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"Khajuraho"
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Location Madhya Pradesh, India Edit this at Wikidata
Coordinates 24°51′08″N 79°55′20″E
Criteria Cultural: (i), (iii) Edit this on Wikidata[1]
Reference 240
Inscription 1986 (10th Session)
Khajuraho Group of Monuments is located in India
Khajuraho Group of Monuments
Location of Khajuraho Group of Monuments
[edit on Wikidata]
The Khajuraho Group of Monuments is a group of Hindu and Jain temples in Madhya Pradesh, India, about 175 kilometres (109 mi) southeast of Jhansi. They are one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India.[2][3] The temples are famous for their nagara-style architectural symbolism and their erotic sculptures.[4]
Most Khajuraho temples were built between 950 and 1050 by the Chandela dynasty.[5] Historical records note that the Khajuraho temple site had 85 temples by the 12th century, spread over 20 square kilometers Of these, only about 25 temples have survived, spread over 6 square kilometers.[3] Of the various surviving temples, the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple is decorated with a profusion of sculptures with intricate details, symbolism and expressiveness of ancient Indian art.[6]
The Khajuraho group of temples were built together but were dedicated to two religions, Hinduism and Jainism, suggesting a tradition of acceptance and respect for diverse religious views among Hindus and Jains in the region.[7]
Contents
1 Location
2 History
3 Description
3.1 Architecture of the temples
4 Construction
5 Chronology
6 Arts and sculpture
7 Tourism and cultural events
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Location
The Khajuraho monuments are located in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, in Chhatarpur district, about 620 kilometres (385 mi) southeast of New Delhi. The temples are near a small town also known as Khajuraho,[8] with a population of about 20,000 people (2001 Census).
Khajuraho is served by Civil Aerodrome Khajuraho (IATA Code: HJR), with services to Delhi, Agra, Varanasi and Mumbai.[9] The site is also linked by the Indian Railways service, with the railway station located approximately six kilometres from the entrance to the monuments .
The monuments are about 10 kilometres off the east-west National Highway 75, and about 50 kilometres from the city of Chhatarpur, which is connected to the state capital Bhopal by the SW-NE running National Highway 86.
The 10th century Bhand Deva Temple in Rajasthan was built in the style of the Khajuraho monuments and is often referred to as 'Little Khajuraho'.
History
The Khajuraho group of monuments was built during the rule of the Chandela dynasty. The building activity started almost immediately after the rise of their power, throughout their kingdom to be later known as Bundelkhand.[10] Most temples were built during the reigns of the Hindu kings Yashovarman and Dhanga. Yashovarman's legacy is best exhibited by The Lakshmana Temple. Vishvanatha temple best highlights King Dhanga's reign.[11]:22 The largest and currently most famous surviving temple is Kandariya Mahadeva built in the reign of King Vidyadhara.[12] The temple inscriptions suggest many of the currently surviving temples were complete between 970 and 1030 CE, with further temples completed during the following decades.[7]
The Khajuraho temples were built about 35 miles from the medieval city of Mahoba,[13] the capital of the Chandela dynasty, in the Kalinjar region. In ancient and medieval literature, their kingdom has been referred to as Jijhoti, Jejahoti, Chih-chi-to and Jejakabhukti.[14]
Khajuraho was mentioned by Abu Rihan-al-Biruni, the Persian historian who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni in his raid of Kalinjar in 1022 CE; he mentions Khajuraho as the capital of Jajahuti.[15] The raid was unsuccessful, and a peace accord was reached when the Hindu king agreed to pay a ransom to Mahmud of Ghazni to end the attack and leave.[14]
Khajuraho temples were in active use through the end of 12th century. This changed in the 13th century; after the army of Delhi Sultanate, under the command of the Muslim Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak, attacked and seized the Chandela kingdom. About a century later, Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller in his memoirs about his stay in India from 1335 to 1342 CE, mentioned visiting Khajuraho temples, calling them "Kajarra"[16][17] as follows:
Until the 12th century, Khajuraho was under Hindu kings and featured 85 temples. Central India was seized by Delhi Sultanate in 13th century. Under Muslim rule, some temples were destroyed and the rest left in neglect. Ruins of some old temples (Ghantai temple above) are still visible.
...near (Khajuraho) temples, which contain idols that have been mutilated by the Moslems, live a number of yogis whose matted locks have grown as long as their bodies. And on account of extreme asceticism they are all yellow in colour. Many Moslems attend these men in order to take lessons (yoga) from them.
— Ibn Battuta, about 1335 CE, Riḥlat Ibn Baṭūṭah, Translated by Arthur Cotterell[18]
Central Indian region, where Khajuraho temples are, remained in the control of many different Muslim dynasties from 13th century through the 18th century. In this period, some temples were desecrated, followed by a long period when they were left in neglect.[7][10] In 1495 CE, for example, Sikandar Lodi’s campaign of temple destruction included Khajuraho.[19] The remoteness and isolation of Khajuraho protected the Hindu and Jain temples from continued destruction by Muslims.[20][21] Over the centuries, vegetation and forests overgrew, took over the temples.
In the 1830s, local Hindus guided a British surveyor, T.S. Burt, to the temples and they were thus rediscovered by the global audience.[22] Alexander Cunningham later reported, few years after the rediscovery, that the temples were secretly in use by yogis and thousands of Hindus would arrive for pilgrimage during Shivaratri celebrated annually in February or March based on a lunar calendar. In 1852, Maisey prepared earliest drawings of the Khajuraho temples.[23]
Nomenclature
The name Khajuraho, or Kharjuravāhaka, is derived from ancient Sanskrit (kharjura, खर्जूर means date palm,[24] and vāhaka, वाहक means "one who carries" or bearer[25]). Local legends state that the temples had two golden date-palm trees as their gate (missing when they were rediscovered). Desai states that Kharjuravāhaka also means scorpion bearer, which is another symbolic name for deity Shiva (who wears snakes and scorpion garlands in his fierce form).[26]
Cunningham’s nomenclature and systematic documentation work in 1850s and 1860s have been widely adopted and continue to be in use.[23] He grouped the temples into the Western group around Lakshmana, Eastern group around Javeri, and Southern group around Duladeva.[27]
Khajuraho is one of the four holy sites linked to deity Shiva (the other three are Kedarnath, Kashi and Gaya). Its origin and design is a subject of scholarly studies. Shobita Punja[28] has proposed that the temple’s origin reflect the Hindu mythology in which Khajuraho is the place where Shiva got married; with Raghuvamsha verse 5.53, Matangeshvara honoring ‘’Matanga’’, or god of love.
Description
Sections and orientation of Khajuraho temples.
The temple site is within Vindhya mountain range in central India. An ancient local legend held that Hindu deity Shiva and other gods enjoyed visiting the dramatic hill formation in Kalinjar area.[27] The center of this region is Khajuraho, set midst local hills and rivers. The temple complex reflects the ancient Hindu tradition of building temples where gods love to play.[27][29]
The temples are clustered near water, another typical feature of Hindu temples. The current water bodies include Sib Sagar, Khajur Sagar (also called Ninora Tal) and Khudar Nadi (river).[30] The local legends state that the temple complex had 64 water bodies, of which 56 have been physically identified by archeologists so far.[27][31]
All temples, except[27] one (Chaturbhuja) face sunrise - another symbolic feature that is predominant in Hindu temples. The relative layout of temples integrate masculine and feminine deities and symbols highlight the interdependence.[28] The art work symbolically highlight the four goals of life considered necessary and proper in Hinduism - dharma, kama, artha and moksha.
Of the surviving temples, 6 are dedicated to Shiva and his consorts, 8 to Vishnu and his affinities, 1 to Ganesha, 1 to Sun god, 3 to Jain Tirthankars.[27] For some ruins, there is insufficient evidence to assign the temple to specific deities with confidence.
An overall examination of site suggests that the Hindu symbolic mandala design principle of square and circles is present each temple plan and design.[32] Further, the territory is laid out in three triangles that converge to form a pentagon. Scholars suggest that this reflects the Hindu symbolism for three realms or trilokinatha, and five cosmic substances or panchbhuteshvara.[27] The temple site highlights Shiva, the one who destroys and recycles life, thereby controlling the cosmic dance of time, evolution and dissolution.[28]
The temples have a rich display of intricately carved statues. While they are famous for their erotic sculpture, sexual themes cover less than 10% of the temple sculpture.[33] Further, most erotic scene panels are neither prominent nor emphasized at the expense of the rest, rather they are in proportional balance with the non-sexual images.[34] The viewer has to look closely to find them, or be directed by a guide.[35] The arts cover numerous aspects of human life and values considered important in Hindu pantheon. Further, the images are arranged in a configuration to express central ideas of Hinduism. All three ideas from Āgamas are richly expressed in Khajuraho temples - Avyakta, Vyaktavyakta and Vyakta.[36]
The Beejamandal temple is under excavation. It has been identified with the Vaidyanath temple mentioned in the Grahpati Kokalla inscription.[37]
Of all temples, the Matangeshvara temple remains an active site of worship.[28] It is another square grid temple, with a large 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) high and 1.1 metres (3.6 ft) diameter lingam, placed on a 7.6 metres (25 ft) diameter platform.[27]
The most visited temple, Kandariya Mahadev, has an area of about 6,500 square feet and a shikhara (spire) that rises 116 feet.[10][27]
Jain temples
Main article: Jain temples of Khajuraho
The Jain temples are located on east-southeast region of Khajuraho monuments.[38] Chausath jogini temple features 64 jogini, while Ghantai temple features bells sculptured on its pillars.
Architecture of the temples
The layout plan of Kandariya Mahadeva Temple. It uses the 64 pada grid design. Smaller Khajuraho temples use the 9, 16, 36 or 49 grid mandala plan.[39]
Khajuraho temples, like almost all Hindu temple designs, follow a grid geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala.[40] This design plan has three important components - Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure.[41]
The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, concentrically layered, self-repeating structure around the core of the temple called garbhagriya, where the abstract principle Purusha and the primary deity of the temple dwell. The shikhara, or spire, of the temple rises above the garbhagriya. This symmetry and structure in design is derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.[42]
The circle of mandala circumscribe the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.[29] The square is divided into perfect 64 sub-squares called padas.[40]
Most Khajuraho temples deploy the 8x8 (64) padas grid Manduka Vastupurushamandala, with pitha mandala the square grid incorporated in the design of the spires.[39] The primary deity or lingas are located in the grid’s Brahma padas.
Khajuraho temples use the 8x8 (64) Vastupurusamandala Manduka grid layout plan (left) found in Hindu temples. Above the temple’s brahma padas is a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core, typically in a circles and turning-squares concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.[29][43]
The architecture is symbolic and reflects the central Hindu beliefs through its form, structure and arrangement of its parts.[44] The mandapas as well as the arts are arranged in the Khajuraho temples in a symmetric repeating patterns, even though each image or sculpture is distinctive in its own way. The relative placement of the images are not random but together they express ideas, just like connected words form sentences and paragraphs to compose ideas.[45] This fractal pattern that is common in Hindu temples.[46] Various statues and panels have inscriptions. Many of the inscriptions on the temple walls are poems with double meanings, something that the complex structure of Sanskrit allows in creative compositions.[26]
All Khajuraho temples, except one, face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is this east side.
An illustration of Khajuraho temple Spires (Shikhara, Vimana) built using concentric circle and rotating-squares principle. Four spires (left) are shown above, while the inside view of one Shikara ceiling (right) shows the symmetric layout.
Above the vastu-purusha-mandala of each temple is a superstructure with a dome called Shikhara (or Vimana, Spire).[41] Variations in spire design come from variation in degrees turned for the squares. The temple Shikhara, in some literature, is linked to mount Kailash or Meru, the mythical abode of the gods.[29]
In each temple, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the pilgrim to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa and the main deity.[29] The pillars, walls and ceilings around the space, as well as outside have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life - kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This clockwise walk around is called pradakshina.[41]
Larger Khajuraho temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One near the entrance, on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapas are also arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. This use of same underlying architectural principle is common in Hindu temples found all over India.[47] Each Khajuraho temple is distinctly carved yet also repeating the central common principles in almost all Hindu temples, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as "an organism of repeating cells".[48]
Construction
The temples are grouped into three geographical divisions: western, eastern and southern.
The Khajuraho temples are made of sandstone, with a granite foundation that is almost concealed from view.[49] The builders didn't use mortar: the stones were put together with mortise and tenon joints and they were held in place by gravity. This form of construction requires very precise joints. The columns and architraves were built with megaliths that weighed up to 20 tons.[50] Some repair work in the 19th Century was done with brick and mortar; however these have aged faster than original materials and darkened with time, thereby seeming out of place.
The Khajuraho and Kalinjar region is home to superior quality of sandstone, which can be precision carved. The surviving sculpture reflect fine details such as strands of hair, manicured nails and intricate jewelry.
While recording the television show Lost Worlds (History Channel) at Khajuraho, Alex Evans recreated a stone sculpture under 4 feet that took about 60 days to carve in an attempt to develop a rough idea how much work must have been involved.[51] Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone.[52] They concluded that these temples would have required hundreds of highly trained sculptors.
Chronology
The Khajuraho group of temples belong to Vaishnavism school of Hinduism, Saivism school of Hinduism and Jainism - nearly a third each. Archaeological studies suggest all three types of temples were under construction at about the same time in late 10th century, and in use simultaneously. Will Durant states that this aspect of Khajuraho temples illustrates the tolerance and respect for different religious viewpoints in the Hindu and Jain traditions.[53] In each group of Khajuraho temples, there were major temples surrounded by smaller temples - a grid style that is observed to varying degrees in Hindu temples in Angkor Wat, Parambaran and South India.
The largest surviving Saiva temple is Khandarya Mahadeva, while the largest surviving Vaishnava group includes Chaturbhuja and Ramachandra.
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple plan is 109 ft in length by 60 ft, and rises 116 ft above ground and 88 ft above its own floor. The central padas are surrounded by three rows of sculptured figures, with over 870 statues, most being half life size (2.5 to 3 feet). The spire is a self repeating fractal structure.
Temples, religious affiliations and consecration years
Sequence Modern Temple name Religion Deity Completed by
(CE)[27][54] Image
1 Chausath Yogini Hinduism Devi, 64 Yoginis 885 Khajuraho,Chausath-Yogini-Tempel2.jpg
2 Brahma Hinduism Vishnu 925
3 Lalgun Mahadev Hinduism Shiva 900 India-5696 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
4 Matangeshwar Hinduism Shiva 1000 India-5772 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
5 Varaha Hinduism Vishnu 950 India-5595 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
6 Lakshmana Hinduism Vaikuntha Vishnu 939 India-5679 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
7 Parshvanatha Jainism Parshvanatha 954 Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638423582).jpg
8 Vishvanatha Hinduism Shiva 999 India-5749 - Visvanatha Temple - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
9 Devi Jagadambi Hinduism Devi, Parvati 1023 Khajuraho Devi Jagadambi Temple 2010.jpg
10 Chitragupta Hinduism Sun, Chitragupta 1023 India-5707 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
11 Kandariya Mahadeva (Largest temple) Hinduism Shiva 1029 Temple at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India.jpg
12 Vamana Hinduism Vamana 1062 Khajuraho Vaman Temple 2010.jpg
13 Adinath Jain Temple Jainism Adinatha 1027 Adinath Jain Temple Khajuraho 12.jpg
14 Javeri Hinduism Vishnu 1090 Javari Temple, Khajuraho.jpg
15 Chaturbhuja Hinduism Vishnu 1110 Khajuraho Chaturbhuja Temple.jpg
16 Duladeo (Duladeva) Hinduism Shiva 1125 Khajuraho Dulhadeo 2010.jpg
17 Ghantai Jainism Adinatha 960 A ruin, pillars at Khajuraho, India.jpg
18 Vishnu-Garuda Hinduism Vishnu 1000
19 Ganesha Hinduism Shiva 1000
20 Hanuman Hinduism Hanuman 922[55] Hanuman Inscription at Khajuraho.jpg
21 Mahishasuramardini Hinduism Mahishasuramardini 995 Khajuraho India, Lakshman Temple, Sculpture 10.JPG
22 Shantinatha temple Jainism Shantinatha 1027 Jain group of temples - Khajuraho 09.jpg
Arts and sculpture
Khajuraho temples are famous for their erotic arts. These constitute about 10% of total art displayed at the monuments.
Erotic sculptures
The Khajuraho temples feature a variety of art work, of which 10% is sexual or erotic art outside and inside the temples. Some of the temples that have two layers of walls have small erotic carvings on the outside of the inner wall. Some scholars suggest these to be tantric sexual practices.[56] Other scholars state that the erotic arts are part of Hindu tradition of treating kama as an essential and proper part of human life, and its symbolic or explicit display is common in Hindu temples.[6][57] James McConnachie, in his history of the Kamasutra, describes the sexual-themed Khajuraho sculptures as "the apogee of erotic art":
"Twisting, broad-hipped and high breasted nymphs display their generously contoured and bejewelled bodies on exquisitely worked exterior wall panels. These fleshy apsaras run riot across the surface of the stone, putting on make-up, washing their hair, playing games, dancing, and endlessly knotting and unknotting their girdles....Beside the heavenly nymphs are serried ranks of griffins, guardian deities and, most notoriously, extravagantly interlocked maithunas, or lovemaking couples."
Over 90% of the art work at the temple is about daily life and symbolic values in ancient Indian culture.
The temples have several thousand statues and art works, with Kandarya Mahadeva Temple alone decorated with over 870. Some 10% of these iconographic carvings contain sexual themes and various sexual poses. A common misconception is that, since the old structures with carvings in Khajuraho are temples, the carvings depict sex between deities;[58] however the kama arts represent diverse sexual expressions of different human beings.[59] The vast majority of arts depict various aspects the everyday life, mythical stories as well as symbolic display of various secular and spiritual values important in Hindu tradition.[3][6] For example, depictions show women putting on makeup, musicians making music, potters, farmers, and other folks in their daily life during the medieval era.[60] These scenes are in the outer padas as is typical in Hindu temples.
There is iconographic symbolism embedded in the arts displayed in Khajuraho temples.[6] Core Hindu values are expressed in multitude of ways. Even the Kama scenes, when seen in combination of sculptures that precede and follow, depict the spiritual themes such as moksha. In the words of Stella Kramrisch,
This state which is “like a man and woman in close embrace” is a symbol of moksa, final release or reunion of two principles, the essence (Purusha) and the nature (Prakriti).
— Stella Kramrisch, 1976[29]
The Khajuraho temples represent one expression of many forms of arts that flourished in Rajput kingdoms of India from 8th through 10th century CE. For example, contemporary with Khajuraho were the publications of poems and drama such as Prabodhacandrodaya, Karpuramanjari, Viddhasalabhanjika and Kavyamimansa.[61] Some of the themes expressed in these literary works are carved as sculpture in Khajuraho temples.[26][62] Some sculptures at the Khajuraho monuments dedicated to Vishnu include the Vyalas, which are hybrid imaginary animals with lions body, and are found in other Indian temples.[63] Some of these hybrid mythical art work include Vrik Vyala (hybrid of wolf and lion) and Gaja Vyala (hybrid of elephant and lion). These Vyalas may represent syncretic, creative combination of powers innate in the two.[64]
Tourism and cultural events
Temples layout map – Khajuraho Group of Monuments.
The temples in Khajuraho are broadly divided into three parts : the Eastern group, the Southern Group and the Western group of temples of which the Western group alone has the facility of an Audio guided tour wherein the tourists are guided through the seven eight temples. There is also an audio guided tour developed by the Archaeological Survey of India which includes a narration of the temple history and architecture.[65]
The Khajuraho Dance Festival is held every year in February.[66] It features various classical Indian dances set against the backdrop of the Chitragupta or Vishwanath Temples.
The Khajuraho temple complex offers a light and sound show every evening. The first show is in English language and the second one in Hindi. It is held in the open lawns in the temple complex, and has received mixed reviews.
The Madhya Pradesh Tourism Development has set up kiosks at the Khajuraho railway station, with tourist officers to provide information for Khajuraho visitors.
See also
List of megalithic sites
Jain temples of Khajuraho
Ajanta Caves
Badami Chalukya architecture
Western Chalukya architecture
Hindu temple
Madan Kamdev
Hemvati
Kama Sutra
Kamashastra
References
"World Heritage Day: Five must-visit sites in India".
Khajuraho Group of Monuments UNESCO World Heritage Site
Philip Wilkinson (2008), India: People, Place, Culture and History, ISBN 978-1405329040, pp 352-353
Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam, ed. India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 179.
Devangana Desai (2005), Khajuraho, Oxford University Press, Sixth Print, ISBN 978-0-19-565643-5
James Fergusson, Norther or Indo-Aryan Style - Khajuraho History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Updated by James Burgess and R. Phene Spiers (1910), Volume II, John Murray, London
"Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)". Census Commission of India. Archived from the original on 2004-06-16. Retrieved 2008-11-01.
Khajuraho airport AAI, Govt of India
G.S. Ghurye, Rajput Architecture, ISBN 978-8171544462, Reprint Year: 2005, pp 19-24
Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. ISBN 9789380607344.
Devangana Desai 2005, p. 10.
also called Erakana
Mitra (1977), The early rulers of Khajuraho, ISBN 978-8120819979
J. Banerjea (1960), Khajuraho, Journal of the Asiatic Society, Vol. 2-3, pp 43-47
phonetically translated from Arabic sometimes as "Kajwara"
Director General of Archaeology in India (1959), Archaeological Survey of India, Ancient India, Issues 15-19, pp 45-46 (Archived: University of Michigan)
Arthur Cotterell (2011), Asia: A Concise History, Wiley, ISBN 978-0470825044, pp 184-185
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Louise Nicholson (2007), India, National Geographic Society, ISBN 978-1426201448, see Chapter on Khajuraho
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kharjUra Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
vAhaka Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
Devangana Desai (1996), Chapter 7 - Puns and Enigmatic Language in Sculpture in The Religious Imagery of Khajuraho, Project for Indian Cultural Studies, Columbia University Archives
Rana Singh (2007), Landscape of sacred territory of Khajuraho, in City Society and Planning (Editors: Thakur, Pomeroy, et al), Volume 2, ISBN 978-8180694585, Chapter 18
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Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0222-3
Ibn Battuta in his 1335 CE memoirs on Delhi Sultanate mentioned the temples to be near a mile long lake, modern water bodies are much smaller and separate lagoons; Director General of Archaeology in India (1959), Archaeological Survey of India, Ancient India, Issues 15-19, pp 45-46 (Archived: University of Michigan)
The number 64 is considered sacred in Hindu temple design and very common design basis; it is symbolic as it is both a square of 8 and a cube of 4.
Brahma temple is 19 feet square; Kandariya Mahadev has a four fused square grid; Matangeshvara temple is a 64 grid square; etc. See G.S. Ghurye, Rajput Architecture, ISBN 978-8171544462, Reprint Year: 2005, pp 19-25; and V.A. Smith (1879), "Observations on some Chandel Antiquities", Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 48, Part 1, pp 291-297
D Desai (1996), The religious imagery of Khajuraho, Project for Indian Cultural Studies, ISBN 978-8190018418
Desai states that Khajuraho and Orissa Hindu temples are distinctive in giving erotic kama images the same weight as others and by assigning important architectural position; in contrast, surviving sculpture from temples of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Mysore show that there kama and sexual images were assigned to insignificant parts of the temple; Meister suggests that this aspect of eroticism in temple design and equal weight reflects evolution of design ideas among Hindu artisans, with temples built in later medieval centuries placing equal weight and balance to kama; see Meister, Michael (1979). "Juncture and Conjunction: Punning and Temple Architecture". Artibus Asiae. 41 (2–3): 226–234. JSTOR 3249517. doi:10.2307/3249517.
Edmund Leach, The Harvey Lecture Series. The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture, Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Autumn, 1983), pp 243-264
Bettina Bäumer, A review, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 59, No. 1/2 (1999), pp. 138-140
Cunningham, Alexander (1880). Report of Tours in Bundelkhand and Malwa in 1874-75 and 1876-77. 8 Hastings Street, Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing. p. 22. Retrieved 8 May 2017.
James Fergusson, Jaina Architecture - Khajuraho History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Updated by James Burgess and R. Phene Spiers (1910), Volume II, John Murray, London
Meister, Michael W. (April–June 1979). "Maṇḍala and Practice in Nāgara Architecture in North India". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 99 (2): 204–219. JSTOR 602657. doi:10.2307/602657.
Meister, Michael (1983). "Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples". Artibus Asiae. 44 (4): 266–296. JSTOR 3249613. doi:10.2307/3249613.
Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor), ISBN 978-0710202345, Routledge, pp 68-69
Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple Volume 1, ISBN 81-208-0223-3
Meister, Michael W. (March 2006). "Mountain Temples and Temple-Mountains: Masrur". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 65 (1): 26–49. JSTOR 25068237. doi:10.2307/25068237.
Meister, Michael W. (Autumn 1986). "On the Development of a Morphology for a Symbolic Architecture: India". RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology (12): 33–50. JSTOR 20166752.
Devangana Desai, Khajuraho, Oxford University Press Paperback (Sixth impression 2005) ISBN 978-0-19-565643-5
Rian et al (2007), Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho, Building and Environment, Vol 42, Issue 12, pp 4093-4107, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
Trivedi, K. (1989). Hindu temples: models of a fractal universe. The Visual Computer, 5(4), 243-258
Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor), ISBN 978-0710202345, Routledge, Chapter 4
V.A. Smith, "Observations on some Chandel Antiquities", Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 48, pp 290-291
"Lost Worlds of the Kama Sutra" History channel
"Lost Worlds of the Kama Sutra," History Channel
Lehner, Mark (1997) The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05084-8. pp. 202–225
Will Durant (1976), Our Oriental Heritage - The Story of Civilization, ISBN 978-0671548001, Simon & Schuster
From inscription or estimated from other evidence
Cunningham in Archaeological Survey Reports noted that one of two Hanuman statues bears an inscription of 868 CE
Rabe (2000), Secret Yantras and Erotic Display for Hindu Temples, Tantra in Practice (Editor: David White), ISBN 978-8120817784, Chapter 25, pp 434-446
See:
Heather Elgood (2000), Hinduism and the Religious Arts, ISBN 978-0304707393, Bloomsbury;
Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Volume 1, ISBN 81-208-0223-3, pp 92-96;
Alain Danielou (2001), The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism, ISBN 978-0892818549, pp 101-119
"Khajuraho". Liveindia.com. Retrieved on 2014-07-14.
Alain Danielou (2001), The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism, ISBN 978-0892818549
George Michell, The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226532301, pp 117-123 and pp 56-58
L. H. Gray, Journal of American Society, Vol. 27
H.M. Woodward (1989), The Lakṣmaṇa Temple, Khajuraho, and Its Meanings, Ars Orientalis, Vol. 19, pp. 27-48
Smith, David (1 January 2013). "Monstrous Animals on Hindu Temples, with Special Reference to Khajuraho": 27–43. doi:10.1558/rosa.v7i1-3.27. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
The Lakṣmaṇa Temple, Khajuraho, and Its Meanings, Hiram W. Woodward, Jr., Ars Orientalis, Vol. 19, (1989), pp. 27-48
Tourists to Khajuraho will now have an audio compass The Times of India (25 August 2011)
Khajuraho Festival of Dances
Ipê Amarelo, Tabebuia [chrysotricha or ochracea].
Ipê-amarelo em Brasília (UnB), Brasil.
This tree is in Brasília, Capital of Brazil.
Text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Trumpet tree" redirects here. This term is occasionally used for the Shield-leaved Pumpwood (Cecropia peltata).
Tabebuia
Flowering Araguaney or ipê-amarelo (Tabebuia chrysantha) in central Brazil
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Lamiales
Family: Bignoniaceae
Tribe: Tecomeae
Genus: Tabebuia
Gomez
Species
Nearly 100.
Tabebuia is a neotropical genus of about 100 species in the tribe Tecomeae of the family Bignoniaceae. The species range from northern Mexico and the Antilles south to northern Argentina and central Venezuela, including the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti) and Cuba. Well-known common names include Ipê, Poui, trumpet trees and pau d'arco.
They are large shrubs and trees growing to 5 to 50 m (16 to 160 ft.) tall depending on the species; many species are dry-season deciduous but some are evergreen. The leaves are opposite pairs, complex or palmately compound with 3–7 leaflets.
Tabebuia is a notable flowering tree. The flowers are 3 to 11 cm (1 to 4 in.) wide and are produced in dense clusters. They present a cupular calyx campanulate to tubular, truncate, bilabiate or 5-lobed. Corolla colors vary between species ranging from white, light pink, yellow, lavender, magenta, or red. The outside texture of the flower tube is either glabrous or pubescentThe fruit is a dehiscent pod, 10 to 50 cm (4 to 20 in.) long, containing numerous—in some species winged—seeds. These pods often remain on the tree through dry season until the beginning of the rainy.
Species in this genus are important as timber trees. The wood is used for furniture, decking, and other outdoor uses. It is increasingly popular as a decking material due to its insect resistance and durability. By 2007, FSC-certified ipê wood had become readily available on the market, although certificates are occasionally forged.
Tabebuia is widely used as ornamental tree in the tropics in landscaping gardens, public squares, and boulevards due to its impressive and colorful flowering. Many flowers appear on still leafless stems at the end of the dry season, making the floral display more conspicuous. They are useful as honey plants for bees, and are popular with certain hummingbirds. Naturalist Madhaviah Krishnan on the other hand once famously took offense at ipé grown in India, where it is not native.
Lapacho teaThe bark of several species has medical properties. The bark is dried, shredded, and then boiled making a bitter or sour-tasting brownish-colored tea. Tea from the inner bark of Pink Ipê (T. impetiginosa) is known as Lapacho or Taheebo. Its main active principles are lapachol, quercetin, and other flavonoids. It is also available in pill form. The herbal remedy is typically used during flu and cold season and for easing smoker's cough. It apparently works as expectorant, by promoting the lungs to cough up and free deeply embedded mucus and contaminants. However, lapachol is rather toxic and therefore a more topical use e.g. as antibiotic or pesticide may be advisable. Other species with significant folk medical use are T. alba and Yellow Lapacho (T. serratifolia)
Tabebuia heteropoda, T. incana, and other species are occasionally used as an additive to the entheogenic drink Ayahuasca.
Mycosphaerella tabebuiae, a plant pathogenic sac fungus, was first discovered on an ipê tree.
Tabebuia alba
Tabebuia anafensis
Tabebuia arimaoensis
Tabebuia aurea – Caribbean Trumpet Tree
Tabebuia bilbergii
Tabebuia bibracteolata
Tabebuia cassinoides
Tabebuia chrysantha – Araguaney, Yellow Ipê, tajibo (Bolivia), ipê-amarelo (Brazil), cañaguate (N Colombia)
Tabebuia chrysotricha – Golden Trumpet Tree
Tabebuia donnell-smithii Rose – Gold Tree, "Prima Vera", Cortez blanco (El Salvador), San Juan (Honduras), palo blanco (Guatemala),duranga (Mexico)
A native of Mexico and Central Americas, considered one of the most colorful of all Central American trees. The leaves are deciduous. Masses of golden-yellow flowers cover the crown after the leaves are shed.
Tabebuia dubia
Tabebuia ecuadorensis
Tabebuia elongata
Tabebuia furfuracea
Tabebuia geminiflora Rizz. & Mattos
Tabebuia guayacan (Seem.) Hemsl.
Tabebuia haemantha
Tabebuia heptaphylla (Vell.) Toledo – tajy
Tabebuia heterophylla – roble prieto
Tabebuia heteropoda
Tabebuia hypoleuca
Tabebuia impetiginosa – Pink Ipê, Pink Lapacho, ipê-cavatã, ipê-comum, ipê-reto, ipê-rosa, ipê-roxo-damata, pau d'arco-roxo, peúva, piúva (Brazil), lapacho negro (Spanish); not "brazilwood"
Tabebuia incana
Tabebuia jackiana
Tabebuia lapacho – lapacho amarillo
Tabebuia orinocensis A.H. Gentry[verification needed]
Tabebuia ochracea
Tabebuia oligolepis
Tabebuia pallida – Cuban Pink Trumpet Tree
Tabebuia platyantha
Tabebuia polymorpha
Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC.[verification needed] (= T. pentaphylla (L.) Hemsley) – Pink Poui, Pink Tecoma, apama, apamate, matilisguate
A popular street tree in tropical cities because of its multi-annular masses of light pink to purple flowers and modest size. The roots are not especially destructive for roads and sidewalks. It is the national tree of El Salvador and the state tree of Cojedes, Venezuela
Tabebuia roseo-alba – White Ipê, ipê-branco (Brazil), lapacho blanco
Tabebuia serratifolia – Yellow Lapacho, Yellow Poui, ipê-roxo (Brazil)
Tabebuia shaferi
Tabebuia striata
Tabebuia subtilis Sprague & Sandwith
Tabebuia umbellata
Tabebuia vellosoi Toledo
Ipê-do-cerrado
Texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.
Ipê-do-cerrado
Classificação científica
Reino: Plantae
Divisão: Magnoliophyta
Classe: Magnoliopsida
Subclasse: Asteridae
Ordem: Lamiales
Família: Bignoniaceae
Género: Tabebuia
Espécie: T. ochracea
Nome binomial
Tabebuia ochracea
(Cham.) Standl. 1832
Sinónimos
Bignonia tomentosa Pav. ex DC.
Handroanthus ochraceus (Cham.) Mattos
Tabebuia chrysantha (Jacq.) G. Nicholson
Tabebuia hypodictyon A. DC.) Standl.
Tabebuia neochrysantha A.H. Gentry
Tabebuia ochracea subsp. heteropoda (A. DC.) A.H. Gentry
Tabebuia ochracea subsp. neochrysantha (A.H. Gentry) A.H. Gentry
Tecoma campinae Kraenzl.
ecoma grandiceps Kraenzl.
Tecoma hassleri Sprague
Tecoma hemmendorffiana Kraenzl.
Tecoma heteropoda A. DC.
Tecoma hypodictyon A. DC.
Tecoma ochracea Cham.
Ipê-do-cerrado é um dos nomes populares da Tabebuia ochracea (Cham.) Standl. 1832, nativa do cerrado brasileiro, no estados de Amazonas, Pará, Maranhão, Piauí, Ceará, Pernambuco, Bahia, Espírito Santo, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo e Paraná.
Está na lista de espécies ameaçadas do estado de São Paulo, onde é encontrda também no domínio da Mata Atlântica[1].
Ocorre também na Argentina, Paraguai, Bolívia, Equador, Peru, Venezuela, Guiana, El Salvador, Guatemala e Panamá[2].
Há uma espécie homônima descrita por A.H. Gentry em 1992.
Outros nomes populares: ipê-amarelo, ipê-cascudo, ipê-do-campo, ipê-pardo, pau-d'arco-do-campo, piúva, tarumã.
Características
Altura de 6 a 14 m. Tronco tortuso com até 50 cm de diâmetro. Folhas pilosas em ambas as faces, mais na inferior, que é mais clara.
Planta decídua, heliófita, xerófita, nativa do cerrado em solos bem drenados.
Floresce de julho a setembro. Os frutos amadurecem de setembro a outubro.
FloresProduz grande quantidade de sementes leves, aladas com pequenas reservas, e que perdem a viabilidade em menos de 90 dias após coleta. A sua conservação vem sendo estudada em termos de determinação da condição ideal de armazenamento, e tem demonstrado a importância de se conhecer o comportamento da espécie quando armazenada com diferentes teores de umidade inicial, e a umidade de equilíbrio crítica para a espécie (KANO; MÁRQUEZ & KAGEYAMA, 1978). As levíssimas sementes aladas da espécie não necessitam de quebra de dormência. Podem apenas ser expostas ao sol por cerca de 6 horas e semeadas diretamente nos saquinhos. A germinação ocorre após 30 dias e de 80%. As sementes são ortodoxas e há aproximadamente 72 000 sementes em cada quilo.
O desenvolvimento da planta é rápido.
Como outros ipês, a madeira é usada em tacos, assoalhos, e em dormentes e postes. Presta-se também para peças torneadas e instrumento musicais.
Tabebuia alba (Ipê-Amarelo)
Texto, em português, produzido pela Acadêmica Giovana Beatriz Theodoro Marto
Supervisão e orientação do Prof. Luiz Ernesto George Barrichelo e do Eng. Paulo Henrique Müller
Atualizado em 10/07/2006
O ipê amarelo é a árvore brasileira mais conhecida, a mais cultivada e, sem dúvida nenhuma, a mais bela. É na verdade um complexo de nove ou dez espécies com características mais ou menos semelhantes, com flores brancas, amarelas ou roxas. Não há região do país onde não exista pelo menos uma espécie dele, porém a existência do ipê em habitat natural nos dias atuais é rara entre a maioria das espécies (LORENZI,2000).
A espécie Tabebuia alba, nativa do Brasil, é uma das espécies do gênero Tabebuia que possui “Ipê Amarelo” como nome popular. O nome alba provém de albus (branco em latim) e é devido ao tomento branco dos ramos e folhas novas.
As árvores desta espécie proporcionam um belo espetáculo com sua bela floração na arborização de ruas em algumas cidades brasileiras. São lindas árvores que embelezam e promovem um colorido no final do inverno. Existe uma crença popular de que quando o ipê-amarelo floresce não vão ocorrer mais geadas. Infelizmente, a espécie é considerada vulnerável quanto à ameaça de extinção.
A Tabebuia alba, natural do semi-árido alagoano está adaptada a todas as regiões fisiográficas, levando o governo, por meio do Decreto nº 6239, a transformar a espécie como a árvore símbolo do estado, estando, pois sob a sua tutela, não mais podendo ser suprimida de seus habitats naturais.
Taxonomia
Família: Bignoniaceae
Espécie: Tabebuia Alba (Chamiso) Sandwith
Sinonímia botânica: Handroanthus albus (Chamiso) Mattos; Tecoma alba Chamisso
Outros nomes vulgares: ipê-amarelo, ipê, aipê, ipê-branco, ipê-mamono, ipê-mandioca, ipê-ouro, ipê-pardo, ipê-vacariano, ipê-tabaco, ipê-do-cerrado, ipê-dourado, ipê-da-serra, ipezeiro, pau-d’arco-amarelo, taipoca.
Aspectos Ecológicos
O ipê-amarelo é uma espécie heliófita (Planta adaptada ao crescimento em ambiente aberto ou exposto à luz direta) e decídua (que perde as folhas em determinada época do ano). Pertence ao grupo das espécies secundárias iniciais (DURIGAN & NOGUEIRA, 1990).
Abrange a Floresta Pluvial da Mata Atlântica e da Floresta Latifoliada Semidecídua, ocorrendo principalmente no interior da Floresta Primária Densa. É característica de sub-bosques dos pinhais, onde há regeneração regular.
Informações Botânicas
Morfologia
As árvores de Tabebuia alba possuem cerca de 30 metros de altura. O tronco é reto ou levemente tortuoso, com fuste de 5 a 8 m de altura. A casca externa é grisáceo-grossa, possuindo fissuras longitudinais esparas e profundas. A coloração desta é cinza-rosa intenso, com camadas fibrosas, muito resistentes e finas, porém bem distintas.
Com ramos grossos, tortuosos e compridos, o ipê-amarelo possui copa alongada e alargada na base. As raízes de sustentação e absorção são vigorosas e profundas.
As folhas, deciduais, são opostas, digitadas e compostas. A face superior destas folhas é verde-escura, e, a face inferior, acinzentada, sendo ambas as faces tomentosas. Os pecíolos das folhas medem de 2,5 a 10 cm de comprimento. Os folíolos, geralmente, apresentam-se em número de 5 a 7, possuindo de 7 a 18 cm de comprimento por 2 a 6 cm de largura. Quando jovem estes folíolos são densamente pilosos em ambas as faces. O ápice destes é pontiagudo, com base arredondada e margem serreada.
As flores, grandes e lanceoladas, são de coloração amarelo-ouro. Possuem em média 8X15 cm.
Quanto aos frutos, estes possuem forma de cápsula bivalvar e são secos e deiscentes. Do tipo síliqua, lembram uma vagem. Medem de 15 a 30 cm de comprimento por 1,5 a 2,5 cm de largura. As valvas são finamente tomentosas com pêlos ramificados. Possuem grande quantidade de sementes.
As sementes são membranáceas brilhantes e esbranquiçadas, de coloração marrom. Possuem de 2 a 3 cm de comprimento por 7 a 9 mm de largura e são aladas.
Reprodução
A espécie é caducifólia e a queda das folhas coincide com o período de floração. A floração inicia-se no final de agosto, podendo ocorrer alguma variação devido a fenômenos climáticos. Como a espécie floresce no final do inverno é influenciada pela intensidade do mesmo. Quanto mais frio e seco for o inverno, maior será a intensidade da florada do ipê amarelo.
As flores por sua exuberância, atraem abelhas e pássaros, principalmente beija-flores que são importantes agentes polinizadores. Segundo CARVALHO (2003), a espécie possui como vetor de polinização a abelha mamangava (Bombus morio).
As sementes são dispersas pelo vento.
A planta é hermafrodita, e frutifica nos meses de setembro, outubro, novembro, dezembro, janeiro e fevereiro, dependendo da sua localização. Em cultivo, a espécie inicia o processo reprodutivo após o terceiro ano.
Ocorrência Natural
Ocorre naturalmente na Floresta Estaciobal Semidecicual, Floresta de Araucária e no Cerrado.
Segundo o IBGE, a Tabebuia alba (Cham.) Sandw. é uma árvore do Cerrado, Cerradão e Mata Seca. Apresentando-se nos campos secos (savana gramíneo-lenhosa), próximo às escarpas.
Clima
Segundo a classificação de Köppen, o ipê-amarelo abrange locais de clima tropical (Aw), subtropical úmido (Cfa), sutropical de altitude (Cwa e Cwb) e temperado.
A T.alba pode tolerar até 81 geadas em um ano. Ocorre em locais onde a temperatura média anual varia de 14,4ºC como mínimo e 22,4ºC como máximo.
Solo
A espécie prefere solos úmidos, com drenagem lenta e geralmente não muito ondulados (LONGHI, 1995).
Aparece em terras de boa à média fertilidade, em solos profundos ou rasos, nas matas e raramente cerradões (NOGUEIRA, 1977).
Pragas e Doenças
De acordo com CARVALHO (2003), possui como praga a espécie de coleópteros Cydianerus bohemani da família Curculionoideae e um outro coleóptero da família Chrysomellidae. Apesar da constatação de elevados índices populacionais do primeiro, os danos ocasionados até o momento são leves. Nas praças e ruas de Curitiba - PR, 31% das árvores foram atacadas pela Cochonilha Ceroplastes grandis.
ZIDKO (2002), ao estudar no município de Piracicaba a associação de coleópteros em espécies arbóreas, verificou a presença de insetos adultos da espécie Sitophilus linearis da família de coleópteros, Curculionidae, em estruturas reprodutivas. Os insetos adultos da espécie emergiram das vagens do ipê, danificando as sementes desta espécie nativa.
ANDRADE (1928) assinalou diversas espécies de Cerambycidae atacando essências florestais vivas, como ingazeiro, cinamomo, cangerana, cedro, caixeta, jacarandá, araribá, jatobá, entre outras como o ipê amarelo.
A Madeira
A Tabebuia alba produz madeira de grande durabilidade e resistência ao apodrecimento (LONGHI,1995).
MANIERI (1970) caracteriza o cerne desta espécie como de cor pardo-havana-claro, pardo-havan-escuro, ou pardo-acastanhado, com reflexos esverdeados. A superfície da madeira é irregularmente lustrosa, lisa ao tato, possuindo textura media e grã-direita.
Com densidade entre 0,90 e 1,15 grama por centímetro cúbico, a madeira é muito dura (LORENZI, 1992), apresentando grande dificuldade ao serrar.
A madeira possui cheiro e gosto distintos. Segundo LORENZI (1992), o cheiro característico é devido à presença da substância lapachol, ou ipeína.
Usos da Madeira
Sendo pesada, com cerne escuro, adquire grande valor comercial na marcenaria e carpintaria. Também é utilizada para fabricação de dormentes, moirões, pontes, postes, eixos de roda, varais de carroça, moendas de cana, etc.
Produtos Não-Madeireiros
A entrecasca do ipê-amarelo possui propriedades terapêuticas como adstringente, usada no tratamento de garganta e estomatites. É também usada como diurético.
O ipê-amarelo possui flores melíferas e que maduras podem ser utilizadas na alimentação humana.
Outros Usos
É comumente utilizada em paisagismo de parques e jardins pela beleza e porte. Além disso, é muito utilizada na arborização urbana.
Segundo MOREIRA & SOUZA (1987), o ipê-amarelo costuma povoar as beiras dos rios sendo, portanto, indicado para recomposição de matas ciliares. MARTINS (1986), também cita a espécie para recomposição de matas ciliares da Floresta Estacional Semidecidual, abrangendo alguns municípios das regiões Norte, Noroeste e parte do Oeste do Estado do Paraná.
Aspectos Silviculturais
Possui a tendência a crescer reto e sem bifurcações quando plantado em reflorestamento misto, pois é espécie monopodial. A desrrama se faz muito bem e a cicatrização é boa. Sendo assim, dificilmente encopa quando nova, a não ser que seja plantado em parques e jardins.
Ao ser utilizada em arborização urbana, o ipê amarelo requer podas de condução com freqüência mediana.
Espécie heliófila apresenta a pleno sol ramificação cimosa, registrando-se assim dicotomia para gema apical. Deve ser preconizada, para seu melhor aproveitamento madeireiro, podas de formação usuais (INQUE et al., 1983).
Produção de Mudas
A propagação deve realizada através de enxertia.
Os frutos devem ser coletados antes da dispersão, para evitar a perda de sementes. Após a coleta as sementes são postas em ambiente ventilado e a extração é feita manualmente. As sementes do ipê amarelo são ortodoxas, mantendo a viabilidade natural por até 3 meses em sala e por até 9 meses em vidro fechado, em câmara fria.
A condução das mudas deve ser feita a pleno sol. A muda atinge cerca de 30 cm em 9 meses, apresentando tolerância ao sol 3 semanas após a germinação.
Sementes
Os ipês, espécies do gênero Tabebuia, produzem uma grande quantidade de sementes leves, aladas com pequenas reservas, e que perdem a viabilidade em poucos dias após a sua coleta. A sua conservação vem sendo estudada em termos de determinação da condição ideal de armazenamento, e tem demonstrado a importância de se conhecer o comportamento da espécie quando armazenada com diferentes teores de umidade inicial, e a umidade de equilíbrio crítica para a espécie (KANO; MÁRQUEZ & KAGEYAMA, 1978).
As levíssimas sementes aladas da espécie não necessitam de quebra de dormência. Podem apenas ser expostas ao sol por cerca de 6 horas e semeadas diretamente nos saquinhos. A quebra natural leva cerca de 3 meses e a quebra na câmara leva 9 meses. A germinação ocorre após 30 dias e de 80%.
As sementes são ortodoxas e há aproximadamente 87000 sementes em cada quilo.
Preço da Madeira no Mercado
O preço médio do metro cúbico de pranchas de ipê no Estado do Pará cotado em Julho e Agosto de 2005 foi de R$1.200,00 o preço mínimo, R$ 1509,35 o médio e R$ 2.000,00 o preço máximo (CEPEA,2005).
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Wikipedia is a marvelous resource that I use frequently. Only 2 percent of Wikipedia users donate to keeping it free for everyone. The average donation is $2.75. They really do keep costs down.
When more detail is needed, the Encyclopedia Brittanica online is a wonderful resource.
Following, a text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
The Yellow-chevroned Parakeet (Brotogeris chiriri) is native to tropical South America south of the Amazon River basin from central Brazil to southern Bolivia, Paraguay and northern Argentina.Caged birds have been released in some areas and the birds have established self sustaining populations in the Los Angeles, San Francisco, California and Miami, Florida areas of the United States. This bird seems to be doing better in its North American feral population than its closely related cousin, the Canary-winged Parakeet. The species is also fairily establhished in the downtown area of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, where it was introduced. The native population in South America continues to do well.
The bird is 20-25 cm in length, and is mostly light green in color. It has a trailing yellow edge on its folded wings and is also seen when the bird is in flight. It is closely related to the Canary-winged Parakeet. In fact, it was considered conspecific until 1997.
The bird feeds mostly on seeds and fruit in its native habitat, and feral populations have adapted to take in blossoms and nectar. Feral birds will also come to bird feeders. Wild birds primarily use disturbed forest and forest clearings around settlements. It rarely uses deep tropical forest.
Yellow-chevroned Parakeets usually find holes in trees to nest in. They will also form nesting tunnels in dead palm fronds. It lays 4-5 eggs. After raising its young, all birds will form rather large communal roosts until the next breeding season.
Following, another text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
The Canary-winged Parakeet is 22 cm in length, and is mostly green in color. It has a trailing yellow edge on its folded wings. Its most distinguished characteristic is the white wing patches most noticed when the bird is in flight. It is closely related to the Yellow-chevroned Parakeet, and the two have often been considered conspecific.
Conspecificity is a concept in biology. Two or more individual organisms, populations, or taxa are termed conspecific if they belong to the same species.
The antonym is heterospecificity: two individuals are heterospecific if they are considered to belong to different biological species.
Where different species can interbreed and their gametes compete then conspecific gametes take precedence over heterospecific gametes. This is known as conspecific sperm precedence or conspecific pollen precedence in plants.
See the discussion of mirror neuron in which a neuron fires both when the animal performs an action and when the animal sees another animal perform the same action.
Tuim-de-asa-amarela.
Canary-winged parakeetA.
Tuim-de-asa-amarela, fotografado em Brasília, Brasil (Brazil).
geris versicolorus (Müller, 1776) ou Brotogeris chiriri chiriri - (Yellow-chevroned Parakeet): periquito-de-asa-amarela; canary-winged parakeet
Maritaca fotografada em Brasília, Brasil.
Periquito-de-asa-amarela; canary-winged parakeet.
Brotogeris versicolurus.
1. FICHA DO BICHO:
Nomes vulgares: Periquito-do-encontro-amarelo; Periquito-de-asa-amarela; Periquito-de-asas-amarelas; Periquito-estrela; Cotorra-de-las-amarillas (Espanha); Canary-winged-parakeet ou Yellow-chevroned-parakeet (EUA).
Nome científico: Brotogeris versicolorus chiriri (Vieillot, 1818)
Origem do Nome:"Periquito", origina-se do espanhol, periquillo. O termo designa aves da família dos Psittacidae (Psitacídeos).
Ordem: Aves
Família: Psittacidae (Psitacídeos)
Sub-gamília: Psittacinae
Gênero: Brotogeris spp.
Espécie: Brotogeris versicolorus chiriri (Vieillot, 1818). É uma subespécie do B. versicolorus (P.L.S. Muller, 1776), que pode ser encontrada também, como o nome de Psittacus versicolorus (Muller, 1776). Existem outras espécies como por exemplo, a B. chrysopterus (Tuipara-de-asa-laranja); B. sanctithomae (Tuipara-estrelinha); B. versicolorus (Periquito-de-asa-branca); B. viridissimus (Periquito-verde); B. tirica (Periquito-rei) entre outras. Ver site: www.vidadecao.com.br/cao/index2.asp?menu=curiosidade_peri...
geris versicolorus (Müller, 1776): periquito-de-asa-amarela; canary-winged parakeet
O colorido amarelo da asa, nas coberteiras superiores das rêmiges secundárias, e o amarelo-esverdeado da face ventral das rectrizes permitem a fácil identificação desta espécie. Apesar de ser menos abundante do que B. viridissimus, pode formar com ela bandos mistos. Nos E. U. da América do Norte, entre 1968 e 1974, houve importação de B. versicolorus, principalmente originários do Peru; alguns casais escaparam das gaiolas (ou foram soltos) e reproduziram-se na natureza, compondo atualmente bandos urbanos na Flórida, na Califórnia e em Porto Rico.
Alimentação: frutos, sementes, flores e néctar.
Nidificação: constroem o ninho em cavidades de árvores ou escavados em cupinzeiros arborícolas. Em áreas urbanas podem utilizar também os espaços sob telhas das edificações. Observações feitas em cativeiro mencionam 5 ovos brancos, medindo cerca de 23 x 19 mm e registram 26 dias para o tempo de incubação, que é tarefa da fêmea. Os filhotes deixam o ninho cerca de 8 semanas após o nascimento e são alimentados pelos pais com sementes e frutos regurgitados, mesmo após haverem abandonado o ninho.
Hábitat: campos com vegetação baixa e ilhas de matas intercaladas, bem como matas ciliares e cerradões.
Ver site: bibvirt.futuro.usp.br/especiais/aves_no_campus/f_psittaci...
Following, a text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
The Yellow-chevroned Parakeet (Brotogeris chiriri) is native to tropical South America south of the Amazon River basin from central Brazil to southern Bolivia, Paraguay and northern Argentina.Caged birds have been released in some areas and the birds have established self sustaining populations in the Los Angeles, San Francisco, California and Miami, Florida areas of the United States. This bird seems to be doing better in its North American feral population than its closely related cousin, the Canary-winged Parakeet. The species is also fairily establhished in the downtown area of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, where it was introduced. The native population in South America continues to do well.
The bird is 20-25 cm in length, and is mostly light green in color. It has a trailing yellow edge on its folded wings and is also seen when the bird is in flight. It is closely related to the Canary-winged Parakeet. In fact, it was considered conspecific until 1997.
The bird feeds mostly on seeds and fruit in its native habitat, and feral populations have adapted to take in blossoms and nectar. Feral birds will also come to bird feeders. Wild birds primarily use disturbed forest and forest clearings around settlements. It rarely uses deep tropical forest.
Yellow-chevroned Parakeets usually find holes in trees to nest in. They will also form nesting tunnels in dead palm fronds. It lays 4-5 eggs. After raising its young, all birds will form rather large communal roosts until the next breeding season.
Following, another text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
The Canary-winged Parakeet is 22 cm in length, and is mostly green in color. It has a trailing yellow edge on its folded wings. Its most distinguished characteristic is the white wing patches most noticed when the bird is in flight. It is closely related to the Yellow-chevroned Parakeet, and the two have often been considered conspecific.
Conspecificity is a concept in biology. Two or more individual organisms, populations, or taxa are termed conspecific if they belong to the same species.
The antonym is heterospecificity: two individuals are heterospecific if they are considered to belong to different biological species.
Where different species can interbreed and their gametes compete then conspecific gametes take precedence over heterospecific gametes. This is known as conspecific sperm precedence or conspecific pollen precedence in plants.
See the discussion of mirror neuron in which a neuron fires both when the animal performs an action and when the animal sees another animal perform the same action.
Tuim-de-asa-amarela.
Canary-winged parakeetA.
Tuim-de-asa-amarela, fotografado em Brasília, Brasil (Brazil).
geris versicolorus (Müller, 1776) ou Brotogeris chiriri chiriri - (Yellow-chevroned Parakeet): periquito-de-asa-amarela; canary-winged parakeet
Maritaca fotografada em Brasília, Brasil.
Periquito-de-asa-amarela; canary-winged parakeet.
Brotogeris versicolurus.
1. FICHA DO BICHO:
Nomes vulgares: Periquito-do-encontro-amarelo; Periquito-de-asa-amarela; Periquito-de-asas-amarelas; Periquito-estrela; Cotorra-de-las-amarillas (Espanha); Canary-winged-parakeet ou Yellow-chevroned-parakeet (EUA).
Nome científico: Brotogeris versicolorus chiriri (Vieillot, 1818)
Origem do Nome:"Periquito", origina-se do espanhol, periquillo. O termo designa aves da família dos Psittacidae (Psitacídeos).
Ordem: Aves
Família: Psittacidae (Psitacídeos)
Sub-gamília: Psittacinae
Gênero: Brotogeris spp.
Espécie: Brotogeris versicolorus chiriri (Vieillot, 1818). É uma subespécie do B. versicolorus (P.L.S. Muller, 1776), que pode ser encontrada também, como o nome de Psittacus versicolorus (Muller, 1776). Existem outras espécies como por exemplo, a B. chrysopterus (Tuipara-de-asa-laranja); B. sanctithomae (Tuipara-estrelinha); B. versicolorus (Periquito-de-asa-branca); B. viridissimus (Periquito-verde); B. tirica (Periquito-rei) entre outras. Ver site: www.vidadecao.com.br/cao/index2.asp?menu=curiosidade_peri...
geris versicolorus (Müller, 1776): periquito-de-asa-amarela; canary-winged parakeet
O colorido amarelo da asa, nas coberteiras superiores das rêmiges secundárias, e o amarelo-esverdeado da face ventral das rectrizes permitem a fácil identificação desta espécie. Apesar de ser menos abundante do que B. viridissimus, pode formar com ela bandos mistos. Nos E. U. da América do Norte, entre 1968 e 1974, houve importação de B. versicolorus, principalmente originários do Peru; alguns casais escaparam das gaiolas (ou foram soltos) e reproduziram-se na natureza, compondo atualmente bandos urbanos na Flórida, na Califórnia e em Porto Rico.
Alimentação: frutos, sementes, flores e néctar.
Nidificação: constroem o ninho em cavidades de árvores ou escavados em cupinzeiros arborícolas. Em áreas urbanas podem utilizar também os espaços sob telhas das edificações. Observações feitas em cativeiro mencionam 5 ovos brancos, medindo cerca de 23 x 19 mm e registram 26 dias para o tempo de incubação, que é tarefa da fêmea. Os filhotes deixam o ninho cerca de 8 semanas após o nascimento e são alimentados pelos pais com sementes e frutos regurgitados, mesmo após haverem abandonado o ninho.
Hábitat: campos com vegetação baixa e ilhas de matas intercaladas, bem como matas ciliares e cerradões.
Ver site: bibvirt.futuro.usp.br/especiais/aves_no_campus/f_psittaci...
Illustration from Dyke’s Automobile and Gasoline Engine Encyclopedia 1928
Compiled by Dr. Andrew Lee Dyke, electrical engineer. Dr.Dyke founded the first US automobile spare parts business in 1899, manufactured a steam car called ‘The Dyke’ in 1899, and wrote a number of automotive books.
Published by Goodheart-Willcox Co, Chicago. Blue cloth boards 1250 pages 24.5cm x 17cm.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Khajuraho"
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Location Madhya Pradesh, India Edit this at Wikidata
Coordinates 24°51′08″N 79°55′20″E
Criteria Cultural: (i), (iii) Edit this on Wikidata[1]
Reference 240
Inscription 1986 (10th Session)
Khajuraho Group of Monuments is located in India
Khajuraho Group of Monuments
Location of Khajuraho Group of Monuments
[edit on Wikidata]
The Khajuraho Group of Monuments is a group of Hindu and Jain temples in Madhya Pradesh, India, about 175 kilometres (109 mi) southeast of Jhansi. They are one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India.[2][3] The temples are famous for their nagara-style architectural symbolism and their erotic sculptures.[4]
Most Khajuraho temples were built between 950 and 1050 by the Chandela dynasty.[5] Historical records note that the Khajuraho temple site had 85 temples by the 12th century, spread over 20 square kilometers Of these, only about 25 temples have survived, spread over 6 square kilometers.[3] Of the various surviving temples, the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple is decorated with a profusion of sculptures with intricate details, symbolism and expressiveness of ancient Indian art.[6]
The Khajuraho group of temples were built together but were dedicated to two religions, Hinduism and Jainism, suggesting a tradition of acceptance and respect for diverse religious views among Hindus and Jains in the region.[7]
Contents
1 Location
2 History
3 Description
3.1 Architecture of the temples
4 Construction
5 Chronology
6 Arts and sculpture
7 Tourism and cultural events
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Location
The Khajuraho monuments are located in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, in Chhatarpur district, about 620 kilometres (385 mi) southeast of New Delhi. The temples are near a small town also known as Khajuraho,[8] with a population of about 20,000 people (2001 Census).
Khajuraho is served by Civil Aerodrome Khajuraho (IATA Code: HJR), with services to Delhi, Agra, Varanasi and Mumbai.[9] The site is also linked by the Indian Railways service, with the railway station located approximately six kilometres from the entrance to the monuments .
The monuments are about 10 kilometres off the east-west National Highway 75, and about 50 kilometres from the city of Chhatarpur, which is connected to the state capital Bhopal by the SW-NE running National Highway 86.
The 10th century Bhand Deva Temple in Rajasthan was built in the style of the Khajuraho monuments and is often referred to as 'Little Khajuraho'.
History
The Khajuraho group of monuments was built during the rule of the Chandela dynasty. The building activity started almost immediately after the rise of their power, throughout their kingdom to be later known as Bundelkhand.[10] Most temples were built during the reigns of the Hindu kings Yashovarman and Dhanga. Yashovarman's legacy is best exhibited by The Lakshmana Temple. Vishvanatha temple best highlights King Dhanga's reign.[11]:22 The largest and currently most famous surviving temple is Kandariya Mahadeva built in the reign of King Vidyadhara.[12] The temple inscriptions suggest many of the currently surviving temples were complete between 970 and 1030 CE, with further temples completed during the following decades.[7]
The Khajuraho temples were built about 35 miles from the medieval city of Mahoba,[13] the capital of the Chandela dynasty, in the Kalinjar region. In ancient and medieval literature, their kingdom has been referred to as Jijhoti, Jejahoti, Chih-chi-to and Jejakabhukti.[14]
Khajuraho was mentioned by Abu Rihan-al-Biruni, the Persian historian who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni in his raid of Kalinjar in 1022 CE; he mentions Khajuraho as the capital of Jajahuti.[15] The raid was unsuccessful, and a peace accord was reached when the Hindu king agreed to pay a ransom to Mahmud of Ghazni to end the attack and leave.[14]
Khajuraho temples were in active use through the end of 12th century. This changed in the 13th century; after the army of Delhi Sultanate, under the command of the Muslim Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak, attacked and seized the Chandela kingdom. About a century later, Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller in his memoirs about his stay in India from 1335 to 1342 CE, mentioned visiting Khajuraho temples, calling them "Kajarra"[16][17] as follows:
Until the 12th century, Khajuraho was under Hindu kings and featured 85 temples. Central India was seized by Delhi Sultanate in 13th century. Under Muslim rule, some temples were destroyed and the rest left in neglect. Ruins of some old temples (Ghantai temple above) are still visible.
...near (Khajuraho) temples, which contain idols that have been mutilated by the Moslems, live a number of yogis whose matted locks have grown as long as their bodies. And on account of extreme asceticism they are all yellow in colour. Many Moslems attend these men in order to take lessons (yoga) from them.
— Ibn Battuta, about 1335 CE, Riḥlat Ibn Baṭūṭah, Translated by Arthur Cotterell[18]
Central Indian region, where Khajuraho temples are, remained in the control of many different Muslim dynasties from 13th century through the 18th century. In this period, some temples were desecrated, followed by a long period when they were left in neglect.[7][10] In 1495 CE, for example, Sikandar Lodi’s campaign of temple destruction included Khajuraho.[19] The remoteness and isolation of Khajuraho protected the Hindu and Jain temples from continued destruction by Muslims.[20][21] Over the centuries, vegetation and forests overgrew, took over the temples.
In the 1830s, local Hindus guided a British surveyor, T.S. Burt, to the temples and they were thus rediscovered by the global audience.[22] Alexander Cunningham later reported, few years after the rediscovery, that the temples were secretly in use by yogis and thousands of Hindus would arrive for pilgrimage during Shivaratri celebrated annually in February or March based on a lunar calendar. In 1852, Maisey prepared earliest drawings of the Khajuraho temples.[23]
Nomenclature
The name Khajuraho, or Kharjuravāhaka, is derived from ancient Sanskrit (kharjura, खर्जूर means date palm,[24] and vāhaka, वाहक means "one who carries" or bearer[25]). Local legends state that the temples had two golden date-palm trees as their gate (missing when they were rediscovered). Desai states that Kharjuravāhaka also means scorpion bearer, which is another symbolic name for deity Shiva (who wears snakes and scorpion garlands in his fierce form).[26]
Cunningham’s nomenclature and systematic documentation work in 1850s and 1860s have been widely adopted and continue to be in use.[23] He grouped the temples into the Western group around Lakshmana, Eastern group around Javeri, and Southern group around Duladeva.[27]
Khajuraho is one of the four holy sites linked to deity Shiva (the other three are Kedarnath, Kashi and Gaya). Its origin and design is a subject of scholarly studies. Shobita Punja[28] has proposed that the temple’s origin reflect the Hindu mythology in which Khajuraho is the place where Shiva got married; with Raghuvamsha verse 5.53, Matangeshvara honoring ‘’Matanga’’, or god of love.
Description
Sections and orientation of Khajuraho temples.
The temple site is within Vindhya mountain range in central India. An ancient local legend held that Hindu deity Shiva and other gods enjoyed visiting the dramatic hill formation in Kalinjar area.[27] The center of this region is Khajuraho, set midst local hills and rivers. The temple complex reflects the ancient Hindu tradition of building temples where gods love to play.[27][29]
The temples are clustered near water, another typical feature of Hindu temples. The current water bodies include Sib Sagar, Khajur Sagar (also called Ninora Tal) and Khudar Nadi (river).[30] The local legends state that the temple complex had 64 water bodies, of which 56 have been physically identified by archeologists so far.[27][31]
All temples, except[27] one (Chaturbhuja) face sunrise - another symbolic feature that is predominant in Hindu temples. The relative layout of temples integrate masculine and feminine deities and symbols highlight the interdependence.[28] The art work symbolically highlight the four goals of life considered necessary and proper in Hinduism - dharma, kama, artha and moksha.
Of the surviving temples, 6 are dedicated to Shiva and his consorts, 8 to Vishnu and his affinities, 1 to Ganesha, 1 to Sun god, 3 to Jain Tirthankars.[27] For some ruins, there is insufficient evidence to assign the temple to specific deities with confidence.
An overall examination of site suggests that the Hindu symbolic mandala design principle of square and circles is present each temple plan and design.[32] Further, the territory is laid out in three triangles that converge to form a pentagon. Scholars suggest that this reflects the Hindu symbolism for three realms or trilokinatha, and five cosmic substances or panchbhuteshvara.[27] The temple site highlights Shiva, the one who destroys and recycles life, thereby controlling the cosmic dance of time, evolution and dissolution.[28]
The temples have a rich display of intricately carved statues. While they are famous for their erotic sculpture, sexual themes cover less than 10% of the temple sculpture.[33] Further, most erotic scene panels are neither prominent nor emphasized at the expense of the rest, rather they are in proportional balance with the non-sexual images.[34] The viewer has to look closely to find them, or be directed by a guide.[35] The arts cover numerous aspects of human life and values considered important in Hindu pantheon. Further, the images are arranged in a configuration to express central ideas of Hinduism. All three ideas from Āgamas are richly expressed in Khajuraho temples - Avyakta, Vyaktavyakta and Vyakta.[36]
The Beejamandal temple is under excavation. It has been identified with the Vaidyanath temple mentioned in the Grahpati Kokalla inscription.[37]
Of all temples, the Matangeshvara temple remains an active site of worship.[28] It is another square grid temple, with a large 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) high and 1.1 metres (3.6 ft) diameter lingam, placed on a 7.6 metres (25 ft) diameter platform.[27]
The most visited temple, Kandariya Mahadev, has an area of about 6,500 square feet and a shikhara (spire) that rises 116 feet.[10][27]
Jain temples
Main article: Jain temples of Khajuraho
The Jain temples are located on east-southeast region of Khajuraho monuments.[38] Chausath jogini temple features 64 jogini, while Ghantai temple features bells sculptured on its pillars.
Architecture of the temples
The layout plan of Kandariya Mahadeva Temple. It uses the 64 pada grid design. Smaller Khajuraho temples use the 9, 16, 36 or 49 grid mandala plan.[39]
Khajuraho temples, like almost all Hindu temple designs, follow a grid geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala.[40] This design plan has three important components - Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure.[41]
The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, concentrically layered, self-repeating structure around the core of the temple called garbhagriya, where the abstract principle Purusha and the primary deity of the temple dwell. The shikhara, or spire, of the temple rises above the garbhagriya. This symmetry and structure in design is derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.[42]
The circle of mandala circumscribe the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other.[29] The square is divided into perfect 64 sub-squares called padas.[40]
Most Khajuraho temples deploy the 8x8 (64) padas grid Manduka Vastupurushamandala, with pitha mandala the square grid incorporated in the design of the spires.[39] The primary deity or lingas are located in the grid’s Brahma padas.
Khajuraho temples use the 8x8 (64) Vastupurusamandala Manduka grid layout plan (left) found in Hindu temples. Above the temple’s brahma padas is a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core, typically in a circles and turning-squares concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.[29][43]
The architecture is symbolic and reflects the central Hindu beliefs through its form, structure and arrangement of its parts.[44] The mandapas as well as the arts are arranged in the Khajuraho temples in a symmetric repeating patterns, even though each image or sculpture is distinctive in its own way. The relative placement of the images are not random but together they express ideas, just like connected words form sentences and paragraphs to compose ideas.[45] This fractal pattern that is common in Hindu temples.[46] Various statues and panels have inscriptions. Many of the inscriptions on the temple walls are poems with double meanings, something that the complex structure of Sanskrit allows in creative compositions.[26]
All Khajuraho temples, except one, face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is this east side.
An illustration of Khajuraho temple Spires (Shikhara, Vimana) built using concentric circle and rotating-squares principle. Four spires (left) are shown above, while the inside view of one Shikara ceiling (right) shows the symmetric layout.
Above the vastu-purusha-mandala of each temple is a superstructure with a dome called Shikhara (or Vimana, Spire).[41] Variations in spire design come from variation in degrees turned for the squares. The temple Shikhara, in some literature, is linked to mount Kailash or Meru, the mythical abode of the gods.[29]
In each temple, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the pilgrim to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa and the main deity.[29] The pillars, walls and ceilings around the space, as well as outside have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life - kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This clockwise walk around is called pradakshina.[41]
Larger Khajuraho temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One near the entrance, on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapas are also arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. This use of same underlying architectural principle is common in Hindu temples found all over India.[47] Each Khajuraho temple is distinctly carved yet also repeating the central common principles in almost all Hindu temples, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as "an organism of repeating cells".[48]
Construction
The temples are grouped into three geographical divisions: western, eastern and southern.
The Khajuraho temples are made of sandstone, with a granite foundation that is almost concealed from view.[49] The builders didn't use mortar: the stones were put together with mortise and tenon joints and they were held in place by gravity. This form of construction requires very precise joints. The columns and architraves were built with megaliths that weighed up to 20 tons.[50] Some repair work in the 19th Century was done with brick and mortar; however these have aged faster than original materials and darkened with time, thereby seeming out of place.
The Khajuraho and Kalinjar region is home to superior quality of sandstone, which can be precision carved. The surviving sculpture reflect fine details such as strands of hair, manicured nails and intricate jewelry.
While recording the television show Lost Worlds (History Channel) at Khajuraho, Alex Evans recreated a stone sculpture under 4 feet that took about 60 days to carve in an attempt to develop a rough idea how much work must have been involved.[51] Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone.[52] They concluded that these temples would have required hundreds of highly trained sculptors.
Chronology
The Khajuraho group of temples belong to Vaishnavism school of Hinduism, Saivism school of Hinduism and Jainism - nearly a third each. Archaeological studies suggest all three types of temples were under construction at about the same time in late 10th century, and in use simultaneously. Will Durant states that this aspect of Khajuraho temples illustrates the tolerance and respect for different religious viewpoints in the Hindu and Jain traditions.[53] In each group of Khajuraho temples, there were major temples surrounded by smaller temples - a grid style that is observed to varying degrees in Hindu temples in Angkor Wat, Parambaran and South India.
The largest surviving Saiva temple is Khandarya Mahadeva, while the largest surviving Vaishnava group includes Chaturbhuja and Ramachandra.
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple plan is 109 ft in length by 60 ft, and rises 116 ft above ground and 88 ft above its own floor. The central padas are surrounded by three rows of sculptured figures, with over 870 statues, most being half life size (2.5 to 3 feet). The spire is a self repeating fractal structure.
Temples, religious affiliations and consecration years
Sequence Modern Temple name Religion Deity Completed by
(CE)[27][54] Image
1 Chausath Yogini Hinduism Devi, 64 Yoginis 885 Khajuraho,Chausath-Yogini-Tempel2.jpg
2 Brahma Hinduism Vishnu 925
3 Lalgun Mahadev Hinduism Shiva 900 India-5696 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
4 Matangeshwar Hinduism Shiva 1000 India-5772 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
5 Varaha Hinduism Vishnu 950 India-5595 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
6 Lakshmana Hinduism Vaikuntha Vishnu 939 India-5679 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
7 Parshvanatha Jainism Parshvanatha 954 Le temple de Parshvanath (Khajuraho) (8638423582).jpg
8 Vishvanatha Hinduism Shiva 999 India-5749 - Visvanatha Temple - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
9 Devi Jagadambi Hinduism Devi, Parvati 1023 Khajuraho Devi Jagadambi Temple 2010.jpg
10 Chitragupta Hinduism Sun, Chitragupta 1023 India-5707 - Flickr - archer10 (Dennis).jpg
11 Kandariya Mahadeva (Largest temple) Hinduism Shiva 1029 Temple at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, India.jpg
12 Vamana Hinduism Vamana 1062 Khajuraho Vaman Temple 2010.jpg
13 Adinath Jain Temple Jainism Adinatha 1027 Adinath Jain Temple Khajuraho 12.jpg
14 Javeri Hinduism Vishnu 1090 Javari Temple, Khajuraho.jpg
15 Chaturbhuja Hinduism Vishnu 1110 Khajuraho Chaturbhuja Temple.jpg
16 Duladeo (Duladeva) Hinduism Shiva 1125 Khajuraho Dulhadeo 2010.jpg
17 Ghantai Jainism Adinatha 960 A ruin, pillars at Khajuraho, India.jpg
18 Vishnu-Garuda Hinduism Vishnu 1000
19 Ganesha Hinduism Shiva 1000
20 Hanuman Hinduism Hanuman 922[55] Hanuman Inscription at Khajuraho.jpg
21 Mahishasuramardini Hinduism Mahishasuramardini 995 Khajuraho India, Lakshman Temple, Sculpture 10.JPG
22 Shantinatha temple Jainism Shantinatha 1027 Jain group of temples - Khajuraho 09.jpg
Arts and sculpture
Khajuraho temples are famous for their erotic arts. These constitute about 10% of total art displayed at the monuments.
Erotic sculptures
The Khajuraho temples feature a variety of art work, of which 10% is sexual or erotic art outside and inside the temples. Some of the temples that have two layers of walls have small erotic carvings on the outside of the inner wall. Some scholars suggest these to be tantric sexual practices.[56] Other scholars state that the erotic arts are part of Hindu tradition of treating kama as an essential and proper part of human life, and its symbolic or explicit display is common in Hindu temples.[6][57] James McConnachie, in his history of the Kamasutra, describes the sexual-themed Khajuraho sculptures as "the apogee of erotic art":
"Twisting, broad-hipped and high breasted nymphs display their generously contoured and bejewelled bodies on exquisitely worked exterior wall panels. These fleshy apsaras run riot across the surface of the stone, putting on make-up, washing their hair, playing games, dancing, and endlessly knotting and unknotting their girdles....Beside the heavenly nymphs are serried ranks of griffins, guardian deities and, most notoriously, extravagantly interlocked maithunas, or lovemaking couples."
Over 90% of the art work at the temple is about daily life and symbolic values in ancient Indian culture.
The temples have several thousand statues and art works, with Kandarya Mahadeva Temple alone decorated with over 870. Some 10% of these iconographic carvings contain sexual themes and various sexual poses. A common misconception is that, since the old structures with carvings in Khajuraho are temples, the carvings depict sex between deities;[58] however the kama arts represent diverse sexual expressions of different human beings.[59] The vast majority of arts depict various aspects the everyday life, mythical stories as well as symbolic display of various secular and spiritual values important in Hindu tradition.[3][6] For example, depictions show women putting on makeup, musicians making music, potters, farmers, and other folks in their daily life during the medieval era.[60] These scenes are in the outer padas as is typical in Hindu temples.
There is iconographic symbolism embedded in the arts displayed in Khajuraho temples.[6] Core Hindu values are expressed in multitude of ways. Even the Kama scenes, when seen in combination of sculptures that precede and follow, depict the spiritual themes such as moksha. In the words of Stella Kramrisch,
This state which is “like a man and woman in close embrace” is a symbol of moksa, final release or reunion of two principles, the essence (Purusha) and the nature (Prakriti).
— Stella Kramrisch, 1976[29]
The Khajuraho temples represent one expression of many forms of arts that flourished in Rajput kingdoms of India from 8th through 10th century CE. For example, contemporary with Khajuraho were the publications of poems and drama such as Prabodhacandrodaya, Karpuramanjari, Viddhasalabhanjika and Kavyamimansa.[61] Some of the themes expressed in these literary works are carved as sculpture in Khajuraho temples.[26][62] Some sculptures at the Khajuraho monuments dedicated to Vishnu include the Vyalas, which are hybrid imaginary animals with lions body, and are found in other Indian temples.[63] Some of these hybrid mythical art work include Vrik Vyala (hybrid of wolf and lion) and Gaja Vyala (hybrid of elephant and lion). These Vyalas may represent syncretic, creative combination of powers innate in the two.[64]
Tourism and cultural events
Temples layout map – Khajuraho Group of Monuments.
The temples in Khajuraho are broadly divided into three parts : the Eastern group, the Southern Group and the Western group of temples of which the Western group alone has the facility of an Audio guided tour wherein the tourists are guided through the seven eight temples. There is also an audio guided tour developed by the Archaeological Survey of India which includes a narration of the temple history and architecture.[65]
The Khajuraho Dance Festival is held every year in February.[66] It features various classical Indian dances set against the backdrop of the Chitragupta or Vishwanath Temples.
The Khajuraho temple complex offers a light and sound show every evening. The first show is in English language and the second one in Hindi. It is held in the open lawns in the temple complex, and has received mixed reviews.
The Madhya Pradesh Tourism Development has set up kiosks at the Khajuraho railway station, with tourist officers to provide information for Khajuraho visitors.
See also
List of megalithic sites
Jain temples of Khajuraho
Ajanta Caves
Badami Chalukya architecture
Western Chalukya architecture
Hindu temple
Madan Kamdev
Hemvati
Kama Sutra
Kamashastra
References
"World Heritage Day: Five must-visit sites in India".
Khajuraho Group of Monuments UNESCO World Heritage Site
Philip Wilkinson (2008), India: People, Place, Culture and History, ISBN 978-1405329040, pp 352-353
Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam, ed. India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 179.
Devangana Desai (2005), Khajuraho, Oxford University Press, Sixth Print, ISBN 978-0-19-565643-5
James Fergusson, Norther or Indo-Aryan Style - Khajuraho History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Updated by James Burgess and R. Phene Spiers (1910), Volume II, John Murray, London
"Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)". Census Commission of India. Archived from the original on 2004-06-16. Retrieved 2008-11-01.
Khajuraho airport AAI, Govt of India
G.S. Ghurye, Rajput Architecture, ISBN 978-8171544462, Reprint Year: 2005, pp 19-24
Sen, Sailendra (2013). A Textbook of Medieval Indian History. Primus Books. ISBN 9789380607344.
Devangana Desai 2005, p. 10.
also called Erakana
Mitra (1977), The early rulers of Khajuraho, ISBN 978-8120819979
J. Banerjea (1960), Khajuraho, Journal of the Asiatic Society, Vol. 2-3, pp 43-47
phonetically translated from Arabic sometimes as "Kajwara"
Director General of Archaeology in India (1959), Archaeological Survey of India, Ancient India, Issues 15-19, pp 45-46 (Archived: University of Michigan)
Arthur Cotterell (2011), Asia: A Concise History, Wiley, ISBN 978-0470825044, pp 184-185
Michael D. Willis, An Introduction to the Historical Geography of Gopakṣetra, Daśārṇa, and Jejākadeśa, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 51, No. 2 (1988), pp. 271-278; See also K.R. Qanungo (1965), Sher Shah and his times, Orient Longmans, OCLC 175212, pp 423-427
Trudy King et al., Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places, ISBN 978-1884964046, Routledge, pp 468-470
Alain Daniélou (2011), A Brief History of India, ISBN 978-1594770296, pp 221-227
Louise Nicholson (2007), India, National Geographic Society, ISBN 978-1426201448, see Chapter on Khajuraho
Krishna Deva (1990), Temples of Khajuraho, 2 Volumes, Archaelogical Survey of India, New Delhi
kharjUra Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
vAhaka Sanskrit English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany
Devangana Desai (1996), Chapter 7 - Puns and Enigmatic Language in Sculpture in The Religious Imagery of Khajuraho, Project for Indian Cultural Studies, Columbia University Archives
Rana Singh (2007), Landscape of sacred territory of Khajuraho, in City Society and Planning (Editors: Thakur, Pomeroy, et al), Volume 2, ISBN 978-8180694585, Chapter 18
Shobita Punja (1992), Divine Ecstasy - The Story of Khajuraho, Viking, New Delhi, ISBN 978-0670840274
Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0222-3
Ibn Battuta in his 1335 CE memoirs on Delhi Sultanate mentioned the temples to be near a mile long lake, modern water bodies are much smaller and separate lagoons; Director General of Archaeology in India (1959), Archaeological Survey of India, Ancient India, Issues 15-19, pp 45-46 (Archived: University of Michigan)
The number 64 is considered sacred in Hindu temple design and very common design basis; it is symbolic as it is both a square of 8 and a cube of 4.
Brahma temple is 19 feet square; Kandariya Mahadev has a four fused square grid; Matangeshvara temple is a 64 grid square; etc. See G.S. Ghurye, Rajput Architecture, ISBN 978-8171544462, Reprint Year: 2005, pp 19-25; and V.A. Smith (1879), "Observations on some Chandel Antiquities", Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 48, Part 1, pp 291-297
D Desai (1996), The religious imagery of Khajuraho, Project for Indian Cultural Studies, ISBN 978-8190018418
Desai states that Khajuraho and Orissa Hindu temples are distinctive in giving erotic kama images the same weight as others and by assigning important architectural position; in contrast, surviving sculpture from temples of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Mysore show that there kama and sexual images were assigned to insignificant parts of the temple; Meister suggests that this aspect of eroticism in temple design and equal weight reflects evolution of design ideas among Hindu artisans, with temples built in later medieval centuries placing equal weight and balance to kama; see Meister, Michael (1979). "Juncture and Conjunction: Punning and Temple Architecture". Artibus Asiae. 41 (2–3): 226–234. JSTOR 3249517. doi:10.2307/3249517.
Edmund Leach, The Harvey Lecture Series. The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture, Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Autumn, 1983), pp 243-264
Bettina Bäumer, A review, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 59, No. 1/2 (1999), pp. 138-140
Cunningham, Alexander (1880). Report of Tours in Bundelkhand and Malwa in 1874-75 and 1876-77. 8 Hastings Street, Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing. p. 22. Retrieved 8 May 2017.
James Fergusson, Jaina Architecture - Khajuraho History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Updated by James Burgess and R. Phene Spiers (1910), Volume II, John Murray, London
Meister, Michael W. (April–June 1979). "Maṇḍala and Practice in Nāgara Architecture in North India". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 99 (2): 204–219. JSTOR 602657. doi:10.2307/602657.
Meister, Michael (1983). "Geometry and Measure in Indian Temple Plans: Rectangular Temples". Artibus Asiae. 44 (4): 266–296. JSTOR 3249613. doi:10.2307/3249613.
Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor), ISBN 978-0710202345, Routledge, pp 68-69
Stella Kramrisch (1976), The Hindu Temple Volume 1, ISBN 81-208-0223-3
Meister, Michael W. (March 2006). "Mountain Temples and Temple-Mountains: Masrur". Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians. 65 (1): 26–49. JSTOR 25068237. doi:10.2307/25068237.
Meister, Michael W. (Autumn 1986). "On the Development of a Morphology for a Symbolic Architecture: India". RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology (12): 33–50. JSTOR 20166752.
Devangana Desai, Khajuraho, Oxford University Press Paperback (Sixth impression 2005) ISBN 978-0-19-565643-5
Rian et al (2007), Fractal geometry as the synthesis of Hindu cosmology in Kandariya Mahadev Temple, Khajuraho, Building and Environment, Vol 42, Issue 12, pp 4093-4107, doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2007.01.028
Trivedi, K. (1989). Hindu temples: models of a fractal universe. The Visual Computer, 5(4), 243-258
Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India, in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor), ISBN 978-0710202345, Routledge, Chapter 4
V.A. Smith, "Observations on some Chandel Antiquities", Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Volume 48, pp 290-291
"Lost Worlds of the Kama Sutra" History channel
"Lost Worlds of the Kama Sutra," History Channel
Lehner, Mark (1997) The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05084-8. pp. 202–225
Will Durant (1976), Our Oriental Heritage - The Story of Civilization, ISBN 978-0671548001, Simon & Schuster
From inscription or estimated from other evidence
Cunningham in Archaeological Survey Reports noted that one of two Hanuman statues bears an inscription of 868 CE
Rabe (2000), Secret Yantras and Erotic Display for Hindu Temples, Tantra in Practice (Editor: David White), ISBN 978-8120817784, Chapter 25, pp 434-446
See:
Heather Elgood (2000), Hinduism and the Religious Arts, ISBN 978-0304707393, Bloomsbury;
Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Volume 1, ISBN 81-208-0223-3, pp 92-96;
Alain Danielou (2001), The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism, ISBN 978-0892818549, pp 101-119
"Khajuraho". Liveindia.com. Retrieved on 2014-07-14.
Alain Danielou (2001), The Hindu Temple: Deification of Eroticism, ISBN 978-0892818549
George Michell, The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226532301, pp 117-123 and pp 56-58
L. H. Gray, Journal of American Society, Vol. 27
H.M. Woodward (1989), The Lakṣmaṇa Temple, Khajuraho, and Its Meanings, Ars Orientalis, Vol. 19, pp. 27-48
Smith, David (1 January 2013). "Monstrous Animals on Hindu Temples, with Special Reference to Khajuraho": 27–43. doi:10.1558/rosa.v7i1-3.27. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
The Lakṣmaṇa Temple, Khajuraho, and Its Meanings, Hiram W. Woodward, Jr., Ars Orientalis, Vol. 19, (1989), pp. 27-48
Tourists to Khajuraho will now have an audio compass The Times of India (25 August 2011)
Khajuraho Festival of Dances
I was so tempted to buy the whole collection, just out of curiosity... The luggage fee convinced me that it wasn't such a good idea.
A text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Rufous-collared Sparrow (Zonotrichia capensis)
The Rufous-collared Sparrow, Zonotrichia capensis, is an American sparrow which breeds in highlands from the extreme southeast of Mexico to Tierra del Fuego, and on Hispaniola.
This abundant bird is found typically at altitudes between 600 and 4000m, locally lower, in open areas including cultivation, gardens, parks and scrubby second growth. It copes well with urban and suburban environments, but is absent from the Amazon basin. The nest, built by the female, is a cup of plant material lined with fine grasses. It is constructed in matted vegetation on the ground, low in a tree or bush, or lin a niche in a wall. The female lays two or three brown-blotched greenish-blue eggs, which she incubates for 12-14 days. The male helps in feeding the chicks.
The Rufous-collared Sparrow is 13.5-15 cm long and weighs 20-25 g. The adult has a stubby grey bill and a grey head with broad black stripes on the crown sides and thinner stripes through the eye and below the cheeks. The nape and breast sides are rufous and the upperpart are black-streaked buff-brown. There are two white wing bars. The throat is white, and the underparts are off-white, becoming brown on the flanks and with a black breast patch.
Young birds have a duller, indistinct head pattern, with brown stripes and a buff ground colour. They lack the rufous colllar, and have streaked underparts.
There are between 25 and 29 subspecies. In general, the smaller forms occur in coastal mountains, intermmediate birds in the Andes, and large, darker, forms breed on the tepuis. The largest tepui subspecies, Z. c. perezchincillae has grey underparts, and the rufous collar extends as a black band of freckles across the breast. This form might be separable as a distinct species.
The Rufous-collared Sparrow has extensive geograpical variation in its vocalisations (see section below), but calls include a sharp tsip. The male’s song, given from a low perch, typically includes slurred whistles with or without a final trill, tee-teeooo, e’e’e’e’e, or teeooo, teeeee.
The Rufous-collared Sparrow feeds on the ground on seeds, fallen grain, insects and spiders. It is usually in pairs which hold small teritories or in small flocks. It is tame and approachable.
* Byers, Olsson and Curson, Buntings and Sparrows ISBN 1-873403-19-4
* Hilty, Birds of Venezuela, ISBN 0-7136-6418-5
* Stiles and Skutch, A guide to the birds of Costa Rica, ISBN 0-8014-9600-4
* Handford, Paul. 2005 Latin accents: song dialects in a South American sparrow. Birding 37(5): 510-519.
Textos em português:
Tico-Tico (Zonotrichia capensis) - Rufous-collared Sparrow.
Muito obrigado, mais uma vez, ao Marcus pela identificação deste passarinho.
15cm. Identificação: lembra um pouco o pardal, mas apresenta listras branco e pretas no topo da cabeça e um pequeno topete.
É uma ave muito conhecida , presente até mesmo em músicas populares, o tico-tico é bem conhecido não só por ser comum, mas também por não ter medo do ser humano. Nada arisco, é possível chegar a poucos metros desta ave sem que ela se incomode e em locais onde está acostumada pode até mesmo comer na mão.
Alimenta-se de pequenos invertebrados, sementes e pequenos frutos. Aprende a comer em comedouros artificiais, chegando ate mesmo a entrar em casas.
Muito comum em fazendas, também ocorre em cidades, contanto que sejam bem arborizadas.
Os machos são territoriais e podem brigar entre si. Chegam até mesmo a brigar contra a própria imagem refletida em vidros e espelhos retrovisores de carros.
O ninho é geralmente construído em árvores baixas ou trepadeiras, podendo ser até mesmo construído diretamente no chão. A fêmea alimenta os filhotes sozinha.
É a principal vítima do chopim ( Molothrus bonariensis ), que bota seus ovos no ninho do tico-tico, que os choca e alimenta os filhotes como se fossem seus. Os filhotes de chopim, muito maiores e mais fortes matam os ``irmãos´´ tico-ticos. Chega a ser revoltante ver a fêmea de tico-tico alimentando os filhotes de chopim, maiores que ela própria e implorando por comida o tempo todo.
A população do tico-tico tem decaído em alguns locais como na cidade de São Paulo e esta decadência tem sido atribuída, entre outros possíveis fatores, ao aumento na população dos chopins.
Texto do site Biblioteca Digital de Ciências, no endereço: www.bdc.ib.unicamp.br/lte/visualizar_material.php?id_mate...
Enviado em 22/02/2007, 16:34 por Rodrigo Girardi Santiago
Esta espécie é muito conhecida pelo seu constante convívio com o ser humano. Seu canto diurno tem 4 ou 5 assobios claros e bem pronunciados e à noite, ou em situações de perigo, mesmo durante o dia, emite o chamado canto noturno que é forte e diferente do primeiro.
Alimentação: sementes e insetos, apanhados geralmente no solo onde se movimenta aos pulinhos.
Nidificação: constróem o ninho, em forma de tijela, em arbustos, moitas de capins, barrancos e mesmo no chão. Utilizam raízes e ramos no trançado externo. Os 3 a 5 ovos medem cerca de 21 mm x 15 mm e são verde-amarelados claros cobertos por pontos pardo-avermelhados ou cor-de-vinho. Após 12 ou 13 dias de incubação, os filhotes, ao nascer, são alimentados pelos pais por uma esfera de artrópodes amassados; à medida que crescem, passam a receber insetos inteiros presos às maxilas dos pais. Os filhotes abandonam o ninho 9 a 12 dias após o nascimento, tornando-se independentes com cerca de 20 a 30 dias de vida. Os ninhos de tico-tico são fortemente parasitados pelo chopim (Molothrus bonariensis), sendo esta uma das possíveis causas do declínio de suas populações, outrora muito mais numerosas.
Hábitat: áreas abertas como campos, jardins e praças urbanas com vegetação.
Fonte: HOFLING, E. e ALMEIDA, H. F., "Aves do Campus", EDUSP, 1995.
www.fsc.ufsc.br/~canzian/bau/passaro/avesurbanas/tico-tic...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Rencontres d'Arles
The Rencontres d’Arles (formerly called Rencontres internationales de la photographie d’Arles) is an annual summer photography festival founded in 1970 by the Arles photographer Lucien Clergue, the writer Michel Tournier and the historian Jean-Maurice Rouquette.
The Rencontres d’Arles has an international impact by showing material that has never been seen by the public before. In 2015, the festival welcomed 93,000 visitors.
The specially designed exhibitions, often organised in collaboration with French and foreign museums and institutions, take place in various historic sites. Some venues, such as 12th-century chapels or 19th-century industrial buildings, are open to the public throughout the festival.
The Rencontres d’Arles has revealed many photographers, confirming its significance as a springboard for photography and contemporary creativity.
In recent years the Rencontres d’Arles has invited many guest curators and entrusted some of its programming to such figures as Martin Parr in 2004, Raymond Depardon in 2006 and the Arles-born fashion designer Christian Lacroix.
Contents
1 Art directors
2 The festival
3 The Rencontres d'Arles award winners
4 Exhibitions
5 References
6 External links
Art directors
A photographer, Jean-Pierre Sudre, discussing his work, Rencontres d'Arles, 1975
1970 - 1972: Lucien Clergue, Michel Tournier, Jean-Maurice Rouquette
1973 - 1976: Lucien Clergue
1977: Bernard Perrine
1978: Jacques Manachem
1979 - 1982: Alain Desvergnes (fr)
1983 - 1985: Lucien Clergue
1986 - 1987: François Hébel
1988 - 1989: Claude Hudelot (fr)
1990: Agnès de Gouvion Saint-Cyr
1991 - 1993: Louis Mesplé (fr)
1994: Lucien Clergue
1995 - 1998, délégué général: Bernard Millet (fr)
1995, artistic director: Michel Nuridsany (fr)
1996, artistic director: Joan Fontcuberta
1997, artistic director: Christian Caujolle (fr)
1998, artistic director: Giovanna Calvenzi
1999 - 2001: Gilles Mora (fr)
2002 - 2014: François Hébel
Since 2015: Sam Stourdzé (fr)
The festival
A photography exhibition, Rencontres d'Arles, 2010
Events
Opening week at the Rencontres d’Arles features photography-focused events (projections at night, exhibition tours, panel discussions, symposia, parties, book signings, etc.) in the town’s historic venues, some of which are only open to the public during the festival. Memorable events in recent years include Europe Night (2008), an overview of European photography; Christian Lacroix’s fashion show for the festival’s closing (2008); and Patti Smith’s concert for the Vu agency’s 20th anniversary (2006).
Nights at the Roman Theatre
At night, work by a photographer or a photography expert is projected in the town’s open-air Roman theatre accompanied by concerts and performances. Each event is a one-off creation. In 2009, 8,500 people attended evenings at the Roman theatre, an average of 2,000 a night, and 2,500 were there on closing night, when the Tiger Lilies played during a projection of Nan Goldin’s “The Ballad of Sexual Dependency”. In 2013 over 6,000 people attended the nighttime photography projections, an average of approximately 1,000 each night.
The Night of the Year
The Night of the Year, which was created in 2006, allows visitors to walk around and see the festival’s favourite works by artists and photographers as well as carte blanche exhibitions by institutions.
Cosmos-Arles Books
Cosmos-Arles Books is a Rencontres d’Arles satellite event dedicated to new publishing practices.
Over the past 15 years large-scale photographic publications, self-published books, and ebooks have become essential media for experimentation by photographers and artists. They allow photography to be rediscovered as a means of expression and distribution, providing a rich terrain of expression for the art’s fundamentally hybrid forms.
Symposia and panel discussions
Photographers and professionals participating in symposia and panel discussions during opening week discuss their work or issues raised by the images on display. In recent years the themes included whether a black-and-white aesthetic is still conceivable in photography (2013); the impact of social networks on creativity and information (2011); breaking with past, a key idea for photography today (2009); photography commissions: freedom or constraint (2008); challenges and changes in the photography market (2007).
The Rencontres d’Arles awards
Since 2002 the Rencontres d’Arles awards have been an opportunity to discover new talents. In 2007 the number of annual awards was reduced to three, presented at the closing ceremony of the festival’s professional week: the Discovery Award (€25,000), Author’s Book Award (€8,000) and History Book Award (€8,000).
Luma Rencontres Dummy Book Award
In 2015 the Rencontres d’Arles offered an award to assist with the publication of a dummy book. Endowed with a €25,000 budget production budget, this new prize is open to all photographers and artists using photography who submit a dummy book that has never been published.
The winner’s book will be produced in autumn 2015 and be presented at the 2016 Rencontres d’Arles.
Photo Folio Review & Gallery
Since 2006 aspiring photographers have been able to submit their portfolios to international photography experts in various fields, including publishers, exhibition curators, heads of institutions, agency directors, gallery owners, collectors, critics and photo editors, for appraisal during the festival’s opening week. Photo Folio Review & Gallery offers them an opportunity to show their work throughout the festival.
Photography classes
The Rencontres d’Arles has always been a place where professional photographers and practitioners on every level have been able to meet each other and exchange ideas. Each year, photography class participants undertake a personal journey of creation through photography’s aesthetic, ethical and technological issues. Leading photographers such as Guy le Querrec, Antoine d’Agata, Martin Parr, René Burri and Joan Fontcuberta regularly teach at the Rencontres d’Arles.
Rentrée en Images
“Rentrée en Images” has been a key part of the festival’s educational activities since 2004. During the first two weeks in September, special mediators take students from the primary to graduate school level on guided tours of the exhibitions. Based on the festival’s programming, the event aims to introduce young people to the visual arts and fits in with a wider policy of cultural democratisation. “Rentrée en Images” reaches thousands of students, and for many of them it is their first exposure to contemporary art.
Budget
Public funding accounted for 40% of the 2015 festival’s €6.3-million budget, sales (mainly of tickets and derivative products), 40% and private partnerships, 20%[clarification needed][citation needed].
Executive Committee
Hubert Védrine, president
Hervé Schiavetti, vice-president
Jean-François Dubos, vice-president
Marin Karmitz, treasurer
Françoise Nyssen, secretary
Lucien Clergue, Jean-Maurice Rouquette, Michel Tournier, founding members
The Rencontres d'Arles award winners
2002
Jury: Denis Curti, Alberto Anault, Alice Rose George, Manfred Heiting, Erik Kessels, Claudine Maugendre, Val Williams
Discovery Award: Peter Granser
No Limit award: Jacqueline Hassink
Dialogue of the humanity award: Tom Wood
Photographer of the year award: Roger Ballen
Help to the project: Pascal Aimar, Chris Shaw
Author’s Book Award: Sibusiso Mbhele and His Fish Helicopter by Koto Bolofo (powerHouse Books, 2002)
Help to publishing: Une histoire sans nom by Anne-Lise Broyer
2003
Jury: Giovanna Calvenzi, Hou Hanru, Christine Macel, Anna Lisa Milella, Urs Stahel
Discovery Award: Zijah Gafic
No Limit award: Thomas Demand
Dialogue of the humanity award: Fazal Sheikh
Photographer of the year award: Anders Petersen
Help to the project: Jitka Hanzlova
Author’s Book Award: Hide That Can by Deirdre O’Callaghan (Trolley Books, 2002)
Help to publishing: A Personal Diary of Chinese Avant-Garde in the 1990s, China (1993-1998) by Xing Danwen
2004
Jury: Eikoh Hosoe, Joan Fontcuberta, Tod Papageorge, Elaine Constantine, Antoine d’Agata
Discovery Award: Yasu Suzuka
No Limit award: Jonathan de Villiers
Dialogue of the humanity award: Edward Burtynsky
Help to the project: John Stathatos
Author’s Book Award: Particulars by David Goldblatt (Goodman Gallery, 2003)
2005
Jury: Ute Eskildsen, Jean-Louis Froment, Michel Mallard, Kathy Ryan, Marta Gili
Discovery Award: Miroslav Tichy
No Limit award: Mathieu Bernard-Reymond
Dialogue of the humanity award: Simon Norfolk
Help to the project: Anna Malagrida
Author’s Book Award: Temporary Discomfort (Chapter I-V) by Jules Spinatsch (Lars Müller Publishers, 2005)
2006
Jury: Vincent Lavoie, Abdoulaye Konaté, Yto Barrada, Marc-Olivier Wahler, Alain d’Hooghe
Discovery Award: Alessandra Sanguinetti
No Limit award: Randa Mirza
Dialogue of the humanity award: Wang Qingsong
Help to the project: Walid Raad
Author’s Book Award: Form aus Licht und Schatten by Heinz Hajek-Halke (Steidl, 2005)
2007
[1]
Jury: Bice Curiger, Alain Fleischer, Johan Sjöström, Thomas Weski, Anne Wilkes Tucker
Discovery Award: Laura Henno
Author’s Book Award: Empty Bottles by WassinkLundgren (Thijs groot Wassink and Ruben Lundgren) (Veenman Publishers, 2007)
Historical Book Award: László Moholy-Nagy: Color in Transparency: Photographic Experiments in Color, 1934–1946 by Jeannine Fiedler (Steidl & Bauhaus-Archiv, 2006)
2008
[2]
Jury: Elisabeth Biondi, Luis Venegas, Nathalie Ours, Caroline Issa and Massoud Golsorkhi, Carla Sozzani
Discovery Award: Pieter Hugo
Author’s Book Award: Strange and Singular by Michael Abrams (Loosestrife, 2007)
Historical Book Award: Nein, Onkel: Snapshots from Another Front 1938–1945 by Ed Jones and Timothy Prus (Archive of Modern Conflict, 2007)
2009
[3]
Jury: Lucien Clergue, Bernard Perrine, Alain Desvergnes, Claude Hudelot, Agnès de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, Louis Mesplé, Bernard Millet, Michel Nuridsany, Joan Fontcuberta, Christian Caujolle, Giovanna Calvenzi, Martin Parr, Christian Lacroix, Arnaud Claass, Christian Milovanoff
Discovery Award: Rimaldas Viksraitis
Author’s Book Award: From Back Home by Anders Petersen and JH Engström (Bokförlaget Max Ström, 2009)
Historical Book Award: In History by Susan Meiselas (Steidl and International Center of Photography, 2008)
2010
[4] [5]
Discovery Award: Taryn Simon
LUMA award: Trisha Donnelly
Author’s Book Award: Photography 1965–74 by Yutaka Takanashi (Only Photograph, 2010)
Historical Book Award: Les livres de photographies japonais des années 1960 et 1970 by Ryuichi Kaneko and Ivan Vartanian (Seuil, 2009)
2011
[6] [7]
Discovery Award: Mikhael Subotzky and Patrick Waterhouse[8]
Author’s Book Award: A Living Man Declared Dead and Other Chapters by Taryn Simon (Mack, 2011)[8]
Historical Book Award: Works by Lewis Baltz (Steidl, 2010)[8]
2012
[9] [10] [11]
Discovery Award: Jonathan Torgovnik
Author’s Book Award: Redheaded Peckerwood by Christian Patterson (Mack, 2011)
Historical Book Award: Les livres de photographie d’Amérique latine by Horacio Fernández (Images en Manœuvres Éditions, 2011)
2013
Discovery Award: Yasmine Eid-Sabbagh and Rozenn Quéré
Author’s Book Award: Anticorps by Antoine d’Agata (Xavier Barral & Le Bal[disambiguation needed], 2013)[12]
Historical Book Award: AOI [COD.19.1.1.43] – A27 [S | COD.23 by Rosângela Rennó (Self-published, 2013)
2014
Discovery Award: Zhang Kechun
Author’s Book Award: Hidden Islam by Nicolo Degiorgis (Rorhof, 2014)
Historical Book Award: Paris mortel retouché by Johan van der Keuken (Van Zoetendaal Publishers, 2013)
2015
Discovery Award: Pauline Fargue
Author’s Book Award: H. said he loved us by Tommaso Tanini (Discipula Editions, 2014)
Historical Book Award: Monograph Vitas Luckus. Works & Biography by Margarita Matulytė and Tatjana Luckiene-Aldag (Kaunas Photography Gallery and Lithuanian Art Museum, 2014)
Dummy Book Award: The Jungle Book by Yann Gross
Photo Folio Review: Piero Martinelo (winner); Charlotte Abramow, Martin Essi, Elin Høyland, Laurent Kronenthal (special mentions)
2016
Discovery Award: Sarah Waiswa
Author’s Book Award: Taking Off. Henry My Neighbor by Mariken Wessels (Art Paper Editions, 2015)
Historical Book Award: (in matters of) Karl by Annette Behrens (Fw: Books, 2015)
Photo-Text Award: Negative Publicity: Artefacts of Extraordinary Rendition by Edmund Clark and Crofton Black (Aperture, 2015)
Dummy Book Award: You and Me: A project between Bosnia, Germany and the US by Katja Stuke and Oliver Sieber
Photo Folio Review: David Fathi (winner); Sonja Hamad, Eric Leleu, Karolina Paatos, Maija Tammi (special mentions)
2017
[13]
Discovery Award: Carlos Ayesta and Guillaume Bression
Author's Book Award: Ville de Calais by Henk Wildschut (self-published, 2017)
Special Mention for Author's Book Award: Gaza Works by Kent Klich (Koenig, 2017)
Historical Book Award: Latif Al Ani by Latif Al Ani (Hannibal Publishing, 2017)
Photo-Text Award: The Movement of Clouds around Mount Fuji by Masanao Abe and Helmut Völter (Spector Books, 2016)
Dummy Book Award: Grozny: Nine Cities by Olga Kravets, Maria Morina, and Oksana Yushko
Photo Folio Review: Aurore Valade (winner); Haley Morris Cafiero, Alexandra Lethbridge, Charlotte Abramow, Catherine Leutenegger (special mentions)
Exhibitions
1970
Gjon Mili, Edward Weston, ...
1971
Pedro Luis Raota, Charles Vaucher, Olivier Gagliani, Steve Soltar, Judy Dater, Jack Welpott, Gordon Bennett, John Weir, Linda Connor, Neal White, Jean-Claude Gautrand, Jean Rouet, Pierre Riehl, Roger Doloy, Georges Guilpin, Alain Perceval, Jean-Louis Viel, Jean-Luc Tartarin, Frédéric Barzilay, Jean-Claude Bernath, André Recoules, Etienne-Bertrand Weill, Rodolphe Proverbio, Jean Dieuzaide, Paul Caponigro, Jerry Uelsmann, Heinz Hajek-Halke, Rinaldo Prieri, Jean-Pierre Sudre, Denis Brihat, …
1972
Hiro, Lucien Clergue, Eugène Atget, Bruce Davidson, …
1973
Imogen Cunningham, Linda Connor, Judy Dater, Allan Porter, Paul Strand, Edward S. Curtis, …
1974
Brassaï, Ansel Adams, Georges A. Tice, …
1975
Agence Viva, André Kertész, Yousuf Karsh, Robert Doisneau, Lucien Clergue, Jean Dieuzaide, Ralph Gibson, Charles Harbutt, Tania Kaleya, Eva Rubinstein, Michel Saint Jean, Kishin Shinoyama, Hélène Théret, Georges Tourdjman, …
1976
Ernst Haas, Bill Brandt, Man Ray, Marc Riboud, Agence Magnum, Eikō Hosoe, Judy Dater, Jack Welpott, Doug Stewart, Duane Michals, Leslie Krims, Bob Mazzer, Horner, S. Sykes, David Hurn, Mary Ellen Mark, René Groebli, Guy Le Querrec, …
1977
Will Mac Bride, Paul Caponigro, Neal Slavin, Max Waldman, Dennis Stock, Josef Sudek, Harry Callahan, R. Benvenisti, P. Carroll, William Christenberry, S. Ciccone, W. Eggleston, R. Embrey, B. Evans, R. Gibson, D. Grégory, F. Horvat, W. Krupsan, W. Larson, U. Mark, J. Meyerowitz, S. Shore, N. Slavin, L. Sloan-Théodore, J. Sternfeld, R. Wol, …
1978
Lisette Model, Izis, William Klein, Hervé Gloaguen, Yan Le Goff, Serge Gal, Marc Tulane, Lionel Jullian, Alain Gualina, …
1979
David Burnett, Mary Ellen Mark, Jean-Pierre Laffont, Abbas, Pedro Meyer, Yves Jeanmougin, Manuel Alvarez Bravo, …
1980
Willy Ronis, Arnold Newman, Jay Maisel, Christian Vogt, Ben Fernandez, Julia Pirotte, …
1981
Guy Bourdin, Steve Hiett, Sarah Moon and Dan Weeks, Art Kane, Cheyco Leidman, André Martin, François Kollar, …
1982
Willy Zielke, Henri Cartier-Bresson, Alexey Brodovitch, Robert Frank, William Klein, Max Pam, Bernard Plossu, …
1983
Robert Rauschenberg, Bruce Davidson, …
1984
Jean Dieuzaide, Marilyn Bridges, Mario Giacomelli, Augusto De Luca, Joyce Tenneson, Luigi Ghirri, Albato Guatti, Mario Samarughi, Arman, Raoul Ubac, …
1985
David Hockney, Fritz Gruber, Franco Fontana, Milton Rogovin, Gilles Peress, Jane Evelyn Atwood, Eugene Richards, Sebastião Salgado, Robert Capa, Lucien Hervé, …
1986
Collection Graham Nash, Annie Leibovitz, Sebastião Salgado, Martin Parr, Robert Doisneau, Paulo Nozolino, Ugo Mulas, Bruce Gilden, Georges Rousse, Peter Knapp, Max Pam, Miguel Rio Branco, Michelle Debat, Andy Summers, Baron Wolman. …
1987
Brian Griffin, Dominique Issermann, Nan Goldin, Max Vadukul, Gabriele Basilico, Paul Graham, Thomas Florschuetz, Gianni Berengo Gardin, … Autres invités des Rencontres 88: Hans Namuth, Jean-Marc Tingaud, Mary Ellen Mark, Charles Camberoque, Martine Voyeux, Marie-Paule Nègre, Xavier Lambours, Patrick Zachmann, Jean-Marie Del Moral, Nittin Vadukul, Jean Larivière, Bruce Weber, Germaine Krull, Jean-Paul Goude, Jean-Louis Boissier, Sandra Petrillo, Daniel Schwartz, Laurent Septier, Jean-Marc Zaorski, Bernard Descamps, Marc Garanger, Yan Layma, Michel Delaborde, Michel Semeniako, Françoise Huguier, Paolo Calia, Deborah Turbeville, Gundunla Schulze. Ainsi que Henri Alekan, Arielle Dombasle, Jacques Séguéla, Roland Topor, Serge July, Lucinda Childs, invited to comment on their private screening at parties in Roman Theatre, where Christian Lacroix organised a show.
1988
La danse, la Chine, la pub. Chinese photography is presented for the first time abroad as a major exhibition with 40 Chinese photographers, including Wu Yinxian, Zhang Hai-er, Chen Baosheng, Ling Fei, Xia Yonglie, curated by Karl Kugel, co-director of the film China: Inner views / Chine: vues intérieures, released at the opening of the festival. Most major photographers who have covered this country are also present either in the exhibition of Magnum Photos, curated by François Hébel, either in solo exhibitions, such as Marc Riboud ou de Jeanloup Sieff.
1989
Arles fête ses vingt ans (1969-1989); with Lucien Clergue, Lee Friedlander, Cristina García Rodero, John Demos, Philippe Bazin, George Hashigushi, Eduardo Masférré, Hervé Gloaguen, Elizabeth Sunday, Pierre de Vallombreuse, Robert Frank's The lines of My Hand (commissioned by Charles-Henri Favrod); in honour of Pierre de Fenoÿl; Julio Mitchel, Roland Schneider, Rafael Vargas, John Phillips, Annette Messager, Christian Boltanski, la collection Bonnemaison, Javier Vallhonrat, Thierry Girard, Dennis Hopper. Exhibition Ils annoncent la couleur with Stéphane Sednaoui, Jean-Baptiste Mondino, Max Vadukul, Nick Night, Nigel Shafran, Tony Viramontes, Cindy Palmano; commissioned by Marc Vascoli. Exposition et soirée Deep South with Robert Frank, Bruce Davidson, Duane Michals, Gordon Parks, Alain Desvergnes, Gilles Mora, Paul Kwilecki, William Christenberry, William Eggleston, Marylin Futtermann, Debbie Fleming Caffery, Fern Koch, Jay Leviton, Eudora Welty; commissioned by Gilles Mora.
1990
Volker Hinz, Erasmus Schröter, Stéphane Duroy, Raymond Depardon, Frédéric Brenner, Drtikol, Saudek, …
1991
Tina Modotti, Edward Weston, Graciela Iturbide, Martín Chambi, Sergio Larrain, Sebastião Salgado, Juan Rulfo, Miguel Rio Branco, Eric Poitevin, Alberto Schommer, …
1992
Don McCullin, Dieter Appelt, Béatrix Von Conta, Denise Colomb, José Ortiz-Echagüe, Wout Berger, Thibaut Cuisset, Knut W. Maron, John Statathos, …
1993
Richard Avedon, Larry Fink, Ernest Pignon-Ernest, Cecil Beaton, Raymonde April, Koji Inove, Louis Jammes, Eiichiro Sakata, …
1994
Andres Serrano, Roger Pic, Marc Riboud, Bogdan Konopka, Sarah Moon, Pierre et Gilles, Marie-Paule Nègre, Edward Steichen and Josef Sudek, Robert Doisneau, André Kertész, …
1995
Alain Fleischer, Roger Ballen, Noda, Toyoura, Slocombe, Nam June Paik, France Bourély. …
1996
Ralph Eugene Meatyard, William Wegman, Grete Stern, Paolo Gioli, Nancy Burson, John Stathatos, Sophie Calle, Luigi Ghirri, Pierre Cordier, …
1997
Collection Marion Lambert, Eugene Richards, Mathieu Pernot, Aziz + Cucher, Jochen Gerz, Antoni Muntadas, Ricard Terré, …
1998
David LaChapelle, Herbert Spring, Mike Disfarmer, Francesca Woodman, Federico Patellani, Massimo Vitali, Dieter Appelt, Samuel Fosso, Urs Lu.thi, Pierre Molinier, Yasumasa Morimura, Roman Opalka, Cindy Sherman, Sophie Weibel, …
1999
Lee Friedlander, Walker Evans, …
2000
Tina Modotti, Jakob Tuggener, Peter Sakaer, Masahisa Fukase, Herbert Matter, Robert Heinecken, Jean-Michel Alberola, Tom Drahaos, Willy Ronis, Frederick Sommer, Lucien Clergue, Sophie Calle, …
2001
Luc Delahaye, Patrick Tosani, Stéphane Couturier, David Rosenfeld, James Casebere, Peter Lindbergh, …
2002
Guillaume Herbaut, Baader Meinhof, Astrid Proll, Josef Koudelka, Gabriele Basilico, Rineke Dijkstra, Lise Sarfati, Jochen Gerz, Collection Ordoñez Falcon, Larry Sultan, Alex Mac Lean, Alastair Thain, Raeda Saadeh, Zineb Sedira, Serguei Tchilikov, Jem Southam, Alexey Titarenko, Andreas Magdanz, Sophie Ristelhueber, …
2003
Collection Claude Berri, Lin Tianmiao & Wang Gongxin, Xin Danwen, Gao Bo, Shao Yinong & Mu Chen, Hong Li, Hai Bo, Chen Lingyang, Ma Liuming, Hong Hao, Naoya Hatakeyama, Roman Opalka, Jean-Pierre Sudre, Suzanne Lafont, Corinne Mercadier, Adam Bartos, Marie Le Mounier, Yves Chaudouët, Galerie VU, Harry Gruyaert, Vincenzo Castella, Alain Willaume, François Halard, Donovan Wylie, Jérôme Brézillon & Nicolas Guiraud, Jean-Daniel Berclaz, Monique Deregibus, Youssef Nabil, Tina Barney, …
2004
Dayanita Singh, Les archives du ghetto de Lodz, Stephen Gill, Oleg Kulik, Arsen Savadov, Keith Arnatt, Raphaël Dallaporta, Taiji Matsue, Tony Ray-Jones, Osamu Kanemura, Kawauchi Rinko, Chris Killip, Chris Shaw, Kimura Ihei, Neeta Madahar, Frank Breuer, Hans van der Meer, James Mollison, Chris Killip, Mathieu Pernot, Paul Shambroom, Katy Grannan, Lucien Clergue, AES + F, György Lörinczy, …
2005
Collection William M. Hunt, Miguel Rio Branco, Thomas Dworzak, Alex Majoli, Paolo Pellegrin, Ilkka Uimonen, Barry Frydlender, David Tartakover, Michal Heiman, Denis Rouvre, Denis Darzacq, David Balicki, Joan Fontcuberta, Christer Strömholm, Keld Helmer-Petersen, …
2006
La photographie américaine à travers les collections françaises, Robert Adams, Cornell Capa, Gilles Caron, Don McCullin, Guy Le Querrec, Susan Meiselas, Julien Chapsal, Michael Ackerman, David Burnett, Lise Sarfati, Sophie Ristelhueber, Dominique Issermann, Jean Gaumy, Daniel Angeli, Paul Graham, Claudine Doury, Jean-Christophe Bechet, David Goldblatt, Anders Petersen, Philippe Chancel, Meyer, Olivier Culmann, Gilles Coulon, …
2007
The 60th year of Magnum Photos, Pannonica de Koenigswarter, Le Studio Zuber, Collections d’Albums Indiens de la Collection Alkazi, Alberto Garcia-Alix, Raghu Rai, Dayanita Singh, Nony Singh, Sunil Gupta, Anay Mann, Pablo Bartholomew Bharat Sikka, Jeetin Sharma, Siya Singh, Huang Rui, Gao Brothers, RongRong & inri, Liu Bolin, JR, …
2008
Richard Avedon, Grégoire Alexandre, Joël Bartoloméo, Achinto Bhadra, Jean-Christian Bourcart, Samuel Fosso, Charles Fréger, Pierre Gonnord, Françoise Huguier, Grégoire Korganow, Peter Lindbergh, Guido Mocafico, Henri Roger, Paolo Roversi, Joachim Schmid, Nigel Shafran,[14] Georges Tony Stoll, Patrick Swirc, Tim Walker, Vanessa Winship, …
2009
Robert Delpire, Willy Ronis, Jean-Claude Lemagny, Lucien Clergue, Elger Esser, Roni Horn, Duane Michals, Nan Goldin (invitée d'honneur), Brian Griffin, Naoya Hatakeyama, JH Engström, David Armstrong, Eugene Richards[15] (The Blue Room), Martin Parr, Paolo Nozolino, …[16]
2010
Robert Mapplethorpe[17] Lea Golda Holterman[18]
2011
Chris Marker, photos du New York Times, Robert Capa, Wang Qingsong, Dulce Pinzon, JR, ...
2012
Les 30 ans de l'ENSP, Josef Koudelka, Amos Gitai, Klavdij Sluban & Laurent Tixador, Arnaud Claass,[19] Grégoire Alexandre, Édouard Beau, Jean-Christophe Béchet, Olivier Cablat, Sébastien Calvet, Monique Deregibus & Arno Gisinger, Vincent Fournier, Marina Gadonneix, Valérie Jouve, Sunghee Lee, Isabelle Le Minh, Mireille Loup, Alexandre Maubert, Mehdi Meddaci, Collection Jan Mulder, Alain Desvergnes,[20] Olivier Metzger, Joséphine Michel, Erwan Morère, Tadashi Ono, Bruno Serralongue, Dorothée Smith, Bertrand Stofleth & Geoffroy Mathieu, Pétur Thomsen, Jean-Louis Tornato, Aurore Valade, Christian Milovanoff,[21]
2013
Hiroshi Sugimoto, Sergio Larrain, Guy Bourdin, Alfredo Jaar,[22] John Stezaker,[23] Wolfgang Tillmans,[24] Viviane Sassen,[25] Jean-Michel Fauquet, Arno Rafael Minkkinen, Miguel Angel Rojas, Pieter Hugo,[26] Michel Vanden Eeckhoudt, Xavier Barral,[27] John Davis, Antoine Gonin,[28] Thabiso Sekgala, Philippe Chancel, Raphaël Dallaporta, Alain Willaume, Cedric Nunn, Santu Mofokeng, Harry Gruyaert, Jo Ractliffe, Zanele Muholi, Patrick Tourneboeuf, Thibaut Cuisset, Antoine Cairns, Jean-Louis Courtinat, Christina de Middel, Stéphane Couturier, Frédéric Nauczyciel, Jacques Henri Lartigue, Pierre Jamet, Raynal Pellicer, Studio Fouad, Erik Kessels.
2014
Lucien Clergue, Christian Lacroix, Raymond Depardon, Léon Gimpel, David Bailey, Vik Muniz, Patrick Swirc, Denis Rouvre, Vincent Pérez, Chema Madoz, Élise Mazac, Robert Drowilal, Anouck Durand, Refik Vesei, Pleurat Sulo, Katjusha Kumi,Ilit Azoulay, Katharina Gaenssler, Miguel Mitlag, Victor Robledo, Youngsoo Han, Kechun Zhang, Pieter Ten Hoopen, Will Steacy, Kudzanai Chiurai, Patrick Willocq, Ciril Jazbec, Milou Abel, Sema Bekirovic, Melanie Bonajo, Hans de Vries, Hans Eijkelboom, Erik Fens, Jos Houweling, Hans van der Meer, Maurice van Es, Benoît Aquin, Luc Delahaye, Mitch Epstein, Nadav Kander.
2015
Walker Evans, Stephen Shore, Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown, Toon Michiels, Olivier Cablat, Markus Brunetti, Paul Ronald, Sandro Miller, Eikoh Hosoe, Masahisa Fukase, Daido Moriyama, Masatoshi Naito, Issei Suda, Kou Inose, Sakiko Nomura, Daisuke Yokota, Martin Gusinde, Paolo Woods, Gabriele Galimberti, Natasha Caruana, Alex Majoli, Paolo Pellegrin, Ambroise Tézenas, Thierry Bouët, Anna Orlowska, Vlad Krasnoshchok, Sergiy Lebedynskyy, Vadym Trykoz, Lisa Barnard, Robert Zhao Renhui, Pauline Fargue, Julián Barón, Delphine Chanet, Omar Victor Diop, Paola Pasquaretta, Niccolò Benetton, Simone Santilli, Dorothée Smith, Rebecca Topakian, Denis Darzacq, Swen Renault, Paolo Woods, Elsa Leydier, Alice Wielinga, Cloé Vignaud, Louis Matton, Swen Renault et Pablo Mendez.
References
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_214_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_213_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_212_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_211_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_211_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_3_VFo...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_3_VFo...
O'Hagan, Sean (11 July 2011). "Tower blocks and tomes dominate the Rencontres d'Arles". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_709_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_709_V...
O'Hagan, Sean (9 July 2012). "Torgovnik's powerful portraits from Rwanda take top prize at Arles". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
O'Hagan, Sean (8 July 2013). "Lost and found: Discovery award winners at Recontres d'Arles 2013". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
"2017 Book Awards". Rencontres d'Arles. 4 July 2017. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
"Exhibitions". Rencontres d'Arles. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
"Exhibitions: Eugene Richards: The Blue Room". Rencontres d'Arles. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
"Rencontres d’Arles 2009 Photography", Rencontres d'Arles. Accessed 3 December 2014.
Présentation de Robert Mapplethorpe sur le site rencontres-arles.com
"Lea Golda Holterman, Orthodox Eros". Retrieved 24 August 2016.
Arles 2012: Arnaud Claass sur La Lettre de la Photographie.com
Arles 2012: Alain Desvergnes sur La Lettre de la Photographie.com
Signe des temps: Arles 2012, un festival courageux (Photographie.com)
Fiche d'Alfredo Jaar sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de John Stezaker sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Wolfgang Tillmans sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Viviane Sassen sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Pieter Hugo sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Xavier Barral sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Antoine Gonin sur rencontres-arles.com
Camera: Canon EOS 1V, EF 2/135mm
Film: Kodak Vision 2 500T
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Rencontres d'Arles
The Rencontres d’Arles (formerly called Rencontres internationales de la photographie d’Arles) is an annual summer photography festival founded in 1970 by the Arles photographer Lucien Clergue, the writer Michel Tournier and the historian Jean-Maurice Rouquette.
The Rencontres d’Arles has an international impact by showing material that has never been seen by the public before. In 2015, the festival welcomed 93,000 visitors.
The specially designed exhibitions, often organised in collaboration with French and foreign museums and institutions, take place in various historic sites. Some venues, such as 12th-century chapels or 19th-century industrial buildings, are open to the public throughout the festival.
The Rencontres d’Arles has revealed many photographers, confirming its significance as a springboard for photography and contemporary creativity.
In recent years the Rencontres d’Arles has invited many guest curators and entrusted some of its programming to such figures as Martin Parr in 2004, Raymond Depardon in 2006 and the Arles-born fashion designer Christian Lacroix.
Contents
Art directors
A photographer, Jean-Pierre Sudre, discussing his work, Rencontres d'Arles, 1975
1970 - 1972: Lucien Clergue, Michel Tournier, Jean-Maurice Rouquette
1973 - 1976: Lucien Clergue
1977: Bernard Perrine
1978: Jacques Manachem
1979 - 1982: Alain Desvergnes (fr)
1983 - 1985: Lucien Clergue
1986 - 1987: François Hébel
1988 - 1989: Claude Hudelot (fr)
1990: Agnès de Gouvion Saint-Cyr
1991 - 1993: Louis Mesplé (fr)
1994: Lucien Clergue
1995 - 1998, délégué général: Bernard Millet (fr)
1995, artistic director: Michel Nuridsany (fr)
1996, artistic director: Joan Fontcuberta
1997, artistic director: Christian Caujolle (fr)
1998, artistic director: Giovanna Calvenzi
1999 - 2001: Gilles Mora (fr)
2002 - 2014: François Hébel
Since 2015: Sam Stourdzé (fr)
The festival
A photography exhibition, Rencontres d'Arles, 2010
Events
Opening week at the Rencontres d’Arles features photography-focused events (projections at night, exhibition tours, panel discussions, symposia, parties, book signings, etc.) in the town’s historic venues, some of which are only open to the public during the festival. Memorable events in recent years include Europe Night (2008), an overview of European photography; Christian Lacroix’s fashion show for the festival’s closing (2008); and Patti Smith’s concert for the Vu agency’s 20th anniversary (2006).
Nights at the Roman Theatre
At night, work by a photographer or a photography expert is projected in the town’s open-air Roman theatre accompanied by concerts and performances. Each event is a one-off creation. In 2009, 8,500 people attended evenings at the Roman theatre, an average of 2,000 a night, and 2,500 were there on closing night, when the Tiger Lilies played during a projection of Nan Goldin’s “The Ballad of Sexual Dependency”. In 2013 over 6,000 people attended the nighttime photography projections, an average of approximately 1,000 each night.
The Night of the Year
The Night of the Year, which was created in 2006, allows visitors to walk around and see the festival’s favourite works by artists and photographers as well as carte blanche exhibitions by institutions.
Cosmos-Arles Books
Cosmos-Arles Books is a Rencontres d’Arles satellite event dedicated to new publishing practices.
Over the past 15 years large-scale photographic publications, self-published books, and ebooks have become essential media for experimentation by photographers and artists. They allow photography to be rediscovered as a means of expression and distribution, providing a rich terrain of expression for the art’s fundamentally hybrid forms.
Symposia and panel discussions
Photographers and professionals participating in symposia and panel discussions during opening week discuss their work or issues raised by the images on display. In recent years the themes included whether a black-and-white aesthetic is still conceivable in photography (2013); the impact of social networks on creativity and information (2011); breaking with past, a key idea for photography today (2009); photography commissions: freedom or constraint (2008); challenges and changes in the photography market (2007).
The Rencontres d’Arles awards
Since 2002 the Rencontres d’Arles awards have been an opportunity to discover new talents. In 2007 the number of annual awards was reduced to three, presented at the closing ceremony of the festival’s professional week: the Discovery Award (€25,000), Author’s Book Award (€8,000) and History Book Award (€8,000).
Luma Rencontres Dummy Book Award
In 2015 the Rencontres d’Arles offered an award to assist with the publication of a dummy book. Endowed with a €25,000 budget production budget, this new prize is open to all photographers and artists using photography who submit a dummy book that has never been published.
The winner’s book will be produced in autumn 2015 and be presented at the 2016 Rencontres d’Arles.
Photo Folio Review & Gallery
Since 2006 aspiring photographers have been able to submit their portfolios to international photography experts in various fields, including publishers, exhibition curators, heads of institutions, agency directors, gallery owners, collectors, critics and photo editors, for appraisal during the festival’s opening week. Photo Folio Review & Gallery offers them an opportunity to show their work throughout the festival.
Photography classes
The Rencontres d’Arles has always been a place where professional photographers and practitioners on every level have been able to meet each other and exchange ideas. Each year, photography class participants undertake a personal journey of creation through photography’s aesthetic, ethical and technological issues. Leading photographers such as Guy le Querrec, Antoine d’Agata, Martin Parr, René Burri and Joan Fontcuberta regularly teach at the Rencontres d’Arles.
Rentrée en Images
“Rentrée en Images” has been a key part of the festival’s educational activities since 2004. During the first two weeks in September, special mediators take students from the primary to graduate school level on guided tours of the exhibitions. Based on the festival’s programming, the event aims to introduce young people to the visual arts and fits in with a wider policy of cultural democratisation. “Rentrée en Images” reaches thousands of students, and for many of them it is their first exposure to contemporary art.
Budget
Public funding accounted for 40% of the 2015 festival’s €6.3-million budget, sales (mainly of tickets and derivative products), 40% and private partnerships, 20%[clarification needed][citation needed].
Executive Committee
Hubert Védrine, president
Hervé Schiavetti, vice-president
Jean-François Dubos, vice-president
Marin Karmitz, treasurer
Françoise Nyssen, secretary
Lucien Clergue, Jean-Maurice Rouquette, Michel Tournier, founding members
The Rencontres d'Arles award winners
2002
Jury: Denis Curti, Alberto Anault, Alice Rose George, Manfred Heiting, Erik Kessels, Claudine Maugendre, Val Williams
Discovery Award: Peter Granser
No Limit award: Jacqueline Hassink
Dialogue of the humanity award: Tom Wood
Photographer of the year award: Roger Ballen
Help to the project: Pascal Aimar, Chris Shaw
Author’s Book Award: Sibusiso Mbhele and His Fish Helicopter by Koto Bolofo (powerHouse Books, 2002)
Help to publishing: Une histoire sans nom by Anne-Lise Broyer
2003
Jury: Giovanna Calvenzi, Hou Hanru, Christine Macel, Anna Lisa Milella, Urs Stahel
Discovery Award: Zijah Gafic
No Limit award: Thomas Demand
Dialogue of the humanity award: Fazal Sheikh
Photographer of the year award: Anders Petersen
Help to the project: Jitka Hanzlova
Author’s Book Award: Hide That Can by Deirdre O’Callaghan (Trolley Books, 2002)
Help to publishing: A Personal Diary of Chinese Avant-Garde in the 1990s, China (1993-1998) by Xing Danwen
2004
Jury: Eikoh Hosoe, Joan Fontcuberta, Tod Papageorge, Elaine Constantine, Antoine d’Agata
Discovery Award: Yasu Suzuka
No Limit award: Jonathan de Villiers
Dialogue of the humanity award: Edward Burtynsky
Help to the project: John Stathatos
Author’s Book Award: Particulars by David Goldblatt (Goodman Gallery, 2003)
2005
Jury: Ute Eskildsen, Jean-Louis Froment, Michel Mallard, Kathy Ryan, Marta Gili
Discovery Award: Miroslav Tichy
No Limit award: Mathieu Bernard-Reymond
Dialogue of the humanity award: Simon Norfolk
Help to the project: Anna Malagrida
Author’s Book Award: Temporary Discomfort (Chapter I-V) by Jules Spinatsch (Lars Müller Publishers, 2005)
2006
Jury: Vincent Lavoie, Abdoulaye Konaté, Yto Barrada, Marc-Olivier Wahler, Alain d’Hooghe
Discovery Award: Alessandra Sanguinetti
No Limit award: Randa Mirza
Dialogue of the humanity award: Wang Qingsong
Help to the project: Walid Raad
Author’s Book Award: Form aus Licht und Schatten by Heinz Hajek-Halke (Steidl, 2005)
2007
[1]
Jury: Bice Curiger, Alain Fleischer, Johan Sjöström, Thomas Weski, Anne Wilkes Tucker
Discovery Award: Laura Henno
Author’s Book Award: Empty Bottles by WassinkLundgren (Thijs groot Wassink and Ruben Lundgren) (Veenman Publishers, 2007)
Historical Book Award: László Moholy-Nagy: Color in Transparency: Photographic Experiments in Color, 1934–1946 by Jeannine Fiedler (Steidl & Bauhaus-Archiv, 2006)
2008
[2]
Jury: Elisabeth Biondi, Luis Venegas, Nathalie Ours, Caroline Issa and Massoud Golsorkhi, Carla Sozzani
Discovery Award: Pieter Hugo
Author’s Book Award: Strange and Singular by Michael Abrams (Loosestrife, 2007)
Historical Book Award: Nein, Onkel: Snapshots from Another Front 1938–1945 by Ed Jones and Timothy Prus (Archive of Modern Conflict, 2007)
2009
[3]
Jury: Lucien Clergue, Bernard Perrine, Alain Desvergnes, Claude Hudelot, Agnès de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, Louis Mesplé, Bernard Millet, Michel Nuridsany, Joan Fontcuberta, Christian Caujolle, Giovanna Calvenzi, Martin Parr, Christian Lacroix, Arnaud Claass, Christian Milovanoff
Discovery Award: Rimaldas Viksraitis
Author’s Book Award: From Back Home by Anders Petersen and JH Engström (Bokförlaget Max Ström, 2009)
Historical Book Award: In History by Susan Meiselas (Steidl and International Center of Photography, 2008)
2010
[4] [5]
Discovery Award: Taryn Simon
LUMA award: Trisha Donnelly
Author’s Book Award: Photography 1965–74 by Yutaka Takanashi (Only Photograph, 2010)
Historical Book Award: Les livres de photographies japonais des années 1960 et 1970 by Ryuichi Kaneko and Ivan Vartanian (Seuil, 2009)
2011
[6] [7]
Discovery Award: Mikhael Subotzky and Patrick Waterhouse[8]
Author’s Book Award: A Living Man Declared Dead and Other Chapters by Taryn Simon (Mack, 2011)[8]
Historical Book Award: Works by Lewis Baltz (Steidl, 2010)[8]
2012
[9] [10] [11]
Discovery Award: Jonathan Torgovnik
Author’s Book Award: Redheaded Peckerwood by Christian Patterson (Mack, 2011)
Historical Book Award: Les livres de photographie d’Amérique latine by Horacio Fernández (Images en Manœuvres Éditions, 2011)
2013
Discovery Award: Yasmine Eid-Sabbagh and Rozenn Quéré
Author’s Book Award: Anticorps by Antoine d’Agata (Xavier Barral & Le Bal[disambiguation needed], 2013)[12]
Historical Book Award: AOI [COD.19.1.1.43] – A27 [S | COD.23 by Rosângela Rennó (Self-published, 2013)
2014
Discovery Award: Zhang Kechun
Author’s Book Award: Hidden Islam by Nicolo Degiorgis (Rorhof, 2014)
Historical Book Award: Paris mortel retouché by Johan van der Keuken (Van Zoetendaal Publishers, 2013)
2015
Discovery Award: Pauline Fargue
Author’s Book Award: H. said he loved us by Tommaso Tanini (Discipula Editions, 2014)
Historical Book Award: Monograph Vitas Luckus. Works & Biography by Margarita Matulytė and Tatjana Luckiene-Aldag (Kaunas Photography Gallery and Lithuanian Art Museum, 2014)
Dummy Book Award: The Jungle Book by Yann Gross
Photo Folio Review: Piero Martinelo (winner); Charlotte Abramow, Martin Essi, Elin Høyland, Laurent Kronenthal (special mentions)
2016
Discovery Award: Sarah Waiswa
Author’s Book Award: Taking Off. Henry My Neighbor by Mariken Wessels (Art Paper Editions, 2015)
Historical Book Award: (in matters of) Karl by Annette Behrens (Fw: Books, 2015)
Photo-Text Award: Negative Publicity: Artefacts of Extraordinary Rendition by Edmund Clark and Crofton Black (Aperture, 2015)
Dummy Book Award: You and Me: A project between Bosnia, Germany and the US by Katja Stuke and Oliver Sieber
Photo Folio Review: David Fathi (winner); Sonja Hamad, Eric Leleu, Karolina Paatos, Maija Tammi (special mentions)
2017
[13]
Discovery Award: Carlos Ayesta and Guillaume Bression
Author's Book Award: Ville de Calais by Henk Wildschut (self-published, 2017)
Special Mention for Author's Book Award: Gaza Works by Kent Klich (Koenig, 2017)
Historical Book Award: Latif Al Ani by Latif Al Ani (Hannibal Publishing, 2017)
Photo-Text Award: The Movement of Clouds around Mount Fuji by Masanao Abe and Helmut Völter (Spector Books, 2016)
Dummy Book Award: Grozny: Nine Cities by Olga Kravets, Maria Morina, and Oksana Yushko
Photo Folio Review: Aurore Valade (winner); Haley Morris Cafiero, Alexandra Lethbridge, Charlotte Abramow, Catherine Leutenegger (special mentions)
Exhibitions
1970
Gjon Mili, Edward Weston, ...
1971
Pedro Luis Raota, Charles Vaucher, Olivier Gagliani, Steve Soltar, Judy Dater, Jack Welpott, Gordon Bennett, John Weir, Linda Connor, Neal White, Jean-Claude Gautrand, Jean Rouet, Pierre Riehl, Roger Doloy, Georges Guilpin, Alain Perceval, Jean-Louis Viel, Jean-Luc Tartarin, Frédéric Barzilay, Jean-Claude Bernath, André Recoules, Etienne-Bertrand Weill, Rodolphe Proverbio, Jean Dieuzaide, Paul Caponigro, Jerry Uelsmann, Heinz Hajek-Halke, Rinaldo Prieri, Jean-Pierre Sudre, Denis Brihat, …
1972
Hiro, Lucien Clergue, Eugène Atget, Bruce Davidson, …
1973
Imogen Cunningham, Linda Connor, Judy Dater, Allan Porter, Paul Strand, Edward S. Curtis, …
1974
Brassaï, Ansel Adams, Georges A. Tice, …
1975
Agence Viva, André Kertész, Yousuf Karsh, Robert Doisneau, Lucien Clergue, Jean Dieuzaide, Ralph Gibson, Charles Harbutt, Tania Kaleya, Eva Rubinstein, Michel Saint Jean, Kishin Shinoyama, Hélène Théret, Georges Tourdjman, …
1976
Ernst Haas, Bill Brandt, Man Ray, Marc Riboud, Agence Magnum, Eikō Hosoe, Judy Dater, Jack Welpott, Doug Stewart, Duane Michals, Leslie Krims, Bob Mazzer, Horner, S. Sykes, David Hurn, Mary Ellen Mark, René Groebli, Guy Le Querrec, …
1977
Will Mac Bride, Paul Caponigro, Neal Slavin, Max Waldman, Dennis Stock, Josef Sudek, Harry Callahan, R. Benvenisti, P. Carroll, William Christenberry, S. Ciccone, W. Eggleston, R. Embrey, B. Evans, R. Gibson, D. Grégory, F. Horvat, W. Krupsan, W. Larson, U. Mark, J. Meyerowitz, S. Shore, N. Slavin, L. Sloan-Théodore, J. Sternfeld, R. Wol, …
1978
Lisette Model, Izis, William Klein, Hervé Gloaguen, Yan Le Goff, Serge Gal, Marc Tulane, Lionel Jullian, Alain Gualina, …
1979
David Burnett, Mary Ellen Mark, Jean-Pierre Laffont, Abbas, Pedro Meyer, Yves Jeanmougin, Manuel Alvarez Bravo, …
1980
Willy Ronis, Arnold Newman, Jay Maisel, Christian Vogt, Ben Fernandez, Julia Pirotte, …
1981
Guy Bourdin, Steve Hiett, Sarah Moon and Dan Weeks, Art Kane, Cheyco Leidman, André Martin, François Kollar, …
1982
Willy Zielke, Henri Cartier-Bresson, Alexey Brodovitch, Robert Frank, William Klein, Max Pam, Bernard Plossu, …
1983
Robert Rauschenberg, Bruce Davidson, …
1984
Jean Dieuzaide, Marilyn Bridges, Mario Giacomelli, Augusto De Luca, Joyce Tenneson, Luigi Ghirri, Albato Guatti, Mario Samarughi, Arman, Raoul Ubac, …
1985
David Hockney, Fritz Gruber, Franco Fontana, Milton Rogovin, Gilles Peress, Jane Evelyn Atwood, Eugene Richards, Sebastião Salgado, Robert Capa, Lucien Hervé, …
1986
Collection Graham Nash, Annie Leibovitz, Sebastião Salgado, Martin Parr, Robert Doisneau, Paulo Nozolino, Ugo Mulas, Bruce Gilden, Georges Rousse, Peter Knapp, Max Pam, Miguel Rio Branco, Michelle Debat, Andy Summers, Baron Wolman. …
1987
Brian Griffin, Dominique Issermann, Nan Goldin, Max Vadukul, Gabriele Basilico, Paul Graham, Thomas Florschuetz, Gianni Berengo Gardin, … Autres invités des Rencontres 88: Hans Namuth, Jean-Marc Tingaud, Mary Ellen Mark, Charles Camberoque, Martine Voyeux, Marie-Paule Nègre, Xavier Lambours, Patrick Zachmann, Jean-Marie Del Moral, Nittin Vadukul, Jean Larivière, Bruce Weber, Germaine Krull, Jean-Paul Goude, Jean-Louis Boissier, Sandra Petrillo, Daniel Schwartz, Laurent Septier, Jean-Marc Zaorski, Bernard Descamps, Marc Garanger, Yan Layma, Michel Delaborde, Michel Semeniako, Françoise Huguier, Paolo Calia, Deborah Turbeville, Gundunla Schulze. Ainsi que Henri Alekan, Arielle Dombasle, Jacques Séguéla, Roland Topor, Serge July, Lucinda Childs, invited to comment on their private screening at parties in Roman Theatre, where Christian Lacroix organised a show.
1988
La danse, la Chine, la pub. Chinese photography is presented for the first time abroad as a major exhibition with 40 Chinese photographers, including Wu Yinxian, Zhang Hai-er, Chen Baosheng, Ling Fei, Xia Yonglie, curated by Karl Kugel, co-director of the film China: Inner views / Chine: vues intérieures, released at the opening of the festival. Most major photographers who have covered this country are also present either in the exhibition of Magnum Photos, curated by François Hébel, either in solo exhibitions, such as Marc Riboud ou de Jeanloup Sieff.
1989
Arles fête ses vingt ans (1969-1989); with Lucien Clergue, Lee Friedlander, Cristina García Rodero, John Demos, Philippe Bazin, George Hashigushi, Eduardo Masférré, Hervé Gloaguen, Elizabeth Sunday, Pierre de Vallombreuse, Robert Frank's The lines of My Hand (commissioned by Charles-Henri Favrod); in honour of Pierre de Fenoÿl; Julio Mitchel, Roland Schneider, Rafael Vargas, John Phillips, Annette Messager, Christian Boltanski, la collection Bonnemaison, Javier Vallhonrat, Thierry Girard, Dennis Hopper. Exhibition Ils annoncent la couleur with Stéphane Sednaoui, Jean-Baptiste Mondino, Max Vadukul, Nick Night, Nigel Shafran, Tony Viramontes, Cindy Palmano; commissioned by Marc Vascoli. Exposition et soirée Deep South with Robert Frank, Bruce Davidson, Duane Michals, Gordon Parks, Alain Desvergnes, Gilles Mora, Paul Kwilecki, William Christenberry, William Eggleston, Marylin Futtermann, Debbie Fleming Caffery, Fern Koch, Jay Leviton, Eudora Welty; commissioned by Gilles Mora.
1990
Volker Hinz, Erasmus Schröter, Stéphane Duroy, Raymond Depardon, Frédéric Brenner, Drtikol, Saudek, …
1991
Tina Modotti, Edward Weston, Graciela Iturbide, Martín Chambi, Sergio Larrain, Sebastião Salgado, Juan Rulfo, Miguel Rio Branco, Eric Poitevin, Alberto Schommer, …
1992
Don McCullin, Dieter Appelt, Béatrix Von Conta, Denise Colomb, José Ortiz-Echagüe, Wout Berger, Thibaut Cuisset, Knut W. Maron, John Statathos, …
1993
Richard Avedon, Larry Fink, Ernest Pignon-Ernest, Cecil Beaton, Raymonde April, Koji Inove, Louis Jammes, Eiichiro Sakata, …
1994
Andres Serrano, Roger Pic, Marc Riboud, Bogdan Konopka, Sarah Moon, Pierre et Gilles, Marie-Paule Nègre, Edward Steichen and Josef Sudek, Robert Doisneau, André Kertész, …
1995
Alain Fleischer, Roger Ballen, Noda, Toyoura, Slocombe, Nam June Paik, France Bourély. …
1996
Ralph Eugene Meatyard, William Wegman, Grete Stern, Paolo Gioli, Nancy Burson, John Stathatos, Sophie Calle, Luigi Ghirri, Pierre Cordier, …
1997
Collection Marion Lambert, Eugene Richards, Mathieu Pernot, Aziz + Cucher, Jochen Gerz, Antoni Muntadas, Ricard Terré, …
1998
David LaChapelle, Herbert Spring, Mike Disfarmer, Francesca Woodman, Federico Patellani, Massimo Vitali, Dieter Appelt, Samuel Fosso, Urs Lu.thi, Pierre Molinier, Yasumasa Morimura, Roman Opalka, Cindy Sherman, Sophie Weibel, …
1999
Lee Friedlander, Walker Evans, …
2000
Tina Modotti, Jakob Tuggener, Peter Sakaer, Masahisa Fukase, Herbert Matter, Robert Heinecken, Jean-Michel Alberola, Tom Drahaos, Willy Ronis, Frederick Sommer, Lucien Clergue, Sophie Calle, …
2001
Luc Delahaye, Patrick Tosani, Stéphane Couturier, David Rosenfeld, James Casebere, Peter Lindbergh, …
2002
Guillaume Herbaut, Baader Meinhof, Astrid Proll, Josef Koudelka, Gabriele Basilico, Rineke Dijkstra, Lise Sarfati, Jochen Gerz, Collection Ordoñez Falcon, Larry Sultan, Alex Mac Lean, Alastair Thain, Raeda Saadeh, Zineb Sedira, Serguei Tchilikov, Jem Southam, Alexey Titarenko, Andreas Magdanz, Sophie Ristelhueber, …
2003
Collection Claude Berri, Lin Tianmiao & Wang Gongxin, Xin Danwen, Gao Bo, Shao Yinong & Mu Chen, Hong Li, Hai Bo, Chen Lingyang, Ma Liuming, Hong Hao, Naoya Hatakeyama, Roman Opalka, Jean-Pierre Sudre, Suzanne Lafont, Corinne Mercadier, Adam Bartos, Marie Le Mounier, Yves Chaudouët, Galerie VU, Harry Gruyaert, Vincenzo Castella, Alain Willaume, François Halard, Donovan Wylie, Jérôme Brézillon & Nicolas Guiraud, Jean-Daniel Berclaz, Monique Deregibus, Youssef Nabil, Tina Barney, …
2004
Dayanita Singh, Les archives du ghetto de Lodz, Stephen Gill, Oleg Kulik, Arsen Savadov, Keith Arnatt, Raphaël Dallaporta, Taiji Matsue, Tony Ray-Jones, Osamu Kanemura, Kawauchi Rinko, Chris Killip, Chris Shaw, Kimura Ihei, Neeta Madahar, Frank Breuer, Hans van der Meer, James Mollison, Chris Killip, Mathieu Pernot, Paul Shambroom, Katy Grannan, Lucien Clergue, AES + F, György Lörinczy, …
2005
Collection William M. Hunt, Miguel Rio Branco, Thomas Dworzak, Alex Majoli, Paolo Pellegrin, Ilkka Uimonen, Barry Frydlender, David Tartakover, Michal Heiman, Denis Rouvre, Denis Darzacq, David Balicki, Joan Fontcuberta, Christer Strömholm, Keld Helmer-Petersen, …
2006
La photographie américaine à travers les collections françaises, Robert Adams, Cornell Capa, Gilles Caron, Don McCullin, Guy Le Querrec, Susan Meiselas, Julien Chapsal, Michael Ackerman, David Burnett, Lise Sarfati, Sophie Ristelhueber, Dominique Issermann, Jean Gaumy, Daniel Angeli, Paul Graham, Claudine Doury, Jean-Christophe Bechet, David Goldblatt, Anders Petersen, Philippe Chancel, Meyer, Olivier Culmann, Gilles Coulon, …
2007
The 60th year of Magnum Photos, Pannonica de Koenigswarter, Le Studio Zuber, Collections d’Albums Indiens de la Collection Alkazi, Alberto Garcia-Alix, Raghu Rai, Dayanita Singh, Nony Singh, Sunil Gupta, Anay Mann, Pablo Bartholomew Bharat Sikka, Jeetin Sharma, Siya Singh, Huang Rui, Gao Brothers, RongRong & inri, Liu Bolin, JR, …
2008
Richard Avedon, Grégoire Alexandre, Joël Bartoloméo, Achinto Bhadra, Jean-Christian Bourcart, Samuel Fosso, Charles Fréger, Pierre Gonnord, Françoise Huguier, Grégoire Korganow, Peter Lindbergh, Guido Mocafico, Henri Roger, Paolo Roversi, Joachim Schmid, Nigel Shafran,[14] Georges Tony Stoll, Patrick Swirc, Tim Walker, Vanessa Winship, …
2009
Robert Delpire, Willy Ronis, Jean-Claude Lemagny, Lucien Clergue, Elger Esser, Roni Horn, Duane Michals, Nan Goldin (invitée d'honneur), Brian Griffin, Naoya Hatakeyama, JH Engström, David Armstrong, Eugene Richards[15] (The Blue Room), Martin Parr, Paolo Nozolino, …[16]
2010
Robert Mapplethorpe[17] Lea Golda Holterman[18]
2011
Chris Marker, photos du New York Times, Robert Capa, Wang Qingsong, Dulce Pinzon, JR, ...
2012
Les 30 ans de l'ENSP, Josef Koudelka, Amos Gitai, Klavdij Sluban & Laurent Tixador, Arnaud Claass,[19] Grégoire Alexandre, Édouard Beau, Jean-Christophe Béchet, Olivier Cablat, Sébastien Calvet, Monique Deregibus & Arno Gisinger, Vincent Fournier, Marina Gadonneix, Valérie Jouve, Sunghee Lee, Isabelle Le Minh, Mireille Loup, Alexandre Maubert, Mehdi Meddaci, Collection Jan Mulder, Alain Desvergnes,[20] Olivier Metzger, Joséphine Michel, Erwan Morère, Tadashi Ono, Bruno Serralongue, Dorothée Smith, Bertrand Stofleth & Geoffroy Mathieu, Pétur Thomsen, Jean-Louis Tornato, Aurore Valade, Christian Milovanoff,[21]
2013
Hiroshi Sugimoto, Sergio Larrain, Guy Bourdin, Alfredo Jaar,[22] John Stezaker,[23] Wolfgang Tillmans,[24] Viviane Sassen,[25] Jean-Michel Fauquet, Arno Rafael Minkkinen, Miguel Angel Rojas, Pieter Hugo,[26] Michel Vanden Eeckhoudt, Xavier Barral,[27] John Davis, Antoine Gonin,[28] Thabiso Sekgala, Philippe Chancel, Raphaël Dallaporta, Alain Willaume, Cedric Nunn, Santu Mofokeng, Harry Gruyaert, Jo Ractliffe, Zanele Muholi, Patrick Tourneboeuf, Thibaut Cuisset, Antoine Cairns, Jean-Louis Courtinat, Christina de Middel, Stéphane Couturier, Frédéric Nauczyciel, Jacques Henri Lartigue, Pierre Jamet, Raynal Pellicer, Studio Fouad, Erik Kessels.
2014
Lucien Clergue, Christian Lacroix, Raymond Depardon, Léon Gimpel, David Bailey, Vik Muniz, Patrick Swirc, Denis Rouvre, Vincent Pérez, Chema Madoz, Élise Mazac, Robert Drowilal, Anouck Durand, Refik Vesei, Pleurat Sulo, Katjusha Kumi,Ilit Azoulay, Katharina Gaenssler, Miguel Mitlag, Victor Robledo, Youngsoo Han, Kechun Zhang, Pieter Ten Hoopen, Will Steacy, Kudzanai Chiurai, Patrick Willocq, Ciril Jazbec, Milou Abel, Sema Bekirovic, Melanie Bonajo, Hans de Vries, Hans Eijkelboom, Erik Fens, Jos Houweling, Hans van der Meer, Maurice van Es, Benoît Aquin, Luc Delahaye, Mitch Epstein, Nadav Kander.
2015
Walker Evans, Stephen Shore, Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown, Toon Michiels, Olivier Cablat, Markus Brunetti, Paul Ronald, Sandro Miller, Eikoh Hosoe, Masahisa Fukase, Daido Moriyama, Masatoshi Naito, Issei Suda, Kou Inose, Sakiko Nomura, Daisuke Yokota, Martin Gusinde, Paolo Woods, Gabriele Galimberti, Natasha Caruana, Alex Majoli, Paolo Pellegrin, Ambroise Tézenas, Thierry Bouët, Anna Orlowska, Vlad Krasnoshchok, Sergiy Lebedynskyy, Vadym Trykoz, Lisa Barnard, Robert Zhao Renhui, Pauline Fargue, Julián Barón, Delphine Chanet, Omar Victor Diop, Paola Pasquaretta, Niccolò Benetton, Simone Santilli, Dorothée Smith, Rebecca Topakian, Denis Darzacq, Swen Renault, Paolo Woods, Elsa Leydier, Alice Wielinga, Cloé Vignaud, Louis Matton, Swen Renault et Pablo Mendez.
References
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_214_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_213_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_212_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_211_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_211_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_3_VFo...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_3_VFo...
O'Hagan, Sean (11 July 2011). "Tower blocks and tomes dominate the Rencontres d'Arles". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_709_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_709_V...
O'Hagan, Sean (9 July 2012). "Torgovnik's powerful portraits from Rwanda take top prize at Arles". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
O'Hagan, Sean (8 July 2013). "Lost and found: Discovery award winners at Recontres d'Arles 2013". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
"2017 Book Awards". Rencontres d'Arles. 4 July 2017. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
"Exhibitions". Rencontres d'Arles. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
"Exhibitions: Eugene Richards: The Blue Room". Rencontres d'Arles. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
"Rencontres d’Arles 2009 Photography", Rencontres d'Arles. Accessed 3 December 2014.
Présentation de Robert Mapplethorpe sur le site rencontres-arles.com
"Lea Golda Holterman, Orthodox Eros". Retrieved 24 August 2016.
Arles 2012: Arnaud Claass sur La Lettre de la Photographie.com
Arles 2012: Alain Desvergnes sur La Lettre de la Photographie.com
Signe des temps: Arles 2012, un festival courageux (Photographie.com)
Fiche d'Alfredo Jaar sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de John Stezaker sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Wolfgang Tillmans sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Viviane Sassen sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Pieter Hugo sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Xavier Barral sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Antoine Gonin sur rencontres-arles.com
the painting, statue, and sun made from a metal drum were all handmade in haiti. someday i will scan all of my photos from my trip there. haiti is a beautiful county and its lovely people are never far from my mind. the encyclopedias were my grandfathers' and i will never part with them.
Children's Encyclopedia, edited by Arthur Mee, and published in 10 volumes by the Educational Book Company, London. It was published from 1908 to 1964.
Die Reichsburg Cochem ist eine Burganlage in der rheinland-pfälzischen Stadt Cochem an der Mosel. Sie ist ihr Wahrzeichen und steht auf einem weithin sichtbaren Bergkegel mehr als 100 Meter oberhalb der Stadt. Als Gipfelburg gehört sie zum Typus der Höhenburgen.
Die Anlage, die im Mittelalter als Zollburg diente, wurde den Ergebnissen aktueller Burgenforschungen zufolge wohl um 1100 oder in der ersten Hälfte des 12. Jahrhunderts errichtet. Nachdem sie im 17. Jahrhundert zerstört worden war, ließ sie der Berliner Kaufmann und spätere Geheime Kommerzienrat Louis Fréderic Jacques Ravené gemäß dem Geschmack der Burgenromantik in den Jahren von 1868 bis 1877 wiederaufbauen. Burg Cochem ist damit ein gutes Beispiel für ein Bauwerk, das im Stil der Neugotik während der Zeit des Historismus gestaltet wurde.
Die Reichsburg Cochem ist ein geschütztes Kulturgut nach der Haager Konvention.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Photo Copyright 2012, dynamo.photography.
All rights reserved, no use without license
+++++++++ Color version: +++++++++++
www.flickr.com/photos/dynamophotography/39257760735/
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Hong kong)
Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, is an autonomous territory south to Mainland China and east to Macao in East Asia. With around 7.2 million Hong Kongers of various nationalities[note 2] in a territory of 1,104 km2, Hong Kong is the world's fourth most densely populated country or territory.
Hong Kong used to be a British colony with the perpetual cession of Hong Kong Island from the Qing Empire after the First Opium War (1839–42). The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and acquired a 99-year lease of the New Territories from 1898. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during the Second World War until British control resumed in 1945. The Sino-British Joint Declaration signed between the United Kingdom and China in 1984 paved way for the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997, when it became a special administrative region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China with a high degree of autonomy.[15]
Under the principle of "one country, two systems",[16][17] Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative and judiciary powers.[18] In addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of "appropriate fields".[19] Hong Kong involves in international organizations, such as the WTO[20] and the APEC [21], actively and independently.
Hong Kong is one of the world's most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the world's most competitive and freest economic entity.[22][23] As the world's 8th largest trading entity,[24] its legal tender, the Hong Kong dollar, is the world's 13th most traded currency.[25] As the world's most visited city,[26][27] Hong Kong's tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by competitive simple taxation and supported by its independent judiciary system.[28] Even with one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, it suffers from severe income inequality.[29]
Nicknamed "Pearl of the Orient", Hong Kong is renowned for its deep natural harbour, which boasts the world's fifth busiest port with ready access by cargo ships, and its impressive skyline, with the most skyscrapers in the world.[30][31] It has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the world's longest life expectancy.[32][33] Over 90% of the population makes use of well-developed public transportation.[34][35] Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring industrial areas of Mainland China, which adopts loose emissions standards, has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates in winter.[36][37][38]
Etymology
Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island.[39]
The source of the romanised name "Hong Kong" is not known, but it is generally believed to be an early imprecise phonetic rendering of the pronunciation in spoken Cantonese 香港 (Cantonese Yale: Hēung Góng), which means "Fragrant Harbour" or "Incense Harbour".[13][14][40] Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour (Chinese: 香港仔; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng jái), literally means "Little Hong Kong"—between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.[41]
Another theory is that the name would have been taken from Hong Kong's early inhabitants, the Tankas (水上人); it is equally probable that romanisation was done with a faithful execution of their speeches, i.e. hōng, not hēung in Cantonese.[42] Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time.[43]
Fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour.[40]
The name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926.[44] Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the single-word form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation.
As of 1997, its official name is the "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China". This is the official title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law and the Hong Kong Government's website;[45] however, "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region" and "Hong Kong" are widely accepted.
Hong Kong has carried many nicknames. The most famous among those is the "Pearl of the Orient", which reflected the impressive nightscape of the city's light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour. The territory is also known as "Asia's World City".
History
Main articles: History of Hong Kong and History of China
Prehistory
Main article: Prehistoric Hong Kong
Archaeological studies support human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area (now Hong Kong International Airport) from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago and on Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.[46][47][48]
Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the earliest sites of human habitation in Hong Kong during the Paleolithic Period. It is believed that the Three Fathom Cove was a river-valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggested cultural differences from the Longshan culture of northern China and settlement by the Che people, prior to the migration of the Baiyue to Hong Kong.[49][50] Eight petroglyphs, which dated to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC – 1066 BC) in China, were discovered on the surrounding islands.[51]
Imperial China
Main article: History of Hong Kong under Imperial China
In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a centralised China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern-day Liangguang region and Vietnam) and incorporated the area of Hong Kong into his imperial China for the first time. Hong Kong proper was assigned to the Nanhai commandery (modern-day Nanhai District), near the commandery's capital city Panyu.[52][53][54]
After a brief period of centralisation and collapse of the Qin dynasty, the area of Hong Kong was consolidated under the Kingdom of Nanyue, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC.[55] When Nanyue lost the Han-Nanyue War in 111 BC, Hong Kong came under the Jiaozhi commandery of the Han dynasty. Archaeological evidence indicates an increase of population and flourish of salt production. The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb on the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built as a burial site during the Han dynasty.[56]
From the Han dynasty to the early Tang dynasty, Hong Kong was a part of Bao'an County. In the Tang dynasty, modern-day Guangzhou (Canton) flourished as an international trading centre. In 736, the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang established a military stronghold in Tuen Mun to strengthen defence of the coastal area.[57] The nearby Lantau Island was a salt production centre and salt smuggler riots occasionally broke out against the government. In c. 1075, The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 AD in modern-day New Territories by the Northern Song dynasty.[58] During their war against the Mongols, the imperial court of Southern Song was briefly stationed at modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before their ultimate defeat by the Mongols at the Battle of Yamen in 1279.[59] The Mongols then established their dynastic court and governed Hong Kong for 97 years.
From the mid-Tang dynasty to the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Hong Kong was a part of Dongguan County. During the Ming dynasty, the area was transferred to Xin'an County. The indigenous inhabitants at that time consisted of several ethnicities such as Punti, Hakka, Tanka and Hoklo.
European discovery
The earliest European visitor on record was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer, who arrived in 1513.[60][61] Having established a trading post in a site they called "Tamão" in Hong Kong waters, Portuguese merchants commenced with regular trading in southern China. Subsequent military clashes between China and Portugal, however, led to the expulsion of all Portuguese merchants from southern China.
Since the 14th century, the Ming court had enforced the maritime prohibition laws that strictly forbade all private maritime activities in order to prevent contact with foreigners by sea.[62] When the Manchu Qing dynasty took over China, Hong Kong was directly affected by the Great Clearance decree of the Kangxi Emperor, who ordered the evacuation of coastal areas of Guangdong from 1661 to 1669. Over 16,000 inhabitants of Xin'an County including those in Hong Kong were forced to migrate inland; only 1,648 of those who had evacuated subsequently returned.[63][64]
British Crown Colony: 1842–1941
A painter at work. John Thomson. Hong Kong, 1871. The Wellcome Collection, London
Main articles: British Hong Kong and History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)
In 1839, threats by the imperial court of Qing to sanction opium imports caused diplomatic friction with the British Empire. Tensions escalated into the First Opium War. The Qing admitted defeat when British forces captured Hong Kong Island on 20 January 1841. The island was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpi as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan. A dispute between high-ranking officials of both countries, however, led to the failure of the treaty's ratification. On 29 August 1842, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Treaty of Nanking.[65] The British officially established a Crown colony and founded the City of Victoria in the following year.[66]
The population of Hong Kong Island was 7,450 when the Union Flag raised over Possession Point on 26 January 1841. It mostly consisted of Tanka fishermen and Hakka charcoal burners, whose settlements scattered along several coastal hamlets. In the 1850s, a large number of Chinese immigrants crossed the then-free border to escape from the Taiping Rebellion. Other natural disasters, such as flooding, typhoons and famine in mainland China would play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place for safe shelter.[67][68]
Further conflicts over the opium trade between Britain and Qing quickly escalated into the Second Opium War. Following the Anglo-French victory, the Crown Colony was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula (south of Boundary Street) and Stonecutter's Island, both of which were ceded to the British in perpetuity under the Convention of Beijing in 1860.
In 1898, Britain obtained a 99-year lease from Qing under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, in which Hong Kong obtained a 99-year lease of Lantau Island, the area north of Boundary Street in Kowloon up to Shenzhen River and over 200 other outlying islands.[69][70][71]
Hong Kong soon became a major entrepôt thanks to its free port status, attracting new immigrants to settle from both China and Europe. The society, however, remained racially segregated and polarised under early British colonial policies. Despite the rise of a British-educated Chinese upper-class by the late-19th century, race laws such as the Peak Reservation Ordinance prevented ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong from acquiring houses in reserved areas such as Victoria Peak. At this time, the majority of the Chinese population in Hong Kong had no political representation in the British colonial government. The British governors did rely, however, on a small number of Chinese elites, including Sir Kai Ho and Robert Hotung, who served as ambassadors and mediators between the government and local population.
File:1937 Hong Kong VP8.webmPlay media
Hong Kong filmed in 1937
In 1904, the United Kingdom established the world's first border and immigration control; all residents of Hong Kong were given citizenship as Citizens of United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC).
Hong Kong continued to experience modest growth during the first half of the 20th century. The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first higher education institute. While there had been an exodus of 60,000 residents for fear of a German attack on the British colony during the First World War, Hong Kong remained unscathed. Its population increased from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925 and reached 1.6 million by 1941.[72]
In 1925, Cecil Clementi became the 17th Governor of Hong Kong. Fluent in Cantonese and without a need for translator, Clementi introduced the first ethnic Chinese, Shouson Chow, into the Executive Council as an unofficial member. Under Clementi's tenure, Kai Tak Airport entered operation as RAF Kai Tak and several aviation clubs. In 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out when the Japanese Empire expanded its territories from northeastern China into the mainland proper. To safeguard Hong Kong as a freeport, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared the Crown Colony as a neutral zone.
Japanese occupation: 1941–45
Main article: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong
The Cenotaph in Hong Kong commemorates those who died in service in the First World War and the Second World War.[73]
As part of its military campaign in Southeast Asia during Second World War, the Japanese army moved south from Guangzhou of mainland China and attacked Hong Kong in on 8 December 1941.[74] Crossing the border at Shenzhen River on 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong lasted for 18 days when British and Canadian forces held onto Hong Kong Island. Unable to defend against intensifying Japanese air and land bombardments, they eventually surrendered control of Hong Kong on 25 December 1941. The Governor of Hong Kong was captured and taken as a prisoner of war. This day is regarded by the locals as "Black Christmas".[75]
During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, the Japanese army committed atrocities against civilians and POWs, such as the St. Stephen's College massacre. Local residents also suffered widespread food shortages, limited rationing and hyper-inflation arising from the forced exchange of currency from Hong Kong dollars to Japanese military banknotes. The initial ratio of 2:1 was gradually devalued to 4:1 and ownership of Hong Kong dollars was declared illegal and punishable by harsh torture. Due to starvation and forced deportation for slave labour to mainland China, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when the United Kingdom resumed control of the colony on 2 September 1945.[76]
Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97
Main articles: British Hong Kong, 1950s in Hong Kong, 1960s in Hong Kong, 1970s in Hong Kong, 1980s in Hong Kong, and 1990s in Hong Kong
Flag of British Hong Kong from 1959 to 1997
Hong Kong's population recovered quickly after the war, as a wave of skilled migrants from the Republic of China moved in to seek refuge from the Chinese Civil War. When the Communist Party eventually took full control of mainland China in 1949, even more skilled migrants fled across the open border for fear of persecution.[69] Many newcomers, especially those who had been based in the major port cities of Shanghai and Guangzhou, established corporations and small- to medium-sized businesses and shifted their base operations to British Hong Kong.[69] The establishment of a socialist state in China (People's Republic of China) on 1 October 1949 caused the British colonial government to reconsider Hong Kong's open border to mainland China. In 1951, a boundary zone was demarked as a buffer zone against potential military attacks from communist China. Border posts along the north of Hong Kong began operation in 1953 to regulate the movement of people and goods into and out of the territory.
Stamp with portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, 1953
In the 1950s, Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies under rapid industrialisation driven by textile exports, manufacturing industries and re-exports of goods to China. As the population grew, with labour costs remaining low, living standards began to rise steadily.[77] The construction of the Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme to provide shelter for the less privileged and to cope with the influx of immigrants.
Under Sir Murray MacLehose, 25th Governor of Hong Kong (1971–82), a series of reforms improved the public services, environment, housing, welfare, education and infrastructure of Hong Kong. MacLehose was British Hong Kong's longest-serving governor and, by the end of his tenure, had become one of the most popular and well-known figures in the Crown Colony. MacLehose laid the foundation for Hong Kong to establish itself as a key global city in the 1980s and early 1990s.
A sky view of Hong Kong Island
An aerial view of the northern shore of Hong Kong Island in 1986
To resolve traffic congestion and to provide a more reliable means of crossing the Victoria Harbour, a rapid transit railway system (metro), the MTR, was planned from the 1970s onwards. The Island Line (Hong Kong Island), Kwun Tong Line (Kowloon Peninsula and East Kowloon) and Tsuen Wan Line (Kowloon and urban New Territories) opened in the early 1980s.[78]
In 1983, the Hong Kong dollar left its 16:1 peg with the Pound sterling and switched to the current US-HK Dollar peg. Hong Kong's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs, as well as new development in southern China under the Open Door Policy introduced in 1978 which opened up China to foreign business. Nevertheless, towards the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre along with London and New York City, a regional hub for logistics and freight, one of the fastest-growing economies in Asia and the world's exemplar of Laissez-faire market policy.[79]
The Hong Kong question
In 1971, the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s permanent seat on the United Nations was transferred to the People's Republic of China (PRC), Hong Kong's status as a recognised colony became terminated in 1972 under the request of PRC. Facing the uncertain future of Hong Kong and expiry of land lease of New Territories beyond 1997, Governor MacLehose raised the question in the late 1970s.
The British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified Hong Kong into a British Dependent Territory amid the reorganisation of global territories of the British Empire. All residents of Hong Kong became British Dependent Territory Citizens (BDTC). Diplomatic negotiations began with China and eventually concluded with the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration. Both countries agreed to transfer Hong Kong's sovereignty to China on 1 July 1997, when Hong Kong would remain autonomous as a special administrative region and be able to retain its free-market economy, British common law through the Hong Kong Basic Law, independent representation in international organisations (e.g. WTO and WHO), treaty arrangements and policy-making except foreign diplomacy and military defence.
It stipulated that Hong Kong would retain its laws and be guaranteed a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer. The Hong Kong Basic Law, based on English law, would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer. It was ratified in 1990.[69] The expiry of the 1898 lease on the New Territories in 1997 created problems for business contracts, property leases and confidence among foreign investors.
Handover and Special Administrative Region status
Main articles: Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong and 2000s in Hong Kong
Transfer of sovereignty
Golden Bauhinia Square
On 1 July 1997, the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China took place, officially marking the end of Hong Kong's 156 years under British colonial governance. As the largest remaining colony of the United Kingdom, the loss of Hong Kong effectively represented the end of the British Empire. This transfer of sovereignty made Hong Kong the first special administrative region of China. Tung Chee-Hwa, a pro-Beijing business tycoon, was elected Hong Kong's first Chief Executive by a selected electorate of 800 in a televised programme.
Structure of government
Hong Kong's current structure of governance inherits from the British model of colonial administration set up in the 1850s. The 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration states that "Hong Kong should enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all areas except defence and foreign affairs" with reference to the underlying principle of one country, two systems.[note 3] This Declaration stipulates that Hong Kong maintains her capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of her people for at least 50 years after the 1997 handover. [note 4] Such guarantees are enshrined in the Hong Kong's Basic Law, the territory's constitutional document, which outlines the system of governance after 1997, albeit subject to interpretation by China's Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC).[95][96]
Hong Kong's most senior leader, Chief Executive, is elected by a committee of 1,200 selected members (600 in 1997) and nominally appointed by the Government of China. The primary pillars of government are the Executive Council, Legislative Council, civil service and Judiciary.
Policy-making is initially discussed in the Executive Council, presided by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, before passing to the Legislative Council for bill adoption. The Executive Council consists of 30 official/unofficial members appointed by the Chief Executive and one member among them acts as the convenor.[97][98]
The Legislative Council, set up in 1843, debates policies and motions before voting to adopt or rejecting bills. It has 70 members (originally 60) and 40 (originally 30) among them are directly elected by universal suffrage; the other 30 members are "functional constituencies" (indirectly) elected by a smaller electorate of corporate bodies or representatives of stipulated economic sectors as defined by the government. The Legislative Council is chaired by a president who acts as the speaker.[99][100]
In 1997, seating of the Legislative Council (also public services and election franchises) of Hong Kong modelled on the British system: Urban Council (Hong Kong and Kowloon) and District Council (New Territories and Outlying Islands). In 1999, this system has been reformed into 18 directly elected District Offices across 5 Legislative Council constituencies: Hong Kong Island (East/West), Kowloon and New Territories (East/West); the remaining outlying islands are divided across the aforementioned regions.
Hong Kong's Civil Service, created by the British colonial government, is a politically neutral body that implements government policies and provides public services. Senior civil servants are appointed based on meritocracy. The territory's police, firefighting and customs forces, as well as clerical officers across various government departments, make up the civil service.[101][102]
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Horus swift Horus swift in South Luangwa National Park, Zambia
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1] Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Apodiformes Family: Apodidae Genus: Apus Species: A. horus Binomial name Apus horus
(Heuglin, 1869)
The Horus swift (Apus horus) is a small bird in the swift family. It breeds in sub-Saharan Africa. It has an extensive continuous distribution from eastern and southern South Africa north to southern Zambia and central Mozambique, and has recently colonised the De Hoop Nature Reserve area of the Western Cape.
It also occurs very discontinuously in much of the rest of the sub-Saharan region, with the Ethiopian mountains and the area from central Kenya into Uganda having large populations. Identification difficulties confuse the limits of this species’ range.
Birds in South Africa are migratory, wintering further north. Other populations are resident apart from local movements.
The Horus swift breeds in old burrows of bee-eaters, ground woodpeckers, kingfishers and martins, which are typically in natural or artificial sandy banks. The flat nest of vegetation and hair, glued with saliva is built at the end of the tunnel and 1-4 eggs are laid. The eggs are incubated for 28 days to hatching, and the fledging period is about 6 weeks. This species is not colonial, but the nature of its breeding habitat means that a number of pairs may be scattered through a bee-eater or banded martin colony. It feeds at middle levels over adjacent habitats, but avoids large towns.
The Horus swift is 13–15 cm long and quite bulky. It appears entirely blackish except for a white patch on the chin and a white rump. It has a medium length forked tail. It has a fluttering flight like little swift. Little swift has a square tail, and more extensive white on the rump than Horus, and white-rumped swift has a more deeply forked tail and a narrower white band. The call is a buzzing peeeeooo, peeeeooo. The paler subspecies A. h. fuscobrunneus of southwestern Angola has a small grey throat patch and a brown rump. The form toulsoni of northwestern Angola and Zimbabwe is a dark morph of nominate A. h. horus, with a dark rump and small throat patch. Both dark forms have sometimes been split as separate species.
Horus, whose name this bird commemorates, was the ancient Egyptian god of the sun, son of Osiris and Isis.
Gemma Galgani
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Gemma (disambiguation).
Saint Gemma Galgani
Gemma gazes upward
The Flower of Lucca
The Virgin of Lucca
Born March 12, 1878
Borgonuovo, Capannori, Italy
Died April 11, 1903 (aged 25)
Lucca, Italy
Honored in Roman Catholic Church
Beatified May 14, 1933 by Pope Pius XI
Canonized May 2, 1940, Saint Peter's Basilica, Vatican City by Pope Pius XII
Major shrine Passionist Monastery in Lucca, Italy
Feast April 11 (celebrated by Passionists on May 16)
Attributes Passionist robe, flowers (lilies and roses), guardian angel, stigmata, heavenward gaze
Patronage Students, pharmacists, tuberculosis patients, love, hope, spinal injury
Controversy Visions, stigmata, ecstasy
Maria Gemma Umberta Pia Galgani (March 12, 1878 – April 11, 1903) was an Italian mystic, venerated as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church since 1940.[1] She has been called the "Daughter of Passion" because of her profound imitation of the Passion of Christ.[2]
Contents
1 Early life
2 Education
3 Mysticism
4 Stigmata
5 Reception
5.1 Family and public
5.2 Church
6 Death
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Early life
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Maria Gemma Umberta Pia Galgani (or Gemma Galgani as she became commonly known) was born on March 12, 1878, in the hamlet of Borgo Nuovo in the provincial town of Capannori.[3] Gemma was the fifth of eight children; her father, Enrico Galgani, was a prosperous pharmacist.[4]
Soon after Gemma's birth, the family relocated north from Borgo Nuovo to a large new home in the Tuscan city of Lucca in a move which was undertaken to facilitate an improvement in the children's education. Gemma's mother, Aurelia Galgani, contracted tuberculosis. Because of this hardship, Gemma was placed in a private nursery school run by Elena and Ersilia Vallini when she was two-and-a-half years old, and was regarded as a highly intelligent child.[1]
Several members of the Galgani family died during this period. Their firstborn child, Carlo, died at an early age. On September 17, 1885, Aurelia Galgani died from tuberculosis, which she had for five years. Gemma's beloved brother Gino, while studying for the priesthood, died from tuberculosis and her little sister Giulia also died at a young age.[1]
Education
Gemma was sent to a Catholic half-boarding school in Lucca run by the Sisters of St. Zita. She excelled in French, arithmetic and music. Gemma was allowed at age nine to receive her first communion. Later she was not accepted by the Passionists to become a nun because of her poor health and her visions. At age 20, Gemma developed spinal meningitis, but was healed, attributing her extraordinary cure to the Sacred Heart of Jesus through the intercession of Venerable Gabriel of Our Lady of Sorrows (later canonized a saint), and Saint Marguerite Marie Alacoque.[1]
Gemma was orphaned shortly after she turned 18, making her responsible for the upbringing of her younger siblings, which she did with her aunt Carolina. She declined two marriage proposals and became a housekeeper with the Giannini family.[1]
Mysticism
Further information: Mysticism, Ecstasy (emotion), and Saints and levitation
According to a biography written by her spiritual director, the Reverend Germanus Ruoppolo, CP (now a venerable), Gemma began to display signs of the stigmata on June 8, 1899, at the age of twenty-one. She stated that she had spoken with her guardian angel, Jesus, the Virgin Mary, and other saints—especially Gabriel of Our Lady of Sorrows. According to her testimonies, she sometimes received special messages from them about current or future events. With her health in decline, Ruoppolo directed her to pray for the disappearance of her stigmata; she did so and the marks ceased.[1] She said that she resisted the Devil's attacks often.
Gemma was frequently found in a state of ecstasy. She has also been reputed to levitate. In one instance, in the dining room of her home was a large crucifix that was highly venerated by the whole family, particularly by Gemma. She claimed that at least once that she found herself raised from the floor with her arms around the crucifix while kissing the wound on the side of the crucified.[5]
Stigmata
Saint Gemma was one of the recipients of the Holy Wounds of Christ. She tells what took place when she received the Holy Stigmata on June 8 in the year 1899, a Thursday, on the eve of the feast of the Sacred Heart. The Saint discloses:
I felt an inward sorrow for my sins, but so intense that I have never felt the like again ... My will made me detest them all, and promise willingly to suffer everything as expiation for them. Then the thoughts crowded thickly within me, and they were thoughts of sorrow, love, fear, hope and comfort.
Saint Gemma then experienced a rapture in which she saw her guardian angel in the company of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Saint Gemma tells what took place next:
The Blessed Virgin Mary opened her mantle and covered me with it. At that very moment Jesus appeared with his wounds all open; blood was not flowing from them, but flames of fire which in one moment came and touched my hands, feet and heart. I felt I was dying, and should have fallen down but for my Mother (Blessed Virgin Mary) who supported me and kept me under her mantle. Thus I remained for several hours. Then my Mother kissed my forehead, the vision disappeared and I found myself on my knees; but I still had a keen pain in my hands, feet and heart. I got up to get into bed and saw that blood was coming from the places where I had the pain. I covered them as well as I could and then, helped by my guardian angel, got into bed.[5]
Reception
Gemma Galgani, published in 1916
Family and public
Gemma was well known in the vicinity of Lucca before her death, especially to those in poverty. Opinions of her were divided. Some people admired her extraordinary virtues and referred to her as The Virgin of Lucca out of pious respect and admiration. Others mocked her (including her younger sister, Angelina, who apparently used to make fun of Gemma during such experiences, and during Gemma's canonization process was deemed as 'unfit' to testify due to accusations of attempting profit from Gemma's reputation). In light of the extraordinary events surrounding her life, some skeptics thought that she had a mental illness.
Church
Gemma was often treated with disdain by some in the Church's hierarchy; even her own confessor was at times skeptical of her mystical gifts. Her spiritual director, the Reverend Ruoppolo, was initially reserved, but after a thorough and prudent examination of the ongoing events surrounding her, he became completely convinced of the authenticity of her mystical life. After her death, he wrote a detailed biography of her life and was responsible for gathering all her writings, including her diary, autobiography, and letters.
Death
In early 1903, Gemma was diagnosed with tuberculosis, and thus began a long and often painful death. There were numerous extraordinary mystical phenomena that occurred during her final illness. One of the religious nursing sisters who attended to her stated, "We have cared for a good many sick people, but we have never seen anything like this." At the beginning of Holy Week 1903, her health quickly deteriorated, and by Good Friday she was suffering tremendously. Gemma died in a small room across from the Giannini house on April 11, 1903—Holy Saturday. After a thorough examination of her life by the Church, she was beatified on May 14, 1933 and canonized on May 2, 1940.[6] Galgani's relics are housed at the Passionist monastery in Lucca, Italy.
She was beatified within 30 years from the date of her death which included the mandatory five years waiting period before the process of canonization starts. Very few in the Catholic Church have had sainthood conferred on them this quickly.
As one of the most popular saints of the Passionist Order, the devotion to Gemma Galgani is particularly strong both in Italy and Latin America. She is a patron saint of students (said to be the top of her class before having to leave school) and of pharmacists.
See also
Victim soul
References
Notes
Bell, Rudolph M.; Cristina Mazzoni (2003). The Voices of Gemma Galgani: The Life and Afterlife of a Modern Saint. Chicago, IL, US: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-04196-4. Retrieved 2009-06-15.
An Anthology of Christian mysticism by Harvey D. Egan 1991 ISBN 0-8146-6012-6 p. 539
Saint Gemma, p. 7.
Germanus 2000, p. 1
Mysteries, Marvels, Miracles in the Lives of Saints by Joan Carroll Cruz ISBN 978-0-89555-541-0
Saint Gemma, p. 46.
Bibliography
Germanus, Venerable Father (2000). The Life of St. Gemma Galgani. Illinois: Tan Books and Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-0895556691.
Orsi, Robert A. "Two Aspects of One Life" in Between Heaven and Earth: The Religious Worlds People Make and the Scholars Who Study Them. Princeton University Press, 2005, 110–45.
Saint Gemma Galgani. Lucca, Italy: Monastero-Santuario Saint Gemma.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gemma Galgani.
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VIAF: 29668903
LCCN: n50058596
ISNI: 0000 0001 0883 7866
GND: 11868924X
BNF: cb13091959t (data)
ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\088528
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Career
Name: RMS Olympic
Owner: White Star flag NEW.svg White Star Line 1911–1934
Cunard White Star Line Logo.JPG Cunard White Star Line 1934–1935
Port of registry: United Kingdom Liverpool, United Kingdom
Route: Southampton to New York
Ordered: 1906
Builder: Harland and Wolff, Belfast
Yard number: 400
Laid down: 16 December 1908
Launched: 20 October 1910
Completed: May 1911
Maiden voyage: 14 June 1911
In service: 1911
Out of service: 1935
Identification: Official Number 131346
Code Letters HSRP
ICS Hotel.svgICS Sierra.svgICS Romeo.svgICS Papa.svg
Radio callsign "MKC"
Fate: Retired at Southampton after 24 years service & scrapped. Superstructure dismantled at Jarrow, England, and the hull at Inverkeithing, Scotland.
Status: scrapped (besides the Second Class Lounge)
General characteristics
Class & type: Olympic-class ocean liner
Tonnage: 45,324 gross register tons; 46,358 after 1913; 46,439 after 1920
Displacement: 52,067 tons
Length: 882 ft 6 in (269.0 m)
Beam: 92 ft 6 in (28.2 m)
Height: 175 ft (53.3 m) (keel to top of funnels)
Draught: 34 ft 7 in (10.5 m)
Decks: 10 decks (1 crew deck)
Installed power: 24 double-ended (six furnace) and 5 single-ended (three furnace) Scotch boilers. Two four-cylinder triple-expansion reciprocating engines each producing 15,000 hp for the two outboard wing propellers at 75 revolutions per minute. One low-pressure turbine producing 16,000 h. 59,000 hp produced at maximum revolutions.[1]
Propulsion: Two bronze triple-blade wing propellers. One bronze quadruple-blade centre propeller.
Speed:
21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph)
23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph) (maximum)
Capacity: 2,435 passengers
Crew: 950
RMS Olympic was a transatlantic ocean liner, the lead ship of the White Star Line's trio of Olympic-class liners. Unlike her younger sister ships, the Olympic enjoyed a long and illustrious career, spanning 24 years from 1911 to 1935. This included service as a troopship during World War I, which gained her the nickname "Old Reliable". Olympic returned to civilian service after the war and served successfully as an ocean liner throughout the 1920s and into the first half of the 1930s, although increased competition, and the slump in trade during the Great Depression after 1930, made her operation increasingly unprofitable.
She was the largest ocean liner in the world for two periods during 1911–13, interrupted only by the brief tenure of the slightly larger Titanic (which had the same dimensions but higher gross tonnage due to revised interior configurations), and then outsized by the SS Imperator. Olympic also retained the title of the largest British-built liner until the RMS Queen Mary was launched in 1934, interrupted only by the short careers of her slightly larger sister ships.[2][3]
By contrast with Olympic, the other ships in the class, Titanic and Britannic, did not have long service lives. On the night of 14/15 April 1912, Titanic collided with an iceberg in the North Atlantic and sank, claiming 1,500 lives; Britannic struck a mine and sank in the Kea Channel in the Mediterranean on 21 November 1916, killing 30 people.
Background
Built in Belfast, Ireland, the RMS Olympic was the first of the three Olympic-class ocean liners – the others were the RMS Titanic and the HMHS Britannic.[4] They were by far the largest vessels of the British shipping company White Star Line's fleet, which comprised 29 steamers and tenders in 1912.[5] The three ships had their genesis in a discussion in mid-1907 between the White Star Line's chairman, J. Bruce Ismay, and the American financier J. Pierpont Morgan, who controlled the White Star Line's parent corporation, the International Mercantile Marine Co. The White Star Line faced a growing challenge from its main rivals Cunard, which had just launched Lusitania and Mauretania – the fastest passenger ships then in service – and the German lines Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd. Ismay preferred to compete on size rather than speed and proposed to commission a new class of liners that would be bigger than anything that had gone before as well as being the last word in comfort and luxury.[6] The company sought an upgrade in their fleet primarily in response to the Cunard giants but also to replace their largest and now outclassed ships from 1890, the SS Teutonic and SS Majestic. The former was replaced by Olympic while Majestic was replaced by Titanic. Majestic would be brought back into her old spot on White Star's New York service after Titanic's loss.
The ships were constructed by the Belfast shipbuilders Harland and Wolff, who had a long-established relationship with the White Star Line dating back to 1867.[7] Harland and Wolff were given a great deal of latitude in designing ships for the White Star Line; the usual approach was for the latter to sketch out a general concept which the former would take away and turn into a ship design. Cost considerations were relatively low on the agenda and Harland and Wolff was authorised to spend what it needed on the ships, plus a five percent profit margin.[7] In the case of the Olympic-class ships, a cost of £3 million for the first two ships was agreed plus "extras to contract" and the usual five percent fee.[8]
The launch of Olympic on 20 October 1910
Harland and Wolff put their leading designers to work designing the Olympic-class vessels. It was overseen by Lord Pirrie, a director of both Harland and Wolff and the White Star Line; naval architect Thomas Andrews, the managing director of Harland and Wolff's design department; Edward Wilding, Andrews' deputy and responsible for calculating the ship's design, stability and trim; and Alexander Carlisle, the shipyard's chief draughtsman and general manager.[9] Carlisle's responsibilities included the decorations, equipment and all general arrangements, including the implementation of an efficient lifeboat davit design.[10]
On 29 July 1908, Harland and Wolff presented the drawings to J. Bruce Ismay and other White Star Line executives. Ismay approved the design and signed three "letters of agreement" two days later authorising the start of construction.[11] At this point the first ship – which was later to become Olympic – had no name, but was referred to simply as "Number 400", as it was Harland and Wolff's four hundredth hull. Titanic was based on a revised version of the same design and was given the number 401.[12] Bruce Ismay's father Thomas Henry Ismay had previously planned to build a ship named Olympic as a sister ship to the Oceanic. The senior Ismay died in 1899 and the order for the ship was cancelled.[13]
Construction of the Olympic began three months before Titanic to ease pressures on the shipyard. Several years would pass before Britannic would be launched. In order to accommodate the construction of the class, Harland and Wolff upgraded their facility in Belfast; the most dramatic change was the combining of three slipways into two larger ones. Olympic's keel was laid in December 1908 and she was launched on 20 October 1910.[4] For her launch, the hull was painted in a light grey colour for photographic purposes; a common practice of the day for the first ship in a new class, as it made the lines of the ship clearer in the black and white photographs. Her hull was repainted black following the launch.[3]
The Olympic was designed as a luxury ship; her passenger facilities, fittings, deck plans and technical facilities were largely identical to those of her more famous sister Titanic, although with some small variations.[14] The first-class passengers enjoyed luxurious cabins, and some were equipped with private bathrooms. First-class passengers could have meals in the ship's large and luxurious dining room or in the more intimate A La Carte Restaurant. There was a lavish Grand Staircase, built only for the Olympic-class ships, along with three elevators that ran behind the staircase down to E deck,[15] a Georgian-style smoking room, a Veranda Café decorated with palm trees,[16] a swimming pool, Turkish bath,[17] gymnasium,[18] and several other places for meals and entertainment.
The second-class facilities included a smoking room, a library, a spacious dining room, and an elevator.[3][19]
Finally, the third-class passengers enjoyed reasonable accommodation compared to other ships, if not up to the second and first classes. Instead of large dormitories offered by most ships of the time, the third-class passengers of the Olympic travelled in cabins containing two to ten bunks. Facilities for the third class included a smoking room, a common area, and a dining room.[3][19]
Olympic had a cleaner, sleeker look than other ships of the day: rather than fitting her with bulky exterior air vents, Harland and Wolff used smaller air vents with electric fans, with a "dummy" fourth funnel used for additional ventilation. For the power plant Harland and Wolff employed a combination of reciprocating engines with a centre low-pressure turbine, as opposed to the steam turbines used on Cunard's Lusitania and Mauretania.[20] White Star had successfully tested this engine set up on an earlier liner SS Laurentic, where it was found to be more economical than expansion engines or turbines alone. Olympic consumed 650 tons of coal per 24 hours with an average speed of 21.7 knots on her maiden voyage, compared to 1000 tons of coal per 24 hours for both the Lusitania and Mauretania.[21]
Although Olympic and Titanic were nearly identical, and were based on the same design, a few alterations were made to Titanic (and later on Britannic) based on experience gained from Olympic's first year in service. The most noticeable of these was that the forward half of the Titanic's A Deck promenade was enclosed by a steel screen with sliding windows, to provide additional shelter, whereas the Olympic's promenade deck remained open along its whole length. Also the promenades on the Titanic's B Deck were reduced in size, and the space used for additional cabins and public rooms, including two luxury suites with private promenades. A number of other variations existed between the two ships layouts and fittings. These differences meant that Titanic had a slightly higher gross tonnage of 46,328 tons, compared to Olympic's 45,324 tons.[22]
Olympic on her sea trials in Belfast in 1911
Career
Following completion, Olympic started her sea trials on 29 May 1911, which she successfully completed; Olympic then left Belfast bound for Liverpool, her port of registration, on 31 May 1911. As a publicity stunt the White Star Line deliberately timed the start of this first voyage to coincide with the launch of Titanic. After spending a day in Liverpool, open to the public, Olympic sailed to Southampton, where she arrived on 3 June, to be made ready for her maiden voyage.[23] The deep-water dock at Southampton, then known as the "White Star Dock" had been specially constructed to accommodate the new Olympic-class liners, and had opened in 1911.[24]
Her maiden voyage commenced on 14 June 1911 from Southampton, calling at Cherbourg and Queenstown, reaching New York on 21 June.[25] The maiden voyage was captained by Edward Smith who would lose his life the following year in the Titanic disaster.[26] Designer Thomas Andrews was present for the passage to New York and return, along with a number of engineers, as part of Harland and Wolff's "Guarantee Group" to spot any problems or areas for improvement. Andrews would also lose his life in the Titanic disaster.[27]
As the largest ship in the world, and the first in a new class of superliners. Olympic's maiden voyage attracted considerable worldwide attention from the press and public. Following her arrival in New York, Olympic was opened up to the public and received over 8,000 visitors. More than 10,000 spectators watched her depart from New York harbour, for her first return trip.[28]
Hawke collision
Photographs documenting the damage to the Olympic (left) and the Hawke (right) following their collision (alternate view)
Olympic's first major mishap occurred on her fifth voyage on 20 September 1911, when she collided with a British warship, HMS Hawke off the Isle of Wight. The collision took place as Olympic and Hawke were running parallel to each other through the Solent. As Olympic turned to starboard, the wide radius of her turn took the commander of the Hawke by surprise, and he was unable to take sufficient avoiding action.[29] The Hawke's bow, which had been designed to sink ships by ramming them, collided with Olympic's starboard side near the stern, tearing two large holes in Olympic's hull, below and above the waterline respectively, resulting in the flooding of two of her watertight compartments and a twisted propeller shaft. HMS Hawke suffered severe damage to her bow and nearly capsized. Despite this, Olympic was able to return to Southampton under her own power, and no-one was seriously injured or killed.[14][30]
Captain Edward Smith was still in command of Olympic at the time of the incident. One crew member, Violet Jessop, survived not only the collision with the Hawke but also the later sinking of Titanic and the 1916 sinking of Britannic, the third ship of the class.[31]
At the subsequent inquiry the Royal Navy blamed Olympic for the incident, alleging that her large displacement generated a suction that pulled Hawke into her side.[32][33] The Hawke incident was a financial disaster for Olympic's operator. A legal argument ensued which decided that the blame for the incident lay with Olympic, and although the ship was technically under the control of the pilot, the White Star Line was faced with large legal bills and the cost of repairing the ship, and keeping her out of revenue service made matters worse.[29] However, the fact that Olympic endured such a serious collision and stayed afloat, appeared to vindicate the design of the Olympic-class liners and reinforced their "unsinkable" reputation.[29]
Olympic (left) returning to Belfast for repairs in March 1912, and Titanic (right) This was the last time the two sister ships would be seen together
It took two weeks for the damage to Olympic to be patched up sufficiently to allow her to return to Belfast for permanent repairs, which took just over six weeks to complete. To speed up the repairs, Harland and Wolff was forced to delay Titanic's completion in order to use her propeller shaft for Olympic. By 29 November she was back in service, however in February 1912, Olympic suffered another setback when she lost a propeller blade on an eastbound voyage from New York, and once again returned to her builder for repairs. To get her back to service as soon as possible, Harland & Wolff again had to pull resources from Titanic, delaying her maiden voyage from 20 March 1912 to 10 April 1912.[34]
Titanic disaster
Main article: Sinking of the RMS Titanic
On 14 April 1912, Olympic, now under the command of Herbert James Haddock, was on a return trip from New York. Wireless operator Ernest James Moore[35] received the distress call from her sister Titanic, when she was approximately 500 nautical miles (930 km; 580 mi) west by south of Titanic's location.[36] Haddock calculated a new course, ordered the ship's engines to be set to full power and headed to assist in the rescue.[37]
When Olympic was about 100 nautical miles (190 km; 120 mi) away from Titanic's last known position, she received a message from Captain Rostron captain of Cunard Liner RMS Carpathia, explaining that continuing on course to Titanic would gain nothing, as "All boats accounted for. About 675 souls saved [...] Titanic foundered about 2.20 am."[36] Rostron requested that the message be forwarded to White Star and Cunard. He said that he was returning to harbour in New York.[36] Subsequently, the wireless room aboard the Olympic operated as a clearing room for radio messages.[36]
When Olympic offered to take on the survivors, she was heatedly turned down by an appalled Rostron, who was concerned that it would cause panic amongst the survivors of the disaster to see a virtual mirror-image of the Titanic appear and ask them to board. Olympic then resumed her voyage to Southampton, with all concerts cancelled as a mark of respect, arriving on 21 April.[3]
Over the next few months, Olympic assisted with both the American and British inquiries into the disaster. Deputations from both inquiries inspected Olympic's lifeboats, watertight doors and bulkheads and other equipment which were identical to those on Titanic.[38] Sea tests were performed for the British enquiry in May 1912, to establish how quickly the ship could turn two points at various speeds, to approximate how long it would have taken the Titanic to turn when it sighted the iceberg.[39]
1912 "mutiny"
Olympic, like Titanic, did not carry enough lifeboats for everyone on board, and was hurriedly equipped with additional, second-hand collapsible lifeboats following her return to Britain. Toward the end of April 1912, as she was about to sail from Southampton to New York, 284 of the ship's firemen went on strike because of fears that the ship's new collapsible lifeboats were not seaworthy. 100 non-union crew were hastily hired from Southampton as replacements, with more being hired from Liverpool.[40]
The 40 collapsible lifeboats were secondhand, having been transferred from troopships, and many were rotten and could not open. The crewmen instead sent a request to the Southampton manager of the White Star Line that the collapsible boats be replaced by wooden lifeboats; the manager replied that this was impossible and that the collapsible boats had been passed as seaworthy by a Board of Trade inspector. The men were not satisfied and ceased work in protest.[41]
On 25 April a deputation of strikers witnessed a test of four of the collapsible boats. Only one was unseaworthy and they said that they were prepared to recommend the men return to work if it was replaced. However the strikers now objected to the non-union strikebreaker crew which had come on board, and demanded that they be dismissed, which the White Star Line refused. 54 sailors then left the ship, objecting to the non-union crew who they claimed were unqualified and therefore dangerous, and refused to sail with them. This led to the scheduled sailing being cancelled.[40][42]
All 54 sailors were arrested on a charge of mutiny when they went ashore. On 4 May 1912 Portsmouth magistrates found the charges against the mutineers were proven, but discharged them without imprisonment or fine due to the special circumstances of the case.[43] Fearing that public opinion would be on the side of the strikers, the White Star Line let them return to work and the Olympic sailed on 15 May.[39]
Refit
Olympic as she appeared after her refit following the Titanic disaster, with a full complement of lifeboats
On 9 October 1912 White Star withdrew Olympic from service and returned her to her builders at Belfast to be refitted to incorporate lessons learned from the Titanic disaster 6 months prior, and improve safety.[44] The number of lifeboats carried by Olympic was increased from twenty to sixty four (per Carlisle's original number), and extra davits were installed along the boat deck to accommodate them. Also, an inner watertight skin was constructed in the boiler and engine rooms, to create a double hull. Five of the watertight bulkheads were extended up to B-Deck, extending to the entire height of the hull. This corrected a flaw in the original design, in which the bulkheads only rose up as far as E or D-Deck, a short distance above the waterline. This flaw had been exposed during Titanic's sinking, where water spilled over the top of the bulkheads as the ship sank and flooded subsequent compartments. In addition, an extra bulkhead was added to subdivide the electrical dynamo room, bringing the total number of watertight compartments to seventeen. Improvements were also made to the ship's pumping apparatus. These modifications meant that Olympic could survive a collision similar to that of Titanic, in that her first six compartments could be breached and the ship could remain afloat.[45][46]
At the same time, Olympic's B-Deck underwent a refit, which necessitated eliminating her B-Deck promenades – one of the few features that separated her from her sister ship. The refit included extra cabins (the parlour suites which proved popular on the Titanic were added to the Olympic), more cabins were fitted with private bathing facilities, and a Cafe Parisian (another addition that had proved popular on the Titanic) was added, offering another dining option to first class passengers. With these changes, Olympic's gross tonnage rose to 46,359 tons, 31 tons more than Titanic's.[47]
In March 1913, Olympic returned to service and briefly regained the title of largest ocean liner in the world, until the German liner SS Imperator entered passenger service in June 1913. Following her refit, Olympic was marketed as the "new" Olympic and her improved safety features were featured prominently in advertisements. [48][3]
World War I
In August 1914 World War I began. Olympic initially remained in commercial service under Captain Herbert James Haddock. As a wartime measure, Olympic was painted in a grey colour scheme, portholes were blocked, and lights on deck were turned off to make the ship less visible. The schedule was hastily altered to terminate at Liverpool rather than Southampton, and this was later altered again to Glasgow.[3][49]
The first few wartime voyages were packed with Americans trapped in Europe, eager to return home, although the eastbound journeys carried few passengers. By mid-October, bookings had fallen sharply as the threat from German U-boats became increasingly serious, and White Star Line decided to withdraw Olympic from commercial service. On 21 October 1914, she left New York for Glasgow on her last commercial voyage of the war, though carrying only 153 passengers.[50][49]
Audacious incident
On the sixth day of her voyage, 27 October, as the Olympic passed near Lough Swilly off the north coast of Ireland, she received distress signals from the battleship HMS Audacious, which had struck a mine off Tory Island and was taking on water.[51]
The crew of the stricken Audacious take to lifeboats to be rescued by Olympic
The Olympic took off 250 of the Audacious' crew, then the destroyer HMS Fury managed to attach a tow cable between Audacious and Olympic and they headed west for Lough Swilly. However, the cable parted after the Audacious' steering gear failed. A second attempt was made to tow the warship, but the cable became tangled in HMS Liverpool's propellers and was severed. A third attempt was tried but also failed when the cable gave way. By 17:00 the Audacious' quarterdeck was awash and it was decided to evacuate the remaining crew members to Olympic and Liverpool, and at 20:55 there was an explosion aboard the Audacious and she sank.[52]
Admiral Sir John Jellicoe, Commander of the Home Fleet, was anxious to suppress the news of the sinking of Audacious, for fear of the demoralising effect it could have on the British public, so ordered Olympic to be held in custody at Lough Swilly. No communications were permitted and passengers were not allowed to leave the ship. The only people departing her were the crew of the Audacious and Chief Surgeon John Beaumont, who was transferring to RMS Celtic. Steel tycoon Charles M. Schwab, who was travelling aboard the liner, sent word to Jellicoe that he had urgent business in London with the Admiralty, and Jellicoe agreed to release Schwab if he remained silent about the fate of Audacious. Finally, on 2 November, Olympic was allowed to go to Belfast where the passengers disembarked.[53]
HMT Olympic in dazzle camouflage while in service as a troopship during World War I
Naval service
Following Olympic's return to Britain, the White Star Line intended to lay her up in Belfast until the war was over, but in May 1915 she was requisitioned by the Admiralty, to be used as a troop transport, along with the Cunard liners Mauretania and Aquitania. The Admiralty had initially been reluctant to use large ocean liners as troop transports because of their vulnerability to enemy attack, however a shortage of ships gave them little choice. At the same time, Olympic's other sister ship Britannic, which had not yet been completed, was requisitioned as a hospital ship. In that role she would strike a mine and sink the following year.[54]
Stripped of her peacetime fittings, and armed with 12-pounders and 4.7-inch guns, Olympic was converted to a troopship, with the capacity to transport up to 6,000 troops. On 24 September 1915 the newly designated HMT (Hired Military Transport) 2810, now under the command of Bertram Fox Hayes left Liverpool carrying 6,000 soldiers to Mudros, Greece for the Gallipoli Campaign. On 1 October she sighted lifeboats from the French ship Provincia which had been sunk by a U-boat that morning off Cape Matapan and picked up 34 survivors. Hayes was heavily criticised for this action by the British Admiralty, who accused him of putting the ship in danger by stopping it in waters where enemy U-boats were active. The ship's speed was considered to be its best defence against U-boat attack, and such a large ship stopped would have made an unmissable target. However the French Vice-Admiral Louis Dartige du Fournet took a different view, and awarded Hayes with the Gold Medal of Honour. Olympic made several more trooping journeys to the Mediterranean until early 1916, when the Gallipoli Campaign was abandoned.[55]
In 1916, considerations were made to use Olympic to transport troops to India via the Cape of Good Hope. However on investigation it turned out she was unsuitable for this role, because her coal bunkers, which had been designed for transatlantic runs, lacked the capacity for such a long journey at a reasonable speed.[56] Instead, from 1916 to 1917, Olympic was chartered by the Canadian Government to transport troops from Halifax, Nova Scotia to Britain.[57] In 1917 she gained 6-inch guns and was painted with a "dazzle" camouflage scheme to make it more difficult for observers to estimate her speed and heading. Her dazzle colours were brown, dark blue, light blue, and white. Her many visits to Halifax Harbour carrying Canadian troops safely overseas, and back home after the war, made her a favourite symbol in the City of Halifax. Noted Group of Seven artist Arthur Lismer made several paintings of her in Halifax. A large dance hall, "Olympic Gardens" was also named in her honour. After the United States declared war on Germany in 1917, Olympic also transported thousands of U.S. troops to Britain.[58]
In the early hours of 12 May 1918, while en route for France with US troops under the command of Captain Hayes, Olympic sighted a surfaced U-boat 500 m (1,600 ft) ahead.[59] Her gunners opened fire at once, and she turned to ram the submarine, which immediately crash dived to 30 m (98 ft) and turned to a parallel course. Almost immediately afterwards Olympic struck the submarine just aft of her conning tower and her port propeller sliced through U-103's pressure hull. The crew of U-103 blew her ballast tanks, scuttled and abandoned the submarine. Olympic returned to Southampton with at least two hull plates dented and her prow twisted to one side, but not breached.[60]
Olympic did not stop to pick up survivors, but continued on to Cherbourg. The USS Davis sighted a distress flare and picked up 31 survivors from U-103. It was discovered that U-103 had been preparing to torpedo the Olympic when she was sighted, but the crew could not flood the two stern torpedo tubes.[61] For this service, Captain Hayes was awarded the DSO.[62] Some American soldiers on board paid for a plaque to be placed in one of Olympic's lounges to commemorate the event, it read:
This tablet presented by the 59th Regiment United States Infantry commemorates the sinking of the German submarine U103 by the Olympic on May 12th 1918 in latitude 49 degrees 16 minutes north longitude 4 degrees 51 minutes west on the voyage from New York to Southampton with American troops...[63]
During the war, Olympic is reported to have carried up to 201,000 troops and other personnel, burning 347,000 tons of coal and travelling about 184,000 miles.[64] Her impressive World War I service earned her the nickname Old Reliable.[65] Her captain was knighted in 1919 for "valuable services in connection with the transport of troops".[66]
Post-war
In August 1919 Olympic returned to Belfast for restoration to civilian service. Her interior was modernised and her boilers were converted to burn oil rather than coal. Oil was cheaper than coal, it lowered the refuelling time from days to hours, and allowed the engine room personnel to be reduced from 350 to 60 people.[67] During the conversion work and drydocking, a dent with a crack at the centre was discovered below her waterline which was later concluded to have been caused by a torpedo that had failed to detonate.[68]
Olympic at Southampton in 1929
Olympic emerged from her refit with an increased tonnage of 46,439, allowing her to retain her claim to the title of largest British built liner afloat, although the Cunard Line's Aquitania was slightly longer. In 1920 she returned to passenger service, on one voyage that year carrying 2,249 passengers.[69] Olympic transported a record 38,000 passengers during 1921, which proved to be the peak year of her career. From 1922 she was joined for an express service by Majestic and Homeric; two former German liners which had been ceded to Britain as war reparations, operating successfully until the Great Depression reduced demand after 1930.[70]
During the 1920s, Olympic remained a popular and fashionable ship, and often attracted the rich and famous of the day; Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks, and Prince Edward, then Prince of Wales, were among the celebrities that she carried.[71] Prince Edward and Captain Howarth were filmed on the bridge of the Olympic for Pathé News.[72] One of the attractions of the Olympic was the fact that she was nearly identical to the Titanic, and many passengers sailed on the Olympic as a way of vicariously experiencing the voyage of the Olympic's ill-fated sister ship.[73]
On 22 March 1924, Olympic was involved in another collision with a ship, this time at New York. As Olympic was reversing from her berth at New York harbour, her stern collided with the smaller liner Fort St George, which had crossed into her path. The collision caused extensive damage to the smaller ship. At first it appeared that Olympic had sustained only minor damage, but it was later revealed that her sternpost had been fractured, necessitating the replacement of her entire stern frame.[74]
Changes in immigration laws in the United States in the 1920s greatly restricted the number of immigrants allowed to enter. This led to a major reduction in the immigrant trade for the shipping lines, forcing them to cater to the tourist trade to survive.[3] At the turn of 1927–28, Olympic was converted to carry tourist third cabin passengers as well as first, second and third class.[75] Tourist third cabin was an attempt to attract travellers who desired comfort without the accompanying high ticket price. New public rooms were constructed for this class, although tourist third cabin and second class would merge to become 'tourist' by late 1931.
A year later, Olympic's first class cabins were again improved by adding more bathrooms, a dance floor was fitted in the enlarged first class dining saloon, and a number of new suites with private facilities were installed forward on B-deck.[76] More improvements would follow in a later refit, but 1929 saw Olympic's best average passenger lists since 1925.
On 18 November 1929, as the Olympic was travelling westbound near to Titanic's last known position, the ship suddenly started to vibrate violently, and the vibrations continued for two minutes. It was later determined that this had been caused by the 1929 Grand Banks earthquake.[77]
Last years
The shipping trade was badly affected by the Great Depression. Until 1930 there had generally been around one million passengers a year on the transatlantic route, but by 1934 this had dropped by more than half. Furthermore, by the early 1930s, increased competition emerged, in the form of a new generation of larger and faster liners such as Germany's SS Bremen and SS Europa, Italy's SS Rex and France's SS Île de France, and the remaining passengers tended to prefer the more up to date ships. Olympic had averaged around 1,000 passengers per journey until 1930, but this declined by more than half by 1932.[78]
Olympic's running mate Homeric was withdrawn from the transatlantic route as early as 1932, leaving only Olympic and Majestic maintaining White Star Line's Southampton-New York service, although this was occasionally augmented during the summer months by either the MV Britannic or MV Georgic. [79]
At the end of 1932, with passenger traffic in decline, Olympic went for an overhaul and refit that took four months. She returned to service in March 1933 described by her owners as "looking like new." Her engines were performing at their best and she repeatedly recorded speeds in excess of 23 knots, despite averaging less than that in regular transatlantic service. Passenger capacities were given as 618 first class, 447 tourist class and only 382 third class after the decline of the immigrant trade.[80]
Despite this, during 1933 and 1934, Olympic ran at a net operating loss for the first time. 1933 was Olympic's worst year of business – carrying just over 9,000 passengers in total.[81] Passenger numbers rose slightly in 1934, but many crossings still lost money.[79]
Olympic in 1934, passing the lightvessel she struck and sank a few months later
Lightship collision
In 1934, Olympic again struck a ship. The approaches to New York were marked by lightships and Olympic, like other liners, had been known to pass close by these vessels. On 15 May 1934, Olympic, inbound in heavy fog, was homing in on the radio beacon of Nantucket Lightship LV-117.[82] Now under the command of Captain John Binks, the ship failed to turn in time and sliced through the smaller vessel, which broke apart and sank.[83] Four of the lightship's crew went down with the vessel and seven were rescued, of whom three died of their injuries – thus there were seven fatalities out of a crew of eleven.[84] The lightship's surviving crew and the Olympic's captain were interviewed soon after reaching shore. One crewman said it all happened so quickly that they didn't know how it happened. The captain was very sorry it happened but said the Olympic reacted very quickly lowering boats to rescue the crew, which was confirmed by an injured crewman.[85]
Retirement
Olympic (left) and Mauretania laid up in Southampton prior to their scrapping.
In 1934, the White Star Line merged with the Cunard Line at the instigation of the British government, to form Cunard White Star.[86] This merger allowed funds to be granted for the completion of the future RMS Queen Mary and RMS Queen Elizabeth. When completed, these two new ships would handle Cunard White Star's transatlantic business, and so their fleet of older liners became redundant and were gradually retired.
Olympic was withdrawn from the transatlantic service, and left New York for the last time on 5 April 1935, returning to Britain to be laid up.[when?] Her new owners considered using her for summer cruises for a short while, but this idea was abandoned and she was put up for sale. Among the potential buyers was a syndicate who proposed to turn her into a floating hotel off the south coast of France, but this came to nothing.[87] After being laid up for five months alongside her former rival Mauretania, she was sold to Sir John Jarvis – Member of Parliament for £97,500, to be partially demolished at Jarrow to provide work for the depressed region.[88] Her superstructure was demolished in 1936, and in 1937, Olympic's hull was towed to Inverkeithing to T.W. Ward's yard for final demolition.[89]
By the time of her retirement, Olympic had completed 257 round trips across the Atlantic, transporting 430,000 passengers on her commercial voyages, travelling 1.8 million miles.[87][90]
Olympic artefacts
Fittings from the ship installed in the Olympic Suite at the White Swan Hotel, Alnwick
The marble fireplace from the Olympic now at the White Swan, Alnwick
The Olympic's fittings were auctioned off immediately before she was scrapped; some of her fittings, namely those of the first-class lounge and part of the aft grand staircase, can be found in the White Swan Hotel, in Alnwick, Northumberland, England. The rest of her fittings found homes in scattered places throughout Great Britain.[91]
In 2000, Celebrity Cruises purchased some of Olympic's original wooden panels to create the RMS Olympic restaurant on board their new cruise ship, Millennium. According to Celebrity Cruise Line, this wood panelling once lined Olympic's à la carte restaurant.[91]
The clock depicting "Honour and Glory Crowning Time" from Olympic's grand staircase is on display at Southampton's SeaCity Museum.[92][93]
Information from: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Cod
Cape Cod
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This article is about the area of Massachusetts. For other uses, see Cape Cod (disambiguation).
For other uses, see Cod (disambiguation).
Coordinates: 41°41′20″N 70°17′49″W / 41.68889°N 70.29694°W / 41.68889; -70.29694
Map of Massachusetts, with Cape Cod (Barnstable County) indicated in red
Dunes on Sandy Neck are part of the Cape's barrier beach which helps to prevent erosion
Cape Cod, often referred to locally as simply the Cape, is an island and a cape in the easternmost portion of the state of Massachusetts, in the Northeastern United States. It is coextensive with Barnstable County. Several small islands right off Cape Cod, including Monomoy Island, Monomoscoy Island, Popponesset Island, and Seconsett Island, are also in Barnstable County, being part of municipalities with land on the Cape. The Cape's small-town character and large beachfront attract heavy tourism during the summer months.
Cape Cod was formed as the terminal moraine of a glacier, resulting in a peninsula in the Atlantic Ocean. In 1914, the Cape Cod Canal was cut through the base or isthmus of the peninsula, forming an island. The Cape Cod Commission refers to the resultant landmass as an island; as does the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in regards to disaster preparedness.[1] It is still identified as a peninsula by geographers, who do not change landform designations based on man-made canal construction.[citation needed]
Unofficially, it is one of the biggest barrier islands in the world, shielding much of the Massachusetts coastline from North Atlantic storm waves. This protection helps to erode the Cape shoreline at the expense of cliffs, while protecting towns from Fairhaven to Marshfield.
Road vehicles from the mainland cross over the Cape Cod Canal via the Sagamore Bridge and the Bourne Bridge. The two bridges are parallel, with the Bourne Bridge located slightly farther southwest. In addition, the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge carries railway freight as well as tourist passenger services.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Geography and political divisions
o 1.1 "Upper" and "Lower"
* 2 Geology
* 3 Climate
* 4 Native population
* 5 History
* 6 Lighthouses of Cape Cod
* 7 Transportation
o 7.1 Bus
o 7.2 Rail
o 7.3 Taxi
* 8 Tourism
* 9 Sport fishing
* 10 Sports
* 11 Education
* 12 Islands off Cape Cod
* 13 See also
* 14 References
o 14.1 Notes
o 14.2 Sources
o 14.3 Further reading
* 15 External links
[edit] Geography and political divisions
Towns of Barnstable County
historical map of 1890
The highest elevation on Cape Cod is 306 feet (93 m), at the top of Pine Hill, in the Bourne portion of the Massachusetts Military Reservation. The lowest point is sea level.
The body of water located between Cape Cod and the mainland, bordered to the north by Massachusetts Bay, is Cape Cod Bay; west of Cape Cod is Buzzards Bay. The Cape Cod Canal, completed in 1916, connects Buzzards Bay to Cape Cod Bay; it shortened the trade route between New York and Boston by 62 miles.[2] To the south of Cape Cod lie Nantucket Sound; Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, both large islands, and the mostly privately owned Elizabeth Islands.
Cape Cod incorporates all of Barnstable County, which comprises 15 towns: Bourne, Sandwich, Falmouth, and Mashpee, Barnstable, Yarmouth, Dennis, Harwich, Brewster, Chatham, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. Two of the county's fifteen towns (Bourne and Sandwich) include land on the mainland side of the Cape Cod Canal. The towns of Plymouth and Wareham, in adjacent Plymouth County, are sometimes considered to be part of Cape Cod but are not located on the island.
In the 17th century the designation Cape Cod applied only to the tip of the peninsula, essentially present-day Provincetown. Over the ensuing decades, the name came to mean all the land east of the Manomet and Scussett rivers - essentially the line of the 20th century Cape Cod Canal. Now, the complete towns of Bourne and Sandwich are widely considered to incorporate the full perimeter of Cape Cod, even though small parts of these towns are located on the west side of the canal. The canal divides the largest part of the peninsula from the mainland and the resultant landmass is sometimes referred to as an island.[3][4] Additionally some "Cape Codders" – residents of "The Cape" – refer to all land on the mainland side of the canal as "off-Cape."
For most of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, Cape Cod was considered to consist of three sections:
* The Upper Cape is the part of Cape Cod closest to the mainland, comprising the towns of Bourne, Sandwich, Falmouth, and Mashpee. Falmouth is the home of the famous Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and several other research organizations, and is also the most-used ferry connection to Martha's Vineyard. Falmouth is composed of several separate villages, including East Falmouth, Falmouth Village, Hatchville, North Falmouth, Teaticket, Waquoit, West Falmouth, and Woods Hole, as well as several smaller hamlets that are incorporated into their larger neighbors (e.g., Davisville, Falmouth Heights, Quissett, Sippewissett, and others).[5]
* The Mid-Cape includes the towns of Barnstable, Yarmouth and Dennis. The Mid-Cape area features many beautiful beaches, including warm-water beaches along Nantucket Sound, e.g., Kalmus Beach in Hyannis, which gets its name from one of the inventors of Technicolor, Herbert Kalmus. This popular windsurfing destination was bequeathed to the town of Barnstable by Dr. Kalmus on condition that it not be developed, possibly one of the first instances of open-space preservation in the US. The Mid-Cape is also the commercial and industrial center of the region. There are seven villages in Barnstable, including Barnstable Village, Centerville, Cotuit, Hyannis, Marstons Mills, Osterville, and West Barnstable, as well as several smaller hamlets that are incorporated into their larger neighbors (e.g., Craigville, Cummaquid, Hyannisport, Santuit, Wianno, and others).[6] There are three villages in Yarmouth: South Yarmouth, West Yarmouth and Yarmouthport. There are five villages in Dennis including, Dennis Village(North Dennis), East Dennis, West Dennis, South Dennis and Dennisport.[7]
* The Lower Cape traditionally included all of the rest of the Cape,or the towns of Harwich, Brewster, Chatham, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. This area includes the Cape Cod National Seashore, a national park comprising much of the outer Cape, including the entire east-facing coast, and is home to some of the most popular beaches in America, such as Coast Guard Beach and Nauset Light Beach in Eastham. Stephen Leatherman, aka "Dr. Beach", named Coast Guard Beach the 5th best beach in America for 2007.[8]
[edit] "Upper" and "Lower"
The terms "Upper" and "Lower" as applied to the Cape have nothing to do with north and south. Instead, they derive from maritime convention at the time when the principal means of transportation involved watercraft, and the prevailing westerly winds meant that a boat with sails traveling northeast in Cape Cod Bay would have the wind at its back and thus be going downwind, while a craft sailing southwest would be going against the wind, or upwind.[9] Similarly, on nearby Martha's Vineyard, "Up Island" still is the western section and "Down Island" is to the east, and in Maine, "Down East" is similarly defined by the winds and currents.
Over time, the reasons for the traditional nomenclature became unfamiliar and their meaning obscure. Late in the 1900s, new arrivals began calling towns from Eastham to Provincetown the "Outer Cape", yet another geographic descriptor which is still in use, as is the "Inner Cape."
[edit] Geology
Cape Cod and Cape Cod Bay from space.[10]
East of America, there stands in the open Atlantic the last fragment of an ancient and vanished land. Worn by the breakers and the rains, and disintegrated by the wind, it still stands bold.
“
”
Henry Beston, The Outermost House
Cape Cod forms a continuous archipelagic region with a thin line of islands stretching toward New York, historically known by naturalists as the Outer Lands. This continuity is due to the fact that the islands and Cape are all terminal glacial moraines laid down some 16,000 to 20,000 years ago.
Most of Cape Cod's geological history involves the advance and retreat of the Laurentide ice sheet in the late Pleistocene geological era and the subsequent changes in sea level. Using radiocarbon dating techniques, researchers have determined that around 23,000 years ago, the ice sheet reached its maximum southward advance over North America, and then started to retreat. Many "kettle ponds" — clear, cold lakes — were formed and remain on Cape Cod as a result of the receding glacier. By about 18,000 years ago, the ice sheet had retreated past Cape Cod. By roughly 15,000 years ago, it had retreated past southern New England. When so much of Earth's water was locked up in massive ice sheets, the sea level was lower. Truro's bayside beaches used to be a petrified forest, before it became a beach.
As the ice began to melt, the sea began to rise. Initially, sea level rose quickly, about 15 meters (50 ft) per 1,000 years, but then the rate declined. On Cape Cod, sea level rose roughly 3 meters (11 ft) per millennium between 6,000 and 2,000 years ago. After that, it continued to rise at about 1 meter (3 ft) per millennium. By 6,000 years ago, the sea level was high enough to start eroding the glacial deposits that the vanished continental ice sheet had left on Cape Cod. The water transported the eroded deposits north and south along the outer Cape's shoreline. Those reworked sediments that moved north went to the tip of Cape Cod.
Provincetown Spit, at the northern end of the Cape, consists largely of marine deposits, transported from farther up the shore. Sediments that moved south created the islands and shoals of Monomoy. So while other parts of the Cape have dwindled from the action of the waves, these parts of the Cape have grown.
Cape Cod National Seashore
This process continues today. Due to their position jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean, the Cape and islands are subject to massive coastal erosion. Geologists say that, due to erosion, the Cape will be completely submerged by the sea in thousands of years.[11] This erosion causes the washout of beaches and the destruction of the barrier islands; for example, the ocean broke through the barrier island at Chatham during Hurricane Bob in 1991, allowing waves and storm surges to hit the coast with no obstruction. Consequently, the sediment and sand from the beaches is being washed away and deposited elsewhere. While this destroys land in some places, it creates land elsewhere, most noticeably in marshes where sediment is deposited by waters running through them.
[edit] Climate
Although Cape Cod's weather[12] is typically more moderate than inland locations, there have been occasions where Cape Cod has dealt with the brunt of extreme weather situations (such as the Blizzard of 1954 and Hurricane of 1938). Because of the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, temperatures are typically a few degrees cooler in the summer and a few degrees warmer in the winter. A common misconception is that the climate is influenced largely by the warm Gulf Stream current, however that current turns eastward off the coast of Virginia and the waters off the Cape are more influenced by the cold Canadian Labrador Current. As a result, the ocean temperature rarely gets above 65 °F (18 °C), except along the shallow west coast of the Upper Cape.
The Cape's climate is also notorious for a delayed spring season, being surrounded by an ocean which is still cold from the winter; however, it is also known for an exceptionally mild fall season (Indian summer), thanks to the ocean remaining warm from the summer. The highest temperature ever recorded on Cape Cod was 104 °F (40 °C) in Provincetown[13], and the lowest temperature ever was −12 °F (−24.4 °C) in Barnstable.[14]
The water surrounding Cape Cod moderates winter temperatures enough to extend the USDA hardiness zone 7a to its northernmost limit in eastern North America.[15] Even though zone 7a (annual low = 0–5 degrees Fahrenheit) signifies no sub-zero temperatures annually, there have been several instances of temperatures reaching a few degrees below zero across the Cape (although it is rare, usually 1–5 times a year, typically depending on locale, sometimes not at all). Consequently, many plant species typically found in more southerly latitudes grow there, including Camellias, Ilex opaca, Magnolia grandiflora and Albizia julibrissin.
Precipitation on Cape Cod and the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket is the lowest in the New England region, averaging slightly less than 40 inches (1,000 mm) a year (most parts of New England average 42–46 inches). This is due to storm systems which move across western areas, building up in mountainous regions, and dissipating before reaching the coast where the land has leveled out. The region does not experience a greater number of sunny days however, as the number of cloudy days is the same as inland locales, in addition to increased fog. Snowfall is annual, but a lot less common than the rest of Massachusetts. On average, 30 inches of snow, which is a foot less than Boston, falls in an average winter. Snow is usually light, and comes in squalls on cold days. Storms that bring blizzard conditions and snow emergencies to the mainland, bring devastating ice storms or just heavy rains more frequently than large snow storms.
[hide]Climate data for Cape Cod
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high °C (°F) 2.06
(35.7) 2.5
(36.5) 6.22
(43.2) 11.72
(53.1) 16.94
(62.5) 23.5
(74.3) 26.39
(79.5) 26.67
(80.0) 25.06
(77.1) 18.39
(65.1) 12.56
(54.6) 5.44
(41.8) 26.67
(80.0)
Average low °C (°F) -5.33
(22.4) -5
(23.0) -1.33
(29.6) 2.72
(36.9) 8.72
(47.7) 14.61
(58.3) 19.22
(66.6) 20.28
(68.5) 15.56
(60.0) 9.94
(49.9) 3.94
(39.1) -2.22
(28.0) -5.33
(22.4)
Precipitation mm (inches) 98
(3.86) 75.4
(2.97) 95
(3.74) 92.5
(3.64) 83.6
(3.29) 76.7
(3.02) 62.2
(2.45) 65
(2.56) 74.7
(2.94) 84.8
(3.34) 90.7
(3.57) 92.7
(3.65) 990.9
(39.01)
Source: World Meteorological Organisation (United Nations) [16]
[edit] Native population
Cape Cod has been the home of the Wampanoag tribe of Native American people for many centuries. They survived off the sea and were accomplished farmers. They understood the principles of sustainable forest management, and were known to light controlled fires to keep the underbrush in check. They helped the Pilgrims, who arrived in the fall of 1620, survive at their new Plymouth Colony. At the time, the dominant group was the Kakopee, known for their abilities at fishing. They were the first Native Americans to use large casting nets. Early colonial settlers recorded that the Kakopee numbered nearly 7,000.
Shortly after the Pilgrims arrived, the chief of the Kakopee, Mogauhok, attempted to make a treaty limiting colonial settlements. The effort failed after he succumbed to smallpox in 1625. Infectious diseases such as smallpox, measles and influenza caused the deaths of many other Kakopee and Wampanoag. They had no natural immunity to Eurasian diseases by then endemic among the English and other Europeans. Today, the only reminder of the Kakopee is a small public recreation area in Barnstable named for them. A historic marker notes the burial site of Mogauhok near Truro, although the location is conjecture.
While contractors were digging test wells in the eastern Massachusetts Military Reservation area, they discovered an archeological find.[citation needed] Excavation revealed the remains of a Kakopee village in Forestdale, a location in Sandwich. Researchers found a totem with a painted image of Mogauhok, portrayed in his chief's cape and brooch. The totem was discovered on property on Grand Oak Road. It is the first evidence other than colonial accounts of his role as an important Kakopee leader.
The Indians lost their lands through continued purchase and expropriation by the English colonists. The documentary Natives of the Narrowland (1993), narrated by actress Julie Harris, shows the history of the Wampanoag people through Cape Cod archaeological sites.
In 1974, the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribal Council was formed to articulate the concerns of those with Native American ancestry. They petitioned the federal government in 1975 and again in 1990 for official recognition of the Mashpee Wampanoag as a tribe. In May 2007, the Wampanoag tribe was finally federally recognized as a tribe.[17]
[edit] History
Cranberry picking in 1906
Cape Cod was a landmark for early explorers. It may have been the "Promontory of Vinland" mentioned by the Norse voyagers (985-1025). Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 approached it from the south. He named Martha's Vineyard Claudia, after the mother of the King of France.[18] The next year the explorer Esteban Gómez called it Cape St. James.
In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold named it Cape Cod, the surviving term and the ninth oldest English place-name in the U.S.[19] Samuel de Champlain charted its sand-silted harbors in 1606 and Henry Hudson landed there in 1609. Captain John Smith noted it on his map of 1614 and at last the Pilgrims entered the "Cape Harbor" and – contrary to the popular myth of Plymouth Rock – made their first landing near present-day Provincetown on November 11, 1620. Nearby, in what is now Eastham, they had their first encounter with Native Americans.
Cape Cod was among the first places settled by the English in North America. Aside from Barnstable (1639), Sandwich (1637) and Yarmouth (1639), the Cape's fifteen towns developed slowly. The final town to be established on the Cape was Bourne in 1884.[20] Provincetown was a group of huts until the 18th century. A channel from Massachusetts Bay to Buzzards Bay is shown on Southack's map of 1717. The present Cape Cod Canal was slowly developed from 1870 to 1914. The Federal government purchased it in 1928.
Thanks to early colonial settlement and intensive land use, by the time Henry Thoreau saw Cape Cod during his four visits over 1849 to 1857[21], its vegetation was depauperate and trees were scarce. As the settlers heated by fires, and it took 10 to 20 cords (40 to 80 m³) of wood to heat a home, they cleared most of Cape Cod of timber early on. They planted familiar crops, but these were unsuited to Cape Cod's thin, glacially derived soils. For instance, much of Eastham was planted to wheat. The settlers practiced burning of woodlands to release nutrients into the soil. Improper and intensive farming led to erosion and the loss of topsoil. Farmers grazed their cattle on the grassy dunes of coastal Massachusetts, only to watch "in horror as the denuded sands `walked' over richer lands, burying cultivated fields and fences." Dunes on the outer Cape became more common and many harbors filled in with eroded soils.[22]
By 1800, most of Cape Cod's firewood had to be transported by boat from Maine. The paucity of vegetation was worsened by the raising of merino sheep that reached its peak in New England around 1840. The early industrial revolution, which occurred through much of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, mostly bypassed Cape Cod due to a lack of significant water power in the area. As a result, and also because of its geographic position, the Cape developed as a large fishing and whaling center. After 1860 and the opening of the American West, farmers abandoned agriculture on the Cape. By 1950 forests had recovered to an extent not seen since the 18th century.
Cape Cod became a summer haven for city dwellers beginning at the end of the 19th century. Improved rail transportation made the towns of the Upper Cape, such as Bourne and Falmouth, accessible to Bostonians. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Northeastern mercantile elite built many large, shingled "cottages" along Buzzards Bay. The relaxed summer environment offered by Cape Cod was highlighted by writers including Joseph C. Lincoln, who published novels and countless short stories about Cape Cod folks in popular magazines such as the Saturday Evening Post and the Delineator.
Guglielmo Marconi made the first transatlantic wireless transmission originating in the United States from Cape Cod, at Wellfleet. The beach from which he transmitted has since been called Marconi Beach. In 1914 he opened the maritime wireless station WCC in Chatham. It supported the communications of Amelia Earhart, Howard Hughes, Admiral Byrd, and the Hindenburg. Marconi chose Chatham due to its vantage point on the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded on three sides by water. Walter Cronkite narrated a 17-minute documentary in 2005 about the history of the Chatham Station.
Much of the East-facing Atlantic seacoast of Cape Cod consists of wide, sandy beaches. In 1961, a significant portion of this coastline, already slated for housing subdivisions, was made a part of the Cape Cod National Seashore by President John F. Kennedy. It was protected from private development and preserved for public use. Large portions are open to the public, including the Marconi Site in Wellfleet. This is a park encompassing the site of the first two-way transoceanic radio transmission from the United States. (Theodore Roosevelt used Marconi's equipment for this transmission).
The Kennedy Compound in Hyannisport was President Kennedy's summer White House during his presidency. The Kennedy family continues to maintain residences on the compound. Other notable residents of Cape Cod have included actress Julie Harris, US Supreme Court justice Louis Brandeis, figure skater Todd Eldredge, and novelists Norman Mailer and Kurt Vonnegut. Influential natives included the patriot James Otis, historian and writer Mercy Otis Warren, jurist Lemuel Shaw, and naval officer John Percival.
[edit] Lighthouses of Cape Cod
Race Point Lighthouse in Provincetown (1876)
Lighthouses, from ancient times, have fascinated members of the human race. There is something about a lighted beacon that suggests hope and trust and appeals to the better instincts of mankind.
“
”
Edward Rowe Snow
Due to its dangerous constantly moving shoals, Cape Cod's shores have featured beacons which warn ships of the danger since very early in its history. There are numerous working lighthouses on Cape Cod and the Islands, including Highland Light, Nauset Light, Chatham Light, Race Point Light, and Nobska Light, mostly operated by the U.S. Coast Guard. The exception is Nauset Light, which was decommissioned in 1996 and is now maintained by the Nauset Light Preservation Society under the auspices of Cape Cod National Seashore. These lighthouses are frequently photographed symbols of Cape Cod.
Others include:
Upper Cape: Wings Neck
Mid Cape: Sandy Neck, South Hyannis, Lewis Bay, Bishop and Clerks, Bass River
Lower Cape: Wood End, Long Point, Monomoy, Stage Harbor, Pamet, Mayo Beach, Billingsgate, Three Sisters, Nauset, Highland
[edit] Transportation
Cape Cod is connected to the mainland by a pair of canal-spanning highway bridges from Bourne and Sagamore that were constructed in the 1930s, and a vertical-lift railroad bridge. The limited number of access points to the peninsula can result in large traffic backups during the tourist season.
The entire Cape is roughly bisected lengthwise by U.S. Route 6, locally known as the Mid-Cape Highway and officially as the Grand Army of the Republic Highway.
Commercial air service to Cape Cod operates out of Barnstable Municipal Airport and Provincetown Municipal Airport. Several bus lines service the Cape. There are ferry connections from Boston to Provincetown, as well as from Hyannis and Woods Hole to the islands.
Cape Cod has a public transportation network comprising buses operated by three different companies, a rail line, taxis and paratransit services.
The Bourne Bridge over the Cape Cod Canal, with the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge in the background
[edit] Bus
Cape Cod Regional Transit Authority operates a year-round public bus system comprising three long distance routes and a local bus in Hyannis and Barnstable Village. From mid June until October, additional local routes are added in Falmouth and Provincetown. CCRTA also operates Barnstable County's ADA required paratransit (dial-a-ride) service, under the name "B-Bus."
Long distance bus service is available through Plymouth and Brockton Street Railway, with regular service to Boston and Logan Airport, as well as less frequent service to Provincetown. Peter Pan Bus Lines also runs long distance service to Providence T.F. Green Airport and New York City.
[edit] Rail
Regular passenger rail service through Cape Cod ended in 1959, quite possibly on June 30 of that year. In 1978, the tracks east of South Dennis were abandoned and replaced with the very popular bicycle path, known as the Cape Cod Rail Trail. Another bike path, the Shining Sea Bikeway, was built over tracks between Woods Hole and Falmouth in 1975; construction to extend this path to North Falmouth over 6.3 miles (10.1 km) of inactive rail bed began in April 2008[23] and ended in early 2009. Active freight service remains in the Upper Cape area in Sandwich and in Bourne, largely due to a trash transfer station located at Massachusetts Military Reservation along the Bourne-Falmouth rail line. In 1986, Amtrak ran a seasonal service in the summer from New York City to Hyannis called the Cape Codder. From 1988, Amtrak and the Massachusetts Department of Transportation increased service to a daily frequency.[24] Since its demise in 1996, there have been periodic discussions about reinstating passenger rail service from Boston to reduce car traffic to and from the Cape, with officials in Bourne seeking to re-extend MBTA Commuter Rail service from Middleboro to Buzzards Bay[25], despite a reluctant Beacon Hill legislature.
Cape Cod Central Railroad operates passenger train service on Cape Cod. The service is primarily tourist oriented and includes a dinner train. The scenic route between Downtown Hyannis and the Cape Cod Canal is about 2½ hours round trip. Massachusetts Coastal Railroad is also planning to return passenger railroad services eventually to the Bourne-Falmouth rail line in the future. An August 5, 2009 article on the New England Cable News channel, entitled South Coast rail project a priority for Mass. lawmakers, mentions a $1.4-billion railroad reconstruction plan by Governor Deval Patrick, and could mean rebuilding of old rail lines on the Cape. On November 21, 2009, the town of Falmouth saw its first passenger train in 12 years, a set of dinner train cars from Cape Cod Central. And a trip from the Mass Bay Railroad Enthusiasts on May 15, 2010 revealed a second trip along the Falmouth line.
[edit] Taxi
Taxicabs are plentiful, with several different companies operating out of different parts of the Cape. Except at the airport and some bus terminals with taxi stands, cabs must be booked ahead of time, with most operators preferring two to three hours notice. Cabs cannot be "hailed" anywhere in Barnstable County, this was outlawed in the early nineties after several robbery attempts on drivers.
Most companies utilize a New York City-style taximeter and charge based on distance plus an initial fee of $2 to $3. In Provincetown, cabs charge a flat fare per person anywhere in the town.
[edit] Tourism
Hyannis Harbor on Nantucket Sound
Although Cape Cod has a year-round population of about 230,000, it experiences a tourist season each summer, the beginning and end of which can be roughly approximated as Memorial Day and Labor Day, respectively. Many businesses are specifically targeted to summer visitors, and close during the eight to nine months of the "off season" (although the "on season" has been expanding somewhat in recent years due to Indian Summer, reduced lodging rates, and the number of people visiting the Cape after Labor Day who either have no school-age children, and the elderly, reducing the true "off season" to six or seven months). In the late 20th century, tourists and owners of second homes began visiting the Cape more and more in the spring and fall, softening the definition of the high season and expanding it somewhat (see above). Some particularly well-known Cape products and industries include cranberries, shellfish (particularly oysters and clams) and lobstering.
Provincetown, at the tip of Cape Cod, also berths several whale watching fleets who patrol the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. Most fleets guarantee a whale sighting (mostly humpback whale, fin whale, minke whale, sei whale, and critically endangered, the North Atlantic Right Whale), and one is the only federally certified operation qualified to rescue whales. Provincetown has also long been known as an art colony, attracting writers and artists. The town is home to the Cape's most attended art museum, the Provincetown Art Association and Museum. Many hotels and resorts are friendly to or cater to gay and lesbian tourists and it is known as a gay mecca in the summer.[26]
Cape Cod is a popular destination for beachgoers from all over. With 559.6 miles (900.6 km) of coastline, beaches, both public and private, are easily accessible. The Cape has upwards of sixty public beaches, many of which offer parking for non-residents for a daily fee (in summer). The Cape Cod National Seashore has 40 miles (64 km) of sandy beach and many walking paths.
Cape Cod is also popular for its outdoor activities like beach walking, biking, boating, fishing, go-karts, golfing, kayaking, miniature golf, and unique shopping. There are 27 public, daily-fee golf courses and 15 private courses on Cape Cod.[27] Bed and breakfasts or vacation houses are often used for lodging.
Each summer the Naukabout Music Festival is held at the Barnstable County Fair Grounds located in East Falmouth,(typically) during the first weekend of August. This Music festival features local, regional and national talent along with food, arts and family friendly activities.
[edit] Sport fishing
Cape Cod is known around the world as a spring-to-fall destination for sport anglers. Among the species most widely pursued are striped bass, bluefish, bluefin tuna, false albacore (little tunny), bonito, tautog, flounder and fluke. The Cape Cod Bay side of the Cape, from Sandwich to Provincetown, has several harbors, saltwater creeks, and shoals that hold bait fish and attract the larger game fish, such as striped bass, bluefish and bluefin tuna.
The outer edge of the Cape, from Provincetown to Falmouth, faces the open Atlantic from Provincetown to Chatham, and then the more protected water of Nantucket and Vineyard Sounds, from Chatham to Falmouth. The bays, harbors and shoals along this coastline also provide a robust habitat for game species, and during the late summer months warm-water species such as mahi-mahi and marlin will also appear on the southern edge of Cape Cod's waters. Nearly every harbor on Cape Cod hosts sport fishing charter boats, which run from May through October.[28]
[edit] Sports
The Cape has nine amateur baseball franchises playing within Barnstable County in the Cape Cod Baseball League. The Wareham Gatemen also play in the Cape Cod Baseball League in nearby Wareham, Massachusetts in Plymouth County. The league originated 1923, although intertown competition traces to 1866. Teams in the league are the Bourne Braves, Brewster Whitecaps, Chatham Anglers (formerly the Chatham Athletics), Cotuit Kettleers, Falmouth Commodores, Harwich Mariners, Hyannis Harbor Hawks (formerly the Hyannis Mets), Orleans Firebirds (formerly the Orleans Cardinals), Wareham Gatemen and the Yarmouth-Dennis Red Sox. Pro ball scouts frequent the games in the summer, looking for stars of the future.
Cape Cod is also a national hot bed for baseball and hockey. Along with the Cape Cod Baseball League and the new Junior Hockey League team, the Cape Cod Cubs, many high school players are being seriously recruited as well. Barnstable and Harwich have each sent multiple players to Division 1 colleges for baseball, Harwich has also won three State titles in the past 12 years (1996, 2006, 2007). Bourne and Sandwich, known rivals in hockey have won state championships recently. Bourne in 2004, and Sandwich in 2007. Nauset, Barnstable, and Martha's Vineyard are also state hockey powerhouses. Barnstable and Falmouth also hold the title of having one of the longest Thanksgiving football rivalries in the country. The teams have played each other every year on the Thanksgiving since 1895. The Bourne and Barnstable girl's volleyball teams are two of the best teams in the state and Barnstable in the country. With Bourne winning the State title in 2003 and 2007. In the past 15 years, Barnstable has won 12 Division 1 State titles and has won the state title the past two years.
The Cape also is home to the Cape Cod Frenzy, a team in the American Basketball Association.
Soccer on Cape Cod is represented by the Cape Cod Crusaders, playing in the USL Premier Development League (PDL) soccer based in Hyannis. In addition, a summer Cape Cod Adult Soccer League (CCASL) is active in several towns on the Cape.
Cape Cod is also the home of the Cape Cod Cubs, a new junior league hockey team that is based out of Hyannis at the new communtiy center being built of Bearses Way.
The end of each summer is marked with the running of the world famous Falmouth Road Race which is held on the 3rd Saturday in August. It draws about 10,000 runners to the Cape and showcases the finest runners in the world (mainly for the large purse that the race is able to offer). The race is 7.2 miles (11.6 km) long, which is a non-standard distance. The reason for the unusual distance is that the man who thought the race up (Tommy Leonard) was a bartender who wanted a race along the coast from one bar (The Cap'n Kidd in Woods Hole) to another (The Brothers Four in Falmouth Heights). While the bar in Falmouth Heights is no longer there, the race still starts at the front door of the Cap'n Kidd in Woods Hole and now finishes at the beach in Falmouth Heights. Prior to the Falmouth race is an annual 5-mile (8.0 km) race through Brewster called the Brew Run, held early in August.
[edit] Education
Each town usually consists of a few elementary schools, one or two middle schools and one large public high school that services the entire town. Exceptions to this include Dennis-Yarmouth Regional High School located in Yarmouth which services both the town of Yarmouth as well as Dennis and Nauset Regional High School located in Eastham which services the town of Brewster, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown (optional). Bourne High School is the public school for students residing in the town of Bourne, which is gathered from villages in Bourne, including Sagamore, Sagamore Beach, and Buzzards Bay. Barnstable High School is the largest high school and is known for its girls' volleyball team which have been state champions a total of 12 times. Barnstable High School also boasts one of the country's best high school drama clubs which were awarded with a contract by Warner Brothers to created a documentary in webisode format based on their production of Wizard of Oz. Sturgis Charter Public School is a public school in Hyannis which was featured in Newsweek's Magazine's "Best High Schools" ranking. It ranked 28th in the country and 1st in the state of Massachusetts in the 2009 edition and ranked 43rd and 55th in the 2008 and 2007 edition, respectively. Sturgis offers the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme in their junior and senior year and is open to students as far as Plymouth. The Cape also contains two vocational high schools. One is the Cape Cod Regional Technical High School in Harwich and the other is Upper Cape Cod Regional Technical High School located in Bourne. Lastly, Mashpee High School is home to the Mashpee Chapter of (SMPTE,) the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. This chapter is the first and only high school chapter in the world to be a part of this organization and has received much recognition within the Los Angeles broadcasting industry as a result. The officers of this group who have made history are listed below:
* President: Ryan D. Stanley '11
* Vice-President Kenneth J. Peters '13
* Treasurer Eric N. Bergquist '11
* Secretary Andrew L. Medlar '11
In addition to public schools, Cape Cod has a wide range of private schools. The town of Barnstable has Trinity Christian Academy, Cape Cod Academy, St. Francis Xavier Preparatory School, and Pope John Paul II High School. Bourne offers the Waldorf School of Cape Cod, Orleans offers the Lighthouse Charter School for elementary and middle school students, and Falmouth offers Falmouth Academy. Riverview School is located in East Sandwich and is a special co-ed boarding school which services students as old as 22 who have learning disabilities. Another specialized school is the Penikese Island School located on Penikese Island, part of the Elizabeth Islands off southwestern Cape Cod, which services struggling and troubled teenage boys.
Cape Cod also contains two institutions of higher education. One is the Cape Cod Community College located in West Barnstable, Barnstable. The other is Massachusetts Maritime Academy in Buzzards Bay, Bourne. Massachusetts Maritime Academy is the oldest continuously operating maritime college in the United States.
[edit] Islands off Cape Cod
Like Cape Cod itself, the islands south of the Cape have evolved from whaling and trading areas to resort destinations, attracting wealthy families, celebrities, and other tourists. The islands include Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, as well as Forbes family-owned Naushon Island, which was purchased by John Murray Forbes with profits from opium dealing in the China trade during the Opium War. Naushon is one of the Elizabeth Islands, many of which are privately owned. One of the publicly accessible Elizabeths is the southernmost island in the chain, Cuttyhunk, with a year-round population of 52 people. Several prominent families have established compounds or estates on the larger islands, making these islands some of the wealthiest resorts in the Northeast, yet they retain much of the early merchant trading and whaling culture.
Book cover for the "Illustrated Encyclopedia of Cryptozoology" MA art graduation project.
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The Scream by Edvard Munch
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scream
The Scream
Norwegian: Skrik, German: Der Schrei der Natur
The Scream.jpg
Artist: Edvard Munch
Year1893
TypeOil, tempera, pastel and crayon on cardboard
Dimensions91 cm × 73.5 cm (36 in × 28.9 in)
LocationNational Gallery, Oslo, Norway
The Scream (Norwegian: Skrik) is the popular name given to each of four versions of a composition, created as both paintings and pastels, by the Expressionist artist Edvard Munch between 1893 and 1910. Der Schrei der Natur (The Scream of Nature) is the title Munch gave to these works, all of which show a figure with an agonized expression against a landscape with a tumultuous orange sky. Arthur Lubow has described The Scream as "an icon of modern art, a Mona Lisa for our time."[1]
Edvard Munch created the four versions in various media. The National Gallery, Oslo, holds one of two painted versions (1893, shown here). The Munch Museum holds the other painted version (1910, see gallery, below) and a pastel version from 1893. These three versions have not traveled for years.[2]
The fourth version (pastel, 1895) was sold for $119,922,600 at Sotheby's Impressionist and Modern Art auction on 2 May 2012 to financier Leon Black,[3][4] the third highest nominal price paid for a painting at auction.[5] The painting was on display in the Museum of Modern Art in New York from October 2012 to April 2013.
Also in 1895, Munch created a lithograph stone of the image. Of the lithograph prints produced by Munch, several examples survive.[6] Only approximately four dozen prints were made before the original stone was resurfaced by the printer in Munch's absence.[7]
The Scream has been the target of several high-profile art thefts. In 1994, the version in the National Gallery was stolen. It was recovered several months later. In 2004, both The Scream and Madonna were stolen from the Munch Museum, and were both recovered two years later.
Contents [hide]
1Sources of inspiration
2Painting materials
3Thefts
4Record sale at auction
5In popular culture
6Gallery of versions
7References
8Further reading
9External links
Sources of inspiration[edit]
Edvard Munch, 1921
The original German title given by Munch to his work was Der Schrei der Natur ("The Scream of Nature"). The Norwegian word skrik usually is translated as scream, but is cognate with the English shriek. Occasionally, the painting also has been called The Cry.
In his diary in an entry headed, Nice 22 January 1892, Munch described his inspiration for the image:
One evening I was walking along a path, the city was on one side and the fjord below. I felt tired and ill. I stopped and looked out over the fjord—the sun was setting, and the clouds turning blood red. I sensed a scream passing through nature; it seemed to me that I heard the scream. I painted this picture, painted the clouds as actual blood. The color shrieked. This became The Scream.[8]
This memory was later rendered by Munch as a poem, which he hand-painted onto the frame of the 1895 pastel version of the work:
I was walking along the road with two friends – the sun was setting – suddenly the sky turned blood red – I paused, feeling exhausted, and leaned on the fence – there was blood and tongues of fire above the blue-black fjord and the city – my friends walked on, and I stood there trembling with anxiety – and I sensed an infinite scream passing through nature.[9]
Among theories advanced to account for the reddish sky in the background is the artist's memory of the effects of the powerful volcanic eruption of Krakatoa, which deeply tinted sunset skies red in parts of the Western hemisphere for months during 1883 and 1884, about a decade before Munch painted The Scream.[10] This explanation has been disputed by scholars, who note that Munch was an expressive painter and was not primarily interested in literal renderings of what he had seen. Alternatively, it has been suggested that the proximity of both a slaughterhouse and a lunatic asylum to the site depicted in the painting may have offered some inspiration.[11] The scene was identified as being the view from a road overlooking Oslo, the Oslofjord and Hovedøya, from the hill of Ekeberg.[12] At the time of painting the work, Munch's manic depressive sister Laura Catherine was a patient at the asylum at the foot of Ekeberg.[citation needed]
In 1978, the Munch scholar Robert Rosenblum suggested that the strange, sexless creature in the foreground of the painting was inspired by a Peruvian mummy, which Munch could have seen at the 1889 Exposition Universelle in Paris. This mummy, which was buried in a fetal position with its hands alongside its face, also struck the imagination of Munch's friend Paul Gauguin: it stood as a model for the central figure in his painting, Human misery (Grape harvest at Arles) and for the old woman at the left in his painting, Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going?. In 2004, an Italian anthropologist speculated that Munch might have seen a mummy in Florence's Museum of Natural History, which bears an even more striking resemblance to the painting.[13]
The imagery of The Scream has been compared to that which an individual suffering from depersonalization disorder experiences, a feeling of distortion of the environment and one's self,[14] and also facial pain in the form of Trigeminal neuralgia.[15]0
Painting materials[edit]
The material composition of the 1893 painted version was examined in 2010.[16] The pigment analysis revealed the use of cadmium yellow, vermilion, ultramarine and viridian among other pigments of the 19th century.[17]
Thefts[edit]
The Scream has been the target of a number of thefts and theft attempts. Some damage has been suffered in these thefts.
Two men breaking into the National Gallery, Oslo, to steal the gallery's (1893 tempera on cardboard) version of The Scream, February 1994
On 12 February 1994, the same day as the opening of the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, two men broke into the National Gallery, Oslo, and stole its version of The Scream, leaving a note reading "Thanks for the poor security".[18][19] The painting had been moved down to a second-story gallery[20] as part of the Olympic festivities.[21] After the gallery refused to pay a ransom demand of US$1 million in March 1994, Norwegian police set up a sting operation with assistance from the British police (SO10) and the Getty Museum and the painting was recovered undamaged on 7 May 1994.[20] In January 1996, four men were convicted in connection with the theft, including Pål Enger, who had been convicted of stealing Munch's Vampire in 1988.[22] They were released on appeal on legal grounds: the British agents involved in the sting operation had entered Norway under false identities.[23]
Thieves taking paintings from the Munch Museum in Oslo on 22 August 2004
The 1910 tempera on board version of The Scream was stolen on 22 August 2004, during daylight hours, when masked gunmen entered the Munch Museum in Oslo and stole it and Munch's Madonna.[24] A bystander photographed the robbers as they escaped to their car with the artwork. On 8 April 2005, Norwegian police arrested a suspect in connection with the theft, but the paintings remained missing and it was rumored that they had been burned by the thieves to destroy evidence.[25][26] On 1 June 2005, with four suspects already in custody in connection with the crime, the city government of Oslo offered a reward of 2 million Norwegian krone (roughly US$313,500 or €231,200) for information that could help locate the paintings.[27] Although the paintings remained missing, six men went on trial in early 2006, variously charged with either helping to plan or participating in the robbery. Three of the men were convicted and sentenced to between four and eight years in prison in May 2006, and two of the convicted, Bjørn Hoen and Petter Tharaldsen, were also ordered to pay compensation of 750 million kroner (roughly US$117.6 million or €86.7 million) to the City of Oslo.[28] The Munch Museum was closed for ten months for a security overhaul.[29]
On 31 August 2006, Norwegian police announced that a police operation had recovered both The Scream and Madonna, but did not reveal detailed circumstances of the recovery. The paintings were said to be in a better-than-expected condition. "We are 100 percent certain they are the originals," police chief Iver Stensrud told a news conference. "The damage was much less than feared."[30][31] Munch Museum director Ingebjørg Ydstie confirmed the condition of the paintings, saying it was much better than expected and that the damage could be repaired.[32] The Scream had moisture damage on the lower left corner, while Madonna suffered several tears on the right side of the painting as well as two holes in Madonna's arm.[33] Before repairs and restoration began, the paintings were put on public display by the Munch Museum beginning 27 September 2006. During the five-day exhibition, 5,500 people viewed the damaged paintings. The conserved works went back on display on 23 May 2008, when the exhibition "Scream and Madonna — Revisited" at the Munch Museum in Oslo displayed the paintings together.[34] Some damage to The Scream may prove impossible to repair, but the overall integrity of the work has not been compromised.[35][36]
Record sale at auction[edit]
The 1895 pastel-on-board version of the painting, owned by Norwegian businessman Petter Olsen, sold at Sotheby's in London for a record price of nearly US$120 million at auction on 2 May 2012.[37] The bidding started at $40 million and lasted for over 12 minutes when American businessman Leon Black by phone gave the final offer of US$119,922,500, including the buyer's premium.[4] Sotheby's said the painting was the most colorful and vibrant of the four versions painted by Munch and the only version whose frame was hand-painted by the artist to include his poem, detailing the work's inspiration.[2] After the sale, Sotheby's auctioneer Tobias Meyer said the painting was "worth every penny", adding: "It is one of the great icons of art in the world and whoever bought it should be congratulated."[38]
The previous record for the most expensive work of art sold at auction had been held by Picasso's Nude, Green Leaves and Bust, which went for US$106.5 million at Christie's two years prior on 4 May 2010.[39] When accounting for inflation, the highest price paid for art at an auction is still held by Van Gogh's Portrait of Dr. Gachet, which sold for $82.5 million in 1990, or about $149 million 2012 dollars.[40] There have been reports that The Card Players, by Cézanne, sold privately for $250m in 2011,[41][42] which can not be verified for the establishment of a record price.
In popular culture[edit]
In the late twentieth century, The Scream was imitated, parodied, and outright copies have been made following its copyright expiration, which led to it acquiring an iconic status in popular culture. It was used on the cover of some editions of Arthur Janov's book The Primal Scream.[43] In 1983–1984, pop artist Andy Warhol made a series of silk prints copying works by Munch, including The Scream. His stated intention was to desacralize the painting by making it into a mass-reproducible object. Munch had already begun that process, however, by making a lithograph of the work for reproduction. Erró's ironic and irreverent treatment of Munch's masterpiece in his acrylic paintings The Second Scream (1967) and Ding Dong (1979) is considered a characteristic of post-modern art.[44] Cartoonist Gary Larson included a "tribute" to The Scream (entitled The Whine) in his Wiener Dog Art painting and cartoon compilation, in which the central figure is replaced by a howling dachshund. The Scream has been used in advertising, in cartoons, such as The Simpsons, films, and on television. The principal alien antagonists depicted in the 2011 BBC series of Doctor Who, named "The Silence", have an appearance partially based on The Scream.[45] The Ghostface mask worn by the primary antagonists of the Scream series of horror movies is based on the painting, and was created by Brigitte Sleiertin, a Fun World employee, as a Halloween costume, prior to being discovered by Marianne Maddalena and Wes Craven for the film.[46]
In 2013, The Scream was one of four paintings that the Norwegian postal service chose for a series of stamps marking the 150th anniversary of Edvard Munch’s birth.[47]
A patient resource group for trigeminal neuralgia (which has been described as the most painful condition in existence) have also adopted the image as a symbol of the condition.[48]
In the anime Detective Conan episode 774 (2015) "The Missing Scream of Munch", the disappearance of The Scream plays the main part of story.[49]
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
United States
Name:Pennsylvania
Namesake:Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
Ordered:22 August 1912
Builder:Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company
Laid down:27 October 1913
Launched:16 March 1915
Commissioned:12 June 1916
Decommissioned:29 August 1946
Stricken:19 February 1948
Fate:Scuttled off Kwajalein Atoll after Operation Crossroads on 10 February 1948
General characteristics (as built)
Class and type:Pennsylvania-class battleship
Displacement:31,917 long tons (32,429 t) (Full load)
Length:608 ft (185 m)
Beam:97.1 ft (29.6 m)
Draft:28.9 ft (8.8 m)
Installed power:
12 × Babcock boilers
34,000 shp (25,000 kW)
Propulsion:
4 × Curtis ungeared/Westinghouse geared turbines
4 × shafts
Speed:21 kn (24 mph; 39 km/h)
Range:7,552 nmi (8,691 mi; 13,986 km) at 12 kn (14 mph; 22 km/h)
Capacity:Fuel oil: 2,305 long tons (2,342 t)
Complement:
56 officers
72 Marines
1,031 Bluejackets
Armament:
12 × 14 in (360 mm)/45 cal guns (4×3)
22 × 5 in (130 mm)/51 cal guns
4 × 3 in (76 mm)/23 cal anti-aircraft guns
2 × submerged 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Armor:
Belt: 13.5 in (340 mm)
Deck: 3 in (76 mm) (ends)
Turrets: 18 in (460 mm) (faces)
Conning Tower: 16 in (410 mm)
Aircraft carried:2 × floatplanes
Aviation facilities:2 × catapults
General characteristics (1931)
Displacement:
Standard: 34,400 long tons (35,000 t)
Full load: 39,224 long tons (39,853 t)
Installed power:6 × Bureau Express boilers
Armament:
12 × 14"/45 cal guns (4×3)
12 × 5"/51 cal guns
8 × 5"/25 cal anti-aircraft guns
8 × .50-cal M2 Browning machine guns
General characteristics (1942)
Sensors and
processing systems:CXAM-1 radar
Armament:
12 × 14"/45 cal guns (4×3)
16 × 5"/38 cal guns
40 × 40 mm (1.6 in) Bofors guns
51 × 20 mm (0.79 in) Oerlikon guns
USS Pennsylvania (BB-38) was the lead ship of the Pennsylvania class of super-dreadnought battleships built for the United States Navy in the 1910s. The Pennsylvanias were part of the standard-type battleship series, and marked an incremental improvement over the preceding Nevada class, carrying an extra pair of 14-inch (360 mm) guns for a total of twelve guns. Named for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, she was laid down at the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company in October 1913, was launched in March 1915, and was commissioned in June 1916. Equipped with an oil-burning propulsion system, Pennsylvania was not sent to European waters during World War I, since the necessary fuel oil was not as readily available as coal. Instead, she remained in American waters and took part in training exercises; in 1918, she escorted President Woodrow Wilson to France to take part in peace negotiations.
During the 1920s and 1930s, Pennsylvania served as the flagship of first the Atlantic Fleet, and after it was merged with the Pacific Fleet in 1921, the Battle Fleet. For the majority of this period, the ship was stationed in California, based in San Pedro. Pennsylvania was occupied with a peacetime routine of training exercises (including the annual Fleet problems), port visits, and foreign cruises, including a visit to Australia in 1925. The ship was modernized in 1929–1931. The ship was present in Pearl Harbor on the morning of 7 December 1941; she was in drydock with a pair of destroyers when the Japanese launched their surprise attack on the port. She suffered relatively minor damage in the attack, being protected from torpedoes by the drydock. While repairs were effected, the ship received a modernized anti-aircraft battery to prepare her for operations in the Pacific War.
Pennsylvania joined the fleet in a series of amphibious operations, primarily tasked with providing gunfire support. The first of these, the Aleutian Islands Campaign, took place in mid-1943, and was followed by an attack on Makin later that year. During 1944, she supported the landings on Kwajalein and Eniwetok in the Marshall Islands and the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign, including the Battles of Saipan, Guam, Peleliu, and Battle of Angaur. During the Philippines campaign, in addition to her typical shore bombardment duties, she took part in the Battle of Surigao Strait, though due to her inadequate radar, she was unable to locate a target and did not fire. During the Battle of Okinawa, she was torpedoed by a Japanese torpedo bomber and badly damaged, forcing her to withdraw for repairs days before the end of the war.
Allocated to the target fleet for the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in 1946, Pennsylvania was repaired only enough to allow her to make the voyage to the test site, Bikini Atoll. She survived both blasts, but was badly contaminated with radioactive fallout from the second test, and so was towed to Kwajalein, where she was studied for the next year and a half. The ship was ultimately scuttled in deep water off the atoll in February 1948.
Description
Part of the standard-type battleship series, the Pennsylvania-class ships were significantly larger than their predecessors, the Nevada class. Pennsylvania had an overall length of 608 feet (185 m), a beam of 97 feet (30 m) (at the waterline), and a draft of 29 feet 3 inches (8.92 m) at deep load. This was 25 feet (7.6 m) longer than the older ships. She displaced 29,158 long tons (29,626 t) at standard and 31,917 long tons (32,429 t) at deep load, over 4,000 long tons (4,060 t) more than the older ships. The ship had a metacentric height of 7.82 feet (2.38 m) at deep load.[1]
The ship had four direct-drive Curtis steam turbine sets, each of which drove a propeller 12 feet 1.5 inches (3.7 m) in diameter.[2] They were powered by twelve Babcock & Wilcox water-tube boilers.[1] The turbines were designed to produce a total of 34,000 shaft horsepower (25,000 kW), for a designed speed of 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph).[3] She was designed to normally carry 1,548 long tons (1,573 t) of fuel oil, but had a maximum capacity of 2,305 long tons (2,342 t). At full capacity, the ship could steam at a speed of 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph) for an estimated 7,552 nautical miles (13,990 km; 8,690 mi) with a clean bottom. She had four 300-kilowatt (402 hp) turbo generators.[1]
Pennsylvania carried twelve 45-caliber 14-inch guns in triple gun turrets.[1] The turrets were numbered from I to IV from front to rear. The guns could not elevate independently and were limited to a maximum elevation of +15° which gave them a maximum range of 21,000 yards (19,000 m).[4] The ship carried 100 shells for each gun. Defense against torpedo boats was provided by twenty-two 51-caliber five-inch guns mounted in individual casemates in the sides of the ship's hull. Positioned as they were they proved vulnerable to sea spray and could not be worked in heavy seas.[5] At an elevation of 15°, they had a maximum range of 14,050 yards (12,850 m).[6] Each gun was provided with 230 rounds of ammunition.[1] The ship mounted four 50-caliber three-inch guns for anti-aircraft defense, although only two were fitted when completed. The other pair were added shortly afterward on top of Turret III.[7] Pennsylvania also mounted two 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes submerged, one on each broadside, and carried 24 torpedoes for them.[1][8]
The Pennsylvania-class design continued the all-or-nothing principle of armoring only the most important areas of the ship begun in the Nevada class. The waterline armor belt of Krupp armor measured 13.5 inches (343 mm) thick and covered only the ship's machinery spaces and magazines. It had a total height of 17 feet 6 inches (5.3 m), of which 8 feet 9.75 inches (2.7 m) was below the waterline; beginning 2 feet 4 inches (0.7 m) below the waterline, the belt tapered to its minimum thickness of 8 inches (203 mm).[1] The transverse bulkheads at each end of the ship ranged from 13 to 8 inches in thickness. The faces of the gun turrets were 18 inches (457 mm) thick while the sides were 9–10 inches (229–254 mm) thick and the turret roofs were protected by 5 inches (127 mm) of armor. The armor of the barbettes was 18 to 4.5 inches (457 to 114 mm) thick. The conning tower was protected by 16 inches (406 mm) of armor and had a roof eight inches thick.[9]
The main armor deck was three plates thick with a total thickness of 3 inches (76 mm); over the steering gear the armor increased to 6.25 inches (159 mm) in two plates. Beneath it was the splinter deck that ranged from 1.5 to 2 inches (38 to 51 mm) in thickness.[10] The boiler uptakes were protected by a conical mantlet that ranged from 9 to 15 inches (230 to 380 mm) in thickness.[9] A three-inch torpedo bulkhead was placed 9 feet 6 inches (2.9 m) inboard from the ship's side and the ship was provided with a complete double bottom. Testing in mid-1914 revealed that this system could withstand 300 pounds (140 kg) of TNT.[10]
Service history
The keel for Pennsylvania was laid down on 27 October 1913 at the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company of Newport News, Virginia. Her completed hull was launched on 16 March 1915, thereafter beginning fitting-out. Work on the ship finished in mid-1916, and she was commissioned on 12 June under the command of Captain Henry B. Wilson. The ship was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet and then completed final fitting out from 1 to 20 July. Pennsylvania then began sea trials in 20 July, steaming first to the southern drill grounds off the Virginia Capes and then north to the coast of New England. Rear Admiral Austin M. Knight and officers from the Naval War College came aboard on 21 August to observe fleet training exercises. Three days later, the ship was visited by Franklin Delano Roosevelt, then the Assistant Secretary of the Navy.[11]
Rear Admiral Henry T. Mayo transferred to Pennsylvania on 12 October, making her the flagship of the Atlantic Fleet. At the end of the year, she went into drydock at the New York Navy Yard for maintenance. After emerging from the shipyard in January 1917, she steamed south to join fleet exercises in the Caribbean Sea, during which she stopped in: Culebra, Puerto Rico; Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic; and Port-au-Prince, Haiti. While in Port-au-Prince, Pennsylvania again hosted Roosevelt, who met with the President of Haiti aboard the ship. The battleship arrived back in Yorktown, Virginia on 6 April, the same day the United States declared war on Germany, bringing the country into World War I. Since Pennsylvania was oil-fired, she did not join the ships of Battleship Division Nine, as the British had asked for coal-burning battleships to reinforce the Grand Fleet. As a result, she stayed in American waters and saw no action during the war.[11]
In August, Pennsylvania took part in a naval review for President Woodrow Wilson. Foreign naval officers visited the ship in September, including the Japanese Vice Admiral Isamu Takeshita and the Russian Vice Admiral Alexander Kolchak. For the rest of the year and into 1918, Pennsylvania was kept in a state of readiness through fleet exercises and gunnery training in Chesapeake Bay and Long Island Sound. She was preparing for night battle training on 11 November 1918, when the Armistice with Germany came into effect, ending the fighting. She thereafter returned for another stint in the New York Navy Yard for maintenance that was completed on 21 November. She began the voyage to Brest, France, on 2 December by way of Tomkinsville, New York, in company with the transport ship George Washington that carried Wilson to France to take part in the peace negotiations; they were escorted by ten destroyers. The ships arrived on 13 December and the next day, Pennsylvania began the trip back to New York with Battleship Divisions Nine and Six. The battleships reached their destination on 26 December, where they took part in victory celebrations.[11]
Inter-war period
1919–1924
Pennsylvania and the rest of the Atlantic Fleet departed on 19 February, bound for the Caribbean for another round of exercises in Cuban waters. The ship arrived back in New York on 14 April, and while there on 30 June, Mayo was replaced by Vice Admiral Henry Wilson. On 8 July at Tomkinsville, a delegation consisting of: Vice President Thomas R. Marshall; Josephus Daniels, the Secretary of the Navy; Carter Glass, the Secretary of the Treasury; William B. Wilson, the Secretary of Labor; Newton D. Baker, the Secretary of War; Franklin K. Lane, the Secretary of the Interior; and Senator Champ Clark came aboard the ship for a cruise back to New York. The fleet conducted another set of maneuvers in the Caribbean from 7 January to April 1920, Pennsylvania returning to her berth in New York on 26 April. Training exercises in the area followed, and on 17 July she received the hull number BB-38.[11]
On 17 January 1921, Pennsylvania left New York, passed through the Panama Canal to Balboa, Panama, where she joined the Pacific Fleet, which together with elements of the Atlantic Fleet was re-designated as the Battle Fleet, with Pennsylvania as its flagship. On 21 January, the fleet left Balboa and steamed south to Callao, Peru, where they arrived ten days later. The ships then steamed north back to Balboa on 2 February, arriving on 14 February. Pennsylvania crossed back through the canal to take part in maneuvers off Cuba and on 28 April she arrived in Hampton Roads, Virginia, where President Warren G. Harding, Edwin Denby, the Secretary of the Navy, Theodore Roosevelt Jr., the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, and Admiral Robert Coontz, the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), came aboard the ship. Further training was held from 12 to 21 July in the Caribbean, after which she returned to New York. On 30 July, she proceeded on to Plymouth, Massachusetts for a visit that lasted until 2 August. Anothery drydock period in New York lasted from 5 to 20 August.[11]
Pennsylvania departed New York thereafter, bound for the Pacific; she passed through the Panama Canal on 30 August and remained at Balboa for two weeks. On 15 September, she resumed the voyage and steamed north to San Pedro, California, which she reached on 26 September. The ship spent most of 1922 visiting ports along the US west coast, including San Francisco, Seattle, Port Angeles, and San Diego, and from 6 March to 19 April, she underwent a refit at the Puget Sound Navy Yard. She won the Battle Efficiency Award for the 1922 training year. She went back to Puget Sound on 18 December, and remained there into 1923. She left the shipyard on 28 January and steamed south to San Diego, where she stayed from 2 to 8 February, before continuing on to the Panama Canal. After passing through, she steamed to Culebra for a short visit. The ship then passed back through the canal and arrived back in San Pedro on 13 April. Beginning in May, she visited various ports in the area over the course of the rest of 1923, apart from a round of fleet training from 27 November to 7 December. She ended the year with another stint in Puget Sound from 22 December until 1 March 1924.[11]
1924–1931
The ship arrived in San Francisco on 3 March, where she loaded ammunition before joining the Battle Fleet in San Diego on 9 March. The fleet cruised south to the Gulf of Fonseca, then continued south and passed through the Panama Canal to Limon Bay. The ships visited several ports in the Caribbean, including in the US Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico before returning to the Pacific in early April. Pennsylvania arrived back in San Pedro on 22 April, where she remained until 25 June, when she steamed north to Seattle. By this time, she was serving as the flagship of Battle Division 3 of the Battle Fleet. While in the Seattle area, she took part in training exercises with the ships of her division that lasted until 1 September. Further training exercises took place from 12 to 22 September off San Francisco. She thereafter took part in joint training with the coastal defenses around San Francisco from 26 to 29 September. The ship underwent a pair of overhauls from 1 to 13 October and 13 December to 5 January 1925. Pennsylvania then steamed to Puget Sound on 21 January for a third overhaul that lasted from 25 January to 24 March.[11]
Pennsylvania returned to San Pedro on 27 March and then joined the fleet in San Francisco on 5 April. The ships then steamed to Hawaii for training exercises before departing on 1 July for a major cruise across the Pacific to Australia. They reached Melbourne on 22 July, and on 6 August Pennsylvania steamed to Wellington, New Zealand, where she stayed from 11 to 22 August. On the voyage back to the United States, they stopped in Pago Pago in American Samoa and Hawaii, before reaching San Pedro on 26 September. Pennsylvania went to San Diego for target practice from 5 to 8 October, thereafter returning to San Pedro, where she remained largely idle for the rest of 1925. She left San Pedro with the Battle Fleet on 1 February 1926 for another visit to Balboa, during which the ships conducted tactical training from 15 to 27 February. Pennsylvania spent early March in California before departing for Puget Sound on 15 March for another refit that lasted until 14 May, at which point she returned to San Pedro. Another tour of west coast ports began on 16 June and ended on 1 September back in San Pedro.[11]
Pennsylvania remained at San Pedro from 11 December to 11 January 1927 when she left for another refit at Puget Sound that lasted until 12 March. She returned to San Francisco on 15 March and then moved to San Pedro the next day. She left to join training exercises off Cuba on 17 March; she passed through the canal between 29 and 31 March and arrived in Guantanamo Bay on 4 April. On 18 April, she left Cuba to visit Gonaïves, Haiti before steaming to New York, arriving there on 29 April. After touring the east coast in May, she departed for the canal, which she crossed on 12 June. She remained in Balboa until 12 June, at which point she left for San Pedro, arriving on 28 June. The ship spent the rest of 1927 with training, maintenance, and a tour of the west coast. She went to Puget Sound for a refit on 1 April 1928 that lasted until 16 May, after which she went to San Francisco. She left that same day, however, and steamed back north to visit Victoria, British Columbia. She remained there from 24 to 28 May and then returned to San Francisco. She spent June visiting various ports, and in August she embarked Dwight F. Davis, the Secretary of War, in San Francisco; she carried him to Hawaii, departing on 7 August and arriving on the 13th. Pennsylvania returned to Seattle on 26 August.[11]
Another cruise to Cuba took place in January 1929, after which she went to the Philadelphia Navy Yard on 1 June for a major refit and modernization. She received a number of modifications, including increased deck and turret roof armor, anti-torpedo bulges, new turbo-generators, new turbines, and six new three-drum boilers. Her main battery turrets were modified to allow them to elevate to 30 degrees, significantly increasing the range of her guns, and her secondary battery was revised. The number of 5-inch guns was reduced to twelve, and her 3-inch anti-aircraft guns were replaced with eight 5-inch /25 guns. Her torpedo tubes were removed, as were her lattice masts, which were replaced with sturdier tripod masts. Her bridge was also enlarged to increase the space available for an admiral's staff, since she was used as a flagship. Her living space was increased to 2,037 crew and marines, and she was fitted with two catapults for seaplanes.[3][11]
Pennsylvania returned to service on 1 March 1931 and she conducted trials in Delaware Bay in March and April. She then steamed south to Cuba on 8 May for a training cruise before returning to Philadelphia on 26 May. Another cruise to Cuba followed on 30 July; the ship arrived there on 5 August and this time she steamed across the Caribbean to the Panama Canal, which she transited on 12 August to return to the Battle Fleet. She reached San Pedro on 27 August, where she remained for the rest of the year. She toured the west coast in January 1932 and before crossing over to Pearl Harbor, where she arrived on 3 February. There, she took part in extensive fleet maneuvers as part of Fleet Problem XIII. She returned to San Pedro on 20 March, remaining there until 18 April, when she began another cruise along the coast of California. She returned to San Pedro on 14 November and remained there until the end of the year.[11]
1932–1941
The ship departed San Pedro on 9 February to participate in Fleet Problem XIV, which lasted from 10 to 17 February. She returned to San Francisco on 17 February and then went to San Pedro on 27 February, remaining there until 19 June. Another west coast cruise followed from 19 June to 14 November, and after returning to San Pedro, Pennsylvania stayed there inactive until early March 1934. From 4 to 8 March, she made a short visit to Hunters Point Naval Shipyard in San Francisco and then returned to San Pedro. From there, she went to join the fleet for Fleet Problem XV, which was held in the Caribbean this year; she passed through the canal on 24 April, the maneuvers having already started on the 19th. They lasted until 12 May, at which point Pennsylvania went to Gonaïves with the rest of the fleet, which then continued on to New York, where it arrived on 31 March. There, Pennsylvania led the fleet in a naval review for now-President Franklin D. Roosevelt. On 15 June, Admiral Joseph M. Reeves took command of the fleet aboard Pennsylvania, which was once again the fleet flagship.[11]
On 18 June, Pennsylvania left New York for the Pacific, stopping in Hampton Roads on 20 June on the way. She passed through the canal on 28 June and reached San Pedro on 7 July. She then went to Puget Sound for a refit that lasted from 14 July to 2 October. The ship left the shipyard on 16 October and returned to San Francisco two days later, beginning a period of cruises off the coast of California and visits to cities in the state. She ended the year in San Pedro, remaining there or in San Francisco until 29 April 1935, when she took part in Fleet Problem XVI in the Hawaiian islands. The maneuvers lasted until 10 June, and were the largest set of exercises conducted by the US Navy at the time. The ship then returned to San Pedro on 17 June and embarked on a cruise of the west coast for several months; on 16 December, she went to Puget Sound for another overhaul that lasted from 20 December to 21 March 1936. Fleet Problem XVII followed from 27 April to 7 June, this time being held off Balboa. She returned to San Pedro on 6 June and spent the rest of the year with training exercises off the west coast and Hawaii, ending the training program for the year in San Pedro on 18 November.[11]
The ship remained in port until 17 February, when she departed for San Clemente, California at the start of a tour along the west coast. She participated in Fleet Problem XVIII, which lasted from 16 April to 28 May. Another stint in Puget Sound began on 6 June and concluded on 3 September, when she returned to San Pedro. She spent the rest of the year alternating between there and San Francisco, seeing little activity. She made a short trip to San Francisco in February 1938 and took part in Fleet Problem XIX from 9 March to 30 April. Another period in San Pedro followed until 20 June, after which she embarked on a two-month cruise along the west coast that concluded with another stay at Puget Sound on 28 September. After concluding her repairs on 16 December, she returned to San Pedro by way of San Francisco, arriving on 22 December. Fleet Problem XX occurred earlier the year than it had in previous iterations, taking place from 20 to 27 February 1939 in Cuban waters. During the exercises, Franklin Roosevelt and Admiral William D. Leahy, the CNO, came aboard Pennsylvania to observe the maneuvers.[11]
The ship then went to Culebra on 27 February, departing on 4 March to visit Port-au-Prince, Haiti from 6 to 11 March. A stay in Guantanamo Bay followed from 12 to 31 March, after which she went to visit the US Naval Academy in Annapolis on 5 April. Pennsylvania began the voyage back to the Pacific on 18 April and passed through the canal at the end of the month, ultimately arriving back in San Pedro on 12 May. Another tour of the west coast followed, which included stops in San Francisco, Tacoma, and Seattle, and ended in San Pedro on 20 October. She went to Hawaii to participate in Fleet Problem XXI on 2 April 1940. The exercises lasted until 17 May, after which the ship remained in Hawaii until 1 September, when she left for San Pedro. The battleship then went to Puget Sound on 12 September that lasted until 27 December;[11] during the overhaul, she received another four 5-inch /25 guns.[3] She returned to San Pedro on 31 December. Fleet Problem XXII was scheduled for January 1941, but the widening of World War II by this time led the naval command to cancel the exercises. On 7 January, Pennsylvania steamed to Hawaii as part of what was again the Pacific Fleet, based at Pearl Harbor. Over the course of the year, she operated out of Pearl Harbor and made a short voyage to the west coast of the United States from 12 September to 11 October.[11]
World War II
Attack on Pearl Harbor
On the morning of 7 December, Pennsylvania was in Dry Dock No. 1 in Pearl Harbor undergoing a refit; three of her four screws were removed. The destroyers Cassin and Downes were also in the dock with her. When it became clear that the port was under air attack from the Japanese fleet, Pennsylvania's crew rushed to their battle stations, and between 08:02 and 08:05, her anti-aircraft gunners began engaging the hostile aircraft. Japanese torpedo bombers unsuccessfully attempted to torpedo the side of the drydock to flood it; having failed, several aircraft then strafed Pennsylvania. At 08:30, several high-altitude bombers began a series of attacks on the ship; over the course of the following fifteen minutes, five aircraft attempted to hit her from different directions. One of the Japanese bombers hit Downes and one scored a hit on Pennsylvania that passed through the boat deck and exploded in casemate No. 9. Pennsylvania's anti-aircraft gunners fired at all of these aircraft but failed to hit any of them, apparently owing to incorrect fuse settings that caused the shells to explode before they reached the correct altitude. The gunners did manage to shoot down a low-flying aircraft that attempted to strafe the ship; they claimed to have shot down another five aircraft, but the after-action investigation noted that only two aircraft were likely hit by Pennsylvania's guns.[11]
By 09:20, both destroyers were on fire from bomb hits and the fire had spread to Pennsylvania, so the drydock was flooded to help contain the fire. Ten minutes later, the destroyers began to explode as the fires spread to ammunition magazines, and at 09:41, Downes was shattered by an explosion that scattered parts of the ship around the area. One of her torpedo tubes, weighing 500 to 1,000 pounds (230 to 450 kg), was launched into the air, striking Pennsylvania's forecastle. As part of her crew battled the fire in her bow, other men used the ship's boats to ferry anti-aircraft ammunition from stores in the West Loch of Pearl Harbor. Beginning at 14:00, the crew began preparatory work to repair the bomb damage; a 5-inch /25 gun and a 5-inch /51 casemate gun were taken from the damaged battleship West Virginia to replace weapons damaged aboard Pennsylvania.[11] In the course of the attack, Pennsylvania had 15 men killed (including her executive officer), 14 missing, and 38 wounded.[12] On 12 December, Pennsylvania was refloated and taken out of the drydock; having been only lightly damaged in the attack, she was ready to go to sea. She departed Pearl Harbor on 20 December and arrived in San Francisco nine days later. She went into drydock at Hunter's Point on 1 January 1942 for repairs that were completed on 12 January.[11]
The ship left San Francisco on 20 February and began gunnery training before returning to San Francisco the next day. Further training followed in March, and from 14 April to 1 August, she took part in extensive maneuvers off the coast of California;[11] during this period, she underwent an overhaul at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard in San Francisco. The work involved considerably strengthening the ship's anti-aircraft capabilities, with ten Bofors 40 mm quad mounts and fifty-one Oerlikon 20 mm single mounts. The tripod mainmast was removed, with the stump replaced by a deckhouse above which the aft main battery director cupola was housed. One of the new CXAM-1 radars was installed above the cupola. In addition the secondary 5-inch armament was replaced with rapid fire 5-inch /38 cal guns in eight twin mounts for a total of 16 new dual purpose guns. These guns could elevate to 85 degrees and fire at a rate of one round every four seconds. They replaced the older 5-inch /51 cal anti-ship and 5-inch /25 cal anti-aircraft guns.[3] She briefly went to sea during the Battle of Midway as part of Task Force 1, commanded by Vice Admiral William S. Pye, but the ships did not see action during the operation.[11]
Aleutians and Makin Atoll
On 1 August, Pennsylvania left San Francisco, bound for Pearl Harbor. She arrived there on 14 August and took part in further training, including guard tactics for aircraft carrier task forces. Another overhaul followed in San Francisco from 3 to 10 January 1943. After further training and tests at San Francisco and Long Beach that lasted into April, she departed to join the Aleutian Islands Campaign on 23 April. She bombarded Holtz Bay and Chichagof Harbor on 11–12 May to support the forces that went ashore on the island of Attu. While she was leaving the area on the 12th, the Japanese submarine I-31 launched a torpedo at the ship, which was observed by a patrolling PBY Catalina flying boat. The Catalina radioed Pennsylvania, which took evasive maneuvers and escaped unharmed; a pair of destroyers then spent the next ten hours hunting the submarine before severely damaging her and forcing her to surface. I-31 was later sunk by another destroyer the next day.[11]
Pennsylvania returned to Holtz Bay on 14 May to conduct another bombardment in support of an infantry attack on the western side of the bay. She continued operations in the area until 19 May, when she steamed to Adak Island for another amphibious assault. While en route, one of her gasoline stowage compartments exploded, which caused structural damage, though no one was injured in the accident. She was forced to leave Adak on 21 May for repairs at Puget Sound that lasted from 31 May to 15 June; during the overhaul, another accidental explosion killed one man and injured a second. She left port on 1 August, bound for Adak, which she reached on 7 August. There, she became the flagship of Admiral Francis W. Rockwell, commander of the task force that was to attack Kiska. The troops went ashore on 15 August but met no resistance, the Japanese having evacuated without US forces in the area having becoming aware of it. Pennsylvania patrolled off Kiska for several days before returning to Adak on 23 August.[11]
Two days later, the battleship departed Adak for Pearl Harbor, arriving there on 1 September. She embarked a contingent of 790 passengers before steaming on 19 September, bound for San Francisco. She arrived there six days later and debarked her passengers before returning to Pearl Harbor on 6 October to take part in bombardment training from 20–23 October and 31 October – 4 November. Now the flagship of Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner, the commander of the Fifth Amphibious Force, itself part of the Northern Attack Force, Pennsylvania left Pearl Harbor on 10 November to lead the assault on Makin Atoll, part of the Gilbert Islands. She was joined by three other battleships, four cruisers, three escort carriers, and numerous transports and destroyers; they arrived off Makin on 20 November, and Pennsylvania opened fire on Butaritari Island that morning at a range of 14,200 yards (13,000 m), beginning the Battle of Makin. Early on the morning of 24 November, the ship was rocked by an explosion off her starboard bow; lookouts reported that the escort carrier Liscome Bay had been torpedoed and had exploded. Japanese torpedo bombers conducted repeated nighttime attacks on 25 and 26 November, but they failed to score any hits on the American fleet. Pennsylvania left the area on 30 November to return to Pearl Harbor.[11]
Marshalls and Marianas campaigns
At the start of 1944, Pennsylvania was at Pearl Harbor; over the course of the first two weeks of January, she took part in maneuvers in preparation for landings on Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands. She departed Pearl Harbor on 22 January in company with the invasion fleet, and on 31 January she began her preparatory bombardment of the atoll to start the Battle of Kwajalein. Troops went ashore the next day, and Pennsylvania remained offshore to provide artillery support to the marines as they fought to secure the island. By the evening of 3 February, the Japanese defenders had been defeated, allowing the ship to depart to Majuro Atoll to replenish her ammunition supply. She left shortly thereafter, on 12 February, to support the next major attack on Eniwetok in the Marshalls; five days later she arrived off the island, the Battle of Eniwetok already underway, and over the course of 20 and 21 February, she shelled the island heavily to support the men fighting ashore. On 22 February, she supported the landing on Parry Island, part of the Eniwetok atoll.[11]
On 1 March, Pennsylvania steamed back to Majuro before proceeding south to Havannah Harbor on Efate Island in the New Hebrides. She remained there until 24 April, when she left for a short visit to Sydney, Australia from 29 April to 11 May, when she returned to Efate. She thereafter steamed to Port Purvis on Florida Island, in the Solomons, to participate in amphibious assault exercises. After replenishing ammunition and supplies at Efate, she left on 2 June, bound for Roi, arriving there six days later. On 10 June, she joined a force of battleships, cruisers, escort carriers, and destroyers that had assembled for the Marianas campaign. While en route that night, one of the escorting destroyers reported a sonar contact and the ships of the fleet took evasive maneuvers; in the darkness, Pennsylvania accidentally collided with the troop transport Talbot. Pennsylvania incurred only minor damage and was able to continue with the fleet, but Talbot had to return to Eniwetok for emergency repairs.[11]
Pennsylvania began her bombardment of Saipan on 14 June to prepare the island for the assault that came the next day. She continued shelling the island while cruising off Tinian on 15 June as the assault craft went ashore. On 16 June, she attacked Japanese positions at Orote Point on Guam before returning to Saipan. She left the area on 25 June to replenish at Eniwetok, returning to join the preparatory bombardment of Guam on 12 July. The shelling continued for two days, and late on 14 July, she steamed to Saipan to again replenish her ammunition. Back on station three days later, she continued to blast the island through 20 July. This work also included suppressing guns that fired on demolition parties that went ashore to destroy landing obstacles. On the morning of 21 July, Pennsylvania took up her bombardment position off Orote Point as the assault craft prepared to launch their attack. The ship operated off the island supporting the men fighting there for the next two weeks.[11]
Operations in the Philippines
Pennsylvania left Guam on 3 August to replenish at Eniwetok, arriving there on 19 August. From there, she steamed to Espiritu Santo in the New Hebrides before joining landing training off Guadalcanal. The ship left on 6 September as part of the Bombardment and Fire Support Group for the invasion of Peleliu. She bombarded the island from 12 to 14 September and supported the landings the next day. She shelled Anguar Island on 17 September and remained there for three days, departing on 20 September. She then steamed to Seeadler Harbor on Manus, one of the Admiralty Islands for repairs. On 28 September, she arrived there and entered a floating dry dock on 1 October for a week's repairs. Pennsylvania left on 12 October in company with the battleships Mississippi, Tennessee, California, Maryland, and West Virginia, under the command of Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf. These ships, designated Task Group 77.2, formed the Fire Support Group for the upcoming operations in the Philippines. They arrived off Leyte on 18 October and took up bombardment positions; over the next four days, they covered Underwater Demolition Teams, beach reconnaissance operations, and minesweepers clearing the way for the landing force.[11]
On 24 October, reports of Japanese naval forces approaching the area led Oldendorf's ships to prepare for action at the exit of the Surigao Strait.[11] Vice Admiral Shōji Nishimura's Southern Force steamed through the Surigao Strait to attack the invasion fleet in Leyte Gulf; his force comprised Battleship Division 2—the battleships Yamashiro and Fusō, the heavy cruiser Mogami, and four destroyers—and Vice Admiral Kiyohide Shima's Second Striking Force—the heavy cruisers Nachi and Ashigara, the light cruiser Abukuma, and four more destroyers.[13] As Nishimura's flotilla passed through the strait on the night of 24 October, they came under attack from American PT boats, followed by destroyers, initiating the Battle of Surigao Strait. One of these destroyers torpedoed Fusō and disabled her, though Nishimura continued on toward his objective.[14]
In the early hours of 25 October, the Southern Force came into contact with Oldendorf's battleships, which had positioned themselves to cross Nishimura's T. At 03:53, West Virginia opened fire, followed by some of the other battleships,[11] though Pennsylvania had trouble locating a target in the darkness with her search radar. Her older Mark 3 radar was not as effective as the more modern sets on West Virginia and some of the other battleships.[15] Task Group 77.2's battleships effectively annihilated Battleship Division 2; Shima's Second Striking Force had fallen behind and had not yet entered the fray. Yamashiro was set on fire and then exploded; she turned to flee, covered by a salvo of torpedoes from the burning Mogami, but the American battleships were able to evade them without damage. Despite having disengaged from Oldendorf's battleships, Yamashiro was hit by more torpedoes and capsized and sank around 04:20.[16] Shima's ships passed the still-floating Fusō and realized that Nishimura had entered a trap, so he reversed course to flee; in the confusion, his flagship Nachi collided with Mogami, damaging her and slowing her to be attacked by American light forces. She was later sunk, as were three of the four destroyers. Later on 25 October, Pennsylvania's anti-aircraft gunners helped to shoot down four aircraft that attacked a nearby destroyer.[11][17]
Pennsylvania leading Colorado, Louisville, Portland and Columbia into Lingayen Gulf, Philippines, January 1945
Late on 28 October, Pennsylvania shot down a torpedo bomber. The ship remained on station off Leyte until 25 November, when she departed for Manus, from which she steamed to Kossol Roads off Palau on 15 December to refill her magazines. She conducted gunnery training on 22 December, and on 1 January 1945, Pennsylvania re-joined Oldendorf's Fire Support Group on the way to Lingayen Gulf for the next major operation in the Philippines. Over the course of 4–5 January, Japanese aircraft repeatedly attacked the ships, including kamikazes that destroyed the escort carrier Ommaney Bay. Pennsylvania began bombarding Japanese positions on Santiago Island at the entrance to Lingayen Gulf on 6 January before entering the gulf that night to suppress Japanese guns while minesweepers cleared the area. The next morning, the rest of Oldendorf's ships joined her in the gulf to begin the main preparatory bombardment, which continued through the 8th. On 9 January, the amphibious assault began as troops from the Sixth United States Army went ashore.[11]
Japanese aircraft struck the invasion fleet on 10 January, and four bombs landed close to Pennsylvania, though she was undamaged. Later that day, a fire control party directed Pennsylvania to shell a group of Japanese tanks that were massing to launch a counterattack on the beachhead. The ship patrolled outside the gulf from 10 to 17 January, when she returned to the gulf; she saw no further action, however, and she departed on 10 February for maintenance at Manus. From there, she left on 22 February for San Francisco, stopping in the Marshalls and at Pearl Harbor on the way. After arriving on 13 March, she underwent a thorough overhaul, including the replacement of her worn-out main battery and secondary guns. She also received more modern radar and fire control equipment and additional close-range anti-aircraft guns. With the work done, she went on sea trials off San Francisco, followed by training at San Diego. She left San Francisco on 12 July and arrived in Pearl Harbor on the 18th, where she engaged in further training from 20 to 23 July. The next day, she departed to join the invasion fleet off Okinawa.[11]
While transiting the Pacific, she stopped to bombard Wake Island on 1 August. In the artillery duel with Japanese coastal guns, one of their shells detonated close enough that fragments disabled one of the ship's fire control directors for her 5-inch guns. One of her Curtiss SC Seahawks was damaged in heavy seas, and the destroyer Ordronaux recovered the pilot. Pennsylvania loaded ammunition at Saipan before continuing on to Okinawa, arriving there on 12 August where she became flagship of Task Force 95. That night, while moored next to Tennessee in Buckner Bay, a Japanese torpedo bomber managed to penetrate the Allied defensive screen undetected; the aircraft launched its torpedo at Pennsylvania and hit her aft, causing serious damage. The torpedo opened a hole approximately 30 ft (9.1 m) in diameter, causing the ship to take on a considerable amount of water and begin to settle by the stern. Damage control teams were able to contain the flooding. Twenty men were killed and another ten were injured in the attack, including Oldendorf, who was aboard at the time. Pennsylvania was the last major US warship to be damaged in the war. The next day, salvage tugs towed her to shallow water where temporary repairs could be effected. On 15 August, the Japanese surrendered, ending the war.[11][18]
Post-war
Pennsylvania was taken under tow by a pair of tugboats on 18 August, bound for Apra Harbor, Guam, where they arrived on 6 September. The next day, she was taken into a floating drydock, where a large steel patch was welded over the torpedo hole, which would allow the ship to make the voyage back for permanent repairs. The battleship Missouri relieved Pennsylvania as flagship on 15 September, and on 2 October, she was able to leave the drydock. Two days later, Pennsylvania steamed out of Guam, bound for Puget Sound, where repairs would be effected. She was escorted by the light cruiser Atlanta and the destroyer Walke. While still en route on 17 October, the ship's number 3 propeller shaft slipped aft. Divers were sent to cut the shaft loose; Pennsylvania now had just one operational screw, and the open propeller shaft was now allowing water to leak into the hull. She nevertheless completed the voyage to Puget Sound, arriving on 24 October. The ship received the Navy Unit Commendation for her wartime service there on 3 November.[11]
On 16 January 1946, Pennsylvania was designated to be expended as a target ship for the Operation Crossroads atomic bomb tests at Bikini Atoll to be carried out later that year. Repairs were completed enough to allow her to sail to the Marshall Islands, and she left Puget Sound on 24 February. After stopping in Pearl Harbor, she arrived in Bikini Atoll on 31 May, where she was anchored along with another eighty-three warships. The first explosion, Test Able, took place on 1 July, and was an air burst. After tests determined that the ship had not been contaminated with radiation, the crew returned to the ship from 3 to 24 July. The second blast, Test Baker, was done the next day. This was an underwater detonation, and Pennsylvania was moored just 1,100 yards (1,000 m) from ground zero. She was only lightly damaged from the blast, but the surge of water caused significant radioactive contamination; work parties came aboard the ship from 17 to 21 August to prepare the ship to be towed, and on the 21st she was taken under tow by the transport Niagara, which took her to Kwajalein, where she was decommissioned on 29 August. Various radiological and structural studies were completed over the next year and a half until she was scuttled off Kwajalein on 10 February 1948. She was officially stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 19 February.[11]
The ship's bell is on display at The Pennsylvania State University near the main entrance of the Wagner Building, home of the university's ROTC programs. It has been on permanent loan to the university from the Department of the Navy since 1955.[19] Two of the ship's 14-inch guns that had been replaced during the 1945 overhaul are on outdoor display at the Pennsylvania Military Museum in Boalsburg, Pennsylvania.[20]
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Rencontres d'Arles
The Rencontres d’Arles (formerly called Rencontres internationales de la photographie d’Arles) is an annual summer photography festival founded in 1970 by the Arles photographer Lucien Clergue, the writer Michel Tournier and the historian Jean-Maurice Rouquette.
The Rencontres d’Arles has an international impact by showing material that has never been seen by the public before. In 2015, the festival welcomed 93,000 visitors.
The specially designed exhibitions, often organised in collaboration with French and foreign museums and institutions, take place in various historic sites. Some venues, such as 12th-century chapels or 19th-century industrial buildings, are open to the public throughout the festival.
The Rencontres d’Arles has revealed many photographers, confirming its significance as a springboard for photography and contemporary creativity.
In recent years the Rencontres d’Arles has invited many guest curators and entrusted some of its programming to such figures as Martin Parr in 2004, Raymond Depardon in 2006 and the Arles-born fashion designer Christian Lacroix.
Contents
1 Art directors
2 The festival
3 The Rencontres d'Arles award winners
4 Exhibitions
5 References
6 External links
Art directors
A photographer, Jean-Pierre Sudre, discussing his work, Rencontres d'Arles, 1975
1970 - 1972: Lucien Clergue, Michel Tournier, Jean-Maurice Rouquette
1973 - 1976: Lucien Clergue
1977: Bernard Perrine
1978: Jacques Manachem
1979 - 1982: Alain Desvergnes (fr)
1983 - 1985: Lucien Clergue
1986 - 1987: François Hébel
1988 - 1989: Claude Hudelot (fr)
1990: Agnès de Gouvion Saint-Cyr
1991 - 1993: Louis Mesplé (fr)
1994: Lucien Clergue
1995 - 1998, délégué général: Bernard Millet (fr)
1995, artistic director: Michel Nuridsany (fr)
1996, artistic director: Joan Fontcuberta
1997, artistic director: Christian Caujolle (fr)
1998, artistic director: Giovanna Calvenzi
1999 - 2001: Gilles Mora (fr)
2002 - 2014: François Hébel
Since 2015: Sam Stourdzé (fr)
The festival
A photography exhibition, Rencontres d'Arles, 2010
Events
Opening week at the Rencontres d’Arles features photography-focused events (projections at night, exhibition tours, panel discussions, symposia, parties, book signings, etc.) in the town’s historic venues, some of which are only open to the public during the festival. Memorable events in recent years include Europe Night (2008), an overview of European photography; Christian Lacroix’s fashion show for the festival’s closing (2008); and Patti Smith’s concert for the Vu agency’s 20th anniversary (2006).
Nights at the Roman Theatre
At night, work by a photographer or a photography expert is projected in the town’s open-air Roman theatre accompanied by concerts and performances. Each event is a one-off creation. In 2009, 8,500 people attended evenings at the Roman theatre, an average of 2,000 a night, and 2,500 were there on closing night, when the Tiger Lilies played during a projection of Nan Goldin’s “The Ballad of Sexual Dependency”. In 2013 over 6,000 people attended the nighttime photography projections, an average of approximately 1,000 each night.
The Night of the Year
The Night of the Year, which was created in 2006, allows visitors to walk around and see the festival’s favourite works by artists and photographers as well as carte blanche exhibitions by institutions.
Cosmos-Arles Books
Cosmos-Arles Books is a Rencontres d’Arles satellite event dedicated to new publishing practices.
Over the past 15 years large-scale photographic publications, self-published books, and ebooks have become essential media for experimentation by photographers and artists. They allow photography to be rediscovered as a means of expression and distribution, providing a rich terrain of expression for the art’s fundamentally hybrid forms.
Symposia and panel discussions
Photographers and professionals participating in symposia and panel discussions during opening week discuss their work or issues raised by the images on display. In recent years the themes included whether a black-and-white aesthetic is still conceivable in photography (2013); the impact of social networks on creativity and information (2011); breaking with past, a key idea for photography today (2009); photography commissions: freedom or constraint (2008); challenges and changes in the photography market (2007).
The Rencontres d’Arles awards
Since 2002 the Rencontres d’Arles awards have been an opportunity to discover new talents. In 2007 the number of annual awards was reduced to three, presented at the closing ceremony of the festival’s professional week: the Discovery Award (€25,000), Author’s Book Award (€8,000) and History Book Award (€8,000).
Luma Rencontres Dummy Book Award
In 2015 the Rencontres d’Arles offered an award to assist with the publication of a dummy book. Endowed with a €25,000 budget production budget, this new prize is open to all photographers and artists using photography who submit a dummy book that has never been published.
The winner’s book will be produced in autumn 2015 and be presented at the 2016 Rencontres d’Arles.
Photo Folio Review & Gallery
Since 2006 aspiring photographers have been able to submit their portfolios to international photography experts in various fields, including publishers, exhibition curators, heads of institutions, agency directors, gallery owners, collectors, critics and photo editors, for appraisal during the festival’s opening week. Photo Folio Review & Gallery offers them an opportunity to show their work throughout the festival.
Photography classes
The Rencontres d’Arles has always been a place where professional photographers and practitioners on every level have been able to meet each other and exchange ideas. Each year, photography class participants undertake a personal journey of creation through photography’s aesthetic, ethical and technological issues. Leading photographers such as Guy le Querrec, Antoine d’Agata, Martin Parr, René Burri and Joan Fontcuberta regularly teach at the Rencontres d’Arles.
Rentrée en Images
“Rentrée en Images” has been a key part of the festival’s educational activities since 2004. During the first two weeks in September, special mediators take students from the primary to graduate school level on guided tours of the exhibitions. Based on the festival’s programming, the event aims to introduce young people to the visual arts and fits in with a wider policy of cultural democratisation. “Rentrée en Images” reaches thousands of students, and for many of them it is their first exposure to contemporary art.
Budget
Public funding accounted for 40% of the 2015 festival’s €6.3-million budget, sales (mainly of tickets and derivative products), 40% and private partnerships, 20%[clarification needed][citation needed].
Executive Committee
Hubert Védrine, president
Hervé Schiavetti, vice-president
Jean-François Dubos, vice-president
Marin Karmitz, treasurer
Françoise Nyssen, secretary
Lucien Clergue, Jean-Maurice Rouquette, Michel Tournier, founding members
The Rencontres d'Arles award winners
2002
Jury: Denis Curti, Alberto Anault, Alice Rose George, Manfred Heiting, Erik Kessels, Claudine Maugendre, Val Williams
Discovery Award: Peter Granser
No Limit award: Jacqueline Hassink
Dialogue of the humanity award: Tom Wood
Photographer of the year award: Roger Ballen
Help to the project: Pascal Aimar, Chris Shaw
Author’s Book Award: Sibusiso Mbhele and His Fish Helicopter by Koto Bolofo (powerHouse Books, 2002)
Help to publishing: Une histoire sans nom by Anne-Lise Broyer
2003
Jury: Giovanna Calvenzi, Hou Hanru, Christine Macel, Anna Lisa Milella, Urs Stahel
Discovery Award: Zijah Gafic
No Limit award: Thomas Demand
Dialogue of the humanity award: Fazal Sheikh
Photographer of the year award: Anders Petersen
Help to the project: Jitka Hanzlova
Author’s Book Award: Hide That Can by Deirdre O’Callaghan (Trolley Books, 2002)
Help to publishing: A Personal Diary of Chinese Avant-Garde in the 1990s, China (1993-1998) by Xing Danwen
2004
Jury: Eikoh Hosoe, Joan Fontcuberta, Tod Papageorge, Elaine Constantine, Antoine d’Agata
Discovery Award: Yasu Suzuka
No Limit award: Jonathan de Villiers
Dialogue of the humanity award: Edward Burtynsky
Help to the project: John Stathatos
Author’s Book Award: Particulars by David Goldblatt (Goodman Gallery, 2003)
2005
Jury: Ute Eskildsen, Jean-Louis Froment, Michel Mallard, Kathy Ryan, Marta Gili
Discovery Award: Miroslav Tichy
No Limit award: Mathieu Bernard-Reymond
Dialogue of the humanity award: Simon Norfolk
Help to the project: Anna Malagrida
Author’s Book Award: Temporary Discomfort (Chapter I-V) by Jules Spinatsch (Lars Müller Publishers, 2005)
2006
Jury: Vincent Lavoie, Abdoulaye Konaté, Yto Barrada, Marc-Olivier Wahler, Alain d’Hooghe
Discovery Award: Alessandra Sanguinetti
No Limit award: Randa Mirza
Dialogue of the humanity award: Wang Qingsong
Help to the project: Walid Raad
Author’s Book Award: Form aus Licht und Schatten by Heinz Hajek-Halke (Steidl, 2005)
2007
[1]
Jury: Bice Curiger, Alain Fleischer, Johan Sjöström, Thomas Weski, Anne Wilkes Tucker
Discovery Award: Laura Henno
Author’s Book Award: Empty Bottles by WassinkLundgren (Thijs groot Wassink and Ruben Lundgren) (Veenman Publishers, 2007)
Historical Book Award: László Moholy-Nagy: Color in Transparency: Photographic Experiments in Color, 1934–1946 by Jeannine Fiedler (Steidl & Bauhaus-Archiv, 2006)
2008
[2]
Jury: Elisabeth Biondi, Luis Venegas, Nathalie Ours, Caroline Issa and Massoud Golsorkhi, Carla Sozzani
Discovery Award: Pieter Hugo
Author’s Book Award: Strange and Singular by Michael Abrams (Loosestrife, 2007)
Historical Book Award: Nein, Onkel: Snapshots from Another Front 1938–1945 by Ed Jones and Timothy Prus (Archive of Modern Conflict, 2007)
2009
[3]
Jury: Lucien Clergue, Bernard Perrine, Alain Desvergnes, Claude Hudelot, Agnès de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, Louis Mesplé, Bernard Millet, Michel Nuridsany, Joan Fontcuberta, Christian Caujolle, Giovanna Calvenzi, Martin Parr, Christian Lacroix, Arnaud Claass, Christian Milovanoff
Discovery Award: Rimaldas Viksraitis
Author’s Book Award: From Back Home by Anders Petersen and JH Engström (Bokförlaget Max Ström, 2009)
Historical Book Award: In History by Susan Meiselas (Steidl and International Center of Photography, 2008)
2010
[4] [5]
Discovery Award: Taryn Simon
LUMA award: Trisha Donnelly
Author’s Book Award: Photography 1965–74 by Yutaka Takanashi (Only Photograph, 2010)
Historical Book Award: Les livres de photographies japonais des années 1960 et 1970 by Ryuichi Kaneko and Ivan Vartanian (Seuil, 2009)
2011
[6] [7]
Discovery Award: Mikhael Subotzky and Patrick Waterhouse[8]
Author’s Book Award: A Living Man Declared Dead and Other Chapters by Taryn Simon (Mack, 2011)[8]
Historical Book Award: Works by Lewis Baltz (Steidl, 2010)[8]
2012
[9] [10] [11]
Discovery Award: Jonathan Torgovnik
Author’s Book Award: Redheaded Peckerwood by Christian Patterson (Mack, 2011)
Historical Book Award: Les livres de photographie d’Amérique latine by Horacio Fernández (Images en Manœuvres Éditions, 2011)
2013
Discovery Award: Yasmine Eid-Sabbagh and Rozenn Quéré
Author’s Book Award: Anticorps by Antoine d’Agata (Xavier Barral & Le Bal[disambiguation needed], 2013)[12]
Historical Book Award: AOI [COD.19.1.1.43] – A27 [S | COD.23 by Rosângela Rennó (Self-published, 2013)
2014
Discovery Award: Zhang Kechun
Author’s Book Award: Hidden Islam by Nicolo Degiorgis (Rorhof, 2014)
Historical Book Award: Paris mortel retouché by Johan van der Keuken (Van Zoetendaal Publishers, 2013)
2015
Discovery Award: Pauline Fargue
Author’s Book Award: H. said he loved us by Tommaso Tanini (Discipula Editions, 2014)
Historical Book Award: Monograph Vitas Luckus. Works & Biography by Margarita Matulytė and Tatjana Luckiene-Aldag (Kaunas Photography Gallery and Lithuanian Art Museum, 2014)
Dummy Book Award: The Jungle Book by Yann Gross
Photo Folio Review: Piero Martinelo (winner); Charlotte Abramow, Martin Essi, Elin Høyland, Laurent Kronenthal (special mentions)
2016
Discovery Award: Sarah Waiswa
Author’s Book Award: Taking Off. Henry My Neighbor by Mariken Wessels (Art Paper Editions, 2015)
Historical Book Award: (in matters of) Karl by Annette Behrens (Fw: Books, 2015)
Photo-Text Award: Negative Publicity: Artefacts of Extraordinary Rendition by Edmund Clark and Crofton Black (Aperture, 2015)
Dummy Book Award: You and Me: A project between Bosnia, Germany and the US by Katja Stuke and Oliver Sieber
Photo Folio Review: David Fathi (winner); Sonja Hamad, Eric Leleu, Karolina Paatos, Maija Tammi (special mentions)
2017
[13]
Discovery Award: Carlos Ayesta and Guillaume Bression
Author's Book Award: Ville de Calais by Henk Wildschut (self-published, 2017)
Special Mention for Author's Book Award: Gaza Works by Kent Klich (Koenig, 2017)
Historical Book Award: Latif Al Ani by Latif Al Ani (Hannibal Publishing, 2017)
Photo-Text Award: The Movement of Clouds around Mount Fuji by Masanao Abe and Helmut Völter (Spector Books, 2016)
Dummy Book Award: Grozny: Nine Cities by Olga Kravets, Maria Morina, and Oksana Yushko
Photo Folio Review: Aurore Valade (winner); Haley Morris Cafiero, Alexandra Lethbridge, Charlotte Abramow, Catherine Leutenegger (special mentions)
Exhibitions
1970
Gjon Mili, Edward Weston, ...
1971
Pedro Luis Raota, Charles Vaucher, Olivier Gagliani, Steve Soltar, Judy Dater, Jack Welpott, Gordon Bennett, John Weir, Linda Connor, Neal White, Jean-Claude Gautrand, Jean Rouet, Pierre Riehl, Roger Doloy, Georges Guilpin, Alain Perceval, Jean-Louis Viel, Jean-Luc Tartarin, Frédéric Barzilay, Jean-Claude Bernath, André Recoules, Etienne-Bertrand Weill, Rodolphe Proverbio, Jean Dieuzaide, Paul Caponigro, Jerry Uelsmann, Heinz Hajek-Halke, Rinaldo Prieri, Jean-Pierre Sudre, Denis Brihat, …
1972
Hiro, Lucien Clergue, Eugène Atget, Bruce Davidson, …
1973
Imogen Cunningham, Linda Connor, Judy Dater, Allan Porter, Paul Strand, Edward S. Curtis, …
1974
Brassaï, Ansel Adams, Georges A. Tice, …
1975
Agence Viva, André Kertész, Yousuf Karsh, Robert Doisneau, Lucien Clergue, Jean Dieuzaide, Ralph Gibson, Charles Harbutt, Tania Kaleya, Eva Rubinstein, Michel Saint Jean, Kishin Shinoyama, Hélène Théret, Georges Tourdjman, …
1976
Ernst Haas, Bill Brandt, Man Ray, Marc Riboud, Agence Magnum, Eikō Hosoe, Judy Dater, Jack Welpott, Doug Stewart, Duane Michals, Leslie Krims, Bob Mazzer, Horner, S. Sykes, David Hurn, Mary Ellen Mark, René Groebli, Guy Le Querrec, …
1977
Will Mac Bride, Paul Caponigro, Neal Slavin, Max Waldman, Dennis Stock, Josef Sudek, Harry Callahan, R. Benvenisti, P. Carroll, William Christenberry, S. Ciccone, W. Eggleston, R. Embrey, B. Evans, R. Gibson, D. Grégory, F. Horvat, W. Krupsan, W. Larson, U. Mark, J. Meyerowitz, S. Shore, N. Slavin, L. Sloan-Théodore, J. Sternfeld, R. Wol, …
1978
Lisette Model, Izis, William Klein, Hervé Gloaguen, Yan Le Goff, Serge Gal, Marc Tulane, Lionel Jullian, Alain Gualina, …
1979
David Burnett, Mary Ellen Mark, Jean-Pierre Laffont, Abbas, Pedro Meyer, Yves Jeanmougin, Manuel Alvarez Bravo, …
1980
Willy Ronis, Arnold Newman, Jay Maisel, Christian Vogt, Ben Fernandez, Julia Pirotte, …
1981
Guy Bourdin, Steve Hiett, Sarah Moon and Dan Weeks, Art Kane, Cheyco Leidman, André Martin, François Kollar, …
1982
Willy Zielke, Henri Cartier-Bresson, Alexey Brodovitch, Robert Frank, William Klein, Max Pam, Bernard Plossu, …
1983
Robert Rauschenberg, Bruce Davidson, …
1984
Jean Dieuzaide, Marilyn Bridges, Mario Giacomelli, Augusto De Luca, Joyce Tenneson, Luigi Ghirri, Albato Guatti, Mario Samarughi, Arman, Raoul Ubac, …
1985
David Hockney, Fritz Gruber, Franco Fontana, Milton Rogovin, Gilles Peress, Jane Evelyn Atwood, Eugene Richards, Sebastião Salgado, Robert Capa, Lucien Hervé, …
1986
Collection Graham Nash, Annie Leibovitz, Sebastião Salgado, Martin Parr, Robert Doisneau, Paulo Nozolino, Ugo Mulas, Bruce Gilden, Georges Rousse, Peter Knapp, Max Pam, Miguel Rio Branco, Michelle Debat, Andy Summers, Baron Wolman. …
1987
Brian Griffin, Dominique Issermann, Nan Goldin, Max Vadukul, Gabriele Basilico, Paul Graham, Thomas Florschuetz, Gianni Berengo Gardin, … Autres invités des Rencontres 88: Hans Namuth, Jean-Marc Tingaud, Mary Ellen Mark, Charles Camberoque, Martine Voyeux, Marie-Paule Nègre, Xavier Lambours, Patrick Zachmann, Jean-Marie Del Moral, Nittin Vadukul, Jean Larivière, Bruce Weber, Germaine Krull, Jean-Paul Goude, Jean-Louis Boissier, Sandra Petrillo, Daniel Schwartz, Laurent Septier, Jean-Marc Zaorski, Bernard Descamps, Marc Garanger, Yan Layma, Michel Delaborde, Michel Semeniako, Françoise Huguier, Paolo Calia, Deborah Turbeville, Gundunla Schulze. Ainsi que Henri Alekan, Arielle Dombasle, Jacques Séguéla, Roland Topor, Serge July, Lucinda Childs, invited to comment on their private screening at parties in Roman Theatre, where Christian Lacroix organised a show.
1988
La danse, la Chine, la pub. Chinese photography is presented for the first time abroad as a major exhibition with 40 Chinese photographers, including Wu Yinxian, Zhang Hai-er, Chen Baosheng, Ling Fei, Xia Yonglie, curated by Karl Kugel, co-director of the film China: Inner views / Chine: vues intérieures, released at the opening of the festival. Most major photographers who have covered this country are also present either in the exhibition of Magnum Photos, curated by François Hébel, either in solo exhibitions, such as Marc Riboud ou de Jeanloup Sieff.
1989
Arles fête ses vingt ans (1969-1989); with Lucien Clergue, Lee Friedlander, Cristina García Rodero, John Demos, Philippe Bazin, George Hashigushi, Eduardo Masférré, Hervé Gloaguen, Elizabeth Sunday, Pierre de Vallombreuse, Robert Frank's The lines of My Hand (commissioned by Charles-Henri Favrod); in honour of Pierre de Fenoÿl; Julio Mitchel, Roland Schneider, Rafael Vargas, John Phillips, Annette Messager, Christian Boltanski, la collection Bonnemaison, Javier Vallhonrat, Thierry Girard, Dennis Hopper. Exhibition Ils annoncent la couleur with Stéphane Sednaoui, Jean-Baptiste Mondino, Max Vadukul, Nick Night, Nigel Shafran, Tony Viramontes, Cindy Palmano; commissioned by Marc Vascoli. Exposition et soirée Deep South with Robert Frank, Bruce Davidson, Duane Michals, Gordon Parks, Alain Desvergnes, Gilles Mora, Paul Kwilecki, William Christenberry, William Eggleston, Marylin Futtermann, Debbie Fleming Caffery, Fern Koch, Jay Leviton, Eudora Welty; commissioned by Gilles Mora.
1990
Volker Hinz, Erasmus Schröter, Stéphane Duroy, Raymond Depardon, Frédéric Brenner, Drtikol, Saudek, …
1991
Tina Modotti, Edward Weston, Graciela Iturbide, Martín Chambi, Sergio Larrain, Sebastião Salgado, Juan Rulfo, Miguel Rio Branco, Eric Poitevin, Alberto Schommer, …
1992
Don McCullin, Dieter Appelt, Béatrix Von Conta, Denise Colomb, José Ortiz-Echagüe, Wout Berger, Thibaut Cuisset, Knut W. Maron, John Statathos, …
1993
Richard Avedon, Larry Fink, Ernest Pignon-Ernest, Cecil Beaton, Raymonde April, Koji Inove, Louis Jammes, Eiichiro Sakata, …
1994
Andres Serrano, Roger Pic, Marc Riboud, Bogdan Konopka, Sarah Moon, Pierre et Gilles, Marie-Paule Nègre, Edward Steichen and Josef Sudek, Robert Doisneau, André Kertész, …
1995
Alain Fleischer, Roger Ballen, Noda, Toyoura, Slocombe, Nam June Paik, France Bourély. …
1996
Ralph Eugene Meatyard, William Wegman, Grete Stern, Paolo Gioli, Nancy Burson, John Stathatos, Sophie Calle, Luigi Ghirri, Pierre Cordier, …
1997
Collection Marion Lambert, Eugene Richards, Mathieu Pernot, Aziz + Cucher, Jochen Gerz, Antoni Muntadas, Ricard Terré, …
1998
David LaChapelle, Herbert Spring, Mike Disfarmer, Francesca Woodman, Federico Patellani, Massimo Vitali, Dieter Appelt, Samuel Fosso, Urs Lu.thi, Pierre Molinier, Yasumasa Morimura, Roman Opalka, Cindy Sherman, Sophie Weibel, …
1999
Lee Friedlander, Walker Evans, …
2000
Tina Modotti, Jakob Tuggener, Peter Sakaer, Masahisa Fukase, Herbert Matter, Robert Heinecken, Jean-Michel Alberola, Tom Drahaos, Willy Ronis, Frederick Sommer, Lucien Clergue, Sophie Calle, …
2001
Luc Delahaye, Patrick Tosani, Stéphane Couturier, David Rosenfeld, James Casebere, Peter Lindbergh, …
2002
Guillaume Herbaut, Baader Meinhof, Astrid Proll, Josef Koudelka, Gabriele Basilico, Rineke Dijkstra, Lise Sarfati, Jochen Gerz, Collection Ordoñez Falcon, Larry Sultan, Alex Mac Lean, Alastair Thain, Raeda Saadeh, Zineb Sedira, Serguei Tchilikov, Jem Southam, Alexey Titarenko, Andreas Magdanz, Sophie Ristelhueber, …
2003
Collection Claude Berri, Lin Tianmiao & Wang Gongxin, Xin Danwen, Gao Bo, Shao Yinong & Mu Chen, Hong Li, Hai Bo, Chen Lingyang, Ma Liuming, Hong Hao, Naoya Hatakeyama, Roman Opalka, Jean-Pierre Sudre, Suzanne Lafont, Corinne Mercadier, Adam Bartos, Marie Le Mounier, Yves Chaudouët, Galerie VU, Harry Gruyaert, Vincenzo Castella, Alain Willaume, François Halard, Donovan Wylie, Jérôme Brézillon & Nicolas Guiraud, Jean-Daniel Berclaz, Monique Deregibus, Youssef Nabil, Tina Barney, …
2004
Dayanita Singh, Les archives du ghetto de Lodz, Stephen Gill, Oleg Kulik, Arsen Savadov, Keith Arnatt, Raphaël Dallaporta, Taiji Matsue, Tony Ray-Jones, Osamu Kanemura, Kawauchi Rinko, Chris Killip, Chris Shaw, Kimura Ihei, Neeta Madahar, Frank Breuer, Hans van der Meer, James Mollison, Chris Killip, Mathieu Pernot, Paul Shambroom, Katy Grannan, Lucien Clergue, AES + F, György Lörinczy, …
2005
Collection William M. Hunt, Miguel Rio Branco, Thomas Dworzak, Alex Majoli, Paolo Pellegrin, Ilkka Uimonen, Barry Frydlender, David Tartakover, Michal Heiman, Denis Rouvre, Denis Darzacq, David Balicki, Joan Fontcuberta, Christer Strömholm, Keld Helmer-Petersen, …
2006
La photographie américaine à travers les collections françaises, Robert Adams, Cornell Capa, Gilles Caron, Don McCullin, Guy Le Querrec, Susan Meiselas, Julien Chapsal, Michael Ackerman, David Burnett, Lise Sarfati, Sophie Ristelhueber, Dominique Issermann, Jean Gaumy, Daniel Angeli, Paul Graham, Claudine Doury, Jean-Christophe Bechet, David Goldblatt, Anders Petersen, Philippe Chancel, Meyer, Olivier Culmann, Gilles Coulon, …
2007
The 60th year of Magnum Photos, Pannonica de Koenigswarter, Le Studio Zuber, Collections d’Albums Indiens de la Collection Alkazi, Alberto Garcia-Alix, Raghu Rai, Dayanita Singh, Nony Singh, Sunil Gupta, Anay Mann, Pablo Bartholomew Bharat Sikka, Jeetin Sharma, Siya Singh, Huang Rui, Gao Brothers, RongRong & inri, Liu Bolin, JR, …
2008
Richard Avedon, Grégoire Alexandre, Joël Bartoloméo, Achinto Bhadra, Jean-Christian Bourcart, Samuel Fosso, Charles Fréger, Pierre Gonnord, Françoise Huguier, Grégoire Korganow, Peter Lindbergh, Guido Mocafico, Henri Roger, Paolo Roversi, Joachim Schmid, Nigel Shafran,[14] Georges Tony Stoll, Patrick Swirc, Tim Walker, Vanessa Winship, …
2009
Robert Delpire, Willy Ronis, Jean-Claude Lemagny, Lucien Clergue, Elger Esser, Roni Horn, Duane Michals, Nan Goldin (invitée d'honneur), Brian Griffin, Naoya Hatakeyama, JH Engström, David Armstrong, Eugene Richards[15] (The Blue Room), Martin Parr, Paolo Nozolino, …[16]
2010
Robert Mapplethorpe[17] Lea Golda Holterman[18]
2011
Chris Marker, photos du New York Times, Robert Capa, Wang Qingsong, Dulce Pinzon, JR, ...
2012
Les 30 ans de l'ENSP, Josef Koudelka, Amos Gitai, Klavdij Sluban & Laurent Tixador, Arnaud Claass,[19] Grégoire Alexandre, Édouard Beau, Jean-Christophe Béchet, Olivier Cablat, Sébastien Calvet, Monique Deregibus & Arno Gisinger, Vincent Fournier, Marina Gadonneix, Valérie Jouve, Sunghee Lee, Isabelle Le Minh, Mireille Loup, Alexandre Maubert, Mehdi Meddaci, Collection Jan Mulder, Alain Desvergnes,[20] Olivier Metzger, Joséphine Michel, Erwan Morère, Tadashi Ono, Bruno Serralongue, Dorothée Smith, Bertrand Stofleth & Geoffroy Mathieu, Pétur Thomsen, Jean-Louis Tornato, Aurore Valade, Christian Milovanoff,[21]
2013
Hiroshi Sugimoto, Sergio Larrain, Guy Bourdin, Alfredo Jaar,[22] John Stezaker,[23] Wolfgang Tillmans,[24] Viviane Sassen,[25] Jean-Michel Fauquet, Arno Rafael Minkkinen, Miguel Angel Rojas, Pieter Hugo,[26] Michel Vanden Eeckhoudt, Xavier Barral,[27] John Davis, Antoine Gonin,[28] Thabiso Sekgala, Philippe Chancel, Raphaël Dallaporta, Alain Willaume, Cedric Nunn, Santu Mofokeng, Harry Gruyaert, Jo Ractliffe, Zanele Muholi, Patrick Tourneboeuf, Thibaut Cuisset, Antoine Cairns, Jean-Louis Courtinat, Christina de Middel, Stéphane Couturier, Frédéric Nauczyciel, Jacques Henri Lartigue, Pierre Jamet, Raynal Pellicer, Studio Fouad, Erik Kessels.
2014
Lucien Clergue, Christian Lacroix, Raymond Depardon, Léon Gimpel, David Bailey, Vik Muniz, Patrick Swirc, Denis Rouvre, Vincent Pérez, Chema Madoz, Élise Mazac, Robert Drowilal, Anouck Durand, Refik Vesei, Pleurat Sulo, Katjusha Kumi,Ilit Azoulay, Katharina Gaenssler, Miguel Mitlag, Victor Robledo, Youngsoo Han, Kechun Zhang, Pieter Ten Hoopen, Will Steacy, Kudzanai Chiurai, Patrick Willocq, Ciril Jazbec, Milou Abel, Sema Bekirovic, Melanie Bonajo, Hans de Vries, Hans Eijkelboom, Erik Fens, Jos Houweling, Hans van der Meer, Maurice van Es, Benoît Aquin, Luc Delahaye, Mitch Epstein, Nadav Kander.
2015
Walker Evans, Stephen Shore, Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown, Toon Michiels, Olivier Cablat, Markus Brunetti, Paul Ronald, Sandro Miller, Eikoh Hosoe, Masahisa Fukase, Daido Moriyama, Masatoshi Naito, Issei Suda, Kou Inose, Sakiko Nomura, Daisuke Yokota, Martin Gusinde, Paolo Woods, Gabriele Galimberti, Natasha Caruana, Alex Majoli, Paolo Pellegrin, Ambroise Tézenas, Thierry Bouët, Anna Orlowska, Vlad Krasnoshchok, Sergiy Lebedynskyy, Vadym Trykoz, Lisa Barnard, Robert Zhao Renhui, Pauline Fargue, Julián Barón, Delphine Chanet, Omar Victor Diop, Paola Pasquaretta, Niccolò Benetton, Simone Santilli, Dorothée Smith, Rebecca Topakian, Denis Darzacq, Swen Renault, Paolo Woods, Elsa Leydier, Alice Wielinga, Cloé Vignaud, Louis Matton, Swen Renault et Pablo Mendez.
References
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www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_213_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_212_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_211_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_211_V...
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www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_3_VFo...
O'Hagan, Sean (11 July 2011). "Tower blocks and tomes dominate the Rencontres d'Arles". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_709_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_709_V...
O'Hagan, Sean (9 July 2012). "Torgovnik's powerful portraits from Rwanda take top prize at Arles". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
O'Hagan, Sean (8 July 2013). "Lost and found: Discovery award winners at Recontres d'Arles 2013". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
"2017 Book Awards". Rencontres d'Arles. 4 July 2017. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
"Exhibitions". Rencontres d'Arles. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
"Exhibitions: Eugene Richards: The Blue Room". Rencontres d'Arles. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
"Rencontres d’Arles 2009 Photography", Rencontres d'Arles. Accessed 3 December 2014.
Présentation de Robert Mapplethorpe sur le site rencontres-arles.com
"Lea Golda Holterman, Orthodox Eros". Retrieved 24 August 2016.
Arles 2012: Arnaud Claass sur La Lettre de la Photographie.com
Arles 2012: Alain Desvergnes sur La Lettre de la Photographie.com
Signe des temps: Arles 2012, un festival courageux (Photographie.com)
Fiche d'Alfredo Jaar sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de John Stezaker sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Wolfgang Tillmans sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Viviane Sassen sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Pieter Hugo sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Xavier Barral sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Antoine Gonin sur rencontres-arles.com
A text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
The Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia) (ex-Athene cunicularia) is a small, long-legged owl found throughout open landscapes of North and South America. Burrowing owls can be found in grasslands, rangelands, agricultural areas, deserts, or any other dry, open area with low vegetation (Lewis 2005). They nest and roost in burrows, such as those abandoned by prairie dogs. Unlike most owls, burrowing owls are often active during the day. However, most hunting is done at dusk or at night.
Burrowing owls are able to live for at least 9 years in the wild and over 10 years in captivity.[citation needed] They are often killed by vehicles when crossing roads, and have many natural enemies, including badgers, coyotes, and snakes. They are also killed by both feral and domestic cats and dogs.
Burrowing owls have bright yellow eyes. The bill can be yellow or greenish depending on the subspecies. The legs are incompletely feathered, and the toes are grayish in color. They lack ear tufts and have a flattened facial disc. The owls have prominent white eyebrows and a white "chin" patch which they expand and display during certain behaviors.
Adult owls have brown upperparts with white spotting. The breast and belly are white with variable brown spotting or barring. Juvenile owls are similar in appearance, but they lack most of the white spotting above and brown barring below. Also, the young owls have a buff bar across the upper wing and their breast may be buffy rather than white.
Males and females are similar in size and appearance. However, adult males sometimes appear lighter in color because they spend more time outside the burrow during daylight, and their feathers become sun-bleached. The average adult is slightly larger than an American Robin, at 25 cm (10 inches) length, 53 cm (21 inches) wingspan, and 170g (6 oz) weight (Lewis 2005).
The typical "who who" call of a burrowing owl is associated with territory defense and breeding, often given by adult males to attract a female to a promising burrow. They also make other sounds, which are described as chucks, chattering, and screams. These sounds are usually accompanied by an up and down bobbing of the head. When alarmed, young birds will give a hissing call - a case of acoustic Batesian mimicry - that sounds like a rattlesnake (Haug et al. 1993).
Before European colonization, burrowing owls probably inhabited every suitable area of the New World, but they have experienced some restrictions in distribution since. They range from the southern portions of the western Canadian provinces through southern Mexico and western Central America. They are also found in Florida and many Caribbean islands. In South America, they are patchy in the northwest and through the Andes, but widely distributed from southern Brazil to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.
Burrowing owls are year-round residents in most of their range. Birds that breed in Canada and northern USA usually migrate south to Mexico and southern USA during winter months.
The burrowing owl is endangered in Canada[1], threatened in Mexico, and a species of special concern in Florida and most of the western USA. It is common and widespread in open regions of many Neotropical countries, where they sometimes even inhabit fields and parks in cities. In regions bordering the Amazon Rainforest they are spreading with deforestation. It is therefore listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.
The major reasons for declining populations in North America are control programs for prairie dogs and loss of habitat, although burrowing owls readily inhabit some anthropogenic landscapes, such as airport grasslands or golf courses (Korfanta et al. 2005).
Burrowing owls are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. They are also included in CITES Appendix II.
Genetic analysis of the two North American subspecies indicates that inbreeding is not a problem within those populations (Korfanta et al. 2005).
The nesting season begins in late March or April in North America. Burrowing owls are usually monogamous, but occasionally a male will have two mates (Lewis 2005). Pairs of owls will sometimes nest in loose colonies. Their typical breeding habitat is open grassland or prairie, but they can occasionally adapt to other open areas like airports, golf courses, and agricultural fields. Burrowing owls are slightly tolerant of human presence, often nesting near roads, farms, homes, and regularly maintained irrigation canals.
The owls nest in an underground burrow, hence the name Burrowing Owl. They use burrows created by other burrowing animals such as prairie dogs, ground squirrels, or badgers (Holt et al. 1999). If burrows are unavailable and the soil is not hard or rocky, the owls may excavate their own. Burrowing owls will also nest in shallow, underground, man-made structures that have easy access to the surface.
The female will lay as many as 8-12 eggs over a two week period. She will then incubate the eggs for three to four weeks while the male brings her food. After the eggs hatch both parents will feed the chicks. Four weeks after hatching, the chicks are able to make short flights and begin leaving the nest burrow. The parents will still help feed the chicks for 1 to 3 months. While most of the eggs will hatch, only four to five chicks usually survive to leave the nest.
During the nesting season, burrowing owls will line the burrow with mammal dung, usually from cattle. The dung helps to control the microclimate inside the burrow and to attract insects, which the owls may eat (Levey et al. 2004).
Site fidelity rates appear to vary among populations. In some locations, owls will frequently reuse a nest several years in a row. Owls in migratory northern populations are less likely to return to the same burrow every year. Also, as with many other birds, the female owls are more likely to disperse to a different site than are male owls (Lutz & Plumpton 1999).
The highly variable diet includes small mammals, small birds, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, and scorpions. But the owls mainly eat large insects and small rodents. Although burrowing owls often live in close proximity to ground squirrels, they rarely prey upon them. Unlike other owls, they also eat fruits and seeds, especially the fruit of tasajillo (Cylindropuntia leptocaulis) and other prickly pear and cholla cacti. When hunting they wait on a perch until they spot prey. Then they swoop down on prey or fly up to catch insects in flight. Sometimes they chase prey on foot across the ground.
The burrowing owl is sometimes separated in the monotypic genus Speotyto. This is based on an overall different morphology and karyotype. On the other hand, osteology and DNA sequence data suggests that the Burrowing Owl is just a terrestrial version of the Athene little owls, and it is today placed in that genus by most authorities.
A considerable number of subspecies have been described, but they differ little in appearance and the taxonomy of several needs to be validated (Holt et al. 1999). Most subspecies are found in the Andes and the Antilles. Only A. c. hypugaea and A. c. floridana are found in North America. Although distinct from each other, the relationship of the Floridan subspecies to (and its distinctness from) the Caribbean birds is not quite clear (Korfanta et al. 2005).
Um texto em português:
Coruja-buraqueira (Speotyto cunicularia).
Veja um vídeo clicando no endereço a seguir:
br.youtube.com/watch?v=BhCP0YqJDnY
Ficha Técnica
Nome comum: coruja-buraqueira, coruja-martelo, coruja-do-campo, caburé-de-cupim, caburé-do-campo, coruja-barata, coruja-buraqueira, coruja-do-campo, coruja-mineira, corujinha-buraqueira, corujinha-do-buraco, corujinha-do-campo, guedé, urucuera, urucuréia e urucuriá.
Nome científico: Speotyto cunicularia
Reino: Animal
Filo: Vertebrado
Classe: Aves
Ordem: Strigiformes
Família: Strigidae
Ave muito interessante e com características peculiares é tida pelo povo grego como a ave da sabedoria. Outros povos porém, acham que causa azar e arrepios seu canto quando rasga o silêncio noturno. Dizem ainda que é sinal de mal agouro e que o seu canto está pressagiando alguma tragédia, o que é pura crendice popular, pois o que se sabe é que as corujas são muito úteis ao homem predando pragas nas lavouras e controlando a população de ratos ao redor das cidades e no campo.
Pode girar seu pecoço em 270º
Características:
A coruja-buraqueira é muito comum pelos campos do Brasil.
Mede em torno de 20-30 cm com envergadura de 50-61cm e pesando em média 170g.
Com peito branco e plumagem amarelada o macho é ligeiramente maior que a fêmea, possuem cabeça arredondada e são aves muito tímidas.
Com olhos grandes e amarelos, a coruja-buraqueira tem a visão 100 vezes mais aguçada que a do homem e seus olhos estão dispostos frontalmente, como os do ser humano.
Quando necessita olhar algum objeto ao seu redor gira o pescoço em um ângulo de até 270 graus, aumentando assim o seu campo visual.
Essa disposição frontal, proporciona à coruja uma visão binocular (enxerga um objeto com ambos os olhos e ao mesmo tempo), isso significa que a coruja pode ver objetos em três dimensões, ou seja, altura, largura e profundidade.
Pode julgar distâncias similares ao ser humano e seu campo visual é de 110 graus, sendo 70 graus de visão binocular.
Os olhos da coruja-buraqueira são bem grandes, em algumas espécies de corujas até maiores que o próprio cérebro, a fim de melhorar sua eficiência em condições de baixa luminosidade, captando e processando melhor a luz disponível.
Além de sua privilegiada visão, a coruja-buraqueira é dona de uma audição potentíssima, conseguindo localizar e abater sua presa com apenas este sentido.
Abate preferencialmente pequenos roedores, insetos, anfíbios e pássaros. A coruja é uma ave de rapina, portanto mata para se alimentar. A tradução da palavra rapina é "roubo", o que caracteriza o fato de tais aves retirarem a vida de suas presas.
Rapineira e atenta à tudo
A coruja como a grande maioria dos animais possue território de caça. São ""equipadas "" com adaptações especiais que as tornam predadoras eficientes, sendo uma delas o vôo.
Sempre muito silenciosa e sorrateira, isso devido às penas especiais de sua asa, muito macias e em grande quantidade, conseguem cortar o ar e planar por muito tempo sendo muito discretas e imperceptíveis às suas presas.
A observação das presas se dá no alto de árvores ou em mourões de cercas nos pastos e até durante o vôo silencioso, quando fazem uma varredura na área de caça. Quando um alvo é avistado a coruja voa silenciosamente até ele, mantendo sua cabeça em linha reta ao alvo, quando então a joga para trás e empurra suas garras para frente a fim de prender seguramente sua presa. A força do impacto é violenta e certeira não dando chances à presa. Posteriormente a vítima é morta pela pressão do bico, num processo de abatimento de presas no solo.
O período reprodutivo da coruja-buraqueira começa nos meses de março e abril, os ninhos são feitos no solo, aproveitando antigas tocas de tatus ou simplesmente promovem a abertura de novos ninhos, num trabalho revezado entre o casal.
Os ninhos são escavados com os pés e bicos, formando uma galeria horizontal de até 3 m de profundidade por 30cm-60cm de largura.
Em média botam de 6 a 12 ovos, que são incubados por 28 dias pela fêmea; fica por conta do macho proteger o ninho e procurar alimento para toda a prole.
Com 14 dias os filhotes já ficam empoleirados na saída da cova, aos 44 dias saem do ninho e com 60 dias estão caçando pequenos insetos.
Informações do site: www.cuestajardins.com.br/?id=149&codigo=426&PHPSE...
Café racer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Triton: Triumph engine and Norton Featherbed frame
A café racer (/ˈkæf reɪsər/ KAF-ray-sər or less commonly /ˈkæfi ˌreɪsər/ KA-fi-RAY-sər) is a light-weight, lightly-powered motorcycle optimized for speed and handling rather than comfort — and optimized for quick rides over short distances.[1][2] With bodywork and control layout recalling early 1960's Grand Prix road racing motorcycles, café racers are noted for their low slung racing handlebars, prominent seat cowling and elongated fuel tanks, often with indentations to allow the rider's knees to grip the tank.[3]
The term itself developed among British motorcycle enthusiasts of the early 1960s, specifically the Rocker or "Ton-Up Boys" subculture where the bikes were used for short, quick rides between cafés — in other words, drinking establishments.[4][3][5][6]
In 1973, US freelance writer Wallace Wyss, contributing to Popular Mechanics magazine, wrote that the term café racer was originally used derogatorily in Europe to describe a "motorcyclist who played at being an Isle of Man road racer" and was in fact "someone who owned a racy machine but merely parked it near his table at the local outdoor cafe."[7]
In 2014, journalist Ben Stewart described the café racer as a "look made popular when European kids stripped down their small-displacement bikes to zip from one café hangout to another."[8]
Contents [hide]
1 Typical configuration
2 Evolution
3 Subculture
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
Typical configuration[edit]
1962 racing motorcycle AJS 7R 350cc, on display at Gruber Museum in Weiler im Allgäu, Bavaria, Germany
BSA Goldstar 500 café racer
In addition to its characteristic light-weight and lightly-powered engine and distinctive bodywork, the café racer typically featured distinctive ergonomics.
Low, narrow handlebars — known as clip-ons (two separate bars that bolt directly to each fork tube), clubman or ace bars (one piece bars that attach to the standard mounting location but drop down and forward)[4] — enabled the rider to "tuck in", reducing wind resistance and improving control. Along with rearward located seat, the posture often required rearsets, or rear-set footrests and foot controls, again typical of racing motorcycles of the era.[9] Distinctive half or full race-style fairings were sometimes mounted to the forks or frame.[7]
The bikes featured minimalist styling, engines tuned for maximum speed and light road handling. A well-known example was "The Triton", a homemade combination of Norton Featherbed frame and Triumph Bonneville engine. It used a common and fast racing engine combined with a well-handling frame, the Featherbed frame by Norton Motorcycles.[9] Those with less money could opt for a "Tribsa"—the Triumph engine in a BSA frame. Other combinations such as the "Norvin" (a Vincent V-Twin engine in a Featherbed frame) and racing frames by Rickman or Seeley were also adopted for road use.[10]
Evolution[edit]
1977 Harley-Davidson XLCR
Café racer styling evolved throughout the time of their popularity. By the mid-1970s, Japanese bikes had overtaken British bikes in the marketplace, and the look of real Grand Prix racing bikes had changed. The hand-made, frequently unpainted aluminium racing fuel tanks of the 1960s had evolved into square, narrow, fibreglass tanks. Increasingly, three-cylinder Kawasaki two-strokes, four-cylinder four-stroke Kawasaki Z1, and four-cylinder Hondas were the basis for café racer conversions. By 1977, a number of manufacturers had taken notice of the café racer boom and were producing factory café racers, such as the well-received Moto Guzzi Le Mans[11] and the unpopular but unforgettable Harley-Davidson XLCR.[12][13][14] A Japanese thumper introduced in the late 1980s (to disappointing sales) the Honda GB500 'Tourist Trophy' emulated British café racers of the 1960s.[15]
In the mid-1970s, riders continued to modify standard production motorcycles into so-called "café racers" by simply equipping them with clubman bars and a small fairing around the headlight. A number of European manufacturers, including Benelli, BMW, Bultaco and Derbi produced factory "café" variants of their standard motorcycles in this manner,[16] without any modifications made to make them faster or more powerful,[17] a trend that continues today.[18][19]
Subculture[edit]
1960s Rockers under canopy outside Busy Bee Café, Watford, England, UK.
Suzuki S40 customised in a café racer style[20][21]
Honda CB 400 Four café racer
Rockers were a young and rebellious rock and roll counterculture[22] who wanted a fast, personalised and distinctive bike to travel between transport cafés along the newly built arterial motorways in and around British towns and cities.[23][24][25] Biker lore has it that the goal of many was to be able to reach 100 miles per hour (160 km/h)—called simply "the ton"—along such a route where the rider would leave from a café, race to a predetermined point and back to the café before a single song could play on the jukebox, called record-racing. But author Mike Seate contends that record-racing is a myth, the story having originated in an episode of the BBC Dixon of Dock Green television show.[26] Café racers are remembered as being especially fond of rockabilly music and their image is now embedded in today's rockabilly culture.[27][28]
The sub-culture continues to evolve with modern café racers taking style elements of the American Greaser, the British Rocker and modern motorcycle rider to create an global style all their own.[8][29] Google Trends shows that, since 2010, the number of searches for the term 'cafe racer' has increased by approximately a factor of three relative to the total number of Google searches.[30]
See also[edit]
59 Club
Ace Cafe London
Outline of motorcycles and motorcycling
References[edit]
1.Jump up ^ The Listener (British Broadcasting Corporation) 85: p.373. 1971.
2.Jump up ^ James Adam Bolton (November–December 2010). "Moto Guzzi T3 Special". Motorcycle Classics. Retrieved October 11, 2009.
3.^ Jump up to: a b Pratt, Paul Richard (April 1963). "A Trip Through North America". American Motorcycling (American Motorcycle Association) XVII (No.4): p.20. Retrieved 26 December 2014. "The American 'Cafe Racer' rides with 'ape' type handlebars as high as possible in order to attract attention whereas, in direct contrast his British brother rides with the handlebars as low as possible in a feeble attempt to emulate racer John Surtees. One thing they do have in common is the making of excessive noise."
4.^ Jump up to: a b Travis R. Wright (29 July 2009). "Highway stars". Detroit Metro Times. Retrieved 26 December 2014. "What about the so-called café racer — that low-profile vintage motorcycle rider who looks as if he just rode away from the Marquee Club circa '62? His motorcycle is minimal and slim-lined, unlike the mainstream Harleys and those angular sport bikes you're used to seeing on the road."
5.Jump up ^ Cafe Society (DVD). Sewickley, PA: Beaverbrook. 2009. ASIN B002L3OVJ0. "From their origins on the streets of 1950s England, the cafe racer has become one of the world's most desirable and distinctive motorcycles."
6.Jump up ^ "The History of Café Racers". Cafe Racer TV. Discovery Communications. 12 October 2010. Retrieved 26 December 2014. "The café racer movement may have been born in London in the 1950s, but it has developed into a subculture encompassing a desire for speed, a love of rock and roll, and ultimately an enduring love for a motorcycle that’s being revived worldwide."
7.^ Jump up to: a b Wyss, Wally (September 1973). "How to fit a fairing and ride a racer!". Popular Mechanics (The Hearst Corporation) 140 (No.3): p.166. Retrieved 26 December 2014. "The American trend toward cafe racers caught most of the world's bikemakers by surprise and, at this writing, only Triumph has anything that approaches a cafe racer—a new model called the Hurricane that has a seat-molded-into-the-gas-tank one-piece unit designed by American fairing designer Craig Vetter."
8.^ Jump up to: a b Stewart, Ben (20 June 2014). "You Should Build Your Own Retro Café Racer". Popular Mechanics. Hearst Communication. Retrieved 25 December 2014. "Take a look around the hippest neighborhoods across the country and you'll see motorcycles that look like something out of an old Steve McQueen movie—retro, minimalist, and tough."
9.^ Jump up to: a b Melling, Frank (26 September 2004). "Classic bikes: DIY Tritons". Telegraph (Telegraph Media Group). Retrieved 26 December 2014. "Originally, cost was a major influence. In 1965, a good engine from the ill-handling Triumph Tiger 110 cost £30. Another £30 bought a rough Norton Model 50 or ES2, which provided not only the frame but the gearbox, clutch, suspension and brakes."
10.Jump up ^ Egan, Peter (2009). Leanings 2: Great Stories by America's Favorite Motorcycle Writer. Minneapolis: Motorbooks. ISBN 9780760337165.
11.Jump up ^ "The 50 Greatest Motorcycles of All Time". Complex Magazine. New York: Complex Media. 28 March 2011. Retrieved 29 December 2014. "The sinister Le Mans was an immediate hit when launched in 1976."
12.Jump up ^ Brown, Roland. "Harley-Davidson XLCR". Motorcycle Classics (Premier issue). Retrieved August 24, 2009. "The Harley-Davidson XLCR was Willie G. Davidson's one and only brush with the cafe racer set, and it created a classic for all time"
13.Jump up ^ Lindsay, Brooke (5 November 2006). "Harley’s Sportster: From a Wild Child to a Grown-Up in 50 Years". New York Times. Retrieved 29 December 2014. "As grim as those days were in terms of performance, it was an era that produced two of the Sportsters considered most unusual and sought-after by collectors, the 1977-78 XLCR Cafe Racer and the 1983-85 XR1000. Both of these racebike-inspired models were risky departures for Harley, and both originally languished unsold in showrooms long after production concluded."
14.Jump up ^ Welsh, Jonathan (16 March 2012). "New Era for 'Hogs?' Harley-Davidson Styling Chief To Retire". Wall Street Journal (Dow Jones & Company). Driver’s Seat blog. Retrieved 29 December 2014. "His road-race-styled Café Racer built from 1977 to 1979 was a departure and a famous flop. However, the sleek bikes are now coveted by collectors."
15.Jump up ^ Backus, Richard (2011). "Honda GB500 Under the Radar". Motorcycle Classics (Ogden Publications) (January/February). Retrieved 29 December 2014. "Ducati, Triumph, Guzzi and others have enjoyed considerable success with repli-bikes in recent years, so maybe the Honda was just 10 years ahead of its time. 'Simplicity and grace are never out of style,' wrote Peter Egan in Cycle World’s 1989 review of the GB500, 'and the GB is a simple, handsome bike.'"
16.Jump up ^ Welsh, Jonathan (29 March 2010). "Moto Guzzi Cafe Classic: Retro, But Not Painfully So". Wall Street Journal (Dow Jones & Company). Driver’s Seat blog. Retrieved 29 December 2014. "The Cafe is based on the V7 Classic that came out about a year ago. The differences are cosmetic, but significant. The Cafe’s exhaust pipes are swept upwards and its it handlebars are low, “clip-on” style that give it the look of a vintage racer."
17.Jump up ^ Welsh, Jonathan (3 August 2011). "Moto Guzzi V7 Racer: A Test Ride". Wall Street Journal (Dow Jones & Company). Driver’s Seat blog. Retrieved 29 December 2014. "Its low, compact shape, racy down-turned handlebars and spoke wheels give it the look of a vintage grand prix bike while jewel-like details from the engine to the foot pegs suggest a hand-built custom machine. But it is really a dressed up version of the Italian company’s earlier mass-market V7 Classic."
18.Jump up ^ "Top 10 production café racers". Visordown. Immediate Media Company Ltd. 18 December 2013. Retrieved 27 December 2014. "Café racers are an odd phenomenon. They’re popular enough to inspire endless shed-built specials and even dedicated websites, magazines and TV shows, but when it comes to strolling into a showroom and buying one, the options are surprisingly thin on the ground."
19.Jump up ^ Plowright, Adam (23 December 2013). "Retro revival: Café racers are back!". Independent Online (Cape Town: Independent Newspapers (Pty) Limited). Retrieved 27 December 2014.
20.Jump up ^ "Ryca CS-1 cafe racer", BikeEXIF, Mar 13, 2012
21.Jump up ^ "Ryca CS-1 – Suzuki S40 Cafe Conversion by Paul Crowe", The Kneeslider, 2014
22.Jump up ^ Clinton, Jane (30 January 2011). "Old Rockers in tune with Mods". Daily Express (London: Northern and Shell Media Publications). Retrieved 27 December 2014. "Lenny Paterson, 61, who was a Rocker back in the Sixties and remains one at heart recalls the sense of being outcasts and rebels. 'Often you wouldn’t be allowed into cafes or bars with a leather jacket,' says the father of three who lives in Wallington, near Croydon, where he runs his own spare parts business."
23.Jump up ^ "Ray Pickrell". The Telegraph (Telegraph Media Group Limited). Obituaries. 1 May 2006. Retrieved 27 December 2014. "Those were the days of the 'rockers', and Ray learned to ride fast on the north London roads around the Ace Cafe and the Busy Bee where fellow bikers used to hold impromptu races."
24.Jump up ^ "Leader of the pack". Western Daily Press (Bristol: Local World). This is Somerset. 30 January 2009. Retrieved 27 December 2014. "Now aged 89, Father Bill, as he was known in east London, was one of the founders of the world famous 59 Club – the home of hordes of tearaway rockers, the hoodies of the day, who used to scream around London's North Circular on their Triumphs, Nortons and BSAs, terrifying the populace and causing retired majors to splutter into their sherry."
25.Jump up ^ McEwen, Charles; Brooke, Lindsay et al. (3 June 2011). "The Books of Summer, Awaiting Your Armchair". New York Times (The New York Times Company). Retrieved 27 December 2014. "Built in the 1930s on the busy North Circular Road, the open-all-night Ace [Cafe] was a haven for truckers and other nighthawks, serving up tea, coffee and thFe usual 30-weight diner fare. By the 1950s Ace regulars began to include a new breed of motorcyclist, mostly young, looking for a place to gather with their mates. They would listen to the jukebox rock 'n' roll and explore their machines' speed potential on the surrounding roads."
26.Jump up ^ McDermott, Jim (3 February 2009). "Cafe Racer Rave Up". Superbikeplanet.com. Hardscrabble Media LLC. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
27.Jump up ^ Jensen, Eric (5 November 2011). "Rose-coloured goggles: throb of the wild lures cafe racers back in time". Sydney Morning Herald (Fairfax Media). Retrieved 29 December 2014. "Mr Travis has noticed a rise in cafe-racer culture in the past few years - the motorcycle scene that grew out of rockabilly."
28.Jump up ^ Fullerton, Georgia (8 May 2014). "Throttle Roll motors into The Vic". City Hub (Sydney: Alternative Media Group of Australia). Retrieved 27 December 2014. "Throttle Roll promotor, Mark Hawwa, says the partnership between rock ‘n’ roll and motorbikes is an important one: 'The reason I brought in rock ‘n’ roll to the actual event is that back in the ’60s that was the music that these guys were listening to. The roots of the Cafe Racer comes back to rock ‘n’ roll music. Young guys on motorbikes, the pin-up girls and the guys with their slicked back hair-dos. It’s all just a whole lot of fun.'"
29.Jump up ^ Koutsoukis, Jason (9 December 2014). "Keep the motor running". Sydney Morning Herald (Fairfax Media). Retrieved 27 December 2014. "'The cafe racer culture is a phenomenon, not just in Australia, but around the world,' says motorcycle adventurer Rennie Scaysbrook, editor of Australia's Free Wheeling magazine, who spent 10 days last year riding an Enfield across the mountains of Nepal."
30.Jump up ^ "Interest over time: cafe racer". Google Trends. Retrieved May 24, 2014.
Further reading[edit]
Steven E. Alford; Suzanne Ferriss (2007). Motorcycle. London: Reaktion. ISBN 9781861893451. Retrieved 26 December 2014.
Beale, Paul; Partridge, Eric (28 December 1993). Fergusson, Rosalind, ed. Shorter Slang Dictionary (Paperback). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415088664. Retrieved 26 December 2014.
Clay, Mike. (1988) Café Racers: Rockers, Rock 'n' Roll and the Coffee-bar Cult. London: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 0-85045-677-0
Cloesen, Uli (15 October 2014). Italian Cafe Racers. Dorchester: Veloce Publishing. ISBN 9781845847494.
D'Orléans, Paul and Lichter, Michael. Café Racers: Speed, Style, and Ton-Up Culture. Motorbooks, 2014 ISBN 978-0760345825
Duckworth, Mick (2011). Ace Times Speed Thrills and Tea Spills, a Cafe and Culture. UK: Redline Books. ISBN 9780955527869.
King, Anthony D. (26 April 1984). Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment (Paperback) (Reprint ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0710202345. Retrieved 26 December 2014.
Puxley, Ray (2004). Britslang: An Uncensored A-Z of the People's Language, Including Rhyming Slang. London: Robson. ISBN 9781861057280.
Seate, Mike (2008). Café Racer: The Motorcycle: Featherbeds, clip-ons, rear-sets and the making of a ton-up boy. Stillwater , MN: Parker House. ISBN 0979689198.
Walker, Alastair. The Café Racer Phenomenon. 2009 Veloce Publishing ISBN 978-1-84584-264-2
Walker, Mick (1994). Cafe Racers of the 1960s. Wiltshire: Crowood Press. ISBN 1872004199.
Walker, Mick (2001). Cafe Racers of the 1970s (Reprint ed.). Wiltshire: Crowood Press. ISBN 1847972837.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Café racer .
Café racer at the Open Directory Project
Classic Motorcycles at DMOZ
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History
Netherlands
NameJohan van Oldenbarnevelt
OwnerNetherland Line
Operator
Netherland Line 1930–39
Holland America Line 1939–45
Netherland Line 1946–63
Port of registry
Amsterdam (1930–39)
Batavia (1940–43)
Willemstad (1944 onward)
Route
Amsterdam – Dutch East Indies (1930–39)
Batavia – New York (1939–41)
BuilderNSM, Amsterdam
Yard number194
Launched3 August 1929
Completed13 March 1930
Decommissioned3 February 1963
Refit
1941 as troop ship
1946 as ocean liner
1951
1958
1963 as cruise ship
Identification
Code letters PGHB (until 1933)
ICS Papa.svgICS Golf.svgICS Hotel.svgICS Bravo.svg
Call sign PFEB (1934 onward)
ICS Papa.svgICS Foxtrot.svgICS Echo.svgICS Bravo.svg
FateSold to the Shipping Investment Corporation and renamed TSMS Lakonia
Greece
NameLakonia
OwnerShipping Investment Corporation
OperatorGreek Line
Port of registryGreece
Acquired8 March 1963
FateDamaged by fire at sea 22–24 December 1963 and sank while under tow 29 December 1963
General characteristics
TypeOcean liner
Tonnage19,040 GRT
Length586.2 ft (178.7 m)
Beam74.8 ft (22.8 m)
Depth36.1 ft (11.0 m)
Decks4
Installed power1,555 NHP
Propulsion
two Sulzer diesel enginess,
two propellers
Speed19 kn (35 km/h; 22 mph)
Capacity
As built:
770 passengers:
366 first class
280 second class
64 third class
60 fourth class
cargo:
9,000 tons
Notes
sister ship:
Marnix van St. Aldegonde
TSMS Lakonia was a passenger ship, launched in 1929 for Netherland Line as the ocean liner Johan van Oldenbarnevelt. In 1962 she became the Greek Line cruise ship TSMS Lakonia. On 22 December 1963 she caught fire at sea and on 29 December she sank. 128 people were killed in the disaster.
In the 1930s Johan van Oldenbarnevelt's regular route was between Amsterdam and the Dutch East Indies. She served in the Second World War as an Allied troop ship. She was refitted several times and latterly became a cruise ship.
In 1962 Netherland Line sold her to a Greek company, the Shipping Investment Corporation, who renamed her Lakonia and for whom the Greek Line managed her for cruising. From April 1963 Greek Line operated her on cruises from Southampton.
On 22 December 1963 fire broke out during a Christmas cruise. As the fire spread, alarms sounded too softly to be heard by most people aboard. Evacuation was hampered by the overcrowding of lifeboats and the loss of several boats to fire. Some deaths were caused by the fire itself, others by accidents when abandoning ship, and others by exposure or drowning in the sea.
Lakonia's crew successfully launched just over half of her lifeboats. Some passengers were able to reach the water via gangways and rope ladders. Two ships alerted by distress signals managed to save most of the others.
On 24 December ocean tugs took Lakonia in tow and tried to tow her to Gibraltar. But the ship had developed a list and on 29 December she sank in the Atlantic.
A board of inquiry traced the fire to faulty electrical wiring, but strongly criticised the maintenance of equipment, thoroughness of lifeboat drills, and the standard of supervision. Eight of the ship's officers were charged with negligence.
Building
Nederlandsche Scheepsbouw Maatschappij built Johan van Oldenbarnevelt in Amsterdam. Her yard number was 194. She was launched on 3 August 1929 and completed on 13 March 1930.[1] The same shipyard built a sister ship, Marnix van St. Aldegonde, which was launched in December 1929 and completed in September 1930.[2] Both ships were built for Netherland Line to operate scheduled passenger and cargo services between Amsterdam and the Dutch East Indies.
Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was named after a Dutch soldier and statesman of the same name who was beheaded in 1619.
Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was a motor ship with two Sulzer marine diesel engines driving her two propellers. Between them the engines developed 1,555 NHP and gave her a cruising speed of 19 knots (35 km/h). The ship was 586.2 ft (178.7 m) long, had a beam of 74.8 ft (22.8 m) and her tonnage was 19,040 GRT.[3]
Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was the 89th ship built for the Netherland Line. When she was launched she was the largest ship yet built in the Netherlands. The artist Carel Adolph Lion Cachet and sculptor Lambertus Zijl decorated her interior with teak, marble, and many statues, mosaics, tapestries and chandeliers.
As built, she had berths for 770 passengers: 366 in first class, 280 in second, 64 in third and 60 in fourth class. She had berths for 360 crew. She had four decks[3] and could carry 9,000 tons of cargo.
Until 1933 the ship's code letters were PGHB.[3] In 1934 they were superseded by the maritime call sign PFEB.[4] Until 1939 she was registered in Amsterdam.[5]
Johan van Oldenbarnevelt
World War II service
When the Second World War broke out in 1939, Holland America Line chartered Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, re-registered her in Batavia in the Dutch East Indies[5] and used her as a cargo ship between Batavia and New York City.
On 20 January 1941 she was requisitioned to be an Allied troop ship, and was converted by Harland and Wolff to carry up to 4,000 troops. Orient Line managed her. In 1943 she was re-registered in Willemstad, Curaçao.[6] After servicing India, Singapore and Penang, she finally returned to her home port of Amsterdam on 13 February 1946.
Her sister ship, Marnix van St. Aldegonde, also served as a troop ship. German aircraft sank her by torpedo off the Algerian coast, but all 3,000 troops and crew were saved by rescue ships.
Post-war service
After Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was released from government service, Netherland Line had her refitted and in 1946 returned her to service on the Amsterdam – Batavia route. From 1945 until 1949 Indonesians fought for their independence from the Netherlands. For several years the ship ferried Dutch troops returning home from Indonesia.
By 1950 Indonesia was independent and the ship was withdrawn from the East Indies service. She was transferred to the Amsterdam – Australia service and began her first voyage to Australia on 2 September 1950. She serviced Australia and New Zealand for the next twelve and a half years, with occasional service to Canada and the United States.
The Australia run was an instant success, and 1951, Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was put into dry-dock in Amsterdam for refitting. She was refitted as a one-class ship with berths for 1,414 passengers. Her lounges were restored to their original and additional passenger facilities were installed. Eight lifeboats were added, bringing her total number of boats to 24.
On 23 January 1952 she left for Australia but was forced to return to Amsterdam after four small fires were discovered aboard. The fires were quickly extinguished. Arson was suspected, but no suspects were ever arrested.
In 1958 Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was refitted again, reducing her berths to 1,210. The Amsterdam Dry Dock Company completed the refit in three months at a cost of A$800,000.[clarification needed] Three luxury suites were added, as well as a nightclub, cinema, gift shop, promenade lounge and second swimming pool. All public rooms were refinished and restored. Her main mast was moved to atop the bridge, and her decks were extended aft. Her funnels were raised, given rounded tops and painted yellow and black. Her black hull was re-painted grey.
On 2 April 1959 the ship was assigned to her new port, Southampton, England.[clarification needed] She offered round-the-world service, making stops in Australia, New Zealand, Bermuda and New York City. She was now a cruise ship instead of an ocean liner.
Johan van Oldenbarnevelt left on her last round-the-world voyage for the Netherland Line on 30 June 1962. She arrived in Sydney, Australia on 3 February 1963 and was decommissioned by the Netherland Line that day, ending a 33-year career for that shipping line. She then sailed for Genoa, Italy, and arrived on 7 March 1963.
TSMS Lakonia
On 8 March 1963 Johan van Oldenbarnevelt was sold to a Greek company, the Shipping Investment Corporation. Her decks and public rooms were renamed and the aft swimming pool was enlarged. 12 extra cabins were added, and air conditioning was installed throughout the ship. Her hull was painted white, and her tonnage increased to 20,314 GRT. She was renamed TSMS Lakonia.
Ormos Shipping Company, also known as the Greek Line, operated Lakonia offering cruises from Southampton to the Canary Islands. She left Southampton on her first voyage as Lakonia on 24 April 1963. She proved very popular, and Greek Line planned 27 cruises for 1964. From 9–13 December 1963 she underwent another minor upgrade. A new pneumatic fuel injection system was installed. Cabins were redecorated, and the kitchen and pantry were completely remodelled.
Lakonia was fitted with a number of safety features. She carried 24 lifeboats capable of holding 1,455 people. She had an automatic fire alarm system and two fire stations with specialist firefighting equipment. She had lifejackets for every person aboard and an extra 400 stowed on deck.
Fire
Lakonia left Southampton on 19 December 1963 for an 11-day Christmas cruise of the Canary Islands. Her first scheduled stop was to be the island of Madeira. She carried 646 passengers and 376 crew: a total of 1,022 people. All but 21 of the passengers were British citizens. Most of her crew were Greek or German. The captain of Lakonia was 53-year-old Mathios Zarbis.
The crew had conducted a boat drill a week before, and the ship passed a safety inspection by the British Ministry of Transport 24 hours before sailing. She carried a Greek certificate of seaworthiness. Passengers took part in a boat drill on 20 December, but one passenger noted that he was the only one at his lifeboat Station.[7]
On 22 December, at around 11:00 p.m., a steward noticed thick smoke seeping under the door of the ship's hairdressing salon. Upon opening the door, he found the room completely ablaze, and the fire rushed into the hallway toward the state rooms. He and another steward tried to fight the flames with fire extinguishers, but the fire spread too fast to be contained. One of the men ran to notify the ship's purser, Antonio Bogetti.
Fire alarms sounded, but too softly to be heard by most passengers. "The fire alarm bell was so weak that it sounded like someone calling the waiter to ask for tea," one survivor later told reporters. An alarm went off on the bridge, showing the fire's location. The ship was about 180 miles north of Madeira at 35°15′N 15°15′W.[8][A][9][10]
At the time the fire was discovered, most of the passengers were in the ship's ballroom, called the Lakonia Room, dancing at the "Tropical Tramps' Ball." Passengers began to notice the smell of smoke, but most dismissed it as strong cigar smoke. Captain Zarbis, who had been notified of the fire, tried to make an announcement on the ship's public address system, but the fire had disabled it. As smoke began to fill the ballroom at about 11:30, the band stopped playing and cruise director George Herbert ushered the frightened passengers to the boat deck. The upper deck was ablaze within 10 minutes.
Many of the passengers who had been asleep in their cabins found themselves unable to escape the fire. Some passengers were told to go to the main dining room to await instructions, but most ignored this order, since the dining room lay directly in the path of the fire.
At 11:30 p.m., the ship's chief radio officer Antonios Kalogridis sent out the first distress call: "Fire spreading up. Prepare evacuation on ship." At midnight, a second distress call was sent out: "We are leaving the ship. Please immediately give us assistance. Please help us." Kalogridis sent out the last call at 12:22 a.m., just before the radio room caught fire: "SOS from Lakonia, last time. I cannot stay anymore in the radio station. We are leaving the ship. Please immediate assistance. Please help."
A six-man fire crew tried to fight the blaze, but the fire spread too quickly to be contained. Boilers began to explode, filling the rooms and hallways with thick, black smoke, and the suffocating passengers were forced on deck.
Evacuation
The ship's purser gave the order to abandon ship shortly before 1:00 a.m. Dazed passengers made their way to the lifeboats, some in their pyjamas and others still wearing their jewellery and evening wear.
A few crew members went below decks to try to save passengers from their burning cabins. The ship's swimming pool attendant and a steward lowered themselves over the side of the ship, by rope, to pull trapped people from portholes.
Evacuation of the ship was very difficult. Some lifeboats burned before they could be lowered. Two of the lifeboats were swamped, spilling their occupants into the sea; one when it was lowered only by one end, and the other when its davits broke off. Chains had rusted in many of the davits, making boats difficult or impossible to move. Only just over half of the lifeboats made it safely away from Lakonia, and some of them less than half full. Several people who dove overboard struck the side of the ship on the way down, killing them before they hit the water.
Passengers were angered when the radio operator left the ship in a launch, with a nurse and two musicians. Kalogridis later testified that he had left to rescue people from the water. He stated that he did not return to the ship because the current pushed the launch away. Passengers also claimed that some of the crewmen took advantage of the chaos to loot state rooms.
When all of the boats were away, there were still people in the water and over 100 people left aboard the burning ship. Lakonia continued to burn fiercely and was rocked by violent explosions. Those who remained aboard flocked to the glass-enclosed Agora Shopping Centre at the stern of the ship. After several hours, the flames closed in on them, and they were forced to descend ropes and rope ladders into the ocean. The port and starboard gangways were lowered as well, and people walked down the gangways single file into the sea.
Rescue
At 3:30 a.m., four hours after the first distress call, the 495-foot (151 m) Argentine passenger ship Salta arrived on the scene. Salta, commanded by Captain José Barrere, had been on her way from Genoa, Italy to Buenos Aires. The 440-foot (130 m) British cargo ship Montcalm arrived half an hour later at 4:00 a.m. The majority of the survivors were saved by these two ships. Salta rescued 475 people and took aboard most of Lakonia's lifeboats.
In the hours that followed, the Belgian ship Charlesville, the USA freighter Rio Grande, the British passenger ship Stratheden and the Panamanian freighter Mehdi all arrived to join the rescue. Each rescue ship launched boats to pluck survivors from the water. The United States Air Force sent four C-54 aircraft from the Lajes Field in the Azores. The planes dropped flares, lifejackets, life rafts and survival kits to people in the water. An RAF Avro Shackleton from Gibraltar criss-crossed the area, pinpointing boats and survivors and guiding rescuers to them.
The rescue was hindered by the fact that Lakonia drifted for several miles during the evacuation. People in the water were dispersed over a 2-to-3 mi (3.2-to-4.8 km) area. Also, rescue ships were reluctant to get too near Lakonia because of the risk that her 500 tons of fuel oil could explode.
Charlesville sent a lifeboat shortly after daybreak to rescue Captain Zarbis, who was spotted pacing the decks of his still-burning ship. Zarbis was the last person to leave Lakonia alive.
Most of the survivors were taken to Madeira. Others, including Captain Zarbis, were taken to Casablanca.
Aftermath
The disaster killed a total of 128 people. 95 were passengers and 33 were crew. Only 53 people were killed in the actual fire. The rest died from exposure, drowning and injuries sustained while diving overboard. Most of the dead were buried in a Gibraltar cemetery after an autopsy which was carried out in a cavern workshop of 1st Fortress Squadron, Royal Engineers.
One passenger who jumped from the ship cut her throat on her life jacket. After being rescued by Montcalm, her injuries were treated by another passenger, Alan Leigh. Largely due to this incident, cruise ship passengers are now instructed how to hold their jackets if jumping from a height.
Crewmen from the Royal Navy aircraft carrier HMS Centaur boarded Lakonia on 24 December, once the flames had died down.[11] Most of the bodies were recovered by the crew of Centaur. By this time Lakonia was a charred, smoking hulk. Her superstructure had partially collapsed amidships, and the bridge and aft decks had caved in. There were holes blasted near her bow, and she was listing 10 degrees to starboard.
The Norwegian tugboat Herkules secured a tow line to Lakonia at 5:30 p.m. on 24 December. Herkules, along with the Portuguese tugboat Praia da Adraga and two other tugs, set off for the British base at Gibraltar with Lakonia in tow. Her list grew more severe each day, and at about 2:00 p.m. on 29 December, Lakonia rolled onto her starboard side. She sank stern-first in only three minutes. The ship went down 230 nmi (430 km) southwest of Lisbon, Portugal, 250 nmi (460 km) west of Gibraltar.
The only colour photographs taken of the Lakonia disaster ran in Life magazine on 3 January 1964.[12] Life's photographic coverage of the event marked only the second time in history that a publication was able to offer hour-by-hour photographic coverage of a disaster at sea.[12] The first such coverage appeared on 6 August 1956, when Life ran a series of photos of the Italian liner Andrea Doria sinking. The only person known to have taken photos aboard the ship during the fire was Ian Harris from Finchley, London, who was travelling with his wife, Rita Harris. These photos appeared in Life, edition dated 3 January 1964.[13] Rita Harris recounted the events on 2 July 1964 on Woman's Hour on the BBC Light Programme.[14]
Survivors include British educator Sir Ivor Jennings with wife and daughter, architect Owen Luder and wife Doris, and Henry Wilson, Baron Wilson of Langside.
Investigation
The Greek Merchant Marine Ministry conducted a two-year investigation into Lakonia disaster. The board of inquiry maintained that Lakonia should not have passed safety inspections before sailing. Lifeboat davits were rusted and lockers containing lifesaving equipment failed to open. The drain holes in many of the lifeboats lacked stoppers, so that passengers had to constantly bail water.
The crew had conducted a lifeboat drill a week before the voyage, but only five of the boats had been lowered. The board argued that all of the boats should have been tested.
Charges of looting were dropped after extensive questioning. The crew maintained that they had only broken into cabins to search for lifejackets.
The board of inquiry made a number of other charges. The order to abandon ship was given too late. Operations on deck were not supervised by responsible officers. The crew, except for a few acts of self-sacrifice, failed to rescue sleeping passengers from their cabins below decks.
Eight of Lakonia's officers were charged with negligence. Captain Zarbis, his first officer and the ship's security officer were charged with gross negligence. The other five men were charged with simple negligence.
The cause of the fire was ultimately determined to be a short circuit of faulty electrical wiring.
Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
LocationSan Francisco Bay, California
Coordinates37°49′36″N 122°25′24″W[1]
StatusClosed (now a museum)
Security classMaximum
Capacity312
Opened11 August 1934; 85 years ago
Closed21 March 1963; 57 years ago
Managed byFederal Bureau of Prisons, Department of Justice
Director
Wardens[2]
James A. Johnston (1934–48)
Edwin B. Swope (1948–55)
Paul J. Madigan (1955–61)
Olin G. Blackwell (1961–63)
The Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary or United States Penitentiary, Alcatraz Island (often referred to as Alcatraz or The Rock) was a maximum security federal prison on Alcatraz Island, 1.25 miles (2.01 km) off the coast of San Francisco, California, United States, which operated from 11 August 1934, until 21 March 1963.
Alcatraz had been the site of a fort since the 1850s; the main prison building was built in 1910–1912 as a United States Army military prison. The United States Department of Justice acquired the United States Disciplinary Barracks, Pacific Branch, on Alcatraz on 12 October 1933, and the island became a prison of the Federal Bureau of Prisons in August 1934 after the buildings were modernized and security increased. Given this high security and the island's location in the cold waters and strong currents of San Francisco Bay, prison operators believed Alcatraz to be escape-proof and America's strongest prison.
Alcatraz was used to hold prisoners who continually caused trouble at other federal prisons. One of the world's most notorious and best known prisons over the years, it housed some 1,576 federal inmates, including some of America's most ruthless, such as Al Capone, Robert Franklin Stroud (the "Birdman of Alcatraz"), George "Machine Gun" Kelly, Bumpy Johnson, Rafael Cancel Miranda,[3] Mickey Cohen, Arthur R. "Doc" Barker, Whitey Bulger, and Alvin "Creepy" Karpis (who served more time at Alcatraz than any other inmate). The Bureau of Prisons' staff and their families lived on the island as well. 36 prisoners made 14 escape attempts during the prison's 29-year history; most notable were the violent attempt of May 1946 called the "Battle of Alcatraz" and the possibly successful June 1962 attempt by Frank Morris, John Anglin, and Clarence Anglin, which was marked by careful planning and execution. Faced with high maintenance costs and a poor reputation, Alcatraz closed on 21 March 1963.
The three-story cellhouse included the four main cell blocks, A-block through D-block, the warden's office, visitation room, the library, and the barber shop. The prison cells typically measured 9 feet (2.7 m) by 5 feet (1.5 m) and 7 feet (2.1 m) high. The cells were primitive and lacked privacy, with a bed, desk, and washbasin, and a toilet on the back wall, and with few furnishings except a blanket. African-Americans were segregated from other inmates in cell designation due to racial abuse. D-Block housed the worst inmates, and six cells at its end were designated "The Hole," where badly behaving prisoners would be sent for periods of often brutal punishment. The dining hall and kitchen extended from the main building. Prisoners and staff ate three meals a day together. The Alcatraz Hospital was above the dining hall.
Prison corridors were named after major U.S. streets such as Broadway and Michigan Avenue. Working at the prison was considered a privilege for inmates and many of the better inmates were employed in the Model Industries Building and New Industries Building during the day, actively involved in providing for the military in jobs such as sewing and woodwork, and performing various maintenance and laundry chores.
Today, Alcatraz is a public museum and one of San Francisco's major tourist attractions, attracting some 1.5 million visitors annually. Now operated by the National Park Service's Golden Gate National Recreation Area, the timeworn former prison is being restored and maintained.
History
Construction
Alcatraz Cellhouse
The main cellhouse was built incorporating some parts of Fort Alcatraz's citadel, a partially fortified barracks from 1859 that had come to be used as a jail. A new cellhouse was built from 1910–1912 on a budget of $250,000, and upon completion, the 500 feet (150 m) long concrete building was reputedly the longest concrete building in the world at the time. This building was modernized in 1933 and 1934 and became the main cellhouse of the federal penitentiary until its closure in 1963.[4]:76 When the new concrete prison was built, many materials were reused in its construction. Iron staircases in the interior and the cellhouse door near the barber's shop at the end of A-block were retained from the old citadel and massive granite blocks originally used as gun mounts were reused as the wharf's bulkheads and retaining walls. [5] Many of the old cell bars were used to reinforce the walls, causing structural problems later due to the fact that many placed near the edge were subject to erosion from the salt air and wind over the years.[5][dubious – discuss]
Entrance
After the United States Army's use of the island for over 80 years, it was transferred to the Federal Bureau of Prisons, which hoped an escape-proof jail would help break the crime wave of the 1920s and 1930s.[6] The Department of Justice acquired the Disciplinary Barracks on Alcatraz on 12 October 1933, and it became a Federal Bureau of Prisons facility in August 1934. $260,000 was spent to modernize and improve it from January 1934.[7][8] George Hess of the United States Public Health Service was appointed chief medical officer and Edward W. Twitchell became a consultant in psychiatry for Alcatraz in January 1934.[8] The hospital was checked by three officials from the Marine Hospital of San Francisco.[8] The Bureau of Prisons personnel arrived on Alcatraz in early February; among them was acting chief clerk Loring O. Mills. In April 1934, the old material was removed from the prison; holes were cut in the concrete and 269 cell fronts were installed, built using four carloads of steel ordered from the Stewart Iron Works.[8] Two of four new stairways were built, as were 12 doors to the utility corridors and gratings at the top of the cells. On 26 April, an accidental small fire broke out on the roof and an electrician injured his foot by dropping a manhole cover on it.[8] The Anchor Post Fence Company added fencing around Alcatraz and the Enterprise Electric Works added emergency lighting in the morgue and switchboard operations.[8] In June 1934, the Teletouch Corporation of New York began the installation of an "electro-magnetic gun or metal detecting system" at Alcatraz; detectors were added on the wharf, at the front entrance into the cellblock, and at the rear entrance gate.[8] The correctional officers were instructed how to operate the new locking devices on 30 July 1934, and both the United States Coast Guard and the San Francisco Police Department tested the new radio equipment on the same day.[8] Final checks and assessments were made on the first two days of August.[8]
Early history
Alcatraz laundry service
Alcatraz was intended for prisoners who continuously caused trouble at other federal prisons, a "last resort prison" to hold the worst of the worst who had no hope of rehabilitation.[9][10] At 9:40 a.m. on 11 August 1934, the first batch of 137 prisoners arrived at Alcatraz from the United States Penitentiary in Leavenworth, Kansas, having travelled by rail to Santa Venetia, California. Before being escorted to Alcatraz, they were handcuffed in high-security coaches and guarded by some 60 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) special agents, U.S. Marshals, and railway security officials.[8][11] Most of the prisoners were notorious bank robbers, counterfeiters, murderers, or sodomites.[11] Among the first inmates were also 14 men from McNeil Island, Washington.[8] On 22 August 43 prisoners arrived from Atlanta Penitentiary and 10 from North Eastern Penitentiary, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania.[8] On 1 September, one prisoner arrived from Washington Asylum and Jail and seven from the District of Columbia Reformatory in Virginia, and on 4 September, another batch of 103 prisoners arrived by train from Leavenworth.[8] Prisoners continued to arrive, mainly from Leavenworth and Atlanta, into 1935 and by 30 June 1935, the penitentiary's first anniversary, it had a population of 242 prisoners, although some inmates such as Verrill Rapp had already been transferred from Alcatraz some months earlier.[8] On the first anniversary, the Bureau of Prisons wrote, "The establishment of this institution not only provided a secure place for the detention of the more difficult type of criminal but has had a good effect upon discipline in our other penitentiaries also. No serious disturbance of any kind has been reported during the year." The metal detectors often overheated and had to be turned off. After the Teletouch Corporation failed to address the problem, their contract was terminated in 1937 and they were charged over $200 for three new detectors supplied by Federal Laboratories.[8]
On 10 January 1935, a severe storm caused a landslide on Alcatraz, causing the Model Industries Building to slide.[8] This began series of changes to the structures on the island. A riprap was built around Model Industries Building, it was strengthened, and a guard tower added to the roof in June 1936. That same month, the barracks building was remodeled into 11 new apartments and nine single rooms for bachelors; by this time there were 52 families living on Alcatraz, including 126 women and children.[8] The problems with the Model Industries Building and continuing utility problems with some of the old buildings and systems led to extensive updates in 1937, including new tool-proof grills on the ventilators of the cell house roof, two new boilers installed in the power house, and a new pump for salt water sanitation and guardrails added to stairways.[8] In 1939–40, a $1.1 million redevelopment was begun, including construction of the New Industries Building, a complete overhaul of the power house with a new diesel engine, the building of a new water tower to solve the water storage problem, new apartment blocks for officers, improvements to the dock, and the conversion of D-block into isolation cells.[8] The changes were completed in July 1941. The workshops of the New Industries Building became highly productive, making army uniforms, cargo nets, and other items in high demand during World War II. In June 1945, it was reported that the federal penitentiaries had made 60,000 nets.[8]
Alcatraz gained notoriety from its inception as the toughest prison in America, considered by many the world's most fearsome prison of the day. Former prisoners reported brutality and inhumane conditions which severely tested their sanity.[12][13][14] Ed Wutke was the first prisoner to commit suicide in Alcatraz. Rufe Persful chopped off his fingers after grabbing an axe from the firetruck, begging another inmate to do the same to his other hand.[14] One writer decried Alcatraz as "the great garbage can of San Francisco Bay, into which every federal prison dumped its most rotten apples."[15] In 1939, the new U.S. Attorney General, Frank Murphy, attacked the penitentiary, saying, "The whole institution is conductive to psychology that builds up a sinister ambitious attitude among prisoners."[8] The prison's reputation was not helped by the arrival of more of America's most dangerous felons, including Robert Stroud, the "Birdman of Alcatraz," in 1942. He entered the prison system at age 19, and never left, spending 17 years at Alcatraz. Stroud killed a guard, tangled with other inmates and spent 42 of his 54 years in prison in solitary confinement. Despite its reputation, with many former inmates calling it "Hellcatraz," some prisoners reported that the living conditions there were much better than most other prisons in the country, especially the food, and many volunteered to come to Alcatraz.[6]
On 3 December 1940, Henri Young murdered fellow inmate Rufus McCain. Running downstairs from the furniture shop to the tailor's shop where McCain worked, Young violently stabbed McCain's neck; McCain died five hours later.[8] Young had been sent to Alcatraz for murder in 1933, and was later involved in an escape attempt during which the gangster Doc Barker was shot to death. He spent nearly 22 months in solitary confinement as a result, but was eventually permitted to work in the furniture shop. Young went on trial in 1941, with his attorneys claiming that their client could not be held responsible for the murder, since he had allegedly been subjected to "cruel and unusual punishment" by prison guards prior to the act. The trial brought Alcatraz into further disrepute.[8] Ultimately, Young was convicted of manslaughter and his prison sentence was only extended by a few years.
By the 1950s, conditions at Alcatraz had improved, and inmates were gradually permitted more privileges, such as playing musical instruments, watching movies on weekends, painting, and radio use; the strict code of silence became more relaxed, and prisoners were permitted to talk quietly.[14] However, it was by far the most expensive prison in the United States, and many still perceived it as America's most extreme jail.[16][8] In his annual report for 1952, Bureau of Prisons director James V. Bennett called for a more centralized institution to replace Alcatraz.[8] A 1959 report indicated that the facility was over three times more expensive to run than the average American prison; $10 per prisoner per day compared to $3 in most other prisons.[17] The problem was made worse by the buildings' structural deterioration from exposure to salt spray. It would need $5 million to fix. Major repairs began in 1958, but by 1961 engineers evaluated the prison as a lost cause. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy submitted plans for a new maximum-security institution at Marion, Illinois.[8] The June 1962 escape from Alcatraz led to acrimonious investigations. Combined with the major structural problems and expensive operation, this led to closure on 21 March 1963.[17] The final Bureau of Prisons report said of Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary: "The institution served an important purpose in taking the strain off the older and greatly overcrowded institutions in Atlanta, Leavenworth and McNeil Island since it enabled us to move to the smaller, closely guarded institution for the escape artists, the big-time racketeers, the inveterate connivers and those who needed protection from other groups."[8]
Today a museum and one of San Francisco's major tourist attractions, Alcatraz drew some 1.5 million visitors annually (2010).[18][19] Visitors arrive by boat, and are given a tour of the cellhouse and island, and a slide show and audio narration with anecdotes from former inmates, guards and rangers on Alcatraz.[20] The atmosphere of the former penitentiary is still considered to be "eerie", "ghostly" and "chilling".[20] Protected by the National Park Service and the National Register of Historic Places, the salt-damaged buildings of the former prison are now being restored and maintained.[21]
According to the prison's correctional officers, once a convict arrived on the Alcatraz wharf, his first thoughts were on how to leave.[22] During its 29 years of operation, the penitentiary claimed that no prisoner successfully escaped. A total of 36 prisoners made 14 escape attempts, two men trying twice; 23 were caught, six were shot and killed during their escape, two drowned, and five are listed as "missing and presumed drowned".[23]
The first escape attempt was made on 27 April 1936, by Joseph Bowers, who was assigned to burn trash at the incinerator. He was scaling a chain link fence at the edge of the island when noticed. When he refused orders of the correctional officer located at the West Road guard tower to come down he was shot. He was seriously injured in the fall from over 15 m (50 ft) and consequently died.[6]
The second escape attempt was on 16 December 1937, by Theodore Cole and Ralph Roe. During their work assignment in one of the workshops, they cut the flat iron bars of the window and climbed into the bay. It was a stormy day and the sea was rough. They were thought dead by the prison authorities, who believed that they drowned in the bay and their bodies were swept out to sea.[6]
The most violent escape attempt occurred on 2–4 May 1946, when a failed attempt by six prisoners led to the Battle of Alcatraz, also known as the "Alcatraz Blast out". Bernard Coy, Joseph Cretzer, Sam Shockley, Clarence Carnes, Marvin Hubbard and Miran Thompson daringly took control of the cell house by overpowering correctional officers, and were able to enter the weapons room, where they then demanded keys to the outside recreation door. A quick-thinking guard, William Miller, turned over all but the key to the outer door, which he pocketed. The prisoners' aim was to escape by boat from the dock, but when they were unable to open the outside door, they decided to battle it out. They held Miller, and a second guard hostage. Prompted by Shockley and Thompson, Cretzer shot the hostages at very close range. Miller succumbed to his injuries while the second guard, Harold Stites, was also killed at the cell house. Although Shockley, Thompson, and Carnes returned to their cells, the other three, Coy, Cretzer and Hubbard, persisted with their fight. The U.S. Marines intervened to help the correctional officers and killed the three prisoners. In this battle, apart from the guards and prisoners killed, 17 other guards and one prisoner were also injured. Shockley, Thompson, and Carnes were tried for the killing of the correctional officers. Shockley and Thompson were sentenced to death via the gas chamber, which was carried out at San Quentin in December 1948. However, Carnes, who was only 19 years of age, was given a second life sentence.[6][24]
On 11 June 1962, Frank Morris, John Anglin, and Clarence Anglin, in contrast, attempted to escape using careful planning. Behind their cells in Cell Block B was an unguarded 3-foot (0.91 m) wide utility corridor. The prisoners chiseled away the salt-damaged concrete from around an air vent leading to this corridor, using tools such as a metal spoon soldered with silver from a dime and an electric drill improvised from a stolen vacuum cleaner motor. The noise was disguised by accordions played during music hour, and the progress was concealed by false walls which, in the dark recesses of the cells, fooled the guards.[6]
Side view of model head found in Frank Morris's cell
The escape route led up through a fan vent; the prisoners removed the fan and motor, replacing them with a steel grill and leaving a shaft large enough for a prisoner to enter. Stealing a carborundum abrasive cord from the prison workshop, the prisoners then removed the rivets from the grill. In their beds, they placed papier-mâché dummies made with human hair stolen from the barbershop. The escapees also made an inflatable raft over many weeks from over 50 stolen raincoats, which they prepared on the top of the cell block, concealed from the guards by sheets which had been put up over the sides. They escaped through a vent in the roof and departed Alcatraz.[6][24]
The FBI investigation was aided by another prisoner, Allen West, who was part of the escapees' group but was left behind. West's false wall kept slipping so he held it in place with cement, which set. When Morris and the Anglins accelerated the schedule, West desperately chipped away at the wall, but by the time he got out, his companions were gone. Hundreds of leads and theories have been pursued by the FBI and local law enforcement officials in the ensuing years, but no conclusive evidence has ever surfaced favoring the success or failure of the attempt. The FBI's investigation from 1962 to December 1979 was finally treated as closed.[25] The official report on the escape concludes that the prisoners drowned in the cold waters of the bay while trying to reach the mainland, it being unlikely that they made it the 1.25 miles to shore due to the strong ocean currents and the cold sea water temperatures ranging between 50 and 55 degrees Fahrenheit.[6][24]
The U.S. Marshals Service case file remains open and active, however. Morris and the Anglin brothers remain on its wanted list.[26] Circumstantial evidence uncovered in the early-2010s seemed to suggest that the men had survived, and that contrary to the official FBI report of the escapee's raft never being recovered and no car thefts being reported, a raft was discovered on nearby Angel Island with footprints leading away, and a 1955 blue Chevrolet had been stolen on the night of the escape by three men, who could have been Morris and the Anglins, and that officials then engaged in a cover-up.[27] Relatives of the Anglin brothers presented further circumstantial evidence in the mid-2010s in support of a longstanding rumor that the Anglin brothers had fled to Brazil following the escape; a facial recognition analyst concluded that the one piece of physical evidence, a 1975 photograph of two men resembling John and Clarence Anglin, did support that conclusion.[28][29]
Administration
Admin offices of Alcatraz
The prison initially had a staff of 155, including the first warden James A. Johnston and associate warden Cecil J. Shuttleworth, both considered to be "iron men".[11] None of the staff were trained in rehabilitation but were highly trained in security.[11] The guards' and staff's salaries varied. A new guard arriving in December 1948 was offered $3,024.96 per year, but there was a 6% deduction for retirement taxes a year (amounting to $181.50).[30] The guards typically worked 40-hour weeks with five 8-hour shifts.[30] Guards who worked between 6 pm and 6 am were given a 10% increase and guards doing overtime had to be reported and authorized by the warden.[30] Officers generally had to pay 25 cents for meals and were charged $10 to rent an apartment on the island, to include laundry service, although larger families were charged anything from $20–43 a month for larger quarters and charged additional for laundry.[30] In 1960, a Bureau of Prisons booklet revealed that the average prison population between 1935 and 1960 was 263; the highest recorded was 302 in 1937 and the lowest recorded was 222 in 1947.[31]
The main administration center was at the entrance to the prison, which included the warden's office. The office contained a desk with radio and telegraph equipment, typewriter, and a telephone.[32] The administrative office section also had the offices of the associate warden and secretary, mail desk, captain's desk, a business office, a clerk's office, an accounting office, a control room which was added with modern technology in 1961, the officer's lounge, armory and vault, and a visiting area and restrooms. The basement of Alcatraz prison contained dungeons and the showers. The main stairway to the dungeon lay along Sunrise Alley at the side of A-Block, but the dungeons were also accessible by a staircase in a trapdoor along the corridor of D-Block. All visits to Alcatraz required prior written approval from the warden.[33]
A hospital had originally been installed at Alcatraz during its time as a military prison in the late 19th century.[34] During its time as a federal penitentiary, it was located above the dining hall on the second floor. Hospital staff were U.S. Public Health Service employees assigned to the Federal Prison Service at Alcatraz.[35] Doctors often lasted fewer than several days or months at Alcatraz, because few of them could tolerate the violent inmates who would often terrify them if they failed to be given certain drugs.[35] Prisoners in ill health were often kept in the hospital, most famously Stroud and Al Capone, who spent years in it.[36][37]
Security
When the Bureau of Prisons established the Federal Penitentiary on 1 January 1934, they took measures to strengthen the security of the prison cells to make Alcatraz "escape-proof", and also to improve living conditions for their own staff. Up-to-date technologies for enhancing security and comfort were added to the buildings. Guard towers were built outside at four strategic locations, cells were rebuilt and fitted with "tool-proof steel cell fronts and locking devices operated from control boxes", and windows were made covered with iron grills. Electromagnetic metal detectors were placed at the entrances of the dining hall and workshops, with remote controlled tear gas canisters at appropriate locations, remote controlled gun galleries with machine gun armed guards were installed to patrol along the corridors. Improvements were made to the toilet and electricity facilities, old tunnels were sealed up with concrete to avoid hiding and escape by prisoners, and substantial changes and improvements were made to the housing facilities of guards, wardens and Captain to live with their families, with quality relative to rank. Warden Johnston, U.S. Attorney General Homer Cummings, and Sanford Bates first Director of the Bureau of Prisons, collaborated very closely to create "a legendary prison" suited to the times, which resulted in the Alcatraz Island Federal Penitentiary being nicknamed "Uncle Sam's Devil's Island.'[38]
Guards of Alcatraz
Despite Alcatraz being designed to house the "worst of the worst" of criminals who caused problems at other prisons, under the guidelines and regulations set by the strict prison administrators, courts could not direct a prisoner to be directly sent to Alcatraz, however notorious they were for misbehavior and attempted escape from other prisons.[38] Prisoners entering Alcatraz would undergo vigorous research and assessments prior to their arrival. Security in the prison was very tight, with constant checking of bars, doors, locks, electrical fixtures, and other physical security.[39] Prisoners were normally counted 13 times daily, and the ratio of prisoners to guards was the lowest of any American prison of the time.[40][41] The front door was made of solid steel, virtually impossible for any prisoners to escape through.[42] The island had many guard towers, most of which have since been demolished, which were heavily guarded at various points in the day at times when security may have been breached; for instance, there were guard towers on each of the industry buildings to ensure that inmates didn't attempt to escape during the work day shifts. The recreation yard and other parts of the prison had a 25-foot fence around it topped with barbed wire,[12] should any inmates attempt to escape during exercise. One former employee of the jail likened his prison job to being a zoo keeper or his old farm job, due to the fact that prisoners were treated like animals, sending them out to "plough the fields" when some of them worked during the day, and then counting them up and feeding them and so on.[39] He referred to those four years of his life working in the prison as a "total waste of his life".[39] The corridors were regularly patrolled by the guards, with passing gates along them; the most heavily trafficked corridor was "Broadway" between B and C Block, due to its being the central corridor of the prison and passed not only by guards but other prison workers.[43]
At the end of each 20-minute meal in the dining hall, the forks, spoons and knives were laid out on the table and carefully counted to ensure that nothing had been taken as a potential weapon. In the earlier years as a prison, prisoners were forbidden from talking while eating, but this was later relaxed, provided that the prisoners communicated quietly.[39] [44]
The gun gallery was situated in the Recreation Yard and mounted on one of the dining hall's exterior walls.[45] There was a metal detector outside of the dining hall for security purposes. The dining hall had tear-gas canisters attached to the rafters of the ceiling which could be activated by remote control, should prisoners riot or attempt to escape.[46][13] The first warden, James A. Johnston, always entered the dining hall alone and unarmed, due to heavy guarding around him.[47] Several riots did break out in the dining hall during Alcatraz's history. Those prisoners who were not involved in the fighting hid under the dining hall tables to escape possible gunfire.[48]
Wardens
James A. Johnston.jpg James A. Johnston 1934–48 James Aloysius Johnston (1874–1954) (nickname "Old Saltwater") [49] was the first warden of Alcatraz. The former Warden of Folsom and San Quentin, Johnston was instrumental to the creation of Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary from conception to design. He was considered to be a highly strict disciplinarian and a devout reformist who imposed a number of rules upon the prison including a strict code of silence, which led to him being nicknamed the 'Golden Rule Warden' from his San Quentin days.[49] However, he was relatively popular among inmates and guards, known as "Old Saltwater" to the inmates, and is credited with challenging the barbaric tactics used in the prison when he was there, including strait jackets and solitary confinement in darkness and working towards the general improvement of the lives of prisoners. In 1937 he was attacked by Burton Phillips from behind in the dining hall who beat him in anger at a worker's strike, but he continued to attend meals unguarded.
Edwin B. Swope.jpg Edwin B. Swope 1948–55 Edwin Burnham Swope (1888–1955) (nickname "Cowboy") was the second warden of Alcatraz. His earlier posts as warden included New Mexico State Prison and Washington State's McNeil Island Federal Penitentiary. He was described as being approximately 1.73 meter (5 feet 9 inches) tall, of slender build, and was a fan of horse racing who dressed like a cowboy off-duty.[50] He was a strict disciplinarian but unlike his predecessor was considered the most unpopular warden of Alcatraz with his officers and the inmates.[51]
Paul J. Madigan.jpg Paul J. Madigan 1955–61
Paul Joseph Madigan (1897–1974) was the third warden of Alcatraz. He had earlier served as the last Associate Warden during the term of James A. Johnston. He was the only warden who had worked his way up from the bottom of the ranks of the prison staff hierarchy, having worked originally as a Correctional Officer on Alcatraz from the 1930s.[52][51] In 21 May 1941, Madigan was the key to quashing an escape attempt after being held hostage in the Model Industries Building, which later led to his promotion as associate warden.[53] He was a stout, ruddy-faced, pipe-smoking, devout Irish Catholic.[54] Unlike his predecessors, Madigan was known for being more lenient and softer in his approach to administering the prison and was better liked by the prison staff.[52]
Olin G. Blackwell.jpg Olin G. Blackwell 1961–63
Olin Guy Blackwell (1915–1986) was the fourth and final warden of Alcatraz. Associate Warden to Paul J. Madigan from April 1959,[53] Blackwell served as warden of Alcatraz at its most difficult time from 1961 to 1963 when it was facing closure as a decaying prison with financing problems, coinciding with the timing of the infamous June 1962 escape from Alcatraz. At the time of the 1962 escape he was on vacation in Lake Berryessa in Napa County, and he didn't believe the men could have survived the waters and made it to shore.[55] Blackwell was considered to have been the least strict warden of Alcatraz, perhaps in part due to him having been a heavy drinker and smoker, nicknamed "Gypsy" and known as "Blackie" to his friends.[53] He was said to have been an excellent marksman who had earlier served as Associate Warden of Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary.
Prison life and the cells
An inmate register reveals that there were 1,576 prisoners in total held at Alcatraz during its time as a Federal Penitentiary, although figures reported have varied and some have stated 1557.[56][57] The prison cells, purposefully designed so that none adjoined an outside wall,[13] typically measured 9 feet (2.7 m) by 5 feet (1.5 m) and 7 feet (2.1 m) high.[58] The cells were primitive with a bed, a desk and a washbasin and toilet on the back wall and few furnishings except a blanket.[58] An air vent, measuring 6 inches (150 mm) by 9 inches (230 mm), covered by a metal grill, lay at the back of the cells which led into the utility corridors. [58] Prisoners had no privacy in going to the toilet and the toilets would emit a strong stench because they were flushed with salt water. Hot water faucets were not installed until the early 1960s, shortly before closure.[58]
The penitentiary established a very strict regimen of rules and regulations under the title "the Rules and Regulations for the Government and Discipline of the United States Penal and Correctional Institutions" and also a "Daily Routine of Work and Counts" to be followed by the prisoners and also the guards; copies of these were provided to the prisoners to read and follow. Inmates were basically entitled to food, clothing, shelter, and medical attention. Anything else was seen as a privilege. Inmates were given a blue shirt, grey pants (blue and white in later years[56]), cotton long underwear, socks and a blue handkerchief; the wearing of caps was forbidden in the cellhouse.[58] Cells were expected to be kept tidy and in good order. Any dangerous article found in the cells or on inmates such as money, narcotics, intoxicating substances or tools which had the potential to inflict injury or assist in an escape attempt was considered contraband and made the prisoners eligible for disciplinary action.[56] It was compulsory for prisoners to shave in their cells three times a week. Attempting to bribe, intimidate, or assault prison officers was seen as a very serious offense.[56] African-Americans were segregated from the rest in cell designation due to racial abuse being prevalent.[59] Toilet paper, matches, soap, and cleanser were issued to the cells on Tuesdays and Saturdays, and inmates could request hot water and a mop to clean their cells.[56] The bars, windows and floors of the prison were cleaned on a daily basis.[59] In earlier years there was a strict code of silence but by the 1950s this had relaxed and talking was permitted in the cellhouse and dining hall provided conversations were quiet and there was no shouting, loud talking, whistling or singing.[56]
Prisoners would be woken at 6:30 am, and sent to breakfast at 6:55 am. After returning to the cell, inmates then had to tidy their cell and place the waste basket outside.[56] At 7:30 am, work started in the shifts for those privileged enough to do so, punctuated by a whistle, and prisoners would have to go through a metal detector during work shifts.[39] If assigned a job, prisoners had to accept that line of work; prisoners were not permitted to have money in their possessions but earnings went into a prisoner's Trust Fund.[56] Some of the prisoners were assigned duties with the guards and foremen in the Laundry, Tailor Shop, Cobblers Shop, Model Shop etc. and in gardening and labor. Smoking, a privilege, was permitted in the workplace providing there wasn't any hazardous condition, but inmates were not permitted to smoke between the recreation yard and work. Lunch was served at 11:20 am, followed by a 30-minute rest in the cell, before returning to work until 16:15.[39] Dinner was served at 16:25 and the prisoners would then retire to their cells to be locked in for the night at 16:50, and lights went off at 21:30.[39][60] After being locked in for the night, 6 guards usually patrolled the four cell blocks.[59] Many prisoners have compared their duration at Alcatraz to hell and would have preferred death to continued incarceration.[61]
Alcatraz Library was located at the end of D-Block. Upon entering Alcatraz, every inmate was given a library card and a catalog of books found in the library; inmates could place orders by putting a slip with their card in a box at the entrance to the dining hall before breakfast, and the books would be delivered to and from their cell by a librarian.[62][63][60] The library, which utilized a closed-stack paging system, had a collection of 10,000 to 15,000 books, mainly left over from the army days.[64][63][60] Inmates were permitted a maximum of three books in addition to up to 12 text books, a Bible, and a dictionary.[60] They were permitted to subscribe to magazines but crime-related pages were torn out and newspapers were prohibited.[63] Sex, crime and violence were censored from all books and magazines, and the library was governed by a chaplain who regulated the censorship and the nature of the reading material to ensure that the material was wholesome.[60][64] Failure to return books by the date given made the inmate liable to removal of privileges.[60] The average prisoner read 75 to 100 books a year.[65] Every evening, inmates would generally read books loaned from the library and usually an hour or 75 minutes was allocated to the practicing of musical instruments, from the guitar to the accordion. A prison band often practiced in the dining room or auditorium above it; Al Capone famously practiced the banjo in the shower block, although most prisoners were limited to playing in their cells alone.[66]
Alcatraz cellhouse had a corridor naming system named after major American streets and landmarks. Michigan Avenue was the corridor to the side of A-Block, and Broadway was the central corridor in which the inmates would assemble as they massed through Times Square (an area with a clock on the wall), before entering the dining hall for their meals. Broadway separated Block-B and Block-C and prisoners kept along it had the least privacy in the prison.[67] The corridor between Block-C and the library was called Park Avenue.[67] The corridor in D-Block was named Sunset Strip. Gun galleries lay at the end of each block, including the West and
A-Block was never modernized, so retained its "flat strap-iron bars, key locks and spiral staircases" from the original military prison.[68] No inmates were permanently held there during the years Alcatraz was a federal penitentiary. Several inmates, however, were held briefly in A-Block before a hearing or transfer.[68] In the later years, A-Block was mainly used for storage. A law library was set up at some point, where inmates could type legal documents.[68] A small barber's shop was located at the end of A-block where inmates would have a monthly haircut.[68]
B-Block
Most new inmates at Alcatraz were assigned to the second tier of B-Block.[69] They had "quarantine status" for their first three months in confinement in Alcatraz, and were not permitted visitors for a minimum of 90 days.[69][70] Inmates were permitted one visitor a month, although anybody likely to cause trouble such as registered criminals were barred from visiting. Letters received by inmates were checked by prison staff first, to see if they could decipher any secret messages.[10][71] Frank Morris and his fellow escapees escaped Alcatraz during the June 1962 escape from Alcatraz by entering a utility corridor behind B-Block.[4]:120
D-Block gained notoriety as a "Treatment block" for some of the worst inmates, with varying degrees of punishment, including Isolation, Solitary and Strip.[72] Prisoners usually spent anywhere from 3 to 19 days in Solitary.[72] Prisoners held here would be given their meals in their cells, were not permitted to work and could only shower twice a week. After a 1939 escape attempt in which Arthur "Doc" Barker was killed, the Bureau of Prisons tightened security in the D-Block. The Birdman of Alcatraz inhabited cell 42 in D-Block in solitary confinement for 6 years.
D-Block
The worst cells for confinement as a punishment for inmates who stepped out of line were located at the end of D-Block in cells 9–14, known as "The Hole".[73] Inmates held in the hole were limited to just one 10-minute shower and an hour of exercise in the yard a week.[74][72] The five cells of "The Hole" had nothing but a sink and toilet and the very worst cell was nicknamed "The Oriental" or "Strip Cell", the final cell of the block with nothing but a hole in the floor as a toilet, in which prisoners would often be confined naked with nothing else for two days.[67][72] The guards controlled the flushing of the toilet in that cell.[8] After completing the punishment in the hole, the prisoner could then return to his cell but be tagged; a red tag, third grade, denoted a prisoner who was restricted from leaving his cell for perhaps 3 months.[39] At second grade the prisoners could receive letters, and if after 30 days they remained behaved, they would then be restored full prison privileges.[39]
Its size was approximately that of a regular cell-9 feet by 5 feet by about 7 feet high. I could just touch the ceiling by stretching out my arm ... You are stripped nude and pushed into the cell. Guards take your clothes and go over them minutely for what few grains of tobacco may have fallen into the cuffs or pockets. There is no soap. No tobacco. No toothbrush, The smell – well you can describe it only by the word 'stink.' It is like stepping into a sewer. It is nauseating. After they have searched your clothing, they throw it at you. For bedding, you get two blankets, around 5 in the evening. You have no shoes, no bed, no mattress-nothing but the four damp walls and two blankets. The walls are painted black. Once a day I got three slices of bread—no—that is an error. Some days I got four slices. I got one meal in five days, and nothing but bread in between. In the entire thirteen days I was there, I got two meals ... I have seen but one man get a bath in solitary confinement, in all the time that I have been there. That man had a bucket of cold water thrown over him.
Alcatraz Dining Hall, often referred to as the Mess Hall, is the dining hall where the prisoners and staff ate their meals. It is a long wing on the west end of the Main Cellhouse of Alcatraz, situated in the center of the island.[76] It is connected to the block by a corridor known as "Times Square", as it passes beneath a large clock approaching the entrance way to the dining hall.[4]:93 This wing includes the dining hall and the kitchen beyond it. On the second floor was the hospital and the auditorium, which was where movies were screened to the inmates at weekends.[77]
Dining hall protocol was a scripted process, including a whistle system to indicate which block and tier of men would move into and out of the hall at any given time, who sat where, where to place hands, and when to start eating.[78] Prisoners would be awakened at 6:30 am, and sent to breakfast at 6:55 am.[39] A breakfast menu is still preserved on the hallway board, dated 21 March 1963. The breakfast menu included assorted dry cereals, steamed whole wheat, a scrambled egg, milk, stewed fruit, toast, bread, and butter. Lunch was served in the dining hall at 11:20 am, followed by a 30-minute rest in the cell, before returning to work until 16:15.[39] Dinner was served at 16:25 and the prisoners would then go to their cells at 16:50 to be locked in for the night.[39] Inmates were permitted to eat as much as they liked within 20 minutes, provided they left no waste; waste would be reported and may make the prisoner subject to removal of privileges if they made a habit of it.[79][40]
Each dining table had benches which held up to six men, although smaller tables and chairs later replaced these which seated four.[44] All of the prison population, including the guards and officials would dine together, thus seating over 250 people.[44][80] The food served at Alcatraz was reportedly the best in the United States prison system.[79]
The Recreation Yard was the yard used by inmates of the prison between 1934 and 1963. It is located opposite the dining hall south of the end of D-Block, facing the mainland on a raised level surrounded by a high wall and fence above it.[81][82][83] Guard Tower #3 lay just to the west of the yard.[84] The gun gallery was situated in the yard, mounted on one of the dining hall's exterior walls.[45]
In 1936, the previously dirt-covered yard was paved.[85] The yard was part of the most violent escape attempt from Alcatraz in May 1946 when a group of inmates hatched a plot to obtain the key into the recreation yard, kill the tower guards, take hostages, and use them as shields to reach the dock.[86]
Inmates were permitted out into the yard on Saturdays and Sundays and on holidays for a maximum of 5 hours.[87][88] Inmates who worked seven days a week in the kitchen were rewarded with short yard breaks during the weekdays.[88] Badly behaved prisoners were liable to having their yard access rights taken away from them on weekends.[88] The prisoners of Alcatraz were permitted to play games such as baseball, softball and other sports at these times and intellectual games such as chess.[87] Because of the small size of the yard and the diamond at the end of it, a section of the wall behind the first base had to be padded to cushion the impact of inmates overrunning it.[89] Inmates were provided gloves, bats, and balls, but no sport uniforms. In 1938, there were four amateur teams, the Bees, Oaks, Oilers, and Seals, named after Minor League clubs, and four league teams named after Major League clubs, the Cardinals, Cubs, Giants, and Tigers.[90] Many of the inmates used weekends in the yards to converse with each other and discuss crime, the only real opportunities they had during the week for a durable conversation.[91]
The Warden's House is located at the northeastern end of the Main Cellblock, next to Alcatraz Lighthouse. The 3-floor 15-room mansion was built in 1921 according to the Golden Gate National Recreational Area signpost,[92] although some sources say it was built in 1926 or 1929 and had 17 or 18 rooms.[93]
Between 1934 and 1963, the four wardens of Alcatraz resided here, including the first warden, James A. Johnston. A house of luxury, in stark contrast to the jail next to it, the wardens often held lavish cocktail parties here.[94] The signpost at the spot shows a photograph of a trusted inmate doing chores at the house for the warden and that the house had a terraced garden and greenhouse.[92] The mansion had tall windows, providing fine views of San Francisco Bay.[93] Today, the house is a ruin, burned down by Native Americans during the
Building 64 Residential Apartments was the first building constructed on the island of Alcatraz, intended entirely for the purpose of accommodating the military officers and their families living on the island.[95] Located next to the dock on the southeastern side of the island, below the Warden's House,[96] the three-story apartment block was built in 1905 on the site of a U.S. Army barracks which had been there from the 1860s. It functioned as the Military Guard Barracks from 1906 until 1933. One of its largest apartments in the southwest corner was known as the "Cow Palace" and a nearby alleyway was known as "Chinatown".[95]
The Social Hall, also known as the Officers' Club, was a social club located on the northwestern side of the island. Located in proximity to the Power House, water tower and Former Military Chapel (Bachelor Quarters), it formerly housed the post exchange.[97] The club was a social venue for the Federal Penitentiary workers and their families on the island to unwind after a hard week's work dealing with America's most hardened criminals after they'd been locked up at 17:30.[98][99] It was burned down by Native Americans during the Occupation of Alcatraz in 1970, leaving a shell which still remains.
The club had a small bar, library, large dining and dance floor, billiards table, ping pong table and a two-lane bowling alley, and was the centre of social life on the island for the employees of the penitentiary.[100][101][102] It regularly hosted dinners, bingo events, and from the 1940s onwards showed movies every Sunday night after they had been shown to the inmates during the day on Saturday and Sunday.[100][4]:128 The club was responsible for organizing numerous special events on the island (held either in the hall or the Parade Grounds) and the fundraising associated with it, anything from ice cream and watermelon feasts to Halloween fancy dress and Christmas parties.[100][103]
The Power House is located on the northwest coast of Alcatraz Island. It was constructed in 1939 for $186,000 as part of a $1.1 million modernization scheme which also included the water tower, New Industries Building, officers quarters and remodeling of the D-block.[69] The white powerhouse smokestack and lighthouse were said to give an "appearance of a ship's mast on either side of the island".[104] A sign reading "A Warning. Keep Off. Only Government permitted within 200 yards" lay in front of the powerhouse to deter people landing on the island at the point.
Between 1939 and 1963, it supplied power to the Federal Penitentiary and other buildings on the island. The powerhouse had a tower duty station which was guarded with a "30-caliber Winchester rifle with 50 rounds of ammunition, a 1911 semiautomatic pistol with three seven-round magazines, three gas grenades, and a gas mask."[105]
The water tower is located on the northwestern side of the island, near Tower No. 3, beyond the Morgue and Recreation Yard.[106] The water tank is situated on six cross-braced steel legs submerged in concrete foundations.[dubious – discuss][107]
As Alcatraz had no water supply of its own, it had to import it from the mainland, brought by tug and barge.[108] During the island's military years, there were in-ground water tanks and water tanks were situated on the roof of the citadel.[109] The water tower was built in 1940–41 by the Federal Bureau of Prisons,[110] after the island received a government renovations grant to supply the majority of the island's fresh water.[109][dubious – discuss]
It is the tallest building on the island, at a height of 94 feet (29 m) with a volume of 250,000 US gallons (950 kL) gallons of fresh water. It was used to store potable water for drinking, water for firefighting, and water for the island's service
The Model Industries Building is a three/four-story building on the northwest corner of Alcatraz Island. This building was originally built by the U.S. military and was used as a laundry building until the New Industries Building was built as part of a redevelopment program on Alcatraz in 1939 when it was a federal penitentiary. As part of the Alcatraz jail, it held workshops for inmates to work in.[112]
Inmates working in the sewing room
On 10 January 1935, the building shifted to within 2.5 feet from the edge of the cliff following a landslide caused by a severe storm. The warden at the time, James A. Johnston, proposed extend the seawall next to it and asked the Bureau for $6500 to fund it; he would later claim to dislike the building because it was irregularly shaped.[69] A smaller, cheaper riprap was completed by the end of 1935. A guard tower and a catwalk from Hill Tower was added to the roof of the Industries Building in June 1936 and the building was made secure with bars from old cells to bar the windows and grill the roof ventilators and to prevent inmates from escaping from the roof.[69] It ceased use as a laundry in 1939 when it was moved to the upper floor of the New Industries Building. Today the building is heavily rusted after decades of exposure to the salt air and wind, and neither the guard tower on top of the building nor the Hill Tower still exist.
The New Industries Building was constructed in 1939 for $186,000 as part of a $1.1 million modernization scheme which also included the water tower, power house, officers' quarters and remodeling of the D-block.[8]
The ground floor of the two-story 306 ft long building contained a clothing factory, dry cleaning plant, furniture plant, brush factory, and an office, where prisoners of the federal penitentiary could work for money.[8] They earned a small wage for their labour which was put into an account, known as a Prisoner's Trust Fund, which would be given to them upon leaving Alcatraz.[113] They made items such as gloves, furniture mats, and army uniforms.[112] The laundry room occupied the entire upper floor, the largest in San Francisco at the time.[8][112] Each window has 9 panes and there are 17 bays on each floor on either side.
Arthur Barker.jpg Arthur R. Barker ("Doc") #268 1935–39 Arthur Barker (4 June 1899 – 13 January 1939) was the son of Ma Barker and a member of the Barker-Karpis gang along with Alvin Karpis. In 1935, Barker was sent to Alcatraz Island on conspiracy to kidnap charges. On the night of 13 January 1939, Barker with Henri Young and Rufus McCain attempted escape from Alcatraz. Barker was shot and killed by the guards.[114]
Acaponeh.jpg Alphonse "Al" Gabriel Capone ("Scarface") #85 1934–39 When Al Capone (17 January 1899 – 25 January 1947) arrived on Alcatraz in 1934, prison officials made it clear that he would not be receiving any preferential treatment. While serving his time in Atlanta Federal Penitentiary, Capone, a master manipulator, had continued running his rackets from behind bars by buying off guards.[38] Capone generated major media attention while on Alcatraz, though he served just four and a half years of his sentence there[38] before developing symptoms of tertiary syphilis and poor mental health before being transferred to the Federal Correctional Institution at Terminal Island in Los Angeles in 1938. He tried his best to seek favors from warden Johnston, but failed, and was given work in the prison performing numerous menial jobs. Capone was involved in many fights with fellow prisoners, including one with an inmate who held a blade to his throat in the prison barbershop after Capone attempted to jump the queue. He was released from jail in November 1939 and lived in Miami until his death in 1947 at 48 years of age.[38][115]
Mickey Cohen.jpg Meyer Harris Cohen ("Mickey") #1518 1961–63 Mickey Cohen (4 September 1913 – 29 July 1976) worked for the Mafia's gambling rackets; he was convicted of tax evasion and sentenced to 15 years in Alcatraz Island.[116] He was transferred to the United States Penitentiary in Atlanta shortly before Alcatraz closed permanently on 21 March 1963. While at Atlanta, on 14 August 1963, fellow inmate Burl Estes McDonald clobbered[117] Cohen with a lead pipe, partially paralyzing the mobster. After his release in 1972, Cohen led a quiet life with old friends.[118]
BumpyJohnsonAlcatrazPrisonCropped.jpg Ellsworth Raymond Johnson ("Bumpy") #1117 1954–63 "Bumpy" Johnson (31 October 1905 – 7 July 1968), referred to as the "Godfather of Harlem", was an African-American gangster, numbers operator, racketeer, and bootlegger in Harlem in the early 20th century. He was sent to Alcatraz in 1954 and was imprisoned until 1963. He was believed to have been involved in the 1962 escape attempt of Frank Morris, John and Clarence Anglin.[119]
Alvin Karpis.jpg Alvin Francis Karpavicz ("Creepy Karpis") #325 1936–62 Alvin Karpis (10 August 1907 – 26 August 1979) was Canadian, of Lithuanian descent. He was nicknamed "Creepy" for his sinister smile and called "Ray" by his gang members. He was known for being one of the three leaders of the Ma Barker-Karpis gang in the 1930s; the other two leaders were Fred and Doc Barker of the Ma Barker Gang. He was the only "Public Enemy #1" to be taken personally by J. Edgar Hoover. There were only four "public enemies" ever given the title of "Public Enemy #1" by the FBI. The other three, John Dillinger, Pretty Boy Floyd, and Baby Face Nelson, were all killed before being captured.[120] He also spent the longest time as a federal prisoner in Alcatraz Prison at 26 years. Karpis was credited with ten murders and six kidnappings apart from bank robbery. He was deported to Canada in 1971 and died in Spain in 1979.[115][121][122]
MachineGunKelly.jpg George Kelly Barnes ("Machine Gun Kelly") #117 1934–51 "Machine Gun Kelly" (18 July 1895 – 18 July 1954) arrived on 4 September 1934. At Alcatraz, Kelly was constantly boasting about several robberies and murders that he had never committed.[123] Although his boasts were said to be tiresome to other prisoners, Warden Johnson considered him a model inmate. Inmate #139, Harvey Bailey was his partner. Kelly was returned to Leavenworth in 1951.
Robert Garcia visiting Rafael Cancel Miranda.jpg Rafael Cancel Miranda #1163 1954–60 In July 1954, Rafael Cancel Miranda (18 July 1930 – 2 March 2020) was sent to Alcatraz, where he served six years of his sentence. At Alcatraz he was a model prisoner,[3] where he worked in the brush factory and served as an altar boy at Catholic services. His closest friends were fellow Puerto Ricans Emerito Vasquez and Hiram Crespo-Crespo. They spoke Spanish and watched out for each other. On the recreation yard he often played chess with "Bumpy" Johnson.[3] He also befriended Morton Sobell; they developed a friendship that lasts to this day.[3]
His family made trips to San Francisco to visit him, but he wasn't allowed to see his children. His wife was allowed to talk to him through a glass in the visiting room, using a phone. They were not allowed to speak in Spanish and had to speak in English.[124] He was transferred to Leavenworth in 1960.
RobertStroud.jpg Robert Franklin Stroud ("Birdman of Alcatraz") #594 1942–59 Robert Stroud, who was better known to the public as the Birdman of Alcatraz (28 January 1890 – 21 November 1963), was transferred to Alcatraz in 1942. At a young age he took to pimping and was involved in a murder during a drunken brawl. After terms in McNeil Island and Leavenworth Federal Prison, where he had killed Officer Andrew Turner, he was transferred to Alcatraz, with his sentence extended.
A self-taught ornithologist, he wrote several books. His Digest on the Diseases of Birds is considered a classic in Ornithology. He was confined to D-Block in solitary confinement for most of his duration in Alcatraz.[125] and after a term in the prison hospital, was transferred to the Medical Center for Federal Prisoners in Springfield, Missouri, due to seriously detioriating health.[6] Although he was given the name "The Birdman of Alcatraz", he was not permitted to keep birds in his prison cell at Alcatraz, as he had at Leavenworth, because it was prohibited. He died in 1963.[6][24][126][127]
The Native Americans mentioned the evil spirits they purportedly encountered on the island long before it became a military prison.[128] Mark Twain visited it, found the atmosphere of the island eerie, and described it as "being as cold as winter, even in the summer months."[129] The alleged haunting of the prison has been documented in numerous paranormal television series.[130]
s512a 9826 EncLZ1961-5 Narodne nošnje u Jugoslaviji Zagreb MCMLXI Enciklopedija Leksikografskog zavoda National costumes in Yugoslavia Zagreb MCMLXI Encyclopedia of the Lexicographical Institute Izrada Zdenka Sertić
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Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.