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Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
Tarzan / Heft-Reihe
> Tarzan's Animal Encyclopedia /
The Bharal, Tree-Hyrax, Star-Nosed Mole, Golden Lion Marmoset
(art: Morris Waldinger, Tom Nicolosi)
DC Comics / USA 1973
ex libris MTP
And something a bit different. While stopping in Kinsella, I stepped inside an abandoned house to take a few photos. These books and a bunch of magazines, intrigued me. Upon a bit of research, this specific Encyclopedia is from 1913.
I need to go back there and spend a bit more time documenting what is there.
Love exploring these abandoned houses.
Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Battle of Peleliu
Part of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign of the Pacific Theater (World War II)
Date15 September – 27 November 1944
(2 months, 1 week and 5 days)
Location
Peleliu, Palau Islands
7°00′N 134°15′ECoordinates: 7°00′N 134°15′E
ResultAmerican victory
Belligerents
United States Japan
Commanders and leaders
United States William H. Rupertus
United States Paul J. Mueller
United States Roy S. Geiger
United States Herman H. Hanneken
United States Harold D. Harris
United States Lewis B. PullerEmpire of Japan Kunio Nakagawa †
Empire of Japan Sadae Inoue
Units involved
United States III Amphibious Corps
1st Marine Division
81st Infantry Division
Additional support units
Empire of Japan Peleliu garrison
14th Infantry Division
49th Mixed Brigade
45th Guard Force
46th Base Force
Additional support units
Strength
47,561[1]:3610,900[1]:37
17 tanks[2]
Casualties and losses
10,786
2,336 killed
8,450 wounded[3]10,897
10,695 killed
202 captured (183 foreign laborers, 19 Japanese soldiers)[1]:89[3]
17 tanks lost
Battle of Peleliu is located in Palau
Battle of Peleliu
Mariana and Palau Islands campaign
The Battle of Peleliu, codenamed Operation Stalemate II by the United States military, was fought between the U.S. and Japan during the Mariana and Palau Campaign of World War II, from September to November 1944, on the island of Peleliu.
U.S. Marines of the 1st Marine Division, and later soldiers of the U.S. Army's 81st Infantry Division, fought to capture an airstrip on the small coral island of Peleliu. This battle was part of a larger offensive campaign known as Operation Forager, which ran from June to November 1944, in the Pacific Theater.
Major General William Rupertus, Commander of the 1st Marine Division, predicted the island would be secured within four days.[4] However, after repeated Imperial Army defeats in previous island campaigns, Japan had developed new island-defense tactics and well-crafted fortifications that allowed stiff resistance,[5] extending the battle through more than two months. The heavily outnumbered Japanese defenders put up such stiff resistance, often fighting to the death in the Emperor's name, that the island became known in Japanese as the "Emperor's Island."[6]
In the United States, this was a controversial battle because of the island's negligible strategic value and the high casualty rate, which exceeded that of all other amphibious operations during the Pacific War.[7] The National Museum of the Marine Corps called it "the bitterest battle of the war for the Marines".[8]
Background
By 1944, American victories in the Southwest and Central Pacific had brought the war closer to Japan, with American bombers able to strike at the Japanese main islands from air bases secured during the Mariana Islands campaign (June–August 1944). There was disagreement among the U.S. Joint Chiefs over two proposed strategies to defeat the Japanese Empire. The strategy proposed by General Douglas MacArthur called for the recapture of the Philippines, followed by the capture of Okinawa, then an attack on the Japanese mainland. Admiral Chester Nimitz favored a more direct strategy of bypassing the Philippines, but seizing Okinawa and Taiwan as staging areas to an attack on the Japanese mainland, followed by the future invasion of Japan's southernmost islands. Both strategies included the invasion of Peleliu, but for different reasons.[9]
The 1st Marine Division had already been chosen to make the assault. President Franklin D. Roosevelt traveled to Pearl Harbor to personally meet both commanders and hear their arguments. MacArthur's strategy was chosen. However, before MacArthur could retake the Philippines, the Palau Islands, specifically Peleliu and Angaur, were to be neutralized and an airfield built to protect MacArthur's right flank.
Preparations
Japanese
By 1944, Peleliu Island was occupied by about 11,000 Japanese of the 14th Infantry Division with Korean and Okinawan labourers. Colonel Kunio Nakagawa, commander of the division's 2nd Regiment, led the preparations for the island's defense.
After their losses in the Solomons, Gilberts, Marshalls, and Marianas, the Imperial Army assembled a research team to develop new island-defense tactics. They chose to abandon the old strategy of stopping the enemy at the beach, where they were exposed to naval gunfire. The new tactics would only disrupt the landings at the water's edge and depend on an in-depth defense farther inland. Colonel Nakagawa used the rough terrain to his advantage, by constructing a system of heavily fortified bunkers, caves, and underground positions all interlocked into a "honeycomb" system. The traditional "banzai charge" attack was also discontinued as being both wasteful of men and ineffective. These changes would force the Americans into a war of attrition, requiring increasingly more resources.
Japanese fortifications
Nakagawa's defenses were centred on Peleliu's highest point, Umurbrogol Mountain, a collection of hills and steep ridges located at the center of Peleliu overlooking a large portion of the island, including the crucial airfield. The Umurbrogol contained some 500 limestone caves, interconnected by tunnels. Many of these were former mine shafts that were turned into defensive positions. Engineers added sliding armored steel doors with multiple openings to serve both artillery and machine guns. Cave entrances were opened or altered to be slanted as a defense against grenade and flamethrower attacks. The caves and bunkers were connected to a vast tunnel and trench system throughout central Peleliu, which allowed the Japanese to evacuate or reoccupy positions as needed, and to take advantage of shrinking interior lines.
The Japanese were well armed with 81 mm (3.19 in) and 150 mm (5.9 in) mortars and 20 mm (0.79 in) anti-aircraft cannons, backed by a light tank unit and an anti-aircraft detachment.
The Japanese also used the beach terrain to their advantage. The northern end of the landing beaches faced a 30-foot (9.1 m) coral promontory that overlooked the beaches from a small peninsula, a spot later known to the Marines who assaulted it simply as "The Point". Holes were blasted into the ridge to accommodate a 47 mm (1.85 in) gun, and six 20 mm cannons. The positions were then sealed shut, leaving just a small slit to fire on the beaches. Similar positions were crafted along the 2-mile (3.2 km) stretch of landing beaches.
The beaches were also filled with thousands of obstacles for the landing craft, principally mines and a large number of heavy artillery shells buried with the fuses exposed to explode when they were run over. A battalion was placed along the beach to defend against the landing, but they were meant to merely delay the inevitable American advance inland.
American
Unlike the Japanese, who drastically altered their tactics for the upcoming battle, the American invasion plan was unchanged from that of previous amphibious landings, even after suffering 3,000 casualties and two months of delaying tactics against the entrenched Japanese defenders at the Battle of Biak.[10] On Peleliu, American planners chose to land on the southwest beaches because of their proximity to the airfield on South Peleliu. The 1st Marine Regiment, commanded by Colonel Lewis B. (Chesty) Puller, was to land on the northern end of the beaches. The 5th Marine Regiment, under Colonel Harold D. Harris, would land in the center, and the 7th Marine Regiment, under Col. Herman H. Hanneken, would land at the southern end.
The division's artillery regiment, the 11th Marines under Col. William H. Harrison, would land after the infantry regiments. The plan was for the 1st and 7th Marines to push inland, guarding the 5th Marines left and right flank, and allowing them to capture the airfield located directly to the center of the landing beaches. The 5th Marines were to push to the eastern shore, cutting the island in half. The 1st Marines would push north into the Umurbrogol, while the 7th Marines would clear the southern end of the island. Only one battalion was left behind in reserve, with the U.S. Army's 81st Infantry Division available for support from Angaur, just south of Peleliu.
On September 4, the Marines shipped off from their station on Pavuvu, just north of Guadalcanal, a 2,100-mile (3,400 km) trip across the Pacific to Peleliu. A U.S. Navy's Underwater Demolition Team went in first to clear the beaches of obstacles, while Navy warships began their pre-invasion bombardment of Peleliu on September 12.
The battleships Pennsylvania, Maryland, Mississippi, Tennessee and Idaho, heavy cruisers Indianapolis, Louisville, Minneapolis and Portland, and light cruisers Cleveland, Denver and Honolulu,[1]:29 led by the command ship Mount McKinley, subjected the tiny island, only 6 sq mi (16 km2) in size, to a massive three-day bombardment, pausing only to permit air strikes from the three aircraft carriers, five light aircraft carriers, and eleven escort carriers with the attack force.[11] A total of 519 rounds of 16 in (410 mm) shells, 1,845 rounds of 14 in (360 mm) shells and 1,793 500 lb (230 kg) bombs were dropped on the islands during this period.
The Americans believed the bombardment to be successful, as Rear Admiral Jesse Oldendorf claimed that the Navy had run out of targets.[11] In reality, the majority of the Japanese positions were completely unharmed. Even the battalion left to defend the beaches was virtually unscathed. During the assault, the island's defenders exercised unusual firing discipline to avoid giving away their positions. The bombardment managed only to destroy Japan's aircraft on the island, as well as the buildings surrounding the airfield. The Japanese remained in their fortified positions, ready to attack the American landing troops.
Opposing forces
Naval command structure for Operation Stalemate II
Admiral Chester W. Nimitz
Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr.
Vice Adm. Theo. S. Wilkinson
Expeditionary Troops and III Amphibious Corps commanders
Maj. Gen. Julian C. Smith
Maj. Gen. Roy S. Geiger
Marine ground commanders on Peleliu
Maj. Gen. William H. Rupertus
Oliver P. Smith as a major general
Lewis B. Puller as a major general
American order of battle
United States Pacific Fleet[12]
Admiral Chester W. Nimitz
US Third Fleet
Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr.
Joint Expeditionary Force (Task Force 31)
Vice Admiral Theodore S. Wilkinson
Expeditionary Troops (Task Force 36)
III Amphibious Corps[a]
Major General Julian C. Smith,[b] USMC
Western Landing Force (TG 36.1)
Major General Roy S. Geiger, USMC
1st Marine Division
Division Commander: Maj. Gen. William H. Rupertus,[c] USMC
Asst. Division Commander: Brig. Gen. Oliver P. Smith,[d] USMC
Chief of Staff: Col. John T. Selden, USMC
Beach assignments
Left (White 1 & 2)
1st Marine Regiment (Col. Lewis B. "Chesty" Puller,[e] USMC)
Co. A of the following: 1st Engineer Battalion, 1st Pioneer Battalion, 1st Medical Battalion, 1st Tank Battalion
Center (Orange 1 & 2)
5th Marine Regiment (Col. Harold D. "Bucky" Harris, USMC)
Co. B of the following: 1st Engineer Battalion, 1st Pioneer Battalion, 1st Medical Battalion, 1st Tank Battalion (reduced)
Right (Orange 3)
7th Marine Regiment (Col. Herman H. "Hard-Headed" Hanneken, USMC)
Co. C of the following: 1st Engineer Battalion, 1st Pioneer Battalion, 1st Medical Battalion, 1st Tank Battalion (reduced)
Other units
11th Marine Regiment, Artillery (Col. William H. Harrison, USMC)
12th Antiaircraft Artillery Battalion
1st Amphibian Tractor Battalion
3rd Armored Amphibian Tractor Battalion
4th, 5th, 6th Marine War Dog Platoons
UDT 6 and UDT 7
Japanese order of battle
Lt. Col. Kunio Nakagawa
Marine with captured Japanese 141mm mortar
Palau District Group[15]
Lieutenant General Inoue Sadao[f] (HQ on Koror Island)
Vice Admiral Yoshioka Ito
Maj. Gen. Kenjiro Murai[g]
14th Division (Lt. Gen. Sadao)
Peleliu Sector Unit (Lt. Col. Kunio Nakagawa[h])
2nd Infantry Regiment, Reinforced
2nd Bttn. / 2nd Infantry Regiment
3rd Bttn. / 2nd Infantry Regiment
3rd Bttn. / 15th Infantry Regiment
346th Bttn. / 53rd Independent Mixed Brigade
Battle
Landing
Routes of Allied landings on Peleliu, 15 September 1944
U.S. Marines landed on Peleliu at 08:32, on September 15, the 1st Marines to the north on White Beach 1 and 2 and the 5th and 7th Marines to the center and south on Orange Beach 1, 2, and 3.[1]:42–45 As the other landing craft approached the beaches, the Marines were caught in a crossfire when the Japanese opened the steel doors guarding their positions and fired artillery. The positions on the coral promontories guarding each flank fired on the Marines with 47 mm guns and 20 mm cannons. By 09:30, the Japanese had destroyed 60 LVTs and DUKWs.
5th Marines on Orange Beach
The 1st Marines were quickly bogged down by heavy fire from the extreme left flank and a 30-foot-high coral ridge, "The Point".[1]:49 Colonel Chesty Puller narrowly escaped death when a dud high velocity artillery round struck his LVT. His communications section was destroyed on its way to the beach by a hit from a 47 mm round. The 7th Marines faced a cluttered Orange Beach 3, with natural and man-made obstacles, forcing the Amtracs to approach in column.[1]:52
The 5th Marines made the most progress on the first day, aided by cover provided by coconut groves.[1]:51 They pushed toward the airfield, but were met with Nakagawa's first counterattack. His armored tank company raced across the airfield to push the Marines back, but was soon engaged by tanks, howitzers, naval guns, and dive bombers. Nakagawa's tanks and escorting infantrymen were quickly destroyed.[1]:57
At the end of the first day, the Americans held their 2-mile (3.2 km) stretch of landing beaches, but little else. Their biggest push in the south moved 1 mile (1.6 km) inland, but the 1st Marines to the north made very little progress because of the extremely thick resistance.[1]:42 The Marines had suffered 200 dead and 900 wounded. Rupertus, still unaware of his enemy's change of tactics, believed the Japanese would quickly crumble since their perimeter had been broken.[18]
Airfield/South Peleliu
On the second day, the 5th Marines moved to capture the airfield and push toward the eastern shore.[1]:61 They ran across the airfield, enduring heavy artillery fire from the highlands to the north, suffering heavy casualties in the process. After capturing the airfield, they rapidly advanced to the eastern end of Peleliu, leaving the island's southern defenders to be destroyed by the 7th Marines.[1]:58
This area was hotly contested by the Japanese, who still occupied numerous pillboxes. Heat indices[19] were around[20] 115 °F (46 °C), and the Marines soon suffered high casualties from heat exhaustion. Further complicating the situation, the Marines' water was distributed in empty oil drums, contaminating the water with the oil residue.[21] Still, by the eighth day the 5th and 7th Marines had accomplished their objectives, holding the airfield and the southern portion of the island, although the airfield remained under threat of sustained Japanese fire from the heights of Umurbrogol Mountain until the end of the battle.[11]
American forces put the airfield to use on the third day. L-2 Grasshoppers from VMO-3 began aerial spotting missions for Marine artillery and naval gunfire support. On September 26 (D+11), Marine F4U Corsairs from VMF-114 landed on the airstrip. The Corsairs began dive-bombing missions across Peleliu, firing rockets into open cave entrances for the infantrymen, and dropping napalm; it was only the second time the latter weapon had been used in the Pacific.[citation needed] Napalm proved useful, burning away the vegetation hiding spider holes and usually killing their occupants.
The time from liftoff to the target area for the Corsairs based on Peleliu Airfield was very short, sometimes only 10 to 15 seconds. Consequently, there was almost no time for pilots to raise their aircraft undercarriage; most pilots did not bother and left them down during the air strike. After the air strike was completed and the payload dropped, the Corsair simply turned back into the landing pattern again.
The Point
The fortress at the end of the southern landing beaches (a.k.a. “The Point”) continued to cause heavy Marine casualties due to enfilading fire from Japanese heavy machine guns and anti-tank artillery across the landing beaches. Puller ordered Captain George P. Hunt, commander of K Company, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines, to capture the position. Hunt's company approached The Point short on supplies, having lost most of its machine guns while approaching the beaches. Hunt's second platoon was pinned down for nearly a day in an anti-tank trench between fortifications. The rest of his company was endangered when the Japanese cut a hole in their line, surrounding his company and leaving his right flank cut off.[1]:49
However, a rifle platoon began knocking out the Japanese gun positions one by one. Using smoke grenades for concealment, the platoon swept through each hole, destroying the positions with rifle grenades and close-quarters combat. After knocking out the six machine gun positions, the Marines faced the 47 mm gun cave. A lieutenant blinded the 47 mm gunner's visibility with a smoke grenade, allowing Corporal Henry W. Hahn to launch a grenade through the cave's aperture. The grenade detonated the 47 mm's shells, forcing the cave's occupants out with their bodies alight and their ammunition belts exploding around their waists. A Marine fire team was positioned on the flank of the cave where the emerging occupants were shot down.
K Company had captured The Point, but Nakagawa counterattacked. The next 30 hours saw four major counterattacks against a sole company, critically low on supplies, out of water, and surrounded. The Marines soon had to resort to hand-to-hand combat to fend off the Japanese attackers. By the time reinforcements arrived, the company had successfully repulsed all of the Japanese attacks, but had been reduced to 18 men, suffering 157 casualties during the battle for The Point.[1]:50–51 Hunt and Hahn were both awarded the Navy Cross for their actions.
Ngesebus Island
The 5th Marines—after having secured the airfield—were sent to capture Ngesebus Island, just north of Peleliu. Ngesebus was occupied by many Japanese artillery positions, and was the site of an airfield still under construction. The tiny island was connected to Peleliu by a small causeway, but 5th Marines commander Harris opted instead to make a shore-to-shore amphibious landing, predicting the causeway to be an obvious target for the island's defenders.[1]:77
Harris coordinated a pre-landing bombardment of the island on September 28, carried out by Army 155 mm (6.1 in) guns, naval guns, howitzers from the 11th Marines, strafing runs from VMF-114's Corsairs, and 75 mm (2.95 in) fire from the approaching LVTs.[1]:77 Unlike the Navy's bombardment of Peleliu, Harris' assault on Ngesebus successfully killed most of the Japanese defenders. The Marines still faced opposition in the ridges and caves, but the island fell quickly, with relatively light casualties for the 5th Marines. They had suffered 15 killed and 33 wounded, and inflicted 470 casualties on the Japanese.
Bloody Nose Ridge
After capturing The Point, the 1st Marines moved north into the Umurbrogol pocket,[1]:81 named "Bloody Nose Ridge" by the Marines. Puller led his men in numerous assaults, but each resulted in severe casualties from Japanese fire. The 1st Marines were trapped in the narrow paths between the ridges, with each ridge fortification supporting the other with deadly crossfire.
The Marines took increasingly high casualties as they slowly advanced through the ridges. The Japanese again showed unusual fire discipline, striking only when they could inflict maximum casualties. As casualties mounted, Japanese snipers began to take aim at stretcher bearers, knowing that if stretcher bearers were injured or killed, more would have to return to replace them, and the snipers could steadily pick off more and more Marines. The Japanese also infiltrated the American lines at night to attack the Marines in their fighting holes. The Marines built two-man fighting holes, so one Marine could sleep while the other kept watch for infiltrators.
One particularly bloody battle on Bloody Nose came when the 1st Battalion, 1st Marines—under the command of Major Raymond Davis—attacked Hill 100. Over six days of fighting, the battalion suffered 71% casualties. Captain Everett Pope and his company penetrated deep into the ridges, leading his remaining 90 men to seize what he thought was Hill 100. It took a day's fighting to reach what he thought was the crest of the hill, which was in fact another ridge occupied by more Japanese defenders.
Marine Pfc. Douglas Lightheart (right) cradles his .30 caliber (7.62×63mm) M1919 Browning machine gun in his lap, while he and Pfc. Gerald Thursby Sr. take a cigarette break, during mopping up operations on Peleliu on 15 September 1944.
Trapped at the base of the ridge, Captain Pope set up a small defense perimeter, which was attacked relentlessly by the Japanese throughout the night. The Marines soon ran out of ammunition, and had to fight the attackers with knives and fists, even resorting to throwing coral rock and empty ammunition boxes at the Japanese. Pope and his men managed to hold out until dawn came, which brought on more deadly fire. When they evacuated the position, only nine men remained. Pope later received the Medal of Honor for the action. (Picture of the Peleliu Memorial dedicated on the 50th anniversary of the landing on Peleliu with Captain Pope's name)
The Japanese eventually inflicted 70% casualties on Puller's 1st Marines, or 1,749 men.[1]:66 After six days of fighting in the ridges of Umurbrogol, General Roy Geiger, commander of the III Amphibious Corps, sent elements of U.S. Army's 81st Infantry Division to Peleliu to relieve the regiment.[1]:66 The 321st Regiment Combat Team landed on the western beaches of Peleliu—at the northern end of Umurbrogol mountain—on 23 September. The 321st and the 7th Marines encircled The Pocket by 24 Sept., D+9.[1]:75,81
By 15 October, the 7th Marines had suffered 46% casualties and General Geiger relieved them with the 5th Marines.[1]:83 Col. Harris adopted siege tactics, using bulldozers and flame-thrower tanks, pushing from the north.[1]:83–84 On October 30, the 81st Infantry Division took over command of Peleliu, taking another six weeks, with the same tactics, to reduce The Pocket.[1]:85
On 24 November, Nakagawa proclaimed "Our sword is broken and we have run out of spears". He then burnt his regimental colors and performed ritual suicide.[1]:86 He was posthumously promoted to lieutenant general for his valor displayed on Peleliu. On 27 November, the island was declared secure, ending the 73-day-long battle.[18]
A Japanese lieutenant with twenty-six 2nd Infantry soldiers and eight 45th Guard Force sailors held out in the caves in Peleliu until April 22, 1947, and surrendered after a Japanese admiral convinced them the war was over.[1]:81
Aftermath
The reduction of the Japanese pocket around Umurbrogol mountain has been called the most difficult fight that the U.S. military encountered in the entire war.[21] The 1st Marine Division was severely mauled and it remained out of action until the invasion of Okinawa began on April 1, 1945. In total, the 1st Marine Division suffered over 6,500 casualties during their month on Peleliu, over one third of their entire division. The 81st Infantry Division also suffered heavy losses with 3,300 casualties during their tenure on the island.
Postwar statisticians calculated that it took U.S. forces over 1500 rounds of ammunition to kill each Japanese defender and that, during the course of the battle, the Americans expended 13.32 million rounds of .30-calibre, 1.52 million rounds of .45-calibre, 693,657 rounds of .50-calibre bullets, 118,262 hand grenades, and approximately 150,000 mortar rounds.[11]
The battle was controversial in the United States due to the island's lack of strategic value and the high casualty rate. The defenders lacked the means to interfere with potential US operations in the Philippines[11] and the airfield captured on Peleliu did not play a key role in subsequent operations. Instead, the Ulithi Atoll in the Caroline Islands was used as a staging base for the invasion of Okinawa. The high casualty rate exceeded all other amphibious operations during the Pacific War.[7]
In addition, few news reports were published about the battle because Rupertus' prediction of a "three days" victory motivated only six reporters to report from shore. The battle was also overshadowed by MacArthur's return to the Philippines and the Allies' push towards Germany in Europe.
The battles for Angaur and Peleliu showed Americans the pattern of future Japanese island defense but they made few adjustments for the battles for Iwo Jima and Okinawa.[22] Naval bombardment prior to amphibious assault at Iwo Jima was only slightly more effective than at Peleliu, but at Okinawa the preliminary shelling was much improved.[23] Frogmen performing underwater demolition at Iwo Jima confused the enemy by sweeping both coasts, but later alerted Japanese defenders to the exact assault beaches at Okinawa.[23] American ground forces at Peleliu gained experience in assaulting heavily fortified positions such as they would find again at Okinawa.[24]
On the recommendation of Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr., the planned occupation of Yap Island in the Caroline Islands was canceled. Halsey actually recommended that the landings on Peleliu and Angaur be canceled, too, and their Marines and soldiers be thrown into Leyte Island instead, but was overruled by Nimitz.[25]
In popular culture
In the March of Time's 1951 documentary TV series, Crusade in the Pacific, Episode 17 is "The Fight for Bloody Nose Ridge."
In NBC-TV's 1952-53 documentary TV series Victory at Sea, Episode 18, "Two if by Sea" covers the assaults at Peleliu and Angaur.
The Battle of Peleliu is featured in many World War II themed video games, including Call of Duty: World at War. The player takes the role of a US Marine tasked with taking Peleliu Airfield, repelling counter-attacks, destroying machine-gun and mortar positions and eventually securing Japanese artillery emplacements at the point. In flight-simulation game War Thunder, two teams of players clash to hold the southern and northern airfields. In multi-player shooter Red Orchestra 2: Rising Storm, a team of American troops attack the defensive Japanese team's control points.
The battle including footage and stills are featured in the fifth episode of Ken Burns' The War.
The battle features in episodes 5, 6 and 7 of the TV mini-series The Pacific.
In his book, With the Old Breed, Eugene Bondurant Sledge described his experiences in the battle for Peleliu.
In 2015, the Japanese magazine Young Animal commenced serialization of Peleliu: Rakuen no Guernica by Masao Hiratsuka and artist Kazuyoshi Takeda, telling the story of the battle in manga form.
One of the final scenes in Parer's War, a 2014 Australian television film, shows the Battle of Peleliu recorded by Damien Parer with his camera at the time of his death.
The Peleliu Campaign features as one of the campaigns in the 2019 solitaire tactical wargame “Fields of Fire” Volume 2, designed by Ben Hull, published by GMT Games LLC.
Individual honors
Japan
Posthumous promotions
For heroism:
Colonel Kunio Nakagawa – lieutenant general
Kenjiro Murai – lieutenant general
United States
Pfc. Richard Kraus, USMC (age 18), killed in action
Medal of Honor recipients
Captain Everett P. Pope – 1st Battalion, 1st Marines
First Lieutenant Carlton R. Rouh – 1st Battalion, 5th Marines
Private First Class Arthur J. Jackson – 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines
Corporal Lewis K. Bausell –1st Battalion, 5th Marines (Posthumous)
Private First Class Richard E. Kraus – 8th Amphibian Tractor Battalion, 1st Marine Division (Reinforced) (Posthumous)
Private First Class John D. New – 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines (Posthumous)
Private First Class Wesley Phelps – 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines (Posthumous)
Private First Class Charles H. Roan – 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines (Posthumous)
Unit citations
D-day Peleliu, African Americans of one of the two segregated units that supported the 7th Marines - the 16th Marine Field Depot or the 17th Naval Construction Battalion Special take a break in the 115 degree heat, 09-15-1944 - NARA - 532535
Presidential Unit Citation:
1st Marine Division, September 15 to 29, 1944[26]
1st Amphibian Tractor Battalion, FMF[27]
U. S. Navy Flame Thrower Unit Attached[27]
6th Amphibian Tractor Battalion (Provisional), FMF[27]
3d Armored Amphibian Battalion (Provisional), FMF[27]
Detachment Eighth Amphibian Tractor Battalion, FMF[27]
454th Amphibian Truck Company, U. S. Army[27]
456th Amphibian Truck Company, U. S. Army[27]
4th Joint Assault Signal Company, FMF[27]
5th Separate Wire Platoon, FMF[27]
6th Separate Wire Platoon, FMF[27]
Detachment 33rd Naval Construction Battalion (202 Personnel)[27]
Detachment 73rd Naval Construction Battalion's Shore Party (241 Personnel)[27]
USMC Commendatory Letter:[i]
11th Marine Depot Company (segregated)
7th Marine Ammunition Company (segregated)
17th Special Naval Construction Battalion (segregated)
Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).
Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..
Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.
Steel engraving from The Encyclopaedia Britannica - 9th edition - 1876-1889.
Published by Adam and Charles Black, Edinburgh, for The Times Publications of London. 24 volumes red half leather, gilt spines and marbled endpapers and edges. About 20,000 pages 28cm x 22cm. .
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
Germany
Name: Europa
Owner: Norddeutsche Lloyd
Port of registry: Bremen,Germany
Ordered: 1927
Builder: Blohm & Voss shipyard, Hamburg, Germany
Launched: 15 August 1928
Christened: 15 August 1928
Maiden voyage: 19 March 1930
In service: March 1930
Out of service: May 1945
Identification: Not known
Fate: Captured by Allied forces
Status: Claimed as war prize by the US Navy
Notes: Was largest German ship built during the 1930s
United States
Name: USS Europa
Operator: United States Navy
Port of registry: Boston, USA
Route: Transatlantic
Acquired: 1945
In service: 1945 to 1946
Out of service: 1946
Identification: Pennant Number AP-177
Status: Turned over to the French Line in 1946
Notes: Served as a Troop Transport from Brest, France to New York, New York
France
Name: SS Liberté
Operator: Compagnie Générale Transatlantique
Route: Le Havre, France- New York, USA
Acquired: 1946
Maiden voyage: 16 July 1950
In service: 1950 to 1963
Out of service: 1946 to 1950
Fate: Retired in 1962 and scrapped in 1963.
Status: Scrapped
Notes: Was the replacement of Normandie
General characteristics
Class and type: Ocean liner
Tonnage: 49,746 GRT
Displacement: 55,500 long tons (56,400 t)[1]
Length: 936.7 ft (283.5 m)
Beam: 101.7 feet (31 m)
Height: 150.6 feet
Decks: 12
Installed power: Four steam turbines generating 105,000 shp
Propulsion: Quadruple propellers
Speed: 27.5 knots (50.9 km/h; 31.6 mph)
Capacity:
2,195 total passengers:
860 first class
502 second class
305 tourist class
617 third class
Crew: 965
SS Europa, later SS Liberté, IMO 5607332, was a German ocean liner built for the Norddeutsche Lloyd line (NDL) to work the transatlantic sea route. She and her sister ship, Bremen, were the two most advanced, high-speed steam turbine ocean vessels in their day, and were a part of the international competition for the Blue Riband.[2]
History
Construction
Europa was built in 1929 with her sister ship SS Bremen to be the second 50,000–gross ton North German Lloyd liner. They both were powered with advanced high-speed steam turbine engines and were built with a bulbous bow entry and a low streamlined profile.[citation needed]
Europa and her slightly larger sister ship were designed to have a cruising speed of 27.5 knots, allowing an Atlantic crossing time of 5 days. This enabled Norddeutsche Lloyd to run regular weekly crossings with two ships, a feat that previously required three.[citation needed]
The launching of Europa took place at Blohm & Voss shipyard, Hamburg on Wednesday, August 15, 1928. Europa was intended to be completed in spring 1929. However, on the morning of 26 March 1929, a fire broke out while still at the equipment dock. The fire raged all day long and it was not until the evening when the fire was under control. The ship's turbines were damaged heavily and also the remainder of the ship had been significantly damaged. After long discussions between builder and shipping company, it was decided to repair the ship. Within eleven months the ship was finished and completed on February 22, 1930.[3] The cause of the fire has never been clearly identified.[citation needed]
Blue Riband
Europa made her maiden voyage to New York on 19 March 1930 taking the westbound Blue Riband from SS Bremen with the average speed of 27.91 knots and a crossing time of 4 days, 17 hours and 6 minutes. During the voyage many of her passengers were disturbed by the soot coming out of Europa's low funnels. The problem was corrected by raising the funnels by 15 feet, though decreasing her low profile. After they were raised, there were no more complaints.[4] She held it till the Bremen recaptured it in June 1933.[2]
Aircraft
Like Bremen, Europa had a small seaplane launched from a catapult on her upper deck between the funnels. The airplane flew from the ship to a landing at the seaplane port in Blexen. The pilots and technicians gained experience later applied to equipping German warships with on-board aircraft.[citation needed]
The catapult was removed from both Bremen and Europa after a few years of service, because it was too expensive and complex.[citation needed]
World War II
Europa was inactive for most of World War II. There were plans to use her as a transport in Operation Sea Lion, the intended invasion of Great Britain, and later conversion to an aircraft carrier.[5] None of these plans came to pass, and in 1945, she was captured by the Allies and used as a troopship, sailing as the USS Europa (AP-177).[2] The United States claimed the ship as a war prize on 8 May 1945 and gave the vessel to the US Navy, which commissioned Europa 25 August 1945 with Captain B. F. Perry in command. Europa cleared Bremerhaven on 11 September 1945 for Southampton, England, where she loaded 4,500 homeward-bound American troops, arriving in New York City on 24 September. After alteration to increase her troop-carrying capacity, she made two voyages to Southampton to bring US servicemen home to the United States. She sailed from New York once more, on 15 March 1946, bound for Kirkwall in the Orkney Islands, and Bremerhaven, where she moored on 24 March.[6]
Europa suffered from small fires caused by the removal of the ship's original high-quality fittings and installation of inferior replacements to compensate for material shortages in the war effort. Also, several serious hull cracks were discovered.[2] The vessel was decommissioned on 2 May 1946 and delivered to the State Department on 8 June 1946. She was later transferred to France in partial payment of war reparations.[6]
French Line
Liberté sunk following a collision with the capsized Paris at Le Havre
The French line Compagnie Générale Transatlantique took over ownership and brought the vessel to Le Havre for refitting into their service as a replacement for SS Normandie. The most obvious change was the repainting of her funnels from NDL yellow to the red funnels and black tops of the CGT. On December 8, 1946 a storm caused her to break free from her moorings and she collided with the wreck of Paris, causing significant damage to her hull.[7] She was raised in April 1947 and towed to the Chantiers de l'Atlantique Shipyard in Saint-Nazaire to complete her refitting. She suffered some further damage when the ship caught fire once again in October 1949, resulting in damage to some of her passenger space.[2] Finally, on August 2, 1950, after five years and two near disasters, she made her maiden voyage to New York under her new name, Liberté.[8] She served the French line until 1962, when she was retired and was scrapped in 1963, due to the SS France coming out in 1961 and the French line also wanted to replace most of their fleet.
After the launching of the 66,000-ton SS France in 1960, Liberté was laid up in 1962 and scrapped in 1963. She had served 11 years as the premier transatlantic liner of the French Line fleet.[citation needed]
Liberté was featured prominently in the Jane Russell film The French Line. Liberté made an appearance in the opening credits of the 1953 movie How to Marry a Millionaire, as well as the 1954 classic film Sabrina, starring Audrey Hepburn and Humphrey Bogart, in the final scenes of the film.[9]
Children's Encyclopedia, edited by Arthur Mee, and published in 10 volumes by the Educational Book Company, London. It was published from 1908 to 1964.
Location: Europe > Portugal > Algarve
Date Photo Taken: April 15, 2017
© Copyright. You cannot use! Only Encyclopedia of Life (EOL)
This book exclusively covers collector edition Barbie dolls including her friends and family members. Augustyniak features all of Barbie's various ethnic counterparts, and even included facial close-ups for them. I find looking at all the many variations very interesting, and extremely handy for identification purposes. I do feel that his photograph quality lacks in that the pictures are very small and the dolls are boxed generally speaking. As I've mentioned before, I find it hard to see what a doll truly looks like when photographed in his/her box. I am pleased that Augustyniak included facial close-ups for every doll in this book though. For the most part, it seems like he didn't picture more than three different Barbies on each page (not including variations), so I feel that everything is spaced out nicely. He also included many pictures of packaging for those who are interested in boxes. This book is organized by series and then subdivided by release date. Each item has a decently lengthy description, a "value," a release date, and a stock number. This book also features a multitude of one of a kind dolls at the back. I appreciate how Augustyniak also included pictures of collectible fashion and accessory packs in this book as well, not just dolls. However, like with several of his other books, he chose to include random Barbie related merchandise such as mugs, ceramics, purses, and posters, which are jumbled with the dolls. To me, I feel that these random items interrupt the flow of the book, but to some they may find these pictures useful.
One of the major pitfalls with this book is the fact that Augustyniak covered many of the dolls in his other books. As I have mentioned several times now, he always had the tendency to include redundant information in his books, making it somewhat pointless to purchase them all. I own two of his Barbie exclusives books, and I can tell that he pictured many of the same collector dolls in all three books. This repetitiveness of information makes me very wary and hesitant to purchase anymore of his books. I believe there are several Collector Encyclopedias available written by Augustyniak. I believe this 2008 edition is the newest, which is why I purchased it. I cannot say for sure if his previous editions contain all the same information or not, but I would assume they would.
Being more of a play line collector, I don't use this book particular often, especially since many of the dolls are featured in books I prefer more, such as his second edition exclusives book. I think that this book would be incredibly useful and interesting though for the individuals whom are very interested in collectible Barbie dolls and one of a kind dolls. This book is very thick and comes in hardcover, so it is definitely worth the price if these dolls are the type that interest you. Since it spans up to 2008, it includes many dolls that have not been featured in any other books, because it seems that the most prevalent time for Barbie books ended in 1995. All in all, I would say that this is one of Augustyniak's finer books since it is well organized and he seemed to stay on topic for the most part, and although his pictures are on the small side, they are much brighter and crisper than those in his other books.
A text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
The Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia) (ex-Athene cunicularia) is a small, long-legged owl found throughout open landscapes of North and South America. Burrowing owls can be found in grasslands, rangelands, agricultural areas, deserts, or any other dry, open area with low vegetation (Lewis 2005). They nest and roost in burrows, such as those abandoned by prairie dogs. Unlike most owls, burrowing owls are often active during the day. However, most hunting is done at dusk or at night.
Burrowing owls are able to live for at least 9 years in the wild and over 10 years in captivity.[citation needed] They are often killed by vehicles when crossing roads, and have many natural enemies, including badgers, coyotes, and snakes. They are also killed by both feral and domestic cats and dogs.
Burrowing owls have bright yellow eyes. The bill can be yellow or greenish depending on the subspecies. The legs are incompletely feathered, and the toes are grayish in color. They lack ear tufts and have a flattened facial disc. The owls have prominent white eyebrows and a white "chin" patch which they expand and display during certain behaviors.
Adult owls have brown upperparts with white spotting. The breast and belly are white with variable brown spotting or barring. Juvenile owls are similar in appearance, but they lack most of the white spotting above and brown barring below. Also, the young owls have a buff bar across the upper wing and their breast may be buffy rather than white.
Males and females are similar in size and appearance. However, adult males sometimes appear lighter in color because they spend more time outside the burrow during daylight, and their feathers become sun-bleached. The average adult is slightly larger than an American Robin, at 25 cm (10 inches) length, 53 cm (21 inches) wingspan, and 170g (6 oz) weight (Lewis 2005).
The typical "who who" call of a burrowing owl is associated with territory defense and breeding, often given by adult males to attract a female to a promising burrow. They also make other sounds, which are described as chucks, chattering, and screams. These sounds are usually accompanied by an up and down bobbing of the head. When alarmed, young birds will give a hissing call - a case of acoustic Batesian mimicry - that sounds like a rattlesnake (Haug et al. 1993).
Before European colonization, burrowing owls probably inhabited every suitable area of the New World, but they have experienced some restrictions in distribution since. They range from the southern portions of the western Canadian provinces through southern Mexico and western Central America. They are also found in Florida and many Caribbean islands. In South America, they are patchy in the northwest and through the Andes, but widely distributed from southern Brazil to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.
Burrowing owls are year-round residents in most of their range. Birds that breed in Canada and northern USA usually migrate south to Mexico and southern USA during winter months.
The burrowing owl is endangered in Canada[1], threatened in Mexico, and a species of special concern in Florida and most of the western USA. It is common and widespread in open regions of many Neotropical countries, where they sometimes even inhabit fields and parks in cities. In regions bordering the Amazon Rainforest they are spreading with deforestation. It is therefore listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.
The major reasons for declining populations in North America are control programs for prairie dogs and loss of habitat, although burrowing owls readily inhabit some anthropogenic landscapes, such as airport grasslands or golf courses (Korfanta et al. 2005).
Burrowing owls are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. They are also included in CITES Appendix II.
Genetic analysis of the two North American subspecies indicates that inbreeding is not a problem within those populations (Korfanta et al. 2005).
The nesting season begins in late March or April in North America. Burrowing owls are usually monogamous, but occasionally a male will have two mates (Lewis 2005). Pairs of owls will sometimes nest in loose colonies. Their typical breeding habitat is open grassland or prairie, but they can occasionally adapt to other open areas like airports, golf courses, and agricultural fields. Burrowing owls are slightly tolerant of human presence, often nesting near roads, farms, homes, and regularly maintained irrigation canals.
The owls nest in an underground burrow, hence the name Burrowing Owl. They use burrows created by other burrowing animals such as prairie dogs, ground squirrels, or badgers (Holt et al. 1999). If burrows are unavailable and the soil is not hard or rocky, the owls may excavate their own. Burrowing owls will also nest in shallow, underground, man-made structures that have easy access to the surface.
The female will lay as many as 8-12 eggs over a two week period. She will then incubate the eggs for three to four weeks while the male brings her food. After the eggs hatch both parents will feed the chicks. Four weeks after hatching, the chicks are able to make short flights and begin leaving the nest burrow. The parents will still help feed the chicks for 1 to 3 months. While most of the eggs will hatch, only four to five chicks usually survive to leave the nest.
During the nesting season, burrowing owls will line the burrow with mammal dung, usually from cattle. The dung helps to control the microclimate inside the burrow and to attract insects, which the owls may eat (Levey et al. 2004).
Site fidelity rates appear to vary among populations. In some locations, owls will frequently reuse a nest several years in a row. Owls in migratory northern populations are less likely to return to the same burrow every year. Also, as with many other birds, the female owls are more likely to disperse to a different site than are male owls (Lutz & Plumpton 1999).
The highly variable diet includes small mammals, small birds, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, and scorpions. But the owls mainly eat large insects and small rodents. Although burrowing owls often live in close proximity to ground squirrels, they rarely prey upon them. Unlike other owls, they also eat fruits and seeds, especially the fruit of tasajillo (Cylindropuntia leptocaulis) and other prickly pear and cholla cacti. When hunting they wait on a perch until they spot prey. Then they swoop down on prey or fly up to catch insects in flight. Sometimes they chase prey on foot across the ground.
The burrowing owl is sometimes separated in the monotypic genus Speotyto. This is based on an overall different morphology and karyotype. On the other hand, osteology and DNA sequence data suggests that the Burrowing Owl is just a terrestrial version of the Athene little owls, and it is today placed in that genus by most authorities.
A considerable number of subspecies have been described, but they differ little in appearance and the taxonomy of several needs to be validated (Holt et al. 1999). Most subspecies are found in the Andes and the Antilles. Only A. c. hypugaea and A. c. floridana are found in North America. Although distinct from each other, the relationship of the Floridan subspecies to (and its distinctness from) the Caribbean birds is not quite clear (Korfanta et al. 2005).
Um texto em português:
Coruja-buraqueira (Speotyto cunicularia).
Veja um vídeo clicando no endereço a seguir:
br.youtube.com/watch?v=BhCP0YqJDnY
Ficha Técnica
Nome comum: coruja-buraqueira, coruja-martelo, coruja-do-campo, caburé-de-cupim, caburé-do-campo, coruja-barata, coruja-buraqueira, coruja-do-campo, coruja-mineira, corujinha-buraqueira, corujinha-do-buraco, corujinha-do-campo, guedé, urucuera, urucuréia e urucuriá.
Nome científico: Speotyto cunicularia
Reino: Animal
Filo: Vertebrado
Classe: Aves
Ordem: Strigiformes
Família: Strigidae
Ave muito interessante e com características peculiares é tida pelo povo grego como a ave da sabedoria. Outros povos porém, acham que causa azar e arrepios seu canto quando rasga o silêncio noturno. Dizem ainda que é sinal de mal agouro e que o seu canto está pressagiando alguma tragédia, o que é pura crendice popular, pois o que se sabe é que as corujas são muito úteis ao homem predando pragas nas lavouras e controlando a população de ratos ao redor das cidades e no campo.
Pode girar seu pecoço em 270º
Características:
A coruja-buraqueira é muito comum pelos campos do Brasil.
Mede em torno de 20-30 cm com envergadura de 50-61cm e pesando em média 170g.
Com peito branco e plumagem amarelada o macho é ligeiramente maior que a fêmea, possuem cabeça arredondada e são aves muito tímidas.
Com olhos grandes e amarelos, a coruja-buraqueira tem a visão 100 vezes mais aguçada que a do homem e seus olhos estão dispostos frontalmente, como os do ser humano.
Quando necessita olhar algum objeto ao seu redor gira o pescoço em um ângulo de até 270 graus, aumentando assim o seu campo visual.
Essa disposição frontal, proporciona à coruja uma visão binocular (enxerga um objeto com ambos os olhos e ao mesmo tempo), isso significa que a coruja pode ver objetos em três dimensões, ou seja, altura, largura e profundidade.
Pode julgar distâncias similares ao ser humano e seu campo visual é de 110 graus, sendo 70 graus de visão binocular.
Os olhos da coruja-buraqueira são bem grandes, em algumas espécies de corujas até maiores que o próprio cérebro, a fim de melhorar sua eficiência em condições de baixa luminosidade, captando e processando melhor a luz disponível.
Além de sua privilegiada visão, a coruja-buraqueira é dona de uma audição potentíssima, conseguindo localizar e abater sua presa com apenas este sentido.
Abate preferencialmente pequenos roedores, insetos, anfíbios e pássaros. A coruja é uma ave de rapina, portanto mata para se alimentar. A tradução da palavra rapina é "roubo", o que caracteriza o fato de tais aves retirarem a vida de suas presas.
Rapineira e atenta à tudo
A coruja como a grande maioria dos animais possue território de caça. São ""equipadas "" com adaptações especiais que as tornam predadoras eficientes, sendo uma delas o vôo.
Sempre muito silenciosa e sorrateira, isso devido às penas especiais de sua asa, muito macias e em grande quantidade, conseguem cortar o ar e planar por muito tempo sendo muito discretas e imperceptíveis às suas presas.
A observação das presas se dá no alto de árvores ou em mourões de cercas nos pastos e até durante o vôo silencioso, quando fazem uma varredura na área de caça. Quando um alvo é avistado a coruja voa silenciosamente até ele, mantendo sua cabeça em linha reta ao alvo, quando então a joga para trás e empurra suas garras para frente a fim de prender seguramente sua presa. A força do impacto é violenta e certeira não dando chances à presa. Posteriormente a vítima é morta pela pressão do bico, num processo de abatimento de presas no solo.
O período reprodutivo da coruja-buraqueira começa nos meses de março e abril, os ninhos são feitos no solo, aproveitando antigas tocas de tatus ou simplesmente promovem a abertura de novos ninhos, num trabalho revezado entre o casal.
Os ninhos são escavados com os pés e bicos, formando uma galeria horizontal de até 3 m de profundidade por 30cm-60cm de largura.
Em média botam de 6 a 12 ovos, que são incubados por 28 dias pela fêmea; fica por conta do macho proteger o ninho e procurar alimento para toda a prole.
Com 14 dias os filhotes já ficam empoleirados na saída da cova, aos 44 dias saem do ninho e com 60 dias estão caçando pequenos insetos.
Informações do site: www.cuestajardins.com.br/?id=149&codigo=426&PHPSE...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Pipilotti Rist
Born Elisabeth Charlotte Rist
21 June 1962 (age 55)
Grabs, Canton of St. Gallen, Switzerland
Nationality Swiss
Education Institute of Applied Arts, Schule für Gestaltung
Known for Video art
Notable work Pepperminta, I'm Not The Girl Who Misses Much, Pickleporno, Ever is Over All
Movement feminism
Awards Joan Miró Prize (2009)
Pink tramway in Geneva, by Pipilotti Rist
Elisabeth Charlotte "Pipilotti" Rist (born 21 June 1962), is a visual artist who works with video, film, and moving images which are often displayed as projections.
Contents
1 Life and career
2 Works
3 Recognition
4 References
5 External links
Life and career
Rist was born Elisabeth Charlotte in 1962 in Grabs, Sankt Gallen, in Switzerland.[1] Her father is a doctor and her mother is a teacher.[2] Since her childhood she has been nicknamed Pipilotti. The name refers to the novel Pippi Longstocking by Astrid Lindgren.
Prior to studying art and film, Rist studied theoretical physics in Vienna for one semester.[3] From 1982 to 1986 Rist studied commercial art, illustration, and photography at the University of Applied Arts Vienna in Vienna. She later studied video at the School of Design (Schule für Gestaltung) in Basel, Switzerland. From 1988 through 1994, she was member of the music band and performance group Les Reines prochaines. In 1997, her work was first featured in the Venice Biennial, where she was awarded the Premio 2000 Prize. From 2002 to 2003, she was invited by Professor Paul McCarthy to teach at UCLA as a visiting faculty member. From Summer 2012 through to Summer 2013, Rist spent a sabbatical in Somerset.[4]
Pipilotti Rist currently lives with her common law partner Balz Roth, with whom she has a son, named Himalaya.
From 2005 to 2009, she worked on her first feature film, Pepperminta.[5]
Works
During her studies Pipilotti Rist began making super 8 films. Her works generally last only a few minutes, and contained alterations in their colors, speed, and sound. Her works generally treat issues related to gender, sexuality, and the human body.
Her colorful and musical works transmit a sense of happiness and simplicity. Rist's work is regarded as feminist by some art critics. Her works are held by many important art collections worldwide.
In I'm Not The Girl Who Misses Much (1986) Rist dances before a camera in a black dress with uncovered breasts. The images are often monochromatic and fuzzy. Rists repeatedly sings "I'm not the girl who misses much," a reference to the first line of the song "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" by the Beatles. As the video approaches its end, the image becomes increasingly blue and fuzzy and the sound stops.
Rist achieved notoriety with Pickelporno (Pimple porno) (1992), a work about the female body and sexual excitation. The fisheye camera moves over the bodies of a couple. The images are charged by intense colors, and are simultaneously strange, sensual, and ambiguous.
Ever is Over All (1997) shows in slow-motion a young woman walks along a city street, smashing the windows of parked cars with a large hammer in the shape of a tropical flower. At one point a police officer greets her. The audio video installation has been purchased by the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. This work was later referenced in 2016 by Beyoncé in the film accompanying her album Lemonade.[6]
Rist's nine video segments titled Open My Glade were played once every hour on a screen at Times Square in New York City, a project of the Messages to the Public program, which was founded in 1980.
Pour Your Body Out was a commissioned multimedia installation organized by Klaus Biesenbach and installed in the atrium of the Museum of Modern Art in early 2009. In an interview with Phong Bui published in The Brooklyn Rail, Rist said she chose the atrium for the installation "because it reminds me of a church's interior where you’re constantly reminded that the spirit is good and the body is bad. This spirit goes up in space but the body remains on the ground. This piece is really about bringing those two differences together."[7]
Pipilotti Rist (eigentlich Elisabeth Charlotte Rist; * 21. Juni 1962 in Grabs, heimatberechtigt in Altstätten) ist eine Schweizer Künstlerin. Neben Videoinstallationen und Experimentalfilmen gehören zu ihren Arbeiten auch Environments, Objekte, Computerkunst und digitale Fotomontagen.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
1 Leben und berufliche Entwicklung
2 Technik
3 Werke
3.1 Audio- und Videoinstallationen
3.2 Film und Video
4 Ausstellungen (Auswahl)
5 Auszeichnungen
6 Publikationen
7 Sekundärliteratur
8 Weblinks
9 Einzelnachweise
Leben und berufliche Entwicklung
Den Spitznamen «Pipilotti», der heute auch ihr Künstlername ist, trägt sie nach eigenen Angaben bereits seit der Kindheit nach der beliebten Kinderbuch-Figur Pippi Langstrumpf.
Rist studierte von 1982 bis 1986 Gebrauchs-, Illustrations- und Fotografik an der Hochschule für Angewandte Kunst in Wien. Von 1986 bis 1988 studierte sie Audiovisuelle Kommunikation (Video) an der Schule für Gestaltung in Basel, nach eigenen Aussagen hauptsächlich, um Zugang zu professioneller Videotechnik zu haben. Anschließend arbeitete sie als freiberufliche Computergrafikerin für industrielle Videostudios.
Von 1988 bis 1994 war Pipilotti Rist Mitglied der Musikband und Performance-Gruppe Les Reines Prochaines, mit der sie auch einige Platten veröffentlichte.
1997 war sie zum zweiten Mal auf der Biennale in Venedig vertreten und wurde dort mit dem Premio 2000 ausgezeichnet. Im selben Jahr wurde sie zur künstlerischen Leiterin der Schweizer Landesausstellung Expo.01 (realisiert als Expo.02) ernannt, trat jedoch 14 Monate nach der Ernennung von dem Amt zurück.
2002 lehrte sie auf Einladung des Künstlers und Professors Paul McCarthy ein Jahr lang an der University of California, Los Angeles.
Pipilotti Rist hat mit ihrem Lebensgefährten einen Sohn (* 2002). Dessen Vornamen „Himalaya“ taucht in Himalaya’s Sister’s Living Room (2000) Himalaya Goldsteins Stube (1999) und als Buchtitel (1998) schon auf.
Von 2005 bis 2009 arbeitete Pipilotti Rist an ihrem ersten Spielfilm Pepperminta. Rist wurde mehrfach ausgezeichnet, unter anderem mit dem Premio 2000 der Biennale in Venedig (1997), dem Wolfgang-Hahn Preis (1999) und dem 01 award (2004) für außerordentliche künstlerische oder wissenschaftliche Leistungen im Multimedia-Bereich. Dieser beinhaltet die Ernennung zur Honorarprofessorin an der Universität der Künste Berlin.
Rist lebt und arbeitet in Zürich.
Technik
Bereits während des Studiums begann Rist damit, Super-8-Filme zu drehen. Ihre Filme sind meistens nur wenige Minuten lang und mittels technischer Effekte farblich verfremdet, in der Geschwindigkeiten verändert und mit Musik unterlegt. Einige der von Rist gezielt eingesetzten Verfremdungseffekte werden exemplarisch im Kompendium der Bildstörungen beim analogen Video (2013) vorgestellt.[1] Rist beschäftigt sich in ihrer Kunst unter anderem mit Sexualität, Geschlechterdifferenz und Körperbild des Menschen, vor allem der Frau.
Im Gegensatz zu vielen anderen Konzeptkünstlern zeichnen sich ihre Werke durch Freude an optischer, akustischer und haptischer Sinnlichkeit, fröhliche, intensive Buntheit und scheinbare Naivität aus. Besonders von der feministischen Kunstkritik empfing Rist früh Aufmerksamkeit. Mittlerweile sind ihre Arbeiten weltweit in den wichtigsten Sammlungen der Gegenwartskunst vertreten.
Werke
I'm Not The Girl Who Misses Much (Ich bin nicht das Mädchen, das viel vermisst, 1986) zeigt Rist, wie sie in einem schwarzen Kleid, das ihre Brüste freilässt, und mit roten Lippen vor der Kamera umhertanzt und -hampelt. Die Aufnahmen sind die meiste Zeit monochrom und sehr unscharf; das Bild wird durch Verlangsamung, Beschleunigung und Überblendeffekte zusätzlich gestört. Rist singt dabei die Zeile „I'm not the girl who misses much“ repetitiv vor sich hin, eine Variation der ersten Zeile des Beatles-Songs Happiness Is a Warm Gun. Gegen Ende des fünfminütigen Clips wechselt das Bild zu einer blauen Färbung und der originale Ton des Songs wird eingeblendet. Eine Collage extrem verzerrter und abgehackter Videoschnipsel bildet den Schluss.
International bekannt wurde sie mit Pickelporno (1992), das um das Thema des weiblichen Körpers und der sexuellen Erregung kreist. Die Fisheye-Kamera bewegt sich sehr dicht an den Körpern eines nackten Paares entlang, Die Bilder sind in intensive Farben getaucht, so dass die Körperformen in der Seherfahrung des Zuschauers fremd, sinnlich und vieldeutig wirken. Der Film war für Rist ein Ansatz, mit einer femininen Pornografie zu experimentieren.
Ever is Over All (Immer ist überall/Immer ist vorbei, 1997) zeigt eine junge Frau, die in Zeitlupe mit einer Fackellilie die Fenster geparkter Autos einschlägt. Eine Polizistin nähert sich ihr und geht freundlich grüßend vorbei. Die Videoinstallation wurde unter anderem vom Museum of Modern Art New York erworben.
Vom 6. April bis zum 20. Mai 2000 wurden die 16 einminütigen Videos Open My Glade (2000) (Öffne meine Lichtung) ein Mal pro Stunde auf einem Großbildschirm am Times Square, New York gezeigt; die Installation fand im Rahmen des Programms Messages to the Public statt, das seit 1980 besteht. Das Video zeigt Rist, wie sie Gesicht und Hände gegen eine Glasscheibe presst, als sei sie in diesem Bildschirm gefangen.
Aufsehen erregte auch die Multimedia-Installation Himalaya’s Sister’s Living Room (Das Wohnzimmer von Himalayas Schwester, 2000) – ein Raum, in dem neben mehreren Videoprojektionen eine große Sammlung nostalgischer Möbel, Gebrauchs- und Schmuckgegenstände und Kitschobjekte aus den 50er, 60er und 1970er Jahren arrangiert sind: Lampen, Teppiche, Plastikblumen, Mineralien, Stapel von Zeitschriften und Büchern. Dazwischen sind weitere Projektionsflächen angebracht, auf denen repetitive Clips laufen. Das Werk ähnelt einer alltagsarchäologischen Sammlung der Populärkultur vergangener Jahrzehnte, die jedoch nicht museal wohlgeordnet ist, sondern chaotisch und überladen wirken soll.
Mit einer roten Kunststoffschicht überzogene Stadtlounge in St.Gallen
Mit einer roten Kunststoffschicht überzogenes Auto
In St. Gallen gestaltete sie, zusammen mit dem Architekten Carlos Martinez und im Auftrag der Raiffeisen Bank, den Platz zwischen deren Gebäuden als mit einer roten Kunststoffschicht überzogene Stadtlounge (eröffnet Frühjahr 2005).
Das von Max Frisch 1947 bis 1949 erbaute Freibad Letzigraben in Zürich wurde in den Jahren 2005–2007 rundumsaniert. Anlässlich seiner Wiedereröffnung fand am 18. Juni 2007 nach Einbruch der Dunkelheit am beleuchteten Sprungturm des Freibads die Videoinstallation Elektronische Huldigung des Letzis und Brios statt. Als Projektionsfläche diente hierbei der Boden des Sprungbeckens, das Bild wurde durch die bewegte Wasseroberfläche verwellt.
Der Filmemacher Michael Hegglin realisierte 2009 The Colour of Your Socks – A Year with Pipilotti Rist, einen 53-minütigen Dokumentarfilm mit und über Pipilotti Rist, produziert von Catpics Coproductions (Zürich) und Amour Fou Filmproduktion (Wien). Der Film zeigt die Künstlerin bei der Arbeit in ihrem Atelier in Zürich, im Museum of Modern Art in New York, bei der Biennale von Venedig, bei der Art Basel sowie bei den Dreharbeiten zu ihrem ersten Spielfilm Pepperminta.
Rist über ihre interdisziplinäre Arbeit mit dem Medium Video: „Video ist wie eine kompakte Handtasche, da ist von Literatur über Malerei bis zur Musik alles drin.“[2]
Audio- und Videoinstallationen
Pixelwald, Videoinstallation im Kunsthaus Zürich, 2016
Wir verwurzeln (Seelenfarben), Videoinstallation im Kafi Züri, Zürich, 2015
Enlight My Space ‹Erleuchte (und kläre) meinen Raum›, Videoinstallation, 2008
The Blue Fairy in the Valley, Videoinstallation, 2007
Die gelbe Fee in der Allee ‹The Yellow Fairy in the Avenue›, Videoinstallation, 2007
Ginas Mobile ‹Gina’s Mobile›, Videoinstallation, 2007
Tyngdkraft, var min vän ‹Schwerkraft, sei meine Freundin› ‹Gravity Be My Friend›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 2007
A la belle étoile ‹Under The Sky›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 2007
Deine Raumkapsel ‹Your Space-Capsule›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 2006
Celle selbst zu zweit, Audio-/Videoinstallation by Gutararist aka Gudrun Gut & Pipilotti Rist, 2006
Despierta ‹Wach auf›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 2001/2005
A Liberty Statue for Löndön ‹Eine Freiheitsstatue für Löndön›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 2005
Daggrystimer i naboens hus ‹Dawn Hours in Neighbour’s House›, audio video and light installation, 2005
Homo Sapiens Sapiens, Audio-/Videoinstallation in San Stae church Venice, 2005
Du erneuerst Dich (in Japanese) ‹You Renew You›, Audio-/Videoinstallation as an instant temple, 2004
Herz aufwühlen Herz ausspülen ‹Stir Heart Rinse Heart›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 2004
Apple Tree Innocent On Diamond Hill ‹Apfelbaum unschuldig auf dem Diamantenhügel› ‹Manzano inocente en la colina de diamantes›, Videoinstallation, 2003
The Cake is in Flames ‹Der Kuchen steht in Flammen›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 2002
Related Legs (Yokohama Dandelions) ‹Verwandte Beine (Yokohama Löwenzahn)›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 2001
Expecting (Installation in/for Centraal Museum, Utrecht / Bovenkapel: When I Run I Use My Feet, Benedenkapel: One Jesus in Nature, One At The Doctor, One In The Hotel), Audio-/Videoinstallation, 2001
Supersubjektiv ‹Super Subjective›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 2000/2001
Kleines Vorstadthirn ‹Small Suburb Brain›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 1999/2001 bzw. 2007 bzw. 2009
Open My Glade (Flatten) ‹Öffne meine Lichtung›, Videoinstallation, 2000 [3]
Closet Circuit, Videoinstallation by Pipilotti Rist in collaboration with the toilet visitor, 2000
Himalaya’s Sister’s Living Room, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 2000
Himalaya Goldsteins Stube ‹Himalaya Goldstein’s Living Room›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 1999
I Couldn’t Agree With You More, audio video installatio, 1999
Vorstadthirn ‹Suburb Brain›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 1999
Cintia, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 1994/99
Regenfrau (I Am Called A Plant) ‹Rain Woman (I Am Called A Plant)›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 1999
Extremitäten (weich, weich) ‹Extremities (smooth, smooth)›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 1999
Zeittunnel ‹Time tunnel›, 1998
Atmosphäre & Instinkt ‹Atmosphere & Instinct›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 1998
Rote Bar ‹Red Bar›, Videoinstallation by Pipilotti Rist, © with Gabrielle Hächler (architecture), 1997
My Boy, My Horse, My Dog, audio video slide installation, 1997
Ever Is Over All, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 1997 [4]
Mutaflor, Videoinstallation, 1996
Shooting Divas, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 1996
Sip My Ocean ‹Schlürfe meinen Ozean›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 1996
Search Wolken / Such Clouds (elektronischer Heiratsantrag) ‹Search Wolken / Such Clouds (Electronic Marriage Proposal)›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 1995
Fliegendes Zimmer ‹Flying Room›, Videoinstallation, 1995
Das Zimmer ‹The Room›, Videoinstallation, 1994/2000/2007
Yoghurt On Skin – Velvet On TV, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 1994
Selbstlos im Lavabad ‹Selfless In The Bath Of Lava›, Videoinstallation, 1994
Eindrücke verdauen ‹Digesting Impressions›, Videoinstallation, 1993
Schminktischlein mit Feedback ‹Little Make-Up Table With Feedback›, audio video installatio, 1993
TV-Lüster ‹TV Chandelier›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 1993
Eine Spitze in den Westen – ein Blick in den Osten (bzw. N-S) ‹A Peak Into The West – A Look Into The East›, Audio-/Videoinstallation, 1992/1999
Film und Video
Pepperminta, Kinofilm [5], 80', 2009
To See How You See or a Portrait of Cornelia Providoli, video by Pipilotti Rist, produced for the Video Anthology of Blick Productions NY, sound by Anders Guggisberg & Pipilotti Rist, 5', 2003
Aujourd’hui (I Couldn’t Agree With You More, version chaise longue), video, Edition bdv, Paris, 9', 1999
I’m a Victim Of This Song ‹Ich bin ein Opfer dieses Liedes›, video by Pipilotti Rist, music after ”Wicked Games” written by Chris Isaak, interpreted & performed by Anders Guggisberg & Pipilotti Rist, 5’9’’, 1995 [6]
Blutclip ‹Blood Clip›, video by Pipilotti Rist, music “Yeah Yeah Yeah” by Sophisticated Boom Boom/Netz Maeschi, 2′27′′, 1993 Blutclip-Video
Als der Bruder meiner Mutter geboren wurde, duftete es nach wilden Birnenblüten vor dem braungebrannten Sims ‹When My Mother’s Brother Was Born It Smelled Like Wild Pear Blossom in Front of the Brown-burnt Sill›, video by Pipilotti Rist, sound by Heinz Rohrer & Pipilotti Rist, 3’48’’, 1992 [7]
Pickelporno ‹Pimple Porno›, video, 12’06’’, 1992 [8]
You Called Me Jacky ‹Du nanntest mich Jacky›, video by Pipilotti Rist, music “Edna & Jacky” by Kevin Coyne, 4’02’’, 1990 [9]
(Entlastungen) Pipilottis Fehler ‹(Absolutions) Pipilotti’s Mistakes›, video by Pipilotti Rist. Multiple parts. Two pieces by Hans Feigenwinter, in one he plays a cover of Lost In Space, one part Bist Du klein ‹Are you small› by Les Reines Prochaines inclusive Pipilotti Rist, rest by Pipilotti Rist, 12’24’’, 1988 [10]
Sexy Sad I ‹Sexy traurig ich›, video by Pipilotti Rist, sound with Lori Hersberger after the song “Sexy Sadie” by Lennon/McCartney, 4’30’’, 1987
I’m Not The Girl Who Misses Much ‹Ich bin nicht das Mädchen, das viel vermisst›, video, 5′02′′, 1986 [11]
Ausstellungen (Auswahl)
1988: UMBRUCH 1978–1988 (Kurator: Josef Felix Müller), Kunsthalle St. Gallen
1993: Schwester des Stroms, Basel, Stampa, Schweiz
2001: Pipilotti Rist 54 (Kuratoren: Ranti Tjan, Sjarl Ex), Centraal Museum, Utrecht
2004: Pipilotti Rist (Kuratorin: Milada Slizinska), Zamek Ujazdowski Warszawa, Centre of Contemporary Art, Warschau
2005: San Stae Church (Kuratoren: Eidg. Kunst Kommission, Andreas Münch, Urs Staub), La Biennale die Venezia, Contri:bution of Swiss Federal Office of Culture BAK, Venedig
2007: A la belle étoile (Kuratorin: Christine van Assche), Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris
2008: Pour Your Body Out (7354 Cubic Meters) (Kurator: Klaus Biesenbach), Museum of Modern Art, New York
2009: Pipilotti Rist (Kuratorin: Daniela Bousso), Paço das Artes & MIS Museu da Imagem e do Som, Sao Paulo, Brasilien
2010: Extremitäten (weich, weich) (Kuratorin: Inka Graeve Ingelmann), Pinakothek der Moderne, München
2010: MOT Collection Special Feature: Pipilotti Rist (Kuratorin: Yuko Hasegawa), Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo
2011: Ruhig durch die Wände (Kurator: Wulf Herzogenrath), Kunsthalle Bremen, Bremen
2012: Augapfelmassage (Kuratorinnen: Stephanie Rosenthal, Stefanie Müller), Kunsthalle Mannheim, Mannheim
2012: Blutbetriebene Kameras und quellende Räume (Kurator: Konrad Bitterli), Kunstmuseum St. Gallen, St. Gallen, 2. Juni-25. November. Erste Retrospektive in der Schweiz.
2013: Pipilotti Rist: A la belle étoile., Henry Art Gallery, Seattle[12]
2015: Pipilotti Rist: Komm Schatz, wir stellen die Medien um & fangen nochmals von vorne an. Kunsthalle Krems 2015 (Kurator sowie Herausgeber des Katalogs: Hans-Peter Wipplinger).
2016: Pipilotti Rist, Kunsthaus Zürich. Katalog.
2016/17: Pipilotti Rist: Pixel Forest, New Museum, New York[13]
Auszeichnungen
2014: Grand Prix Kunst / Prix Meret Oppenheim 2014[14]
2013: Zürcher Festspielpreis[15]
2010: best architects 11 Award[16]
2010: Cutting the Edge Award[17]
2009: Best Exhibition Of Digital, Video, or Film: „Pour Your Body Out (7354 Cubic Meters)“ at Museum of Modern Art, New York. 26th annual awards, The International Association of Art Critics (AICA)
2009: President of the Jury’s EXTRAORDINARY AWARD (Nicolas Roeg)[18]
2009: Joan Miró Prize, Barcelona[19]
2007: St. Galler Kulturpreis der St. Gallischen Kulturstiftung
2006: Guggenheim Museums Young Collector’s Council Annual Artist’s Ball honouring Pipilotti Rist
2003: 01 award und Honorarprofessur der Universität der Künste, Berlin
2001: Kunstpreis der Stadt Zürich
1999: Wolfgang-Hahn-Preis
1998: Nominierung für den Hugo Boss Prize
1997: Renta Preis der Kunsthalle Nürnberg
1997: Premio 2000 der Biennale di Venezia
1997: Kwangju Biennale Award
1995: Stipendium des DAAD
1994: Video-Kunstpreis des Schweizerischen Bankvereins
1994: Prix d’art contemporain de la Banque Cantonale Geneva
1994: Manor Kunstpreis, St. Gallen
1993: Förderungspreis der Jubiläumsstiftung der SBG
1993: Eidgenössisches Kunststipendium
1992: Zürcher Filmpreis
1991: Eidgenössisches Kunststipendium
1989: VIPER Lucerne
1988: Preis der Feminale Köln
1987: Film- und Videotage Basel
Publikationen
Christiane Weidemann, Petra Larass, Melanie Klier (Hrsg.): 50 Künstlerinnen, die man kennen sollte Prestel München 2008, ISBN 978-3-7913-3957-3, S. 156–159
Paola Morsiani, Stephanie Hanor, Mark Harris, René Morales, Linda Yablonsky: Wishing for Synchronicity: Works by Pipilotti Rist. Contemporary Arts Museum Houston, ´Houston, Texas 2009, ISBN 978-1-933619-17-0 [engl. version].
Paul Kempers, Catrien Schreuder, John Slyce, Emilie Wennekes: Elixir: the video organism of Pipilotti Rist. Museum Boijmans van Beuningen, Rotterdam, 2009, ISBN 978-90-6918-237-7. (exh. cat.) [engl. & dutch version]
Pipilotti Rist; Hara Museum of Contemporary Art (Hrsg.): Karakaracan. Tokyo/Zürich 2007. (Artist publication by the Hara Museum of Contemporary Art Tokyo accompanying the exhibition „Karakara“ at the Hara Museum. Designed by Thomas Rhyner.)
Magasin 3 (Hrsg.): Pipilotti Rist – Congratulations! Lars Müller Publishers, Baden 2007, ISBN 978-3-03778-108-1 (exh. cat.) [engl., german & swedish version]
Pipilotti Rist: Pepperminta Homo sapiens sapiens – boxa ludens. Lars Müller Publishers, Wettingen 2005, ISBN 3-03778-051-7. (Artist publication edited by the Swiss Federal Office of Culture accompanying the exhibition at the Venice Biennale. Designed by Thomas Rhyner.)
Änne Söll: Pipilotti Rist, Artists Monographs Vol. 3. Friedrich Christian Flick Collection, Dumont, Köln 2005, ISBN 3-8321-7578-4. [engl. & german version]
MUSAC – Museo de Arte Contemporaneo de Castilla y Leon: Soundtracks de las video instalaciones de Pipilotti Rist. 2005. (CD and booklet, contains music of the major installations by Pipilotti Rist, music by and with Anders Guggisberg, Peter Bräker, Les Reines Prochaines, Heinz Rohrer, Roland Widmer, Saadet Türköz, Cintia Buonomo, Gruss vom Walensee, Pipilotti Rist.)
Birgit Kempker, Pipilotti Rist: Jestem swoja wlasna obca swinia ‹Ich bin mein eigenes fremdes Schwein/I am my own foreign pig›. Centrum Sztuki Wspolczesnej Zamek Ujazdowski, 2004, ISBN 83-88277-13-8. (This artist book with a wild text of the German writer Birgit Kempker comes in Polish, German and English. Designed by Maciej Buszewicz.)
Pipilotti Rist: Apricots Along The Street. Scalo, Zürich/ Berlin/ New York 2001, ISBN 3-908247-50-0. (This is another freestyle artist book also designed by/with Thomas Rhyner with some gadgets. English with only the difficult words translated into Spanish and German.)
Peggy Phelan, Hans Ulrich Obrist, Elisabeth Bronfen: Pipilotti Rist. Phaidon Press Limited, London 2001, ISBN 0-7148-3965-5. (This is an informative monography with text and interviews by and with Peggy Phelan, Hans Ulrich Obrist, Elisabeth Bronfen and others.)
Rist, Pipilotti: Himalaya, Pipilotti Rist 50 kg. Oktagon, Köln 1998, ISBN 3-89611-072-1. (This artist’s book [designed by Thomas Rhyner] including the music CD „we can’t“ realised with Anders Guggisberg. It’s actually sold out but there are some copies left in national distribution centres like the one of Switzerland or USA.)
Pipilotti Rist: Komm Schatz, wir stellen die Medien um & fangen nochmals von vorne an. Hg.von Hans-Peter Wipplinger mit Beiträgen von Stephanie Damianisch, Brigitte Huck, Eva Laquièze-Waniek und August Ruhs. Layout von Thomas Rhyner in enger Zusammenarbeit mit der Künstlerin. (Deutsch- und englischsprachiger Katalog zur gleichnamigen Ausstellung der Kunsthalle Krems). Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, Berlin 2015, S. 216. ISBN 3-86335-705-1, ISBN 978-3-86335-705-4..
Sekundärliteratur
Randy Kennedy: Electric Lemon Girl Power Video Revolt. In: The New York Times Magazine, November 15, 2009.
Jerry Saltz: Re View. In: Monopol, Berlin, 3, 2009. (S. 106–109)
Peter Schjedal: Critic’s Notebook: Tune In, Turn On. In: New Yorker, 5. Januar 2009.
St. Gallische Kulturstiftung: St. Galler Kulturpreis 2007 – Pipilotti Rist. St. Gallische Kulturstiftung, St. Gallen 2008.
Änne Söll: Pipilotti Rist, Ever Is Over All. In: Pinakothek der Moderne (Hrsg.), Female Trouble – Die Kamera als Spiegel und Bühne weiblicher Inszenierungen, Hatje Cantz Verlag, Ostfildern 2008. (S. 220–221, exh. cat.)
Marcella Beccaria: Pipilotti Rist. In: Castello di Rivoli, Museum of Contemporary Art: The Castle, The Collection, Skira, Milano 2008. (S. 446–449, exh. cat.)
Amélie Von Heydebreck: Stations – 100 Meisterwerke zeitgenössischer Kunst. DuMont, Köln 2008. (S. 78–79)
Adrian Searle: The gleeful anarchist. In: The Guardian. London 2. Juli 2008.
Mark Sanders: Pipilotti Rist. In: Another Magazine, London, No. 11, Autumn/Winter 2006. (S. 426–439)
Änne Söll: Arbeit am Körper. Videos und Videoinstallationen von Pipilotti Rist. Silke Schreiber, München 2004, ISBN 3-88960-069-7.
Kenneth Baker: Stir Heart, Rinse Heart: Pipilotti Rist. In: San Francisco Chronicle, San Francisco March 2004. (S. E1-E2)
Bice Curiger: Die Videokunst ist ein Zimmer mit erhöhter Raumtemperatur. Kunst Expansiv, Lindinger + Schmid, Regensburg 2002. (S. 58–65)
Jaqueline Burckhardt: Pipilotti Rist. In: Aus der Sammlung Eckhardt, Doppelung der Bilder im Raum, Bilderstürmerin. Kunstmuseum Stadt Bayreuth, Bayreuth 2001. (S. 54–55)
Rochelle Steiner (Hrsg.): Wonderland. The Saint Louis Art Museum, 2000. (Interview S. 90–95, exh. cat.)
Jennifer Allen: Pipilotti Rist. Dans la peau de l’image. In: Parachute, Montréal April/June 2000. (S. 4–17)
Christoph Blase: Pipilotti Rist, in: Art at the turn of the millennium. Ausblick auf das Jahrtausend. Taschen, Köln 1999. (S. 426–429)
Christoph Doswald: Pipilotti Rist – Als Mädchen habe ich geträumt die Reinkarnation von John Lennon zu sein (Gespräch). In: Kunstforum International, No. 135, Ruppichteroth Oktober 1996 / Januar 1997. (S. 206–212)
Laurie Anderson: Laurie Anderson and Pipilotti Rist Meet Up in the Lobby of a Hotel in Berlin on September 9. 1996, In: Parkett, No. 48, Zürich/ New York 1996. (S. 114–119)
Marius Babias: Risikofaktor Rist; Wenn Träume wie sterbende Fische zucken. In: Parkett, No. 48, Zürich/ New York 1996. (S. 100–107)
Paolo Colombo: Shooting Divas. In: Parkett, No. 48, Zürich/ New York 1996. (S. 109–113)
Nancy Spector: The Mechanics of Fluids. In: Parkett, No. 48, Zürich/ New York 1996. (S. 83–91)
Philip Ursprung: Pipilotti Rists Fliegendes Zimmer. In: Parkett, No. 48, Zürich/ New York 1996. (S. 94–98)
Colosseum
Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.
The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).
Exterior
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.
The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]
The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.
Interior
According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]
The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.
It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.
Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.
At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.
Coliseu (Colosseo)
A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:
O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.
O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.
Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.
O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.
Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.
Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.
Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.
Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.
O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".
A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.
Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.
O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.
Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.
O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.
Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.
White encyclopedia resting on a stack of thick books lying on the floor. It is opened, showing two pages with the world flags and the names of the countries underneath them.
Steel engraving from The Encyclopaedia Britannica - 9th edition - 1876-1889.
Published by Adam and Charles Black, Edinburgh, for The Times Publications of London. 24 volumes red half leather, gilt spines and marbled endpapers and edges. About 20,000 pages 28cm x 22cm. .
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other ships of the same name, see USS Brooklyn.
USS Brooklyn (CA-3)
USS Brooklyn (ACR-3), at anchor, circa 1898.
History
United States
Name: Brooklyn
Namesake: City of Brooklyn, New York
Ordered: 19 July 1892
Awarded: 11 February 1893
Builder: William Cramp & Sons, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Cost: $3,450,420.29 (hull and machinery)
Laid down: 2 August 1893
Launched: 2 October 1895
Sponsored by: Miss Ida May Schieren
Commissioned: 1 December 1896
Decommissioned: 9 March 1921
Reclassified: CA-3, 17 July 1920
Struck: 9 March 1921
Identification:
Hull symbol:ACR-3
Hull symbol:CA-3
Fate: sold for scrap 20 December 1921
General characteristics (as built)
Type: Armored cruiser
Displacement:
9,215 long tons (9,363 t) (standard)
10,068 long tons (10,230 t) (full load)
Length:
402 ft 7 in (122.71 m)oa
400 ft 6 in (122.07 m)pp
Beam: 64 ft 8 in (19.71 m)
Draft: 24 ft (7.3 m) (mean)
Installed power:
5 × double-ended boilers, 2 × single-ended boilers
4 × vertical triple expansion reciprocating engines
16,000 ihp (12,000 kW) (design)
Propulsion: 2 × screws
Speed:
20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph) (design)
21.91 knots (40.58 km/h; 25.21 mph) (Speed on Trial)
Complement: 561 officers and enlisted
Armament:
8 × 8 in (203 mm)/35 caliber Mark 3 and/or Mark 4 breech-loading rifles (4 × 2)
12 × 5 in (127 mm)/40 caliber rapid fire (RF) guns
12 × 6-pounder (57 mm (2.2 in)) Driggs-Schroeder RF guns
4 × 1-pounder (37 mm (1.5 in)) Driggs-Schroeder saluting guns
5 × 18 in (457 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor:
Belt: 3 in (76 mm)
Deck: 6 in (152 mm) sloped sides, 3 in (76 mm) flat middle (amidships)
2 1⁄2 in (64 mm) (forward & aft)
Turrets: 5 1⁄2 in (140 mm)
3 in (76 mm) (hoists)
Barbettes: 8 in (203 mm)-4 in (102 mm)
Secondary sponsons: 4 in (102 mm)
Conning Tower: 8 1⁄2 in (216 mm)
General characteristics (1914)[1]
Armament:
8 × 8 in (203 mm)/35 caliber Mark 3 and/or Mark 4 breech-loading rifles (4 x 2)
12 × 5 in (127 mm)/40 caliber RF breech-loading rifles
4 × 6-pounder (57 mm (2.2 in)) Driggs-Schroeder saluting guns
General characteristics (1917)[2]
Armament:
8 × 8 in (203 mm)/35 caliber Mark 3 and/or Mark 4 breech-loading rifles (4 x 2)
8 × 5 in (127 mm)/40 caliber RF breech-loading rifles
2 × 3 in (76 mm)/50 caliber anti-aircraft guns
4 × 6-pounder (57 mm (2.2 in)) Driggs-Schroeder saluting guns
The second USS Brooklyn (ACR-3/CA-3) was the third United States Navy armored cruiser, the only one to be named at commissioning for a city rather than a state.
Ordered for $3,450,420.29 (hull and machinery),[3] she was launched on 2 October 1895 by William Cramp and Sons Ship and Engine Building Company of Philadelphia; sponsored by Miss Ida May Schieren, daughter of the Honorable Charles A. Schieren, Mayor of Brooklyn, New York; and commissioned on 1 December 1896, Captain Francis Augustus Cook in command.[4]
Contents
1 Design and construction
1.1 Armament
1.2 Armor
1.3 Engineering
1.4 Refits
2 Service history
2.1 Spanish–American War
2.2 Post-war
3 Awards
4 References
5 Bibliography
6 External links
Design and construction
Brooklyn was said to be an improved New York at the time of her completion. She was also designed by the Navy Department and was about 1,000 tons larger, which allowed for a raised forecastle for better seakeeping.[5] However, Brooklyn sacrificed armor for improved armament.[6] She had eight 8-inch guns compared to New York's six, and all were in twin turrets. The secondary armament was increased in caliber from New York's 4-inch guns to 5-inch guns.[7] Brooklyn had her turrets in a "lozenge" arrangement (one each fore and aft, one on each side) and also had a tumblehome hull, which allowed the side turrets to fire dead ahead and astern. She was the only US Navy ship built with this turret arrangement.[6] The tumblehome hull and "lozenge" arrangement were rare in the US Navy, but at the time were prevalent in the French Navy and in French-designed Russian ships, such as the French Magenta and the Russian Tsesarevich.[8]
Compared with New York, Brooklyn had a 3 in (76 mm) belt versus 4 in (102 mm), 8 in (203 mm) barbettes versus 10 in (254 mm), and the same turret and deck armor.[7]
Armament
Brooklyn as built had a main armament of eight 8 in (203 mm)/35 caliber Mark 3 and/or Mark 4 breech-loading rifles in four twin Mark 8 turrets in a "lozenge" arrangement.[9] The forward and starboard side turrets were electric-powered, while the other two turrets were steam-powered. This was to test which system was better, and as a result the Navy adopted electric power for future turret designs.[7] Secondary armament was twelve 5 in (127 mm)/40 caliber rapid fire (RF) guns in sponsons along the sides, along with twelve 6-pounder (57 mm (2.2 in)) Driggs-Schroeder RF guns, four 1-pounder (37 mm (1.5 in)) Driggs-Schroeder saluting guns, and five 18 in (457 mm) torpedo tubes.[5][6][7] Some additional weapons on wheeled carriages were carried for use by landing parties; these included two 3-inch (76 mm) field artillery pieces and four Gatling guns.[10]
Armor
Brooklyn had significantly less protection than New York, to allow for increased armament. The belt was 3 in (76 mm) thick and 8 feet 6 inches (2.6 m) deep, of which 5 ft (1.5 m) was below the waterline. It protected only the machinery spaces.[7][6] The armored deck was 6 in (152 mm) thick on its sloped sides and 3 in (76 mm) in the flat middle amidships, but only 2 1⁄2 in (64 mm) at the ends.[7][6] The gun turrets had up to 5 1⁄2 in (140 mm) of armor, on 8 in (203 mm)-4 in (102 mm) barbettes with 3 in (76 mm) protecting the ammunition hoists.[7][6] The secondary gun sponsons had 4 in (102 mm), while the conning tower was 8 1⁄2 in (216 mm) thick.[7][6]
Engineering
Brooklyn was intended to be relatively fast at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph), and achieved 21.91 knots (40.58 km/h; 25.21 mph) on trials. Her machinery was generally similar to New York, but achieved 1,300 ihp (970 kW) additional horsepower and an extra knot on trials.[6] Four triple-expansion engines totaling 16,000 ihp (12,000 kW) (designed, 18,769 ihp (13,996 kW) on trials) were clutched in tandem, two on each of two shafts.[6] The forward engines could be disconnected to conserve fuel at an economical cruising speed. In the US Navy, only New York shared this feature, which proved something of a liability in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba, when both ships were operating with the forward engines disconnected and did not have time to reconnect them, thus limiting their speed.[10] Seven coal-fired cylindrical boilers, five double-ended and two single-ended, supplied steam to the engines.[7][6]
Refits
Brooklyn's refits were relatively modest. Her torpedo tubes were removed prior to 1914; one source says by 1903.[1][5] By 1917 the 5-inch guns had been reduced to eight while two 3 in (76 mm)/50 caliber anti-aircraft guns were added.[2][5]
Service history
Spanish–American War
Brooklyn's first assignment was a special cruise to Britain with representatives of the U.S. for the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. The cruiser returned to the east coast in July 1897 and cruised there and in the West Indies until becoming flagship of the Flying Squadron under Commodore W. S. Schley on 28 March 1898.[4]
During the Spanish–American War, the Flying Squadron arrived at Cienfuegos, Cuba on 21 May and established the blockade of that port. On 26 May, the Squadron arrived at Santiago de Cuba, where the Spanish fleet was being held behind the protection of the forts. Brooklyn was a key vessel in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba on 3 July, in which the Spanish Fleet was destroyed. Although she was struck 20 times by whole shot, Brooklyn suffered only one man wounded (Fireman J. Bevins) and one man killed (Chief Yeoman George Henry Ellis).[4][11][10]
Brooklyn returned to Tompkinsville, New York on 20 August; cruised along the Atlantic coast and in Caribbean waters; participated in the Spanish–American War Victory Celebration at New York on 5 October; and in the Dewey Celebration at New York in September 1899. She left Hampton Roads on 16 October and sailed via the Suez Canal to Manila, Philippine Islands, where she arrived on 16 December. She became flagship of the Asiatic Squadron and participated in the China Relief Expedition (8 July – 11 October 1900. She made a cruise to the Dutch East Indies, Australia and New Zealand from 10 April – 7 August 1901; the last stage was to Melbourne, Auckland, Wellington and Sydney. She remained with the Asiatic Squadron until 1 March 1902, when she sailed for the United States via the Suez Canal and arrived at the New York Navy Yard on 1 May.[4]
Post-war
Brooklyn in 1899
On 20 May 1902, Brooklyn was at Havana, Cuba for the ceremonies to transfer the authority on that island from the United States Government to the Cuban Government. In June–July, she was on special duty in connection with the funeral of the late British Ambassador to the United States, Lord Pauncefote. During the next four years, she cruised with the North Atlantic Fleet and the European Squadron. She was involved in the intervention in Syria from 8 September to 17 October 1903 as well as the intervention in Djibouti from 21 November 1903 to 18 January 1904.[4]
Brooklyn returned to New York on 26 May 1905. On 7 June, as flagship of Rear Admiral Charles Dwight Sigsbee, she sailed for Cherbourg, France, where the remains of the late John Paul Jones were received aboard and brought to America. Upon arrival at Annapolis, Commodore Jones' remains were transferred ashore to a receiving vault at the United States Naval Academy with appropriate ceremonies on 23 July.[4]
Following a naval militia cruise (from 3–23 August 1905) and a tour in the Mediterranean (from 28 December 1905 – 8 May 1906), Brooklyn went into reserve at the League Island Navy Yard in Philadelphia on 16 May 1906. Except for a short period (from 30 June–2 August 1906) in commission for special service at Havana, Cuba, she remained in reserve until the spring of 1907. From 12 April – 4 December 1907, Brooklyn served as part of the permanent display at the Jamestown Exposition in Jamestown, Virginia. Following her return to Philadelphia, Brooklyn went into reserve again on 21 December.[4]
Placed out of commission on 23 June 1908, she was commissioned in ordinary on 2 March 1914. She was assigned to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet and served as receiving ship at Boston Navy Yard from 24 July 1914 – 13 March 1915. She was placed in full commission at Philadelphia on 9 May 1915 and served on Neutrality Patrol around Boston Harbor until November, when she sailed to the Asiatic Station to serve as flagship for the Commander-in-Chief of the Asiatic Fleet. She attended to regular military and diplomatic duties in China, Japan, and Russia until September 1919, when she became the flagship of Commander, Division 1, Asiatic Fleet. In January 1920, she was assigned to the Pacific Fleet as flagship of Commander, Destroyer Squadrons, and remained there until 15 January 1921. She was redesignated as CA-3 (heavy cruiser) on 17 July 1920 as part of a fleetwide redesignation plan. Brooklyn was placed out of commission for the final time at Mare Island Navy Yard on 9 March 1921 and sold for disposal on 20 December.[4]
Colorized photo of Brooklyn
Workers cutting up a main turret of Brooklyn during the scrapping process c.1922
Awards
Navy Expeditionary Medal (2 awards)
Sampson Medal
Spanish Campaign Medal
Philippine Campaign Medal
China Relief Expedition Medal
Victory Medal with "ASIATIC" clasp
Steel engraving from The Encyclopaedia Britannica - 9th edition - 1876-1889.
Published by Adam and Charles Black, Edinburgh, for The Times Publications of London. 24 volumes red half leather, gilt spines and marbled endpapers and edges. About 20,000 pages 28cm x 22cm. .
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor is a fifth-generation, single-seat, twin-engine, all-weather stealth tactical fighter aircraft developed for the United States Air Force (USAF). The result of the USAF's Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program, the aircraft was designed primarily as an air superiority fighter, but also has ground attack, electronic warfare, and signal intelligence capabilities. The prime contractor, Lockheed Martin, built most of the F-22's airframe and weapons systems and conducted final assembly, while Boeing provided the wings, aft fuselage, avionics integration, and training systems.
The aircraft was variously designated F-22 and F/A-22 before it formally entered service in December 2005 as the F-22A. Despite its protracted development and various operational issues, USAF officials consider the F-22 a critical component of the service's tactical air power. Its combination of stealth, aerodynamic performance, and situational awareness enable unprecedented air combat capabilities.
Service officials had originally planned to buy a total of 750 ATFs. In 2009, the program was cut to 187 operational production aircraft due to high costs, a lack of clear air-to-air missions due to delays in Russian and Chinese fighter programs, a ban on exports, and development of the more versatile F-35. The last F-22 was delivered in 2012.
Development
Origins
In 1981, the U.S. Air Force identified a requirement for an Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) to replace the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon. Code named "Senior Sky", this air-superiority fighter program was influenced by emerging worldwide threats, including new developments in Soviet air defense systems and the proliferation of the Su-27 "Flanker"- and MiG-29 "Fulcrum"-class of fighter aircraft. It would take advantage of the new technologies in fighter design on the horizon, including composite materials, lightweight alloys, advanced flight control systems, more powerful propulsion systems, and most importantly, stealth technology. In 1983, the ATF concept development team became the System Program Office (SPO) and managed the program at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. The demonstration and validation (Dem/Val) request for proposals (RFP) was issued in September 1985, with requirements placing strong emphasis on stealth and supercruise. Of the seven bidding companies, Lockheed and Northrop were selected on 31 October 1986. Lockheed teamed with Boeing and General Dynamics while Northrop teamed with McDonnell Douglas, and the two contractor teams undertook a 50-month Dem/Val phase, culminating in the flight test of two technology demonstrator prototypes, the YF-22 and the YF-23, respectively.
Dem/Val was focused on risk reduction and technology development plans over specific aircraft designs. Contractors made extensive use of analytical and empirical methods, including computational fluid dynamics, wind-tunnel testing, and radar cross-section calculations and pole testing; the Lockheed team would conduct nearly 18,000 hours of wind-tunnel testing. Avionics development was marked by extensive testing and prototyping and supported by ground and flying laboratories. During Dem/Val, the SPO used the results of performance and cost trade studies conducted by contractor teams to adjust ATF requirements and delete ones that were significant weight and cost drivers while having marginal value. The short takeoff and landing (STOL) requirement was relaxed in order to delete thrust-reversers, saving substantial weight. As avionics was a major cost driver, side-looking radars were deleted, and the dedicated infra-red search and track (IRST) system was downgraded from multi-color to single color and then deleted as well. However, space and cooling provisions were retained to allow for future addition of these components. The ejection seat requirement was downgraded from a fresh design to the existing McDonnell Douglas ACES II. Despite efforts by the contractor teams to rein in weight, the takeoff gross weight estimate was increased from 50,000 lb (22,700 kg) to 60,000 lb (27,200 kg), resulting in engine thrust requirement increasing from 30,000 lbf (133 kN) to 35,000 lbf (156 kN) class.
Each team produced two prototype air vehicles for Dem/Val, one for each of the two engine options. The YF-22 had its maiden flight on 29 September 1990 and in flight tests achieved up to Mach 1.58 in supercruise. After the Dem/Val flight test of the prototypes, on 23 April 1991, Secretary of the USAF Donald Rice announced the Lockheed team as the winner of the ATF competition. The YF-23 design was considered stealthier and faster, while the YF-22, with its thrust vectoring nozzles, was more maneuverable as well as less expensive and risky. The aviation press speculated that the Lockheed team's design was also more adaptable to the U.S. Navy's Navalized Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), but by 1992, the Navy had abandoned NATF.
Production and procurement
As the program moved to full-scale development, or the Engineering & Manufacturing Development (EMD) stage, the production version had notable differences from the YF-22, despite having a broadly similar shape. The swept-back angle of the leading edge was decreased from 48° to 42°, while the vertical stabilizers were shifted rearward and decreased in area by 20%. To improve pilot visibility, the canopy was moved forward 7 inches (18 cm), and the engine intakes moved rearward 14 inches (36 cm). The shapes of the wing and stabilator trailing edges were refined to improve aerodynamics, strength, and stealth characteristics. Increasing weight during development caused slight reductions in range and maneuver performance.
Prime contractor Lockheed Martin Aeronautics manufactured the majority of the airframe and performed final assembly at Dobbins Air Reserve Base in Marietta, Georgia; program partner Boeing Defense, Space & Security provided additional airframe components as well as avionics integration and training systems. The first F-22, an EMD aircraft with tail number 4001, was unveiled at Marietta, Georgia, on 9 April 1997, and first flew on 7 September 1997. Production, with the first lot awarded in September 2000, supported over 1,000 subcontractors and suppliers from 46 states and up to 95,000 jobs, and spanned 15 years at a peak rate of roughly two airplanes per month. In 2006, the F-22 development team won the Collier Trophy, American aviation's most prestigious award. Due to the aircraft's advanced nature, contractors have been targeted by cyberattacks and technology theft.
The USAF originally envisioned ordering 750 ATFs at a total program cost of $44.3 billion and procurement cost of $26.2 billion in fiscal year (FY) 1985 dollars, with production beginning in 1994. The 1990 Major Aircraft Review led by Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced this to 648 aircraft beginning in 1996. By 1997, funding instability had further cut the total to 339, which was again reduced to 277 by 2003. In 2004, the Department of Defense (DoD) further reduced this to 183 operational aircraft, despite the USAF's preference for 381. A multi-year procurement plan was implemented in 2006 to save $15 billion, with total program cost projected to be $62 billion for 183 F-22s distributed to seven combat squadrons. In 2008, Congress passed a defense spending bill that raised the total orders for production aircraft to 187.
The first two F-22s built were EMD aircraft in the Block 1.0 configuration for initial flight testing, while the third was a Block 2.0 aircraft built to represent the internal structure of production airframes and enabled it to test full flight loads. Six more EMD aircraft were built in the Block 10 configuration for development and upgrade testing, with the last two considered essentially production quality jets. Production for operational squadrons consisted of 37 Block 20 training aircraft and 149 Block 30/35 combat aircraft; one of the Block 35 aircraft is dedicated to flight sciences at Edwards Air Force Base.
The numerous new technologies in the F-22 resulted in substantial cost overruns and delays. Many capabilities were deferred to post-service upgrades, reducing the initial cost but increasing total program cost. As production wound down in 2011, the total program cost is estimated to be about $67.3 billion, with $32.4 billion spent on Research, Development, Test and Evaluation (RDT&E) and $34.9 billion on procurement and military construction (MILCON) in then year dollars. The incremental cost for an additional F-22 was estimated at about $138 million in 2009.
Ban on exports
The F-22 cannot be exported under US federal law to protect its stealth technology and other high-tech features. Customers for U.S. fighters are acquiring earlier designs such as the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon or the newer F-35 Lightning II, which contains technology from the F-22 but was designed to be cheaper, more flexible, and available for export. In September 2006, Congress upheld the ban on foreign F-22 sales. Despite the ban, the 2010 defense authorization bill included provisions requiring the DoD to prepare a report on the costs and feasibility for an F-22 export variant, and another report on the effect of F-22 export sales on U.S. aerospace industry.
Some Australian politicians and defense commentators proposed that Australia should attempt to purchase F-22s instead of the planned F-35s, citing the F-22's known capabilities and F-35's delays and developmental uncertainties. However, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) determined that the F-22 was unable to perform the F-35's strike and close air support roles. The Japanese government also showed interest in the F-22 for its Replacement-Fighter program. The Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) would reportedly require fewer fighters for its mission if it obtained the F-22, thus reducing engineering and staffing costs. However, in 2009 it was reported that acquiring the F-22 would require increases to the Japanese government's defense budget beyond the historical 1 percent of its GDP. With the end of F-22 production, Japan chose the F-35 in December 2011. Israel also expressed interest, but eventually chose the F-35 because of the F-22's price and unavailability.
Production termination
Throughout the 2000s, the need for F-22s was debated, due to rising costs and the lack of relevant adversaries. In 2006, Comptroller General of the United States David Walker found that "the DoD has not demonstrated the need" for more investment in the F-22, and further opposition to the program was expressed by Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, Deputy Secretary of Defense Gordon R. England, Senator John McCain, and Chairman of U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services Senator John Warner. The F-22 program lost influential supporters in 2008 after the forced resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force General T. Michael Moseley.
In November 2008, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates stated that the F-22 was not relevant in post-Cold War conflicts such as irregular warfare operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, and in April 2009, under the new Obama Administration, he called for ending production in FY2011, leaving the USAF with 187 production aircraft. In July, General James Cartwright, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, stated to the Senate Committee on Armed Services his reasons for supporting termination of F-22 production. They included shifting resources to the multirole F-35 to allow proliferation of fifth-generation fighters for three service branches and preserving the F/A-18 production line to maintain the military's electronic warfare (EW) capabilities in the Boeing EA-18G Growler.[60] Issues with the F-22's reliability and availability also raised concerns. After President Obama threatened to veto further production, the Senate voted in July 2009 in favor of ending production and the House subsequently agreed to abide by the 187 production aircraft cap. Gates stated that the decision was taken in light of the F-35's capabilities, and in 2010, he set the F-22 requirement to 187 aircraft by lowering the number of major regional conflict preparations from two to one.
In 2010, USAF initiated a study to determine the costs of retaining F-22 tooling for a future Service Life Extension Program (SLEP).[66] A RAND Corporation paper from this study estimated that restarting production and building an additional 75 F-22s would cost $17 billion, resulting in $227 million per aircraft, or $54 million higher than the flyaway cost. Lockheed Martin stated that restarting the production line itself would cost about $200 million. Production tooling and associated documentation were subsequently stored at the Sierra Army Depot, allowing the retained tooling to support the fleet life cycle. There were reports that attempts to retrieve this tooling found empty containers, but a subsequent audit found that the tooling was stored as expected.
Russian and Chinese fighter developments have fueled concern, and in 2009, General John Corley, head of Air Combat Command, stated that a fleet of 187 F-22s would be inadequate, but Secretary Gates dismissed General Corley's concern. In 2011, Gates explained that Chinese fifth-generation fighter developments had been accounted for when the number of F-22s was set, and that the U.S. would have a considerable advantage in stealth aircraft in 2025, even with F-35 delays. In December 2011, the 195th and final F-22 was completed out of 8 test EMD and 187 operational aircraft produced; the aircraft was delivered to the USAF on 2 May 2012.
In April 2016, the House Armed Services Committee (HASC) Tactical Air and Land Forces Subcommittee proposed legislation that would direct the Air Force to conduct a cost study and assessment associated with resuming production of the F-22. Since the production halt directed in 2009 by then Defense Secretary Gates, lawmakers and the Pentagon noted that air warfare systems of Russia and China were catching up to those of the U.S. Lockheed Martin has proposed upgrading the Block 20 training aircraft into combat-coded Block 30/35 versions as a way to increase numbers available for deployment. On 9 June 2017, the Air Force submitted their report to Congress stating they had no plans to restart the F-22 production line due to economic and operational issues; it estimated it would cost approximately $50 billion to procure 194 additional F-22s at a cost of $206–$216 million per aircraft, including approximately $9.9 billion for non-recurring start-up costs and $40.4 billion for aircraft procurement costs.
Upgrades
The first aircraft with combat-capable Block 3.0 software flew in 2001. Increment 2, the first upgrade program, was implemented in 2005 for Block 20 aircraft onward and enabled the employment of Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM). Certification of the improved AN/APG-77(V)1 radar was completed in March 2007, and airframes from production Lot 5 onward are fitted with this radar, which incorporates air-to-ground modes. Increment 3.1 for Block 30 aircraft onward provided improved ground-attack capability through synthetic aperture radar mapping and radio emitter direction finding, electronic attack and Small Diameter Bomb (SDB) integration; testing began in 2009 and the first upgraded aircraft was delivered in 2011. To address oxygen deprivation issues, F-22s were fitted with an automatic backup oxygen system (ABOS) and modified life support system starting in 2012.
Increment 3.2 for Block 35 aircraft is a two-part upgrade process; 3.2A focuses on electronic warfare, communications and identification, while 3.2B includes geolocation improvements and a new stores management system to show the correct symbols for the AIM-9X and AIM-120D.[83][84] To enable two-way communication with other platforms, the F-22 can use the Battlefield Airborne Communications Node (BACN) as a gateway. The planned Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL) integration was cut due to development delays and lack of proliferation among USAF platforms. The F-22 fleet is planned to start receiving Increment 3.2B as well as a software upgrade for cryptography capabilities and avionics stability in May 2019. A Multifunctional Information Distribution System-Joint (MIDS-J) radio that replaces the current Link-16 receive-only box is expected to be operational by 2020. Subsequent upgrades are also focusing on having an open architecture to enable faster future enhancements.
In 2024, funding is projected to begin for the F-22 mid-life upgrade (MLU), which is expected to include new sensors and antennas, hardware refresh, cockpit improvements, and a helmet mounted display and cuing system. Other enhancements being developed include IRST functionality for the AN/AAR-56 Missile Launch Detector (MLD) and more durable stealth coating based on the F-35's.
The F-22 was designed for a service life of 8,000 flight hours, with a $350 million "structures retrofit program". Investigations are being made for upgrades to extend their useful lives further. In the long term, the F-22 is expected to be superseded by a sixth-generation jet fighter to be fielded in the 2030s.
Design
Overview
The F-22 Raptor is a fifth-generation fighter that is considered fourth generation in stealth aircraft technology by the USAF.[91] It is the first operational aircraft to combine supercruise, supermaneuverability, stealth, and sensor fusion in a single weapons platform. The F-22 has four empennage surfaces, retractable tricycle landing gear, and clipped delta wings with reverse trailing edge sweep and leading edge extensions running to the upper outboard corner of the inlets. Flight control surfaces include leading-edge flaps, flaperons, ailerons, rudders on the canted vertical stabilizers, and all-moving horizontal tails (stabilators); for speed brake function, the ailerons deflect up, flaperons down, and rudders outwards to increase drag.
The aircraft's dual Pratt & Whitney F119-PW-100 augmented turbofan engines are closely spaced and incorporate pitch-axis thrust vectoring nozzles with a range of ±20 degrees; each engine has maximum thrust in the 35,000 lbf (156 kN) class. The F-22's thrust-to-weight ratio at typical combat weight is nearly at unity in maximum military power and 1.25 in full afterburner. Maximum speed without external stores is approximately Mach 1.8 at military power and greater than Mach 2 with afterburners.
The F-22's high cruise speed and operating altitude over prior fighters improve the effectiveness of its sensors and weapon systems, and increase survivability against ground defenses such as surface-to-air missiles. The aircraft is among only a few that can supercruise, or sustain supersonic flight without using fuel-inefficient afterburners; it can intercept targets which subsonic aircraft would lack the speed to pursue and an afterburner-dependent aircraft would lack the fuel to reach. The F-22's thrust and aerodynamics enable regular combat speeds of Mach 1.5 at 50,000 feet (15,000 m). The use of internal weapons bays permits the aircraft to maintain comparatively higher performance over most other combat-configured fighters due to a lack of aerodynamic drag from external stores. The aircraft's structure contains a significant amount of high-strength materials to withstand stress and heat of sustained supersonic flight. Respectively, titanium alloys and composites comprise 39% and 24% of the structural weight.
The F-22's aerodynamics, relaxed stability, and powerful thrust-vectoring engines give it excellent maneuverability and energy potential across its flight envelope. The airplane has excellent high alpha (angle of attack) characteristics, capable of flying at trimmed alpha of over 60° while maintaining roll control and performing maneuvers such as the Herbst maneuver (J-turn) and Pugachev's Cobra. The flight control system and full-authority digital engine control (FADEC) make the aircraft highly departure resistant and controllable, thus giving the pilot carefree handling.
Stealth
The F-22 was designed to be highly difficult to detect and track by radar. Measures to reduce radar cross-section (RCS) include airframe shaping such as alignment of edges, fixed-geometry serpentine inlets and curved vanes that prevent line-of-sight of the engine faces and turbines from any exterior view, use of radar-absorbent material (RAM), and attention to detail such as hinges and pilot helmets that could provide a radar return. The F-22 was also designed to have decreased radio emissions, infrared signature and acoustic signature as well as reduced visibility to the naked eye. The aircraft's flat thrust-vectoring nozzles reduce infrared emissions of the exhaust plume to mitigate the threat of infrared homing ("heat seeking") surface-to-air or air-to-air missiles. Additional measures to reduce the infrared signature include special topcoat and active cooling of leading edges to manage the heat buildup from supersonic flight.
Compared to previous stealth designs like the F-117, the F-22 is less reliant on RAM, which are maintenance-intensive and susceptible to adverse weather conditions. Unlike the B-2, which requires climate-controlled hangars, the F-22 can undergo repairs on the flight line or in a normal hangar. The F-22 has a Signature Assessment System which delivers warnings when the radar signature is degraded and necessitates repair. While the F-22's exact RCS is classified, in 2009 Lockheed Martin released information indicating that from certain angles the aircraft has an RCS of 0.0001 m² or −40 dBsm – equivalent to the radar reflection of a "steel marble". Effectively maintaining the stealth features can decrease the F-22's mission capable rate to 62–70%.
The effectiveness of the stealth characteristics is difficult to gauge. The RCS value is a restrictive measurement of the aircraft's frontal or side area from the perspective of a static radar. When an aircraft maneuvers it exposes a completely different set of angles and surface area, potentially increasing radar observability. Furthermore, the F-22's stealth contouring and radar absorbent materials are chiefly effective against high-frequency radars, usually found on other aircraft. The effects of Rayleigh scattering and resonance mean that low-frequency radars such as weather radars and early-warning radars are more likely to detect the F-22 due to its physical size. However, such radars are also conspicuous, susceptible to clutter, and have low precision. Additionally, while faint or fleeting radar contacts make defenders aware that a stealth aircraft is present, reliably vectoring interception to attack the aircraft is much more challenging. According to the USAF an F-22 surprised an Iranian F-4 Phantom II that was attempting to intercept an American UAV, despite Iran's assertion of having military VHF radar coverage over the Persian Gulf.
/*Windlight Sky: "[NB]-MistyDay-4pm" Water: "Glassy" Sky @ 350m to 500m: "[TOR] SUNRISE - Cobraring 1" Water @ 0m to 10m: "[TOR] Hpmod"*/
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Upgraded from TA-4S and TA-4S-1 trainer.
The ST Aerospace A-4SU Super Skyhawk is a major upgrade project of the Douglas A-4S Skyhawk attack aircraft undertaken by Singapore Aircraft Industries (SAI, now ST Aerospace) in the 1980s. It was used exclusively by the Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF), serving in the fighter-bomber role from 1989 until retirement from front line service in 2005. Since mid-1999, the A-4SU took on the additional role of being the designated advanced jet trainer (AJT) aircraft for the RSAF's AJT training program/detachment in Cazaux, France.
A-4S and TA-4S
Starting in 1973, the RSAF began to acquire Douglas A-4 Skyhawks. The first batch of over 50 airframes (ex-US Navy A-4Bs) was ordered and was subsequently requisitioned from the Military Aircraft Storage and Disposition Center (MASDC) at Davis–Monthan AFB, Arizona which was released to the Lockheed Aircraft Service (LAS) Company at Ontario, California, and its subsidiary Lockheed Aircraft Service Singapore (LASS) at Seletar Airfield, Singapore for a major overhaul and refurbishment.
These aircraft would later emerge as the A-4S single-seater (44 airframes) and the TA-4S two-seat trainer (three airframes), all having more than 100 changes incorporated (these included a slightly longer nose to house a new avionics package, five stores hardpoints instead of the usual three, a saddle-style Automatic Direction Finder dorsal hump, cockpit armour plating, spoilers, a cranked refuelling probe, AIM-9 Sidewinder capability, a brake parachute housing below the jetpipe into the standard A-4B airframes. As with the Israeli A-4Hs which were armed with a pair of 30 mm DEFA cannons, these were similarly armed with the 30 mm (1.18 in) ADEN cannons in place of the original 20 mm Colt Mk 12 cannons. A later order of four two-seat trainer airframes was placed in 1976, and these joined the RSAF in 1977.
The TA-4S trainers were not the standard TA-4 with a common cockpit for the student and instructor pilot, but were instead rebuilt by Lockheed with a 28-inch (710 mm) fuselage plug inserted into the front fuselage and a separate bulged cockpit (giving better all round visibility) for the instructor seated behind the student pilot. This arrangement was unique for the RSAF but was not the first by Lockheed (the Lockheed SR-71B and U-2CT/U-2RT/TR-1B/TU-2S trainers also used stepped cockpits). As such converted/rebuilt airframes, these TA-4S trainers were powered by the original Wright J65 turbojet engines as used in the B/C models instead of the Pratt & Whitney J52 used by the purpose-built TA-4E/Fs tandem-seaters from Douglas assembly line; this was the main reason why the RSAF decided to not procure the TA-4E/Fs (if indeed an order was placed) and then having to maintain two different engines to power essentially the same aircraft type (a scenario not unlike having a fleet within a fleet).
All of the single-seaters were later retired when the upgraded A-4SU began to enter service, the twin-seaters were upgraded instead and remained in service.
A-4S-1 and TA-4S-1
A second batch of 70 airframes was ordered (mix of ex-US Navy A-4Bs and A-4Cs) in 1980, these were shipped directly to Singapore for rebuilding with the A-4Cs being rebuilt as the A-4S-1s while the A-4Bs was to remain in storage for use as spares. Along with a small number of TA-4S-1s, these newer Skyhawks (characterised by its straight refuelling probe instead of the cranked refuelling probe found on the original A-4S/TA-4S) would join the RSAF as attrition replacements from 1982. However, these airframes retained the original 20 mm (0.787 in) Colt Mk 12 cannons of the A-4Cs.
In 1983, a third order of 8 TA-4S saw 16 stored A-4Bs from the Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center being converted and rebuilt as the TA-4S-1 trainers (eight airframes).
A-4SU and TA-4SU Super Skyhawk
In 1985, as a result of four A-4S being written off in separate accidents, coupled with the low serviceability of the original batch of A-4S. Investigations conducted by RSAF reveal that although there was plenty of fuselage life left, the Wright J65 turbojet engines in use by the Skyhawks was too old and the associated spare parts were becoming both difficult and expensive to obtain. Consequently, the RSAF decided to upgrade the A-4S/TA-4S rather than to replace them.
With SAI contracted as the main contractor for the upgrading project and a non-afterburning General Electric F404-GE-100D turbofan engine selected as the new engine, the upgrading project would later be extended to cover the entire fleet of newer A-4S-1s as well as taking the opportunity to completely modernize the avionics package (newly installed equipment now included a Pave Penny laser seeker mounted in the nose, an Inertial navigation system (INS), a Tactical air navigation system (TACAN), fore & aft Radar warning receivers (RWR) and chaff/flare countermeasures) of the aircraft.
The modernized A-4SU and TA-4SU versions with its new F404 turbofan engine had 29% more thrust, which resulted in a 30% reduction in takeoff time as well as an increase in usable payload, range and maximum speed. The maximum speed now at sea level is 610 knots (1,130 km/h; 700 mph), and maximum cruise speed at 30,000 feet (9,100 m) is 446 knots (826 km/h; 513 mph).
Operational history
By 1974, the RSAF received enough refurbished A-4S to form the 142 Sqn and 143 Sqn, which were based at Tengah Air Base and Changi Air Base, respectively. In RSAF service, the A-4S/TA-4S were given 3-digit serials starting with 6 (e.g. 600, 651).
From 1982 A-4S-1 and TA-4S-1 Skyhawks would join the RSAF as attrition replacements with the balance being allocated in 1984 to form a new unit - 145 Sqn which was also based at Tengah Air Base. These were given 3-digit serial starting with 9 (e.g. 900, 929).
In total, approximately 150 airframes (all A-4Bs and Cs) were acquired by Singapore.
The modernized A-4SU Super Skyhawks were received by 143 Sqn first, followed by 142 Sqn and 145 Sqn of the RSAF from 1989 onwards. The type was also operated by the RSAF Black Knights aerobatic display team for precision aerial manoeuvers from 1990 to 2000.
End of front-line service
After 31 years of operations, the RSAF officially withdrew its fleet of A-4SU Super Skyhawks from operational combat service in Singapore on 31 March 2005. The A-4SU's achievements included flying directly from Singapore to the Philippines, incorporating the RSAF's first air-to-air refuelling mission in 1986,[10] as well as the aerobatic display of the 'red and white' Super Skyhawks flown by the RSAF Black Knights during Asian Aerospace 1990, 1994 and 2000, it was last used by the Black Knights during Singapore's National Day Parade held on 9 August 2000. A month before its retirement, the Skyhawk squadron (145 Sqn) won the top honours in a strike exercise against its more modern F-16 and F-5 counterparts and emerged as the Top combat squadron in the Singapore Armed Forces Best Unit Competition, an honour it has held since year 2000.
On 5 October 2005, one A-4SU Skyhawk was delivered to Singapore Polytechnic as a teaching aid. Subsequently, Ngee Ann Polytechnic, Temasek Polytechnic and Nanyang Technological University would each receive an A-4SU Skyhawk as well.
Two of the retired A-4SU Super Skyhawks were also donated to the French Air and Space Museum (Musée de l'Air) for static display. On 12 January 2006, a Certificate of Transfer and Acceptance signing ceremony took place between representatives of the RSAF and the French Aeronautics Museum at Cazaux Air Base in France. Since then, only 928 was put on display in the Rosette Hall of the museum while 941 was stored.
Secondary role
In 1998, the French government offered the use of facilities at Cazaux Air Base. A 25-year lease for basing rights of 18 A-4SU aircraft and approximately 250 RSAF personnel and their families was signed later that year. Back in Singapore, 143 Sqn was disbanded in 1997, and its aircraft were handed over to 150 Sqn, which had given up its SIAI-Marchetti SF.260 basic trainers.[3] The new squadron then took up the role of advanced jet training, using its aircraft as a lead-in fighter trainer for RSAF pilots. This made it the prime candidate for moving to France, and the first of 18 aircraft were "packed" and sent to France by ship in mid-1999 as part of the RSAF's Advanced Jet Training Program.[18] The 11 remaining training aircraft (4× A-4SU and 7× TA-4SU) were originally scheduled to retire in 2007 but remained in service until the delivery of their replacement, the Alenia Aermacchi M-346 Master, which was scheduled for 2012.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Namesake: Washington Irving
Owner: Hudson River Day Line[2]
Route: Hudson river between New York City and Albany NY
Builder: New York Shipbuilding Company
Cost: $1,000,000[2]
Yard number: 126[3][4]
Laid down: 23 May 1912[3][4]
Launched: 7 December 1912[3][4]
Completed: 1912[3]
Maiden voyage: 17 May 1913[5]
Out of service: 1 June 1926[2]
Struck: 1 June 1926[2]
Fate: Collided with oil barge and sunk[2]
Notes: Largest passenger-carrying riverboat built until 1995[3][6]
General characteristics
Tonnage: 4,000[2]
Length: 414 ft (126 m)[2]
Beam: 47 ft (14 m)[3][7]
Depth: 14.6 ft (4.5 m)[7]
Decks: Four[3]
Installed power: Steam via oil burners[2]
Propulsion: River side-wheel steamer[2]
Capacity: 6,000 passengers[3]
The PS Washington Irving was a 4,000-short-ton (3,600 t) sidewheel day boat and the largest flagship of the Hudson River Day Line that operated on the Hudson River from 1913 to 1926.
The Washington Irving collided with an oil barge in the fog on 1 June 1926 on the North River. With the aid of tugboats, it reached shore at Pier 12, Jersey City, where it sank soon thereafter. Out of 200 passengers and 105 crew, three died as a result of the accident.[2]
Its removal was complicated due to its sinking upon the site of the Holland Tunnel, which was under construction. It remained submerged there until 13 February 1927, when it was raised and determined to be a total loss. A bond was issued for its replacement.
Characteristics
The quadruple-decker[3] Washington Irving was built in 1912 by the New York Shipbuilding Company for contract number 126[3] and measured 414 feet (126 m)[8] in length and 86 feet (26 m) at its widest point[2] with a weight of 4,000-short-ton (3,600 t).[2] Together, Frank E. Kirby collaborated with J. W. Millard of New York City to design the ship.[9] With a carrying capacity of 6,000 passengers,[10] it was the largest passenger-carrying riverboat built at the time of its construction.[3][6][8] Its beam engine was 6,200 horsepower (4,600 kW) with cylinders measuring 45 inches (110 cm) and 70 inches (180 cm) in diameter with a 7-foot (2.1 m) stroke.[3][7] The ship was named after the author Washington Irving.[5] Washington Irving was launched on 7 December 1912,[3] and delivered 3 May 1913.[4]
The ship had three smoke stacks amidships for its boilers, but the forward stack was non-functioning; only added for aesthetic purposes.[8] The ship began service with the Hudson River Day Line as their flagship steamer from 1913 to 1926.[2]
Service life
The Washington Irving operated daily leisure passenger service up and down the Hudson River.[3] Its maiden voyage was on Saturday, 17 May 1913 from the Desbrosses Street Pier in New York City with a destination of Albany.[5] On that voyage, fifty oil paintings by artists illustrating the Irving period were on view.[11] The decorations included reproductions from the Alhambra; the Old Cock Tavern of London; Irving's study at "Sunnyside" and many other historical places.[11] Tickets for the maiden voyage sold for $1.00.[11]
Washington Irving replaced the Robert Fulton on the New York to Albany run.[12] The ship remained in service up until its sinking in 1926 and was the only ship in service ever to be lost by the Day Line.[8] The first pilot of the Washington Irving from 1913 through 1923 was Captain Van Woert.[13]
Sinking
Drawing of several couples with hand luggage boarding the Washington Irving with ad copy below.
The New York Times display advertisement for the inaugural cruise of the Washington Irving.[11]
Soon after departing the Desbrosses Street Pier on its way to Albany in the morning fog of 1 June 1926, Washington Irving was struck, a little after 9:00am, by one of two oil barges being pushed by the tug boat Thomas E. Moran. The collision damaged Washington Irving's starboard side below the water line just aft of amidships, allowing water to rush into the engine rooms. The collision resulted in a hole measuring 21 feet (6.4 m) long and 3 feet (0.91 m) wide.[14] The Captain, David H. Deming, ordered all passengers to put on life preservers and whistled the "Ship's afire" signal of two long and three short blasts repeatedly. A chaos of shouts prevailed as the passengers tried to don life vests and locate their children in the fog. An inability to see any land increased the alarm of the passengers despite the Captain's shouts that all would be safe and he ordered the jazz band to resume playing their music and maintain their post until rescue.[2]
Assisted by tug boats, Washington Irving reached shore at the then under construction Pier 12, Jersey City and sank five minutes later.[2] Three passengers died as a result of the accident. Wylma Wood Hoag, (wife of Lynne Arthur Hoag and mother to Arthur Allen Hoag), their three-year-old daughter Mary, and B. Woods, a steward, who was trapped in a cabin far below deck.[2][14] [15] The accident was determined to be unavoidable due to "the unusual and unexpected strength of the tidal current, possibly below the surface"[16] after an inquiry by the United States Steamship Inspection Board closed on 9 June 1926.[17]
Washington Irving was valued at $1,000,000 but insured for much less. The barge suffered only $8,000 of damages.[14] At the time of the sinking, Alexander McKinney was the head porter.[10] He had joined the Day Line in 1905 and continued in their service till at least 1964.[10]
Aftermath
Ink drawing looking down upon the upper deck extending straight ahead into the distance with some couples and some empty chairs on it.
Drawing of the upper deck.[5]
Washington Irving had sunk on top of the New York-New Jersey vehicular tube complicating its removal.[18] The wreck became a menace to navigation and was struck at 3am on 16 June by a railroad car float.[19] Washington Irving was raised on 13 February 1927 and towed to a dry dock to determine whether its condition warranted repair.[20] In March, Washington Irving was determined to be a total loss and a bond was issued to refinance the company's debt and to provide financing for its replacement, the Peter Stuyvesant. The Peter Stuyvesant was originally estimated to cost $700,000, but when the boat was completed in June, the final cost was closer to $1,000,000.[21][22]
Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
United States
Name: USS Bennington
Namesake: Battle of Bennington, 1777
Ordered: 15 December 1941
Builder: New York Naval Shipyard
Laid down: 15 December 1942
Launched: 28 February 1944
Commissioned: 6 August 1944
Decommissioned: 8 November 1946
Recommissioned: 13 November 1952
Decommissioned: 15 January 1970
Reclassified:
CV to CVA 1 October 1952
CVA to CVS 30 June 1959
Struck: 20 September 1989
Fate: Scrapped in 1994
General characteristics
Class and type: Essex-class aircraft carrier
Displacement:
As built:
27,100 tons standard
36,380 tons full load
Length:
As built:
820 feet (250 m) waterline
872 feet (266 m) overall
Beam:
As built:
93 feet (28 m) waterline
147 feet 6 inches (45 m) overall
Draft:
As built:
28 feet 5 inches (8.66 m) light
34 feet 2 inches (10.41 m) full load
Propulsion:
As designed:
8 × boilers 565 psi (3,900 kPa) 850 °F (450 °C)
4 × Westinghouse geared steam turbines
4 × shafts
150,000 shp (110 MW)
Speed: 33 knots (61 km/h)
Range: 20,000 nautical miles (37,000 km) at 15 knots (28 km/h)
Complement:
As built:
2,600 officers and enlisted
Armament:
As built:
4 × twin 5 inch (127 mm) 38 caliber guns
4 × single 5 inch (127 mm) 38 caliber guns
8 × quadruple 40 mm 56 caliber guns
46 × single 20 mm 78 caliber guns
Armor:
As built:
2.5 to 4 inch (60 to 100 mm) belt
1.5 inch (40 mm) hangar and protectice decks
4 inch (100 mm) bulkheads
1.5 inch (40 mm) STS top and sides of pilot house
2.5 inch (60 mm) top of steering gear
Aircraft carried:
As built:
90–100 aircraft
1 × deck-edge elevator
2 × centerline elevators
USS Bennington (CV/CVA/CVS-20) was one of 24 Essex-class aircraft carriers built during World War II for the United States Navy. The ship was the second US Navy ship to bear the name, and was named for the Revolutionary War Battle of Bennington (Vermont). Bennington was commissioned in August 1944, and served in several of the later campaigns in the Pacific Theater of Operations, earning three battle stars. Decommissioned shortly after the end of the war, she was modernized and recommissioned in the early 1950s as an attack carrier (CVA), and then eventually became an Antisubmarine Aircraft Carrier (CVS). In her second career, she spent most of her time in the Pacific, earning five battle stars for action during the Vietnam War. She served as the recovery ship for the Apollo 4 space mission.
She was decommissioned in 1970, and sold to be scrapped in India in 1994.
Construction and commissioning
The ship was laid down on 15 December 1942 by the New York Navy Yard, and launched on 28 February 1944, sponsored by Mrs. Melvin J. Maas, wife of Congressman Maas of Minnesota. Bennington was commissioned on 6 August 1944, with Captain J. B. Sykes in command.
World War II
Bennington in her original configuration, 1944.
On 15 December, Bennington got underway from New York and transited the Panama Canal on the 21st. The carrier arrived at Pearl Harbor on 8 January 1945 and then proceeded to Ulithi Atoll, Caroline Islands, where she joined Task Group 58.1 on 8 February. Operating out of Ulithi, she took part in the strikes against the Japanese home islands (16 – 17 February and 25 February), Volcano Islands (18 February – 4 March), Okinawa (1 March), and the raids in support of the Okinawa campaign (18 March – 11 June). On 7 April, Bennington's planes participated in the attacks on the Japanese task force moving through the East China Sea toward Okinawa, which resulted in the sinking of the battleship Yamato, light cruiser Yahagi, and four destroyers. On 5 June, the carrier was damaged by a typhoon off Okinawa and retired to Leyte for repairs, arriving on 12 June. Her repairs completed, Bennington left Leyte on 1 July, and from 10 July – 15 August took part in the aerial raids on the Japanese home islands.
She continued operations in the western Pacific, supporting the occupation of Japan until 21 October. On 2 September, her planes participated in the mass flight over Missouri and Tokyo during the surrender ceremonies. Bennington arrived at San Francisco on 7 November, and early in March 1946 transited the Panama Canal en route to Norfolk, Virginia. Following pre-inactivation overhaul, she went out of commission in reserve at Norfolk on 8 November 1946.
Post-war
Bennington in 1954, following her SCB-27A conversion.
The carrier began modernization at New York Naval Shipyard on 30 October 1950 and was recommissioned as CVA-20 on 13 November 1952. In this period, Bennington was the recipient of over 11 million man-hours during her SCB-27A conversion. Her deck was extended 43 ft (13 m) in length and was widened by 8 ft (2.4 m). The point was to modernize the ship to be able to launch jet aircraft. She also had the 5 in (130 mm) guns removed from the flight deck, which were replaced by smaller 3 in (76 mm) guns.
Modernized attack carrier USS Bennington (CVA-20), 1956–57.
On 13 November, Captain David. B. Young took command of Bennington in a ceremony attended by more than 1,400, including the Secretary of the Navy Dan A. Kimball and Rear Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter who said the Bennington was "the most modern carrier in our fleet today."
Marine Air Group 14 (MAG-14), under the command of Colonel W.R. Campbell, USMC reported for duty on Bennington on 13 February 1953, and Bennington set off for the waters off Florida to conduct carrier qualifications. The first trap was made on Bennington since her recommissioning by Lieutenant Colonel T.W. Furlow in his AD Skyraider. Furlow was the commanding officer of Marine Attack Squadron 211 (VMA-211). The first jet aircraft to land on Bennington occurred on 18 February by Major Carl E. Schmitt in an F9F-5 Cougar. When the qualifications were over, Bennington headed for Guantanamo Bay Naval Base where she underwent 11 weeks of shakedown training.
Her shakedown lasted until May 1953, when she returned to Norfolk for final fleet preparations. On 27 April, a downcomer tube in Boiler Room One slipped loose which caused an explosion that killed 11 men, and seriously wounded four others. From 14 May 1953 – 27 May 1954, she operated along the eastern seaboard; made a midshipman cruise to Halifax, Nova Scotia; and a cruise in the Mediterranean.
Catapult explosion
At 06:11 on 26 May 1954, while cruising off Narragansett Bay, the fluid in one of her catapults leaked out and was detonated by the flames of a jet causing the forward part of the flight deck to explode, setting off a series of secondary explosions which killed 103 crewmen, predominantly among the senior NCO's of the crew and injured 201 others.[1] Bennington proceeded under her own power to Naval Air Station Quonset Point, Rhode Island, to land her injured. This tragedy caused the Navy to switch from hydraulic catapults to steam catapults for launching aircraft. A monument to the sailors who died in this tragic event was erected near the southwest corner of Fort Adams State Park in Newport, Rhode Island.
Moving to New York Naval Shipyard for repairs, she was completely rebuilt from 12 June 1954 – 19 March 1955. On 22 April, the Secretary of the Navy came aboard and presented medals and letters of commendation to 178 of her crew in recognition of their heroism on 26 May 1954. As of 1 August 1955, she was part of Carrier Division 2, along with Lake Champlain.[2] Bennington returned to operations with the United States Atlantic Fleet (including a two-month shake-down cruise to Guantanamo Bay with ATG-201) until departing Mayport, Florida for the Pacific on 8 September. She steamed by way of Cape Horn and arrived at San Diego one month later. The carrier then served with the Pacific Fleet making two Far Eastern cruises.
The 1955–56 air wing was Air Task Group 201, composed of VF-13, flying F9F-6, VA-36 (The US Navy's first operational light jet Attack Squadron) flying F9F-5; VA-105. flying AD-6, VC (later VFAW)4, flying F2H3, VC (Later VAAW)33, flying AD-5N. This deployment represented the Fleet evaluation of the combination of the angled deck and the mirror landing system, which reduced the US Navy's Carrier Landing Accident rate by 75%. During 1956 the ship was administratively part of Carrier Division Five, though operationally directed at times by Carrier Division One.
The 1956–57 air wing consisted of one squadron each of the following: FJ3 Fury, F2H Banshee, F9F Cougar fighters, AD-6 Skyraider, AD-5N Skyraider, and AD-5W attack aircraft, AJ2 Savage bombers, and F9F-8P photo reconnaissance planes.[3]
Incident in Sydney
On 7 May 1957, while docked in Sydney for Coral Sea Day celebrations, ten University of Sydney students dressed as pirates boarded the aircraft carrier in the early morning hours undetected. While some began soliciting donations from the Navy crew for a local charity, others entered the bridge. The public address system was turned on. "Now hear this!" announced Paul Lennon, a medical student. "The U.S.S. Bennington has been captured by Sydney University pirates!"[4][5] Alarms for general quarters, atomic and chemical attacks were sounded, rousing the crew from their bunks.[6] Marines escorted the students off the ship. No charges were filed.[7]
ASW operations
LTV XC-142A trials on Bennington, 1966
Bennington's ship's insignia, 1959
She was redesignated as an ASW support carrier CVS-20 on 30 June 1959, and was on hand for the 1960 Laotian Crisis. She also had three tours of duty – between 1965 and 1968 – in the Vietnam War.
As an ASW carrier, her air wing consisted of two squadrons of S-2F Trackers, a squadron of Sikorsky SH-34s ASW helicopters which were replaced in 1964 by SH-3A Sea Kings in that role. Airborne early warning was first provided by EA-1Es modified for the AEW role, these were upgraded in 1965 to the E-1 Tracer which is built on the same frame as the S-2 Tracker. In 1964–1965, a detachment of A-4B Skyhawks were also embarked.[3]
On 18 May 1966, while cruising off of San Diego, California, Bennington hosted the experimental LTV XC-142A as it executed 44 short takeoffs and landings and six vertical takeoffs and landings, the ship steaming at various speeds to generate different velocities of wind-over-the-deck.[8]
She was the prime recovery vessel for the unmanned Apollo 4 mission and on 9 November 1967 recovered the spacecraft which had splashed down 10 mi (16 km) from the ship.
Disposal
Bennington was decommissioned on 15 January 1970, stricken on 20 September 1989, and sold for scrap on 12 January 1994, being subsequently towed across the Pacific for scrapping in India.
In popular culture
The 1949 film Sands of Iwo Jima shows footage of the USS Bennington using a short hydraulic catapult to launch propeller-driver Corsair fighters.[citation needed]
Jerry Clower served two years aboard the USS Bennington 1945 and 1946
The 1955 film The Blue and Gold has actual footage of flight deck operations including jet and helicopter take-offs. One take-off shows a wing fold up on take-off and subsequent crash off the bow.[citation needed]
USS Ranger (CV-4)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Class overview
Operators: United States Navy
Preceded by: Lexington class
Succeeded by: Yorktown class
Built: 1931–34
In commission: 1934–46
Completed: 1
Scrapped: 1
History
United States
Name: USS Ranger
Ordered: 1 November 1930
Builder: Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Co.[1]
Laid down: 26 September 1931[2]
Launched: 25 February 1933[2]
Sponsored by: Lou Henry Hoover (the wife of the President of the United States)[3]
Commissioned: 4 June 1934[4]
Decommissioned: 18 October 1946[5]
Struck: 29 October 1946[5]
Honors and
awards:
American Defense Service Medal ("A" device)
American Campaign Medal
European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal (2 stars)[6][7]
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal
World War II Victory Medal
Fate: Acquired for scrap for $259K on 31 January 1947[5]
General characteristics
Type: Aircraft carrier
Displacement:
As built: 14,576 long tons (14,810 t) (standard)
17,577 long tons (17,859 t) (full load)
Length:
730 ft (222.5 m) (w/l)
769 ft (234.4 m) (o/a)
Beam:
80 ft (24.4 m) (waterline)[8]
109 ft 5 in (33.4 m) (overall)
Draft: 22 ft 4.875 in (6.8 m)
Installed power: 53,500 shp (39,900 kW)
Propulsion:
2 × steam turbines
6 × boilers
2 × shafts
Speed: 29.3 kn (33.7 mph; 54.3 km/h)[8]
Range: 10,000 nmi (12,000 mi; 19,000 km) at 15 kn (17 mph; 28 km/h)
Complement:
216 officers and 2,245 enlisted men including embarked air group(as built)[8]
2,148 (1941)
Sensors and
processing systems: CXAM-1 RADAR[9]
Armament:
8 × 5 in (127 mm)/25 cal anti-aircraft guns
40 × .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns
Armor:
Belt: 2 in (5.1 cm)
Bulkheads: 2 in (5.1 cm)
Deck: 1 in (2.5 cm) (over steering gear)
Aircraft carried:
86 (maximum)
76 (normal)
Aviation facilities:
3 × elevators
3 × catapults
USS Ranger (CV-4) was the first ship of the United States Navy to be designed and built from the keel up as an aircraft carrier. Ranger was a relatively small ship, closer in size and displacement to the first US carrier—Langley—than later ships. An island superstructure was not included in the original design, but was added after completion. Deemed too slow for use with the Pacific Fleet's carrier task forces,[10] the ship spent most of the war in the Atlantic Ocean.
Construction
Ranger was laid down on 26 September 1931 by the Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Co., Newport News, Virginia,[2] launched on 25 February 1933,[2] sponsored by Lou Henry Hoover (the wife of the President of the United States),[3] and commissioned at the Norfolk Navy Yard on 4 June 1934,[4] with Captain Arthur L. Bristol in command.[11]
Service history
Ranger's ship's insignia, adopted 1938
Inter-war period
Ranger conducted her initial flight operations off the Virginia Capes on 21 June 1934[12] and departed Norfolk on 17 August[13] for a shakedown training cruise that took her to Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, and Montevideo.[12] She returned to Norfolk on 4 October[14] for operations off the Virginia Capes and two stints in dry dock for post trial repairs[15] until 1 April 1935,[16] when she sailed for the Pacific. Transiting the Panama Canal on 7 April,[16] she arrived in San Diego on the 15th.[16] For nearly four years, she participated in fleet problems reaching to Hawaii,[17] the first-ever carrier cold weather test trials in Alaska,[18] and in western seaboard operations that took her as far south as Callao, Peru,[19] and as far north as Seattle, Washington. On 4 January 1939, she departed San Diego for winter fleet operations in the Caribbean based at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba.[20] She then steamed north to Norfolk, arriving on 20 April.[21]
Ranger cruised along the eastern seaboard out of Norfolk and into the Caribbean Sea. In the fall of 1939, she commenced Neutrality Patrol operations,[22] operating out of Bermuda along the trade routes of the middle Atlantic and up the eastern seaboard up to NS Argentia, Newfoundland.[citation needed]
World War II
1942
In December 1941, she was returning to Norfolk from an ocean patrol extending to Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor.[23] Arriving in Norfolk on 8 December,[24] she sailed on the 21st for patrol in the South Atlantic. She then entered the Norfolk Navy Yard for repairs on 21 March 1942.[25] Ranger was one of 14 ships to receive the early RCA CXAM-1 radar.[9]
Ranger served as flagship of Rear Admiral A. B. Cook, Commander, Carriers, Atlantic Fleet—until 6 April 1942, when he was relieved by Rear Admiral Ernest D. McWhorter, who also broke his flag in Ranger.[26]
Steaming to Naval Air Station Quonset Point, Rhode Island, Ranger loaded 68 Curtiss P-40Es and put to sea on 22 April, launching the Army planes on 10 May to land at Accra, on the Gold Coast of Africa (Ghana).[27] She returned to Quonset Point on 28 May, made a patrol to Argentia, then steamed out of Newport on 1 July with another 72 Army P-40s, which she launched off the coast of Africa for Accra on 19 July. Both groups of P-40Es were en route to augment the American Volunteer Group Flying Tigers (soon to be redesignated as the Army Air Forces' 23rd Fighter Group) in China, to replenish their losses as well as forming a second unit, the 51st Fighter Group.[28] After calling at Trinidad,[29] she returned to Norfolk for local battle practice until 1 October, then based her training at Bermuda,[30] in the company of four new Sangamon-class escort carriers: ships converted from oil tankers to increase U.S. air power in the Atlantic Ocean.
Aircraft on Ranger's deck during Operation Torch
As the largest carrier in the Atlantic Fleet, Ranger led the task force that comprised herself and the four escort carriers. These provided air superiority during the amphibious invasion of Vichy-ruled French Morocco and the resulting Naval Battle of Casablanca, beginning on 8 November.[31]
It was still dark at 06:15 that day, when Ranger—stationed 30 mi (48 km) northwest of Casablanca—began launching her aircraft to support the landings made at three points on the Atlantic coast of North Africa (Operation Torch).[32] Nine of her Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters attacked the Rabat and Rabat-Sale aerodromes, headquarters of the French air forces in Morocco. Without loss to themselves, they destroyed seven planes at one field, and fourteen bombers at the other. Another flight destroyed seven planes on the Port Lyautey field. Some of Ranger's planes strafed four French destroyers in Casablanca Harbor, while others strafed and bombed nearby shore batteries.
The carrier launched 496 combat sorties in the three-day operation. Her attack aircraft scored two direct bomb hits on the French destroyer leader Albatros, completely wrecking her forward half and causing 300 casualties. They also attacked the French cruiser Primauguet as she sortied from Casablanca Harbor and dropped depth charges within lethal distance of two submarines.[clarification needed] They knocked out coastal defense and anti-aircraft batteries, destroyed more than 70 enemy aircraft on the ground, and shot down 15 aircraft in aerial combat. However, 16 planes from Ranger were lost or damaged beyond repair. It was estimated that 21 enemy light tanks were immobilized and some 86 military vehicles destroyed – most of them troop-carrying trucks.
Casablanca capitulated to the American forces on 11 November.[33] Ranger departed from the Moroccan coast on 12 November,[34] returning to Hampton Roads on 24 November and Norfolk on 14 December 1942.[35]
1943
Memorial for pilots lost in battle in 1943, Fagervika, Norway
Following training in Chesapeake Bay, Ranger underwent an overhaul at the Norfolk Navy Yard from 16 December 1942 – 7 February 1943. She next transported 75 P-40L fighters of the Army Air Forces' 58th Fighter Group to Africa, arriving at Casablanca on 23 February.[36] On April 25 of 1943 German radio announced "Achtung! Achtung! We are proud to announce that a German submarine has sunk the United States aircraft carrier Ranger in the North Atlantic!" Following this broadcast, German news releases reported that Commander Otto Von Bulow of the U-Boat U-404, personally decorated by Adolf Hitler with Oak Leaves to the Knight´s Cross, had "in addition to torpedoing four steamers, caught and sank the American aircraft carrier Ranger." The US Navy, concerned about the impact of the German announcement on families of Ranger crewmen, issued a denial of the German claim. In the radio broadcast dated February 15, 1944, Captain Gordon Rowe, Commander of the USS Ranger, stated: "The story that we were sunk was a coward´s trick--spreading anxiety and fear among the innocent.... The next day we issued a denial and ... on October 4 we spread panic and chaos in the Norwegian shipping lanes. Only one thing we regret. We kept looking for the Tirpitz but either she wouldn´t or couldn´t come out.... Meanwhile the Ranger, still very much afloat, is doing her job." [37] She patrolled and trained pilots along the New England coast steaming as far north as Halifax, Nova Scotia.[38] Departing from Halifax on 11 August,[39] she joined the British Home Fleet at Scapa Flow, Scotland on 19 August, with which she patrolled the approaches to the British Isles.[39]
Ranger departed from Scapa Flow with the Home Fleet on 2 October to attack German shipping in Norwegian waters (Operation Leader).[40] The objective of the force was the northern Norwegian port of Bodø.[40] The task force reached launch position off Vestfjorden before dawn on 4 October[40] completely undetected. At 06:18, Ranger launched 20 SBD Dauntless dive bombers and an escort of eight Wildcats. One division of dive bombers attacked the 8,000-long-ton (8,100 t) freighter LaPlata, while the rest continued north to attack a German ship convoy. The bombers severely damaged a 10,000-long-ton (10,000 t) tanker and a smaller troop transport. They also sank two of four small German merchant ships in the Bodø roadstead.[41]
A second attack group from Ranger—consisting of 10 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers and six Wildcats—destroyed a German freighter and a small coastal ship, and bombed a troop-laden transport. Three of the aircraft were lost to anti-aircraft fire. On the afternoon of 4 October, Ranger was located by three German aircraft; her combat air patrol shot down two of the enemy planes and chased away the third.[41]
Ranger returned to Scapa Flow on 6 October.[42] She patrolled with the British 2nd Battle Squadron in waters extending northwestward to Iceland,[43] and then she departed from Hvalfjord on 26 November,[43] arriving at Boston on 3 December.[43]
1944–45
On 3 January 1944, Ranger became a training carrier out of Quonset Point, Rhode Island. This duty was interrupted on 20 April when she steamed to Staten Island, New York to take on 76 Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighters—together with Army, Navy, and French Navy personnel—for transportation to Casablanca.[44] Steaming out on 24 April, she arrived at Casablanca on 4 May.[45] The new aircraft were replaced with damaged U.S. Army aircraft marked for repair in the U.S., while military passengers were embarked for the return to New York City.
Ranger passing through the Panama Canal in 1945
Prior to her returning to the U.S., Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Ernest King had planned to overhaul the carrier by lengthening the hull and installing new engines. Ranger had been designed in the late 1920s, and consequently was smaller, slower, less armored, and carried fewer aircraft and ammunition supplies than the rest of the U.S. carrier fleet. Admiral King favored having the conversions done, but his staff officers pointed out that the resources required to accomplish this would impact on the construction and repair of newer, larger, and more capable aircraft carriers. Based on this information, the full project was canceled.[46] After arriving at New York Harbor on 16 May, Ranger entered the Norfolk Navy Yard to have her flight deck strengthened, new aircraft catapults installed, and radar equipment updated.[47] This provided her with the capability of night fighter-interceptor training. On 11 July, she departed from Norfolk and headed for Panama. She transited the Panama Canal five days later, embarked several hundred U.S. Army passengers at Balboa, Panama,[47] then sailed to San Diego, arriving there on 25 July.[48] After embarking the men and aircraft of Night Fighting Squadron 102 and nearly 1,000 U.S. Marines, Ranger steamed for Hawaiian waters on 28 July, reaching Pearl Harbor on 3 August.[48] During the next three months, Ranger conducted night carrier flight training operations out of Pearl Harbor.[48]
Ranger departed from Pearl Harbor on 13 October[49] to train new naval pilots for combat duty. Operating out of San Diego under the Commander, Fleet Air, Alameda, California, Ranger continued training air groups and squadrons along the California coast throughout the remainder of the war. Ranger was the only pre-war U.S. carrier to have never engaged Japanese forces in battle.
Final operations
Departing San Diego on 30 September 1945,[50] she embarked civilian and military passengers at Balboa[50] and then steamed for New Orleans, Louisiana, arriving on 18 October. Following Navy Day celebrations there, she sailed on 30 October[50] for brief operations at Pensacola, Florida. After calling at Norfolk, she entered the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard on 19 November for overhaul. She remained on the eastern seaboard until decommissioned at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard on 18 October 1946.[51] Struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 29 October,[52] she was sold for scrap to Sun Shipbuilding and Drydock Company, Chester, Pennsylvania on 31 January 1947.[52]
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Leipzig, circa 1936
History
Weimar Republic
Laid down: 28 April 1928
Launched: 18 October 1929
Commissioned: 8 October 1931
Fate: Scuttled July 1946
General characteristics
Class and type: Leipzig-class cruiser
Displacement: 8,100 t (8,000 long tons; 8,900 short tons)
Length: 177 m (580 ft 9 in)
Beam: 16.3 m (53 ft 6 in)
Draft: 5.69 m (18 ft 8 in)
Propulsion:
Steam turbines and Diesels
3 shafts (Diesels on center shaft)
60,000 shp (45 MW) turbines + 12,400 hp (9.3 MW) diesels
Speed: 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph)
Range: 3,900 nmi (7,200 km; 4,500 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph)
Complement:
26 officers
508 enlisted men
Armament:
9 × 15 cm (5.9") SK C/25 guns
2 × 8.8 cm (3.46") SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns
12 × 50 cm (20 in) torpedo tubes
120 mines
Armor:
Belt armor: 50 mm (2.0 in)
Deck: 30 mm (1.2 in)
Conning tower: 100 mm (3.9 in)
Aircraft carried: 2 × Arado 196 floatplanes
Service record
Operations:
Spanish Civil War
Operation Barbarossa
German Mine Sweeping Administration
Leipzig was the lead ship of her class of light cruisers built by the German navy. She had one sister ship, Nürnberg. Leipzig was laid down in April 1928, was launched in October 1929, and was commissioned into the Reichsmarine in October 1931. Armed with a main battery of nine 15 cm (5.9 in) guns in three triple turrets, Leipzig had a top speed of 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph).
Leipzig participated in non-intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War. In the first year of World War II, she performed escort duties for warships in the Baltic and North seas. While on one of these operations in December 1939, the ship was torpedoed by a British submarine and badly damaged. Repairs were completed by late 1940, when she returned to service as a training ship. She provided gunfire support to the advancing Wehrmacht troops as they invaded the Soviet Union in 1941.
In October 1944, Leipzig collided with the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen; the damage was so severe that the navy decided complete repairs were unfeasible. The ship was patched up to keep her afloat, and she helped to defend Gotenhafen from the advancing Red Army in March 1945. She then carried a group of fleeing German civilians, reaching Denmark by late April. After the end of the war, Leipzig was used as a barracks ship for minesweeping forces and was scuttled in July 1946.
Design
Leipzig recognition chart
Main article: Leipzig-class cruiser
Leipzig was 177 meters (581 ft) long overall and had a beam of 16.3 m (53 ft) and a maximum draft of 5.69 m (18.7 ft) forward. She displaced 8,100 metric tons (8,000 long tons; 8,900 short tons) at full combat load. Her propulsion system consisted of two steam turbines and four 7-cylinder MAN two-stroke double-acting diesel engines,[1] which were the basis for the unsuccessful US Navy Hooven-Owens-Rentschler design.[2] Steam for the turbines was provided by six Marine-type double-ended oil-fired boilers. The ship's propulsion system provided a top speed of 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph) and a range of approximately 3,900 nautical miles (7,200 km; 4,500 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) using only the diesel engines. Leipzig had a crew of 26 officers and 508 enlisted men.[3]
The ship was armed with nine 15 cm SK C/25 guns mounted in three triple gun turrets. One was located forward, and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft, all on the centerline. They were supplied with between 1,080 and 1,500 rounds of ammunition, for between 120 and 166 shells per gun. As built, the ship was also equipped with two 8.8 cm SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns in single mounts; they had 400 rounds of ammunition each. Leipzig also carried four triple torpedo tube mounts located amidships; they were supplied with twenty-four 50 cm (20 in) torpedoes. She was also capable of carrying 120 naval mines.[4] The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 30 mm (1.2 in) thick amidships and an armored belt that was 50 mm (2.0 in) thick. The conning tower had 100 mm (3.9 in) thick sides.[3]
Service history
Leipzig was laid down at the Reichsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven on 28 April 1928 and launched on 18 October 1929. She was commissioned into the Reichsmarine on 8 October 1931.[1] The ship trained extensively in the Baltic Sea throughout 1932 and 1933, and also made several goodwill cruises overseas. In 1934, she and the cruiser Königsberg made the first goodwill visit to the United Kingdom since the end of World War I.[5] In late 1934, Leipzig went into drydock for modifications. An aircraft catapult was installed on the aft superstructure and a crane for handling float planes replaced one of her boat derricks. The original single-mount 8.8 cm anti-aircraft guns were replaced with twin mounts.[6] These modifications were made in Kiel. In early 1935, Leipzig joined the old pre-dreadnought battleship Schlesien, the new heavy cruiser Deutschland, and the light cruiser Köln for major fleet exercises.[5]
Later in 1935, Adolf Hitler visited the ship during training maneuvers with the rest of the fleet. The ship joined her sister Nürnberg and Köln for exercises in the Atlantic Ocean in early 1936. In August, Leipzig took part in the non-intervention patrols off Spain during the Spanish Civil War. She conducted several patrols between August 1936 and June 1937,[5] and in late June, she was allegedly attacked with torpedoes; this prompted Germany and Italy to withdraw from the non-intervention patrols.[7] She thereafter returned to Germany and went into the Baltic Sea for training, which lasted through 1938. In March 1939, she participated in the annexation of Memel which Germany had demanded from Lithuania. The following month, she joined the battleship Gneisenau, the cruiser Deutschland, and several destroyers and U-boats for major exercises in the Atlantic. Additional maneuvers were conducted through the middle of 1939.[5]
World War II
At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, Leipzig was assigned to the blocking force that was intended to prevent the escape of the Polish Navy from the Baltic; they were unsuccessful. Leipzig thereafter went to the North Sea, where she and the other light cruisers laid a series of defensive minefields. This task lasted through the end of the month, after which she returned to the Baltic for training maneuvers.[5] On 17–19 November, Leipzig covered a minelaying operation in the North Sea. She joined Deutschland, Köln, and three torpedo boats for a sweep in the Skagerrak for Allied shipping on 21–22 November. Leipzig was tasked with escorting the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau through the Skagerrak, and with covering their return on the 27th.[8]
On 13 December, Leipzig was tasked with escorting a flotilla of destroyers and other small vessels as they proceeded through the Skagerrak to lay a minefield. While en route, the British submarine HMS Salmon attacked the German warships, and at 11:25, hit Leipzig with a torpedo.[5] The torpedo hit Leipzig just below the waterline, where a bulkhead separated two of the ship's three boiler rooms. The explosion bent her armored deck and damaged her keel; some 1,700 t (1,700 long tons; 1,900 short tons) of water flooded the ship, and the damage cut electrical power to the ship's pumping system. The two boiler rooms were flooded, steam lines were damaged, and the port turbine was shut down. At around the same time, her sister Nürnberg was also torpedoed. A pair of destroyers arrived to escort the damaged cruisers back to port; an hour after Leipzig was torpedoed, one of the escorting destroyers was also torpedoed, just outside the mouth of the Elbe. Another torpedo passed just ahead of Leipzig, nearly hitting the damaged cruiser.[9]
After safely returning to port in Kiel, Leipzig was taken into the Deutsche Werke shipyard for repairs. She was decommissioned while under repair and reclassified as a training ship. To accommodate additional training crews, four of the ship's boilers were removed. She returned to service in late 1940.[9] In early June 1941, she escorted the heavy cruiser Lützow (formerly Deutschland) to Norway. After she returned to the Baltic, she and the cruiser Emden provided artillery support to advancing German ground forces during Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union.[10] In September, she supported the invasion of the Baltic islands in the West Estonian archipelago. While bombarding Soviet positions on Moon Island, Leipzig was attacked unsuccessfully by the Soviet submarine Shch-317.[11] In late September, the ship joined the German Baltic Fleet, centered on the battleship Tirpitz; the fleet was tasked with blocking a possible Soviet attempt to break out of the Baltic.[12] Leipzig returned to Kiel in October, and conducted maneuvers with the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer. Leipzig became the flagship of the training fleet in 1942; she spent the year performing training duties.[10]
Leipzig was decommissioned briefly in March 1943, and recommissioned on 1 August. She was in need of an overhaul, however, and the work significantly delayed her return to operational status. Furthermore, an outbreak of meningitis killed two crewmen and created an additional delay. Leipzig returned to escort duties in the Baltic in mid-September 1944. Her first operation covered troop transports between Gotenhafen and Swinemünde in company with Admiral Scheer. On 14 October, Leipzig departed Gotenhafen, bound for Swinemünde, to take on a load of mines. In a heavy fog, she collided with the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen, which was steaming at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph). At the time of collision, Leipzig was switching from her diesel cruise engines to her steam turbine main engines, a process of first uncoupling the diesels from the shafts and then coupling turbines to the shafts, which left the ship temporary without propulsion drifting out of her fairway into the path of Prinz Eugen which was moving in the opposite way[13] Prinz Eugen struck C on her port side, just forward of her funnel, cutting her nearly in half - the forward point of the clipper bow of Prinz Eugen actually stuck out beyond the starboard side of Leipzig. The collision destroyed the number 3 (port) engine room, flooded a second engine room and killed or wounded 39 crewmen. The ships remained stuck fast for over a day, after which Leipzig was towed back to Gotenhafen.[14][15] The damage was so severe that repairs were deemed impractical, especially considering Germany's pressing military situation by late 1944. Only repairs to keep her afloat in the harbor were effected.[16]
Leipzig provided fire support to the defending German forces in March 1945, while Soviet Red Army forces advanced on the city. On 24 March, Leipzig was moved to Hela, laden with refugees; she was capable of steaming at only 6 knots (11 km/h; 6.9 mph). She was repeatedly attacked by Soviet aircraft, and Allied submarines attempted to torpedo her twice. She nevertheless safely reached Denmark on 29 April. Due to her poor state following the end of the war, she was used as a barracks ship for the men of the German Mine Sweeping Administration, tasked with clearing mines off the German coast. The battered ship was eventually towed out and scuttled in July 1946.[17]
Children's Encyclopedia, edited by Arthur Mee, and published in 10 volumes by the Educational Book Company, London. It was published from 1908 to 1964.
Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
The National Encyclopedia 1884 - A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge.
Published by William Mackenzie, London; 18 Vols. Brown gilt cloth boards 20cm x 17cm.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Kate Shelley, railroad heroine
Catherine "Kate" Shelley (September 25, 1865 – January 12, 1912) was a midwestern United States railroad heroine, and the first woman in the United States to have a bridge named for her.[citation needed] She was also one of the few women to ever have a train named after her, the Kate Shelley 400.
Catherine Shelley was born in Loughaun, Moneygall, County Offaly, Ireland.[2] Transcriptions of Irish records show her parents, Michael Shelley and Margaret Dwan, married on February 24, 1863. and Catherine was baptized on December 12, 1863.[2] However, United States 1880 census records indicate she may have been born in 1865.[citation needed] Her tombstone says she was born on September 25, 1865 and died January 21, 1912. The family name was originally spelled Shelly, which is how Kate often wrote her name, but the spelling Shelley was later adopted.[3]
Michael Shelley was a tenant farmer in Ireland, living on 3 acres (12,000 m2) and farming another 15.[2] The family emigrated to the United States when Catherine was a baby.[2] They first lived with relatives in Freeport, Illinois, then built a home on 160 acres (0.65 km2) at Honey Creek, near Moingona, Boone County, Iowa.[2] Michael Shelley became foreman of a section crew, building tracks for the Chicago and North Western Railway.[2]
Michael Shelley died in 1878. Margaret was in poor health, and Kate had to help support the family - plowing, planting and harvesting crops, and hunting.[2] The 1880 federal census for Worth County, Iowa showed 35-year old Margaret, 15-year-old Kate, both born in Ireland, and Mary (8), Margaret (6) and John (4), all born in Iowa.[4] Michael and Margaret Shelley had another child, James (also born in Iowa), but he drowned while swimming in the Des Moines River when he was only ten years old.[5]
[edit] The story
1908 map showing the Chicago and Northwestern route through Moingona, the southernmost community on the map. The railroad crossed the Des Moines River between Moingona and Honey Creek. (Red dots on the map are coal mines.)
On the afternoon of July 6, 1881, heavy thunderstorms caused a flash flood of Honey Creek, washing out timbers that supported the railroad trestle. A pusher locomotive sent from Moingona to check track conditions crossed the Des Moines River bridge, but plunged into Honey Creek at about 11 p.m., with a crew of four: Ed Wood, George Olmstead, Adam Agar and Patrick Donahue.[6]
Shelley heard the crash, and knew an eastbound passenger train was due in Moingona about midnight, stopping shortly before heading east over the Des Moines River and then Honey Creek. She found the surviving crew members and shouted that she would get help, then started to cross the damaged span of the Honey Creek bridge followed by the Des Moines River bridge. Although she'd started with a lantern, it had failed, and she crawled the span on hands and knees with only lightning for illumination. Once across, she ran a half-mile to the Moingona depot to sound the alarm, then led a party back to rescue two of the engine crew survivors.[6] Wood, perched in a tree, grasped a rope thrown to him, and came ashore hand-over-hand.[7] Agar couldn't be reached until the flood waters began to recede.[7] Donahue's corpse was eventually found in a corn field a quarter mile downstream from the bridge, and Olmstead, the fireman, was never found. The passenger train was stopped at Ogden, Iowa, with 200 aboard.[2]
[edit] The aftermath
The passengers who had been saved took up a collection for her. The children of Dubuque gave her a medal,[6] and the state of Iowa gave her another one, crafted by Tiffany & Co.,[8] and $200.[6] The C&NW gave her $100, a half barrel of flour, half a load of coal and a life-time pass.[6] The Order of Railway Conductors gave her a gold watch and chain.[6]
News of her bravery spread nationwide; poems and songs were composed honoring her. The railroad built a new steel bridge in 1900, and named it after her.[9] It was the first and, until the Betsy Ross Bridge in Philadelphia was opened in 1976, the only bridge in the United States named for a woman. The bridge was rebuilt by the Union Pacific Railroad from 2006 through 2010. The new structure can accommodate heavy trains, features two tracks and can handle two trains simultaneously at a speed of 70 mph. It was opened on October 1, 2009 as the new Kate Shelley Bridge, one of North America's tallest double-track rail bridges. [2]
Frances E. Willard, a reformer and temperance leader, wrote president Isabella W. Parks of Simpson College at Indianola, Iowa, offering $25 toward an advanced education for Shelley. Mrs. Parks raised additional funds for Kate to attend during the term of 1883–84, but she didn't come back the following term.[6]
She became a teacher in Boone County schools until 1903, when the Chicago & Northwestern named her stationmaster at the new Moingona depot,[10] the original having burned down in 1901.[11]
[edit] Later in life
In 1890, a Chicago newspaper revealed that the Shelley home was mortgaged for $500 at 10% and was near foreclosure. An Armenian rug, woven in the display window of a Chicago furniture store, was auctioned for $500, retiring the mortgage, and other Chicagoans donated an additional $417 before the state of Iowa voted Kate a grant of $5,000.[6]
In July 1896, it was reported that Shelley had applied to the Iowa Legislature for employment in the State House as a menial, because she was destitute and had to support her aged mother and invalid brother.[12]
Although there were apparently men interested in her, including the switchman in the yard at Moingona,[13] Kate Shelley never married, and continued to care for her mother until Margaret died in 1909.[6]
Kate Shelley grew sicker and, in June 1911, doctors at Carroll Hospital removed her appendix. After a month in the hospital, she stayed with her brother John,[11] and was reported a little better by September, but died on January 12, 1912 from Bright's disease (acute nephritis).[14]
Years later, the Chicago and North Western began operating streamlined passenger trains, and named one the Kate Shelley 400. It operated from 1955 to 1971, although the name was officially dropped in 1963.[1]
[edit] Legacy
Original steel on the left; new concrete/steel on the right.
The Boone County Historical Society maintains the Kate Shelley Railroad Museum on the site of the Moingona depot. The Shelley family donated a collection of letters and papers of family members of Kate Shelley, 1860–1911, to Iowa State University. The timetable accents for Metra's Union Pacific/West Line are printed in "Kate Shelley Rose" pink.[15]
The original high steel bridge is currently being replaced with a modern concrete and steel span that will also bear her name.
The Iowa poet and politician, John Brayshaw Kaye, wrote a poem in her honor called, 'Our Kate', in his collection Songs of Lake Geneva (1882).