Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/12381165

Children's Encyclopedia, edited by Arthur Mee, and published in 10 volumes by the Educational Book Company, London. It was published from 1908 to 1964

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

“Horace Fletcher (1849–1919) was an American health food enthusiast of the Victorian era who earned the nickname "The Great Masticator", by arguing that food should be chewed about 100 times per minute before being swallowed: "Nature will castigate those who don't masticate". He made elaborate justifications for his claim.

 

Fletcher and his followers recited and followed his instructions religiously, even claiming that liquids, too, had to be chewed in order to be properly mixed with saliva. Fletcher argued that his mastication method will increase the amount of strength a person could have while actually decreasing the amount of food that he consumed.[1] Fletcher promised that "Fletcherizing", as it became known, would turn "a pitiable glutton into an intelligent epicurean".

 

Fletcher also advised against eating before being "Good and Hungry", or while angry or sad. Fletcher would claim that knowing exactly what was in the food one consumed was important. He stated that different foods have different waste materials, so knowing what type of waste one was going to have in one’s body was valuable knowledge, thus critical to one’s overall well being (The New Glutton, 1906, 132-133). He promoted his theories for decades on lecture circuits, and became a millionaire.

 

Upton Sinclair, Henry James and John D. Rockefeller were among those who gave his ideas a try. Henry James and Mark Twain were visitors to his palazzo in Venice. He lived in the Palazzo Saibante with his wife, Grace Fletcher, an amateur painter, who studied in Paris in the 1870s and was influenced by the Impressionists, and her daughter, Ivy. Ivy, later to become a journalist at the Daily Express in the 1930s, was often a guinea pig for Horace's experiments, which she described in her unpublished memoirs "Remember Me".

 

Although many people believed Fletcher’s laboratory reports, the more important eye-opener to doctors and laymen was his series of experiments at Yale University. It was here that he participated, at the age of fifty-eight, in vigorous tests of strength and endurance versus the college athletes. The tests included: “deep-knee bending”, holding out arms horizontally for a length of time, and calf raises on an intricate machine. Fletcher claimed to lift “three hundred pounds dead weight three hundred and fifty times with his right calf”. The tests claim that Fletcher outperformed these Yale athletes in all events and that they were very impressed with his athletic ability at his old age. Fletcher attributed this to following his eating practices, and ultimately these tests, whether true or not, helped further endorse “Fletcherism” publicly.[

 

Fletcher saw many similarities between humans and functioning machines. He posited several analogies between machines and the human body. Just some of the comparisons that Fletcher drew included: fuel to food; steam to blood circulation; steam gauge to human pulse; and engine to heart.

Along with "Fletcherizing", Fletcher and his supporters advocated a low-protein diet as a means to health and well-being.

 

Fletcher had a special interest in human excreta. He believed that the only true indication of one’s nutrition was evidenced by excreta . Fletcher advocated teaching children to examine their excreta as a means for disease prevention . If one was in good health and maintained proper nutrition then their excreta, or digestive "ash", as Fletcher called it, should be entirely "inoffensive". By inoffensive, Fletcher meant that there was no stench and no evidence of bacterial decomposition.[5]

Fletcher was an avid spokesman for Belgian Relief and a member of the Commission for Relief in Belgium in World War I.

By 1919, when Fletcher, 69, died of bronchitis, his diet plan was already being replaced by the next approach to dieting championed by Irving Fisher and Eugene Lyman Fisk: counting calories.”

  

Fort Carroll

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Fort Carroll, next to the Key Bridge in Baltimore, Maryland

 

Fort Carroll is a 3.4 acre (14,000 m²) artificial island and abandoned fort in the middle of the Patapsco River, just south of Baltimore, Maryland. It is named for Charles Carroll of Carrollton (1737-1832), a signer of the Declaration of Independence.

Contents

[hide]

 

* 1 Design and construction

* 2 Spanish-American War

* 3 World War I and abandonment

* 4 References

* 5 Notes

* 6 External links

 

[edit] Design and construction

 

In 1847, the State of Maryland gave permission to the United States War Department to construct a fort in the shallow water of Soller’s Point Flats to protect the city of Baltimore. Fort Carroll was important for the defense of Baltimore — before the fort was created, Fort McHenry, just outside the city, was the only military defensive structure between Baltimore and the Chesapeake Bay. The fort was part of the "Permanent System" or Third System construction program, which aimed to defend America’s most important ports.

 

Then Brevet-Colonel Robert E. Lee designed the hexagonal structure and supervised the construction, which the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers commenced in 1848. Lee went on to become Superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point before the fort was named on 8 October 1850.

 

In addition, in 1853 a lighthouse, now abandoned, was built on the ramparts to aid navigation into Baltimore Harbor. In 1898 a new lighthouse was built, the one still seen today. It was automated in 1920 and discontinued operations before 1945.

 

The original design foresaw the fort being armed with some 225 cannon on three levels. However, in April 1861 at the outbreak of the Civil War, Fort Carroll's walls were still less than half the planned height of thirty feet. Only five gun platforms were ready and only two were armed with guns. Still, the Army emplaced about thirty cannon and manned the fort throughout the war. In April 1864 torrential rains flooded the fort’s magazines, which led the Army to move all the powder and ammunition to Fort McHenry.

[edit] Spanish-American War

 

When the United States entered into the Spanish-American War in 1898, the Army again manned the fort's batteries, which were by then completely obsolete. The Army therefore commenced the construction of modern concrete gun emplacements following the designs of the Endicott Board. The Army created three batteries: Battery Towson[Note 1] (two 12" barbette disappearing carriage guns), Battery Heart[Note 2] (two 5" balanced pedestal-mount guns) and Battery Augustin[Note 3] (two 3" balanced pedestal-mount guns).

Fort Carroll from Fort Armistead

 

The new batteries were ready by September 1900, well after the end of the war. They received their names on 30 March 1903.

[edit] World War I and abandonment

 

After World War I broke out, in 1917 the Army removed the guns from Battery Heart and in 1918 those from Battery Towson to use elsewhere. By 1920, all guns had been removed from the fort.

 

In March 1921 the Army officially abandoned Fort Carroll and moved whatever military equipment was left to nearby Fort Howard. The War Department declared the island excess property in 1923, but took no immediate steps to sell the land. A variety of proposals for the use of the island were advanced, including a prison, as well as a 1923 plan advanced by Baltimore mayor William Broening to place an electric "Welcome to Baltimore" sign on the island, accompanied by a statue of Lord Baltimore.[1]

 

In World War II the Army used the fort as a firing range. It also served as a checkpoint for vessels.

 

In May 1958, Baltimore attorney Benjamin Eisenberg purchased the island for $10,000, intending to put a casino on the island, but development plans never materialized.[1] The fort is now deserted and the habitat for various animals. It is also a site for occasional urban explorations.

Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).

Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..

Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.

Ipê Amarelo, Tabebuia [chrysotricha or ochracea].

Ipê-amarelo em Brasília (UnB), Brasil.

This tree is in Brasília, Capital of Brazil.

 

Text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Trumpet tree" redirects here. This term is occasionally used for the Shield-leaved Pumpwood (Cecropia peltata).

Tabebuia

Flowering Araguaney or ipê-amarelo (Tabebuia chrysantha) in central Brazil

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms

(unranked): Eudicots

(unranked): Asterids

Order: Lamiales

Family: Bignoniaceae

Tribe: Tecomeae

Genus: Tabebuia

Gomez

Species

Nearly 100.

Tabebuia is a neotropical genus of about 100 species in the tribe Tecomeae of the family Bignoniaceae. The species range from northern Mexico and the Antilles south to northern Argentina and central Venezuela, including the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti) and Cuba. Well-known common names include Ipê, Poui, trumpet trees and pau d'arco.

They are large shrubs and trees growing to 5 to 50 m (16 to 160 ft.) tall depending on the species; many species are dry-season deciduous but some are evergreen. The leaves are opposite pairs, complex or palmately compound with 3–7 leaflets.

Tabebuia is a notable flowering tree. The flowers are 3 to 11 cm (1 to 4 in.) wide and are produced in dense clusters. They present a cupular calyx campanulate to tubular, truncate, bilabiate or 5-lobed. Corolla colors vary between species ranging from white, light pink, yellow, lavender, magenta, or red. The outside texture of the flower tube is either glabrous or pubescentThe fruit is a dehiscent pod, 10 to 50 cm (4 to 20 in.) long, containing numerous—in some species winged—seeds. These pods often remain on the tree through dry season until the beginning of the rainy.

Species in this genus are important as timber trees. The wood is used for furniture, decking, and other outdoor uses. It is increasingly popular as a decking material due to its insect resistance and durability. By 2007, FSC-certified ipê wood had become readily available on the market, although certificates are occasionally forged.

Tabebuia is widely used as ornamental tree in the tropics in landscaping gardens, public squares, and boulevards due to its impressive and colorful flowering. Many flowers appear on still leafless stems at the end of the dry season, making the floral display more conspicuous. They are useful as honey plants for bees, and are popular with certain hummingbirds. Naturalist Madhaviah Krishnan on the other hand once famously took offense at ipé grown in India, where it is not native.

Lapacho teaThe bark of several species has medical properties. The bark is dried, shredded, and then boiled making a bitter or sour-tasting brownish-colored tea. Tea from the inner bark of Pink Ipê (T. impetiginosa) is known as Lapacho or Taheebo. Its main active principles are lapachol, quercetin, and other flavonoids. It is also available in pill form. The herbal remedy is typically used during flu and cold season and for easing smoker's cough. It apparently works as expectorant, by promoting the lungs to cough up and free deeply embedded mucus and contaminants. However, lapachol is rather toxic and therefore a more topical use e.g. as antibiotic or pesticide may be advisable. Other species with significant folk medical use are T. alba and Yellow Lapacho (T. serratifolia)

Tabebuia heteropoda, T. incana, and other species are occasionally used as an additive to the entheogenic drink Ayahuasca.

Mycosphaerella tabebuiae, a plant pathogenic sac fungus, was first discovered on an ipê tree.

Tabebuia alba

Tabebuia anafensis

Tabebuia arimaoensis

Tabebuia aurea – Caribbean Trumpet Tree

Tabebuia bilbergii

Tabebuia bibracteolata

Tabebuia cassinoides

Tabebuia chrysantha – Araguaney, Yellow Ipê, tajibo (Bolivia), ipê-amarelo (Brazil), cañaguate (N Colombia)

Tabebuia chrysotricha – Golden Trumpet Tree

Tabebuia donnell-smithii Rose – Gold Tree, "Prima Vera", Cortez blanco (El Salvador), San Juan (Honduras), palo blanco (Guatemala),duranga (Mexico)

A native of Mexico and Central Americas, considered one of the most colorful of all Central American trees. The leaves are deciduous. Masses of golden-yellow flowers cover the crown after the leaves are shed.

Tabebuia dubia

Tabebuia ecuadorensis

Tabebuia elongata

Tabebuia furfuracea

Tabebuia geminiflora Rizz. & Mattos

Tabebuia guayacan (Seem.) Hemsl.

Tabebuia haemantha

Tabebuia heptaphylla (Vell.) Toledo – tajy

Tabebuia heterophylla – roble prieto

Tabebuia heteropoda

Tabebuia hypoleuca

Tabebuia impetiginosa – Pink Ipê, Pink Lapacho, ipê-cavatã, ipê-comum, ipê-reto, ipê-rosa, ipê-roxo-damata, pau d'arco-roxo, peúva, piúva (Brazil), lapacho negro (Spanish); not "brazilwood"

Tabebuia incana

Tabebuia jackiana

Tabebuia lapacho – lapacho amarillo

Tabebuia orinocensis A.H. Gentry[verification needed]

Tabebuia ochracea

Tabebuia oligolepis

Tabebuia pallida – Cuban Pink Trumpet Tree

Tabebuia platyantha

Tabebuia polymorpha

Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC.[verification needed] (= T. pentaphylla (L.) Hemsley) – Pink Poui, Pink Tecoma, apama, apamate, matilisguate

A popular street tree in tropical cities because of its multi-annular masses of light pink to purple flowers and modest size. The roots are not especially destructive for roads and sidewalks. It is the national tree of El Salvador and the state tree of Cojedes, Venezuela

Tabebuia roseo-alba – White Ipê, ipê-branco (Brazil), lapacho blanco

Tabebuia serratifolia – Yellow Lapacho, Yellow Poui, ipê-roxo (Brazil)

Tabebuia shaferi

Tabebuia striata

Tabebuia subtilis Sprague & Sandwith

Tabebuia umbellata

Tabebuia vellosoi Toledo

 

Ipê-do-cerrado

Texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.

Ipê-do-cerrado

Classificação científica

Reino: Plantae

Divisão: Magnoliophyta

Classe: Magnoliopsida

Subclasse: Asteridae

Ordem: Lamiales

Família: Bignoniaceae

Género: Tabebuia

Espécie: T. ochracea

Nome binomial

Tabebuia ochracea

(Cham.) Standl. 1832

Sinónimos

Bignonia tomentosa Pav. ex DC.

Handroanthus ochraceus (Cham.) Mattos

Tabebuia chrysantha (Jacq.) G. Nicholson

Tabebuia hypodictyon A. DC.) Standl.

Tabebuia neochrysantha A.H. Gentry

Tabebuia ochracea subsp. heteropoda (A. DC.) A.H. Gentry

Tabebuia ochracea subsp. neochrysantha (A.H. Gentry) A.H. Gentry

Tecoma campinae Kraenzl.

ecoma grandiceps Kraenzl.

Tecoma hassleri Sprague

Tecoma hemmendorffiana Kraenzl.

Tecoma heteropoda A. DC.

Tecoma hypodictyon A. DC.

Tecoma ochracea Cham.

Ipê-do-cerrado é um dos nomes populares da Tabebuia ochracea (Cham.) Standl. 1832, nativa do cerrado brasileiro, no estados de Amazonas, Pará, Maranhão, Piauí, Ceará, Pernambuco, Bahia, Espírito Santo, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo e Paraná.

Está na lista de espécies ameaçadas do estado de São Paulo, onde é encontrda também no domínio da Mata Atlântica[1].

Ocorre também na Argentina, Paraguai, Bolívia, Equador, Peru, Venezuela, Guiana, El Salvador, Guatemala e Panamá[2].

Há uma espécie homônima descrita por A.H. Gentry em 1992.

Outros nomes populares: ipê-amarelo, ipê-cascudo, ipê-do-campo, ipê-pardo, pau-d'arco-do-campo, piúva, tarumã.

Características

Altura de 6 a 14 m. Tronco tortuso com até 50 cm de diâmetro. Folhas pilosas em ambas as faces, mais na inferior, que é mais clara.

Planta decídua, heliófita, xerófita, nativa do cerrado em solos bem drenados.

Floresce de julho a setembro. Os frutos amadurecem de setembro a outubro.

FloresProduz grande quantidade de sementes leves, aladas com pequenas reservas, e que perdem a viabilidade em menos de 90 dias após coleta. A sua conservação vem sendo estudada em termos de determinação da condição ideal de armazenamento, e tem demonstrado a importância de se conhecer o comportamento da espécie quando armazenada com diferentes teores de umidade inicial, e a umidade de equilíbrio crítica para a espécie (KANO; MÁRQUEZ & KAGEYAMA, 1978). As levíssimas sementes aladas da espécie não necessitam de quebra de dormência. Podem apenas ser expostas ao sol por cerca de 6 horas e semeadas diretamente nos saquinhos. A germinação ocorre após 30 dias e de 80%. As sementes são ortodoxas e há aproximadamente 72 000 sementes em cada quilo.

O desenvolvimento da planta é rápido.

Como outros ipês, a madeira é usada em tacos, assoalhos, e em dormentes e postes. Presta-se também para peças torneadas e instrumento musicais.

 

Tabebuia alba (Ipê-Amarelo)

Texto, em português, produzido pela Acadêmica Giovana Beatriz Theodoro Marto

Supervisão e orientação do Prof. Luiz Ernesto George Barrichelo e do Eng. Paulo Henrique Müller

Atualizado em 10/07/2006

 

O ipê amarelo é a árvore brasileira mais conhecida, a mais cultivada e, sem dúvida nenhuma, a mais bela. É na verdade um complexo de nove ou dez espécies com características mais ou menos semelhantes, com flores brancas, amarelas ou roxas. Não há região do país onde não exista pelo menos uma espécie dele, porém a existência do ipê em habitat natural nos dias atuais é rara entre a maioria das espécies (LORENZI,2000).

A espécie Tabebuia alba, nativa do Brasil, é uma das espécies do gênero Tabebuia que possui “Ipê Amarelo” como nome popular. O nome alba provém de albus (branco em latim) e é devido ao tomento branco dos ramos e folhas novas.

As árvores desta espécie proporcionam um belo espetáculo com sua bela floração na arborização de ruas em algumas cidades brasileiras. São lindas árvores que embelezam e promovem um colorido no final do inverno. Existe uma crença popular de que quando o ipê-amarelo floresce não vão ocorrer mais geadas. Infelizmente, a espécie é considerada vulnerável quanto à ameaça de extinção.

A Tabebuia alba, natural do semi-árido alagoano está adaptada a todas as regiões fisiográficas, levando o governo, por meio do Decreto nº 6239, a transformar a espécie como a árvore símbolo do estado, estando, pois sob a sua tutela, não mais podendo ser suprimida de seus habitats naturais.

Taxonomia

Família: Bignoniaceae

Espécie: Tabebuia Alba (Chamiso) Sandwith

Sinonímia botânica: Handroanthus albus (Chamiso) Mattos; Tecoma alba Chamisso

Outros nomes vulgares: ipê-amarelo, ipê, aipê, ipê-branco, ipê-mamono, ipê-mandioca, ipê-ouro, ipê-pardo, ipê-vacariano, ipê-tabaco, ipê-do-cerrado, ipê-dourado, ipê-da-serra, ipezeiro, pau-d’arco-amarelo, taipoca.

Aspectos Ecológicos

O ipê-amarelo é uma espécie heliófita (Planta adaptada ao crescimento em ambiente aberto ou exposto à luz direta) e decídua (que perde as folhas em determinada época do ano). Pertence ao grupo das espécies secundárias iniciais (DURIGAN & NOGUEIRA, 1990).

Abrange a Floresta Pluvial da Mata Atlântica e da Floresta Latifoliada Semidecídua, ocorrendo principalmente no interior da Floresta Primária Densa. É característica de sub-bosques dos pinhais, onde há regeneração regular.

Informações Botânicas

Morfologia

As árvores de Tabebuia alba possuem cerca de 30 metros de altura. O tronco é reto ou levemente tortuoso, com fuste de 5 a 8 m de altura. A casca externa é grisáceo-grossa, possuindo fissuras longitudinais esparas e profundas. A coloração desta é cinza-rosa intenso, com camadas fibrosas, muito resistentes e finas, porém bem distintas.

Com ramos grossos, tortuosos e compridos, o ipê-amarelo possui copa alongada e alargada na base. As raízes de sustentação e absorção são vigorosas e profundas.

As folhas, deciduais, são opostas, digitadas e compostas. A face superior destas folhas é verde-escura, e, a face inferior, acinzentada, sendo ambas as faces tomentosas. Os pecíolos das folhas medem de 2,5 a 10 cm de comprimento. Os folíolos, geralmente, apresentam-se em número de 5 a 7, possuindo de 7 a 18 cm de comprimento por 2 a 6 cm de largura. Quando jovem estes folíolos são densamente pilosos em ambas as faces. O ápice destes é pontiagudo, com base arredondada e margem serreada.

As flores, grandes e lanceoladas, são de coloração amarelo-ouro. Possuem em média 8X15 cm.

Quanto aos frutos, estes possuem forma de cápsula bivalvar e são secos e deiscentes. Do tipo síliqua, lembram uma vagem. Medem de 15 a 30 cm de comprimento por 1,5 a 2,5 cm de largura. As valvas são finamente tomentosas com pêlos ramificados. Possuem grande quantidade de sementes.

As sementes são membranáceas brilhantes e esbranquiçadas, de coloração marrom. Possuem de 2 a 3 cm de comprimento por 7 a 9 mm de largura e são aladas.

Reprodução

A espécie é caducifólia e a queda das folhas coincide com o período de floração. A floração inicia-se no final de agosto, podendo ocorrer alguma variação devido a fenômenos climáticos. Como a espécie floresce no final do inverno é influenciada pela intensidade do mesmo. Quanto mais frio e seco for o inverno, maior será a intensidade da florada do ipê amarelo.

As flores por sua exuberância, atraem abelhas e pássaros, principalmente beija-flores que são importantes agentes polinizadores. Segundo CARVALHO (2003), a espécie possui como vetor de polinização a abelha mamangava (Bombus morio).

As sementes são dispersas pelo vento.

A planta é hermafrodita, e frutifica nos meses de setembro, outubro, novembro, dezembro, janeiro e fevereiro, dependendo da sua localização. Em cultivo, a espécie inicia o processo reprodutivo após o terceiro ano.

Ocorrência Natural

Ocorre naturalmente na Floresta Estaciobal Semidecicual, Floresta de Araucária e no Cerrado.

Segundo o IBGE, a Tabebuia alba (Cham.) Sandw. é uma árvore do Cerrado, Cerradão e Mata Seca. Apresentando-se nos campos secos (savana gramíneo-lenhosa), próximo às escarpas.

Clima

Segundo a classificação de Köppen, o ipê-amarelo abrange locais de clima tropical (Aw), subtropical úmido (Cfa), sutropical de altitude (Cwa e Cwb) e temperado.

A T.alba pode tolerar até 81 geadas em um ano. Ocorre em locais onde a temperatura média anual varia de 14,4ºC como mínimo e 22,4ºC como máximo.

Solo

A espécie prefere solos úmidos, com drenagem lenta e geralmente não muito ondulados (LONGHI, 1995).

Aparece em terras de boa à média fertilidade, em solos profundos ou rasos, nas matas e raramente cerradões (NOGUEIRA, 1977).

Pragas e Doenças

De acordo com CARVALHO (2003), possui como praga a espécie de coleópteros Cydianerus bohemani da família Curculionoideae e um outro coleóptero da família Chrysomellidae. Apesar da constatação de elevados índices populacionais do primeiro, os danos ocasionados até o momento são leves. Nas praças e ruas de Curitiba - PR, 31% das árvores foram atacadas pela Cochonilha Ceroplastes grandis.

ZIDKO (2002), ao estudar no município de Piracicaba a associação de coleópteros em espécies arbóreas, verificou a presença de insetos adultos da espécie Sitophilus linearis da família de coleópteros, Curculionidae, em estruturas reprodutivas. Os insetos adultos da espécie emergiram das vagens do ipê, danificando as sementes desta espécie nativa.

ANDRADE (1928) assinalou diversas espécies de Cerambycidae atacando essências florestais vivas, como ingazeiro, cinamomo, cangerana, cedro, caixeta, jacarandá, araribá, jatobá, entre outras como o ipê amarelo.

A Madeira

A Tabebuia alba produz madeira de grande durabilidade e resistência ao apodrecimento (LONGHI,1995).

MANIERI (1970) caracteriza o cerne desta espécie como de cor pardo-havana-claro, pardo-havan-escuro, ou pardo-acastanhado, com reflexos esverdeados. A superfície da madeira é irregularmente lustrosa, lisa ao tato, possuindo textura media e grã-direita.

Com densidade entre 0,90 e 1,15 grama por centímetro cúbico, a madeira é muito dura (LORENZI, 1992), apresentando grande dificuldade ao serrar.

A madeira possui cheiro e gosto distintos. Segundo LORENZI (1992), o cheiro característico é devido à presença da substância lapachol, ou ipeína.

Usos da Madeira

Sendo pesada, com cerne escuro, adquire grande valor comercial na marcenaria e carpintaria. Também é utilizada para fabricação de dormentes, moirões, pontes, postes, eixos de roda, varais de carroça, moendas de cana, etc.

Produtos Não-Madeireiros

A entrecasca do ipê-amarelo possui propriedades terapêuticas como adstringente, usada no tratamento de garganta e estomatites. É também usada como diurético.

O ipê-amarelo possui flores melíferas e que maduras podem ser utilizadas na alimentação humana.

Outros Usos

É comumente utilizada em paisagismo de parques e jardins pela beleza e porte. Além disso, é muito utilizada na arborização urbana.

Segundo MOREIRA & SOUZA (1987), o ipê-amarelo costuma povoar as beiras dos rios sendo, portanto, indicado para recomposição de matas ciliares. MARTINS (1986), também cita a espécie para recomposição de matas ciliares da Floresta Estacional Semidecidual, abrangendo alguns municípios das regiões Norte, Noroeste e parte do Oeste do Estado do Paraná.

Aspectos Silviculturais

Possui a tendência a crescer reto e sem bifurcações quando plantado em reflorestamento misto, pois é espécie monopodial. A desrrama se faz muito bem e a cicatrização é boa. Sendo assim, dificilmente encopa quando nova, a não ser que seja plantado em parques e jardins.

Ao ser utilizada em arborização urbana, o ipê amarelo requer podas de condução com freqüência mediana.

Espécie heliófila apresenta a pleno sol ramificação cimosa, registrando-se assim dicotomia para gema apical. Deve ser preconizada, para seu melhor aproveitamento madeireiro, podas de formação usuais (INQUE et al., 1983).

Produção de Mudas

A propagação deve realizada através de enxertia.

Os frutos devem ser coletados antes da dispersão, para evitar a perda de sementes. Após a coleta as sementes são postas em ambiente ventilado e a extração é feita manualmente. As sementes do ipê amarelo são ortodoxas, mantendo a viabilidade natural por até 3 meses em sala e por até 9 meses em vidro fechado, em câmara fria.

A condução das mudas deve ser feita a pleno sol. A muda atinge cerca de 30 cm em 9 meses, apresentando tolerância ao sol 3 semanas após a germinação.

Sementes

Os ipês, espécies do gênero Tabebuia, produzem uma grande quantidade de sementes leves, aladas com pequenas reservas, e que perdem a viabilidade em poucos dias após a sua coleta. A sua conservação vem sendo estudada em termos de determinação da condição ideal de armazenamento, e tem demonstrado a importância de se conhecer o comportamento da espécie quando armazenada com diferentes teores de umidade inicial, e a umidade de equilíbrio crítica para a espécie (KANO; MÁRQUEZ & KAGEYAMA, 1978).

As levíssimas sementes aladas da espécie não necessitam de quebra de dormência. Podem apenas ser expostas ao sol por cerca de 6 horas e semeadas diretamente nos saquinhos. A quebra natural leva cerca de 3 meses e a quebra na câmara leva 9 meses. A germinação ocorre após 30 dias e de 80%.

As sementes são ortodoxas e há aproximadamente 87000 sementes em cada quilo.

Preço da Madeira no Mercado

O preço médio do metro cúbico de pranchas de ipê no Estado do Pará cotado em Julho e Agosto de 2005 foi de R$1.200,00 o preço mínimo, R$ 1509,35 o médio e R$ 2.000,00 o preço máximo (CEPEA,2005).

 

National Encyclopedia Atlas 1868.

Published by William Mackenzie London. 19cm x 29cm

From the effects of Capt. John William Bowring Darke RNR: also see Darke Memorabilia:

www.flickr.com/photos/angeljim46/albums/72157629262812877

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Setting up to fail is a phrase denoting a no-win situation designed in such a way that the person in the situation cannot succeed at the task which they have been assigned. It is considered a form of workplace bullying.[1] There are also situations in which an organization or project is set up to fail[2][3], and where individuals set themselves up to fail.[4]

 

The first known documented use of "set up to fail" was in 1969 in the United States.[5]

 

In the workplace

Setting up to fail is a well-established workplace bullying tactic.[6][7][8] One technique is to overload with work, while denying the victim the authority to handle it and over-interfering;[9] another is the withholding of the information necessary to succeed.[10]

 

If a person puts another individual (usually a subordinate) in a stressful situation in which failure is almost certain, this may be an aspect of bullying wherein the outcome can then be used to discredit and blame the victim.[11] Sometimes, this may involve the bully covertly sabotaging and undermining an objective that may have otherwise been achievable. This type of bullying may be the result of the projection of the bully's own feelings of inadequacy onto the victim.[12]

 

There can be cases where an employee is set up to fail because the stated goals of the task are considered harmful to the organization; an internal investigation is one example. Institutions may protect themselves by "going through the motions" of a sham investigation in which the findings conveniently fail to find any evidence of wrongdoing by the authorities involved with setting up the investigation.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setting_up_to_fail

 

********************

Sometimes it's just shitty work, sometimes it's Government corruption. Sometimes, it's both. Louisville's Mayor Fischer, "What happened to all our trees?" Kentucky Governor Bevin, "What trees?" The DEP, "Huh?" The EPA, "We did our job". What's that funny smell? Mayor Fischer: "Geosmin".

 

Take two Fukitol's as prescribed, don't litter & curb your dog - it's the law.

 

Welcome to "Little West Virginia", aka "Kentuckistan". : )

 

Follow my Facebook Page!

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

Career

Name: Lurline

Owner: Matson Lines

Chandris Lines

Builder: Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Fore River Shipyard

Laid down: 1931

Launched: 1932

Christened: Lurline, 12 July 1932

Ellinis, September 1963

Maiden voyage: 12 January 1933

Fate: Scrapped in Taiwan in 1987

General characteristics

Type: Ocean liner

Tonnage: 18,163 GRT

Length: 632 ft (193 m)

Beam: 79 ft (24 m)

Speed: 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph) (service)

22 knots (41 km/h; 25 mph) (maximum)

Capacity: 715 passengers

475 first class, 240 tourist class

Crew: 359

 

SS Lurline was the third Matson Lines vessel to hold that name and the last of four fast and luxurious ocean liners that Matson built for the Hawaii and Australasia runs from the West Coast of the United States. Lurline's sister ships were SS Malolo, SS Mariposa and SS Monterey. Lurline served as a troopship in World War II operated by War Shipping Administration agents serving Army troop transport requirements.[1]

 

Rechristened in 1963 by Chandris Lines as the MS Ellinis, the ship became one of the most important luxury cruise ships on the Australian and New Zealand services. She operated in Australasia and Oceania until 1980.

Contents

 

Lurline of the Matson Line

 

William Matson had first come to appreciate the name in the 1870s while serving as skipper aboard the Claus Spreckels family yacht Lurline (a poetic variation of Loreley, the Rhine river siren)[2] out of San Francisco Bay. Matson met his future wife, Lillie Low, on a yacht voyage he captained to Hawaii; the couple named their daughter Lurline Berenice Matson. Spreckels sold a 150-foot brigantine named Lurline to Matson so that Matson could replace his smaller schooner Emma Claudina and double the shipping operation which involved hauling supplies and a few passengers to Hawaii and returning with cargos of Spreckels sugar. Matson added other vessels to his nascent fleet and the brigantine was sold to another company in 1896.[3] Matson built a steamship named Lurline in 1908;[4] one which carried mainly freight yet could hold 51 passengers along with 65 crew. This steamer served Matson for twenty years, including a stint with United States Shipping Board during World War I. Matson died in 1917; his company continued under a board of directors.

 

Lurline Matson married William P. Roth in 1914; in 1927 Roth became president of Matson Lines. That same year saw the SS Malolo (Hawaiian for "flying fish") enter service inaugurating a higher class of tourist travel to Hawaii. In 1928, Roth sold the old steamship Lurline to the Alaska Packers' Association. That ship served various duties including immigration and freight under the Yugoslavian flag (renamed Radnik) and was finally broken up in 1953.

 

In 1932, the last of four smart liners designed by William Francis Gibbs and built for the Matson Lines' Pacific services was launched: the SS Lurline christened on 12 July 1932 in Quincy, Massachusetts by Lurline Matson Roth (who had also christened her father's 1908 steamship Lurline as a young woman of 18). On 12 January 1933, the SS Lurline left New York City bound for San Francisco via the Panama Canal on her maiden voyage, thence to Sydney and the South Seas, returning to San Francisco on 24 April 1933. She then served on the express San Francisco to Honolulu service with her older sister with whom she shared appearance, the Malolo.

 

Famous aviator Amelia Earhart rode Lurline from Los Angeles to Honolulu with her Lockheed Vega airplane secured on deck during December 22–27, 1934. The voyage prepared her for the record-breaking Honolulu-to-Oakland solo flight she made in January 1935.[5]

 

Lurline was half-way from Honolulu to San Francisco on 7 December 1941, when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor. She made her destination safely, travelling at maximum speed, and soon returned to Hawaii with her Matson sisters Mariposa and Monterey in a convoy laden with troops and supplies.

 

She spent the war providing similar services, often voyaging to Australia, and once transported Australian Prime Minister John Curtin to America to confer with President Roosevelt. Wartime events put the Lurline at risk. Royal Australian Air Force trainee pilot Arthur Harrison had been put on watch without adequate training. "A straight line of bubbles extending from away out on the starboard side of the ship to across the bow. I had never seen anything quite like it, but it reminded me of bubbles behind a motorboat. I called to the lad on watch on the next gun forward. A few seconds later the ship went into a hard 90 degree turn to port. We RAAF trainees received a severe reprimand from the captain for not reporting the torpedo. Anyway, it was a bad miss."[6]

 

Lurline was returned to Matson Lines in mid-1946 and extensively refitted at Bethlehem-Alameda Shipyard in Alameda, California in 1947 at the then huge cost of $US 20 million. She resumed her San Francisco to Honolulu service from 15 April 1948 and regained her pre-war status as the Pacific Ocean's top liner.

 

Her high occupancy rates during the early 1950s caused Matson to also refit her sister ship SS Monterey (renaming her SS Matsonia) and the two liners provided a first class-only service between Hawaii and the American mainland from June 1957 to September 1962, mixed with the occasional Pacific cruise. Serious competition from jet airliners caused passenger loads to fall in the early 1960s and Matsonia was laid up in late 1962.

 

Only a few months later, the Lurline arrived in Los Angeles with serious engine trouble in her port turbine and was laid up with the required repairs considered too expensive. Matson instead brought the Matsonia out of retirement and, characteristically, changed her name to Lurline. The original Lurline was sold to Chandris Lines in 1963.

Ellinis of the Chandris Line

 

The Lurline was bought by Chandris Lines in September 1963 to replace the SS Brittany, wrecked by fire earlier in the year. The Ellinis sailed under her new name from California to North East England for repairs in North Shields and was refitted with increased accommodation for 1,668 passengers in one class.

 

She was given new Chandris livery and a modernised superstructure with new funnels and embarked on her maiden voyage from Piraeus to Sydney on 30 December 1963. Her homeward voyages were alternately routed east via the Panama Canal to Southampton. The ship took occasional cruises.

 

In April 1974, cruising to Japan, Ellinis developed major problems in one engine. Fortunately, Chandris were able to buy a surplus engine from her sister ship Homeric (ex-Mariposa) which was being broken up in Taiwan at the time. The replacement was carried out in Rotterdam, finishing in March 1975.

 

Ellinis provided mainly cruise services from 1975 and, in October 1981, she was finally laid up in Greece after providing passenger services for nearly fifty years. Despite various plans to utilize the ship whole, she was sold in 1986 and scrapped in Taiwan in 1987. Some of her fittings were installed in other Chandris ships; her engine parts were stored against future need by her aging sister Britanis (ex-Monterey)

 

Israel Museum

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Not to be confused with Eretz Israel Museum.

The Israel Museum, Jerusalem

Israel museum.JPG

Established1965

LocationJerusalem

Coordinates31.772379°N 35.204524°E

TypeArt and history

VisitorsMore than one million in one year (2011)[1]

DirectorIdo Bruno - Director

Websitewww.imj.org.il/en/

The Israel Museum (Hebrew: מוזיאון ישראל‎, Muze'on Yisrael) was established in 1965 as Israel's national museum. It is situated on a hill in the Givat Ram neighborhood of Jerusalem, ajacent to the Bible Lands Museum, the Knesset, the Israeli Supreme Court, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

 

Among the unique objects on display are the Venus of Berekhat Ram; the interior of a 1736 Zedek ve Shalom synagogue from Suriname; necklaces worn by Jewish brides in Yemen; a mosaic Islamic prayer niche from 17th-century Persia; and a nail attesting to the practice of crucifixion in Jesus’ time.[2] An urn-shaped building on the grounds of the museum, the Shrine of the Book, houses the Dead Sea Scrolls and artifacts discovered at Masada. It is one of the largest museums in the region.

  

Contents

1History

2Archaeology Wing

3Shrine of the Book

4Second Temple model

5Fine Arts Wing

5.1European, Modern, and Israeli art

6Jack, Joseph, and Morton Mandel Wing for Jewish Art and Life

6.1Isidore and Anne Falk Information Center for Jewish Art and Life

7Art Garden

8Youth Wing

9Rockefeller Archaeological Museum and the Ticho House

10Management

10.1Funding

10.2Attendance

11Prizes awarded by the Museum

12Notable staff

13See also

14Further reading

15References

16External links

History

Jerusalem mayor Teddy Kollek was the driving spirit behind the establishment of the Israel Museum, one of the leading art and archaeology museums in the world. The Museum houses works dating from prehistory to the present day in its Archaeology, Fine Arts, and Jewish Art and Life Wings, and features extensive holdings of biblical and Land of Israel archaeology.[2] Since its establishment in 1965, the Museum has built up a collection of nearly 500,000 objects, representing a broad sample of world material culture.[3]

 

On October 25, 2017, Prof. Ido Bruno was appointed Director of the Israel Museum in Jerusalem as the Anne and Jerome Fisher Director. Bruno served as a professor in the Industrial Design Department of the Bezalel Academy of Arts & Design, Jerusalem. He brings to the position decades of experience as a curator and designer of exhibitions presented in Israel and across the world with a focus on art, archeology, science, and history. He was unanimously elected by the Museum’s Board of Directors, chaired by Isaac Molho, following an extensive search and review process of candidates from Israel and abroad. Bruno assumed his position at the Museum in November 2017.[4]

 

James S. Snyder, former Deputy Director of the Museum of Modern Art in New York, was appointed director of the museum in 1997.[5]

 

From 1965, the museum was housed in a series of masonry buildings designed by the Russian-born Israeli architect Alfred Mansfeld. A $100-million campaign to renovate the museum and double its gallery space was completed by Israeli architects Efrat-Kowalsky Architects who renovated the existing buildings [6] in July 2010.[7] The wings for archaeology, the fine arts, and Jewish art and life were completely rebuilt and the original buildings were linked through a new entrance pavilion. The passageways that connect between the buildings and five new pavilions were designed by James Carpenter.[8]

  

New Wing Exterior with Anish Kapoor sculpture

 

Heliodorus Stele

 

The 19th Century Room

The museum covers nearly 50,000 sq. meters and attracts 800,000 visitors a year, including 100,000 children who visit and attend classes in its Youth Wing.[citation needed]

 

Archaeology Wing

The Samuel and Saidye Bronfman Archaeology Wing tells the story of the ancient Land of Israel, home to peoples of different cultures and faiths, using unique examples from the Museum’s collection of Holy Land archaeology, the foremost holding in the world. Organized chronologically, from prehistory through the Ottoman Empire, the transformed wing presents seven “chapters” of this archaeological narrative, weaving together momentous historical events, cultural achievements, and technological advances, while providing a glimpse into the everyday lives of the peoples of the region. This narrative is supplemented by thematic groupings highlighting aspects of ancient Israeli archaeology that are unique to the region’s history, among them Hebrew writing, glass, and coins. Treasures from neighboring cultures that have had a decisive impact on the Land of Israel – such as Egypt, the Near East, Greece and Italy, and the Islamic world – are on view in adjacent and connecting galleries. A special gallery at the entrance to the wing showcases new findings and other temporary exhibition displays.

 

Highlights on view include: Pilate Stone, "House of David” inscription (9th century BCE), A comparative display of two shrines (8th–7th century BCE), The Heliodorus Stele (178 BCE), Royal Herodian bathhouse (1st century BCE), Hadrian’s Triumph: Inscription from a triumphal arch (136 CE), the Mosaic of Rehob (3rd century CE) and Gold-glass bases from the Roman Catacombs (4th century CE), the Ossuary of Jesus son of Joseph.[9]

"The Golden Pathway to a Treasury of Knowledge" by the International University Society of England, Canada and Australia. Printed in Great Britain. Undated. This is Volume IV. Our Wonderful World.

Following, a text, in english, from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro_Colón

Teatro Colón

 

The Teatro Colón (Spanish) (Columbus Theatre) is the main opera house in Buenos Aires, Argentina, acoustically considered to be amongst the five best concert venues in the world.[1]

The present Colón replaced an original theatre which opened in 1857. Towards the end of the century it became clear that a new theatre was needed and, after a 20-year process, the present theatre opened on May 25, 1908, with Giuseppe Verdi's Aïda.

The Teatro Colón was visited by the foremost singers and opera companies of the time, who would sometimes go on to other cities including Montevideo, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.

After this period of huge international success, the theatre's decline became clear and plans were made for massive renovations. After an initial start of works to restore the landmark in 2005, the theatre was closed for refurbishment from October 2006 to May 2010. It re-opened on May 24, 2010, with a program for the 2010 season.[2]

 

The first Teatro Colón:

By the mid-1850s, with the flourishing of opera performed by touring companies, the need for a new theatre became obvious. In 1854 alone, 53 different operas were performed in the city. The first Teatro Colón building, overlooking Plaza de Mayo, was started in 1856 and opened on April 27, 1857, with Verdi's La traviata, just four years after its Italian premiere. The production starred Sofia Vera Lorini as Violetta and Enrico Tamberlik as Alfredo. The theatre was designed by Charles Pellegrini, and proved to be a successful venue for over 30 years, with 2,500 seats and the inclusion of a separate gallery reserved only for women.

Before the construction of the current Teatro Colón, opera performances were given in several theatres, of which the first Teatro Colón and the Teatro Opera were the most important. The principal company that performed at the Teatro Opera moved to the Teatro Colón in 1908. However, important companies also performed at the Teatro Politeama and the Teatro Coliseo which opened in 1907.

 

The present Teatro Colón:

Characteristics:

The theatre is bounded by the wide 9 de Julio Avenue (technically Cerrito Street), Libertad Street (the main entrance), Arturo Toscanini Street, and Tucumán Street.[3] It is in the heart of the city on a site once occupied by Ferrocarril Oeste's Plaza Parque station.

The auditorium is horseshoe-shaped, has 2,487 seats (slightly more than the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, London), standing room for 1,000 and a stage which is 20 m wide, 15 m high and 20 m deep.[4] The Colon's acoustics are considered to be so good as to place it in the top five performance venues in the world.[1] Luciano Pavarotti held a similar opinion[5]

Opening and subsequent history:

The present theatre, the second with that name, opened on May 25, 1908, after twenty years under construction,[6] and was inaugurated with Aida by the Italian company directed by Luigi Mancinelli and tenor Amadeo Bassi, soprano Lucia Crestani (as Aida). The second performance was Thomas' Hamlet with the baritone Titta Ruffo[7] During the inaugural season seventeen operas were performed with famous stars such as Ruffo, Feodor Chaliapin in Boito's Mefistofele, Antonio Paoli in Verdi's Otello, and the world

The cornerstone of the present Teatro Colón was laid in 1889 under the direction of architect Francesco Tamburini and his pupil, Vittorio Meano, who designed a theater in the Italian style on a scale and with amenities which matched those in Europe. However, delays followed due to financial difficulties, arguments regarding the location, the death of Tamburini in 1891, the murder of Meano in 1904 and the death of Angelo Ferrari, an Italian businessman who was the financing the new theatre. The building was finally completed in 1908 under the direction of the Belgian architect Julio Dormal who made some changes in the structure and left his mark in the French style of the decoration. The bas-reliefs and busts on the facade are the work of sculptor Luigi Trinchero.

The theatre's opening on May 25, the Día de la Patria in Argentina, featured a performance of Verdi's Aida and it quickly became a world-famous operatic venue rivaling La Scala and the Metropolitan Opera in attracting most of the world's best opera singers and conductors.

Ballet stars performed at the Colón alongside Argentine dancers and classical instrumentalists. The tragic 1971 aviation death of two of the best known of these, Norma Fontenla and José Neglia, was commemorated with a monument in neighboring Lavalle Square.

With excellent acoustics and modern stage areas, the theatre's interior design features a rich scarlet and gold decor. The cupola contains frescoes painted in 1966 by the 20th-century artist Raúl Soldi during renovation work.

Refurbishment, 2005 - 2010:

In recent years, given the political and economic circumstances of Argentina, the Colón Theatre has suffered considerably, but a period of slow recovery began. The theatre underwent massive phased remodeling of both interior and exterior, initially while the house was still open, but production activities ceased at the end of October 2006 to allow full refurbishment.

Initially, "what had been planned as an 18-month, $25-million renovation with 500 workers, scheduled for a May 2008 reopening with Aida, became a three-year $100-million extravaganza with 1,500 workers including 130 professional architects and engineers."[8] In addition, an exterior open-air stage was planned for an opening in 2011.[8] In all, 60,000 square metres (645,835 sq ft) underwent updating, both inside and out.

Some of the last performances immediately before closure of the theatre's building were Swan Lake on 30 September with the Ballet Estable del Teatro Colón and the Buenos Aires Philharmonic (Orquesta Filarmónica de Buenos Aires).[9] and, on 28 October, the opera Boris Godunov was given featuring Orquesta Estable del Teatro Colón and the house chorus.[10]

The theatre's final performance before its closure for refurbishment works in 2005 was a concert on November 1 starring folklore singer Mercedes Sosa in performance with the Argentine National Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Pedro Ignacio Calderón.

While it was originally planned to reopen in time for the centenary on 25 May 2008, delays prevented this, and the house was finally reopened with a gala concert and 3D animations on 24 May 2010, the eve of its own 102nd birthday and the Argentina Bicentennial. Tchaikovsky's Swan Lake and Act 2 of Puccini's La bohème were performed. A private concert to test the acoustics attended by employees, architects, and others involved in the renovation occurred on 6 May 2010.[11]

 

References

 

Notes

^ a b Long, Marshall, "What is So Special About Shoebox Halls? Envelopment, Envelopment, Envelopment", Acoustics Today, April 2009, pp.21-25. The other venues are Berlin's Konzerthaus, Vienna's Musikverein, the Concertgebouw in Amsterdam, and Boston's Symphony Hall.

^ Robert Turnbull, "An Operatic Drama Performed Mostly Offstage", New York Times, 16 June 2010 Retrieved 10 Nov 2010

^ History of the Colón Theatre (in English)

^ Official website

^ Luciano Pavarotti's reaction to the acoustics in Lynn, p.30: The theatre's "acoustics (have) the greatest defect: its acoustics are perfect! Imagine what this signifies for the singer: if one sings something bad, one notices immediately"

^ History of the Teatre Colon from haciendoelcolon.buenosaires.gob.ar (in Spanish) Retrieved 9 Nov 2010

^ Teatro Colon website (in Spanish)

^ a b Lynn, p. 29

^ Official Schedule for September 2006

^ Official Schedule for October 2006

^ Daniel Fernández Quinti (May 7, 2010). "Probaron que la acústica del Teatro Colón está intacta". Clarín (Buenos Aires). Retrieved 5 July 2010 (in Spanish).

Sources

Caamaño, Roberto. Historia del Teatro Colón, Vol I-III, Cinetea, Buenos Aires, 1969.

Ferro, Valenti. Las voces del Teatro Colón, Buenos Aires, 1982

Garland, Marguerite. Mas allá del gran telón. Buenos Aires, 1990

Hoos, Monica, El Teatro Colón, 2003, ISBN 978-9879479032

Lynn, Karyl Charna, "Restoration Drama", Opera Now, (London) Sept/Oct 2010, pp. 28–30

Matera, J. H., Teatro Colón Años de gloria 1908-1958, Buenos Aires, 1958. ML1717.8.B9 T4

Moyano, Julia. Teatro Colon A telon abierto. ISBN 987-97920-0-9

Pollini, Margarita. Palco, cazuela y paraíso. Las historias más insólitas del Teatro Colón. 2002

Sessa, Aldo, Manuel Mujica Láinez, Vida y gloria del Teatro Colón. 1983. ISBN 9789509140011

Sessa, Aldo. El mágico mundo del Teatro Colón. 1995. ISBN 9509140228

Sessa, Aldo. ALMAS, ANGELES Y DUENDES DEL TEATRO COLON, ISBN 978-950-9140-50-9

    

A seguir, um texto, em português, sobre o Teatro Colón, da Wikipédia, a Enciclopédia Livre:

 

Teatro Colón

pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro_Colón

 

O Teatro Colón (em português Teatro Colombo) é a mais importante sala de espetáculos de Buenos Aires, Argentina. Inaugurado em 25 de maio de 1908, é um dos teatros de ópera mais famosos do mundo, desenhado por Francesco Tamburini e Víctor Meano.

Com capacidade para 3000 pessoas e em um entorno de estilo eclético, mescla do neo-renascentismo italiano e do barroco francês, o desenho do teatro apresenta uma rica decoração em dourado e escarlate. A cúpula mostra figuras pintadas pelo reconhecido artista contemporâneo Raúl Soldi.

Ao longo de sua história o Teatro Colón tem abrigado grandes personagens como Arturo Toscanini, Jane Bathori, Enrico Caruso, Maria Callas, Plácido Domingo, Luciano Pavarotti e Astor Piazzolla.

Também é um habitual cenário de espectáculos de balé e, ocasionalmente, de atos oficiais e privados e de música popular. Seu status artístico está arraigado de tal forma no imaginário coletivo argentino que se saúda ao grito de ¡Al Colón! aos triunfadores das mais diversas expressões culturais.

Desde novembro de 1989 o teatro é um dos monumentos históricos nacionais.[1]

Dada a precária situação econômica argentina, nos últimos anos o Teatro tem vivido momentos de dificuldade, sendo atacado por alguns setores que tem posto em questão o financiamento estatal de seu elevado custo. Atualmente, em 2006, está passando por uma remodelação integral da sala, pelo qual sua atividade será limitada e fechará suas portas até 25 de maio de 2008 quando reabrirá para o Centenário de sua inauguração.

Atualmente (2011), após vários anos das obras de restauração, o Teatro Colon encontra-se em pleno vigor de sua monumental arquitetura. O cuidado trabalho de restauro pode ser apreciado nas visitas guiadas, que reabriram há poucos meses. O suntuoso foyer se abre para uma das salas de espetáculos mais imponentes do mundo. Além da qualidade e nobreza dos acabamentos o próprio tamanho impressiona. Perto dele o Operá de Paris parece pequeno.

Dizem os portenhos que também sua acústica é das melhores do mundo.

Referências

 

↑ Decreto do Poder Executivo Nacional 1259/89

   

Veja mais no site oficial do Teatro Colón, no endereço a seguir:

www.teatrocolon.org.ar/es/

Battlestar Galactica book

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lick Observatory

 

Named afterJames Lick Edit this on Wikidata

OrganizationUniversity of California Edit this on Wikidata

Observatory code662 Edit this on Wikidata

Locationnear San Jose, California

Coordinates37°20′29″N 121°38′34″WCoordinates: 37°20′29″N 121°38′34″W

Altitude1,283 m (4,209 ft) Edit this at Wikidata

Websiteucolick.org/main/ Edit this at Wikidata

TelescopesAnna L. Nickel telescope

Automated Planet Finder

C. Donald Shane telescope

Carnegie telescope

Coudé Auxiliary Telescope

Crossley telescope

James Lick telescope

Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope

Tauchmann telescope Edit this on Wikidata

Lick Observatory is located in the US Lick Observatory

Location of Lick Observatory

Commons page Related media on Wikimedia Commons

[edit on Wikidata]

The Lick Observatory is an astronomical observatory, owned and operated by the University of California. It is situated on the summit of Mount Hamilton, in the Diablo Range just east of San Jose, California, US. The observatory is managed by the University of California Observatories, with headquarters on the University of California, Santa Cruz campus, where its scientific staff moved in the mid-1960s.

 

Early history

Lick Observatory is the world's first permanently occupied mountain-top observatory.[1] The observatory, in a Classical Revival style structure, was constructed between 1876 and 1887, from a bequest from James Lick of $700,000 (approximately $22 million in 2014 US dollars).[2][3] Lick, originally a carpenter and piano maker, chose the site atop Mount Hamilton and was buried there in 1887 under the future site of the telescope,[2] with a brass tablet bearing the inscription, "Here lies the body of James Lick".[citation needed]

 

Lick Observatory in 1900

Lick additionally requested that Santa Clara County construct a "first-class road" to the summit, completed in 1876.[2] Lick chose John Wright, of San Francisco's Wright & Sanders firm of architects, to design both the Observatory and the Astronomer's House.[4] All of the construction materials had to be brought to the site by horse and mule-drawn wagons, which could not negotiate a steep grade. To keep the grade below 6.5%, the road had to take a very winding and sinuous path, which the modern-day road (California State Route 130) still follows. Tradition maintains that this road has exactly 365 turns (This is approximately correct, although uncertainty as to what should count as a turn makes precise verification impossible). The road is closed when there is snow at Lick Observatory.[5]

 

The first telescope installed at the observatory was a 12-inch (300-millimeter) refractor made by Alvan Clark. Astronomer E. E. Barnard used the telescope to make "exquisite photographs of comets and nebulae," according to D. J. Warner of Warner & Swasey Company.[2]

 

The 36-inch (91-centimeter) refracting telescope on Mt. Hamilton was Earth's largest refracting telescope during the period from when it saw first light on January 3, 1888, until the construction of Yerkes Observatory in 1897. Warner & Swasey designed and built the telescope mounting, with the 36-inch (91-centimeter) lens manufactured by one of the Clark sons, Alvan Graham. E. E. Barnard used the telescope in 1892 to discover a fifth moon of Jupiter, Amalthea. This was the first addition to Jupiter's known moons since Galileo observed the planet through his parchment tube and spectacle lens. The telescope provided spectra for W. W. Campbell's work on the radial velocities of stars.[2]

 

In May 1888, the observatory was turned over to the Regents of the University of California,[6] and it became the first permanently occupied mountain-top observatory in the world. Edward Singleton Holden was the first director. The location provided excellent viewing performance because of lack of ambient light and pollution; additionally, the night air at the top of Mt. Hamilton is extremely calm, and the mountain peak is normally above the level of the low cloud cover that is often seen in the San Jose area. When low cloud cover is present below the peak, light pollution is cut to almost nothing.[citation needed]

 

On May 21, 1939, during a nighttime fog that engulfed the summit, a U.S. Army Air Force Northrop A-17 two-seater attack plane crashed into the main building. Because a scientific meeting was being held elsewhere, the only staff member present was Nicholas Mayall. Nothing caught fire and the two individuals in the building were unharmed. The pilot of the plane, Lt. Richard F. Lorenz, and passenger Private W. E. Scott were killed instantly. The telephone line was broken by the crash, so no help could be called for at first. Eventually help arrived together with numerous reporters and photographers, who kept arriving almost all night long. Evidence of their numbers could be seen the next day by the litter of flash bulbs carpeting the parking lot. The press widely covered the accident and many reports emphasized the luck in not losing a large cabinet of spectrograms which was knocked over by the crash coming through an astronomer's office window. Perhaps more notable was the lack of fire or damage to a telescope dome.[7][8][9][10]

 

In 1950, the California state legislature appropriated funds for a 120-inch (300-centimeter) reflector telescope, which was completed in 1959. The observatory additionally has a 24-inch (61-centimeter) Cassegrain reflector dedicated to photoelectric measurements of star brightness, and received a pair of 20-inch (51-centimeter) astrographs from the Carnegie Corporation.[2]

 

Current state

 

Lick Observatory and Mount Hamilton, looking east on takeoff from Mineta San José International Airport

With the growth of San Jose, and the rest of Silicon Valley, light pollution became a problem for the observatory. In the 1970s, a site in the Santa Lucia Mountains at Junípero Serra Peak, southeast of Monterey, was evaluated for possible relocation of many of the telescopes. However, funding for the move was not available, and in 1980 San Jose began a program to reduce the effects of lighting, most notably replacing all streetlamps with low pressure sodium lamps. The result is that the Mount Hamilton site remains a viable location for a major working observatory. The International Astronomical Union named Asteroid 6216 San Jose to honor the city's efforts toward reducing light pollution.[11]

 

In 2006, there were 23 families in residence, plus typically between two and ten visiting astronomers from the University of California campuses, who stay in dormitories while working at the observatory. The little town of Mount Hamilton atop the mountain has its own police and a post office, and until recently a one-room schoolhouse.[12]

 

In 2008, there were 38 people residing on the mountain; the chef and commons dinner were decommissioned.[citation needed] By 2013, with continuing budget and staff cuts there remain only about nineteen residents and it is common for the observers to work from remote observing stations rather than make the drive, partly as a result of the business office raising the cost to stay in the dorms,[citation needed] the swimming pool has been removed.[citation needed]

 

In 2013, one of Lick Observatory's key funding sources was scheduled for elimination in 2018, which many worried would result in the closing of the entire observatory.[13] [14]

 

In November 2014, the University of California announced its intention to continue support of Lick Observatory.[15]

 

Telescopes at Lick Observatory are used by researchers from multiple campuses of the University of California system. Current topics of research carried out at Lick include exoplanets, supernovae, active galactic nuclei, planetary science, and development of new adaptive optics technologies.

 

Significant discoveries

 

Simulation of Amalthea orbiting Jupiter

The following astronomical objects were discovered at Lick Observatory:[citation needed]

 

Several moons of Jupiter[16]

Amalthea[17]

Ananke[citation needed]

Elara[18]

Himalia

Lysithea

Sinope[19]

Near-Earth asteroid (29075) 1950 DA

Several extrasolar planets

Quintuple planet system

55 Cancri[20]

Triple planet system

Upsilon Andromedae (with Whipple Observatory)

Double planet systems

HD 38529 (with Keck Observatory)

HD 12661 (with Keck)

Gliese 876 (with Keck)

47 Ursae Majoris

The first detection of emission lines in the spectrum of an active galaxy[21]

The jet emerging from the active nucleus in Messier 87[22]

The hidden active galactic nucleus in NGC 1068,[23] detected using spectropolarimetry

Equipment

 

Current equipment and locations:[citation needed]

 

the C. Donald Shane telescope 120-inch (3-meter) reflector (Shane Dome, Tycho Brahe Peak). Its instrumentation includes:

the Hamilton spectrometer

the Kast double spectrograph

the ShaneAO adaptive optics system with laser guide star

the Automated Planet Finder 94-inch (2.4-meter) reflector. First light was originally scheduled for 2006. The telescope finally came into regular use in 2013.

the Anna L. Nickel 39-inch (1-meter) reflector (North (small) Dome, Main Building)

the Great Lick 36-inch (91-centimeter) refractor (South Dome, Main Building, Observatory Peak)

the Crossley 35-inch (90-centimeter) reflector (Crossley Dome, Ptolemy Peak)

the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope (KAIT) 30-inch (76-centimeter) reflector (24-inch Dome, Kepler Peak)

the 24-inch (60-centimeter) Coudé Auxiliary Telescope (Inside of Shane Dome, South wall, Tycho Brahe Peak)

the Tauchmann 20-inch (50-centimeter) reflector (Tauchmann Dome atop the water tank, Huygens Peak)

the Carnegie 20-inch (50-centimeter) twin refractor (Double Astrograph Dome, Tycho Brahe Peak)

Removed equipment:

  

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14492604

Encyclopaedia londinensis, or, Universal dictionary of arts, sciences, and literature

London :Printed for the proprietor, by J. Adlard ..., sold at the Encyclopaedia Office ... by J. White ... and Champante and Whitrow ...,1810-1829.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/57887275

Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères

A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/39522401

"editor-in-chief" James H.Marsh.

 

Edmonton, Hurtig Publishers Limited, [january] 1985. ISBN o-8883o-269-X.

 

3 volumes in 9-1/8 12-1/16 x 5 ivory linen-covered brown board slipbox, both sides printed gold foil letterpress:

 

1. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME I A - For..

ISBN o-8883o-27o-3.

8-7/16 x 1o-7/8, 176 sheets white Rolland 5o Lb S.T. Encyclopedia Opaque folded to 22 signatures of 8 sheets each, sewn pearl white in 11 stitches & glued into white heavy bond endpapers & 8-13/16 x 11-5/16 navy linen-covered boards with approx.1-7/16" yellow & blue cloth applique head~ & tailbands, spine only printed gold foil letterpress, interiors all except 5 pp (versos of free endleaves & 3rd, 4th & 19th leaves) printed black offset with 3-colour process additions to 257 pp (436 black only); paginated i-xxxvii/1-666;

 

2. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME II For - Pat.

ISBN o-8883o-271-1.

as volume 1 but sewn pearl cream in double-stitches, 3-colour process additions to 339 pp (365 black only); paginated 669-137o;

 

3. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME III Pat - Z.

ISBN o-8883o-272-X.

as volume 1 but 18o sheets in 23 signatures (the 18th of 4 sheets), with 3-colour process additions to 284 pp (431 black only); paginated 1373-2o89.

 

all volumes with uniform endpaper graphic by Tom McNeely.

 

2676 contributors ID'd (note: 376 asterisked names contribute to all 3 volumes; questioned names appear in the index without their contribution(s) having been located):

Caroline Louise Abbott*, Irving Abella*, Thomas S.Abler*, Baha R.Abu-Laban, Donald F.Acton, W.Peter Adams, Peter A.Adie, Catherine Ahearn, David E.Aiken*, Jim Albert, Frederick A.Aldrich, Peter Aliknak, Gratien Allaire, Jacques Allard, A.Richard Allen, Karyn Elizabeth Allen, Max Allen, Robert S.Allen*, Willard F.Allen, Marlene Michele Alt*, John Amatt, Laurent Amiot, Pierre Anctil, Bob Anderson, Donald W.Anderson*, Doris H.Anderson*, Duncan M.Anderson, Frank W.Anderson, Grace Merle Anderson, Peter S.Anderson*, Christopher A.Andreae, Bernard Andres*, Sheila Andrew, Florence K.Andrews, Donald F.P.Andrus, Paul Anicef, Thomas H.Anstey*, Louis Applebaum, Christon I.Archer*, David J.W.Archer, Clinton Archibald, Mary Archibald, Eugene Arima, Allan Arlett, Leslie Armour, G.M.H.Armstrong(?), Pat Armstrong, W.Armstrong, John T.Arnason, Georges Arsenault, Celine Arseneault*, Eric R.Arthur, Alan F.J.Artibise*, Michael I.Asch, Kenojuak Ashevak, Kiugak Ashoona, Athanasios Asimakopulos, Alain Asselin, Barbara Astman, John Atchison, Margaret Atwood, Irene E.Aubrey, Alasi Audla, Karl Aun, Peter J.Austin-Smith, Helgi H.Austman, Donald H.Avery, William A.Ayer, Hugh D.Ayers, G.Burton Ayles, John Ayre, Maureen Aytenfisu, Douglas R.Babcock, Robert H.Babcock, Robert E.Babe, Morrell P.Bachynski, George Back, Harry Baglole, David H.Bai, Margaret J.Baigent, Karen E.Bailey, David M.Baird, Patricia A.Baird, Allan J.Baker, G.Blaine Baker, Melvin Baker*, Douglas O.Baldwin, John R.Baldwin, Gordon Bale, Robert J.Bandoni, Paul A.Banfield, Marilyn J.Barber, Douglas F.Barbour*, Clifford A.V.Barker, Jon C.Barlow, Jean Barman, David T.Barnard, John Barnes, Reg Barnes, Elinor Barr, John J.Barr, Robert F.Barratt*, [--?--] Barrett, Tony Barrett, Wayne R.Barrett, H.J.Barrie, Ted Barris*, George S.Barry, Donald R.Bartlett, William Henry Bartlett, James F.Basinger, Peter A.Baskerville, Marilyn J.Baszczynski, Alan H.Batten*, Jean-Louis Baudouin(?), Carol Baum, Jules Bazin, Gladys Bean, William R.Beard, Belinda A.Beaton*, Henri Beau, Gerald-A.Beaudoin*, Rejean Beaudoin, Jacqueline Beaudoin-Ross, Louise Beaudry, France Beauregard, Brian P.N.Beaven, J.Murray Beck*, Margaret Beckman, John Beckwith, Roger Bedard, Michael Bedford, Don R.Beer, Michael D.Behiels*, Madeleine Beland, Mario Beland, Guy Belanger, Real Belanger, Rene Belanger, Jean Belisle, Norman W.Bell, Ruben C.Bellan, Andre Belleau, Jacques-Nicolas Bellin, Rene J.Belzile*, J.W.Bengough, Gerry Bennett, John Bennett*, Edward Horton Bensley, Douglas Bentham, D.M.R.Bentley, W.D.Bentley, David J.Bercuson, William Von Moll Berczy, John J.Bergen, Jeniva Berger, Thomas R.Berger, Claude Bergeron, A.T.Bergerud, Norbert Berkowitz, Andre Bernard, Frank R.Bernard*, Jean-Paul Bernard, Jean-Thomas Bernard, Jacques Bernier*, Marc Bernier, Silvie Bernier, Elliott Bernshaw, Nicole Bernshaw, Jonathan Berry, Michael J.Berry, Ralph Berry, Pierre Berton*, Neil Besner*, Diane E.Bessa, Carl Betke, Roger Betz, John Michael Bewers, Onnig Beylerian, M.Vincent Bezeau, Reginald W.Bibby, Gilles Bibeau, Ivan B.Bickell, Julius Bigauskas, Petro B.T.Bilaniuk, B.C.Binning, Carolyn J.Bird(?), Michael S.Bird, Richard M.Bird, Andrew Birrell, Carol Anne Bishop, Charles A.Bishop, Mary F.Bishop, Alastair Bissett-Johnson, Conrad M.Black, Joseph Laurence Black, Meredith Jean Black, Naomi Black, Robert G.Blackadar, Robert H.Blackburn, John D.Blackwell, Alex M.Blair, Robert Blair, Andre Blais, Phyllis R.Blakeley, Elsie Blaschke, J.Sherman Bleakney, Bertram C.Blevis, Lawrence C.Bliss, Michael Bliss, E.D.Blodgett, Jean Blodgett, Hans Blohn, Ronald Bloor, Arthur W.Blue, Robin W.Boadway, David A.Boag, Douglas H.Bocking*, Jack Boddington, Trevor Boddy, John M.Bodner, George J.Boer, James P.Bogart, Jean Sutherland Boggs, Tibor Bognar, Gilles Boileau, Aurelien Boivin, Bernard Boivin*, Jean Boivin, Andre Bolduc, Yves Bolduc, Glen W.Boles*, Francis W.P.Bolger, Kenneth E.Bollinger, George Bonavia, Flint Bondurant, Joseph Bonenfant, Gayle Bonish, Roy Bonisteel, Rudy Boonstra*, Paul-Emil Borduas, Robert Bothwell*, Robert D.Bott, Randy Bouchard*, Michel A.Boucher, Gilles Boulet, Roger H.Boulet, Doug Boult, Andre G.Bourassa*, Nicole Bourbonnais, Pierre L.Bourgault, Patricia E.Bovey, Wilbur Fee Bowker, Roy T.Bowles, Hartwell Bowsfield, Christine Boyanoski, Farrell M.Boyce, John Boyd, Oliver A.Bradt, William J.Brady, Chris Braiden, F.Gerald Brander, Guy R.Brassard, Ted J.Brasser, Bernard Brault, R.Matthew Bray*, David H.Breen*, Francois Bregha, Willard Brehaut*, J.William Brennan*, Paul W.Brennan, Fred Breummer, John E.C.Brierley*, Jean L.Briggs, David R.Brillinger, Jack Brink, Ralph O.Brinkhurst, Andre Brochu, Irwin M.Brodo, Somer Brodribb, Alan A.Brookes, Ian A.Brookes*, Bill Brooks*, David B.Brooks, Robert S.Broughton, David Brown, Desmond H.Brown*, E.Brown, Jennifer S.H.Brown*, R.G.B.Brown*, Robert Craig Brown, Roy I.Brown, Thomas E.Brown*, Lorne D.Bruce, John H.Brumley, Alan G.Brunger, Reinhart A.Brust, Rorke Bardon Bryan, Giles Bradley Bryant, Thomas A.Brzustowki, [--?--] Buache, Norman Buchignani, Ruth Matheson Buck, Phillip A.Buckner*, Geoff Budden, Susan Buggey, Lise Buisson, J.M.Bumsted*, James Burant, Joan Burke, Robert D.Burke, Jean Burnet, David Burnett*, Marilyn Schiff Burnett*, Dorothy K.Burnham, Eedson Louis Millard Burns, Robert J.Burns, Robin Burns, Ian Burton, Jack Bush, Paul Buteux*, Frank Taylor Butler, K.Jack Butler, William Butterfield, Edward Butts, Robert E.Butts, Marcel Cadotte, John C.Callaghan, John W.Callahan, Lorraine Camerlain, Bill Cameron, Christina Cameron, Duncan Cameron, Elspeth Cameron, Wendy Cameron*, A.Barrie Campbell, Beverly Campbell, Douglas F.Campbell, Gordon Campbell, Ian A.Campbell*, J.Milton Campbell, Neil John Campbell, Percy I.Campbell(?), Sandra Campbell, Richard Campion, William T.Cannon, Pierre Cantin, Usher Caplan, Emily F.Carasco, Clifton F.Carbin, Douglas Cardinal, Patrick Robert Thomas Cardy, Thomas H.Carefoot, J.M.S.Careless*, Jock Alan Carlisle, Derek Caron, Laurent G.Caron, Carole H.Carpenter, Ken Carpenter, Emily Carr, Gaston Carriere, Carman V.Carroll, Brian G.Carter, George E.Carter, Margaret Carter, Richard J.Cashin, Ian Casselman, George Catlin, Paul B.Cavers*, Richard Chabot, Roland Chagnon, Edward J.Chambers, Francis J.Chambers, James Chambers, Robert D.Chambers, Michel Champagne*, James K.Chapman, John D.Chapman, Louis Charbonneau, Murray Norman Charlton, L.Margaret Chartrand, Luc chatrand, Rene Chartrand, Brian D.E.Chatterton, Michael Vincent Cheff, Walter I.Childers, Peter D.Chimbos, Alexander J.Chisholm, Robert Choquette, Catherine D.Chorniawy, Timothy J.Christian, William E.Christian, Carl A.Christie, G.L.Christie, Innis Christie, B.Bert Chubey, Charles Stephen Churcher*, Janet Chute, S.Donald C.Chutter, Jacques Cinq-Mars, V.Claerhout*, John J.Clague, Michael Thomas Clandinin, A.McFadyen Clark, Howard C.Clark, Lovell C.Clark*, Paraskeva Clark, Robert H.Clark, T.Alan Clark, Thomas H.Clark, R.Allyn Clarke*, Stephen Clarkson, Wallace Clement, Nathalie Clerk*, Norman Clermont, Yves W.Clermont, Howard Clifford, Richard T.Clippingdae*, W.J.Clouston, Nicole Cloutier, Gigi Clowes, Brian W.Coad, John P.Coakley, Donna Coates, Bente Roed Cochran, J.P.Cockburn, James Cockburn, William James Cody*, Dale R.Cogswell, Fred Cogswell, Stanley A.Cohen, Susan G.Cole, Patricia H.Coleman, Elizabeth Collard, Malcolm M.C.Collins, John Robert Colombo*, Alex Colville, Charles Comfort, Odette Condemine, M.Patricia Connelly, James T.H.Connor, Leonard W.Conolly, Robert J.Conover*, Margaret Conrad, A.Brandon Conron, Brian E.Conway, F.Graham Cooch, Eung-Do Cook, Francis R.Cook, Owen Cook, Kenyon Cooke, O.A.Cooke*, David Cooper, Gordon William Cope, Pierre Corbeil, Frank Corcoran, J.Clement Cormier, Peter McCaul Cornell, Vincenzo Coronelli, Frank Cosentino*, Ronald L.Cosper, Jacques Cotnam, Robert T.Coupland, Thomas J.Courchene, John J.Courtney, John J.Cove, Jeff G.Cowan, Harold G.Coward, Bruce Cox, Diane Wilson Cox, Michael F.Crabb*, Laurence Harold Cragg, Mary M.Craig*, Terrence L.Craig, Ian K.Crain, Brian A.Crane, David Crane, John L.Cranmer-Byng, Donald A.Cranstone, David L.Craven, Roy D.Crawford, Tim Creery, Philippe Crine, Harold Crookell, John Crosby*, Michael S.Cross, Diane Crossley, E.J.Crossman, Omer Croteau, A.David Crowe, Keith Jeffray Crowe, David M.Cruden, David A.Cruickshank, Paul E.Crunican, Rudolf P.Cujes, Maurice Cullen, Carman W.Cumming, Leslie Merrill Cumming, Philip J.Currie, Raymond F.Currie, Walter A.Curtin*, Christopher G.Curtis*, James E.Curtis, Leonard J.Cusack, Maurice Cutler, Jerome S.Cybulski, Joachim B.Czypionka, Anne Innis Dagg, Lorraine G.D'Agincourt*, Edward H.Dahl, Hallvard Dahlie, Moshie E.Dahms, Hugh Monro Dale, Ralph Dale, John H.Dales, Micheline D'Allaire, F.Dally, D.Daly, Eric W.Daly, Pierre Dansereau, Ruth Danys, Regna Darnell, Hugh A.Daubeny, Paul Davenport, Gilbert David, Helene David, Peter P.David, William A.B.Davidson, Adriana A.Davies, Gwendolyn Davies, Jim Davies, John A.Davies, R.K.S.Davies, Thomas Davies, Ann Davis, Chuck Davis, Richard C.Davis, Michael J.Dawe, John M.Day, Lawrence Day, Barbara K.Deans, P.Dearden, Chris DeBresson, Theod De Bry, Malcolm Graeme Decarie, Samuel De Champlain*, Bart F.Deeg*, Ronald K.Deeprose, James DeFelice, C.G.Van Zyll De Jong, Nicolas J.De Jong*, J.De Lavoye, Vincent M.Del Buono, Guillaume Delisle, L.Denis Delorme, Hugh A.Dempsey*, L.James Dempsey, A.A.Den Otter, Dora De Pedery-Hunt, Honor De Pencier, D.De Richeterre, Jacques F.Derome, Duncan R.Derry, Ramsay Derry, Peter Desbarats, Pierre Desceliers, Donald Deschenes, Jean-Luc DesGranges, Andree Desilets*, Yvon Desloges, Gerald L.De Sorcy, Marquis De Tracy, John DeVisser*, Lyle Dick, Lloyd Merlin Dickie, John A.Dickinson, W.Trevor Dickinson, Nigel Dickson, Larry Dillon, Milan V.Dimic, Gerard Dion, Rene Dion, Gerald E.Dirks, Patricia G.Dirks, Richard J.Diubaldo, Murray Dobbin, Mike Dobel, A.Rodney Dobell, Diane Dodd, Donald Andrew Dodman, Audrey D.Doerr, Allen Doiron, Claude Ernest Dolman, Louise Dompierre, Mairi Donaldson, Sue Ann Donaldson, Mark A.Donelan(?), Margaret Mary Donnelly, John Donner, Andre Donneur, Penelope B.R.Doob*, Peter K.Doody, Joyce Doolittle, Anthony H.J.Dorsey, Gilles Dorian, Lydia Dotto, Roger A.Doucet, Leonard A.Doucette, Charles Dougall, Jane L.Dougan, Charles Douglas, W.A.B.Douglas*, William F.Dowbiggin, R.Keith Downey, Arthur T.Doyle*, Denzil J.Doyle, Richard J.Doyle, Pierre Doyon, Sharon Drache, Derek C.Drager, Wilhelmina M.Drake, D.W.Draper, James A.Draper, Nandor Fred Dreisziger, Kenneth F.Drinkwater, Bernadette Driscoll, Jean-Pierre Drolet, Glenn Drover, Ian M.Drummond*, R.Norman Drummond, Jean E.Dryden, Patrick D.Drysdale, Jean-Marie M.Dubois*, James R.Dubro, Leo Ducharme, Raymond Duchesne*, Francois Duchesneau, Jean-Marcel Duciaume, Madeleine Ducroq-Poirier, J.Dennis Duffy*, M.R.Dufresne, Walter W.Duley, Gaston Dulong, Micheline Dumont, Max J.Dunbar, Graham W.Duncan, Leonard Duncan, Neil J.Duncan, Marilyn E.Dunlop, A.Davidson Dunton, Jean R.Duperreault, Jean-Claude Dupont, Rene Durocher, Gabriel Dussault, Noel Dyck, Charles C.Dyer, James G.Dykes, John A.Eagle*, Peter R.Eakins, Ross Eaman, Harry C.Eastman, Dorothy Harley Eber, William John Eccles*, Christine Eddie, E.V.Eddie, Charles Edenshaw, Morris Edwards, Oliver Edward Edwards, Peggy Edwards, Roger B.Ehrhardt, Margrit Eichler, Neil Einarson, Wilfred L.Eisnor, R.Bruce Elder, Jean Elford, Peter Douglas Elias, C.W.J.Eliot, David R.Elliott, James A.Elliott, Kosso Eloul, John A.Elson, George Emery, Donald W.Emmerson, Douglas B.Emmons, Maurice Emond, William F.Empey, John R.English*, Murray W.Enkin, Philip C.Enros, Frank H.Epp, Robert Bruce Erb, Arthur Erickson, Anthony J.Erskine, Sorel Etrog, Brian L.Evans*, David Evans*, James Evans, John Evans, Ivan Kenneth Eyre, Joe Fafard, Curtis Fahey, Valerie J.Fall, A.Murray Fallis, Peter V.Fankboner, D.M.L.Farr*, Dorothy M.Farr, Fred Farrell*, Alison Feder, Sergey Fedoroff, Margery Fee, Kevin O'Brien Fehr, William Feindel, Seth R.Feldman, Donald Fenna, William O.Fennell, M.Brock Fenton, Terry L.Fenton, Bob L.Ferguson*, Howard L.Ferguson, Mary W.Ferguson*, Jean Ferron, Doug Fetherling*, George Field, John L.Field, Richard Henning Field, Leonard M.Findlay, Howard R.Fink, Maxwell Finklestein, Douglas A.Finlayson*, Gerard Finn, Douglas J.Fisher, Richard S.Fisher, Robin Fisher, Stan C.Fisher, John Walter Fitsell, Lionel LeMoine FitzGerald, Patrick J.Fitzgerald, Tim Fitzharris*, David J.Flaherty, Thomas Flanagan, R.B.Fleming, Sandford Fleming, Marilyn G.Flitton, Halle Flygare*, David G.Fong*, Maxwell L.Foran, Ernest R.Forbes*, R.E.Forbes, William B.Forbes, Richard G.Forbis, Dennis P.Forcese, Anne Rochon Ford, Clifford Ford, Derek C.Ford, Gillian Ford, Susan Ford, Bertrand Forest, Ronald W.Forrester, Warren D.Forrester, Eugene Alfred Forsey*, Frank R.Forsyth, Peter A.Forsyth, Claire-Andree Fortin, Gerald Fortin, Charles N.Forward, William F.Forward, Brian F.Foss, Franklin L.Foster, J.Bristol Foster, John E.Foster*, Michael K.Foster, Glenn B.Foulds, Nancy Brown Foulds, Edith M.Fowke, Marian Fowler, Charlie Fox, Paul W.Fox, Richard C.Fox, Daniel Francis*, Diane Francis, David Frank*, Julius F.Frank*, Colin Athel Franklin, C.E.S.Franks*, David Fransen, Robert T.Franson, Arman Frappier(?), Jorge Frascara, John A.Fraser, Kathleen D.J.Fraser, Robert Lochiel Fraser*, Pierre Frechette, Howard Townley Fredeen, Benjamin Freedman, Gordon Russel Freeman, Mac Freeman, Milton M.R.Freeman, Minnie Aodla Freeman, Roger D.Freeman, Walter H.P.Freitag, Carey French, Hugh M.French, James S.Frideres, Gerald Friesen, James D.Friesen, Stanley Brice Frost, Adam G.Fuerstenberg, Robert Fulford, Anthony M.Fuller, George R.Fuller, Thomas Fuller, William A.Fuller, Douglas H.Fullerton, Ian F.Furniss, Richard W.Fyfe*, William S.Fyfe, Rene Robert Gadacz*, Chad Gaffield, David P.Gagan, Michel Gagne, Francois-Marc Gagnon*, Victor Gaizauskas, Claude Galarneau, Peggy Gale, Gerald L.Gall*, Daniel T.Gallacher, Paul Gallagher, Strome Galloway, Natarajan Ganapathy, Herman Ganzevoort, David E.Gardner*, Eve Gardner, Norman Gardner, Ron Gardner, Christopher J.R.Garrett, John F.Garrett, Jane Gaskell, Lise Gauvin, M.J.Gauvin, Hugh J.Gayler, Douglas A.Geekie, John Grigsby Geiger*, Valerius Geist*, John Gellner, Paul Gendreau, Ghislain Gendron, M.V.George, Joseph F.Gerrath(?), Julia Gersovitz, Trisha Gessler, Ian A.L.Getty, Elmer N.Ghostkeeper(?), Jacques R.Giard, Sandra Gibb, Kenneth M.Gibbons, Graeme Gibson, Lee Gibson, William C.Gibson, Perry James Giffen, Elizabeth Hollingsworth Gignac, Richard Giguere, C.W.Gilchrist, J.N.Giles, John Patrick Gillese, Beryl C.Gillespie, Bill Gillespie, John M.Gillett, Margaret Gillett, Geraldine Gilliss, Alan M.Gillmor, Cedric Gillot, J.C.Gilson, Yves Gingras*, Andre Girouard, J.Gleadah, Burton Glendenning, Michael Gnarowski, David J.Goa, Barbara Godard, Ensley A.Godby, W.Earl Godfrey*, William G.Godfrey, R.Bruce Godwin(?), Cy Gonick, Cecilia A.Gonzales, Bryan N.S.Gooch, S.James Gooding, Jerry Goodis, John T.Goodman, R.G.Goold, Arthur S.Goos, Paul A.Goranson, Anne Gordon, Donald C.Gordon, Walter L.Gordon, Deborah Gorham, Harriet R.Gorham, Stanley W.Gorham, Calvin Carl Gotlieb, Daniel H.Gottesman, Barry Morton Gough, Joseph B.Gough, Judy Gouin*, Allan M.Gould*, Henri Goulet, Benoit-Beaudry Gourd*, James Iain Gow, Alan Gowans, J.Wesley Graham, Jane E.Graham, John F.Graham, Katherine A.Graham, Roger Graham, E.H.Grainger, J.L.Granatstein*, Alix Granger, Luc Granger, John A.G.Grant, John Webster Grant, Peter Grant*, Ted Grant, Carolyn Elizabeth Gray, David Robert Gray, Earle Gray*, G.Ronald Gray, James T.Gray, D'Arcy M.Greaves, Harold V.Green, J.Paul Green, Janet Green, Leslie C.Green*, Melvyn Green, Richard Green*, Reesa Greenberg, John P.Greene, Thomas B.Greenfield(?), Brereton Greenhous*, Cyril Greenland, John Edward Ross Greenshields, Allan Greer, Patrick T.Gregory, Robert W.Gregory, Julius H.Grey, Norman T.Gridgeman*, Foster J.K.Griezic, Herbert L.Griffin, John D.M.Griffin, Anthony J.F.Griffiths, Barry Griffiths, Graham C.D.Griffiths, Naomi E.S.Griffiths, Sergio Grinstein, Jack W.Grove, Patrick D.Gruber, Hans E.Gruen, Dennis Guest*, Hal J.Guest*, Arman Guilmette, Bernadette Guilmette, H.Pearson Gundy, Kristjana Gunnars, S.W.Gunner, Harry Emmet Gunning, Allan Guy, Julian Gwyn, Richard J.Gwyn, Peter P.Haanappel, Erich Haber, Carlotta Hacker, Jim Hackler, Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Keith D.Hage, H.Haig, G.Brenton Haliburton, David J.Hall*, Frederick A.Hall*, Jim Hall, John W.Hall, Roger Hall, Mary E.Hallett, Hugh A.Halliday, Ian Halliday, Mary Halloran, Gerald Hallowell, Beryl M.Hallworth*, Francess G.Halpenny, Marjorie M.Halpin, V.Carl Hamacher, Louis-Edmond Hamelin, Donald G.Hamilton, Sally A.Hamilton, William B.Hamilton, Brent M.Hamre, Geoffrey Hancock, Lyn Hancock*, Piers Handling*, James Hanrahan, Asbjorn T.Hansen, John D.Harbron, Peter Harcourt, David F.Hardwick, Jean-Pierre Hardy, Rene Hardy, F.Kenneth Hare, Clara Hargittay, J.Anthony Hargreaves, Alex M.Harper, J.Russell Harper*, Richard Harrington*, Cole Harris, G.J.Harris, Lawren Harris, Peter Harris, R.Cole Harris, Robert Harris, Stephen Harris*, Stuart A.Harris, Lionel G.Harrison, Peter J.Harte, Al Harvey, David J.Harvey, Fred J.Hatch, Wilbert O.Haufe, Jo Hauser, Ronald G.Haycock*, Michael Hayden, Florence C.Hayes, David M.Hayne*, Robert H.Haynes, Carol Hayter, Henry F.Heald, Trevor D.Heaver, Richard J.Hebda, Gerard Hebert, C.D.Heidenreich, Conrad E.Heidenreich, Frederick M.Helleiner, Rudolph A.Helling, June Helm, Bruce S.Heming, Odile Henault, William B.Henderson, Tom Hendry, E.Henn, Ralph L.Hennessy, Jacques Henripin, Michael M.Henry, Yude M.Henteleff, Frank Alec Herbert, George Heriot, Alex W.Herman, Craig Heron*, Don J.Herperger, Stephen M.Herrero, Ingo Hessel, Phillip Hewett, Irving Hexham, Benedykt Heydenkorn, Edward S.Hickcox, Michael Hickman, Donald Higgins, David Higgs, Walter Hildebrandt, Charles Christie Hill, Harry M.Hill, Stanley Hill, Tom Hill, James K.Hiller*, Anne Trowell Hillmer*, Norman Hillmer*, W.G.R.Hind, Ole Hindsgaul, Sherman Hines, Akira Hirose, Carolyn Hlus, Helen Hobbs, R.Gerald Hobbs, James Hockings, John Edwin Hodgetts*, Bruce W.Hodgins, J.W.Hodgins, Judith F.M.Hoeniger, J.J.Hogan*, Helen Sawyer Hogg, Gerald Holdsworth, H.T.Holman, C.Janet Holmes, Jeffrey Holmes, John W.Holmes, Eric J.Holmgren*, Alvin George Hong, Frances Ann Hopkins, Robin Hopper, Peter Hopwood, Michiel Horn, Alan S.Hourston, C.Stuat Houston*, James Houston, Ross K.Howard, Victor M.Howard, Colin D.Howell, Julie O.Hrapko, Raymond Hudon, Douglas R.Hudson, Raymond J.A.Huel, Fred Huffman, Richard David Hughes, Elizabeth Hulse, William Humber*, Stephen Hume, Monte Hummel, Jack Humphrey, Charles W.Humphries, Edward William Humphrys, [--?--] Hunsberger, Geoffrey Hunt, John R.Hunter, Tony Hunt, Kenneth E.Hunter, Mel Hurtig, Mervyn J.Huston, Linda Hutcheon, Gerald M.Hutchinson, Roger C.Hutchinson, Richard J.Huyda, A.M.J.Hyatt, Doreen Marie Indra, Elizabeth Ingolfsrud, Avrom Isaacs, Colin F.W.Isaacs, Bill Ivy, David Jackel, Susan Jackel*, Sydney W.Jackman, A.Y.Jackson, Bernard S.Jackson, Graham Jackson, Harold Jackson, John D.Jackson, John James Jackson, John N.Jackson, Lionel E.Jackson, Robert J.Jackson, Roger C.Jackson, Stephen O.Jackson, Peter Jacob, Ronny Jacques, Cornelius J.Jaenen*, Donna James, Ellen S.James, Ross D.James*, Sheilagh S.Jameson, Stuart M.Jamieson, Hudson N.Janisch, Christian T.L.Janssen, Lorraine L.Janus, Richard A.Jarrell, Marguerite Jean, Alan H.Jeeves, T.Jefferys, Robert Jekyll, Michael Jenkin, Phyllis Marie Jensen, Vickie D.Jensen, Jane Jenson, L.Martin Jerry, Alan M.Jessop, Dean Jobb, Louis Jobin, Jan C.Jofriet(?), Peter Johansen, Timothy Johns, Walter H.Johns, J.K.Johnson, Peter Wade Johnson, Alfred G.Johnston, C.Fred Johnston, Charles M.Johnston, Frances E.M.Johnston, Frank Johnston, Hugh Johnston, Patricia C.Johnston, Richard Johnston, W.Stafford Johnston, William Johnston, Brian Jones, David Phillip Jones, Elwood Hugh Jones, Gaynor G.Jones, Laura Jones, Richard A.Jones*, Alan V.Jopling*, Colin Jose, Neal R.Jotham, Walter Jungkind, Richard Kadulski, Joseph Kage, A.A.Kahil, Patricia Kaiser, Warren E.Kalbach, Henry Kalen, Stephan Felix Kaliski, Helmut Kallman*, Karen Dazelle Kallweit*, Harold D.Kalman*, Paul Kane*, George Kapelos, Martha Kaplan, William Edward Kaplan, Isabel Kaprielian, Urjo Kareda, Malak Karsh, Yousuf Karsh, Peter Karsten, Elinor Mary Kartzmark, Naim Kattan, Martin L.Kaufmann, Leslie S.Kawamura, Gregory S.Kealey*, David R.Keane, King S.Kearns, Michael J.Keen, David L.Keenlyside, Elaine Keillor, W.J.Keith, William Stirling Keizer*, Frances C.Kelley, Louis Gerard Kelly, David D.Kemp, Walter H.Kemp, Kay Kendall, John Edward Kendle, Dorothy Kennedy*, J.E.Kennedy, John L.Kennedy*, Elizabeth H.Kennell, John A.C.Kentfield, John P.B.Kenyon, Walter A.Kenyon, Kenneth Kernaghan, Lois Kathleen Kernaghan*, Adam J.Kerr, Gordon R.Kerr, Robert B.Kerr, Stephen R.Kerr, Paula Kestelman, Jean-Pierre Kesteman, Wilfred H.Kesterton, Keith S.Ketchen, Douglas Keith McEwan Kevan*, Peter G.Kevan(?), J.E.Michael Kew, John Keyes, Bruce Kidd, Thomas W.Kierans, Gerald Killan, M.G.Kingshott, Ray A.Kingsmith, Stanislav J.Kirschbaum, John James Kirton, Walter Klaassen, Murray S.Klamkin, Lewis N.Klar, Stanley Klenganberg, Harold R.Klinck, Robert B.Klymasz, Richard W.Knapton*, Judith Knelman, Alan R.Knight, David B.Knight, Robert Hugh Knowles, Brian M.Knudsen, Franz M.Koennecke, Wray E.Koepke, Lilly Koltun, Paul M.Koroscil, J.Anthony Koslow, Myrna Anne Kostash, Tony Kot, Vladimir J.Krajina, Kate Kranck, Stephen J.Kraseman, Cheryl Krasnick(?), Peter V.Krats, J.A.Kraulis*, Charles J.Krebs, F.Henry Krenz, Cornelius Krieghoff, Andrea Kristof, Jerg Kroener, Martin Krossel, Larry L.Kulisek, Walter O.Kupsch, William Kurelek, Eva M.Kushner, Ernie Kuyt*, David Kwavnick, C.Ian Kyar, Micheline Labelle, Danielle Laberge, Michele Lacombe*, [--?--] La Cosa, Estelle Lacoursiere*, Laurier Lacroix, Michel Laferriere, Guy Lafrance, William G.Laidlaw, Mabel H.Laine*, Dennis Laing, Gertrude M.Laing, Claude Lajeunesse, G.-Raymond Laliberte, Andre N.Lalonde, W.Kaye Lamb*, Geoffrey Lambert, James H.Lambert*, George E.Lammers, Yvan Lamonde, Peter Lancaster, R.Brian Land, Pierre Landreville, E.David Lane*, Robert B.Lane, Robert P.Langlands, Wayne Lankinen*, Robert Lansdale, Karlis O.Lapin, Pierre-Louis Lapointe, Eleanor R.Laquian, Peter Anthony Larkin, Jean B.D.Larmour, Emma D.LaRocque, Andre Larose, Serge Larose, Jeanette Larouche, Edward N.Larter, Pierre LaSalle, Daniel Latouche*, Viviane F.Launay, Gerard Laurence, Karen Laurence, Marc Laurendeau, Michael Lauzon, Omer Lavallee, Kathleen Laverty*, Kenneth R.Lavery, Marie Lavigne, Patricia Johnston Lavigueur(?), Leslie M.Lavkulich, Michel Lavoie*, Paul Lavoie, Pierre Lavoie, Charles Law, Don G.Law-West, Jim Laxer, Arleigh H.Laycock, David H.Laycock, Richard E.C.Layne, Marvin Lazerson, Fred Lebensold, Hugues LeBlanc, Charles P.Leblond, Paul H.LeBlond, Sylvio LeBlond, Antonio Lechasseur*, Donald J.Lecraw, Johanne Ledoux, Fernand Leduc, Laurence LeDuc, Rene Leduc-Park, David Lee, John Alan Lee, Robin Leech, John G.Leefe, Joseph Legare, Camille Legendre, Russel D.Legge, Robert F.Legget*, Doug Leighton, Jean M.Leiper, Michel Lemaire, Jean-Paul Lemay, Pierre H.Lemieux, Raymond U.Lemieux, Vincent Lemieux, Guy Lemire, Maurice Lemire, Robert Lemire, Robert E.Lemon(?), Dorothy A.Lenarsic, Jos L.Lennards, Frank Lennon, Yvan G.Lepage, Donald J.Le Roy, Rodney L.LeRoy, Peter M.Leslie, M.Claude Lessard, Carol Anne Letheren, Trevor H.Levere, Malcolm Levin, Allan E.Levine, Gilbert Levine, Joseph Levitt, Brian S.Lewis, John B.Lewis, Joyce C.Lewis, Laurie Lewis, Elliott H.Leyton, James W.Lightbody, Norman R.Lightfoot, Jack N.Lightstone, Gary M.Lindberg, Ernest Lindner, Evert E.Lindquist*, Peter L.Lindsay, Joseph D.Lindsey, Paul-Andre Linteau, Mary Jane Lipkin, Arthur Lismer, Marilyn Lister, Rota Herzberg Lister*, John W.Y.Lit, Moe M.Litman, Donna Livingstone, Douglas G.Lochhead, Carl J.Lochnan*, Anthony R.Lock, Jack L.Locke, Gulbrand Loken, D.Edwards Loney, Kathleen Lord, James Lorimer, Frances Loring, Marcel Lortie, Arthur Loughton, Laurence Dale Lovick, Raymond Nicholson Lowes, Peter J.M.Lown, W.Mark Lowry, Edward P.Lozowski*, Frere Luc, D.Paul Lumsden, Harry G.Lumsden, Ian Gordon Lumsden, John Lund, Gar Lunney, Mandy R.Lupul, Real Lussier, John M.Lyle, John Goodwin Lyman, Gerald Lynch, Deborah Maryth Lyon*, G.F.Lyon, William I.Macadam, J.Malcolm Macartney, Terence Macartney-Filgate, Hugh MacCallum, Cathy Macdonald, G.Edward MacDonald, Heather MacDonald*, J.E.H.MacDonald, Les MacDonald, Martha MacDonald, R.H.Macdonald, Roderick A.Macdonald, Stewart D.MacDonald, Valerie Isabel Macdonald, April J.MacDougall, Heather MacDougall, Laurel Sefton MacDowell*, Thomas F.Mace, Grant MacEwan, Royce MacGillivray, James G.MacGregor, Joseph B.MacInnis, Tessa macIntosh, David Clark MacKenzie, Heather M.Mackenzie, Robert C.MacKenzie, Ross G.MacKenzie, William C.MacKenzie, George O.Mackie, C.S.Mackinnon, Frank MacKinnon, William R.MacKinnon, Bruce B.MacLachlan, Roy MacLaren, Raymond A.MacLean, Kenneth Ogilvie MacLeod, Malcolm MacLeod, Pegi Nicol MacLeod, Roderick C.Macleod, Carrie H.MacMillan, Keith MacMillan, Andrew H.Macpherson, Duncan Macpherson, Ian MacPherson*, Kay Macpherson, Roger W.Macqueen, Donald A.MacRae, Anthony A.Magnin, Warren Magnuson, Gilles-D.Mailhiot, Laurent Mailhot*, Pierre Mailhot*, J.S.Maini, Lise Maisonneuve, Jean-Louis Major(?), Robert Major, Peter Malkin, David Malloch, Cedric R.Mann, Kenneth H.Mann, Martha Mann, J.R.Marchand, Anthony Mardiros, Michel Marengere, Leo Margolis, Salomon Marion, Philip De Lacey Markham, William E.Markham, James H.Marsh*, John S.Marsh*, J.Stewart Marshall, Victor W.Marshall, J.Douglas Martin, Jean-Claude Martin, John E.H.Martin, Sandra Martin, Andre Martineau(?), May Maskow, Allan M.Maslove, Donald C.Masters, Perry Mastrovito, John Ross Matheson, William A.Matheson, R.D.Mathews, Robin Mathews, William G.Mathewson, Thomas Mathien*, John R.Mathieson, Jacques Mathieu*, Keith Matthews, John S.Matthiasson, David Mattison, Mary McDougall Maude*, Jean Mauger, Christopher J.Maule, Alfred R.Maurer, Jean Mauvide, Valerie J.May, Valerie L.May, John Maybank*, Paul F.Maycock, Jack Maze, R.Ann McAfee, Don E.McAllister, William J.McAndrew, D.S.McBean, W.A.E.McBryde, Christina McCall, Douglas McCalla, Margaret Elizabeth McCallum, Lawrence D.McCann*, S.B.McCann, Bennett McCardle*, Peter J.McCart, Michael J.McCarthy, Catharine McClellan, P.McCloskey, W.H.McConnell, A.Ross McCormack, Jane McCracken, Harvey A.McCue, James A.W.McCulloch, A.B.McCullough, Michael McDonald, Allan K.McDougall, Anne McDougall*, John N.McDougall, Robert L.McDougall, Duncan McDowall, Alec C.McEwen, Freeman L.McEwen, K.D.McFadden, Jean McFall, Pat McFarlane(?), Tom McFeat, Elizabeth W.McGahan, Harold Franklin McGee Jr., Timothy J.McGee, Robert McGhee*, William B.McGill(?), Donald G.McGillivray, Roderick Alan McGinn, Janice Dickin McGinnis*, Pauline McGregor, Eric McGuinness, Dave McIntosh, W.John McIntyre, Alexander G.McKay, Gordon A.McKay, J.Alex McKeague, John McKee, Ruth McKendry, Barbara A.McKenna, Brian McKenna, Ruth McKenzie, Rita McKeough, A.Brian McKillop*, J.McLachlan, Angus McLaren, Ian A.McLaren, K.M.McLaughlin, Kenneth McLaughlin, Catherine M.McLay, A.Anne McLellan, Cam McLeod(?), Elizabeth McLuhan, Gerald R.McMaster, Barclay McMillan*, Donald Burley McMillan, Michael McMordie*, Lorraine McMullen*, Stanley E.McMullin, William C.McMurray, Debra A.McNabb*, Anne McNamara, Kenneth McNaught, Tom McNeely*, Martin K.McNicholl*, Jean McNulty, Hugo A.McPherson, Sandra F.McRae, King G.McShane*, Ian McTaggart-Cowan*, Peter B.E.McVetty, Ian R.McWhinney, Stanley R.Mealing*, Sheva Medjuck, John Medley, Harry Medovy, Sharon P.Meen, Benoit Melancon, William H.Melody*, James R.Melvin, Philip E.Merilees, Jim Merrithew*, Ann Messenger, George Metcalf, David R.Metcalfe, Janis John Mezaks, T.H.Glynn Michael, Jacques Michon, F.W.Micklethwaite, Tom Middlebro', Ivan Mihaychuk, James Francis Verchere Millar, A.J.Miller, Carman Miller*, Elizabeth Russell Miller, J.R.Miller, John A.Miller, Judith N.Miller, Mark Miller*, Mary Jane Miller, Orlo Miller, Leslie Millin, Peter B.Millman, Thomas R.Millman, Charles A.Mills, Dave Mills, David Mills*, Eric L.Mills, Isabel Margaret Mills, Trevor Mills, Brian Milne, David Milne, David A.Milne*, William J.Milne, Marc Milner, David G.Milton, Janice Milton, Gordon Minnes, Dale Miquelon*, Edward D.Mitchell*, Ken R.Mitchell, Lillian Mitchell, Wendy L.Mitchinson, Johann W.Mohr, John S.Moir*, George Dempster Molnar, Patrick M.Moncrieff, Jacques Monet*, Ian Montagnes, D.Wayne Moodie, Susanna Moodie, Barry M.Moody, Peter N.Moogk*, Kathleen A.Mooney, Christopher Moore, James G.G.Moore, Keith L.Moore, Teresa Moore, Andrew J.Moriarty, E.Alan Morinis, Pierre Morisset, Yves-Marie Morissette, Raymond Moriyama, Richard E.Morlan, J.Terence Morley*, Patricia A.Morley, T.J.Morley, J.W.Morrice, Cerise Morris, Peter Morris*, David A.Morrison, Jack W.Morrison, Jean Morrison*, Kenneth L.Morrison*, Rod Morrison, W.Douglas Morrison, William R.Morrison*, Norval Morrisseau, Don Morrow, Pat Morrow*, Desmond Morton*, John K.Morton, Allan Moscovitch, John Moss, Mary Jane Mossman, Roger Motut, Farley Mowat, Susanne Mowat, David S.Moyer, R.Gordon Moyles, Maria Muehlen, R.D.Muir, Del A.Muise, Francis C.Muldoon, Robert M.Mummery, Mohiudden Munawar, R.E.Munn, J.Ian Munro, Sean Murphy, Joan Murray*, Robert G.E.Murray, Brian T.P.Mutimer, Luba Mycio, John Myles, Robert Nadeau, Vincent Nadeau, Josephine C.Naidoo, George Nakash, Agnes Nanogak, A.Nantel, Roald Nasgaard, Roger P.Nason, Susan M.Nattrass, Francis P.D.Navin, Margaret Neal, Peter Neary, H.Blair Neatby, Leslie H.Neatby*, Edwin H.Neave, A.W.H.Needler, George T.Needler, James M.Neelin, Robert F.Neill, H.Vivian Nelles, Joseph S.Nelson, Pierre Nepveu*, David N.Nettleship*, Edward Peter Neufeld, Ronald W.Newfeldt, Shirley Neuman, William H.New, Michael J.Newark*, Dianne Newell, David L.Newlands, Peter C.Newman, Roy Nicholls, Norman L.Nicholson*, John S.Nicks, Murray William Nicolson, N.Ole Nielsen, Jorge E.Niosi*, Thomas Nisbet, Lawrence C.Nkendirim, William C.Noble, Ib L.Nonnecke, Kenneth H.Norrie, William Notman*, Barbara Novak*, J.Ralph Nursall, V.Walter Nuttall*, Allan O'Brien, John O'Brien, Lucius O'Brien, Serge Occhietti*, Shane O'Dea, Daphne Odjig, Ronald K.O'Dor, [--?--] Odesse, Jillian M.Officer*, Will Ogilvie, James A.Ogilvy*, Jean O'Grady, Timothy R.Oke, Kim Patrick O'Leary, R.V.Oleson, W.J.Oliver, Patrick B.O'Neill, Mario Onyszchuk, Robert R.Orford, Mark M.Orkin, Lionel Orlikow, Margaret A.Ormsby, Brian Stuart Osborne, Fernand Ouellet, Henri Ouellet, Real Ouellet, John N.Owens*, Doug R.Owram, Charles Pachter, John G.Packer(?), Donald M.Page, Garnet T.Page, James E.Page, Malcolm Page, Lee Paikin*, Sandra Paikowsky*, Howard Pain, Michael F.Painter, Jean Palardy, Murray S.Palay, Bryan D.Palmer, Howard Palmer, Tamara Jeppson Palmer, Khayyam Zev Paltiel, Leo Panitch, Frits Pannekoek*, Gerald Ernest Panting, Jean-Marc Paradis, Jean Pariseau*, Seth Park, George L.Parker, Graham E.Parker, Tom W.Parkin*, Timothy R.Parkins, [Joy?] Parr, Keith Parry, John Parsons, Ralph T.Pastore, Thomas H.Patching, Donald G.Paterson, Peter Paterson, W.Stan B.Paterson, Mariko Patrie*, E.P.Patterson, Freeman Patterson, G.James Patterson, Diane Paulette Payment, John G.Peacey*, Gordon B.Peacock, Frank A.Peake, Jane H.Pease, William H.Pease, Diana Pedersen, Susan Pedwell, Bruce Peel, Frank W.Peers, Alfred Pellan, Gerard Pelletier, Jacques Pelletier, Rejean Pelletier, W.Richard Peltier, Terence Penelhum, Norman Penner, M.James Penton*, Michael B.Percy, William T.Perks*, R.I.Perla, Trivedi V.N.Persaud, Erik J.Peters*, Robert Henry Peters, Jean Peterson, Jeannie Peterson, R.L.Peterson, Thomas E.Peterson, Jaroslav Petryshyn, Louis-Philippe Phaneuf, P.P.Phelan(?), Edward Phelps, Carol A.Phillips, David W.Phillips, Paul Phillips*, Roy A.Phillips*, Ruth Bliss Phillips, Truman P.Phillips, Ronald J.C.Phillipson*, Fred Phipps, Ellen I.Picard, Victor Piche, George L.Pickard, Richard A.Pierce, Claudine Pierre-Deschenes*, Ruth Roach Pierson, Juri Pill, Mike Pinder, K.A.Pirozynski, David G.Pitt, Janet E.M.Pitt*, Robert D.Pitt*, Joseph Pivato, Antoine Plamondon, Rejean Plamondon, Richard L.Plant, Jozinus Ploeg, Helene Plouffe*, T.J.Plunkett, Thomas K.Poiker, Mario Polese, H.Pollard, Frank Polnaszek, J.Rick Ponting, Annelies M.Pool*, Kananginak Pootoogook, Carol Ann Pope, Hugh A.Porteous, Arthur Porter, John R.Porter, Marion Porter, Michael Posluns, Bernard Pothier, Gilles Potvin, Gabrielle Poulin, Deborah J.Powell, James V.Powell, Margaret E.Prang, Christopher Pratt, Larry R.Pratt, Mary Pratt, Norman E.P.Pressman, E.Carter Preston, Richard A.Preston*, Richard J.Preston, Hugh Preston-Thomas, John A.Price, Alexander D.Pringle*, Gordon Pritchard*, John Pritchard, John T.A.Proctor, Michel Proulx, Pudlo Pudlat, Garth Charles Pugh, Nancy Pukingrnak, Terrence M.Punch, Eric D.Putt, Zenon W.Pylyshyn(?), Terence H.Qualter, Harvey A.Quamme, D.B.Quayle, Karl-Heinz Raach*, H.Keith Ralston, Victor J.Ramraj, Donald A.Ramsay, Peter G.Ramsden, P.Keith Raney, Toby Rankin, Egon Rapp, John Rasmussen, Mark A.Rasmussen*, Anthony W.Rasporich, Beverly J.Rasporich, George A.Rawlyk, Arthur J.Ray, Alan Rayburn, Gordon Rayner, Ed Rea, J.E.Rea*, John H.Read, Walter Redinger, Gerald Redmond*, Austin Reed, F.Leslie C.Reed, John Reeves, Randall R.Reeves*, Ellen M.Regan, T.D.Regehr*, Alison M.Reid, Bill Reid, David C.Reid, George Agnew Reid, Ian A.Reid, John G.Reid*, M.H.Lefty Reid, Richard Reid, Robert G.B.Reid, J.Nolan Reilly, Sharon Reilly, Henry M.Reiswig, Gil Remillard, A.Jim Rennie, Donald Andrews Rennie, Viljo Revell, Francois Ricard, Pierre Richard, John Richards, William D.Richards, Eric Harvey Richardson, Keith W.Richardson, W.George Richardson, Alex Richman, Roger R.Rickwood, Laurie Ricou, W.Craig Riddell, Peter E.Rider*, Robin Ridington, Walter E.Riedel, Paul W.Riegert*, Bert Riggs, Peter Rindisbacher, J.C.Ritchie, S.Andrew Robb, Jean-Claude Robert*, Lucie Robert, Eugene Roberto, Goodridge Roberts, John S.Roberts(?), William Roberts, Ian Ross Robertson*, J.A.L.Robertson, Raleigh John Robertson, Rejean Robidoux, Denise Robillard, Bart T.Robinson, J.Lewis Robinson*, Sinclair Robinson, Tom W.Robson, Yves Roby, Douglas Roche, Guy Rocher, William Rodney , Russell G.A.Rodrigo, Juan Rodriguez, Robert C.Roeder, Jacob Rogers*, Robert J.Rogerson*, Charles G.Roland, Eugene W.Romaniuk, Joseph R.Romanow(?), Barbara Romanowski, David Rome, George Romney, Keith Ronald, William Ronald, Donna Yavorsky Ronish, Edward Roper, Albert Rose, Phyllis Rose, Earl Rosen(?), Ann C.Rosenberg, Alexander M.Ross, Catherine Sheldrick Ross, David J.Ross, David P.Ross, Henry U.Ross, Gordon Rostoker, Gordon Oliver Rothney, George A.Rothrock, Samuel Rothstein, Abraham Rotstein, Leonard R.Roueche, Jacques Rouillard*, Guildo Rousseau, Henri-Paul Rousseau, Adolphe-Basile Routhier, Marie Routledge, Donald Cameron Rowat, R.Geoffrey Rowberry, Frederick W.Rowe, John Stanley Rowe, Kenneth Rowe, Percy A.Rowe, Gordon G.Rowland, Diana Rowley, Harry C.Rowsell, David J.Roy, Fernande Roy, Patricia E.Roy, Reginald H.Roy*, Kenneth Roy Rozee, Lorne Rubenstein*, Ken Rubin, Leon J.Rubin, Gerald J.Rubio, Mary H.Rubio, David-Thierry Ruddel, Norman J.Ruff, Wilson Ruiz, Norman A.Rukavina, Oliver John Clyve Runnalls, Robert John Rupert, Karl M.Ruppenthal, Roger Rushdy, Dale A.Russell, Hilary Russell, Loris S.Russell*, Peter A.Russell, Victor L.Russell*, Paul Frederick William Rutherford, R.W.Rutherford, Nathaniel W.Rutter, Douglas E.Ryan, James T.Ryan, John Ryan, Shannon Ryan, June M.Ryder, Stanley-Brehaut Ryerson(?), Oiva W.Saarinen, Ann P.Sabina, Nickolay Sabolotny, Moshe Safdie, Eric W.Sager, Marc Saint Hilaire*, Bernard Saint-Jacques, Gaston J.Saint Laurent, B.Saladin-D'Anglure, Arnaud Sales, Jeff Sallot, Liora Salter, Douglas D.Sameoto, G.M.Sanders, Marie E.Sanderson, Margaret J.Sandison, Joan Sangster, [N.B?] Sanson, Joy L.Santink*, Allen Sapp, A.Margaret Sarjeant, William A.S.Sarjeant, Roger Sarty*, David J.Sauchyn, John S.Saul, Pierre Sauriol, Harry Savage, Pierre Savard, D.B.O.Savile, Joel S.Savishinsky, Ronald Savitt, Rodney J.Sawatsky, Ronald G.Sawatsky, Lorne William Sawula, Deborah C.Sawyer*, John T.Saywell, Christopher M.Scarfe, M.H.Scargill, Otto Schaefer, Barbara Ann Schau, Sidney S.Schipper, Peter Schledermann, Benjamin Schlesinger, Wilhelm Schmidt, Nancy Schmitz*, Norbert Schoenauer*, Barbara Schrodt*, A.Karstad Schueler, George A.Schultz, Joan M.Schwartz*, Elizabeth J.Schweizer, Karl W.Schweizer, Charles Schwier, Stephen Scobie*, David S.Scott, Peter J.Scott, Stephen A.Scott, W.Beverly Scott*, Geoffrey G.E.Scudder, Allen Seager*, D.Bruce Sealey, Gary Sealey(?), Spencer G.Sealey, Louis M.Sebert, Harold N.Segall, Martin Segger, Norman Seguin, Alec H.Sehon, H.John Selwoood, Neil A.Semple*, Yoshio Senda, Elinor Senior, Hereward Senior, Robert Allan Serne, John Sewell, Christopher M.Seymour, Patrick D.Seymour, Aqjangajuk Shaa, Doris Shadbolt, Douglas Shadbolt, Ed Shaffer, Fouad E.Shaker, Elizabeth E.Shannon, Bernard J.Shapiro, Frances M.Shaver, Gordon C.Shaw, Joseph W.Shaw, L.Shaw, Murray C.Shaw*, Steve Shaw, Clifford D.Shearing, Carol Sheehan*, Nancy M.Sheehan*, Harry Sheffer, Edward Ottawa Sheffield, Rose Sheinen, Ben-Z.Shek, Jaroslaw W.Shelest, Roy J.Shephard, R.Ronald Sheppard, Robert Sheppard, Ellen Shifrin, Chang-Tai Shih, Rosemary Shipton, Thomas K.Shoyama, William L.H.Shuter, Nicholas Sidor, Arthur Siegel, David P.Silcox, Lennard Sillanpaa, Elaine Leslau Silver man, C.Ross Silversides, Richard Simeon*, Tom Sinclair-Faulkner*, Antoine Sirois, Rebecca Sisler, O.F.G.Sitwell, Alan Edward Skeoch, Grace Skogstad, Peter Slater, Yar Slavutych, H.Olav Slaymaker, William A.Sloan*, D.Scott Slocombe, Charles E.Slonecker, Peter Gerent Sly, Patricia Smart, Andre Smith, Barry L.Smith, Bill Smith, David B.Smith*, David E.Smith, Denis Smith*, Derek G.Smith, Donald A.Smith, Donald B.Smith*, Douglas A.Smith, Frances K.Smith, James G.E.Smith, James N.M.Smith, Kenneth V.Smith, Maurice V.Smith*, Peter C.Smith*, Peter J.Smith, Shirlee Anne Smith, T.Bradbrooke Smith, William Young Smith(?), Joseph Smucker, D.Laureen Snider, Dean R.Snow, Michael Snow, James D.Snowdon, Thomas P.Socknat, Omond M.Solandt, Margaret A.Somerville, Karl Sommerer, James Herbert Soper, John R.Sorfleet, Mary E.Southcott, Jack G.Souther, David A.E.Spalding, Roman Spalek, Stephen A.Speisman, Andrew N.Spencer, Deirdre Spencer, Don Spencer, John F.T.Spencer, John H.Spencer, Douglas O.Spettigue, Godfrey L.Spragge, D.N.Sprague*, William A.Spray, R.A.Sproule, Irene M.Spry, C.P.Stacey, C.R.Stacey, Robert Stacey*, Shirley Stacey, John K.Stager, Ronald J.Stagg, Elvira Stahl, Denis Stairs, Douglas G.Stairs, Robert M.Stamp*, W.T.Stanbury, David M.Stanley, Della M.M.Stanley*, George F.G.Stanley, Laurie C.C.Stanley, Charles R.Stanton, Gail Starr(?), Michael Staveley, Margaret M.Stayner, Gordon W.Stead, James Steele, Taylor A.Steeves, Baldur R.Stefansson, Con Stefurak, Janet R.Stein, Michael B.Stein, Gilbert A.Stelter, Philip C.Stenning, Philip H.R.Stepney*, Howard A.Steppler*, Theodor D.Sterling, H.H.Stern, Peter Stevens, Charlotte Stevenson, Garth Stevenson*, John T.Stevenson, F.Stewart, J.Douglas Stewart, John B.Stewart*, John R.Stewart*, Kenneth W.Stewart, Lillian D.Stewart*, Michael E.Stiles, John R.Stocking, Jennifer Stoddart, Boris Peter Stoicheff, Kay F.Stone, Donald H.Stonehouse, Anna K.Storgaard, Gerald J.Stortz, George Morley Story*, Jon C.Stott, Grant Strate*, Otto P.Strausz, Elwood W.Stringham, Charles Strong*, Veronica Strong-Boag, J.R.Tim Struthers, James Struthers, Richard Stuart, Ross Stuart, Konrad W.Studnicki-Gizbert, Franc Sturino, Peter Stursberg, Richard Stursberg, Brian E.Sullivan, William F.Summers, Ann G.Sunahara, Shan-Ching Sung, Maxwell Sutherland, Neil Sutherland, Sharon L.Sutherland, Stuart R.J.Sutherland*, Maia-Mari Sutnik, David Takayoshi Suzuki, Donald Swainson, Neil A.Swainson, Robert Sward, Alastair Sweeny, George Swinton, William Elgin Swinton, Frances A.Swyripa, T.Sykes, Philippe Sylvain*, Guy Sylvestre, Rodney Symington, E.Leigh Syms, Emoke J.E.Szathmary, Gerald Tailfeathers, James J.Talman, Adrian Tanner, Louis-Paul Tardif(?), Walter Surma Tarnopolsky, Leslie K.Tarr, Sylvie Taschereau, Jeremy B.Tatum, Thomas E.Tausky, C.J.Taylor*, Charles Taylor, Christopher Edward Taylor, J.Garth Taylor, J.Mary Taylor, Jeff Taylor, John H.Taylor, John Leonard Taylor, M.Brook Taylor*, Philip S.Taylor, Roy Lewis Taylor, Sylvia Taylor, William Clyne Taylor, William E.Taylor, Ghassem Tehrani, Robert G.Telewiak, R.John Templin, Brian D.Tennyson, Lorne Tepperman, Joan Terasmae, Yves Tessier, Pierre Theberge, Sharon Thesen*, George J.Thiessen, Stuart A.Thiesson, Marise Thivierge, Nicole Thivierge, Ann W.Thomas, Clara Thomas, Eileen Mitchell Thomas, Gregory Thomas, Morley K.Thomas*, Paul G.Thomas, Andrew Royden Thompson, Dixon A.R.Thompson, John R.Thompson, Teresa Thompson, William Paul Thompson*, Alex J.Thomson, J.Thomson, Malcolm [H?] Thomson, Malcolm M.Thomson, Reginald George Thomson, Stanley Thomson, Tom Thomson, Hugh G.Thorburn, Frederick J.Thorpe*, Catherine M.V.Thuro, John L.Tiedje, Herman Tiessen, Louis C.Tiffany, Seha M.Tinic, Ewen C.D.Todd, James M.Toguri, George S.Tomkins, Vladislav A.Tomovic, Peter M.Toner, Pierre Tousignant, Harold B.Town*, Joan B.Townsend, Richard G.Townsend, Charlotte Townsend-Gault, Anthony A.Travill*, Claire Tremblay*, Gaetan Tremblay, Jean-Yves Tremblay, Marc-Adelard Tremblay*, Pierre Trepanier, Stanley G.Triggs, Susan Mann Trofimenkoff, Harold Troper, Elizabeth A.Trott*, Barry D.Truax, Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Marc J.Trudel, Marcel Trudel, Mark E.H.Trueman, James A.Tuck*, Albert V.Tucker, Jaap J.Tuinman, Verena J.Tunnicliffe, Archie L.W.Tuomi, Allan Tupper, Gael Turnbull, H.E.Turner, Nancy J.Turner*, William J.Turnock, Katherine Tweedie, Christopher D.Tyler, Edward W.Tyrchniewicz, M.C.Urquhart, Auguste Vachon, G.Oliver Vagt, Gail C.Valaskakis, Frank G.Vallee, Marc Vallieres, Andre Vanasse, Rosamond M.Vendenburgh, Robert O.Van Everdingen, Blanche Lemco Van Ginkel, Walter Van Nus, Francoise Van Roey-Roux, Charles E.Van Wagner, Alice Van Wart, Christine Van Zwamen, Christopher Varley*, Frederick Horsman Varley, Joan M.Vastokas, Frederick Vaughan, Edmund W.Vaz, Bill Vazan, Richard Veatch, Michele M.Veeman, Terrence S.Veeman, Arjen Verkaik, Andre Vermeirre, F.A.Verner, Pierre Veronneau*, Claude Vezina, Raymond Vezina, Roger Vick*, Bernard L.Vigod*, Aubrey R.Vincent, Thomas B.Vincent, Kati Vita, Vadim D.Vladykov, Douglas Voice, Nive Voisine*, George M.Volkoff, Michael Vollmer, C.Haehling Von Lanzenauer, Roger D.Voyer, Richard Vroom*, Pamela S.Wachna, Stephen M.Waddams, Susan Wagg, Anton Wagner*, W.A.Waiser, P.B.Waite*, Michael John Wakroft, David B.Walden, Deward E.Walker Jr, James W.St.G.Walker, John P.Walker, Susan Walker, Thomas Walkom, Birgitta Linderoth Wallace, Carl M.Wallace*, Hugh N.Wallace, P.R.Wallace, Jean-Pierre Wallot*, J.A.Walper, Susan Walsh, J.Grant Wanzel*, Norman Ward*, Philip R.Ward, W.Peter Ward, Tracy Ware, John Warkentin, John Anson Warner, A.M.C.Waterman, Janice Waters, Elizabeth Waterston*, Mel Watkins, Homer Watson, Lorne Watson, Robert D.Watt, Ron Watts* Douglas Waugh, Earle H.Waugh, Morris Wayman, Christopher Weait, John C.Weaver, James L.Webb, Anna Weber, Roland Weber, D.B.Webster*, Douglas R.Webster, Gloria Cranmer Webster, Helen R.Webster, William G.Wegenast, Peter H.Weinrich, Robert Stanley Weir, Thomas R.Weir, Merrily Weisbord, G.Vernon Wellburn, John Wells, Harry L.Welsh, Carl J.Wenaas, Leo H.Werner, Douglas Wertheimer, D.V.Chip Weseloh, Benjamin West, J.Thomas West*, Roxroy West, Marla L.Weston, Robert Reginald Whale, Linda D.Whalen, C.F.J.Whebell, John O.Wheeler, Reginald Whitaker, Clinton Oliver White, John White, M.Lillian White, Alan Whitehorn, Leon Whiteson, James R.Whiteway, Gordon Francis Whitmore, Donald R.Whyte, Edgar B.Wickberg, Joyce Wieland, Thomas Wien, Clifford Wiens, Ernest J.Wiggins, Darlene Wight, Betty Wilcox, Frank Shorty Wilcox, Norman J.Wilimovsky, Karen Wilkin*, Bruce William Wilkinson, J.A.Wilkinson*, Robert C.Willey, Al Williams, David Ricardo Williams, Glyndwr Williams, Patricia Lynn Williams*, Richard M.Williams, S.Ridgeley Williams, Sydney B.Williams, M.W.Williams, Mary F.Williamson, Moncrieff Williamson, Christopher J.Willis, Norman M.Willis, Rod Willmot, Frank Wills, Bruce G.Wilson, H.E.Wilson, Ian E.Wilson, J.Donald Wilson, J.Tuzo Wilson, Jean Wilson*, Helmut K.Wimmer, Brent Windwick, Robin W.Winks, Gregory Wirick, Ronald G.Wirick, S.F.Wise, William J.Withrow, Henry Wittenberg, Leonhard S.Wolfe, William C.Wonders, Bernard Wood, George Woodcock*, John Woodruff, M.Emerson Woodruff, Robert James Woods, Glenn T.Wright, Harold E.Wright, J.F.C.Wright, J.V.Wright, Janet Wright*, Kenneth O.Wright, Roy A.Wright*, Paul Wyczynski, Jan Wyers, Max Wyman, Graeme Wynn, Leo Yaffe, Maxwell F.Yalden, Dong Yee, Derek York, A.J.Sandy Young, C.Maureen Young, David A.Young, Gayle Young, H.Brig Young, Jane Young, Jeffery Young, John H.Young, Roland S.Young, Walter D.Young, Manuel Zack, Jas Zagan, Suzanne E.Zeller*, Jarold K.Zeman, Joyce Zemans*, Norman W.Zepp, Jacob S.Ziegel, Bruce Ziff, Frank D.Zingrone, Stephen C.Zoltai*, Louise Zuk.

 

includes:

i) Governor General's Literary Awards, by [anonymous] (pp.758-761; in 2 parts, bpNichol listed for poetry, 197o, in part (chart) 2, Governor General's Award Winners)

ii) Humorous Writing in English, by Stephen Scobie (pp.847-848; prose, with a halfparagraph on Nichol's the martyrology)

iii) Literature in English, by W.H.New (pp1o17-1o2o; prose in 4 parts, passing reference to Nichol in part 4, History, itself in 6 parts, Nichol reference in part 6, 1959-80s)

iv) Nichol, Barrie Phillip, by Douglas Barbour (p.1259; prose)

v) Ondaatje, Michael, by Sharon Thesen (p.1318; prose, passing reference to Nichol/sons of captain poetry)

vi) Oral Literature in English, by Barbara Godard (pp.1331-1332; prose, passing reference to Nichol/Four Horsemen)

vii) Poetry in English, 1960-1980s, by Douglas Barbour (pp.1433-1434; prose, multiple references to Nichol)

viii) Short Fiction in English, by J.R.Tim Struthers (pp.1692-1693; prose in 9 parts, Nichol & Craft Dinner referenced in part 6, Experimental Writing)

ix) INDEX, by Eve Gardner & Ron Gardner (pp.1993-2o89; secondary references only includes Four Horsemen but with no way to access Nichol references other than (iv) above)

___________________________

 

- 2nd edition, 1988

Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères

A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/39522461

A text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:

The Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia) (ex-Athene cunicularia) is a small, long-legged owl found throughout open landscapes of North and South America. Burrowing owls can be found in grasslands, rangelands, agricultural areas, deserts, or any other dry, open area with low vegetation (Lewis 2005). They nest and roost in burrows, such as those abandoned by prairie dogs. Unlike most owls, burrowing owls are often active during the day. However, most hunting is done at dusk or at night.

Burrowing owls are able to live for at least 9 years in the wild and over 10 years in captivity.[citation needed] They are often killed by vehicles when crossing roads, and have many natural enemies, including badgers, coyotes, and snakes. They are also killed by both feral and domestic cats and dogs.

Burrowing owls have bright yellow eyes. The bill can be yellow or greenish depending on the subspecies. The legs are incompletely feathered, and the toes are grayish in color. They lack ear tufts and have a flattened facial disc. The owls have prominent white eyebrows and a white "chin" patch which they expand and display during certain behaviors.

Adult owls have brown upperparts with white spotting. The breast and belly are white with variable brown spotting or barring. Juvenile owls are similar in appearance, but they lack most of the white spotting above and brown barring below. Also, the young owls have a buff bar across the upper wing and their breast may be buffy rather than white.

Males and females are similar in size and appearance. However, adult males sometimes appear lighter in color because they spend more time outside the burrow during daylight, and their feathers become sun-bleached. The average adult is slightly larger than an American Robin, at 25 cm (10 inches) length, 53 cm (21 inches) wingspan, and 170g (6 oz) weight (Lewis 2005).

The typical "who who" call of a burrowing owl is associated with territory defense and breeding, often given by adult males to attract a female to a promising burrow. They also make other sounds, which are described as chucks, chattering, and screams. These sounds are usually accompanied by an up and down bobbing of the head. When alarmed, young birds will give a hissing call - a case of acoustic Batesian mimicry - that sounds like a rattlesnake (Haug et al. 1993).

Before European colonization, burrowing owls probably inhabited every suitable area of the New World, but they have experienced some restrictions in distribution since. They range from the southern portions of the western Canadian provinces through southern Mexico and western Central America. They are also found in Florida and many Caribbean islands. In South America, they are patchy in the northwest and through the Andes, but widely distributed from southern Brazil to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.

Burrowing owls are year-round residents in most of their range. Birds that breed in Canada and northern USA usually migrate south to Mexico and southern USA during winter months.

The burrowing owl is endangered in Canada[1], threatened in Mexico, and a species of special concern in Florida and most of the western USA. It is common and widespread in open regions of many Neotropical countries, where they sometimes even inhabit fields and parks in cities. In regions bordering the Amazon Rainforest they are spreading with deforestation. It is therefore listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.

The major reasons for declining populations in North America are control programs for prairie dogs and loss of habitat, although burrowing owls readily inhabit some anthropogenic landscapes, such as airport grasslands or golf courses (Korfanta et al. 2005).

Burrowing owls are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. They are also included in CITES Appendix II.

Genetic analysis of the two North American subspecies indicates that inbreeding is not a problem within those populations (Korfanta et al. 2005).

The nesting season begins in late March or April in North America. Burrowing owls are usually monogamous, but occasionally a male will have two mates (Lewis 2005). Pairs of owls will sometimes nest in loose colonies. Their typical breeding habitat is open grassland or prairie, but they can occasionally adapt to other open areas like airports, golf courses, and agricultural fields. Burrowing owls are slightly tolerant of human presence, often nesting near roads, farms, homes, and regularly maintained irrigation canals.

The owls nest in an underground burrow, hence the name Burrowing Owl. They use burrows created by other burrowing animals such as prairie dogs, ground squirrels, or badgers (Holt et al. 1999). If burrows are unavailable and the soil is not hard or rocky, the owls may excavate their own. Burrowing owls will also nest in shallow, underground, man-made structures that have easy access to the surface.

The female will lay as many as 8-12 eggs over a two week period. She will then incubate the eggs for three to four weeks while the male brings her food. After the eggs hatch both parents will feed the chicks. Four weeks after hatching, the chicks are able to make short flights and begin leaving the nest burrow. The parents will still help feed the chicks for 1 to 3 months. While most of the eggs will hatch, only four to five chicks usually survive to leave the nest.

During the nesting season, burrowing owls will line the burrow with mammal dung, usually from cattle. The dung helps to control the microclimate inside the burrow and to attract insects, which the owls may eat (Levey et al. 2004).

Site fidelity rates appear to vary among populations. In some locations, owls will frequently reuse a nest several years in a row. Owls in migratory northern populations are less likely to return to the same burrow every year. Also, as with many other birds, the female owls are more likely to disperse to a different site than are male owls (Lutz & Plumpton 1999).

The highly variable diet includes small mammals, small birds, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, and scorpions. But the owls mainly eat large insects and small rodents. Although burrowing owls often live in close proximity to ground squirrels, they rarely prey upon them. Unlike other owls, they also eat fruits and seeds, especially the fruit of tasajillo (Cylindropuntia leptocaulis) and other prickly pear and cholla cacti. When hunting they wait on a perch until they spot prey. Then they swoop down on prey or fly up to catch insects in flight. Sometimes they chase prey on foot across the ground.

The burrowing owl is sometimes separated in the monotypic genus Speotyto. This is based on an overall different morphology and karyotype. On the other hand, osteology and DNA sequence data suggests that the Burrowing Owl is just a terrestrial version of the Athene little owls, and it is today placed in that genus by most authorities.

A considerable number of subspecies have been described, but they differ little in appearance and the taxonomy of several needs to be validated (Holt et al. 1999). Most subspecies are found in the Andes and the Antilles. Only A. c. hypugaea and A. c. floridana are found in North America. Although distinct from each other, the relationship of the Floridan subspecies to (and its distinctness from) the Caribbean birds is not quite clear (Korfanta et al. 2005).

Um texto em português:

Coruja-buraqueira (Speotyto cunicularia).

Veja um vídeo clicando no endereço a seguir:

br.youtube.com/watch?v=BhCP0YqJDnY

Ficha Técnica

Nome comum: coruja-buraqueira, coruja-martelo, coruja-do-campo, caburé-de-cupim, caburé-do-campo, coruja-barata, coruja-buraqueira, coruja-do-campo, coruja-mineira, corujinha-buraqueira, corujinha-do-buraco, corujinha-do-campo, guedé, urucuera, urucuréia e urucuriá.

Nome científico: Speotyto cunicularia

Reino: Animal

Filo: Vertebrado

Classe: Aves

Ordem: Strigiformes

Família: Strigidae

Ave muito interessante e com características peculiares é tida pelo povo grego como a ave da sabedoria. Outros povos porém, acham que causa azar e arrepios seu canto quando rasga o silêncio noturno. Dizem ainda que é sinal de mal agouro e que o seu canto está pressagiando alguma tragédia, o que é pura crendice popular, pois o que se sabe é que as corujas são muito úteis ao homem predando pragas nas lavouras e controlando a população de ratos ao redor das cidades e no campo.

Pode girar seu pecoço em 270º

Características:

A coruja-buraqueira é muito comum pelos campos do Brasil.

Mede em torno de 20-30 cm com envergadura de 50-61cm e pesando em média 170g.

Com peito branco e plumagem amarelada o macho é ligeiramente maior que a fêmea, possuem cabeça arredondada e são aves muito tímidas.

Com olhos grandes e amarelos, a coruja-buraqueira tem a visão 100 vezes mais aguçada que a do homem e seus olhos estão dispostos frontalmente, como os do ser humano.

Quando necessita olhar algum objeto ao seu redor gira o pescoço em um ângulo de até 270 graus, aumentando assim o seu campo visual.

Essa disposição frontal, proporciona à coruja uma visão binocular (enxerga um objeto com ambos os olhos e ao mesmo tempo), isso significa que a coruja pode ver objetos em três dimensões, ou seja, altura, largura e profundidade.

Pode julgar distâncias similares ao ser humano e seu campo visual é de 110 graus, sendo 70 graus de visão binocular.

Os olhos da coruja-buraqueira são bem grandes, em algumas espécies de corujas até maiores que o próprio cérebro, a fim de melhorar sua eficiência em condições de baixa luminosidade, captando e processando melhor a luz disponível.

Além de sua privilegiada visão, a coruja-buraqueira é dona de uma audição potentíssima, conseguindo localizar e abater sua presa com apenas este sentido.

Abate preferencialmente pequenos roedores, insetos, anfíbios e pássaros. A coruja é uma ave de rapina, portanto mata para se alimentar. A tradução da palavra rapina é "roubo", o que caracteriza o fato de tais aves retirarem a vida de suas presas.

Rapineira e atenta à tudo

A coruja como a grande maioria dos animais possue território de caça. São ""equipadas "" com adaptações especiais que as tornam predadoras eficientes, sendo uma delas o vôo.

Sempre muito silenciosa e sorrateira, isso devido às penas especiais de sua asa, muito macias e em grande quantidade, conseguem cortar o ar e planar por muito tempo sendo muito discretas e imperceptíveis às suas presas.

A observação das presas se dá no alto de árvores ou em mourões de cercas nos pastos e até durante o vôo silencioso, quando fazem uma varredura na área de caça. Quando um alvo é avistado a coruja voa silenciosamente até ele, mantendo sua cabeça em linha reta ao alvo, quando então a joga para trás e empurra suas garras para frente a fim de prender seguramente sua presa. A força do impacto é violenta e certeira não dando chances à presa. Posteriormente a vítima é morta pela pressão do bico, num processo de abatimento de presas no solo.

O período reprodutivo da coruja-buraqueira começa nos meses de março e abril, os ninhos são feitos no solo, aproveitando antigas tocas de tatus ou simplesmente promovem a abertura de novos ninhos, num trabalho revezado entre o casal.

Os ninhos são escavados com os pés e bicos, formando uma galeria horizontal de até 3 m de profundidade por 30cm-60cm de largura.

Em média botam de 6 a 12 ovos, que são incubados por 28 dias pela fêmea; fica por conta do macho proteger o ninho e procurar alimento para toda a prole.

Com 14 dias os filhotes já ficam empoleirados na saída da cova, aos 44 dias saem do ninho e com 60 dias estão caçando pequenos insetos.

Informações do site: www.cuestajardins.com.br/?id=149&codigo=426&PHPSE...

Tarzan / Heft-Reihe

> Tarzan's Animal Encyclopedia /

The Bharal, Tree-Hyrax, Star-Nosed Mole, Golden Lion Marmoset

(art: Morris Waldinger, Tom Nicolosi)

DC Comics / USA 1973

ex libris MTP

www.comics.org/issue/26294/?

Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

 

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

 

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

 

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

BF-4 Flt 509 Maj Michael Lippert and BF-5 Flt 371 Cdr Nathan Gray Test aboard HMS Queen Elizabeth on 28 Sep 2018

  

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

The Lockheed Martin F-35 "Lightning II" is a family of single-seat, single-engine, all-weather, stealth, fifth-generation, multirole combat aircraft, designed for ground-attack and air-superiority missions. It is built by Lockheed Martin and many subcontractors, including Northrop Grumman, Pratt & Whitney, and BAE Systems.

 

The F-35 has three main models: the conventional takeoff and landing F-35A (CTOL), the short take-off and vertical-landing F-35B (STOVL), and the catapult-assisted take-off but arrested recovery, carrier-based F-35C (CATOBAR). The F-35 descends from the Lockheed Martin X-35, the design that was awarded the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program over the competing Boeing X-32. The official Lightning II name has proven deeply unpopular and USAF pilots have nicknamed it Panther, instead.

 

The United States principally funds F-35 development, with additional funding from other NATO members and close U.S. allies, including the United Kingdom, Italy, Australia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and formerly Turkey. These funders generally receive subcontracts to manufacture components for the aircraft; for example, Turkey was the sole supplier of several F-35 parts until its removal from the program in July 2019. Several other countries have ordered, or are considering ordering, the aircraft.

 

As the largest and most expensive military program ever, the F-35 became the subject of much scrutiny and criticism in the U.S. and in other countries. In 2013 and 2014, critics argued that the plane was "plagued with design flaws", with many blaming the procurement process in which Lockheed was allowed "to design, test, and produce the F-35 all at the same time," instead of identifying and fixing "defects before firing up its production line". By 2014, the program was "$163 billion over budget [and] seven years behind schedule". Critics also contend that the program's high sunk costs and political momentum make it "too big to kill".

 

The F-35 first flew on 15 December 2006. In July 2015, the United States Marines declared its first squadron of F-35B fighters ready for deployment. However, the DOD-based durability testing indicated the service life of early-production F-35B aircraft is well under the expected 8,000 flight hours, and may be as low as 2,100 flight hours. Lot 9 and later aircraft include design changes but service life testing has yet to occur. The U.S. Air Force declared its first squadron of F-35As ready for deployment in August 2016. The U.S. Navy declared its first F-35Cs ready in February 2019. In 2018, the F-35 made its combat debut with the Israeli Air Force.

 

The U.S. stated plan is to buy 2,663 F-35s, which will provide the bulk of the crewed tactical airpower of the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps in coming decades. Deliveries of the F-35 for the U.S. military are scheduled until 2037 with a projected service life up to 2070.

 

Development

 

F-35 development started in 1992 with the origins of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program and was to culminate in full production by 2018. The X-35 first flew on 24 October 2000 and the F-35A on 15 December 2006.

 

The F-35 was developed to replace most US fighter jets with the variants of a single design that would be common to all branches of the military. It was developed in co-operation with a number of foreign partners, and, unlike the F-22 Raptor, intended to be available for export. Three variants were designed: the F-35A (CTOL), the F-35B (STOVL), and the F-35C (CATOBAR). Despite being intended to share most of their parts to reduce costs and improve maintenance logistics, by 2017, the effective commonality was only 20%. The program received considerable criticism for cost overruns during development and for the total projected cost of the program over the lifetime of the jets.

 

By 2017, the program was expected to cost $406.5 billion over its lifetime (i.e. until 2070) for acquisition of the jets, and an additional $1.1 trillion for operations and maintenance. A number of design deficiencies were alleged, such as: carrying a small internal payload; performance inferior to the aircraft being replaced, particularly the F-16; lack of safety in relying on a single engine; and flaws such as the vulnerability of the fuel tank to fire and the propensity for transonic roll-off (wing drop). The possible obsolescence of stealth technology was also criticized.

  

Design

 

Overview

 

Although several experimental designs have been developed since the 1960s, such as the unsuccessful Rockwell XFV-12, the F-35B is to be the first operational supersonic STOVL stealth fighter. The single-engine F-35 resembles the larger twin-engined Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, drawing design elements from it. The exhaust duct design was inspired by the General Dynamics Model 200, proposed for a 1972 supersonic VTOL fighter requirement for the Sea Control Ship.

 

Lockheed Martin has suggested that the F-35 could replace the USAF's F-15C/D fighters in the air-superiority role and the F-15E Strike Eagle in the ground-attack role. It has also stated the F-35 is intended to have close- and long-range air-to-air capability second only to that of the F-22 Raptor, and that the F-35 has an advantage over the F-22 in basing flexibility and possesses "advanced sensors and information fusion".

 

Testifying before the House Appropriations Committee on 25 March 2009, acquisition deputy to the assistant secretary of the Air Force, Lt. Gen. Mark D. "Shack" Shackelford, stated that the F-35 is designed to be America's "premier surface-to-air missile killer, and is uniquely equipped for this mission with cutting-edge processing power, synthetic aperture radar integration techniques, and advanced target recognition".

 

Improvements

Ostensible improvements over past-generation fighter aircraft include:

 

Durable, low-maintenance stealth technology, using structural fiber mat instead of the high-maintenance coatings of legacy stealth platforms

Integrated avionics and sensor fusion that combine information from off- and on-board sensors to increase the pilot's situational awareness and improve target identification and weapon delivery, and to relay information quickly to other command and control (C2) nodes

High-speed data networking including IEEE 1394b and Fibre Channel (Fibre Channel is also used on Boeing's Super Hornet.

The Autonomic Logistics Global Sustainment, Autonomic Logistics Information System (ALIS), and Computerized maintenance management system to help ensure the aircraft can remain operational with minimal maintenance manpower The Pentagon has moved to open up the competitive bidding by other companies. This was after Lockheed Martin stated that instead of costing 20% less than the F-16 per flight hour, the F-35 would actually cost 12% more. Though the ALGS is intended to reduce maintenance costs, the company disagrees with including the cost of this system in the aircraft ownership calculations. The USMC has implemented a workaround for a cyber vulnerability in the system. The ALIS system currently requires a shipping-container load of servers to run, but Lockheed is working on a more portable version to support the Marines' expeditionary operations.

Electro-hydrostatic actuators run by a power-by-wire flight-control system

A modern and updated flight simulator, which may be used for a greater fraction of pilot training to reduce the costly flight hours of the actual aircraft

Lightweight, powerful lithium-ion batteries to provide power to run the control surfaces in an emergency

Structural composites in the F-35 are 35% of the airframe weight (up from 25% in the F-22). The majority of these are bismaleimide and composite epoxy materials. The F-35 will be the first mass-produced aircraft to include structural nanocomposites, namely carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy. Experience of the F-22's problems with corrosion led to the F-35 using a gap filler that causes less galvanic corrosion to the airframe's skin, designed with fewer gaps requiring filler and implementing better drainage. The relatively short 35-foot wingspan of the A and B variants is set by the F-35B's requirement to fit inside the Navy's current amphibious assault ship parking area and elevators; the F-35C's longer wing is considered to be more fuel efficient.

 

Costs

A U.S. Navy study found that the F-35 will cost 30 to 40% more to maintain than current jet fighters, not accounting for inflation over the F-35's operational lifetime. A Pentagon study concluded a $1 trillion maintenance cost for the entire fleet over its lifespan, not accounting for inflation. The F-35 program office found that as of January 2014, costs for the F-35 fleet over a 53-year lifecycle was $857 billion. Costs for the fighter have been dropping and accounted for the 22 percent life cycle drop since 2010. Lockheed stated that by 2019, pricing for the fifth-generation aircraft will be less than fourth-generation fighters. An F-35A in 2019 is expected to cost $85 million per unit complete with engines and full mission systems, inflation adjusted from $75 million in December 2013.

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/10453168

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

United States

Name:Mobile

Namesake:City of Mobile, Alabama

Builder:Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company, Newport News, Virginia

Laid down:14 April 1941

Launched:15 May 1942

Sponsored by:Mrs. Harry T. Hartwell

Commissioned:24 March 1943

Decommissioned:9 May 1947

Struck:1 March 1959

Identification:

Hull symbol:CL-63

Code letters:NAET

ICS November.svgICS Alpha.svgICS Echo.svgICS Tango.svg

Motto:"Mow 'em down Mobile!"

Honors and

awards:Bronze-service-star-3d.png Silver-service-star-3d.png 11 × battle stars

Fate:Sold for scrap on 16 December 1959

General characteristics

Class and type:Cleveland-class light cruiser

Displacement:

11,744 long tons (11,932 t) (standard)

14,131 long tons (14,358 t) (max)

Length:

610 ft 1 in (185.95 m) oa

608 ft (185 m)pp

Beam:66 ft 4 in (20.22 m)

Draft:

25 ft 6 in (7.77 m) (mean)

25 ft (7.6 m) (max)

Installed power:

4 × 634 psi Steam boilers

100,000 shp (75,000 kW)

Propulsion:

4 × geared turbines

4 × screws

Speed:32.5 kn (37.4 mph; 60.2 km/h)

Range:11,000 nmi (20,000 km) at 15 kn (17 mph; 28 km/h)

Complement:1,255 officers and enlisted

Armament:

4 × triple 6 in (150 mm)/47 caliber Mark 16 guns

6 × dual 5 in (130 mm)/38 caliber anti-aircraft guns

4 × quad 40 mm (1.6 in) Bofors anti-aircraft guns

6 × dual 40 mm (1.6 in) Bofors anti-aircraft guns

21 × single 20 mm (0.79 in) Oerlikon anti-aircraft cannons

Armor:

Belt: 3 1⁄2–5 in (89–127 mm)

Deck: 2 in (51 mm)

Barbettes: 6 in (150 mm)

Turrets: 1 1⁄2–6 in (38–152 mm)

Conning tower: 2 1⁄4–5 in (57–127 mm)

Aircraft carried:4 × floatplanes

Aviation facilities:2 × stern catapults

Service record

Operations:World War II

Awards:11 × battle stars

USS Mobile (CL-63) was a Cleveland-class light cruiser of the United States Navy. She was the third ship named for Mobile, Alabama.

 

She was laid down on 14 April 1941 by Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co., Newport News, Virginia; launched on 15 May 1942; sponsored by Mrs. Harry T. Hartwell; and commissioned on 24 March 1943, Captain Charles J. Wheeler in command.[1]

 

Service history

World War II

1943

Following a Chesapeake Bay shakedown and a brief training cruise to Casco Bay, Mobile departed for the Pacific, arriving Pearl Harbor on 23 July 1943 for a month of further training. On 22 August, she sailed west, joining Task Force 15 (TF 15) the following day for a raid on Marcus Island on 31 August. She participated in two more carrier raids from Hawaii before joining the 5th Fleet for the Gilberts campaign. She screened the ships of TF 15 as they struck at Tarawa Atoll on 18 September, and the ships of TF 14 hitting Wake on 5–6 October. On 21 October, she sailed west again in Task Group 53.3 (TG 53.3). By 8 November, she was off Bougainville Island covering reinforcement landings. Thence she steamed to Espiritu Santo, where she joined TG 53.7 for the assault and occupation of Tarawa. From the landings at Betio on the 20th–28th, she remained in the area supporting the Marine assault forces as they fought the first vigorous beachhead opposition to an American amphibious landing.[1]

 

On 1 December, Mobile was reassigned to TF 50 (Fast Carrier Forces, Pacific Fleet), the nucleus of what was to become TF 38/58. From the Gilberts, this force moved north for air attacks on Kwajalein and Wotje in the Marshalls. From there, the force returned to Pearl Harbor. Mobile continued on to San Diego, where she arrived and reported for escort duty to Amphibious Forces, 5th Fleet on 29 December.[1]

 

1944

Fifteen days later, sailing with TG 53.5, she began to make her way back to the Marshalls. Detached on 29 January 1944, Mobile, with other of Cruiser Division 13 (CruDiv 13), bombarded Wotje and then rejoined their task force for the assault and occupation of Kwajalein. Until 6 February, she performed fire support and carrier screening duties off Roi and Namur. She then proceeded to Majuro where, on 12 February, she joined TF 58.[1]

 

The mission of the fast carrier forces had by this time evolved into sealing off designated enemy-held atolls and islands which the Allies intended to take and interdicting others to isolate and keep to a minimum Japanese resistance at the target. Now a third mission was to be added, the pounding of major enemy bases without the aid of land-based aircraft, leaving little or no need for a return visit. Thus, to ease the occupation of Eniwetok and to aid in the encirclement of Rabaul, TF 58 departed Majuro and sailed for the Carolines. On 16–17 February, they devastated Truk, the best fleet anchorage in the Mandated Territories, the base of the Japanese combined fleet and the center for air and sea communications between Japan and the Bismarck Archipelago. The force then sailed northwest to the Mariana Islands for strikes on Saipan, Tinian, and Guam, encountering heavy aerial resistance there on 21–22 February. After a brief respite for replenishment at Majuro, Mobile sailed to Espiritu Santo, where the ships of TG 58.1 were reorganized as TG 36.1 on 12 March. On 15 March, they steamed northwest to cover Marine forces as they landed on Emirau on 20 March.[1]

 

By 24 March, Mobile's first anniversary, she had steamed over 70,000 miles (110,000 km) and participated in 11 operations against the enemy. Three days later, her group once again became TG 58.1 and readied for further strikes on enemy installations. From 29 March to 3 April, they struck at the Palaus, Yap, and Woleai, returning to Majuro on 5 April. Next they supported Allied landings at Aitape, Humboldt Bay, and Tanah Merah Bay in New Guinea, and bombarded Wake Island and Sawar Airfield on 21–22 April. From there, they returned to the Carolines where they conducted air strikes on Truk and bombarded Satawan on 29–30 April, hit Ponape on 1 May, and then headed back to Majuro to replenish and rearm in preparation for the Marianas campaign.[1]

 

On 6 June, the carrier force sortied from Majuro again. By 11 June, they were in the Marianas, striking at Saipan, Tinian, Guam, and Rota. From then through 17 June its planes and ships ranged from the Volcano and Bonin Islands to the southernmost Marianas supporting the assault on Saipan and preventing Japanese reinforcements from reaching that beleaguered island and the next target, Guam. On 18 June, searches for a Japanese fleet, reportedly en route from the Philippines, began to the west of the Marianas. The following day the Battle of the Philippine Sea opened with a Japanese carrier-based aircraft attack on the ships covering the Saipan assault. In the ensuing battle, Mobile continued her role as a guardian of the carriers, often dispatching her OS2U Kingfishers on antisubmarine and rescue missions, while planes from the carriers inflicted damage on Japanese aircraft strength and sank the aircraft carrier Hiyō on 20 June, bringing the number of Japanese carriers lost to three, Shōkaku and Taihō having been sunk by the submarines Cavalla and Albacore on 19 June.[1]

 

Retiring from the area on 23 June, the carrier force proceeded to Pagan Island, against which strikes were launched on 24 June, and then made for Eniwetok. Thence, on 30 June, they departed for further strikes on the Bonin and Volcano Islands on 4 July, before turning south once again to continue coverage of the Marianas campaign. Commencing daily strikes on Guam and Rota 6 July, the force remained in the area until after the landings on Guam. On 23 July, TG 58.1, with Mobile in the inner protective ring, steamed southwest for raids in the Western Carolines. Three days later they pounded Yap, Ulithi, and Fais, while TGs 58.2 and 58.3 hit the Palaus. On 30 July, TF 58 retired to Saipan, arrivingon 2 August.[1]

 

Underway again the same day, they headed back to the Bonin and Volcano Islands. As carrier planes bombed enemy installations on Iwo, Chichi, Ani, and Haha Jimas on 4 August, Mobile was detached with CruDiv 13 and Destroyer Division 46 (DesDiv 46)) to make an anti-shipping sweep in the Chichi Jima area. In the ensuing hours Mobile assisted in the sinking of one destroyer and a large cargo vessel. The following day she participated in the bombardment of Chichi Jima, and then set course for Eniwetok.[1]

 

Mobile's fast carrier group, now designated TG 38.3, began with strikes on the Palaus from 6 to 8 September, then sailed west, raiding Mindanao on 9–10 September, and the Visayas, on 12–13 September. On 15 September, the group returned to the Palaus to cover the landings on Peleliu and Angaur. By 18 September the ships of TG 38.3 were headed back to the Philippines. On 21 September, the force's planes struck the Manila area, and on 24 September swept the Visayas again.[1]

 

The force sortied from Ulithi once again on 6 October to pave the way for the upcoming Philippine operations. After the carrier planes had struck enemy installations in the Ryūkyūs, Mobile was detached with the destroyers Gatling and Cotten to search for and destroy two enemy ships 30 miles (48 km) distant from the force. Reaching the area, they discovered only one large cargo ship, the other vessel having been disposed of by several of the carrier planes. The three men-of-war quickly sank the cargo ship and rejoined TF 38 for strikes on Formosa and the Pescadores.[1]

 

On 13 October, Mobile was again detached and with others of her division formed a screen around the cruisers Canberra and Houston, wryly designated "Cripple Division 1" (CripDiv 1). Mobile and her companions, playing up erroneous reports issued by the Japanese as to the degree of damage inflicted on "the defeated and fleeing" American force, hoped to draw out the Japanese in chase, so that the carrier task force could destroy them. With the discovery of the waiting American force by Japanese scout planes, orders were changed. Canberra and Houston were towed eastward for repairs and Mobile rejoined TG 38.3 on 17 October.[1]

 

The next day the force cruised to the east of the northern Philippines and on 20 October guarded the northern air approaches to Leyte as American forces streamed ashore. For the next few days, strikes were conducted throughout the Visayas and on southern Luzon. On 24 October, TG 38.3 was attacked by planes from Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa's Mobile Fleet as they stood by the aircraft carrier Princeton. As the Battle for Leyte Gulf raged over the Philippines, TF 38.3 fought in the Battle off Cape Engaño on 25 October, then pursued the Mobile Fleet back toward Japan. Assigned to search for and destroy crippled enemy vessels and their escorts, Mobile aided in sinking Chiyoda and Hatsuzuki, then turned south to rejoin the main body of TF 38.[1]

 

For the next two months, the cruiser continued to operate in support of the Philippine campaign, guarding the carriers as they sent their planes to cover Allied assault forces in the Visayas and on Mindoro. On 26 December, she departed Ulithi for the west coast, arriving 16 days later at Terminal Island California, for overhaul and alterations.[1]

 

1945

Back at Ulithi on 29 March, she continued on to Okinawa, arriving on 3 April, two days after the initial attacks on that Japanese bastion. Assigned to TF 51, Amphibious Forces, Pacific Fleet, for the next two months, she provided fire support, served on antiaircraft and antisubmarine patrols and saw duty as a unit of "flycatcher" groups assigned to detect and destroy Shinyo kamikaze boats before they caused any damage. At the end of May, she arrived at Leyte where she joined TG 95.7, Philippine training group, with which she operated for the remainder of the war.[1]

 

Post-War

On 20 August, she cleared San Pedro Bay and headed north toward Okinawa and Japan for duty supporting the occupation. In September, she conducted several cruises between Japan and Okinawa, transporting liberated prisoners of wars on the first leg of their return to the United States. The following month she cruised in the Sasebo area and on 18 November, with Marine Corps and Navy men embarked, she departed for San Diego. Arriving on 2 December, she conducted another "Magic Carpet" run before steaming to Puget Sound for inactivation. Decommissioned on 9 May 1947, she entered the Reserve Fleet at Bremerton and remained there, in reserve, until 1 March 1959 when she was struck from the Naval Vessel Register. She was sold for scrapping to Zidell Explorations, Inc., on 16 December 1959, and was towed away for scrapping on 19 January 1960.[1]

 

Awards

Mobile received 11 battle stars for her World War II service.[1]

Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).

Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..

Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.

Puerta de Europa - Madrid - Spain

Gate of Europe

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

The Gate of Europa towers (Spanish: Puerta de Europa), also known as KIO Towers (Torres KIO), are twin office buildings in Madrid, Spain. The towers have a height of 114 m (374 ft) and have 26 floors. They were constructed from 1989 to 1996. The Puerta de Europa is the second tallest twin towers in Spain after the Torres de Santa Cruz in Santa Cruz de Tenerife.

 

They were designed by the American architects Philip Johnson and John Burgee, built by Fomento de Construcciones y Contratas] and commissioned by the Kuwait Investment Office (hence their initial name "Torres KIO" or "KIO Towers"). Leslie E. Robertson

 

Associates, RLLP New York (LERA) provided structural engineering services. Each building is 115 m tall with an inclination of 15°, making them the first inclined skyscrapers in the world. They are located near the Chamartín railway station, on the sides of the Plaza de Castilla bus station, north from the Paseo de la Castellana and near the Cuatro Torres Business Area (CTBA).

 

After the receivership of Grupo Torras, KIO had to sell the buildings, which are now owned by Bankia and Realia.

 

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/12381401

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

United States

Namesake: Edward R. McCall

Builder: Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation - Union Iron Works, San Francisco, California

Laid down: 17 March 1936

Launched: 20 November 1937

Commissioned: 22 June 1938

Decommissioned: 30 November 1945

Struck: 28 January 1947

Fate: scrapped

General characteristics

Displacement: 1,500 tons

Length: 341 ft 4 in (104.04 m)

Beam: 35 ft 5 in (10.80 m)

Draught: 14 ft 4 in (4.37 m)

Propulsion: 50,000 shp; Bethlehem Geared Turbines, 2 screws

Speed: 36.5 kt

Complement: 184

Armament: 4 x 5"/38 caliber guns, 16x 21" torpedo tubes

 

The second USS McCall (DD-400) was a Gridley-class destroyer in the United States Navy named after Captain Edward McCall, an officer in the United States Navy during the War of 1812. Launched in 1937, she saw service throughout World War II, including in the Guadalcanal Campaign, Battle of the Philippine Sea, and other battles, earning 9 battle stars for her service. She was struck from the rolls in 1947 scrapped the following year.

 

Contents

History

Construction

 

McCall (DD-400) was laid down 17 March 1936 at the Union Plant, Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, San Francisco, California; launched 20 November 1937; sponsored by Miss Eleanor Kempff; and commissioned 22 June 1938, Lieutenant Commander John Whelchel in command.

1941-1943

 

Assigned to the Pacific, McCall reported for duty in Destroyers, Battle Force, 16 January 1939. Less than 2 years later, on 7 December 1941, she was steaming with the carrier Enterprise en route to Pearl Harbor from Wake Island when she received word of the Japanese attack on the former. McCall's task force (TF 8) immediately commenced a search for the Japanese Fleet. By the time the force returned to Pearl Harbor only one Japanese vessel had been sighted, the submarine Japanese submarine I-70 which was sunk by the force's aircraft on the 10th. For the remainder of 1941 McCall, in the screen of Enterprise, stayed in the Hawaiian Islands area to guard against follow-up attack.

 

As the Japanese advanced south and east through the islands of the southwest Pacific, McCall headed in that direction with Enterprise and Yorktown for raids on Japanese installations in the southern Marshall Islands and northern Gilbert Islands. Making the strikes on 1 February 1942, the carrier forces and bombardment groups completed their missions in spite of heavy aerial resistance and were back at Oahu 5 February. On the 15th, the force (now designated TF 16) got underway for Wake and Marcus Islands against which they launched surprise attacks, 24 February and 4 March, respectively, and then returned to Pearl Harbor, 10 March.

 

McCall spent the next 6 weeks on patrol in Hawaiian waters and then did escort duty from Hawaii to Samoa, Fiji, and Tonga islands. At the end of May she sailed north to the Aleutian Islands as the Japanese stretched toward Alaska. Throughout the summer months she patrolled out of Kodiak, Alaska and participated in the bombardment of Japanese targets in the western Aleutians. She returned to Pearl Harbor 30 September, underwent overhaul and got underway with TF 11 for the South Pacific, 12 November 1942, to join in the Battle of Guadalcanal. In the Solomon Islands area for the next 10 months, the destroyer operated from Nouméa as she cruised on antisubmarine patrols and escorted carriers and convoys. On 19 September 1943 she departed to escort a convoy to San Francisco, California. There she underwent overhaul and then exercises along the west coast before sailing west again.

1944

 

Early in 1944 she joined TF 58, the fast carrier force, and put to sea 19 January, to screen the carriers as their planes raided Wotje, Taroa, and Eniwetok during February. McCall next screened the carriers as strikes were conducted against Palau. In March the force commenced operations from newly won Majuro and from there McCall sailed to guard the carriers as they made heavy strikes on the Palaus, Yap, Ulithi, and Woleai, 30 March to 1 April; covered the landings at Hollandia, 22 April; and raided Truk, Satawan, and Ponape, 29 April to 1 May.

 

After brief repairs at Pearl Harbor, McCall rejoined TF 58 at Majuro 4 June. Two days later the force sortied for operations in the Marianas Islands. First, they directly supported the landings on Guam, Rota, and Saipan, and then raided Iwo and Chichi Jima to prevent enemy reinforcements from reaching the Marianas through those islands. Then on 18 June they received word of a Japanese force sighted between the Philippines and the Marianas.

 

On the 19th, the Battle of the Philippine Sea began as Japanese carrier based planes attacked the 5th Fleet. By the end of the 2‑day battle, the Japanese had lost three carriers, 92 percent of its carrier planes and 72 percent of its float planes, a disastrous toll in a war based largely on naval airpower. After pursuing the Japanese, the carriers, with McCall in the screen, turned their attention to the Bonins and then retired to Eniwetok, arriving 27 June.

 

By 4 July, the fast carriers were again raiding Iwo Jima. They then steamed back to the Marianas where McCall, with Gridley, took up patrol off Guam, 10 July. At 1820 on the 10th, McCall's crew observed a heliograph from a cliff south of Uruno Point. Identifying the operator as friendly, a motor whaleboat, manned by a volunteer landing party, was dispatched to effect the rescue of the message sender. In spite of being within range of 6‑inch coastal batteries, the rescue was accomplished and George R. Tweed, RM1c, USN, having been on Guam since 1939 and in hiding since the Japanese occupation, was brought on board. With him he brought information on Japanese strength, morale, prelanding casualties, and disposition of troops and guns.

USS McCall (DD-400) underway on 15 January 1945.

 

During the next 9 weeks, McCall guarded the carriers as they struck again at Iwo Jima and then moved on to support offensive operations against the Palaus, Yap, and Ulithi. By 10 October they were off Okinawa, moving from there to Formosa and Luzon. On the 23d, covering the forces in Leyte Gulf, they turned north again to engage a Japanese carrier force, now bereft of planes because of losses sustained in the Battle of the Philippine Sea and off Formosa. On the 25th, the enemy force was engaged off Cape Engaño. Losses to the Japanese by the 27th included three cruisers in addition to several destroyers.

1945

 

McCall spent most of November off Leyte in support of land operations there. Then after availability at Manus she sortied 27 December for Lingayen Gulf to support the Luzon invasion. In mid-January 1945, she was attached to TG 78.12 for transport convoy escort duty and on the 28th resumed fire support duties.

 

On 19 February, McCall arrived in the transport area off Iwo Jima. Remaining there well into March, she screened the transports and provided shore bombardment, harassing and illumination fire services. On 27 March, she departed the Volcano Islands area for Pearl Harbor and the west coast, arriving at San Diego, California 22 April. Within the week she got underway for a scheduled overhaul at New York. Her yard work completed by 4 August, she was undergoing refresher training at Casco Bay when Japan surrendered 14 August.

Fate

 

Two months later she entered the Norfolk Navy Yard where she decommissioned 30 November 1945. Struck from the Naval Vessel Register 28 January 1947 and sold to the Hugo Neu Corporation, New York, 17 November 1947, McCall was scrapped 20 March 1948.

Steel engraving from The Encyclopaedia Britannica - 9th edition - 1876-1889.

 

Published by Adam and Charles Black, Edinburgh, for The Times Publications of London. 24 volumes red half leather, gilt spines and marbled endpapers and edges. About 20,000 pages 28cm x 22cm. .

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14470918

1965 World Book Encyclopedia Advertisement Life Magazine June 25 1965

Kingdom=Animalia

Phylum=Arthropoda

Subphylum=Myriapoda

Class=Chilopoda

Order=Scolopendromorpha

Family=Scolopendridae

Genus=Scolopendra

species=morsitans

Binomial name=Scolopendra morsitans

ID Encyclopedia of Life curator Valter Jacinto

Common name=centipede

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

The Egyptian goose (Alopochen aegyptiaca) is a member of the duck, goose, and swan family Anatidae. It is native to Africa south of the Sahara and the Nile Valley.

 

Egyptian geese were considered sacred by the Ancient Egyptians, and appeared in much of their artwork. Because of their popularity chiefly as an ornamental bird, escapees are common and feral populations have become established in Western Europe. The Egyptian goose has escaped or been deliberately released in to Florida, USA. However Egyptian geese are also now present in many parts of Central and Southeastern Texas with more than 100 sightings just in 1Q 2018 as reported in ebird.org database.

 

Taxonomy:

The Egyptian goose is believed to be most closely related to the shelducks (genus Tadorna) and their relatives, and is placed with them in the subfamily Tadorninae. It is the only extant member of the genus Alopochen, which also contains closely related prehistoric and recently extinct species. mtDNA cytochrome b sequence data suggest that the relationships of Alopochen to Tadorna need further investigation.[4]

 

The generic name is based on Greek ἀλώπηξ (alōpēx), "fox", and χήν (chēn) "goose", referring to the ruddy colour of its back. The species name aegyptius is from the Latin Aegyptius, "Egyptian".

 

Description:

Adult and chicks

It swims well, and in flight looks heavy, more like a goose than a duck, hence the English name.[6] It is 63–73 cm (25–29 in) long.

 

The sexes of this species are identical in plumage but the males average slightly larger. There is a fair amount of variation in plumage tone, with some birds greyer and others browner, but this is not sex- or age-related. A large part of the wings of mature birds is white, but in repose the white is hidden by the wing coverts. When it is aroused, either in alarm or aggression, the white begins to show. In flight or when the wings are fully spread in aggression, the white is conspicuous.

 

The voices and vocalisations of the sexes differ, the male having a hoarse, subdued duck-like quack which seldom sounds unless it is aroused. The male Egyptian goose attracts its mate with an elaborate, noisy courtship display that includes honking, neck stretching and feather displays. The female has a far noisier raucous quack that frequently sounds in aggression and almost incessantly at the slightest disturbance when tending her young.

 

Distribution:

This species breeds widely in Africa except in deserts and dense forests, and is locally abundant. They are found mostly in the Nile Valley and south of the Sahara. While not breeding, it disperses somewhat, sometimes making longer migrations northwards into arid regions of the Sahel. It spread to Great Britain, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany and Italy where there are self-sustaining populations which are mostly derived from escaped ornamental birds. Escapes have also bred on occasion in other places, such as Texas, Florida and New Zealand. The British population dates back to the 18th century, though only formally added to the British list in 1971. In Britain, it is found mainly in East Anglia, where it breeds at sites with open water, short grass and suitable nesting locations (either islands, holes in old trees or amongst epicormic shoots on old trees). During the winter they are widely dispersed within river valleys where they feed on short grass and cereals. It was officially declared a pest in the United Kingdom in 2009.

 

Behaviour:

This is a largely terrestrial species, which will also perch readily on trees and buildings. Egyptian geese typically eat seeds, leaves, grasses, and plant stems. Occasionally, they will eat locusts, worms, or other small animals.

 

Both sexes are aggressively territorial towards their own species when breeding and frequently pursue intruders into the air, attacking them in aerial "dogfights". Egyptian geese have been observed attacking aerial objects such as drones that enter their habitat as well. Neighbouring pairs may even kill another's offspring for their own offsprings' survival as well as for more resources.

 

This species will nest in a large variety of situations, especially in holes in mature trees in parkland. The female builds the nest from reeds, leaves and grass, and both parents take turns incubating eggs. Egyptian geese usually pair for life. Both the male and female care for the offspring until they are old enough to care for themselves.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

.

Fort Slocum

Part of Coast Defenses of Eastern New York

Davids Island, city of New Rochelle, New York

 

Mortars similar to the type used at Fort Slocum

Fort Slocum is located in New York City

Fort Slocum

Fort Slocum

Location in New York City area

Show map of New York City

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Show all

Coordinates40°53′02″N 73°46′12″WCoordinates: 40°53′02″N 73°46′12″W

TypeCoastal Defense fort, hospital, training base

Site information

OwnerCity of New Rochelle

Site history

Built1862

Built byUnited States Army Corps of Engineers

Demolished2008

Battles/warsAmerican Civil War

World War I

World War II

 

Fort Slocum, New York was a US military post which occupied Davids Island in the western end of Long Island Sound in the city of New Rochelle, New York from 1867 to 1965. The fort was named for Major General Henry W. Slocum, a Union corps commander in the American Civil War.

 

History

Civil War

 

Military use of the island dates from 1861, when the 3rd Regiment (63rd New York Infantry) of the Irish Brigade established Camp Carrigan. The next year, 1862, Davids Island was leased by the U.S. Government. This marked the first use of Davids Island by the Regular Army. At that time, De Camp General Hospital (named for Dr. Samuel G. I. de Camp)[1] was established to serve thousands of wounded individuals from the battlefields of the American Civil War. By late 1862, De Camp was the Army’s largest general hospital, housing more than 2,100 patients. Originally, De Camp General Hospital treated only Union soldiers, but following the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, the War Department opened it to care for hundreds of wounded Confederate soldiers. Even though a prison camp had been established on Hart Island in 1865 [2] Davids Island soon held more than 2,500 Confederate prisoners of war. Most had recovered by October, and they were moved to prisoner-of-war camps elsewhere.[3] A ferry connection was established during the war from Neptune Island, under the control of Simeon Leland.

Post Civil War

 

At the end of the war, Congress authorized the island's purchase for military purposes and it was conveyed to the United States as the Davids Island Military Reservation in 1867. From this date, the Federal government operated its own ferry to and from Neptune Island.[4] In July 1878 Davids Island was made a principal depot of the U.S. Army General Recruiting Service, taking over this assignment from Governors Island. This marked the beginning of the installation’s longstanding mission as a recruitment and training center.

Late 19th century through 1916

 

As the post on Davids Island grew, in the 1880s the Army invested in new brick construction of more than 20 new buildings, including officers’ quarters, enlisted men’s barracks, mess halls, hospital buildings, and support facilities.[1] It was later converted to a coastal artillery defense post and was eventually given the name Fort Slocum after Major General Henry W. Slocum, U.S. Volunteers in 1896.[1] Construction of fortifications on the island resulted from the recommendations of the Endicott Board of Fortifications, an 1885 study of America’s coastal defenses. The study called for better protection of ports such as New York Harbor, and Davids Island became part of its system of defenses. Between 1891 and 1904, artillery batteries were erected at three places on the eastern half of the island: Battery Practice near the southeastern shoreline, with 1870s-era weapons for training personnel for older forts, the state-of-the-art Abbot Quad heavy mortar batteries, Haskin and Overton, mounting a total of 16 breech-loading 12-inch mortars, at the southeast end of the island; and two adjoining medium-range breech-loading rifled gun batteries, Fraser and Kinney, on the northeastern shore.[5][1] Battery Practice had at least one 15-inch smoothbore Rodman gun and two 8-inch converted rifles, all muzzle-loading and typical of weapons emplaced in the 1870s. It was disestablished in 1899, although the 15-inch gun remains on the island.[1] Battery Kinney had two 6-inch M1900 guns on pedestal mounts, and Battery Fraser had two 5-inch M1900 guns on pedestal mounts.[1][6] (Despite the presence of mis-captioned postcards, including those in the New Rochelle Public Library, there were never large-caliber breech-loading disappearing guns placed at Davids Island.)[6]

 

Battery Haskin was named for Joseph A. Haskin, a general who served in the Mexican War and Civil War, whose son, Major William L. Haskin, commanded Davids Island 1894-1896. Battery Overton was named for Captain Clough Overton, a cavalry officer in the Spanish–American War. Battery Kinney was named for Joseph Kinney, an officer killed in the War of 1812, and Battery Fraser was named for Upton S. Fraser, an officer killed by the Seminoles in 1835.[1]

 

With improved dreadnought battleships and the construction of the Coast Defenses of Long Island Sound at the beginning of the 20th century, these batteries became obsolete, and Ft. Slocum was removed in 1907 from the Artillery District of New York (Coast Defenses of Eastern New York from 1913), leaving Fort Totten and Fort Schuyler in that role until 1935.[7][8] However, Fort Slocum retained all its guns until World War I.[6] At the start of the 20th Century Davids Island became the East Coast assembly point for units assigned to America’s new overseas territories.[9]

World War I

 

After the American entry into World War I Fort Slocum became one of the busiest recruit training stations in the country, processing 100,000 soldiers per year and serving as the recruit examination station for soldiers from New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and the New England states. Between 1917 and 1919, over 140,000 recruits passed through the post. In fact, Recruit Week in December 1917 brought so many recruits to Fort Slocum that an overflow had to be housed in New Rochelle. Fort Slocum's guns were dismounted and transferred to other uses beginning in 1917. Battery Kinney's 6-inch guns were moved to Fort Tilden; Battery Fraser's 5-inch guns were dismounted, probably for potential service on field carriages on the Western Front. Records do not indicate if these guns were sent to France. In 1919 Fort Slocum was totally disarmed; its 16 mortars were removed and possibly became railway artillery.[1]

Between the wars

 

In 1922 there was a general military drawdown, and closure of Fort Slocum was proposed. However, it remained open with varying roles. It housed at least one US Olympic Team, a Civilian Conservation Corps camp, and the Army cooks' and bakers' school. The 1884 water tower was replaced in 1929, and a sewage system was installed. In the 1930s most of the coast defense batteries were demolished to make room for three new barracks, the Trivium.[1]

World War II

 

On 16 May 1941, as war raged in Europe, Fort Slocum became part of the New York Port of Embarkation, becoming a staging area for troops moving overseas. Fort Slocum also trained cadre to set up other staging areas in Greater New York, such as Camp Kilmer and Camp Shanks in 1941 and 1942. Fort Slocum hosted the Atlantic Coast Transportation Officers' Training School, acquainting former civilians from the transportation industries with the Army.[1] The fort was thus a key element of the Army's Transportation Corps, so named in mid-1942, whose mission was moving huge numbers of men and amounts of materiel overseas.[1] By early 1944 the need to ship troops to Europe had lessened, and a policy of rotating troops in the US who hadn't seen action to overseas battlefields and the reverse was instituted. Battle-hardened soldiers returning from Europe were put through a "Provisional Training Center" at Fort Slocum to re-acquaint them with the stateside Army, with its surplus of proper military appearance, courtesy, and discipline, along with its deficit of actually shooting Germans. In May 1944 Private Willie Lee Duckworth of Sandersville, Georgia devised the famous "Sound off, one, two" military cadence while attending one of these classes.[10][11][1] In November 1944, as the transportation school wound down, Fort Slocum took on a mission of rehabilitating soldiers who had been court-martialed in Europe and sent home.[1]

Late 1940s

 

Following World War II, Fort Slocum was briefly considered as a nuclear research center; what became Brookhaven National Laboratory was chosen instead.[1] From 1946 to 1949, Fort Slocum housed Headquarters First Air Force. It was renamed Slocum Air Force Base in June 1949; this only lasted for a year before being turned back into an Army post in June 1950.[12] From 1955 to 1960, Fort Slocum housed part of Nike Ajax air-defense missile battery NY-15.[13] The missiles were stored on launch rails and in underground bunkers on nearby Hart Island, with the radar and control base situated on Davids' Island.[13][14] In July 1960, after only five years of operation, Nike Battery NY-15 was closed.

1950-1965

 

From 1951 to 1962, Fort Slocum was the home of the U.S. Army Chaplain School. From 1951 to 1954, Fort Slocum was home to the joint services Armed Forces Information School. From 1954, this was truncated to the Army Information School; from 1964, this was again reorganized into the joint services Defense Information School, which was later transferred to Fort Benjamin Harrison, Indiana, and then to its current home at Fort Meade, Maryland. Over the course of this time, troops from the various services, officers and enlisted, male and female, American and allied, were trained in applied journalism, oral communication, radio/TV broadcasting, public and world affairs, and photography.[5] In 1965, the information school was moved to Fort Benjamin Harrison, Indiana when Fort Slocum was deactivated.[15][16]

After closure

 

Fort Slocum was deactivated on November 30, 1965. During the decades that followed, the facilities of the former Army post were neglected and deteriorated severely and continued to occupy Davids Island into the beginning of the 21st century. The ruins were among the factors complicating redevelopment of the island. Beginning in 2004, however, Congress appropriated funds to remove the ruins through a Defense Department program that assists communities in reusing former defense facilities. During the summer of 2008, the city of New Rochelle demolished all remaining structures on the island, including the iconic water tower on the northern end of the island, with plans to turn the island into a park.[17]

"Sound off, one, two"

 

The famous "Sound off, one, two" military cadence was invented at Fort Slocum in May 1944, attributed to Private Willie Lee Duckworth of Sandersville, Georgia.[10][11]

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

Name: USS Henderson (AP-1)

Namesake: General Archibald Henderson, U.S. Marine Corps

Builder: Philadelphia Navy Yard

Laid down: 19 June 1915

Launched: 17 June 1916

Sponsored by: Miss Genevieve W. Taylor, great-granddaughter of General Henderson

Commissioned: 24 May 1917

Decommissioned: 13 October 1943

Recommissioned: 23 March 1944, as Bountiful (AH-9)

Decommissioned: 13 September 1946

Renamed: USS Bountiful (AH-9), 1944

Reclassified: AP-1 to AH-9, 23 March 1944

Honors and

awards: 4 battle stars for World War II service

Fate: Sold for scrap, 28 January 1948

General characteristics

Displacement:

 

7,730 long tons (7,854 t) light

12,400 long tons (12,599 t) full

 

Length: 483 ft 10 in (147.47 m)

Beam: 61 ft 1 in (18.62 m)

Draft: 16 ft 2 in (4.93 m)

Propulsion: Reciprocating engine, single screw, 4,400 hp (3,281 kW)

Speed: 14 knots (26 km/h; 16 mph)

Capacity:

 

(AP): 1,695 troops

(AH): 477 patients

 

Complement: (AP): 233

Armament:

 

(AP)

8 × 5 in (130 mm) guns

2 × 3"/50 caliber guns

2 × 1-pounder guns

 

The first USS Henderson (AP-1) was a transport in the United States Navy during World War I and World War II. In 1943, she was converted to a hospital ship and commissioned as USS Bountiful (AH-9).

 

Named for Marine General Archibald Henderson, she was launched by Philadelphia Navy Yard on 17 June 1916; sponsored by Miss Genevieve W. Taylor, great-granddaughter of General Henderson; and commissioned at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on 24 May 1917, Lt. C. W. Steel in command.

 

World War I, 1917–1918

 

Henderson arrived New York on 12 June 1917 and sailed two days later with Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves' Cruiser and Transport Force, which carried units of the American Expeditionary Force to France. In her holds she had space for 1,500 men and 24 mules. Reaching Saint-Nazaire on 27 June she disembarked troops and returned to Philadelphia on 17 July 1917. Subsequently, Henderson made eight more voyages to France with troops and supplies for the allies in the bitter European fighting. She established two large base hospitals in France during 1917. In constant danger from submarines, the transport was steaming near Army transport Antilles on 17 October 1917 when the latter was torpedoed. Henderson escaped attack by wrapping herself in an envelope of smoke. But torpedoes were not her only danger. She sailed for her seventh voyage on 30 June 1918 to France. A serious fire broke out in a cargo hold on 2 July 1918. Destroyers Mayrant (DD-31) and Paul Jones (DD-10) transferred her troop passengers to nearby transports without loss of life, and determined firefighting crews soon brought the flames under control. She sailed again from Philadelphia Tuesday 13 August 1918 and arrived at the port of Brest, France Monday 25 August 1918.

Henderson in camouflage, 1918

Caribbean, 1918–1923

 

Following the armistice, Henderson made eight more transatlantic voyages bringing home members of the A.E.F. She carried more than 10,000 veterans before returning to Philadelphia on 27 December 1919. She then took up duty as troop rotation ship for Marine units in the Caribbean, carrying Marines, their dependents, and supplies to bases in Cuba, Haiti, and other islands. She also participated in Marine training maneuvers in Florida before returning to Philadelphia on 6 July 1920. After an extended period of repairs, the transport resumed her duties in the Caribbean. This was interrupted from 21 June to 21 July as Henderson carried military and civilian leaders to observe the historic bombing tests off the Virginia Capes.

 

During the next few years, she also performed ceremonial duties, embarking a congressional party to observe fleet maneuvers in the Caribbean in the spring of 1923, and carrying President Warren G. Harding on an inspection tour of Alaska. The President called at Metlakatla, Ketchikan, Wrangell, Juneau, Skagway, Seward, Valdez, Cordova and Sitka in Alaska, as well as Vancouver, Canada. He reviewed the fleet off Seattle from the deck of Henderson, and departed on 27 July 1923, only five days before his death.

Pacific, 1924–1941

 

During Fleet Problem III in early 1924, Henderson participated in a mock amphibious invasion of the Panama Canal Zone. This major training operation by the fleet helped practice assault techniques and led to improved landing craft as well. The ship also aided in the protection of American interests in the volatile Caribbean states and in the Far East.

 

Henderson arrived Shanghai on 2 May 1927 with Marines for the garrison there, and remained in China for six months protecting American nationals in the war-torn country. Here members of her crew originated the "Domain of the Golden Dragon," having cruised back and forth across the International Date Line. The troop transport was engaged in carrying replacements for the fleet and the Marines in China for the next fourteen years.

World War II, 1941–1943

 

Henderson had left Pearl Harbor to transport troops to California not long before the Japanese attack on 7 December 1941. On hearing of the attack, the captain feared that the Japanese flotilla would continue on to California, having eliminated any opposition from Hawaii. Henderson would be a slow, conspicuous, and solitary target in their path. He set course for Alaska to avoid being overcome, maintaining strict radio silence even in the face of repeated attempts by the Navy to contact the ship and verify its survival. Henderson then hugged the Pacific Northwest coast down to San Francisco Bay, arriving several days after it had been presumed missing in action. During the Pacific War, Henderson continued its service as a transport between California and Hawaii, making over 20 such voyages with fighting men, civilian passengers, and cargo. On her last voyage she departed Port Hueneme on 18 July 1943 and arrived Nouméa with 71 much-needed nurses. The transport then sailed to the Solomon Islands with SeaBees before returning to San Francisco on 24 September 1943.

 

Henderson decommissioned on 13 October 1943 for conversion to a hospital ship at General Engineering & Dry Dock Company, Oakland, California.

Hospital ship, 1944–1946

USS Bountiful (AH-9) In a Southwestern Pacific port in 1944-45. (Official U.S. Navy Photograph #: 80-G-K-2138 (Color))

 

The ship was recommissioned as USS Bountiful (AH-9) on 23 March 1944, Comdr. G. L. Burns in command.

 

Bountiful departed San Francisco on 1 April 1944 for Honolulu, returned later that month, and sailed once more on 1 May for the western Pacific. After brief service at Honolulu and Eniwetok the ship arrived on 18 June at the Saipan invasion beaches. She made three passages to the hospitals on Kwajalein with casualties of the Marianas invasions. About this time Bountiful established one of the few blood banks in a Naval ship.

 

The floating hospital remained at Manus until 17 September when she sailed for the Palaus to bring casualties of the Peleliu landing to hospitals in the Solomons. After November Bountiful operated between Leyte and the rear bases carrying veterans of the Philippines campaign. She departed Manus on 24 February 1945 for Ulithi and Saipan to receive casualties of the bitter Iwo Jima assault, and in the next months sailed to rendezvous with the fleet to take on wounded from Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and the fleet units themselves. Returning to Leyte Gulf on 15 June, she remained until 21 July, and then got underway for California. Bountiful arrived after war's end, sailing into San Francisco Bay on 21 August 1945.

 

Bountiful was then assigned as hospital ship at Yokosuka, Japan, departing San Francisco 1 November 1945. She arrived on 24 November to support the occupation forces, and remained until 27 March 1946 when she sailed for San Francisco. After delivering her patients, the ship sailed on 26 May for the atomic tests at Bikini Atoll, and after providing medical services during the series of nuclear blasts during "Operation Crossroads", she returned to Seattle on 15 August 1946.

Decommissioning and sale

 

Bountiful decommissioned on 13 September 1946, and was sold for scrap by the Maritime Commission on 28 January 1948 to Consolidated Builders, Inc., Seattle.

Information from: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Cod

 

Cape Cod

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

This article is about the area of Massachusetts. For other uses, see Cape Cod (disambiguation).

For other uses, see Cod (disambiguation).

 

Coordinates: 41°41′20″N 70°17′49″W / 41.68889°N 70.29694°W / 41.68889; -70.29694

Map of Massachusetts, with Cape Cod (Barnstable County) indicated in red

Dunes on Sandy Neck are part of the Cape's barrier beach which helps to prevent erosion

 

Cape Cod, often referred to locally as simply the Cape, is an island and a cape in the easternmost portion of the state of Massachusetts, in the Northeastern United States. It is coextensive with Barnstable County. Several small islands right off Cape Cod, including Monomoy Island, Monomoscoy Island, Popponesset Island, and Seconsett Island, are also in Barnstable County, being part of municipalities with land on the Cape. The Cape's small-town character and large beachfront attract heavy tourism during the summer months.

 

Cape Cod was formed as the terminal moraine of a glacier, resulting in a peninsula in the Atlantic Ocean. In 1914, the Cape Cod Canal was cut through the base or isthmus of the peninsula, forming an island. The Cape Cod Commission refers to the resultant landmass as an island; as does the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in regards to disaster preparedness.[1] It is still identified as a peninsula by geographers, who do not change landform designations based on man-made canal construction.[citation needed]

 

Unofficially, it is one of the biggest barrier islands in the world, shielding much of the Massachusetts coastline from North Atlantic storm waves. This protection helps to erode the Cape shoreline at the expense of cliffs, while protecting towns from Fairhaven to Marshfield.

 

Road vehicles from the mainland cross over the Cape Cod Canal via the Sagamore Bridge and the Bourne Bridge. The two bridges are parallel, with the Bourne Bridge located slightly farther southwest. In addition, the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge carries railway freight as well as tourist passenger services.

Contents

[hide]

 

* 1 Geography and political divisions

o 1.1 "Upper" and "Lower"

* 2 Geology

* 3 Climate

* 4 Native population

* 5 History

* 6 Lighthouses of Cape Cod

* 7 Transportation

o 7.1 Bus

o 7.2 Rail

o 7.3 Taxi

* 8 Tourism

* 9 Sport fishing

* 10 Sports

* 11 Education

* 12 Islands off Cape Cod

* 13 See also

* 14 References

o 14.1 Notes

o 14.2 Sources

o 14.3 Further reading

* 15 External links

 

[edit] Geography and political divisions

Towns of Barnstable County

historical map of 1890

 

The highest elevation on Cape Cod is 306 feet (93 m), at the top of Pine Hill, in the Bourne portion of the Massachusetts Military Reservation. The lowest point is sea level.

 

The body of water located between Cape Cod and the mainland, bordered to the north by Massachusetts Bay, is Cape Cod Bay; west of Cape Cod is Buzzards Bay. The Cape Cod Canal, completed in 1916, connects Buzzards Bay to Cape Cod Bay; it shortened the trade route between New York and Boston by 62 miles.[2] To the south of Cape Cod lie Nantucket Sound; Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, both large islands, and the mostly privately owned Elizabeth Islands.

 

Cape Cod incorporates all of Barnstable County, which comprises 15 towns: Bourne, Sandwich, Falmouth, and Mashpee, Barnstable, Yarmouth, Dennis, Harwich, Brewster, Chatham, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. Two of the county's fifteen towns (Bourne and Sandwich) include land on the mainland side of the Cape Cod Canal. The towns of Plymouth and Wareham, in adjacent Plymouth County, are sometimes considered to be part of Cape Cod but are not located on the island.

 

In the 17th century the designation Cape Cod applied only to the tip of the peninsula, essentially present-day Provincetown. Over the ensuing decades, the name came to mean all the land east of the Manomet and Scussett rivers - essentially the line of the 20th century Cape Cod Canal. Now, the complete towns of Bourne and Sandwich are widely considered to incorporate the full perimeter of Cape Cod, even though small parts of these towns are located on the west side of the canal. The canal divides the largest part of the peninsula from the mainland and the resultant landmass is sometimes referred to as an island.[3][4] Additionally some "Cape Codders" – residents of "The Cape" – refer to all land on the mainland side of the canal as "off-Cape."

 

For most of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, Cape Cod was considered to consist of three sections:

 

* The Upper Cape is the part of Cape Cod closest to the mainland, comprising the towns of Bourne, Sandwich, Falmouth, and Mashpee. Falmouth is the home of the famous Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and several other research organizations, and is also the most-used ferry connection to Martha's Vineyard. Falmouth is composed of several separate villages, including East Falmouth, Falmouth Village, Hatchville, North Falmouth, Teaticket, Waquoit, West Falmouth, and Woods Hole, as well as several smaller hamlets that are incorporated into their larger neighbors (e.g., Davisville, Falmouth Heights, Quissett, Sippewissett, and others).[5]

 

* The Mid-Cape includes the towns of Barnstable, Yarmouth and Dennis. The Mid-Cape area features many beautiful beaches, including warm-water beaches along Nantucket Sound, e.g., Kalmus Beach in Hyannis, which gets its name from one of the inventors of Technicolor, Herbert Kalmus. This popular windsurfing destination was bequeathed to the town of Barnstable by Dr. Kalmus on condition that it not be developed, possibly one of the first instances of open-space preservation in the US. The Mid-Cape is also the commercial and industrial center of the region. There are seven villages in Barnstable, including Barnstable Village, Centerville, Cotuit, Hyannis, Marstons Mills, Osterville, and West Barnstable, as well as several smaller hamlets that are incorporated into their larger neighbors (e.g., Craigville, Cummaquid, Hyannisport, Santuit, Wianno, and others).[6] There are three villages in Yarmouth: South Yarmouth, West Yarmouth and Yarmouthport. There are five villages in Dennis including, Dennis Village(North Dennis), East Dennis, West Dennis, South Dennis and Dennisport.[7]

 

* The Lower Cape traditionally included all of the rest of the Cape,or the towns of Harwich, Brewster, Chatham, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. This area includes the Cape Cod National Seashore, a national park comprising much of the outer Cape, including the entire east-facing coast, and is home to some of the most popular beaches in America, such as Coast Guard Beach and Nauset Light Beach in Eastham. Stephen Leatherman, aka "Dr. Beach", named Coast Guard Beach the 5th best beach in America for 2007.[8]

 

[edit] "Upper" and "Lower"

 

The terms "Upper" and "Lower" as applied to the Cape have nothing to do with north and south. Instead, they derive from maritime convention at the time when the principal means of transportation involved watercraft, and the prevailing westerly winds meant that a boat with sails traveling northeast in Cape Cod Bay would have the wind at its back and thus be going downwind, while a craft sailing southwest would be going against the wind, or upwind.[9] Similarly, on nearby Martha's Vineyard, "Up Island" still is the western section and "Down Island" is to the east, and in Maine, "Down East" is similarly defined by the winds and currents.

 

Over time, the reasons for the traditional nomenclature became unfamiliar and their meaning obscure. Late in the 1900s, new arrivals began calling towns from Eastham to Provincetown the "Outer Cape", yet another geographic descriptor which is still in use, as is the "Inner Cape."

[edit] Geology

Cape Cod and Cape Cod Bay from space.[10]

 

East of America, there stands in the open Atlantic the last fragment of an ancient and vanished land. Worn by the breakers and the rains, and disintegrated by the wind, it still stands bold.

“

”

Henry Beston, The Outermost House

 

Cape Cod forms a continuous archipelagic region with a thin line of islands stretching toward New York, historically known by naturalists as the Outer Lands. This continuity is due to the fact that the islands and Cape are all terminal glacial moraines laid down some 16,000 to 20,000 years ago.

 

Most of Cape Cod's geological history involves the advance and retreat of the Laurentide ice sheet in the late Pleistocene geological era and the subsequent changes in sea level. Using radiocarbon dating techniques, researchers have determined that around 23,000 years ago, the ice sheet reached its maximum southward advance over North America, and then started to retreat. Many "kettle ponds" — clear, cold lakes — were formed and remain on Cape Cod as a result of the receding glacier. By about 18,000 years ago, the ice sheet had retreated past Cape Cod. By roughly 15,000 years ago, it had retreated past southern New England. When so much of Earth's water was locked up in massive ice sheets, the sea level was lower. Truro's bayside beaches used to be a petrified forest, before it became a beach.

 

As the ice began to melt, the sea began to rise. Initially, sea level rose quickly, about 15 meters (50 ft) per 1,000 years, but then the rate declined. On Cape Cod, sea level rose roughly 3 meters (11 ft) per millennium between 6,000 and 2,000 years ago. After that, it continued to rise at about 1 meter (3 ft) per millennium. By 6,000 years ago, the sea level was high enough to start eroding the glacial deposits that the vanished continental ice sheet had left on Cape Cod. The water transported the eroded deposits north and south along the outer Cape's shoreline. Those reworked sediments that moved north went to the tip of Cape Cod.

 

Provincetown Spit, at the northern end of the Cape, consists largely of marine deposits, transported from farther up the shore. Sediments that moved south created the islands and shoals of Monomoy. So while other parts of the Cape have dwindled from the action of the waves, these parts of the Cape have grown.

Cape Cod National Seashore

 

This process continues today. Due to their position jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean, the Cape and islands are subject to massive coastal erosion. Geologists say that, due to erosion, the Cape will be completely submerged by the sea in thousands of years.[11] This erosion causes the washout of beaches and the destruction of the barrier islands; for example, the ocean broke through the barrier island at Chatham during Hurricane Bob in 1991, allowing waves and storm surges to hit the coast with no obstruction. Consequently, the sediment and sand from the beaches is being washed away and deposited elsewhere. While this destroys land in some places, it creates land elsewhere, most noticeably in marshes where sediment is deposited by waters running through them.

[edit] Climate

 

Although Cape Cod's weather[12] is typically more moderate than inland locations, there have been occasions where Cape Cod has dealt with the brunt of extreme weather situations (such as the Blizzard of 1954 and Hurricane of 1938). Because of the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, temperatures are typically a few degrees cooler in the summer and a few degrees warmer in the winter. A common misconception is that the climate is influenced largely by the warm Gulf Stream current, however that current turns eastward off the coast of Virginia and the waters off the Cape are more influenced by the cold Canadian Labrador Current. As a result, the ocean temperature rarely gets above 65 °F (18 °C), except along the shallow west coast of the Upper Cape.

 

The Cape's climate is also notorious for a delayed spring season, being surrounded by an ocean which is still cold from the winter; however, it is also known for an exceptionally mild fall season (Indian summer), thanks to the ocean remaining warm from the summer. The highest temperature ever recorded on Cape Cod was 104 °F (40 °C) in Provincetown[13], and the lowest temperature ever was −12 °F (−24.4 °C) in Barnstable.[14]

 

The water surrounding Cape Cod moderates winter temperatures enough to extend the USDA hardiness zone 7a to its northernmost limit in eastern North America.[15] Even though zone 7a (annual low = 0–5 degrees Fahrenheit) signifies no sub-zero temperatures annually, there have been several instances of temperatures reaching a few degrees below zero across the Cape (although it is rare, usually 1–5 times a year, typically depending on locale, sometimes not at all). Consequently, many plant species typically found in more southerly latitudes grow there, including Camellias, Ilex opaca, Magnolia grandiflora and Albizia julibrissin.

 

Precipitation on Cape Cod and the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket is the lowest in the New England region, averaging slightly less than 40 inches (1,000 mm) a year (most parts of New England average 42–46 inches). This is due to storm systems which move across western areas, building up in mountainous regions, and dissipating before reaching the coast where the land has leveled out. The region does not experience a greater number of sunny days however, as the number of cloudy days is the same as inland locales, in addition to increased fog. Snowfall is annual, but a lot less common than the rest of Massachusetts. On average, 30 inches of snow, which is a foot less than Boston, falls in an average winter. Snow is usually light, and comes in squalls on cold days. Storms that bring blizzard conditions and snow emergencies to the mainland, bring devastating ice storms or just heavy rains more frequently than large snow storms.

[hide]Climate data for Cape Cod

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Average high °C (°F) 2.06

(35.7) 2.5

(36.5) 6.22

(43.2) 11.72

(53.1) 16.94

(62.5) 23.5

(74.3) 26.39

(79.5) 26.67

(80.0) 25.06

(77.1) 18.39

(65.1) 12.56

(54.6) 5.44

(41.8) 26.67

(80.0)

Average low °C (°F) -5.33

(22.4) -5

(23.0) -1.33

(29.6) 2.72

(36.9) 8.72

(47.7) 14.61

(58.3) 19.22

(66.6) 20.28

(68.5) 15.56

(60.0) 9.94

(49.9) 3.94

(39.1) -2.22

(28.0) -5.33

(22.4)

Precipitation mm (inches) 98

(3.86) 75.4

(2.97) 95

(3.74) 92.5

(3.64) 83.6

(3.29) 76.7

(3.02) 62.2

(2.45) 65

(2.56) 74.7

(2.94) 84.8

(3.34) 90.7

(3.57) 92.7

(3.65) 990.9

(39.01)

Source: World Meteorological Organisation (United Nations) [16]

[edit] Native population

 

Cape Cod has been the home of the Wampanoag tribe of Native American people for many centuries. They survived off the sea and were accomplished farmers. They understood the principles of sustainable forest management, and were known to light controlled fires to keep the underbrush in check. They helped the Pilgrims, who arrived in the fall of 1620, survive at their new Plymouth Colony. At the time, the dominant group was the Kakopee, known for their abilities at fishing. They were the first Native Americans to use large casting nets. Early colonial settlers recorded that the Kakopee numbered nearly 7,000.

 

Shortly after the Pilgrims arrived, the chief of the Kakopee, Mogauhok, attempted to make a treaty limiting colonial settlements. The effort failed after he succumbed to smallpox in 1625. Infectious diseases such as smallpox, measles and influenza caused the deaths of many other Kakopee and Wampanoag. They had no natural immunity to Eurasian diseases by then endemic among the English and other Europeans. Today, the only reminder of the Kakopee is a small public recreation area in Barnstable named for them. A historic marker notes the burial site of Mogauhok near Truro, although the location is conjecture.

 

While contractors were digging test wells in the eastern Massachusetts Military Reservation area, they discovered an archeological find.[citation needed] Excavation revealed the remains of a Kakopee village in Forestdale, a location in Sandwich. Researchers found a totem with a painted image of Mogauhok, portrayed in his chief's cape and brooch. The totem was discovered on property on Grand Oak Road. It is the first evidence other than colonial accounts of his role as an important Kakopee leader.

 

The Indians lost their lands through continued purchase and expropriation by the English colonists. The documentary Natives of the Narrowland (1993), narrated by actress Julie Harris, shows the history of the Wampanoag people through Cape Cod archaeological sites.

 

In 1974, the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribal Council was formed to articulate the concerns of those with Native American ancestry. They petitioned the federal government in 1975 and again in 1990 for official recognition of the Mashpee Wampanoag as a tribe. In May 2007, the Wampanoag tribe was finally federally recognized as a tribe.[17]

[edit] History

Cranberry picking in 1906

 

Cape Cod was a landmark for early explorers. It may have been the "Promontory of Vinland" mentioned by the Norse voyagers (985-1025). Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 approached it from the south. He named Martha's Vineyard Claudia, after the mother of the King of France.[18] The next year the explorer Esteban Gómez called it Cape St. James.

 

In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold named it Cape Cod, the surviving term and the ninth oldest English place-name in the U.S.[19] Samuel de Champlain charted its sand-silted harbors in 1606 and Henry Hudson landed there in 1609. Captain John Smith noted it on his map of 1614 and at last the Pilgrims entered the "Cape Harbor" and – contrary to the popular myth of Plymouth Rock – made their first landing near present-day Provincetown on November 11, 1620. Nearby, in what is now Eastham, they had their first encounter with Native Americans.

 

Cape Cod was among the first places settled by the English in North America. Aside from Barnstable (1639), Sandwich (1637) and Yarmouth (1639), the Cape's fifteen towns developed slowly. The final town to be established on the Cape was Bourne in 1884.[20] Provincetown was a group of huts until the 18th century. A channel from Massachusetts Bay to Buzzards Bay is shown on Southack's map of 1717. The present Cape Cod Canal was slowly developed from 1870 to 1914. The Federal government purchased it in 1928.

 

Thanks to early colonial settlement and intensive land use, by the time Henry Thoreau saw Cape Cod during his four visits over 1849 to 1857[21], its vegetation was depauperate and trees were scarce. As the settlers heated by fires, and it took 10 to 20 cords (40 to 80 m³) of wood to heat a home, they cleared most of Cape Cod of timber early on. They planted familiar crops, but these were unsuited to Cape Cod's thin, glacially derived soils. For instance, much of Eastham was planted to wheat. The settlers practiced burning of woodlands to release nutrients into the soil. Improper and intensive farming led to erosion and the loss of topsoil. Farmers grazed their cattle on the grassy dunes of coastal Massachusetts, only to watch "in horror as the denuded sands `walked' over richer lands, burying cultivated fields and fences." Dunes on the outer Cape became more common and many harbors filled in with eroded soils.[22]

 

By 1800, most of Cape Cod's firewood had to be transported by boat from Maine. The paucity of vegetation was worsened by the raising of merino sheep that reached its peak in New England around 1840. The early industrial revolution, which occurred through much of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, mostly bypassed Cape Cod due to a lack of significant water power in the area. As a result, and also because of its geographic position, the Cape developed as a large fishing and whaling center. After 1860 and the opening of the American West, farmers abandoned agriculture on the Cape. By 1950 forests had recovered to an extent not seen since the 18th century.

 

Cape Cod became a summer haven for city dwellers beginning at the end of the 19th century. Improved rail transportation made the towns of the Upper Cape, such as Bourne and Falmouth, accessible to Bostonians. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Northeastern mercantile elite built many large, shingled "cottages" along Buzzards Bay. The relaxed summer environment offered by Cape Cod was highlighted by writers including Joseph C. Lincoln, who published novels and countless short stories about Cape Cod folks in popular magazines such as the Saturday Evening Post and the Delineator.

 

Guglielmo Marconi made the first transatlantic wireless transmission originating in the United States from Cape Cod, at Wellfleet. The beach from which he transmitted has since been called Marconi Beach. In 1914 he opened the maritime wireless station WCC in Chatham. It supported the communications of Amelia Earhart, Howard Hughes, Admiral Byrd, and the Hindenburg. Marconi chose Chatham due to its vantage point on the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded on three sides by water. Walter Cronkite narrated a 17-minute documentary in 2005 about the history of the Chatham Station.

 

Much of the East-facing Atlantic seacoast of Cape Cod consists of wide, sandy beaches. In 1961, a significant portion of this coastline, already slated for housing subdivisions, was made a part of the Cape Cod National Seashore by President John F. Kennedy. It was protected from private development and preserved for public use. Large portions are open to the public, including the Marconi Site in Wellfleet. This is a park encompassing the site of the first two-way transoceanic radio transmission from the United States. (Theodore Roosevelt used Marconi's equipment for this transmission).

 

The Kennedy Compound in Hyannisport was President Kennedy's summer White House during his presidency. The Kennedy family continues to maintain residences on the compound. Other notable residents of Cape Cod have included actress Julie Harris, US Supreme Court justice Louis Brandeis, figure skater Todd Eldredge, and novelists Norman Mailer and Kurt Vonnegut. Influential natives included the patriot James Otis, historian and writer Mercy Otis Warren, jurist Lemuel Shaw, and naval officer John Percival.

[edit] Lighthouses of Cape Cod

Race Point Lighthouse in Provincetown (1876)

 

Lighthouses, from ancient times, have fascinated members of the human race. There is something about a lighted beacon that suggests hope and trust and appeals to the better instincts of mankind.

“

”

Edward Rowe Snow

 

Due to its dangerous constantly moving shoals, Cape Cod's shores have featured beacons which warn ships of the danger since very early in its history. There are numerous working lighthouses on Cape Cod and the Islands, including Highland Light, Nauset Light, Chatham Light, Race Point Light, and Nobska Light, mostly operated by the U.S. Coast Guard. The exception is Nauset Light, which was decommissioned in 1996 and is now maintained by the Nauset Light Preservation Society under the auspices of Cape Cod National Seashore. These lighthouses are frequently photographed symbols of Cape Cod.

 

Others include:

 

Upper Cape: Wings Neck

 

Mid Cape: Sandy Neck, South Hyannis, Lewis Bay, Bishop and Clerks, Bass River

 

Lower Cape: Wood End, Long Point, Monomoy, Stage Harbor, Pamet, Mayo Beach, Billingsgate, Three Sisters, Nauset, Highland

[edit] Transportation

 

Cape Cod is connected to the mainland by a pair of canal-spanning highway bridges from Bourne and Sagamore that were constructed in the 1930s, and a vertical-lift railroad bridge. The limited number of access points to the peninsula can result in large traffic backups during the tourist season.

 

The entire Cape is roughly bisected lengthwise by U.S. Route 6, locally known as the Mid-Cape Highway and officially as the Grand Army of the Republic Highway.

 

Commercial air service to Cape Cod operates out of Barnstable Municipal Airport and Provincetown Municipal Airport. Several bus lines service the Cape. There are ferry connections from Boston to Provincetown, as well as from Hyannis and Woods Hole to the islands.

 

Cape Cod has a public transportation network comprising buses operated by three different companies, a rail line, taxis and paratransit services.

The Bourne Bridge over the Cape Cod Canal, with the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge in the background

[edit] Bus

 

Cape Cod Regional Transit Authority operates a year-round public bus system comprising three long distance routes and a local bus in Hyannis and Barnstable Village. From mid June until October, additional local routes are added in Falmouth and Provincetown. CCRTA also operates Barnstable County's ADA required paratransit (dial-a-ride) service, under the name "B-Bus."

 

Long distance bus service is available through Plymouth and Brockton Street Railway, with regular service to Boston and Logan Airport, as well as less frequent service to Provincetown. Peter Pan Bus Lines also runs long distance service to Providence T.F. Green Airport and New York City.

[edit] Rail

 

Regular passenger rail service through Cape Cod ended in 1959, quite possibly on June 30 of that year. In 1978, the tracks east of South Dennis were abandoned and replaced with the very popular bicycle path, known as the Cape Cod Rail Trail. Another bike path, the Shining Sea Bikeway, was built over tracks between Woods Hole and Falmouth in 1975; construction to extend this path to North Falmouth over 6.3 miles (10.1 km) of inactive rail bed began in April 2008[23] and ended in early 2009. Active freight service remains in the Upper Cape area in Sandwich and in Bourne, largely due to a trash transfer station located at Massachusetts Military Reservation along the Bourne-Falmouth rail line. In 1986, Amtrak ran a seasonal service in the summer from New York City to Hyannis called the Cape Codder. From 1988, Amtrak and the Massachusetts Department of Transportation increased service to a daily frequency.[24] Since its demise in 1996, there have been periodic discussions about reinstating passenger rail service from Boston to reduce car traffic to and from the Cape, with officials in Bourne seeking to re-extend MBTA Commuter Rail service from Middleboro to Buzzards Bay[25], despite a reluctant Beacon Hill legislature.

 

Cape Cod Central Railroad operates passenger train service on Cape Cod. The service is primarily tourist oriented and includes a dinner train. The scenic route between Downtown Hyannis and the Cape Cod Canal is about 2½ hours round trip. Massachusetts Coastal Railroad is also planning to return passenger railroad services eventually to the Bourne-Falmouth rail line in the future. An August 5, 2009 article on the New England Cable News channel, entitled South Coast rail project a priority for Mass. lawmakers, mentions a $1.4-billion railroad reconstruction plan by Governor Deval Patrick, and could mean rebuilding of old rail lines on the Cape. On November 21, 2009, the town of Falmouth saw its first passenger train in 12 years, a set of dinner train cars from Cape Cod Central. And a trip from the Mass Bay Railroad Enthusiasts on May 15, 2010 revealed a second trip along the Falmouth line.

[edit] Taxi

 

Taxicabs are plentiful, with several different companies operating out of different parts of the Cape. Except at the airport and some bus terminals with taxi stands, cabs must be booked ahead of time, with most operators preferring two to three hours notice. Cabs cannot be "hailed" anywhere in Barnstable County, this was outlawed in the early nineties after several robbery attempts on drivers.

 

Most companies utilize a New York City-style taximeter and charge based on distance plus an initial fee of $2 to $3. In Provincetown, cabs charge a flat fare per person anywhere in the town.

[edit] Tourism

Hyannis Harbor on Nantucket Sound

 

Although Cape Cod has a year-round population of about 230,000, it experiences a tourist season each summer, the beginning and end of which can be roughly approximated as Memorial Day and Labor Day, respectively. Many businesses are specifically targeted to summer visitors, and close during the eight to nine months of the "off season" (although the "on season" has been expanding somewhat in recent years due to Indian Summer, reduced lodging rates, and the number of people visiting the Cape after Labor Day who either have no school-age children, and the elderly, reducing the true "off season" to six or seven months). In the late 20th century, tourists and owners of second homes began visiting the Cape more and more in the spring and fall, softening the definition of the high season and expanding it somewhat (see above). Some particularly well-known Cape products and industries include cranberries, shellfish (particularly oysters and clams) and lobstering.

 

Provincetown, at the tip of Cape Cod, also berths several whale watching fleets who patrol the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. Most fleets guarantee a whale sighting (mostly humpback whale, fin whale, minke whale, sei whale, and critically endangered, the North Atlantic Right Whale), and one is the only federally certified operation qualified to rescue whales. Provincetown has also long been known as an art colony, attracting writers and artists. The town is home to the Cape's most attended art museum, the Provincetown Art Association and Museum. Many hotels and resorts are friendly to or cater to gay and lesbian tourists and it is known as a gay mecca in the summer.[26]

 

Cape Cod is a popular destination for beachgoers from all over. With 559.6 miles (900.6 km) of coastline, beaches, both public and private, are easily accessible. The Cape has upwards of sixty public beaches, many of which offer parking for non-residents for a daily fee (in summer). The Cape Cod National Seashore has 40 miles (64 km) of sandy beach and many walking paths.

 

Cape Cod is also popular for its outdoor activities like beach walking, biking, boating, fishing, go-karts, golfing, kayaking, miniature golf, and unique shopping. There are 27 public, daily-fee golf courses and 15 private courses on Cape Cod.[27] Bed and breakfasts or vacation houses are often used for lodging.

 

Each summer the Naukabout Music Festival is held at the Barnstable County Fair Grounds located in East Falmouth,(typically) during the first weekend of August. This Music festival features local, regional and national talent along with food, arts and family friendly activities.

[edit] Sport fishing

 

Cape Cod is known around the world as a spring-to-fall destination for sport anglers. Among the species most widely pursued are striped bass, bluefish, bluefin tuna, false albacore (little tunny), bonito, tautog, flounder and fluke. The Cape Cod Bay side of the Cape, from Sandwich to Provincetown, has several harbors, saltwater creeks, and shoals that hold bait fish and attract the larger game fish, such as striped bass, bluefish and bluefin tuna.

 

The outer edge of the Cape, from Provincetown to Falmouth, faces the open Atlantic from Provincetown to Chatham, and then the more protected water of Nantucket and Vineyard Sounds, from Chatham to Falmouth. The bays, harbors and shoals along this coastline also provide a robust habitat for game species, and during the late summer months warm-water species such as mahi-mahi and marlin will also appear on the southern edge of Cape Cod's waters. Nearly every harbor on Cape Cod hosts sport fishing charter boats, which run from May through October.[28]

[edit] Sports

 

The Cape has nine amateur baseball franchises playing within Barnstable County in the Cape Cod Baseball League. The Wareham Gatemen also play in the Cape Cod Baseball League in nearby Wareham, Massachusetts in Plymouth County. The league originated 1923, although intertown competition traces to 1866. Teams in the league are the Bourne Braves, Brewster Whitecaps, Chatham Anglers (formerly the Chatham Athletics), Cotuit Kettleers, Falmouth Commodores, Harwich Mariners, Hyannis Harbor Hawks (formerly the Hyannis Mets), Orleans Firebirds (formerly the Orleans Cardinals), Wareham Gatemen and the Yarmouth-Dennis Red Sox. Pro ball scouts frequent the games in the summer, looking for stars of the future.

 

Cape Cod is also a national hot bed for baseball and hockey. Along with the Cape Cod Baseball League and the new Junior Hockey League team, the Cape Cod Cubs, many high school players are being seriously recruited as well. Barnstable and Harwich have each sent multiple players to Division 1 colleges for baseball, Harwich has also won three State titles in the past 12 years (1996, 2006, 2007). Bourne and Sandwich, known rivals in hockey have won state championships recently. Bourne in 2004, and Sandwich in 2007. Nauset, Barnstable, and Martha's Vineyard are also state hockey powerhouses. Barnstable and Falmouth also hold the title of having one of the longest Thanksgiving football rivalries in the country. The teams have played each other every year on the Thanksgiving since 1895. The Bourne and Barnstable girl's volleyball teams are two of the best teams in the state and Barnstable in the country. With Bourne winning the State title in 2003 and 2007. In the past 15 years, Barnstable has won 12 Division 1 State titles and has won the state title the past two years.

 

The Cape also is home to the Cape Cod Frenzy, a team in the American Basketball Association.

 

Soccer on Cape Cod is represented by the Cape Cod Crusaders, playing in the USL Premier Development League (PDL) soccer based in Hyannis. In addition, a summer Cape Cod Adult Soccer League (CCASL) is active in several towns on the Cape.

 

Cape Cod is also the home of the Cape Cod Cubs, a new junior league hockey team that is based out of Hyannis at the new communtiy center being built of Bearses Way.

 

The end of each summer is marked with the running of the world famous Falmouth Road Race which is held on the 3rd Saturday in August. It draws about 10,000 runners to the Cape and showcases the finest runners in the world (mainly for the large purse that the race is able to offer). The race is 7.2 miles (11.6 km) long, which is a non-standard distance. The reason for the unusual distance is that the man who thought the race up (Tommy Leonard) was a bartender who wanted a race along the coast from one bar (The Cap'n Kidd in Woods Hole) to another (The Brothers Four in Falmouth Heights). While the bar in Falmouth Heights is no longer there, the race still starts at the front door of the Cap'n Kidd in Woods Hole and now finishes at the beach in Falmouth Heights. Prior to the Falmouth race is an annual 5-mile (8.0 km) race through Brewster called the Brew Run, held early in August.

[edit] Education

 

Each town usually consists of a few elementary schools, one or two middle schools and one large public high school that services the entire town. Exceptions to this include Dennis-Yarmouth Regional High School located in Yarmouth which services both the town of Yarmouth as well as Dennis and Nauset Regional High School located in Eastham which services the town of Brewster, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown (optional). Bourne High School is the public school for students residing in the town of Bourne, which is gathered from villages in Bourne, including Sagamore, Sagamore Beach, and Buzzards Bay. Barnstable High School is the largest high school and is known for its girls' volleyball team which have been state champions a total of 12 times. Barnstable High School also boasts one of the country's best high school drama clubs which were awarded with a contract by Warner Brothers to created a documentary in webisode format based on their production of Wizard of Oz. Sturgis Charter Public School is a public school in Hyannis which was featured in Newsweek's Magazine's "Best High Schools" ranking. It ranked 28th in the country and 1st in the state of Massachusetts in the 2009 edition and ranked 43rd and 55th in the 2008 and 2007 edition, respectively. Sturgis offers the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme in their junior and senior year and is open to students as far as Plymouth. The Cape also contains two vocational high schools. One is the Cape Cod Regional Technical High School in Harwich and the other is Upper Cape Cod Regional Technical High School located in Bourne. Lastly, Mashpee High School is home to the Mashpee Chapter of (SMPTE,) the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. This chapter is the first and only high school chapter in the world to be a part of this organization and has received much recognition within the Los Angeles broadcasting industry as a result. The officers of this group who have made history are listed below:

 

* President: Ryan D. Stanley '11

* Vice-President Kenneth J. Peters '13

* Treasurer Eric N. Bergquist '11

* Secretary Andrew L. Medlar '11

 

In addition to public schools, Cape Cod has a wide range of private schools. The town of Barnstable has Trinity Christian Academy, Cape Cod Academy, St. Francis Xavier Preparatory School, and Pope John Paul II High School. Bourne offers the Waldorf School of Cape Cod, Orleans offers the Lighthouse Charter School for elementary and middle school students, and Falmouth offers Falmouth Academy. Riverview School is located in East Sandwich and is a special co-ed boarding school which services students as old as 22 who have learning disabilities. Another specialized school is the Penikese Island School located on Penikese Island, part of the Elizabeth Islands off southwestern Cape Cod, which services struggling and troubled teenage boys.

 

Cape Cod also contains two institutions of higher education. One is the Cape Cod Community College located in West Barnstable, Barnstable. The other is Massachusetts Maritime Academy in Buzzards Bay, Bourne. Massachusetts Maritime Academy is the oldest continuously operating maritime college in the United States.

[edit] Islands off Cape Cod

 

Like Cape Cod itself, the islands south of the Cape have evolved from whaling and trading areas to resort destinations, attracting wealthy families, celebrities, and other tourists. The islands include Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, as well as Forbes family-owned Naushon Island, which was purchased by John Murray Forbes with profits from opium dealing in the China trade during the Opium War. Naushon is one of the Elizabeth Islands, many of which are privately owned. One of the publicly accessible Elizabeths is the southernmost island in the chain, Cuttyhunk, with a year-round population of 52 people. Several prominent families have established compounds or estates on the larger islands, making these islands some of the wealthiest resorts in the Northeast, yet they retain much of the early merchant trading and whaling culture.

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/27538420

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ju 52

 

Role Transport aircraft, medium bomber, airliner

Manufacturer Junkers

Designer Ernst Zindel

First flight 13 October 1930 (Ju 52/1m); 7 March 1932 (Ju 52/3m)

Status Active

Primary users Luftwaffe

Luft Hansa

Spanish Air Force

Produced 1931–1945 (Germany)

1945–1947 (France)

1945–1952 (Spain)

Number built 4,845

 

The Junkers Ju 52/3m (nicknamed Tante Ju ("Aunt Ju") and Iron Annie) is a German trimotor transport aircraft manufactured from 1931 to 1952. Initially designed with a single engine but subsequently produced as a trimotor it saw both civilian and military service during the 1930s and 1940s. In a civilian role, it flew with over twelve air carriers including Swissair and Deutsche Luft Hansa as an airliner and freight hauler. In a military role, it flew with the Luftwaffe as a troop and cargo transport and briefly as a medium bomber. The Ju 52 continued in postwar service with military and civilian air fleets well into the 1980s.

Design and development

 

The Ju 52 was similar to the company's previous Junkers W 33, although larger. In 1930, Ernst Zindel and his team designed the Ju 52 at the Junkers works at Dessau. The aircraft's unusual corrugated duralumin metal skin, pioneered by Junkers during World War I, strengthened the whole structure.

 

The Ju 52 had a low cantilever wing, the midsection of which was built into the fuselage, forming its underside.[1] It was formed around four pairs of circular cross-section duralumin spars with a corrugated surface that provided torsional stiffening. A narrow control surface, with its outer section functioning as the aileron, and the inner section functioning as a flap, ran along the whole trailing edge of each wing panel, well separated from it. The inner flap section lowered the stalling speed and the arrangement became known as the Doppelflügel, or "double wing".[2]

 

The outer sections of this operated differentially as ailerons, projecting slightly beyond the wingtips with control horns. The strutted horizontal stabilizer carried horn-balanced elevators which again projected and showed a significant gap between them and the stabilizer, which was adjustable in-flight. All stabilizer surfaces were corrugated.

 

The fuselage was of rectangular section with a domed decking, all covered with corrugated light alloy. There was a port side passenger door just aft of the wings, with windows stretching forward to the pilots' cockpit. The main undercarriage was fixed and divided; some aircraft had wheel fairings, others not. There was a fixed tailskid, or a later tailwheel. Some aircraft were fitted with floats or skis instead of the main wheels.

 

In its original configuration, designated the Ju 52/1m, the Ju 52 was a single-engined aircraft, powered by either a BMW IV or Junkers liquid-cooled V-12 engine. However, the single-engine model was underpowered, and after seven prototypes had been completed, all subsequent Ju 52s were built with three radial engines as the Ju 52/3m (drei motoren — "three engines"). Originally powered by three Pratt & Whitney R-1690 Hornet radial engines, later production models mainly received 574 kW (770 hp) BMW 132 engines, a licence-built refinement of the Pratt & Whitney design. Export models were also built with 447 kW (600 hp) Pratt & Whitney R-1340 Wasp and 578 kW (775 hp) Bristol Pegasus VI engines. The two wing-mounted radial engines of the Ju 52/3m had half-chord cowlings and in planform view (from above/below) appeared to be splayed outwards, being mounted at an almost perpendicular angle to the tapered wing's sweptback leading edge (in a similar fashion to the Mitsubishi G3M bomber and Short Sunderland; the angled engines on the Ju 52 were intended to make it easier to maintain straight flight should an engine fail, while the others had different reasons). The three engines had either Townend ring or NACA cowlings to reduce drag from the engine cylinders, although a mixture of the two was most common (as can been seen in many of the accompanying photographs), with deeper-chord NACA ducts on the wing engines and a narrow Townend ring on the center engine (which was more difficult to fit a deeper NACA cowl onto, due to the widening fuselage behind the engine). Production Ju 52/3m aircraft flown by Luft Hansa before World War II, as well as Luftwaffe-flown Ju 52s flown during the war, usually used an air-start system to turn over their trio of radial engines, using a common compressed air supply that also operated the main wheels' brakes.

Operational history

 

Ju 52s damaged in Crete, 1941

A Luftwaffe Ju 52 being serviced in Crete in 1943. Note the narrow chord Townend ring on the central engine and the deeper-chord NACA cowlings on the wing engines.

Luftwaffe Ju 52s dropping paratroops

Prewar civil use

 

In 1932, James A. Richardson's Canadian Airways received (Werknummer 4006) CF-ARM, the sixth ever-built Ju 52/1m. The aircraft, first re-fitted with an Armstrong Siddeley Leopard radial engine and then later with a Rolls-Royce Buzzard and nicknamed the "Flying Boxcar" in Canada,[3][4] could lift approximately three tons and had a maximum weight of 7 tonnes (8 tons). It was used to supply mining and other operations in remote areas with equipment too big and heavy for other aircraft then in use. The Ju 52/1m was able to land on wheels, skis or floats (as were all Ju 52 variants).[5]

 

Before the nationalisation of the German aircraft industry in 1935, the Ju 52/3m was produced principally as a 17-seat airliner. It was used mainly by Luft Hansa and could fly from Berlin to Rome in eight hours. The Luft Hansa fleet eventually numbered 80 and flew from Germany on routes in Europe, Asia and South America.[citation needed]

Military use 1932–1945

 

The Colombian Air Force used three Ju 52/3mde bombers equipped as floatplanes during the Colombia-Peru War in 1932–1933. After the war, the air force acquired three other Ju 52mge as transports; the type remained in service until after World War II.

 

Bolivia acquired four Ju 52s in the course of the Chaco War (1932–1935), mainly for medical evacuation and air supply. During the conflict, the Ju 52s alone transported more than 4,400 tons of cargo to the front.[6]

 

In 1934, Junkers received orders to produce a bomber version of the Ju 52/3m to serve as interim equipment for the bomber units of the still-secret Luftwaffe until it could be replaced by the purpose designed Dornier Do 11.[7] Two bomb bays were fitted, capable of holding up to 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) of bombs, while defensive armament consisted of two 7.92mm MG 15 machine guns, one in an open dorsal position, and one in a retractable "dustbin" ventral position, which could be manually winched down from the fuselage to protect the aircraft from attacks from below. The bomber could be easily converted to serve in the transport role.[8] The Dornier Do 11 was a failure, however, and the Junkers ended up being acquired in much larger numbers than at first expected, with the type being the Luftwaffe's main bomber until more modern aircraft such as the Heinkel He 111, Junkers Ju 86 and Dornier Do 17 entered into service.[9][10]

 

The Ju 52 first saw military service in the Spanish Civil War against the Spanish Republic. It was one of the first aircraft delivered to the fraction of the army in revolt in July 1936 as both a bomber and transport. In the former role, it participated in the bombing of Guernica. No more of the bomber variant were built after this war, though it was again used as a bomber during the bombing of Warsaw[11] during the Invasion of Poland of September 1939. The Luftwaffe then relied on the Ju 52 for transport roles during World War II, including paratroop drops.

World War II

 

In service with Lufthansa, the Ju 52 had proved to be an extremely reliable passenger airplane. Therefore, it was adopted by the Luftwaffe as a standard aircraft model. In 1938, the 7th Air Division had five air transport groups with 250 Ju 52s. The Luftwaffe had 552 Ju 52s at the start of World War II. Even though it was built in great numbers, the Ju 52 was technically obsolete. Between 1939 and 1944, 2,804 Ju 52s were delivered to the Luftwaffe (1939: 145; 1940: 388; 1941: 502; 1942: 503; 1943: 887; and 1944: 379). The production of Ju 52s continued until approximately the summer of 1944; when the war came to an end, there were still 100 to 200 available.

 

The Ju 52 could carry eighteen fully equipped soldiers, or twelve stretchers when used as an air ambulance. Transported material was loaded and unloaded through side doors by means of a ramp. Air dropped supplies were jettisoned through two double chutes; supply containers were dropped by parachute through the bomb-bay doors, and paratroopers jumped through the side doors. SdKfz 2 kettenkraftrad (half-track motorcycles) and supply canisters for parachute troops were secured under the fuselage at the bomb bay exits and were dropped with four parachutes. A tow coupling was built into the tail-skid for use in towing freight gliders. The Ju 52 could tow up to two DFS 230 gliders.

Heavy losses in combat

 

The first major operation for the aircraft was in Operation Weserübung, the attack on Denmark and Norway on 9 April 1940. Fifty-two Ju 52s from 1. and 8. Staffel in Kampfgeschwader 1 transported a company of Fallschirmjäger and a battalion of infantry to the northern part of Jutland, and captured the airfield at Aalborg, vital to support the operation in southern Norway. Several hundred Ju 52s were used to transport troops to Norway in the first days of this campaign.

The Netherlands

 

Later, Ju 52's participated in the attack on the Netherlands on 10 May 1940, where they were deployed in the first large-scale air attack with paratroops in history during the Battle for The Hague. No fewer than 295 Ju 52s were lost in that venture and in other places in the country, due to varying circumstances, among which were accurate and effective Dutch anti-aircraft defences and German mistakes in using soggy airfields not able to support the heavy craft.[12] On 10 May alone, 278 were downed or disabled.

 

Thus, almost an entire year's production was lost in one day in the Netherlands. The lack of sufficient numbers of aircraft most probably heavily influenced the decision not to invade England following the Battle of Britain.[12]

After the Netherlands

 

After the campaign in the West, the air transport units were brought up to their pre-Netherlands strength and were assembled at airfields in the Lyon, Lille, and Arras areas in August 1940.[13] Probably this was done using new and repaired aircraft augmented by other transport planes like the FW-200 Condor and the Ju 90.

A Ju 52 approaching Stalingrad, 1942

 

The next major use of the Ju 52 was in the Balkans campaign, most famously in the Battle of Crete in May 1941. Lightly armed, and with a top speed of only 265 km/h (165 mph) – half that of a contemporary Hurricane – the Ju 52 was very vulnerable to fighter attack and an escort was always necessary when flying in a combat zone. Many Ju 52's were shot down by anti-aircraft guns and fighters while transporting supplies, most notably during the desperate attempt to resupply the trapped German Sixth Army during the final stages of the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943.

 

During the North African Campaign, the Ju 52 was the mainstay reinforcement and resupply transport for the Germans, starting with 20 to 50 flights a day to Tunisia from Sicily in November 1942, building to 150 landings a day in early April as the Axis situation became more desperate. The Allied air forces developed a counter-air operation over a two-month period and implemented Operation Flax on 5 April 1943, destroying 11 Ju 52s in the air near Cap Bon and many more during bombing attacks on its Sicilian airfields, leaving only 29 flyable.[14] That began two catastrophic weeks in which more than 140 were lost in air interceptions,[15] culminated on 18 April with the "Palm Sunday Massacre" in which 24 Ju 52s were shot down and another 35 staggered back to Sicily and crash-landed.[16]

 

The seaplane version, equipped with two large floats, served during the Norwegian Campaign in 1940, and later in the Mediterranean theatre. Some Ju 52's, both floatplanes and landplanes, were also used as minesweepers, known as Minensuch — literally, "mine-search" aircraft in German — fitted with a 14-metre (46 ft) diameter current-carrying degaussing ring under the airframe to create a magnetic field that triggered submerged naval mines and usually given an -"MS" suffix to designate them, as with the similarly equipped Bv 138 MS trimotor flying boat.[17]

Hitler's personal transport

Main article: Hans Baur § Die Fliegerstaffel des Fuehrers

 

Hitler used a Deutsche Lufthansa Ju 52 for campaigning in the 1932 German election, preferring flying to transport by train. After he became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Hans Baur became his personal pilot, and Hitler was provided with a personal Ju 52. Named Immelmann II after the World War I ace Max Immelmann, it carried the registration D-2600.[18] As his power and importance grew, Hitler's personal air force grew to nearly 50 aircraft, based at Berlin Tempelhof Airport and made up of mainly Ju 52s, which also flew other members of his cabinet and war staff. In September 1939 at Baur's suggestion, Immelmann II was replaced by a four-engine Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor, although Immelman II remained his backup aircraft for the rest of World War II.

 

Eurasia was the main Chinese Airliner Company in the 1930s and the Ju-52 was their main airliner plane. One of them was commandeered by the Chinese Nationalist Party Government and became Chiang Kai-shek's personal transport.[citation needed]

Postwar use

 

Various Junkers Ju 52s continued in military and civilian use following World War II. In 1956, the Portuguese Air Force, who was already using the Ju 52s as a transport plane, employed the type as a paratroop drop aircraft for its newly organized elite parachute forces, later known as the Batalhão de Caçadores Páraquedistas. The paratroopers used the Ju 52 in several combat operations in Angola and other Portuguese African colonies before gradually phasing it out of service in the 1960s.[19]

 

The Swiss Air Force also operated the Ju 52 from 1939 to 1982 when three aircraft remained in operation, probably the last and longest service in any air force.[20] Museums hoped to obtain the aircraft, but they were not for sale.[21] They are still in flying condition and together with a CASA 352 can be booked for sightseeing tours with Ju-Air.[22] During the 1950s the Ju 52 was also used by the French Air Force during the First Indochina War as a bomber. The usage of these Junkers was quite limited.[23]

 

The Spanish Air Force operated the Ju 52, nicknamed Pava, until well into the 1970s. Escuadrón 721 flying the Spanish-built versions, was employed in training parachutists from Alcantarilla Air Base near Murcia.[24]

 

Some military Ju 52s were converted to civilian use. For example, British European Airways operated eleven ex-Luftwaffe Ju 52/3mg8e machines, taken over by the RAF, between 1946 and retirement in 1947 on intra-U.K. routes before the Douglas DC-3 was introduced to the airline.[2] French airlines such as Societe de Transports Aeriens (STA) and Air France flew Toucans in the late 1940s and early 1950s.

 

A Ju 52 and a Douglas DC-3 were the last aircraft to take off from Berlin Tempelhof Airport before all operations ceased there on October 30, 2008.[25]

Other versions

 

Most Ju 52s were destroyed after the war, but 585 were manufactured after 1945. In France, the machine had been manufactured during the war by the Junkers-controlled Avions Amiot company, and production continued afterwards as the Amiot AAC 1 Toucan. In Spain, Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA continued production as the CASA 352 and 352L. Four CASA 352s are airworthy and in regular use today.

 

A CASA-built Ju52/3m appears in the opening sequence of the 1968 Richard Burton and Clint Eastwood film Where Eagles Dare.