ao fato de, na natureza, o peixe ser encontrado sempre em cardumes.
Originário da Tailândia, Malásia e Java, trata-se de um peixe pacífico, que costuma atingir por volta de 15 centímetros em aquários, e 30 na natureza, por isso, o aquário para o bótia-palhaço deve ter no mínimo 200 litros, além disso, plantas e troncos criando refúgios serão muito apreciados, um pH entre 6,7 e 7,2 e a temperatura entre 24 e 28°C.
Enquanto pequena não causa maiores danos às plantas, então pode habitar um aquário plantado sem problemas sendo até útil, pois sua boca prolongada, permite que o bótia encontre os restos de rações que se escondem entre as folhas, nos lugares de difícil acesso.
A alimentação deve ser contituída de ração em flocos, caramujos, artêmia salina, dáfnias, tubifex, etc. Apesar de ser uma predadora de caramujos, o aquarista deve ter em mente que se houverem outros alimentos em abundância, ela perderá parte do interesse por eles.
Ao manusear o aquário, tome cuidado com os espinhos que se situam logo abaixo dos olhos do bótia, apesar de serem imperceptíveis a um olhar desavisado, são uma arma contra predadores e que podem ferir as mãos do aquaristas. Uma curiosidade do bótia é que ao dormir, o peixe quase deita-se ao fundo do aquário, o que pode assustar quem não conhece esse seu comportamento, passando a impressão de que o peixe está morto ou doente.
O bótia é ovíparo. Técnicas de reprodução são praticamente desconhecidas em aquários, já que não há dimorfismo sexual, além do que, acredita-se que esse peixe raramente atinja a maturidade sexual em aquários, daí o motivo da falta de sucesso na reprodução.
SULTAN ABDUL SAMAD Building
The Sultan Abdul Samad building has long been a famous landmark for Malaysia and Kuala Lumpur. Designed by British architect A.C Norman, it was built in 1897 with a unique Moorish-style design. The Moorish inspired design of the building is based on some of the features of buildings in Islamic countries that suitably reflects the cultural background of Malaysia. Previously home to the Colonial Secretariat offices, it now houses the Supreme and High Courts.
The centre of attraction of Sultan Abdul Samad is it’s clock tower in the middle - Kuala Lumpur’s answer to London’s ‘Big Ben’. The clock tower is significant to many major events; from the lowering of the Union Jack at the stroke of midnight when Malaysia (then Malaya) gained independance and annual new year eve celebrations.
History
It was designed by A.C. Norman and built in 1894-1897 to house several important government departments during the British administration. A.C. Norman spent time in Africa and saw Muslim mosques in India which led him to use Moorish architecture in the building's design.
In 1945, when World War II ended, Britain resumed control again, but Malaya's independence movement had matured and organized itself in an alliance under Tunku Abdul Rahman. When the British flag was finally lowered in Kuala Lumpur's Merdeka Square in 1957, Tunku became the first prime minister of Malaya.
In front of the building is the Dataran Merdeka (or Merdeka Square). It was here, the Union Jack flag was lowered and the Malayan flag hoisted for the first time at midnight on August 31, 1957. The Dataran Merdeka was officially opened on January 1, 1990, in conjunction with Visit Malaysia Year 1990.
The Merdeka Square symbolized British sovereignty as it was a cricket ground for the colonial administrators and fronted the Royal Selangor Club, Malaya's most exclusive whites-only club.
In 1961, Abdul Rahman mooted the idea of the establishment of "Malaysia", which would consist of Singapore, Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei, all of which had still been British colonies. The reasoning behind this was that it would allow the federal government to control and combat communist activities, especially in Singapore. It was also feared that if Singapore achieved independence, it would become a base for Chinese chauvinists to threaten Malayan sovereignty. To balance out the ethnic composition of the new nation, the other states, whose Malay and indigenous populations would cancel out the Chinese majority in Singapore, were also included.
A 95-meter flagpole, one of the tallest in the world, marks that spot with a flat, round black marble plaque. It is located at the southern end of the square.
To mark the occasion on the morning of Merdeka Day, Thousands of spectators converge on the city to watch the colourful parade along the streets of the city and performances held at the Merdeka Square. Each state will be represented, as are the many ethnic groups that comprise multiracial Malaysia. The National Flag will be flown throughout the country, at office buildings, private homes and on vehicles. State shows, competitions and exhibitions will also be held in all states. This year, Malaysia celebrates her 50th birthday.
During state occasions, coloured lights twinkle in the arches, making it look like a scene from an Arabian Nights' tale. The section of Jalan Raja is closed in order for the people to enjoy the night scenery of the area.
Features
Topped by a shiny copper dome and a 40m high clock tower, it is a major landmark in the city. It serves as the backdrop for important events such as the National Day Parade on August 31 and the ushering in of the New Year. This heritage building used to be occupied by the then Apex Court of Malaysia, the Supreme Court which was subsequently renamed the Federal Court. The Court of Appeal was also housed in this historic building. The Federal Court and the Court of Appeals have since moved to the Palace of Justice located in Putrajaya, the new Federal administrative capital. The Sultan Abdul Samad Building now houses the Commercial Division of the High Court of Malaya.
Behind the building flows the Klang river and Gombak river's confluence and in the middle of where the 2 rivers meet stands The Masjid Jamek Mosque, a mosque of similar design by the same architect.
Incidents
In 1971, Kuala Lumpur suffered a huge flood after a heavy rainfall. Part of the building was not spared. In 1978, a massive renovation was undertaken. The renovation took six years to complete with a total cost of RM 17.2 million.
Many historical events had been held in front of this building. Among them was the declaration of independence of Malaysia (Malaya then) on 31 August, 1957 and the lowering of the Union Jack. On 1st January 1982, the clock tower became the venue for another historic event when the time between West Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore were standardized.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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