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History
United States
Name:Admiral W. S. Sims (AP-127)
Namesake:Admiral William S. Sims, US Navy
Builder:Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corp, Alameda, CA
Laid down:15 June 1944
Launched:4 June 1945
Commissioned:27 September 1945
Renamed:USAT Admiral W. S. Sims, c. August 1946
Renamed:USAT General William O. Darby
Namesake:General William O. Darby, US Army
Renamed:USNS General William O. Darby (T-AP-127), 1 March 1950
Reclassified:Miscellaneous Unclassified IX-510, October 1981
Decommissioned:April 1991
Stricken:26 October 1993
Identification:IMO number: 8424654
Honors and
awards:1 battle star for Vietnam War
Fate:Sold for scrapping
General characteristics
Class and type:Admiral W. S. Benson-class transport
Displacement:9,676 tons dockside
Tons burthen:20,120 tons fully laden
Length:608 feet 11 inches (185.60 m)
Beam:75 feet 6 inches (23.01 m)
Draft:26 feet 11 inches (8.20 m)
Installed power:19,000 shp
Propulsion:
turbo-electric transmission,
twin screw
Speed:19 knots (35 km/h)
Complement:618
Armament:None
USS Admiral W. S. Sims (AP-127) was a transport in the United States Navy. She was later renamed USNS General William O. Darby (T-AP-127). Later her name was struck and she was known simply by her hull number. In 1981, she was reclassified as IX-510.
Contents
1 Admiral W. S. Sims
2 General William O. Darby
3 Awards
4 IX-510
5 References
Admiral W. S. Sims
Admiral W. S. Sims was laid down on 15 June 1944 at Alameda, California, by the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation at Alameda, California, under a Maritime Commission contract (MC null 685); launched on 4 June 1945; sponsored by Mrs. Anne Hitchcock Sims, widow of Admiral William Sims; delivered to the Navy on 27 September 1945 and commissioned the same day, Captain Edward C. Holden, USNR, in command.
Following shakedown training out of San Pedro and post-shakedown availability at the Todd Shipyards at Wilmington, California, the transport sailed for the Philippines on 20 October with 222 passengers. She arrived at Manila on 6 November, and departed the Philippine port with 4,980 troops and passengers, arriving at San Francisco on 25 November. She commenced her second round-trip voyage to the Philippines with her departure from San Francisco on 7 December. Arriving at Manila on the 22d, the transport sailed for home two days after Christmas. Re-routed on her return voyage, Admiral W. S. Sims reached San Pedro with 4,973 passengers on board on 11 January 1946. She subsequently conducted one troop lift from Okinawa, sailing from San Pedro on 3 February 1946, and bringing home 4,988 Army troops to Seattle, Washington on 6 March.
Admiral W. S. Sims made one more voyage to the Far East as a Navy transport. After shifting down the west coast from Seattle to San Francisco, she sailed from the latter port on 27 March for Korean waters, with 2,966 Army troops embarked. The transport arrived at Jinsen (now Inchon), on 11 April 1946, and, after embarking 106 passengers at Jinsen sailed for Okinawa, arriving there on 15 April and embarking 910 additional passengers. Clearing Buckner Bay for the Philippines on 16 April, the ship disembarked 26 people at Manila, and embarked 4,106 others for passage to the west coast of the United States. Admiral W. S. Sims reached San Francisco on 7 May.
Decommissioned at San Francisco on 21 June 1946, she was simultaneously transferred to the War Shipping Administration. Admiral W. S. Sims was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 3 July 1946.
General William O. Darby
Builder plate from the US Army transport General William O. Darby
Turned over to the Army for operation with the Army Transport Service (ATS), the ship was renamed General William O. Darby in honor of Brigadier General William O. Darby, USA (1911–1945), leader of the famed World War II "Darby's Rangers" who distinguished themselves in combat in North Africa, in Sicily, and in Italy. He was killed in action on the Italian front on 30 April 1945, while serving as Assistant Commander of the 10th Mountain Division.
After operations with the ATS as USAT General William O. Darby, the ship was reacquired by the Navy on 1 March 1950 and reinstated on the Naval Vessel Register on 28 April 1950 as USNS General William O. Darby (T-AP-127). Operating out of New York under the Military Sea Transportation Service (MSTS), the transport steamed between Europe and the Mediterranean Sea carrying troops on rotation, military dependents, and supplies. Between 1950 and 1953, she made more than 20 round trip voyages to Bremerhaven, Germany, and back. In November 1951, the ship veered 100 miles off course to respond to an SOS from a German freighter in the Bay of Biscay. Thirteen of General William O. Darby's sailors volunteered to man a lifeboat and brave the 30-foot seas to transfer a critically burned German sailor to the transport for medical treatment.
Departing New York on 20 June 1953, General William O. Darby proceeded to Yokosuka, Japan, via the Panama Canal, arriving at the Japanese port on 17 July to embark Korean War veterans. Returning to Seattle on 29 July, the transport made five more round-trip voyages between the west coast of the United States and Japan in the next five months. After returning to San Francisco on 23 January 1954, she sailed for the east coast on the 25th to resume operations with MSTS (Atlantic), and reached New York on 8 February. In 1954 and 1955, the ship conducted 12 and 13 round-trips, respectively, and, in the first six months of 1956, conducted seven before being deployed to the Mediterranean to support the operations of the 6th Fleet.
Ranging from North Africa to Turkey in that tour, she eventually returned to New York on 6 August 1956. Between 1956 and 1965, the ship conducted some 135 runs to Bremerhaven and back, deploying to the Mediterranean on nine occasions. In this period the ship took part in the mass movement of 50,000 troops to Cherbourg and Bremerhaven in the Berlin crisis in the autumn of 1961, the biggest troop-lift for MSTS since the s:Korean Armistice Agreement in 1953. In February 1963, General William O. Darby brought back from Bremerhaven two paintings loaned temporarily to the United States from the French Louvre, Whistler's Mother and La Madeleine. Scheduled to be shown at a succession of art galleries from New York to Atlanta, the two art treasures were met upon arrival at Pier 4, Brooklyn Army Terminal, by cultural attaches from the French embassy.
With the buildup of American strength in South Vietnam in 1965, all six MSTS (Atlantic) transports, including General William O. Darby, were withdrawn from the New York-to-Bremerhaven run and assigned to duty in the Pacific. Transatlantic sailings were canceled in late July 1965. General William O. Darby and her sister ship, USNS General Alexander M. Patch, carried out the longest point-to-point trooplift in MSTS history when they arrived at Vung Tau, South Vietnam, on 13 August 1966 with 3,124 troops embarked between them, having sailed from Boston a voyage of 12,358 miles. They had departed the east coast on 15 July, transited the Panama Canal on the 20th, and fueled at Long Beach on the 27th. The longest leg of the voyage was non-stop, Long Beach to Vung Tau, a distance of some 7,291 nautical miles (13,503 km). The Pacific leg of the trip was for the most part smooth for the whole crossing with the exception of a day or two of 15 foot swells. Since there were no docking facilities in Vung Tau, the troops were transported to shore on landing craft.
Placed in reserve at Caven Point Army Depot in New York harbor in 1968, General William O. Darby was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 9 January 1969 and transferred to the Maritime Commission's reserve fleet. At one point in 1976, the state of Maryland expressed an interest in alleviating its overcrowded correctional facilities by the use of the ship. Vehement objections to the retention of the name of the Army war hero on a ship designated to incarcerate prisoners apparently arose, contributing in large part to the cancellation of the ship's name on 6 July 1976. The ship, herself, now merely the unnamed T-AP-127, remained on the Naval Vessel Register.
Awards
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Medal with "EUROPE" clasp
National Defense Service Medal with star
Korean Service Medal
Vietnam Campaign Medal with one battle star
United Nations Service Medal
Korean War Service Medal (Korea)
Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
IX-510
Reclassified as IX-510 in October 1981, the ship was towed from her berth in the James River to the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, where she was placed in service on 1 July 1982. In 1987, she was serving as a barracks and accommodation ship at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, providing berthing and messing facilities for ships undergoing work at the yard. IX-510 was returned to the James River reserve fleet in April 1991, stricken from the Naval Vessel Register in October 1993, and transferred to full Maritime Administration ownership in May 1999. In February 2005 she was towed to Brownsville, Texas, to be dismantled.
Information From:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Village,_Manhattan
East Village, Manhattan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
East Village, Manhattan
New York City Neighborhood
Location in Lower Manhattan
Named: 1960s[1]
Streets: 2nd Avenue, 1st Avenue, Avenue A, The Bowery, St. Mark's Place
Subway: F, V, 6 and L
Zip code: 10009, 10003 and 10002
Government
Federal: Congressional Districts 8, 12 and 14
State: New York State Assembly Districts 64, 66 and 74, New York State Senate Districts 25 and 29
City: New York City Council District 2
Local Manhattan Community Board 3
Neighborhood map
The East Village is a neighborhood in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. It lies east of Greenwich Village, south of Gramercy and Stuyvesant Town, and north of the Lower East Side. Within the East Village there are several smaller neighborhoods, including Alphabet City and The Bowery.
The neighborhood was once considered part of the Lower East Side, but in the 1960s it began to develop its own culture and became known as the East Village. Scores of artists and hippies began to move into the area, attracted by the base of Beatniks that had lived there since the 1950s. It has been the site of counterculture, protests and riots. The neighborhood is known as the birthplace and historical home of many artistic movements, including punk rock[2] and the Nuyorican literary movement.[3]
It is still known for a diverse community, vibrant nightlife and artistic sensibility, although in recent decades gentrification has changed the character of the neighborhood
History
Tompkins Square Park is the recreational and geographic heart of the East Village. It has historically been a part of counterculture, protest and riots.
New York City's Fourth of July fireworks over the neighborhood. The East Village's East River Park is a popular viewing destination.[edit] Formation of the neighborhood
Today's East Village was originally a farm owned by Dutch Governor Wouter van Twiller. Petrus Stuyvesant received the deed to this farm in 1651, and his family held on to the land for over seven generations, until a descendant began selling off parcels of the property in the early 1800s. Wealthy townhouses dotted the dirt roads for a few decades until the great Irish and German immigration of the 1840s and 1850s.
Speculative land owners began building multi unit dwellings on lots meant for single family homes, and began renting out rooms and apartments to the growing working class. The "East Village" was formerly known as Klein Deutschland ("Little Germany, Manhattan"); however, Little Germany dissolved after the SS General Slocum burned into the water in New York's East River on June 15, 1904. From the years roughly between the 1850s and the first decade of the 20th century, the "East Village" hosted the largest urban populations of Germans outside of Vienna and Berlin. It was America's first foreign language neighborhood; hundreds of political, social, sports and recreational clubs were set up during this period, some of these buildings still exist.
What is now the East Village once ended at the East River where Avenue C is now located. A large portion of the neighborhood was formed by landfill, including World War II debris and rubble from London, which was shipped across the Atlantic to provide foundation for the Franklin D. Roosevelt Drive.[5]
[edit] The 'East Village' separates from the Lower East Side
Definitions vary, but the boundaries are roughly defined as east of Broadway and the Bowery from 14th Street down to Houston Street.[1]
Looking south from 6th Street down Second Avenue, one of the main thoroughfares through the East Village.Until the mid-1960s, this area was simply the northern part of the Lower East Side, with a similar culture of immigrant, working class life. In the 1950s the migration of Beatniks into the neighborhood later attracted hippies, musicians and artists well into 1960s.[1] The area was dubbed the "East Village", to dissociate it from the image of slums evoked by the Lower East Side. According to the New York Times, a 1964 guide called, "Earl Wilson's New York," wrote that "artists, poets and promoters of coffeehouses from Greenwich Village are trying to remelt the neighborhood under the high-sounding name of 'East Village.'"[1]
Newcomers and real estate brokers popularized the East Village name, and the term was adopted by the popular media by the mid-1960s.[6][7] In 1966 a psychedelic weekly newspaper, The East Village Other, appeared and The New York Times declared that the neighborhood "had come to be known" as the East Village in the June 5, 1967 edition.[1]
[edit] The music scene develops
In 1966 Andy Warhol promoted a series of shows, entitled The Exploding Plastic Inevitable, and featuring the music of the Velvet Underground, in a Polish ballroom on St Marks Place. On June 27, 1967, the Electric Circus opened in the same space with a benefit for the Children's Recreation Foundation (Chairman: Bobby Kennedy). The Grateful Dead, The Chambers Brothers, Sly & the Family Stone, the Allman Brothers were among the many rock bands that performed there before it closed in 1971.
Punk rock icon and writer Richard Hell still lives in the same apartment in Alphabet City that he has had since the 1970s.On March 8, 1968 Bill Graham opened the Fillmore East in a Yiddish Theatre on 2nd Avenue. The venue quickly became known as "The Church of Rock and Roll," with two-show concerts several nights a week. While booking many of the same bands that had played the Electric Circus, Graham particularly used the venue – and its West Coast counterpart, to establish new British bands like The Who, Pink Floyd, The Jimi Hendrix Experience, Cream, and Led Zeppelin. It, too, closed in 1971.
CBGB, the nightclub considered by some to be the birthplace of punk music, was located in the neighborhood, as was the early punk standby A7. No Wave and New York hardcore also emerged in the area’s clubs. Among the many important bands and singers who got their start at these clubs and other venues in downtown Manhattan were: Patti Smith, Arto Lindsay, the Ramones, Blondie, Madonna, Talking Heads, the Plasmatics, Glenn Danzig, Sonic Youth, the Beastie Boys, Anthrax, and The Strokes. From 1983–1993, much of the more radical audio work was preserved as part of the Tellus Audio Cassette Magazine recording project, which was based in the nearby Lower East Side.
[edit] Rise in artistic prominence
Allen Ginsberg, a long-time resident, with poet Peter Orlovsky.Over the last 100 years, the East Village/Lower East Side neighborhood has been considered one of the strongest contributors to American arts and culture in New York.[8] During the great wave of immigration (Germans, Ukrainians, Polish) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, countless families found their new homes in this area.
The East Village has been the birthplace of cultural icons and movements from the American gangster to the Warhol Superstars, folk music to punk rock, anti-folk to hip-hop, advanced education to organized activism, experimental theater to the Beat Generation and the community of experimental musicians, composers and improvisers now loosely known as the Downtown Scene.
Club 57, on St. Mark's Place, was an important incubator for performance art and visual art in the late 1970s and early 1980s; followed by Now Gallery, 8BC and ABC No Rio.
During the 1980s the East Village art gallery scene helped to galvanize a new post-modern art in America; showing such artists as Kiki Smith, Peter Halley, Keith Haring, Stephen Lack, Greer Lankton, Joseph Nechvatal, Nan Goldin, Jean-Michel Basquiat, David Wojnarowicz, Rick Prol, and Jeff Koons.[9]
[edit] The musical 'Rent'
The East Village is the setting for Jonathan Larson's musical Rent; set in the early 1990s, the story chronicles a group of friends over a year in their struggles against poverty, drug abuse and AIDS.
The musical Rent chronicled a period in the neighborhood's history that is bygone. It opened at the New York Theater Workshop in February 1996.[10] It described a New York City devastated by the AIDS epidemic, drugs and high crime, and followed several characters in the backdrop of their effort to make livings as artists.[11]
[edit] Decline of the art scene
The "Downtown Legends" wall at Mo Pitkins House of Satisfaction featured artists known in the East Village performance scene. A few featured in this photo include the Reverend Jen, Nick Zedd, Allen Ginsberg, Reverend Billy and Murray Hill (pictured).The East Village's performance and art scene has declined since its hey-day of the 1970s and 1980s.[12] One club that had opened to try to resurrect the neighborhood's past artistic prominence was Mo Pitkins' House of Satisfaction, part-owned by Jimmy Fallon of Saturday Night Live. It closed its doors in 2007, and was seen by many as another sign of the continued decline of the East Village performance and art scene, which has mostly moved to Williamsburg, Brooklyn.[13] Rapture Cafe also shut down in April 2008, and the neighborhood lost an important performance space and gathering ground for the gay community. There are still some performance spaces, such as Sidewalk Cafe on Avenue A, where downtown acts find space to exhibit their talent, and the poetry clubs.[14]
Punk scene icons stayed in the neighborhood as it changed. Richard Hell lives in the same apartment he has lived in since the 1970s, and Handsome Dick Manitoba of The Dictators owns and reigns over Manitoba's bar on Avenue B.
[edit] Internal neighborhoods
The East Village contains several hamlets of vibrant communities within itself.
[edit] Alphabet City
Main article: Alphabet City, Manhattan
The Nuyorican Poets Cafe has been located off Avenue C and East 3rd Street since its founding in 1973.Alphabet City comprises nearly two-thirds of the East Village. It also once was the archetype of a dangerous New York City neighborhood. Its turn-around was cause for The New York Times to observe in 2005 that Alphabet City went "from a drug-infested no man's land to the epicenter of downtown cool."[15] Its name comes from Avenues A, B, C, and D, the only avenues in Manhattan to have single-letter names. It is bordered by Houston Street to the south and 14th Street to the north where Avenue C ends. Some famous landmarks include Tompkins Square Park, the Nuyorican Poets Cafe and the Stuyvesant Town private residential community.
[edit] Loisaida
Main article: Loisaida
A Loisaida street fair in the Summer of 2008.Loisaida is a term derived from the Latino (and especially Nuyorican) pronunciation of "Lower East Side", a neighborhood in Manhattan, New York City. The term was originally coined by poet/activist, Bittman "Bimbo" Rivas in his 1974 poem "Loisaida". Loisaida Avenue is now an alternative name for Avenue C in the Alphabet City neighborhood of New York City, whose population has largely been Hispanic (mainly Nuyorican) since the late 1960s.
[edit] St. Mark's Place
Main article: St. Mark's Place
Artist Jim Power, known as the "Mosaic Man" for his public art tiling the neighborhood[16], at the 2009 St. Mark's Place Block Party.Eighth Street becomes St. Mark's place east of Third Avenue. It once had the cachet of Sutton Place, known as a secluded rich enclave in Manhattan, but which by the 1850s had become a place for boarding houses and a German immigrant community.[17] It is named after St Mark's Church in-the-Bowery, which was built on Stuyvesant Street but is now on 10th Street. St. Mark's Place once began at the intersection of the Bowery and Stuyvesant Street, but today the street runs from Third Avenue to Avenue A. Japanese street culture and a Japanese expatriate scene forms in the noodle shops and bars that line St. Mark's Place, also home to an aged punk culture and CBGB's new store. It is home to one of the only Automats in New York City (it has since closed).[18]
St. Mark's is along the “Mosaic Trail”, a trail of 80 mosaic-encrusted lampposts that runs from Broadway down Eighth Street to Avenue A, to Fourth Street and then back to Eighth Street. The project was undertaken by East Village public artist Jim Power, known as the "Mosaic Man".[16]
[edit] The Bowery
Main article: The Bowery
Once synonymous with 'Bowery Bums', the avenue has become a magnet for luxury condominiums as the neighborhood's rapid gentrification continues.The Bowery, former home to the punk-rock nightclub CBGB, was once known for its many homeless shelters, drug rehabilitation centers and bars. The phrase "On The Bowery", which has since fallen into disuse, was a generic way to say one was down-and-out.[19]
The Bow’ry, The Bow’ry!
They say such things,
and they do strange things
on the Bow’ry —From the musical A Trip to Chinatown, 1891
Today, the Bowery has become a boulevard of new luxury condominiums. It also is home to the Amato Opera and the Bowery Poetry Club, contributing to the neighborhood's reputation as a place for artistic pursuit. Artists Amiri Baraka and Taylor Mead hold regular readings and performances in the space.
The redevelopment of the avenue from flophouses to luxury condominiums has met with resistance from long-term residents, who agree the neighborhood has improved, but that its unique, gritty character is also disappearing.[20]
[edit] Parks and green space
[edit] Tompkins Square Park
Main article: Tompkins Square Park
The Tompkins Square dog run was the first in New York City, and is a social scene unto itself.[5]Tompkins Square Park is a 10.5 acre (42,000 m²) public park in the Alphabet City section of the East Village neighborhood in the borough of Manhattan in New York City. It is square in shape, and is bounded on the north by East 10th Street, on the east by Avenue B, on the south by East 7th Street, and on the west by Avenue A. St. Marks Place abuts the park to the west.
[edit] Tompkins Square Park Police Riot
Main article: Tompkins Square Park Police Riot (1988)
The Tompkins Square Park Police Riot was a defining moment for the neighborhood. In the late hours of August 6 into the morning hours of August 7, 1988 a riot broke out in Alphabet City's Tompkins Square Park. Groups of "drug pushers, homeless people and young people known as 'skinheads'" had largely taken over the East Village park, but the neighborhood was divided about what, if anything, should be done about it.[21] The local governing body, Manhattan Community Board 3, adopted a 1 am curfew for the previously 24-hour park, in an attempt to bring it under control.[22] On July 31, a rally against the curfew resulted in several clashes between protesters and police.[23]
[edit] East River Park
Main article: East River Park
East River Park below the Williamsburg Bridge.The park is 57 acres (230,000 m2) that runs along the Franklin D. Roosevelt Drive from Montgomery Street to East 12th Street.[24] It was designed in the 1930s by Robert Moses, who wanted to ensure there was parkland on the Lower East Side.[24]
[edit] Community gardens
There are reportedly over 640 community gardens in New York City—gardens run by local collectives within the neighborhood who are responsible for the gardens' upkeep—and an estimated 10 percent of those are located on the Lower East Side and East Village alone.[25]
[edit] Tower of Toys on Avenue B
The Avenue B and 6th Street Community Garden is one of the neighborhood's more notable for a now removed outdoor sculpture, the Tower of Toys, designed by artist and long-time garden gate-keeper, Eddie Boros. Boros died April 27, 2007.[26] The Tower was controversial in the neighborhood; some viewed it as a masterpiece, others as an eyesore.[26][27] The tower appeared in the opening credits for the television show NYPD Blue and also appears in the musical Rent.[26] In May 2008, it was dismantled. According to NYC Parks Commissioner Adrian Benepe, the tower was rotting in sections that made it a safety hazard.[28] Its removal was seen as another symbol of the fading past of the neighborhood.[28]
[edit] Toyota Children’s Learning Garden
Located at 603 East 11th Street, the Toyota Children's Learning Garden is not technically a community garden, but it also fails to fit in the park category. Designed by landscape architect Michael Van Valkenburgh, the garden opened in May 2008 as part of the New York Restoration Project and is designed to teach children about plants.[29]
[edit] New York City Marble Cemetery
A production of John Reed's All the World's a Grave in the Marble Cemetery, which does not contain headstones.The cemetery is actually two, which sit on 2nd Street between 1st Avenue and 2nd Avenue. They are open the fourth Sunday of every month.[30] The first and more prominent is the City cemetery, which is second oldest non-sectarian cemetery in New York City. It sits next to the oldest public cemetery in New York City not affiliated with any religion, the "New York Marble Cemetery."[31] The cemetery was opened in 1831 and at one point contained ex-U.S. President James Monroe.[32]
[edit] Culture and events
Longtime Mistress of Ceremonies at eatery Lucky Cheng's, Miss Understood stops a bus in front of the restaurant on First Avenue.Other than geography, the East Village's most notable commonalities with Greenwich Village are a colorful history, vibrant social and cultural outlets, and street names that often diverge from the norm.
The Bowery is a north-south avenue which also lends its name to the somewhat overlapping neighborhood of the Bowery; St. Mark's Place, a crosstown street well-known for counterculture businesses; and Astor Place/Cooper Square, home of the Public Theater and the Cooper Union. Nearby universities like New York University (NYU), The New School, and The Cooper Union have dormitories in the neighborhood.
[edit] Ethnicity and religion
Photograph of St. Nicholas with parts of Second Street visible. The church and almost all buildings on the street were demolished in the 1960's and replaced with parking lots.
Former parishioners of St. Mary's Help of Christians pray outside the shuttered church in August 2008.According to 2000 census figures provided by the New York City Department of City Planning, which includes the Lower East Side in its calculation, the neighborhood was 35% Asian, 28% non-Hispanic white, 27% Hispanic and 7% black.[33]
On October 9, 1966, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, founder of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, held the first recorded outdoor chanting session of the Hare Krishna mantra outside of the Indian subcontinent at Tompkins Square Park.[34] This is considered the founding of the Hare Krishna religion in the United States, and the large tree close to the center of the Park is demarcated as a special religious site for Krishna adherents.[34] The late poet Allen Ginsberg, who lived and died in the East Village, attended the ceremony.
There are several Roman Catholic churches in the East Village which have fallen victim to financial hardship particularly in the past decade. Unable to maintain their properties, the Roman Catholic Church has shuttered many of them - including St. Mary's Help of Christians on East 12th Street, as well as St. Ann's. There has recently been much controversy over St. Brigid's, the historical parish on Tompkins Square Park.
[edit] Ukrainian history
Since the 1890s there has been a large Ukrainian concentration roughly from 10th Street to 5th Street, between 3rd Avenue and Avenue A. The post-World War II diaspora, consisting primarily of Western Ukrainian intelligentsia, also settled down in the area. Several churches, including St. George's Catholic Church; Ukrainian restaurants and butcher shops; The Ukrainian Museum; the Shevchenko Scientific Society; and the Ukrainian Cultural Center are evidence of the impact of this culture on the area.
[edit] Gentrification
[edit] New York University, a controversial resident
Residents of the East Village have a love-hate relationship with New York University, which owns and maintains many buildings, particularly in much of downtown Manhattan and in the neighborhoods surrounding its main campus in Greenwich Village (a distinct neighborhood from the East Village).[35]
St. Ann's Church, a rusticated-stone structure on East 12th Street with a Romanesque tower that dated to 1847 was sold to the University to make way for a monolithic 26-story, 700 bed dormitory for students. The University did protect and maintain St. Ann's original facade and small plaza immediately fronting the 12th Street sidewalk. The result is a blended, softer abutment of the new dorm building (which does rise dramatically above the facade) up behind the old St. Ann's entry way. New York University has built many dorms, and this one in particular is now the tallest structure in the area. "There are larger changes going on here," said Lynne Brown, vice president of university relations and public affairs. "I fear this tendency to blame any trend residents don't like happening at the doorstep of NYU," said Brown, mentioning that the university has been one of the longest inhabitants of the East Village. But Nancy Cosie, a 20 year resident and former St. Ann's parishioner, does not buy that argument. "Enough is enough," Cosie exclaimed to The Village Voice, "This is not a campus. This is a neighborhood, and this is my home."[35] NYU's destruction or purchasing of many historic buildings (such as the Peter Cooper post office) have made it symbolic of change that many long-time residents fear is destroying what made the neighborhood interesting and attractive.[36] "I live on Avenue B and 9th Street," an NYU student said. "I know I'm part of the problem - gentrification that is. But where am I supposed to live?"[36]
NYU has often been at odds with residents of both the East and West Villages, as legendary urban preservationist Jane Jacobs battled the school in the 1960s.[37] "She spoke of how universities and hospitals often had a special kind of hubris reflected in the fact that they often thought it was OK to destroy a neighborhood to suit their needs,” said Andrew Berman of the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation.[38]
[edit] Museums, libraries, performance and art spaces
The Bowery Poetry Club.
Sherry Vine and Joey Arias during the 2009 HOWL! Festival.New York Public Library Tompkins Square branch [3]
The Fales Library of NYU
East Village Visitors Center - 308 Bowery
The Ukrainian Museum
New Museum of Contemporary Art
Museum of Jewish Heritage
Performance Space 122
Anthology Film Archives
The Stone
Bouwerie Lane Theatre
Amato Opera
Danspace Project
The Ontological-Hysteric Theater
The Pearl Theatre Company [4]
Stomp! (Theatrical show)
Metropolitan Playhouse[5]
Mercury Lounge (live music)
Sidewalk Cafe (performance and live music)
Bowery Ballroom (concerts and shows)
Nuyorican Poets Cafe (music, poetry, readings, slams)
Bowery Poetry Club (music, poetry, readings, slams)
La MaMa E.T.C. (performance theater)
Cooper Union (speeches, presentations, public lectures and readings)
[edit] Neighborhood festivals
Mayday Festival - May 1; yearly.
Charlie Parker Jazz Festival - August; yearly.[6]
HOWL! Festival - September; yearly.[7][8]
East Village Radio Festival - September 6, 2008 [9]
Tompkins Square Halloween Dog Parade - October; yearly.[10]
East Village Theater Festival - August 3–23, 2009.[11]
FAB! Festival & Block Party - Last weekend in September annually, Sept 25, 2010 [12]
[edit] Media
Many film shoots take place in the East Village; here a period movie with antique police cars is filmed on East 4th Street.[edit] Radio
East Village Radio
[edit] Local news
The Village Voice
The Villager
East-Village.com
EastVillageFeed.com
[edit] Cinemas
Anthology Film Archives
Landmark's Sunshine Theater
Village East Cinema
City Cinema Village East
Two Boots Pioneer Theater
[edit] Notable residents past and present
Handsome Dick Manitoba of The Dictators.
Madonna lived in the neighborhood when she was just starting out in her career.[39]Handsome Dick Manitoba, who owns Manitoba's bar on Avenue B off Tompkins Square Park.
Darren Aronofsky and his wife, Rachel Weisz
Chris Cain, Bassist for the Indie-Rock band We Are Scientists
Barbara Feinman
John Leguizamo
Daniel Radcliffe
Agim Kaba
Rosario Dawson
Tom Kalin
Vashtie Kola director
W. H. Auden[40]
Greer Lankton, Artist/Doll maker
Ellen Stewart founder of La MaMa, E.T.C. (Experimental Theatre Club) in 1961.
Madonna lived there in the 1980s.
John Lurie,musician, painter, actor, producer.
Jean-Michel Basquiat, graffiti artist
David Bowes, painter
Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997), Beat Generation poet and author of Howl.[41]
Keith Haring, neo-pop artist
Claes Oldenburg (1929-), sculptor, had a studio at 46 East 3rd Street in the late 1950s.[42]
Candy Darling, actress/Warhol superstar
Bill Raymond, actor
Ryan Adams, alt-country musician
David Cross, actor, comedian
Negin Farsad, writer, director, comedian
Nan Goldin, photographer
Stephen Lack, actor, painter
Ronnie Landfield, (1947-), painter, lived on E. 11th street, mid-1960s[43]
Kiki Smith sculptor
John Zorn composer, musician
Richard Hell, musician, author
Abbie Hoffman (1936–1989), 1960s political activist[44]
Ayun Halliday, actress and writer, and wife of playwright Greg Kotis
Greg Kotis, playwright, and husband of actress and writer Ayun Halliday
Jerry Rubin (1938–1994), 1960s political activist - with Hoffman founded the Yippies in a basement apartment at 30 St. Marks Place[44]
Cookie Mueller, actress, model
Paul Krassner (1932-), publisher of The Realist
Walter Bowart (1939–2007), co-founder editor/ of The East Village Other
Allan Katzman, co-founder/editor of The East Village Other
Tuli Kupferberg, (1923-), Beat Generation poet, and one of the original Fugs
Ed Sanders, (1939-), New York School poet and one of the original Fugs
Joseph Nechvatal (1951-) early digital artist and founder of the Tellus Audio Cassette Magazine
Randy Harrison, actor
Joel Resnicoff, artist and fashion illustrator.
Regina Spektor, (1980-) Singer-songwriter and pianist.
Rachel Trachtenburg (1993-) singer and musician
Tom Otterness sculptor
Steven Fishbach, runner-up of Survivor: Tocantins
Chloe Sevigny actress
Conor Oberst musician
Lou Reed, musician
Julian Casablancas, musician
Mark Ronson
Arthur Russell, musician[45]
Jack Smith filmmaker, artist
Iggy Pop, performer, musician
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
USS Hawkins in 1945
History
United States
Name:USS Hawkins
Namesake:William D. Hawkins
Laid down:14 May 1944
Launched:7 October 1944
Commissioned:10 February 1945
Struck:1 October 1979
Identification:DD-873
Taiwan
Name:ROCS Shao Yang[1][2] or ROCS Tze Yang[3]
Decommissioned:late 1990s
Fate:Scrapped, superstructure on display at museum[3]
General characteristics
Class and type:Gearing-class destroyer
Displacement:3,460 tons
Length:390.6 ft (119.1 m)
Beam:40.1 ft (12.2 m)
Draft:14.4 ft (4.4 m)
Propulsion:60,000 shp (45,000 kW); General Electric geared turbines, 2 screws
Speed:36.8 kn (68.2 km/h; 42.3 mph)
Armament:
3 x twin 5 in (130 mm)/38 DP guns
12 x 40 mm AA guns
11 x 20 mm AA guns
2 x quintuple 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes
USS Hawkins (DD-873) was a Gearing-class destroyer in the United States Navy during World War II. Following the war, the ship saw service in the Korean War and in the 1970s, was transferred to the Republic of China Navy as Shao Yang, also known as Tze Yang. She remained in service until the 1990s. The ship was then scrapped with the exception of her superstructure, which became part of a display at a museum.
Hawkins, originally to be named Beatty, but renamed on 22 June 1944 and launched by Consolidated Steel Corporation, Orange, Texas, 7 October 1944; sponsored by Mrs. Clara Jane Hawkins, mother of namesake First Lieutenant William Deane Hawkins (killed on Tarawa). The destroyer was commissioned on 10 February 1945, Comdr. C. Iverson in command.
1940s
Following shakedown training in the Caribbean, Hawkins arrived at Norfolk on 23 March 1945 to undergo conversion to a radar picket ship. Emerging 26 May, she conducted training exercises before sailing 18 June from Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, for San Diego and Pearl Harbor. After her arrival 8 July Hawkins prepared to enter the last phase of the Pacific War, but 3 days after her 12 August departure from Pearl Harbor for Eniwetok the Japanese surrendered. The destroyer continued from Eniwetok to Iwo Jima and Tokyo Bay, arriving 27 August, and assisted in early occupation operations. She then escorted ships to and from the Marianas, remaining in Japanese waters until 3 January 1946. Hawkins then steamed to the Philippines and Saipan, finally arriving Pearl Harbor 3 April.
Arriving at San Diego on 11 April, the destroyer took part in training operations off the West Coast until sailing again for the Far East January 1947. During the months that followed she steamed between Chinese and Korean ports, assisting and supporting American Marine units in their attempts to stabilize the Chinese situation and protect American lives. Hawkins under the command of Cmdr. Alfred L. Cope, played a significant role in rescue operations off Chilang Point Hong Kong 19 July 1947, when the steamer SS Hong Kheng sank with over 2,000 passengers on board. She returned to the United States 8 October 1947.
After a year of operations out of San Diego the ship sailed again for the Far East, arriving at Tsingtao, China on 29 October. Following operations off the Chinese coast Hawkins got underway from Tsingtao on 6 December. On this long voyage, completing a circuit of the globe, the destroyer visited Ceylon, Turkey, Gibraltar, New York City, and Panama before arriving San Diego 10 March 1949.
Hawkins in the Mediterranean in 1957.
Hawkins was reassigned to the U.S. Atlantic Fleet soon afterward, arriving at her new home port, Newport, Rhode Island on 23 May 1949. For the next year she took part in Reserve training cruises and readiness exercises in the Caribbean. The ship had been reclassified DDR-873 on 18 March 1949. Hawkins departed on 2 May 1950 for a cruise with 6th Fleet in the Mediterranean.
Korean War service
While in the Mediterranean, the world became aware of the Communist invasion of South Korea. After NATO maneuvers, Hawkins returned to Newport 10 October and prepared to become part of the fleet sailing for what became known as the Korean War. Sailing on 3 January via the Panama Canal she arrived at Pusan on 5 February. During her four months of Korean duty, Hawkins screened the mobile aircraft carrier forces during strikes on enemy positions and supply lines, provided antisubmarine protection, and controlled jet aircraft in combat air patrols. She also acted as plane guard during operations in the Formosa Straits designed to discourage Communist aggression against the friendly island. Departing the Far East in June, the destroyer returned to Newport on 8 August via the Mediterranean.
Post Korean War service to 1964
For the next few years the veteran ship alternated picket duty and training operations in the western Atlantic with periodic cruises to the Mediterranean with the 6th Fleet. She was in the Eastern Mediterranean during the summer of 1950 when the Suez crisis threatened the security and peace of the area. Hawkins arrived Mayport, Florida, her new homeport, 18 August 1960. She became part of DESRON-8 performing exercises in the Bahamas and Caribbean areas with one deployment of radar picket duty off the coast of Nicaragua returning to Mayport in December 1960. In January 1961 the destroyer soon resumed her pattern of cruises to the Mediterranean. In 1961 she operated with a special Task Group in connection with American space experiments and missile tests off Cape Canaveral, Florida. When the introduction of offensive missiles into Cuba in 1962 threatened the security of the United States, Hawkins joined with other ships in quarantining that Caribbean country, cruising the Caribbean from late October until December. In 1963 the ship returned to the Mediterranean in January returning to Mayport in July and in August took part in Polaris missile tests in the Caribbean with the submarine USS Alexander Hamilton. During the next 5 months, Hawkins operated with aircraft carriers off Florida and in the Caribbean. Following additional Polaris missile tests with USS Andrew Jackson in February 1964, the destroyer steamed to Boston 21 March and was placed in commission, in reserve, prior to undergoing a FRAM I overhaul.
1964–1979
Reclassified DD-873 on 1 April, Hawkins completed FRAM late in 1964. Assigned to Destroyer Squadron 24, she operated out of Newport until departing 29 September for duty in the Far East. Steaming via the Panama Canal and the West Coast, she joined the 7th Fleet on 23 November. For the next three months she guarded aircraft carriers in the South China Sea and the Gulf of Tonkin and provided gunfire support for ground troops along the coast of South Vietnam. She departed Subic Bay late in February 1966, steamed via the Suez Canal, and arrived Newport 8 April.
Hawkins, over the next few months, participated in naval exercises off the East Coast and in the Caribbean. Departing Newport on 28 November, she joined the 6th Fleet at Gibraltar 8 December and became flagship for ComDesRon 24. For more than three months she cruised the Mediterranean from Spain to Greece before returning to Newport 20 March 1967. Into mid-1967 she operated along the Atlantic Coast from New England to Florida.
Hawkins went into the Boston Naval Shipyard in 1967 for overhaul. After months in the shipyard and in dry dock, the ship went to Guantanamo Bay, Cuba for a shakedown cruise.
On 11 February 1969, Hawkins was operating off the coast of Cuba with the submarine USS Chopper when Chopper had a near-fatal accident. The submarine managed to surface but Chopper shot through the surface of the ocean, nearly vertical. The entire forward section of the submarine, to the aft edge of the sail, cleared the surface before she fell back.
In July 1969, Hawkins, working out of Cape Canaveral, Florida began Polaris missile tests with the Royal Navy's submarine HMS Renown, which ended with a successful test firing of a missile down a test range. Immediately afterward, these same tests were made with the submarine USS Thomas Jefferson but in this case the test was aborted shortly after launch.
Hawkins took part in the United States space project in November 1969 when it was assigned to the Apollo 12 Atlantic Recovery Force. The ship was fitted with special capsule recovery gear and practiced along with a Navy Underwater Demolition Team (UDT) to be prepared to recover the space capsule in the Atlantic if the Pacific landing was aborted.
In December 1969, Hawkins changed homeport from Newport, Rhode Island, to Norfolk, Virginia.
In 1970, the United States Navy assigned the destroyer USS Steinaker to the NATO Standing Naval Force Atlantic for Exercise Atlantic Ice. Steinaker ran aground while doing maneuvers in a fjord near Harstad, traveling at 25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph) and was removed from the exercise. Hawkins was directed to replace Steinaker and complete their assignment with NATO. Hawkins met Steinaker in Bergen, Norway to offload their munitions, allowing them to enter the repair facility at Haakonsvern. From Bergen, Hawkins traveled to Oslo with exercises above the Arctic Circle en route. After more exercise in the North Sea, the force stopped in Kiel and then proceeded to Copenhagen in mid-May. There was a show of flags in Antwerp and Plymouth. Leaving Plymouth at the end of May, the force exercised with a French submarine in the Bay of Biscay before going to Lisbon.
On 9 February 1971, Hawkins again participated in the space program as a backup recovery ship in the Atlantic for Apollo 14.
In the spring of 1977, the USS Hawkins DD-873 was detached to the US Sixth Fleet, where she certainly served until October.
From 1976 to 1979, the Hawkins was assigned as a Naval Reserve training ship in Philadelphia. By that time she was nearing the end of her designed lifespan. Science fiction writer James D. Macdonald, then an ensign in the United States Naval Reserve, was assigned to her during this period, and reported to the captain one morning that the sounding tape used to check the water level in the ship's tanks had punched through the striking plate in one of the sounding tubes and the hull plate beyond it, indicating the hull was becoming unsound.
Transfer to ROC Navy and fate
The ship was stricken from the Navy List on 1 October 1979 and sold to the Taiwan in 1983. The ship was renamed Shao Yang[1][2] or Tze Yang[3] in service with the Taiwan Navy. The ship was scrapped in the late 1990s, but part of her superstructure is on display at a museum in Taiwan.[3] [4]
Honors and awards
Hawkins received two battle stars for Korean War service.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
United States
Name:USS Vesuvius (AE-15)
Namesake:Mount Vesuvius
Launched:26 May 1944
Commissioned:16 January 1945
Decommissioned:20 April 1946
Recommissioned:15 November 1951
Decommissioned:14 August 1973
Struck:14 August 1973
Honors and
awards:
2 battle stars (World War II)
2 battle stars (Korea)
10 battle stars (Vietnam)
Fate:scrapped, 1974
Badge:USS Vesuvius (AE-15) insignia, circa in the 1960s (NH 71935-KN).png
General characteristics
Length:459 ft 2 in (140 m)
Beam:63 ft (19.2 m)
Draft:28 ft 3 in (8.6 m)
Propulsion:
Geared turbine
1 × shaft
6,000 shp (4.5 MW)
Speed:16 knots (30 km/h)
Capacity:7,700 long tons (7,800 t) deadweight
Complement:267 officers and enlisted
Armament:4 × 3"/50 caliber guns
The fourth USS Vesuvius (AE-15) was laid down under a Maritime Commission contract (MC hull 1381) by the North Carolina Shipbuilding Company, Wilmington, N.C.; launched on 26 May 1944; acquired by the United States Navy on 4 July 1944; and commissioned on 16 January 1945, Comdr. Flavius J. George in command.
Service history
World War II, 1945–1946
The ship underwent builder's trials out of Brooklyn, New York, and then began shakedown out of Hampton Roads, Virginia, in Chesapeake Bay. On 17 February, she sailed to Earle, New Jersey, to load ammunition. She then headed for the island of Ulithi, via the Panama Canal, on 5 March. She reached her destination on 5 April and promptly unloaded and took on more cargo. Vesuvius departed for Okinawa on 10 April where she became part of Service Squadron 6. In this role, she replenished ammunition to the Fleet in the waters around Okinawa. In July 1945, Vesuvius joined a rearming group off Honshū, Japan, to support raids on Japan by the 3rd Fleet. She detached on 2 August and set sail for Leyte Gulf, Philippines. While there, word of the Japanese capitulation was received on 15 August 1945. The ship remained in the Philippines until 28 October, when she left for the United States.
After transiting the Panama Canal, Vesuvius joined the Service Force, Atlantic Fleet. The ship arrived at Yorktown, Virginia, on 14 December 1945. Vesuvius departed Yorktown on 10 January 1946, bound for Leonardo, N.J., to discharge her cargo and ship's ammunition to the Naval Ammunition Depot. On 7 February, she headed for Orange, Texas, arriving there on 13 February to commence her pre-inactivation overhaul. Vesuvius was placed out of commission, in reserve, at Orange on 20 August 1946.
Korean War, 1951–1952
In response to the needs imposed by the Korean War, Vesuvius was recommissioned on 15 November 1951. She remained at Orange and Beaumont, Texas, for outfitting and readying for sea until 7 January 1952, when she departed for San Diego. Having arrived on 14 February, the ship conducted exercises and loaded ammunition at Port Chicago, California, before sailing on 22 March for Sasebo, Japan. She arrived at Sasebo on 3 May 1952 and, after voyage repairs, began supplying ammunition to the ships of Task Force (TF) 77 on patrol off the east coast of Korea. On 1 December, Vesuvius headed for the United States, arriving at San Francisco on 18 December for overhaul.
Pacific Fleet, 1953–1967
Over the next decade, Vesuvius was to make 11 more extended deployments to the western Pacific where she serviced units of the 7th Fleet. These operations were interspersed with port visits to Japan, Okinawa, Taiwan, the Philippines, and Hong Kong. Periods on the west coast of the United States were spent in overhaul and in the conduct of underway training.
On 24 June 1963, Vesuvius commenced her 13th post-World War II deployment to the western Pacific, making stops at Pearl Harbor and at Guam for repairs and arriving at Yokosuka on 4 August. She serviced the 7th Fleet throughout August. In October, she visited Sasebo and Kagoshima, Japan; Subic Bay, Philippines; and Buckner Bay, Okinawa. In November, she visited Hong Kong and spent the entire month of December 1963 in and out of Yokosuka, Japan. She also visited Beppu, and Komatsushima, Japan. (1st American Navy ship to visit since end of World War II).
Vesuvius began 1964 in Yokosuka making final preparations for her homeward passage. On 7 January, she got underway for San Francisco via the great circle route. She arrived on 31 January and spent February and March moored to the pier at Port Chicago. A brief trip to San Diego and participation in an exercise with other units of the 1st Fleet occupied April, and Vesuvius spent May in an upkeep status at Concord, California. On 6 July, she was underway for coastal operations. August and September saw the ship in and out of port, training and providing services to the Fleet Training Group. In October, she participated in operations with members of the 1st Fleet. On 20 November 1964, Vesuvius returned to Concord for upkeep and a holiday leave period. She got underway on 18 December for the Mare Island Annex, where she spent the holiday season.
Vietnam, 1965–1972
The ship made a brief trip to San Diego beginning on 4 January 1965 before returning to Concord on 13 January. She began reloading cargo in preparation for deployment and got underway for the Far East on 1 February. Vesuvius reached Subic Bay, via Pearl Harbor and Guam, on 28 February. She then began operations in the South China Sea interrupted by brief returns for the onload of cargo in Subic Bay. In July 1965, she received a respite from her duties in Hong Kong. After a week there, she resumed operations. Having made 182 underway replenishments during the deployment, Vesuvius returned to Concord, California, on 28 November.
Vesuvius began the year 1966 by steaming on 3 January to the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard at Bremerton, Washington, to undergo repairs for six weeks. After leaving Bremerton, the ship headed south to Concord to onload ammunition. On 5 March, she sailed for San Diego for refresher training. Shortly after arrival, a 26-inch crack in one of her hull plates was discovered. She promptly began transferring her load of ammunition to other ships. By 26 March, the ammunition had been successfully offloaded; and, on 28 April 1966, Vesuvius proceeded to the Bethlehem Steel Shipyard in San Francisco. On 14 May, Vesuvius deployed for the western Pacific. From 13 June through 27 November 1966, Vesuvius conducted replenishment operations between the Philippines and the South China Sea. In December, she stopped at Pearl Harbor on her way home, where an unusual cargo was embarked — $9,700,000 was brought on board for a special currency lift back to the United States. Shortly before Christmas, Vesuvius reached Concord.
The year 1967 found the ship berthed at Mare Island preparing to undergo her first major overhaul since 1962. Following completion of overhaul at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard and underway training, Vesuvius departed for the western Pacific on 15 July 1967, bound for Subic Bay. Except for brief periods in Hong Kong, Vesuvius came off the line in the South China Sea only long enough to fill her hold with more ammunition.
Near the end of January 1968, Vesuvius sailed to Yokosuka on her return trip to the United States, only to be recalled to the seas off Vietnam following the Pueblo Incident to support Operation Formation Star. Vesuvius finally returned to the San Francisco Bay area on 17 March 1968, offloaded, proceeded to the Naval Shipyard at Mare Island and, on 4 April, entered the Triple A Shipyard in San Francisco for extensive repairs and upkeep. Repairs were completed on 10 May, and the ship began refresher training in June. Following inspections and loadout, Vesuvius deployed again on 31 July 1968. She reached Subic Bay on 20 August for receipt of ammunition, then began operations in the Vietnam area. She remained on line through 3 December, when she left for a period of rest and recreation in Hong Kong. She departed there on 10 December to return to Vietnam.
Vesuvius remained on line through January and February 1969. In late February, she sailed into Bangkok, Thailand. From Bangkok, the ship went to Subic Bay to commence her final loadout before heading home. After a brief stop in Hawaii, Vesuvius arrived in Concord on 1 April 1969. In late April, the ship underwent six weeks of restricted availability at a commercial yard in San Francisco. Late in June, she steamed for San Diego and refresher training and exercises. By 23 July, she had returned to San Francisco and began three weeks of loadout for yet another deployment. Vesuvius departed for the western Pacific on 17 September 1969. After stopovers in Pearl Harbor and Yokosuka, she touched at Subic Bay for a few days before starting her line period off Vietnam.
During this deployment, Vesuvius conducted seven line runs in the South China Sea and the Tonkin Gulf in support of 7th Fleet operations. On 25 April, she left for home with stops at Kobe, Japan, and Pearl Harbor. She arrived at Concord on 23 May 1970. The ship entered a three-month upkeep in San Francisco from July to October followed by a pre-deployment inspection. On 9 November, Vesuvius departed the San Francisco area for intensive training in San Diego and, on 6 December, steamed back to Port Chicago for a holiday leave period.
Vesuvius again departed for the western Pacific on 4 January 1971. She arrived at Subic Bay on 25 January, and, one week later, was underway for her first line run of the deployment. On 20 February, she pulled into Singapore and then proceeded shortly thereafter to the Philippines for a 15-day upkeep period. Vesuvius then resumed her assignment of providing ammunition logistics support to the 7th Fleet and Royal Australian Navy units off the coast of Vietnam. On 2 August 1971, Vesuvius left Subic Bay for San Francisco, arriving on 1 September. After offloading ammunition at Concord, the ship moved to the Mare Island Naval Shipyard for a month of stand-down. On 4 October, she entered a six-week upkeep. Upon completion, she returned to Concord on 19 November. Vesuvius departed Concord on 29 November for refresher training off San Diego, returning to Mare Island on 4 December.
Vesuvius got underway on 3 January 1972 and, on 5 January, commenced refresher training in San Diego. She returned to Concord on 29 January. Preparations for deployment began immediately, and the ship left California on 14 February. Upon arrival at Subic Bay, Vesuvius again supported combat operations for the 7th Fleet. On 29 June, she began upkeep and returned to action on 18 July. Her duties were interrupted for short trips to Hong Kong and Bangkok in August and October. In December, she entered drydock at Subic Bay to replace her propeller, but she promptly returned to Vietnam and ended the year in the combat zone.
Decommissioning, 1973
The ship returned to Concord on 3 March 1973. After offloading ammunition, the ship moved to Mare Island. The ship was scheduled for upkeep from April to July. However, a message was received from the Chief of Naval Operations in July to prepare the ship for decommissioning. On 14 August 1973, Vesuvius was decommissioned and transferred to the Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility at Mare Island for further disposition and was struck from the Navy List. Vesuvius was reported to have been used for target practice, shortly after decommissioning.
Awards
Vesuvius received two battle stars for World War II, two battle stars for the Korean War, and 10 battle stars for her service in Vietnam.
A stack of thick encyclopedias with black, green or white hardcovers against a bright red background. The books are lit from one side with a blue tint, casting colored shadows below them.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Hong kong)
Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, is an autonomous territory south to Mainland China and east to Macao in East Asia. With around 7.2 million Hong Kongers of various nationalities[note 2] in a territory of 1,104 km2, Hong Kong is the world's fourth most densely populated country or territory.
Hong Kong used to be a British colony with the perpetual cession of Hong Kong Island from the Qing Empire after the First Opium War (1839–42). The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and acquired a 99-year lease of the New Territories from 1898. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during the Second World War until British control resumed in 1945. The Sino-British Joint Declaration signed between the United Kingdom and China in 1984 paved way for the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997, when it became a special administrative region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China with a high degree of autonomy.[15]
Under the principle of "one country, two systems",[16][17] Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative and judiciary powers.[18] In addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of "appropriate fields".[19] Hong Kong involves in international organizations, such as the WTO[20] and the APEC [21], actively and independently.
Hong Kong is one of the world's most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the world's most competitive and freest economic entity.[22][23] As the world's 8th largest trading entity,[24] its legal tender, the Hong Kong dollar, is the world's 13th most traded currency.[25] As the world's most visited city,[26][27] Hong Kong's tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by competitive simple taxation and supported by its independent judiciary system.[28] Even with one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, it suffers from severe income inequality.[29]
Nicknamed "Pearl of the Orient", Hong Kong is renowned for its deep natural harbour, which boasts the world's fifth busiest port with ready access by cargo ships, and its impressive skyline, with the most skyscrapers in the world.[30][31] It has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the world's longest life expectancy.[32][33] Over 90% of the population makes use of well-developed public transportation.[34][35] Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring industrial areas of Mainland China, which adopts loose emissions standards, has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates in winter.[36][37][38]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Prehistory
2.2 Imperial China
2.3 British Crown Colony: 1842–1941
2.4 Japanese occupation: 1941–45
2.5 Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97
2.6 Handover and Special Administrative Region status
3 Governance
3.1 Structure of government
3.2 Electoral and political reforms
3.3 Legal system and judiciary
3.4 Foreign relations
3.5 Human rights
3.6 Regions and districts
3.7 Military
4 Geography and climate
5 Economy
5.1 Financial centre
5.2 International trading
5.3 Tourism and expatriation
5.4 Policy
5.5 Infrastructure
6 Demographics
6.1 Languages
6.2 Religion
6.3 Personal income
6.4 Education
6.5 Health
7 Culture
7.1 Sports
7.2 Architecture
7.3 Cityscape
7.4 Symbols
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Citations
10.2 Sources
11 Further reading
12 External links
Etymology
Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island.[39]
The source of the romanised name "Hong Kong" is not known, but it is generally believed to be an early imprecise phonetic rendering of the pronunciation in spoken Cantonese 香港 (Cantonese Yale: Hēung Góng), which means "Fragrant Harbour" or "Incense Harbour".[13][14][40] Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour (Chinese: 香港仔; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng jái), literally means "Little Hong Kong"—between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.[41]
Another theory is that the name would have been taken from Hong Kong's early inhabitants, the Tankas (水上人); it is equally probable that romanisation was done with a faithful execution of their speeches, i.e. hōng, not hēung in Cantonese.[42] Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time.[43]
Fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour.[40]
The name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926.[44] Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the single-word form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation.
As of 1997, its official name is the "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China". This is the official title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law and the Hong Kong Government's website;[45] however, "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region" and "Hong Kong" are widely accepted.
Hong Kong has carried many nicknames. The most famous among those is the "Pearl of the Orient", which reflected the impressive nightscape of the city's light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour. The territory is also known as "Asia's World City".
History
Main articles: History of Hong Kong and History of China
Prehistory
Main article: Prehistoric Hong Kong
Archaeological studies support human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area (now Hong Kong International Airport) from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago and on Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.[46][47][48]
Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the earliest sites of human habitation in Hong Kong during the Paleolithic Period. It is believed that the Three Fathom Cove was a river-valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggested cultural differences from the Longshan culture of northern China and settlement by the Che people, prior to the migration of the Baiyue to Hong Kong.[49][50] Eight petroglyphs, which dated to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC – 1066 BC) in China, were discovered on the surrounding islands.[51]
Imperial China
Main article: History of Hong Kong under Imperial China
In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a centralised China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern-day Liangguang region and Vietnam) and incorporated the area of Hong Kong into his imperial China for the first time. Hong Kong proper was assigned to the Nanhai commandery (modern-day Nanhai District), near the commandery's capital city Panyu.[52][53][54]
After a brief period of centralisation and collapse of the Qin dynasty, the area of Hong Kong was consolidated under the Kingdom of Nanyue, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC.[55] When Nanyue lost the Han-Nanyue War in 111 BC, Hong Kong came under the Jiaozhi commandery of the Han dynasty. Archaeological evidence indicates an increase of population and flourish of salt production. The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb on the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built as a burial site during the Han dynasty.[56]
From the Han dynasty to the early Tang dynasty, Hong Kong was a part of Bao'an County. In the Tang dynasty, modern-day Guangzhou (Canton) flourished as an international trading centre. In 736, the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang established a military stronghold in Tuen Mun to strengthen defence of the coastal area.[57] The nearby Lantau Island was a salt production centre and salt smuggler riots occasionally broke out against the government. In c. 1075, The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 AD in modern-day New Territories by the Northern Song dynasty.[58] During their war against the Mongols, the imperial court of Southern Song was briefly stationed at modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before their ultimate defeat by the Mongols at the Battle of Yamen in 1279.[59] The Mongols then established their dynastic court and governed Hong Kong for 97 years.
From the mid-Tang dynasty to the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Hong Kong was a part of Dongguan County. During the Ming dynasty, the area was transferred to Xin'an County. The indigenous inhabitants at that time consisted of several ethnicities such as Punti, Hakka, Tanka and Hoklo.
European discovery
The earliest European visitor on record was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer, who arrived in 1513.[60][61] Having established a trading post in a site they called "Tamão" in Hong Kong waters, Portuguese merchants commenced with regular trading in southern China. Subsequent military clashes between China and Portugal, however, led to the expulsion of all Portuguese merchants from southern China.
Since the 14th century, the Ming court had enforced the maritime prohibition laws that strictly forbade all private maritime activities in order to prevent contact with foreigners by sea.[62] When the Manchu Qing dynasty took over China, Hong Kong was directly affected by the Great Clearance decree of the Kangxi Emperor, who ordered the evacuation of coastal areas of Guangdong from 1661 to 1669. Over 16,000 inhabitants of Xin'an County including those in Hong Kong were forced to migrate inland; only 1,648 of those who had evacuated subsequently returned.[63][64]
British Crown Colony: 1842–1941
A painter at work. John Thomson. Hong Kong, 1871. The Wellcome Collection, London
Main articles: British Hong Kong and History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)
In 1839, threats by the imperial court of Qing to sanction opium imports caused diplomatic friction with the British Empire. Tensions escalated into the First Opium War. The Qing admitted defeat when British forces captured Hong Kong Island on 20 January 1841. The island was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpi as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan. A dispute between high-ranking officials of both countries, however, led to the failure of the treaty's ratification. On 29 August 1842, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Treaty of Nanking.[65] The British officially established a Crown colony and founded the City of Victoria in the following year.[66]
The population of Hong Kong Island was 7,450 when the Union Flag raised over Possession Point on 26 January 1841. It mostly consisted of Tanka fishermen and Hakka charcoal burners, whose settlements scattered along several coastal hamlets. In the 1850s, a large number of Chinese immigrants crossed the then-free border to escape from the Taiping Rebellion. Other natural disasters, such as flooding, typhoons and famine in mainland China would play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place for safe shelter.[67][68]
Further conflicts over the opium trade between Britain and Qing quickly escalated into the Second Opium War. Following the Anglo-French victory, the Crown Colony was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula (south of Boundary Street) and Stonecutter's Island, both of which were ceded to the British in perpetuity under the Convention of Beijing in 1860.
In 1898, Britain obtained a 99-year lease from Qing under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, in which Hong Kong obtained a 99-year lease of Lantau Island, the area north of Boundary Street in Kowloon up to Shenzhen River and over 200 other outlying islands.[69][70][71]
Hong Kong soon became a major entrepôt thanks to its free port status, attracting new immigrants to settle from both China and Europe. The society, however, remained racially segregated and polarised under early British colonial policies. Despite the rise of a British-educated Chinese upper-class by the late-19th century, race laws such as the Peak Reservation Ordinance prevented ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong from acquiring houses in reserved areas such as Victoria Peak. At this time, the majority of the Chinese population in Hong Kong had no political representation in the British colonial government. The British governors did rely, however, on a small number of Chinese elites, including Sir Kai Ho and Robert Hotung, who served as ambassadors and mediators between the government and local population.
File:1937 Hong Kong VP8.webmPlay media
Hong Kong filmed in 1937
In 1904, the United Kingdom established the world's first border and immigration control; all residents of Hong Kong were given citizenship as Citizens of United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC).
Hong Kong continued to experience modest growth during the first half of the 20th century. The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first higher education institute. While there had been an exodus of 60,000 residents for fear of a German attack on the British colony during the First World War, Hong Kong remained unscathed. Its population increased from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925 and reached 1.6 million by 1941.[72]
In 1925, Cecil Clementi became the 17th Governor of Hong Kong. Fluent in Cantonese and without a need for translator, Clementi introduced the first ethnic Chinese, Shouson Chow, into the Executive Council as an unofficial member. Under Clementi's tenure, Kai Tak Airport entered operation as RAF Kai Tak and several aviation clubs. In 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out when the Japanese Empire expanded its territories from northeastern China into the mainland proper. To safeguard Hong Kong as a freeport, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared the Crown Colony as a neutral zone.
Japanese occupation: 1941–45
Main article: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong
The Cenotaph in Hong Kong commemorates those who died in service in the First World War and the Second World War.[73]
As part of its military campaign in Southeast Asia during Second World War, the Japanese army moved south from Guangzhou of mainland China and attacked Hong Kong in on 8 December 1941.[74] Crossing the border at Shenzhen River on 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong lasted for 18 days when British and Canadian forces held onto Hong Kong Island. Unable to defend against intensifying Japanese air and land bombardments, they eventually surrendered control of Hong Kong on 25 December 1941. The Governor of Hong Kong was captured and taken as a prisoner of war. This day is regarded by the locals as "Black Christmas".[75]
During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, the Japanese army committed atrocities against civilians and POWs, such as the St. Stephen's College massacre. Local residents also suffered widespread food shortages, limited rationing and hyper-inflation arising from the forced exchange of currency from Hong Kong dollars to Japanese military banknotes. The initial ratio of 2:1 was gradually devalued to 4:1 and ownership of Hong Kong dollars was declared illegal and punishable by harsh torture. Due to starvation and forced deportation for slave labour to mainland China, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when the United Kingdom resumed control of the colony on 2 September 1945.[76]
Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97
Main articles: British Hong Kong, 1950s in Hong Kong, 1960s in Hong Kong, 1970s in Hong Kong, 1980s in Hong Kong, and 1990s in Hong Kong
Flag of British Hong Kong from 1959 to 1997
Hong Kong's population recovered quickly after the war, as a wave of skilled migrants from the Republic of China moved in to seek refuge from the Chinese Civil War. When the Communist Party eventually took full control of mainland China in 1949, even more skilled migrants fled across the open border for fear of persecution.[69] Many newcomers, especially those who had been based in the major port cities of Shanghai and Guangzhou, established corporations and small- to medium-sized businesses and shifted their base operations to British Hong Kong.[69] The establishment of a socialist state in China (People's Republic of China) on 1 October 1949 caused the British colonial government to reconsider Hong Kong's open border to mainland China. In 1951, a boundary zone was demarked as a buffer zone against potential military attacks from communist China. Border posts along the north of Hong Kong began operation in 1953 to regulate the movement of people and goods into and out of the territory.
Stamp with portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, 1953
In the 1950s, Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies under rapid industrialisation driven by textile exports, manufacturing industries and re-exports of goods to China. As the population grew, with labour costs remaining low, living standards began to rise steadily.[77] The construction of the Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme to provide shelter for the less privileged and to cope with the influx of immigrants.
Under Sir Murray MacLehose, 25th Governor of Hong Kong (1971–82), a series of reforms improved the public services, environment, housing, welfare, education and infrastructure of Hong Kong. MacLehose was British Hong Kong's longest-serving governor and, by the end of his tenure, had become one of the most popular and well-known figures in the Crown Colony. MacLehose laid the foundation for Hong Kong to establish itself as a key global city in the 1980s and early 1990s.
A sky view of Hong Kong Island
An aerial view of the northern shore of Hong Kong Island in 1986
To resolve traffic congestion and to provide a more reliable means of crossing the Victoria Harbour, a rapid transit railway system (metro), the MTR, was planned from the 1970s onwards. The Island Line (Hong Kong Island), Kwun Tong Line (Kowloon Peninsula and East Kowloon) and Tsuen Wan Line (Kowloon and urban New Territories) opened in the early 1980s.[78]
In 1983, the Hong Kong dollar left its 16:1 peg with the Pound sterling and switched to the current US-HK Dollar peg. Hong Kong's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs, as well as new development in southern China under the Open Door Policy introduced in 1978 which opened up China to foreign business. Nevertheless, towards the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre along with London and New York City, a regional hub for logistics and freight, one of the fastest-growing economies in Asia and the world's exemplar of Laissez-faire market policy.[79]
The Hong Kong question
In 1971, the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s permanent seat on the United Nations was transferred to the People's Republic of China (PRC), Hong Kong's status as a recognised colony became terminated in 1972 under the request of PRC. Facing the uncertain future of Hong Kong and expiry of land lease of New Territories beyond 1997, Governor MacLehose raised the question in the late 1970s.
The British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified Hong Kong into a British Dependent Territory amid the reorganisation of global territories of the British Empire. All residents of Hong Kong became British Dependent Territory Citizens (BDTC). Diplomatic negotiations began with China and eventually concluded with the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration. Both countries agreed to transfer Hong Kong's sovereignty to China on 1 July 1997, when Hong Kong would remain autonomous as a special administrative region and be able to retain its free-market economy, British common law through the Hong Kong Basic Law, independent representation in international organisations (e.g. WTO and WHO), treaty arrangements and policy-making except foreign diplomacy and military defence.
It stipulated that Hong Kong would retain its laws and be guaranteed a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer. The Hong Kong Basic Law, based on English law, would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer. It was ratified in 1990.[69] The expiry of the 1898 lease on the New Territories in 1997 created problems for business contracts, property leases and confidence among foreign investors.
Handover and Special Administrative Region status
Main articles: Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong and 2000s in Hong Kong
Transfer of sovereignty
Golden Bauhinia Square
On 1 July 1997, the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China took place, officially marking the end of Hong Kong's 156 years under British colonial governance. As the largest remaining colony of the United Kingdom, the loss of Hong Kong effectively represented the end of the British Empire. This transfer of sovereignty made Hong Kong the first special administrative region of China. Tung Chee-Hwa, a pro-Beijing business tycoon, was elected Hong Kong's first Chief Executive by a selected electorate of 800 in a televised programme.
Structure of government
Hong Kong's current structure of governance inherits from the British model of colonial administration set up in the 1850s. The 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration states that "Hong Kong should enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all areas except defence and foreign affairs" with reference to the underlying principle of one country, two systems.[note 3] This Declaration stipulates that Hong Kong maintains her capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of her people for at least 50 years after the 1997 handover. [note 4] Such guarantees are enshrined in the Hong Kong's Basic Law, the territory's constitutional document, which outlines the system of governance after 1997, albeit subject to interpretation by China's Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC).[95][96]
Hong Kong's most senior leader, Chief Executive, is elected by a committee of 1,200 selected members (600 in 1997) and nominally appointed by the Government of China. The primary pillars of government are the Executive Council, Legislative Council, civil service and Judiciary.
Policy-making is initially discussed in the Executive Council, presided by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, before passing to the Legislative Council for bill adoption. The Executive Council consists of 30 official/unofficial members appointed by the Chief Executive and one member among them acts as the convenor.[97][98]
The Legislative Council, set up in 1843, debates policies and motions before voting to adopt or rejecting bills. It has 70 members (originally 60) and 40 (originally 30) among them are directly elected by universal suffrage; the other 30 members are "functional constituencies" (indirectly) elected by a smaller electorate of corporate bodies or representatives of stipulated economic sectors as defined by the government. The Legislative Council is chaired by a president who acts as the speaker.[99][100]
In 1997, seating of the Legislative Council (also public services and election franchises) of Hong Kong modelled on the British system: Urban Council (Hong Kong and Kowloon) and District Council (New Territories and Outlying Islands). In 1999, this system has been reformed into 18 directly elected District Offices across 5 Legislative Council constituencies: Hong Kong Island (East/West), Kowloon and New Territories (East/West); the remaining outlying islands are divided across the aforementioned regions.
Hong Kong's Civil Service, created by the British colonial government, is a politically neutral body that implements government policies and provides public services. Senior civil servants are appointed based on meritocracy. The territory's police, firefighting and customs forces, as well as clerical officers across various government departments, make up the civil service.[101][102]
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
United States
Name: General W. F. Hase
Namesake: Major General William Frederick Hase
Ordered: as a Type C4-S-A1 hull, MCE hull 662[1]
Builder: Permanente Metals Corporation, Richmond, California
Yard number: 10[1]
Launched: 15 December 1943
Commissioned: 22 April 1944 (partial)
Commissioned: 6 June 1944 (full)
Decommissioned: 6 June 1946
Identification:
Hull symbol: AP-146
Code letters: NJHR
ICS November.svgICS Juliet.svgICS Hotel.svgICS Romeo.svg
Fate: returned to War Shipping Administration (WSA), 6 June 1946
Status: transferred to the US Army Transportation Service (ATS), 6 June 1946
History
United States
Operator: ATS
In service: 6 June 1946
Out of service: 1 March 1950
Identification: Hull symbol: USAT AP-146
Fate: returned to Navy, 1 March 1950
Status: assigned to Military Sea Transportation Service (MSTS)
History
United States
Operator: MSTS
In service: 1 March 1950
Out of service: July 1954
Identification: Hull symbol: T-AP-146
Honors and
awards: 8 × battle stars for Korean War service
Fate: returned to the Maritime Administration (MARAD), 8 January 1960, laid up in National Defense Reserve Fleet, Suisun Bay, California
Status: transferred to Hudson Waterways Corporation, 16 July 1968
History
United States
Operator: Hudson Waterways Corporation
In service: 30 July 1968
Out of service: 14 October 1974
Renamed: Transidaho, November 1969
Fate: sold to Puerto Rico Maritime Shipping Authority, 14 October 1974
History
United States
Name: Transidaho
Operator: Puerto Rico Maritime Shipping Authority
In service: 14 October 1974
Out of service: 10 July 1981
Renamed: Carolina, 1 March 1975
Fate: sold to Point Vigilance Corporation, 10 July 1981
History
United States
Name: Point Manatee
Operator: Point Vigilance Corporation
In service: 10 July 1981
Out of service: 15 October 1984
Fate: sold for scrapping, 15 October 1984
General characteristics [2]
Class and type: General G. O. Squier-class transport ship
Displacement:
9,950 long tons (10,110 t) (light)
17,250 long tons (17,530 t) (full)
Length: 522 ft 10 in (159.36 m)
Beam: 71 ft 6 in (21.79 m)
Draft:
24 ft (7.3 m) (mean)
26 ft 6 in (8.08 m)
Installed power:
2 × Babcock & Wilcox header-type boilers, 465 psi (3,210 kPa) 765 °F (407 °C)
9,000 shp (6,700 kW)
Propulsion:
1 × Westinghouse geared turbine
1 × propeller
Speed: 16.5 kn (30.6 km/h; 19.0 mph)
Capacity:
1,900 long tons (1,900 t) DWT
70,000 cu ft (2,000 m3) (non-refrigerated)
Troops: 228 Officers 5,858 Enlisted
Complement: 32 Officers 445 Enlisted
Armament:
4 × 5 in (127 mm)/38 caliber dual purpose gun
2 × twin 40 mm (1.6 in) Bofors anti-aircraft (AA) gun mounts
15 × twin 20 mm (0.8 in) Oerlikon cannons AA mounts
USS General W. F. Hase (AP-146) was a General G. O. Squier-class transport ship for the US Navy in World War II. She was named in honor of US Army Major General William Frederick Hase. She was transferred to the US Army as USAT General W. F. Hase in 1946. On 1 March 1950 she was transferred to the Military Sea Transportation Service (MSTS) as USNS General W. F. Hase (T-AP-146). She was later sold for commercial operation in 1968, before being scrapped in 1985.
Contents
1 Construction
2 Service history
3 Decommissioning - transfer to US Army
4 Transfer to Military Sea Transportation Service
5 Merchant service
6 Awards
7 Notes
8 Bibliography
9 Further reading
10 External links
Construction
General W. F. Hase was launched under a Maritime Commission (MARCOM) contract, MC hull No. 662, 15 December 1943 by Permanente Metals Corporation, Yard No. 3, Richmond, California; sponsored by Mrs. John E. Wood, Jr.; acquired by the Navy and simultaneously placed in a ferry commission 22 April 1944, during transfer for conversion to a transport by Kaiser Co., Inc., Vancouver, Washington; and placed in full commission at Portland, Oregon, 6 June 1944, Commander W. W. Keller in command.[3]
Service history
After shakedown out of San Pedro, General W. F. Hase departed San Francisco 15 July 1944, with 3,000 troops and $29 million in military currency. After touching at Pearl Harbor, she debarked the fighting men at Eniwetok, returning to San Francisco 26 August, with 2,100 soldiers. Between 20 September and 1 November, the transport steamed out of Seattle, carrying more than 2,000 troops to Pearl Harbor and 2,800 thence to Manus, Admiralty Islands, before returning to San Francisco with 2,500 veterans of the New Guinea campaign on board. Continuing to support the westward drive of naval forces in the Western Pacific, between 23 November and 20 April 1945, she made two round trips out of San Francisco, shuttling troops to New Guinea and the Philippines and bringing home veterans from New Caledonia and Manus.[3]
During the next 12 months General W. F. Hase made six round-trip voyages, including two circumnavigations of the earth, while deploying troops to and from the United States. Departing San Pedro 9 May, she carried 2,600 troops to Melbourne, Australia, where she arrived 27 May. After steaming to Fremantle, Australia, she reached Calcutta, India, 14 June, and embarked 2,500 homebound soldiers. She then sailed for the United States via Ceylon and the Suez Canal and arrived Norfolk 20 July. She departed Norfolk 5 August for the Mediterranean; and as part of the "Magic Carpet" fleet, she embarked more than 3,000 troops at Marseilles, France, before returning to New York 27 August. Operating out of New York between 1 September and 27 December, she sailed twice to Calcutta and back with more than 6,000 troops. On 11 January 1946, she again departed New York for Calcutta; and, after embarking 2,900 troops 8 February, she steamed via Manila to the West Coast, arriving San Francisco 8 March. Between 1 and 15 April, she carried 1,000 occupation troops to Yokohama, Japan; and on her final "Magic Carpet" voyage she returned 2,800 veterans to Seattle 28 April.[3]
Decommissioning - transfer to US Army
General W. F. Hase steamed to San Francisco 3 to 4 May, decommissioned there 6 June, and, simultaneously, was returned to War Shipping Administration (WSA) for use as a transport by the Army Transportation Service (ATS).[3]
Transfer to Military Sea Transportation Service
She was reacquired by the Navy 1 March 1950, and assigned to duty with Military Sea Transportation Service (MSTS)). Manned by a civilian crew, she operated out of San Francisco, carrying more than 75,000 troops and their combat cargo to the Far East in support of the Korean War. Between 1950 and 1953 she made 19 round-trip voyages to Japan and Korea, and she returned to San Francisco from her final Far East deployment 29 August 1953. Towed to San Diego in June 1954, she was placed out of service in reserve in July, and remained inactive until returned to the Maritime Administration (MARAD) 8 January 1960, when she was berthed in the National Defense Reserve Fleet at Suisun Bay, California.[3]
Merchant service
Title was transferred to Hudson Waterways Corporation, 16 July 1968, under the MARAD Exchange program for SS Zephyrhills ex-Seven Pines,[4] and she was delivered to Hudson Waterways Corp. on 30 July 1968. The ship was converted to a container ship by the Maryland Shipbuilding and Drydock Company in 1969 and renamed SS Transidaho, USCG ON 515622, IMO 6904856, in November. Upon completion she began hauling containerized cargo for Seatrain Lines. On 14 October 1974 the ship was sold to the Puerto Rico Maritime Shipping Authority and she was renamed SS Carolina on 1 March 1975. She was resold to the Point Vigilance Corp. on 10 July 1981 and renamed SS Point Manatee. She was sold for scrapping on 15 October 1984 to Goldwiles Texas Inc. and was broken up in Taiwan in 1985.[5]
Awards
General W. F. Hase received eight battle stars for Korean war service.[3]
Ginetta Cars
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ginetta Cars Limited Ginetta logo.png
Industry Automotive
Founded 1958
Founder Walklett brothers
Headquarters Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
Key people
Lawrence Tomlinson, Chairman
Simon Finnis, Managing Director
Products Sports cars
Parent LNT Group
Website Ginetta.com
Ginetta Cars is a British specialist builder of racing and sports cars based in Garforth, Leeds, West Yorkshire.
Contents
1 History
1.1 20th century
1.2 21st century
1.3 Models
2 Ginetta Racing Championships
2.1 Michelin Ginetta GT4 SuperCup
2.2 Ginetta Junior Championship
2.3 Ginetta Junior Scholarship
2.4 Protyre Motorsport Ginetta GT5 Challenge
2.5 Ginetta Racing Drivers Club
3 See also
4 References
5 Bibliography
6 External links
History
1964-68 Ginetta G4R
1969 Ginetta G15
1974 Ginetta G21
1992 Ginetta G33
1996 Ginetta G27 series 3
2005 Ginetta G20
2006 Ginetta G12 by DARE
20th century
Ginetta was founded in 1958 by the four Walklett brothers (Bob, Ivor, Trevers and Douglas) in Woodbridge, Suffolk. Their first product sold as the Fairlight was a glass fibre body shell priced at £49 for fitting to Ford 8 or 10hp chassis.[1] The first car, not destined for production, which subsequently became known as the Ginetta G1, was based on a pre war Wolseley Hornet six.[2]
From their original base, the company moved to Witham, Essex in 1962, and between 1972 and 1974 operated from larger premises in Ballingdon Street adjacent to the railway bridge Sudbury, Suffolk before returning to Witham where they remained until 1989. Under the Walkletts, Trevers was mainly responsible for styling, Ivor for engineering, Douglas for management, and Bob for sales.
Following the retirement of the Walkletts in 1989 the company was sold but failed, and was then bought by an international group of enthusiasts, based in Sheffield, and run by managing director Martin Phaff producing the G20 and G33
21st century
In late 2005 Ginetta was acquired by LNT Automotive, a company run by experienced racing driver and successful businessman Lawrence Tomlinson. His aims remained in line with the original founders of Ginetta; to continue producing innovative, capable and above all, great value sports cars.
In mid-2007 Ginetta moved to a state-of-the-art factory near Leeds, with a target to sell 200 cars a year. Trained engineer Tomlinson himself penned the base specification for the Ginetta G50, which was produced to celebrate 50 years of Ginetta production, and became a successful GT4 and award winning car.
In March 2010, Ginetta acquired the Somerset-based sports car manufacturer Farbio, and re-badged their car the Ginetta F400. In March 2011, Ginetta launched the G55, running in the Michelin Ginetta GT Supercup and built to the GT3 class regulations. In October 2011 Ginetta launched the G60, a two-door mid-engined sports car developed from the F400 and powered by a Ford-sourced 3.7-litre V6 engine.[3]
Currently, Ginetta have developed a range of award-winning road and race cars, making them a formidable player on the world motorsport scene.
Models
The first car, the G2, was produced as a kit for enthusiasts and consisted of a tubular frame chassis to take Ford components and aluminium body. About 100 were made. The G3 was introduced with glass fibre body in 1959 to be followed by the G4 in 1961.[4]
The G4 used the new Ford 105E engine and had a glass fibre GT style body and the suspension was updated to coil springing at the front with Ford live axle at the rear. Whereas the G2 and G3 had been designed for competition the G4 was usable as an everyday car but still was very competitive in motor sport with numerous successes. Over 500 were made up to 1969 with a variety of Ford engines. In 1963 a coupé was introduced alongside the open car and a BMC axle replaced the Ford one at the rear.[5] On test the car reached 120 mph (190 km/h) with a 1500 cc engine.[6] The series III version of 1966 added the then-popular pop-up headlights. Production stopped in 1968 but was revived in 1981 with the Series IV which was two inches wider and three inches (76 mm) longer than the III.
The G10 and G11 from 1964 were higher-powered versions with 4.7-litre Ford V8 and MGB engines respectively. The G12 was a mid-engined competition car.
In 1967 the G15 was launched utilizing a rear mounted 875cc Sunbeam Imp engine.[7] This two-seater coupé had a glass fibre body bolted to a tube chassis and used Imp rear and Triumph front suspension. Approximately 800 were produced from 1967 to 1974 [7] and the car was fully type approved allowing for the first time complete Ginetta cars to be sold. Eight G15s were engineered for Volkswagen engines and called the "Super S".
In 1970 it was joined by the larger G21, which was initially available with either a 1599 cc Ford Kent engine, or a 3-litre Ford V6 engine.[8] The 1725 cc Sunbeam Rapier engine subsequently became the standard four-cylinder engine for the car. The model was later updated to become the closed G24 or open top G23. The G19 was a Formula 3 single seater but only one was ever made.
Following reorganisation the company moved to Scunthorpe and started making cars in kit form again in the 1980s starting with the G27 and followed by the G26, G28, G30 and G31, with all cars using Ford parts. It was also decided to re-enter the complete car business with the mid-engined G32 with a choice of 1.6- and 1.9-litre 4-cylinder engines available as a coupé or convertible and the G33 convertible with 3.9-litre Rover V8 capable of 145 mph (233 km/h) and a 0-60 mph time of 5 seconds. The G4 was re-introduced in 1981 as the G4 Series IV, with a new chassis.[9] It was produced through to 1984 with approximately 35 examples built.[9] In 1990 the G32 coupé cost £13,700, the convertible £14,600, and the G33 £17,800.
After Ginetta was acquired by Lawrence Tomlinson in 2005, the company began work on the design of the Ginetta G50 - a 3.5 litre V6 engine, producing 300 BHP - to celebrate the company's 50th birthday. In 2007, the car competed in its first race in the European GT4 Cup in Nogaro France, finishing second.
Soon after this success, the machine was officially launched at Autosport International in early 2008 alongside its sister car, the Ginetta G50 GT4. Together, they have become Ginetta’s biggest selling machine, and have raced (and won) in almost every continent, including the Dubai 24 Hour endurance race in 2012 with Optimum Motorsport.
In March 2010, Lawrence acquired the Somerset-based sports car manufacturer Farbio, and in doing so inherited the F400, which was subsequently redesigned, redeveloped and rebranded from the Farbio Marque, into a Ginetta G60; a two-door mid-engined powerhouse which shares the same 3.7 litre V6 engine as its G55 GT3 stablemate and packs a real punch, capable of 0 – 60 mph in 4.9 seconds, with a top speed of 165 mph.
In the same year, Lawrence implemented a newer, safer car into the existing Ginetta Junior series and in doing so, replaced the old Ginetta G20 race car with a G40J. In concordance with his belief in nurturing young racing talent through the motorsport ladder, today’s G40J is designed for young racing drivers, offering an entry-level 1800cc, 100 bhp racing car with such safety features as a full integral FIA approved roll cage and fibre-glass shell.
Following the success of the G40J, Ginetta decided to introduce a Ginetta G40 Challenge car for the adult racers in its Challenge series. With the same engine as its sister car, the G40 Challenge car is capable of 165 bhp and competes against existing G20 models. Today, the car features heavily in the Total Quartz Ginetta GT5 Challenge, one of the most popular competitive racing series in Britain.
With strong demand for a G40 race car, Ginetta unveiled its second road car - the Ginetta G40R - in 2011, designed to mimic the Walklett brothers' original vision of 'a race car for the road'. Capable of 0-60 in 5.8 seconds, the G40R shares a number of characteristics with its racing siblings.
2011 also saw the introduction of the G55 Cup car to the Ginetta GT Supercup, which, until that point, had only featured the G50 Cup car. Offering a 3.7 litre V6 engine with 380 BHP, the car provided Ginetta with the basis for their Ginetta G55 GT3 Car; a larger spec machine which gives GT teams a 4.35L V8 powerplant, complete with an aggressive-looking body which masks an efficient aerodynamic package.
Ginetta Racing Championships
Ginetta Chairman Lawrence Tomlinson’s vision for Ginetta is to provide competitive and affordable motorsport for drivers as young as 14 to be able to progress through the Ginetta championships comprehensive career ladder, before ultimately competing in top level GT or single-seater arenas.
No other British manufacturer runs three championships within the two biggest racing packages in Britain and receives the levels of media exposure gained throughout the season. The Michelin Ginetta GT4 SuperCup and Ginetta Junior Championship can be seen running alongside the British Touring Car Championship, whilst the Protyre Motorsport Ginetta GT5 Challenge is a firm favourite on the British GT package.
Over the past five years, Ginetta have supported over 240 drivers as they took their first steps into the world of motor racing, and have established routes from entry-level racing to the 24 Hours of Le Mans, helped most recently by the introduction of the Ginetta Racing Drivers Club.
Negril
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the album, see Negril (album).
Negril
Beach Resort
Negril coastline, with its famous beach in the background.
Negril coastline, with its famous beach in the background.
Negril is located in Jamaica NegrilNegril
Coordinates: 18.3110182°N 78.339386°WCoordinates: 18.3110182°N 78.339386°W[1]
CountryJamaica
ParishWestmoreland and Hanover
Time zoneEST (UTC-5)
Negril is a small (pop. 6,900) but widely dispersed beach resort town located across parts of two Jamaican parishes, Westmoreland and Hanover.[2]
Negril is about an hour and fifteen minute drive on the coastal highway from Sir Donald Sangster International Airport, in Montego Bay. Westmoreland is the westernmost parish in Jamaica, located on the south side of the island. Downtown Negril, the West End cliff resorts to the south of downtown, and the southern portion of the so-called "seven mile (11 km) beach" are in Westmoreland. The northernmost resorts on the beach are in Hanover Parish. The nearest large town is Savanna-la-Mar, the capital of Westmoreland Parish.
Contents [hide]
1History
2Geography and ecology
3Negril today
4Notable appearances in media
5Notable people
6See also
6.1Resorts
7Notes
8References
9External links
History[edit]
Negril Jamaica town center
Negril fishing boats
Cliff Jumper at Ricks in Negril, Jamaica
Negril Lighthouse
The name Negril is a shortened version of Negrillo (Spanish: Little black ones), as it was originally named by the Spanish in 1494. The name is thought by some to be a reference to the black cliffs south of the village.[citation needed] Another theory holds that because there was a vast population of black eels along Negril's coast, the Spaniards called the area Anguila Negra which was shortened to Negrillo and then to Negril. Although Negril has a long history, it did not become well known until the second half of the twentieth century.[3]
Negril's development as a resort location began during the late 1950s, though access to the area proved difficult as ferries were required to drop off passengers in Negril Bay, forcing them to wade to shore. Most vacationers would rent rooms inside the homes of Jamaican families, or would pitch tents in their yards. Daniel Connell was the first person to create more traditional vacation lodging for these "flower children" when he set up the first guest house in Negril - Palm Grove. The area's welcoming and hospitable reputation grew over time and the first of many resorts was constructed in the mid to late 1960s. The first hotel in Negril was the Yacht Club by Mary's Bay on the West End.
When the road between Montego Bay and Negril was improved in the early 1970s, it helped to increase Negril's status as a new resort location. It was a two-lane paved road that ran approximately 100 yards (91 m) inland from two white coral sand beaches, at the southern end of which was a small village. The long paved road from the village ran north to Green Island, home to many of the Jamaican workers in Negril, and was straight enough to double as a runway for small airplanes, which was why there were lengths of railroad track standing on end along the side of the road - to discourage drug smugglers from landing on the road to pick up cheap cargos of marijuana[citation needed].
After Negril's infrastructure was expanded—anticipating the growth of resorts and an expanding population, a small airport, the Negril Aerodrome, was built in 1976 near Rutland Point, alongside several small hotels mostly catering to the North American winter tourists. Europeans also came to Negril, and several hotels were built to cater directly to those guests.
Geography and ecology[edit]
The geography of Jamaica is diverse. The western coastline contains the island's finest beaches, stretching for more than 6 km (3.7 mi) along a sandbar at Negril. It is sometimes known among tourists as the "7-Mile Beach" although it is only slightly more than 4 mi (6.4 km) in length, from the Negril River on the south to Rutland Point on the north.
On the inland side of Negril's main road, to the east of the shore, lies a swamp called the Great Morass, through which runs the Negril River. Within the Great Morass is the Royal Palm Reserve, with protected wetlands and forest.
In 1990, the Negril Coral Reef Preservation Society was formed as a non-profit, non-governmental organization to address ongoing degradation of the coral reef ecosystem. The Negril Marine Park was officially declared on March 4, 1998 covering a total area of approximately 160 km2 (62 sq mi) and extending from the Davis Cove River in the Parish of Hanover to St. John’s Point in Westmoreland.
Scuba diving and snorkeling are especially good in the protected reef areas.
The West End Road is also known as Lighthouse Road as there is a Belgian engineered lighthouse protecting seafarers from the dramatic cliffs. There is beautiful scenery on this western tip of Negril, near Negril Lighthouse. You can mingle with locals at beer shacks like Sexy Rexy's and others "out West".
Negril today[edit]
For years, Negril's beach has been rated as one of the top ten beaches in the world by many travel magazines.[citation needed] The beach's length is the stuff of legends—it is actually little more than four miles in length, but tourists and travel writers insist on the "seven-mile" label.[citation needed] The north end of the beach is home to the large, all-inclusive resorts, and to the south are the smaller, family-run hotels. This combination gives the Negril area a large variety of rooms, services and prices.
South of downtown Negril is West End Road, known as the West End, which is lined with resorts that offer more privacy. These areas offer easy access to waters good for snorkelling and diving, with jumping points reaching more than 40 feet (12 m) high.
Many vendors and shops are located around the beach resorts; however, they are predominantly located on the south end of the beach, where there are fewer all inclusive resorts.
That Negril is still fairly underdeveloped remains a significant factor in its charm, but this may not last, as a new highway from Montego Bay and an improved infrastructure may bring more tourists. As a result, more hotels and tour operators continue to develop new attractions and excursions in Negril. Since the 1980s, it has also become a popular location for U.S. college students to visit during spring break or just a regular vacation in Jamaica.
The last few years have seen major development along the beach. The resorts include Couples Swept Away, Couples Negril, Sandals, Beaches, Samsara Hotel, Legends Resort, the Grand Lido, Riu Palace Tropical Bay, Riu Club Hotel and Hedonism II. The Hedonism II resort is one enduring hotel/resort that has been saved from bankruptcy and remains an adult destination. A franchise of Jimmy Buffett's chain restaurant and bar, Jimmy Buffett's Margaritaville, and a duty-free zone have also been added.
In recent years, a large development has been constructed consisting of ocean front villas, 2 or 3 bed townhouse developments and studio apartments. This development is known as Little Bay Country Club and is home to some of the wealthiest Jamaican families.
Currently under construction is the huge new Royalton Negril Resort.
Notable appearances in media[edit]
The early development of Negril as a resort is featured in Ian Fleming's 1965 novel The Man with the Golden Gun. One of the schemes of the novel's antagonist Francisco Scaramanga was to open a hotel called the "Thunderbird" on the beach.
Notable people[edit]
Author and activist B. Denham Jolly was born in Negril.[4]
See also[edit]
List of beaches in Jamaica
Resorts[edit]
Beaches Resorts - Negril[5]
Sandals Negril
Little Bay Country Club (LBCC)
Couples Swept Away
Couples Negril
Royalton Negril (under construction)
unedited-Not part of my personal collection
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Dassault Mirage IV was a French supersonic strategic bomber and deep-reconnaissance aircraft. Developed by Dassault Aviation, the aircraft entered service with the French Air Force in October 1964. For many years it was a vital part of the nuclear triad of the Force de Frappe, France's nuclear deterrent striking force. The Mirage IV was retired from the nuclear strike role in 1996, and the type was entirely retired from operational service in 2005.
During the 1960s, there were plans of export sales for the Mirage IV; in one proposal, Dassault would have entered a partnership with the British Aircraft Corporation to jointly produce a Mirage IV variant for the Royal Air Force and potentially for other export customers, but this project did not come to fruition. The Mirage IV was ultimately not adopted by any other operators.
Development
Origins
During the 1950s, France embarked on an extensive military program to produce nuclear weapons; however, it was acknowledged that existing French aircraft were unsuitable for the task of delivering the weapons. Thus, the development of a supersonic bomber designed to carry out the delivery mission started in 1956 as a part of the wider development of France's independent nuclear deterrent. In May 1956, the Guy Mollet government drew up a specification for an aerially-refuelable supersonic bomber capable of carrying a 3-metric-ton, 5.2-metre-long nuclear bomb 2,000 km (without aerial refuelling). According to aviation authors Bill Gunston and Peter Gilchrist, the specification's inclusion of supersonic speed was "surprising" to many at the time.
The final specifications, jointly defined by government authorities and Dassault staff, were approved on 20 March 1957. Sud Aviation and Nord Aviation both submitted competing proposals, both based on existing aircraft; Sud Aviation proposed the Super Vautour, a stretched Sud Aviation Vautour with 47 kilonewtons (10,500 lbf) thrust Atar engines and a combat radius of 2,700 kilometres (1,700 mi) at Mach 0.9. Dassault's proposal for what became the Mirage IV was chosen on the basis of lower cost and anticipated simpler development, being based upon a proposed early 1956 twin-engined night-fighter derived from the Dassault Mirage III fighter and the unbuilt Mirage II interceptor. In April 1957, Dassault were informed that they had won the design competition.
Dassault's resulting prototype, dubbed Mirage IV 01, looked a lot like the Mirage IIIA, even though it had double the wing surface, two engines instead of one, and twice the unladen weight. The Mirage IV also carried three times more internal fuel than the Mirage III. The aircraft's aerodynamic features were very similar to the III's but required an entirely new structure and layout. This prototype was 20 metres (67 ft) long, had a 11 metres (37 ft) wingspan, 62 square metres (670 sq ft) of wing area, and weighed approximately 25,000 kilograms (55,000 lb). It was considerably more advanced than the Mirage III, incorporating new features such as machined and chem-milled planks, tapered sheets, a small amount of titanium, and integral fuel tanks in many locations including the leading portion of the tailfin.
The 01 was an experimental prototype built to explore and solve the problems stemming from prolonged supersonic flight. The sizable technological and operational uncertainties (no plane had yet been found able to cruise at over Mach 1.8 for long periods of time) were only one part of the problem. The weapon-related issues were the other. It took 18 months to build the 01 in Dassault's Saint-Cloud plant near Paris. In late 1958, the aircraft was transferred to the Melun-Villaroche flight testing area for finishing touches and ground tests. On 17 June 1959, French General Roland Glavany, on a five-year leave from the French Air Force since 1954, took the 01 for its maiden flight.
For its third flight, on 20 June 1959, the 01 was authorised to fly over the Paris Air Show at Le Bourget airport in front of France's President Charles de Gaulle.[citation needed] On 19 September 1960, René Bigand (replacing Glavany as test pilot) increased the world record for speed on a 1000-kilometre closed circuit to 1,822 km/h (1,132 mph) around Paris and the Melun base. Flight 138, on 23 September, corroborated the initial performance and pushed the record on a 500 km closed circuit to an average of 1,972 km/h (1,225 mph), flying between Mach 2.08 and Mach 2.14. The Mirage IV 01 prototype underwent minor modifications during testing in the autumn of 1959, most noticeably, the tail was enlarged (slight reduction in height, large increase in chord).
Production
In order to increase range, studies were made of a significantly larger Mirage IVB design, powered by two Snecma license-built Pratt & Whitney J75 engines and having a wing area of 120 m² (1,290 sq ft) compared to 70 m² (750 sq ft) of the prototype IV, as well as a speed of Mach 2.4 and a gross weight of 64,000 kilograms (140,000 lb). The Mirage IVB proposal had been instigated as a response to interest by de Gaulle in ensuring that two-way (including the aircraft's return to France) strike missions could be flown. However, development of the aircraft was ultimately cancelled in July 1959 due to the greater cost involved, a decision having been taken to rely upon aerial refueling instead also being a factor.
With the Mirage IVB considered to be too expensive, the medium-sized Mirage IVA, slightly larger than the first prototype, was chosen for three more prototypes to be produced. This aircraft had a wing area of 77.9 square metres (839 sq ft) and weighed about 32,000 kilograms (70,000 lb)[12] On 4 April 1960, a formal order for 50 production Mirage IVA aircraft was issued. The three prototype aircraft were built between 1961 and 1963, with first flights on 12 October 1961, 1 June 1962, and 23 January 1963. By 1962, the second prototype had conducted simulated nuclear bombing runs in the trials range at Colomb-Bechar in southern Algeria. The third prototype was equipped with the navigation/bombing systems and flight refuelling probe. The fourth prototype Mirage IVA-04 was essentially representative of the production aircraft that would follow.
For production, various portions of the aircraft were subcontracted to Sud Aviation (wings and rear fuselage) and Breguet Aviation (tailfin), which was still a separate company from Dassault until 1967; Dassault manufactured the front fuselage and flight-control system internally. Manufacture of both the prototypes and subsequent production aircraft was often hindered by an explicit requirement that there would be no reliance upon foreign suppliers to maintain France's nuclear capabilities; due to this, the Mirage IV initially lacked an inertial navigation system as French industry could not yet produce this device.
On 7 December 1963, the first production Mirage IVA performed its maiden flight. A series of 62 aircraft was built, and they entered service between 1964 and 1968. Although Dassault had designed the Mirage IV for the low-level flight role right from the start, the final batch of 12 aircraft ordered in November 1964 differed from the earlier aircraft in several areas, including the flight controls, avionics, and structural details, for the purpose of providing improved low-level performance. It had been planned for this batch to be powered by the newer Pratt & Whitney/SNECMA TF106 turbofan engine. The improvements featured upon the last 12 Mirage IVs were later retroactively applied to the whole fleet.
In December 1963 Dassault proposed a Mirage IV-106 variant with 2 Snecma TF106 (license-built Pratt and Whitney) engines, an enlarged 105,000 gross-weight fuselage, terrain-avoidance radar, and armed with a proposed French version of the American Douglas GAM-87 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile. This version would have been very costly, and ultimately was not ordered.
Proposed export variants
In 1963, the Australian government sought a replacement for the Royal Australian Air Force fleet of English Electric Canberra bombers, largely in response to the Indonesian Air Force's purchase of missile-armed Tupolev Tu-16 bombers. Dassault proposed a version of the Mirage IVA with Rolls-Royce Avon engines. Australian Air Marshall Frederick Scherger seriously considered purchase of the IVA in 1961 because it was considered to be proven hardware already in service (in contrast to the BAC TSR-2 which was still in development), before settling on the General Dynamics F-111C. The IVA was one of five aircraft types that were short listed for the role, but the F-111C was eventually selected.
In April 1965, the British Government cancelled the TSR-2 reconnaissance-strike aircraft. In response, Dassault and British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) proposed a modified Mirage IV variant as a replacement in July 1965. The aircraft, known as the Mirage IV* or Mirage IVS (S for Spey) would be re-engined with more powerful Rolls-Royce Spey turbofan engines with a total of 185 kilonewtons (41,700 lbf), larger (fuselage depth increased by 7.6 centimetres (3 in), had an approximately 0.61 metres (2 ft) forward fuselage extension, and was to weigh 36,000 kilograms (80,000 lb)), and use avionics planned for the TSR-2, although BAC preferred the French Antilope radar. Although designed by Dassault, the production was to be carried out jointly between Dassault and its subcontractors (wing, mid-fuselage, and tail) and BAC (front and rear fuselage). The final assembly location was not determined before this proposal was rejected. The Mirage IV* was to carry a bombload of up to 9,100 kilograms (20,000 lb). While the IV* was claimed to meet most of the Royal Air Force (RAF)'s requirements, and to be £1 million cheaper than the American-made F-111K was preferred (only to be cancelled in turn) and the Spey-engined Mirage abandoned.
The Mirage IV* met nearly every RAF requirement except for field length, and some claim it exceeded the F-111 slightly in speed and had at least equal range. The estimated cost was 2.321 million pounds per aircraft (for 50) or 2.067 million (for 110), less than the price of the F-111K. BAC claimed that the British government evaluation into the Mirage IV* was "relatively superficial". However, some British government officials, including Parliament members Julian Risdale and Roy Jenkins, questioned the Mirage IV*'s capacity to operate from unprepared airstrips or to operate at low level, or claimed that the F-111 was a superior aircraft "in a class of its own". However, Bill Gunston notes that low-level Mirage IV missions had been planned since 1963 and Mirage IVs operated regularly at low level since 1965, and argues that the ability of a strategic bomber to operate from unprepared airstrips is historically unimportant. RAF pilots who test-flew the Mirage IV were "favourably impressed" with its low altitude performance.
BAC and Dassault had also hoped to sell the Mirage IV* to France and to export the Mirage IV* to various nations, such as India, possibly Israel, and others; the lack of a British sale put an end to such possibilities. Some aviation journalists claim that the rejection of the Mirage IV* may have dampened French interest in joint Anglo-French cooperation.
Design
The Mirage IV shares design features and a visual resemblance to the Mirage III fighter, featuring a tailless delta wing and a single square-topped vertical fin. However, the wing is significantly thinner to allow better high-speed performance and has a thickness/chord ratio of only 3.8% at the root and 3.2% at the tip; this wing was the thinnest built in Europe at that time and one of the thinnest in the world. While being significantly smaller than an expensive medium bomber proposal for the role, the Mirage IV was roughly three times the weight of the preceding Mirage III.
The Mirage IV is powered by two Snecma Atar turbojets, fed by two air intakes on either side of the fuselage that had intake half-cone shock diffusers, known as souris ("mice"), which were moved forward as speed increased to trim the inlet for the shock wave angle. It can reach high supersonic speeds: the aircraft is redlined at Mach 2.2 at altitude because of airframe temperature restrictions, although it is capable of higher speeds. While broadly similar to the model used on the Mirage III, the Atar engine had a greater airflow and an elevated overspeed limit from 8,400 rpm to 8,700 rpm for greater thrust during high altitude supersonic flight. While the first Mirage IV prototype was fitted with double-eyelid engine nozzles, production aircraft featured a complicated variable geometry nozzle that automatically varied in response to the descent rate and airspeed.
The aircraft has 14,000 litres (3,700 gal (US)) of internal fuel, and its engines are quite thirsty, especially when the afterburner is active. Fuel was contained within integral tanks within the wings, as well as a double-skinned section of the fuselage between and outboard of the inlet ducts, underneath the ducts and engines, and forward of the main spar of the tail fin; this provided a total internal capacity of 6,400 kilograms (14,000 lb). A refueling probe is built into the nose; aerial refuelling was often necessary in operations as the Mirage IV only had the fuel capacity, even with external drop tanks, to reach the Soviet Union's borders, thus refuelling was required to allow for a 'round trip'. In the event of nuclear war between the major powers, it was thought that there would be little point in having the fuel to return as the host air bases would have been destroyed; instead, surviving Mirage IVs would have diverted to land at bases in nearby neutral countries following the delivery of their ordnance.
The two-man crew, pilot and navigator, were seated in tandem cockpits, each housed under separate clamshell canopies. A bombing/navigation radar is housed within an oblique-facing radome underneath the fuselage between the intakes and aft of the cockpit; much of the Mirage IV's onboard avionics systems, such as the radar communications, navigational instrumentation, and bombing equipment, were produced by Thomson-CSF. Other avionics elements were provided by Dassault itself and SFENA; one of the only major subsystems not of French origin onboard was the Marconi-built AD.2300 doppler radar. Free-falling munitions could also be aimed using a ventral blister-mounted periscope from the navigator's position.
The Mirage IV has two pylons under each wing, with the inboard pylons being normally used for large drop tanks of 2,500-litre (660 gal (US)) capacity. The outer pylons typically carried ECM and chaff/flare dispenser pods to supplement the internal jamming and countermeasures systems. On later aircraft, this equipment typically included a Barax NG jammer pod under the port wing and a Boz expendables dispenser under the starboard wing. No cannon armament was ever fitted aboard the type. The early Mirage IVA had a fuselage recess under the engines which could hold a single AN-11 or AN-22 nuclear weapon of 60 kt yield. The Mirage IV can carry 12 solid-fuel rockets diagonally down below the wing flaps, for rocket-assisted take off (RATO).
From 1972 onward, 12 aircraft were also equipped to carry the CT52 reconnaissance pod in the bomb recess. These aircraft were designated Mirage IVR for reconnaissance. The CT52 was available in either BA (Basse Altitude, low-level) or HA (Haute Altitude, high-altitude) versions with three or four long-range cameras; a third configuration used an infrared line scanner. The CT52 had no digital systems, relying on older wet-film cameras. The first operational use of the system took place during missions in Chad in September 1974.
During the 1980s, a total of 18 Mirage IVs were retrofitted with a centreline pylon and associated equipment to carry and launch the nuclear ASMP stand-off missile. The Mirage IVA could theoretically carry up to six large conventional bombs at the cost of drop tanks and ECM pods, such armament was rarely fitted in practice.
Operational history
Introduction and early operations
"We don't have fighter aircraft, we have fear-inducing aircraft"
French President Charles de Gaulle, speaking of the Mirage IV in 1963.
In February 1964 deliveries of the Mirage IV to the French Air Force started, with the first French Mirage IV squadron being declared operational on 1 October that year. The Mirage IV bomber force soon consisted of nine squadrons of four aircraft (2 pairs – one aircraft carrying the nuclear bomb, one a buddy-refuelling tanker) each. When fully built up, the force consisted of three wings. These wings were each divided into three bomber squadrons, each equipped with a total of four Mirage IVs, with each deployed at a different base to minimise the potential for an enemy strike to knock out the entire bomber force.
After establishment of its own deterrent force, the Force de Dissuassion, more commonly known as the Force de frappe, France withdrew from the military command structure of NATO in 1966. De Gaulle viewed the operational establishment of the Mirage IV fleet, a critical component of the independent Force de frappe, as highly influential to his decision to withdraw France from NATO, and that an independent French nuclear deterrent was necessary to ensure independence as a nation. From 1964 to 1971, the Mirage IV was France's sole means of delivering nuclear ordnance. At this point they were each armed with a single 60 kiloton nuclear bomb.
Alert status consisted of an active inventory of 36 Mirage IVs. At any one time 12 aircraft would be in the air, with a further 12 on the ground kept at four minutes' readiness and the final 12 at 45 minutes' readiness, each equipped with an onboard functional nuclear weapon. These 36 active aircraft would be rotated with 26 reserve aircraft; the latter were kept in an airworthy condition or were otherwise subject to maintenance activities. Within the first decade of the type entering service, in excess of 200,000 hours were flown and 40,000 aerial refuelling operations were performed by the Mirage IV fleet alone; at one point, Mirage IV operations were consuming up to 44 per cent of the French Air Force's total spare parts budget.
The primary objectives of the Mirage IVA force were major Soviet cities and bases. With aerial refueling], the plane was able to attack Moscow, Murmansk or various Ukrainian cities when sortieing from French bases. A justification of the Mirage IV given by Armée de l'air Brigadier General Pierre Marie Gallois, an architect of the French nuclear deterrent, was that: "France is not a prize worthy of ten Russian cities".
In order to refuel the Mirage IVA fleet, France purchased 14 (12 plus 2 spares) U.S. Boeing C-135F tankers. Mirage IVAs also often operated in pairs, with one aircraft carrying a weapon and the other carrying fuel tanks and a buddy refueling pack, allowing it to refuel its partner en route to the target. Even so, some sources state that some of the mission profiles envisioned were actually one-way, with the crew having no chance of returning after bombing a Soviet city. The inability for the Mirage IV to return after missions had been a point of controversy during the aircraft's early development.
Both flight and grounds crews received training principally by Strategic Air Forces Command 328, stationed at Bordeaux. Several Nord Noratlas were specially modified, having received the Mirage IV's radar, control consoles, and additional electrical generators, for the purpose of training navigators; these were later replaced by a pair of customised Dassault Falcon 20 outfitted with much of the Mirage IVP's avionics.
Transition and upgrades
Initially, the basic attack flight profile was "high-high-high" at a speed of Mach 1.85, engaging targets up to a maximum radius of 3,500 km (2,175 mi). In the late 1960s, when the threat of surface-to-air missile defences made high-altitude flight too hazardous, the Mirage IVA was modified for low-altitude penetration. Flying low, the maximum attack speed was reduced to 1,100 km/h (680 mph) and the combat radius was also decreased. By 1963, the majority of missions involving the Mirage IV were being planned as low-level flights. By 1964, Mirage IVAs were conducting training penetration runs at an altitude of 200 ft, without the assistance of terrain-following radar, which subjected pilots to considerable workload and those on board to high levels of turbulence.
To improve survivability, the French Air Force began dispersing Mirage IVs to pre-prepared rough strips during the 1960s; while the use of hardened bunkers had been assessed, it was found to be financially impractical. By the 1970s, it had become clear that vulnerability of the Mirage IV to air defences, even while flying at low altitudes, had made the delivery of gravity bombs such as the AN-11 or AN-22 impractical. Thus, it was decided to pass a greater share of the deterrent role onto land-based missiless and submarine-launched ballistic missiles alternatives; as a result, a single wing of Mirage IVs was stood down in 1976, partially due to fleet-wide attrition losses.
In 1973, it was reported that a force of 40 Mirage IVs would continue to perform as a part of France's nuclear deterrent until the 1980s, and that steady improvements were to be undertaken. In 1975, all Mirage IVs were progressively painted in a new green/grey camouflage scheme. In 1979, in response to the decreasing effectiveness of free-fall bombs used by both its strategic and tactical nuclear forces, development of the ASMP stand-off missile was initiated; the ASMP would possess a range of up to 400 km (250 mi) and was alternative armed with either a single 150 or 300 kiloton nuclear warhead. Various test launches of dummy and later live ASMPs were performed using the Mirage IV as the launch platform between 1981 and 1983.
In July 1984, a contract was formally issued for the upgrade of a total of 18 Mirage IVAs to carry the ASMP missile in the place of traditional bombs; these aircraft were redesignated Mirage IVP (Penetration). The conversion of Mirage IVAs to IVPs involved a large number of modifications and re-workings of the aircraft. A deep centerline pylon was added, which could accommodate either a single ASMP missile or a CT52 reconnaissance pod. The main radar and electronics suite were removed and replaced by newer counterparts; other modified systems included the navigation system, flight control system, and various elements of the cockpit. On 12 October 1982, the first modernised Mirage IVP performed its first flight; it re-entered active service on 1 May 1986.
In August 1985, a French proposal that would have seen Mirage IVPs stationed at air bases inside neighbouring West Germany was made public; this deployment would have marked a significant philosophical departure from traditional French nuclear defence policy. Aviation authors Bill Gunston and Peter Gilchrist allege that French officials had historically discounted the option of recovering Mirage IVs in friendly territory as unduly optimistic, as those nations might become unfriendly or hostile in the aftermath of a French nuclear attack.
Phase-Out
On 31 July 1996, the Mirage IVP was formally retired in its bomber capacity, the nuclear mission having been transferred from the Mirage IV to the newer Dassault Mirage 2000N. EB 2/91 was disbanded and EB 1/91 was redesignated Escadron de Reconnaissance Stratégique (Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron),[citation needed] using five remaining Mirage IVPs based at Mont-de-Marsan; the remaining aircraft were stored at Chateaudun. In the reconnaissance role, the Mirage IVP has seen service over Bosnia, Iraq, Kosovo and Afghanistan.
ES 1/91 Gascogne's surviving Mirage IVPs were retired in 2005 and are conserved and stored at the Centre d'Instruction Forces Aériennes Stratégiques (CIFAS) at Bordeaux Mérignac. The retirement of all reconnaissance-configured Mirage IVPs in 2005 meant that the French Air Force's Mirage F1CRs were for some time the only aircraft capable of carrying out aerial reconnaissance missions. The long term replacement for the Mirage IVP was Mirage 2000N aircraft outfitted with a modern PRNG Pod de Reconnaissance Nouvelle Génération (New Generation Reconnaissance Pod), equipped with digital camera equipment.
The Mirage IV had been popular with its crews, who found it enjoyable to fly. In addition, it required surprisingly little maintenance considering its age and complexity.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Battle of Peleliu
Part of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign of the Pacific Theater (World War II)
Date15 September – 27 November 1944
(2 months, 1 week and 5 days)
Location
Peleliu, Palau Islands
7°00′N 134°15′ECoordinates: 7°00′N 134°15′E
ResultAmerican victory
Belligerents
United States Japan
Commanders and leaders
United States William H. Rupertus
United States Paul J. Mueller
United States Roy S. Geiger
United States Herman H. Hanneken
United States Harold D. Harris
United States Lewis B. PullerEmpire of Japan Kunio Nakagawa †
Empire of Japan Sadae Inoue
Units involved
United States III Amphibious Corps
1st Marine Division
81st Infantry Division
Additional support units
Empire of Japan Peleliu garrison
14th Infantry Division
49th Mixed Brigade
45th Guard Force
46th Base Force
Additional support units
Strength
47,561[1]:3610,900[1]:37
17 tanks[2]
Casualties and losses
10,786
2,336 killed
8,450 wounded[3]10,897
10,695 killed
202 captured (183 foreign laborers, 19 Japanese soldiers)[1]:89[3]
17 tanks lost
Battle of Peleliu is located in Palau
Battle of Peleliu
Mariana and Palau Islands campaign
The Battle of Peleliu, codenamed Operation Stalemate II by the United States military, was fought between the U.S. and Japan during the Mariana and Palau Campaign of World War II, from September to November 1944, on the island of Peleliu.
U.S. Marines of the 1st Marine Division, and later soldiers of the U.S. Army's 81st Infantry Division, fought to capture an airstrip on the small coral island of Peleliu. This battle was part of a larger offensive campaign known as Operation Forager, which ran from June to November 1944, in the Pacific Theater.
Major General William Rupertus, Commander of the 1st Marine Division, predicted the island would be secured within four days.[4] However, after repeated Imperial Army defeats in previous island campaigns, Japan had developed new island-defense tactics and well-crafted fortifications that allowed stiff resistance,[5] extending the battle through more than two months. The heavily outnumbered Japanese defenders put up such stiff resistance, often fighting to the death in the Emperor's name, that the island became known in Japanese as the "Emperor's Island."[6]
In the United States, this was a controversial battle because of the island's negligible strategic value and the high casualty rate, which exceeded that of all other amphibious operations during the Pacific War.[7] The National Museum of the Marine Corps called it "the bitterest battle of the war for the Marines".[8]
Background
By 1944, American victories in the Southwest and Central Pacific had brought the war closer to Japan, with American bombers able to strike at the Japanese main islands from air bases secured during the Mariana Islands campaign (June–August 1944). There was disagreement among the U.S. Joint Chiefs over two proposed strategies to defeat the Japanese Empire. The strategy proposed by General Douglas MacArthur called for the recapture of the Philippines, followed by the capture of Okinawa, then an attack on the Japanese mainland. Admiral Chester Nimitz favored a more direct strategy of bypassing the Philippines, but seizing Okinawa and Taiwan as staging areas to an attack on the Japanese mainland, followed by the future invasion of Japan's southernmost islands. Both strategies included the invasion of Peleliu, but for different reasons.[9]
The 1st Marine Division had already been chosen to make the assault. President Franklin D. Roosevelt traveled to Pearl Harbor to personally meet both commanders and hear their arguments. MacArthur's strategy was chosen. However, before MacArthur could retake the Philippines, the Palau Islands, specifically Peleliu and Angaur, were to be neutralized and an airfield built to protect MacArthur's right flank.
Preparations
Japanese
By 1944, Peleliu Island was occupied by about 11,000 Japanese of the 14th Infantry Division with Korean and Okinawan labourers. Colonel Kunio Nakagawa, commander of the division's 2nd Regiment, led the preparations for the island's defense.
After their losses in the Solomons, Gilberts, Marshalls, and Marianas, the Imperial Army assembled a research team to develop new island-defense tactics. They chose to abandon the old strategy of stopping the enemy at the beach, where they were exposed to naval gunfire. The new tactics would only disrupt the landings at the water's edge and depend on an in-depth defense farther inland. Colonel Nakagawa used the rough terrain to his advantage, by constructing a system of heavily fortified bunkers, caves, and underground positions all interlocked into a "honeycomb" system. The traditional "banzai charge" attack was also discontinued as being both wasteful of men and ineffective. These changes would force the Americans into a war of attrition, requiring increasingly more resources.
Japanese fortifications
Nakagawa's defenses were centred on Peleliu's highest point, Umurbrogol Mountain, a collection of hills and steep ridges located at the center of Peleliu overlooking a large portion of the island, including the crucial airfield. The Umurbrogol contained some 500 limestone caves, interconnected by tunnels. Many of these were former mine shafts that were turned into defensive positions. Engineers added sliding armored steel doors with multiple openings to serve both artillery and machine guns. Cave entrances were opened or altered to be slanted as a defense against grenade and flamethrower attacks. The caves and bunkers were connected to a vast tunnel and trench system throughout central Peleliu, which allowed the Japanese to evacuate or reoccupy positions as needed, and to take advantage of shrinking interior lines.
The Japanese were well armed with 81 mm (3.19 in) and 150 mm (5.9 in) mortars and 20 mm (0.79 in) anti-aircraft cannons, backed by a light tank unit and an anti-aircraft detachment.
The Japanese also used the beach terrain to their advantage. The northern end of the landing beaches faced a 30-foot (9.1 m) coral promontory that overlooked the beaches from a small peninsula, a spot later known to the Marines who assaulted it simply as "The Point". Holes were blasted into the ridge to accommodate a 47 mm (1.85 in) gun, and six 20 mm cannons. The positions were then sealed shut, leaving just a small slit to fire on the beaches. Similar positions were crafted along the 2-mile (3.2 km) stretch of landing beaches.
The beaches were also filled with thousands of obstacles for the landing craft, principally mines and a large number of heavy artillery shells buried with the fuses exposed to explode when they were run over. A battalion was placed along the beach to defend against the landing, but they were meant to merely delay the inevitable American advance inland.
American
Unlike the Japanese, who drastically altered their tactics for the upcoming battle, the American invasion plan was unchanged from that of previous amphibious landings, even after suffering 3,000 casualties and two months of delaying tactics against the entrenched Japanese defenders at the Battle of Biak.[10] On Peleliu, American planners chose to land on the southwest beaches because of their proximity to the airfield on South Peleliu. The 1st Marine Regiment, commanded by Colonel Lewis B. (Chesty) Puller, was to land on the northern end of the beaches. The 5th Marine Regiment, under Colonel Harold D. Harris, would land in the center, and the 7th Marine Regiment, under Col. Herman H. Hanneken, would land at the southern end.
The division's artillery regiment, the 11th Marines under Col. William H. Harrison, would land after the infantry regiments. The plan was for the 1st and 7th Marines to push inland, guarding the 5th Marines left and right flank, and allowing them to capture the airfield located directly to the center of the landing beaches. The 5th Marines were to push to the eastern shore, cutting the island in half. The 1st Marines would push north into the Umurbrogol, while the 7th Marines would clear the southern end of the island. Only one battalion was left behind in reserve, with the U.S. Army's 81st Infantry Division available for support from Angaur, just south of Peleliu.
On September 4, the Marines shipped off from their station on Pavuvu, just north of Guadalcanal, a 2,100-mile (3,400 km) trip across the Pacific to Peleliu. A U.S. Navy's Underwater Demolition Team went in first to clear the beaches of obstacles, while Navy warships began their pre-invasion bombardment of Peleliu on September 12.
The battleships Pennsylvania, Maryland, Mississippi, Tennessee and Idaho, heavy cruisers Indianapolis, Louisville, Minneapolis and Portland, and light cruisers Cleveland, Denver and Honolulu,[1]:29 led by the command ship Mount McKinley, subjected the tiny island, only 6 sq mi (16 km2) in size, to a massive three-day bombardment, pausing only to permit air strikes from the three aircraft carriers, five light aircraft carriers, and eleven escort carriers with the attack force.[11] A total of 519 rounds of 16 in (410 mm) shells, 1,845 rounds of 14 in (360 mm) shells and 1,793 500 lb (230 kg) bombs were dropped on the islands during this period.
The Americans believed the bombardment to be successful, as Rear Admiral Jesse Oldendorf claimed that the Navy had run out of targets.[11] In reality, the majority of the Japanese positions were completely unharmed. Even the battalion left to defend the beaches was virtually unscathed. During the assault, the island's defenders exercised unusual firing discipline to avoid giving away their positions. The bombardment managed only to destroy Japan's aircraft on the island, as well as the buildings surrounding the airfield. The Japanese remained in their fortified positions, ready to attack the American landing troops.
Opposing forces
Naval command structure for Operation Stalemate II
Admiral Chester W. Nimitz
Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr.
Vice Adm. Theo. S. Wilkinson
Expeditionary Troops and III Amphibious Corps commanders
Maj. Gen. Julian C. Smith
Maj. Gen. Roy S. Geiger
Marine ground commanders on Peleliu
Maj. Gen. William H. Rupertus
Oliver P. Smith as a major general
Lewis B. Puller as a major general
American order of battle
United States Pacific Fleet[12]
Admiral Chester W. Nimitz
US Third Fleet
Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr.
Joint Expeditionary Force (Task Force 31)
Vice Admiral Theodore S. Wilkinson
Expeditionary Troops (Task Force 36)
III Amphibious Corps[a]
Major General Julian C. Smith,[b] USMC
Western Landing Force (TG 36.1)
Major General Roy S. Geiger, USMC
1st Marine Division
Division Commander: Maj. Gen. William H. Rupertus,[c] USMC
Asst. Division Commander: Brig. Gen. Oliver P. Smith,[d] USMC
Chief of Staff: Col. John T. Selden, USMC
Beach assignments
Left (White 1 & 2)
1st Marine Regiment (Col. Lewis B. "Chesty" Puller,[e] USMC)
Co. A of the following: 1st Engineer Battalion, 1st Pioneer Battalion, 1st Medical Battalion, 1st Tank Battalion
Center (Orange 1 & 2)
5th Marine Regiment (Col. Harold D. "Bucky" Harris, USMC)
Co. B of the following: 1st Engineer Battalion, 1st Pioneer Battalion, 1st Medical Battalion, 1st Tank Battalion (reduced)
Right (Orange 3)
7th Marine Regiment (Col. Herman H. "Hard-Headed" Hanneken, USMC)
Co. C of the following: 1st Engineer Battalion, 1st Pioneer Battalion, 1st Medical Battalion, 1st Tank Battalion (reduced)
Other units
11th Marine Regiment, Artillery (Col. William H. Harrison, USMC)
12th Antiaircraft Artillery Battalion
1st Amphibian Tractor Battalion
3rd Armored Amphibian Tractor Battalion
4th, 5th, 6th Marine War Dog Platoons
UDT 6 and UDT 7
Japanese order of battle
Lt. Col. Kunio Nakagawa
Marine with captured Japanese 141mm mortar
Palau District Group[15]
Lieutenant General Inoue Sadao[f] (HQ on Koror Island)
Vice Admiral Yoshioka Ito
Maj. Gen. Kenjiro Murai[g]
14th Division (Lt. Gen. Sadao)
Peleliu Sector Unit (Lt. Col. Kunio Nakagawa[h])
2nd Infantry Regiment, Reinforced
2nd Bttn. / 2nd Infantry Regiment
3rd Bttn. / 2nd Infantry Regiment
3rd Bttn. / 15th Infantry Regiment
346th Bttn. / 53rd Independent Mixed Brigade
Battle
Landing
Routes of Allied landings on Peleliu, 15 September 1944
U.S. Marines landed on Peleliu at 08:32, on September 15, the 1st Marines to the north on White Beach 1 and 2 and the 5th and 7th Marines to the center and south on Orange Beach 1, 2, and 3.[1]:42–45 As the other landing craft approached the beaches, the Marines were caught in a crossfire when the Japanese opened the steel doors guarding their positions and fired artillery. The positions on the coral promontories guarding each flank fired on the Marines with 47 mm guns and 20 mm cannons. By 09:30, the Japanese had destroyed 60 LVTs and DUKWs.
5th Marines on Orange Beach
The 1st Marines were quickly bogged down by heavy fire from the extreme left flank and a 30-foot-high coral ridge, "The Point".[1]:49 Colonel Chesty Puller narrowly escaped death when a dud high velocity artillery round struck his LVT. His communications section was destroyed on its way to the beach by a hit from a 47 mm round. The 7th Marines faced a cluttered Orange Beach 3, with natural and man-made obstacles, forcing the Amtracs to approach in column.[1]:52
The 5th Marines made the most progress on the first day, aided by cover provided by coconut groves.[1]:51 They pushed toward the airfield, but were met with Nakagawa's first counterattack. His armored tank company raced across the airfield to push the Marines back, but was soon engaged by tanks, howitzers, naval guns, and dive bombers. Nakagawa's tanks and escorting infantrymen were quickly destroyed.[1]:57
At the end of the first day, the Americans held their 2-mile (3.2 km) stretch of landing beaches, but little else. Their biggest push in the south moved 1 mile (1.6 km) inland, but the 1st Marines to the north made very little progress because of the extremely thick resistance.[1]:42 The Marines had suffered 200 dead and 900 wounded. Rupertus, still unaware of his enemy's change of tactics, believed the Japanese would quickly crumble since their perimeter had been broken.[18]
Airfield/South Peleliu
On the second day, the 5th Marines moved to capture the airfield and push toward the eastern shore.[1]:61 They ran across the airfield, enduring heavy artillery fire from the highlands to the north, suffering heavy casualties in the process. After capturing the airfield, they rapidly advanced to the eastern end of Peleliu, leaving the island's southern defenders to be destroyed by the 7th Marines.[1]:58
This area was hotly contested by the Japanese, who still occupied numerous pillboxes. Heat indices[19] were around[20] 115 °F (46 °C), and the Marines soon suffered high casualties from heat exhaustion. Further complicating the situation, the Marines' water was distributed in empty oil drums, contaminating the water with the oil residue.[21] Still, by the eighth day the 5th and 7th Marines had accomplished their objectives, holding the airfield and the southern portion of the island, although the airfield remained under threat of sustained Japanese fire from the heights of Umurbrogol Mountain until the end of the battle.[11]
American forces put the airfield to use on the third day. L-2 Grasshoppers from VMO-3 began aerial spotting missions for Marine artillery and naval gunfire support. On September 26 (D+11), Marine F4U Corsairs from VMF-114 landed on the airstrip. The Corsairs began dive-bombing missions across Peleliu, firing rockets into open cave entrances for the infantrymen, and dropping napalm; it was only the second time the latter weapon had been used in the Pacific.[citation needed] Napalm proved useful, burning away the vegetation hiding spider holes and usually killing their occupants.
The time from liftoff to the target area for the Corsairs based on Peleliu Airfield was very short, sometimes only 10 to 15 seconds. Consequently, there was almost no time for pilots to raise their aircraft undercarriage; most pilots did not bother and left them down during the air strike. After the air strike was completed and the payload dropped, the Corsair simply turned back into the landing pattern again.
The Point
The fortress at the end of the southern landing beaches (a.k.a. “The Point”) continued to cause heavy Marine casualties due to enfilading fire from Japanese heavy machine guns and anti-tank artillery across the landing beaches. Puller ordered Captain George P. Hunt, commander of K Company, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines, to capture the position. Hunt's company approached The Point short on supplies, having lost most of its machine guns while approaching the beaches. Hunt's second platoon was pinned down for nearly a day in an anti-tank trench between fortifications. The rest of his company was endangered when the Japanese cut a hole in their line, surrounding his company and leaving his right flank cut off.[1]:49
However, a rifle platoon began knocking out the Japanese gun positions one by one. Using smoke grenades for concealment, the platoon swept through each hole, destroying the positions with rifle grenades and close-quarters combat. After knocking out the six machine gun positions, the Marines faced the 47 mm gun cave. A lieutenant blinded the 47 mm gunner's visibility with a smoke grenade, allowing Corporal Henry W. Hahn to launch a grenade through the cave's aperture. The grenade detonated the 47 mm's shells, forcing the cave's occupants out with their bodies alight and their ammunition belts exploding around their waists. A Marine fire team was positioned on the flank of the cave where the emerging occupants were shot down.
K Company had captured The Point, but Nakagawa counterattacked. The next 30 hours saw four major counterattacks against a sole company, critically low on supplies, out of water, and surrounded. The Marines soon had to resort to hand-to-hand combat to fend off the Japanese attackers. By the time reinforcements arrived, the company had successfully repulsed all of the Japanese attacks, but had been reduced to 18 men, suffering 157 casualties during the battle for The Point.[1]:50–51 Hunt and Hahn were both awarded the Navy Cross for their actions.
Ngesebus Island
The 5th Marines—after having secured the airfield—were sent to capture Ngesebus Island, just north of Peleliu. Ngesebus was occupied by many Japanese artillery positions, and was the site of an airfield still under construction. The tiny island was connected to Peleliu by a small causeway, but 5th Marines commander Harris opted instead to make a shore-to-shore amphibious landing, predicting the causeway to be an obvious target for the island's defenders.[1]:77
Harris coordinated a pre-landing bombardment of the island on September 28, carried out by Army 155 mm (6.1 in) guns, naval guns, howitzers from the 11th Marines, strafing runs from VMF-114's Corsairs, and 75 mm (2.95 in) fire from the approaching LVTs.[1]:77 Unlike the Navy's bombardment of Peleliu, Harris' assault on Ngesebus successfully killed most of the Japanese defenders. The Marines still faced opposition in the ridges and caves, but the island fell quickly, with relatively light casualties for the 5th Marines. They had suffered 15 killed and 33 wounded, and inflicted 470 casualties on the Japanese.
Bloody Nose Ridge
After capturing The Point, the 1st Marines moved north into the Umurbrogol pocket,[1]:81 named "Bloody Nose Ridge" by the Marines. Puller led his men in numerous assaults, but each resulted in severe casualties from Japanese fire. The 1st Marines were trapped in the narrow paths between the ridges, with each ridge fortification supporting the other with deadly crossfire.
The Marines took increasingly high casualties as they slowly advanced through the ridges. The Japanese again showed unusual fire discipline, striking only when they could inflict maximum casualties. As casualties mounted, Japanese snipers began to take aim at stretcher bearers, knowing that if stretcher bearers were injured or killed, more would have to return to replace them, and the snipers could steadily pick off more and more Marines. The Japanese also infiltrated the American lines at night to attack the Marines in their fighting holes. The Marines built two-man fighting holes, so one Marine could sleep while the other kept watch for infiltrators.
One particularly bloody battle on Bloody Nose came when the 1st Battalion, 1st Marines—under the command of Major Raymond Davis—attacked Hill 100. Over six days of fighting, the battalion suffered 71% casualties. Captain Everett Pope and his company penetrated deep into the ridges, leading his remaining 90 men to seize what he thought was Hill 100. It took a day's fighting to reach what he thought was the crest of the hill, which was in fact another ridge occupied by more Japanese defenders.
Marine Pfc. Douglas Lightheart (right) cradles his .30 caliber (7.62×63mm) M1919 Browning machine gun in his lap, while he and Pfc. Gerald Thursby Sr. take a cigarette break, during mopping up operations on Peleliu on 15 September 1944.
Trapped at the base of the ridge, Captain Pope set up a small defense perimeter, which was attacked relentlessly by the Japanese throughout the night. The Marines soon ran out of ammunition, and had to fight the attackers with knives and fists, even resorting to throwing coral rock and empty ammunition boxes at the Japanese. Pope and his men managed to hold out until dawn came, which brought on more deadly fire. When they evacuated the position, only nine men remained. Pope later received the Medal of Honor for the action. (Picture of the Peleliu Memorial dedicated on the 50th anniversary of the landing on Peleliu with Captain Pope's name)
The Japanese eventually inflicted 70% casualties on Puller's 1st Marines, or 1,749 men.[1]:66 After six days of fighting in the ridges of Umurbrogol, General Roy Geiger, commander of the III Amphibious Corps, sent elements of U.S. Army's 81st Infantry Division to Peleliu to relieve the regiment.[1]:66 The 321st Regiment Combat Team landed on the western beaches of Peleliu—at the northern end of Umurbrogol mountain—on 23 September. The 321st and the 7th Marines encircled The Pocket by 24 Sept., D+9.[1]:75,81
By 15 October, the 7th Marines had suffered 46% casualties and General Geiger relieved them with the 5th Marines.[1]:83 Col. Harris adopted siege tactics, using bulldozers and flame-thrower tanks, pushing from the north.[1]:83–84 On October 30, the 81st Infantry Division took over command of Peleliu, taking another six weeks, with the same tactics, to reduce The Pocket.[1]:85
On 24 November, Nakagawa proclaimed "Our sword is broken and we have run out of spears". He then burnt his regimental colors and performed ritual suicide.[1]:86 He was posthumously promoted to lieutenant general for his valor displayed on Peleliu. On 27 November, the island was declared secure, ending the 73-day-long battle.[18]
A Japanese lieutenant with twenty-six 2nd Infantry soldiers and eight 45th Guard Force sailors held out in the caves in Peleliu until April 22, 1947, and surrendered after a Japanese admiral convinced them the war was over.[1]:81
Aftermath
The reduction of the Japanese pocket around Umurbrogol mountain has been called the most difficult fight that the U.S. military encountered in the entire war.[21] The 1st Marine Division was severely mauled and it remained out of action until the invasion of Okinawa began on April 1, 1945. In total, the 1st Marine Division suffered over 6,500 casualties during their month on Peleliu, over one third of their entire division. The 81st Infantry Division also suffered heavy losses with 3,300 casualties during their tenure on the island.
Postwar statisticians calculated that it took U.S. forces over 1500 rounds of ammunition to kill each Japanese defender and that, during the course of the battle, the Americans expended 13.32 million rounds of .30-calibre, 1.52 million rounds of .45-calibre, 693,657 rounds of .50-calibre bullets, 118,262 hand grenades, and approximately 150,000 mortar rounds.[11]
The battle was controversial in the United States due to the island's lack of strategic value and the high casualty rate. The defenders lacked the means to interfere with potential US operations in the Philippines[11] and the airfield captured on Peleliu did not play a key role in subsequent operations. Instead, the Ulithi Atoll in the Caroline Islands was used as a staging base for the invasion of Okinawa. The high casualty rate exceeded all other amphibious operations during the Pacific War.[7]
In addition, few news reports were published about the battle because Rupertus' prediction of a "three days" victory motivated only six reporters to report from shore. The battle was also overshadowed by MacArthur's return to the Philippines and the Allies' push towards Germany in Europe.
The battles for Angaur and Peleliu showed Americans the pattern of future Japanese island defense but they made few adjustments for the battles for Iwo Jima and Okinawa.[22] Naval bombardment prior to amphibious assault at Iwo Jima was only slightly more effective than at Peleliu, but at Okinawa the preliminary shelling was much improved.[23] Frogmen performing underwater demolition at Iwo Jima confused the enemy by sweeping both coasts, but later alerted Japanese defenders to the exact assault beaches at Okinawa.[23] American ground forces at Peleliu gained experience in assaulting heavily fortified positions such as they would find again at Okinawa.[24]
On the recommendation of Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr., the planned occupation of Yap Island in the Caroline Islands was canceled. Halsey actually recommended that the landings on Peleliu and Angaur be canceled, too, and their Marines and soldiers be thrown into Leyte Island instead, but was overruled by Nimitz.[25]
In popular culture
In the March of Time's 1951 documentary TV series, Crusade in the Pacific, Episode 17 is "The Fight for Bloody Nose Ridge."
In NBC-TV's 1952-53 documentary TV series Victory at Sea, Episode 18, "Two if by Sea" covers the assaults at Peleliu and Angaur.
The Battle of Peleliu is featured in many World War II themed video games, including Call of Duty: World at War. The player takes the role of a US Marine tasked with taking Peleliu Airfield, repelling counter-attacks, destroying machine-gun and mortar positions and eventually securing Japanese artillery emplacements at the point. In flight-simulation game War Thunder, two teams of players clash to hold the southern and northern airfields. In multi-player shooter Red Orchestra 2: Rising Storm, a team of American troops attack the defensive Japanese team's control points.
The battle including footage and stills are featured in the fifth episode of Ken Burns' The War.
The battle features in episodes 5, 6 and 7 of the TV mini-series The Pacific.
In his book, With the Old Breed, Eugene Bondurant Sledge described his experiences in the battle for Peleliu.
In 2015, the Japanese magazine Young Animal commenced serialization of Peleliu: Rakuen no Guernica by Masao Hiratsuka and artist Kazuyoshi Takeda, telling the story of the battle in manga form.
One of the final scenes in Parer's War, a 2014 Australian television film, shows the Battle of Peleliu recorded by Damien Parer with his camera at the time of his death.
The Peleliu Campaign features as one of the campaigns in the 2019 solitaire tactical wargame “Fields of Fire” Volume 2, designed by Ben Hull, published by GMT Games LLC.
Individual honors
Japan
Posthumous promotions
For heroism:
Colonel Kunio Nakagawa – lieutenant general
Kenjiro Murai – lieutenant general
United States
Pfc. Richard Kraus, USMC (age 18), killed in action
Medal of Honor recipients
Captain Everett P. Pope – 1st Battalion, 1st Marines
First Lieutenant Carlton R. Rouh – 1st Battalion, 5th Marines
Private First Class Arthur J. Jackson – 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines
Corporal Lewis K. Bausell –1st Battalion, 5th Marines (Posthumous)
Private First Class Richard E. Kraus – 8th Amphibian Tractor Battalion, 1st Marine Division (Reinforced) (Posthumous)
Private First Class John D. New – 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines (Posthumous)
Private First Class Wesley Phelps – 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines (Posthumous)
Private First Class Charles H. Roan – 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines (Posthumous)
Unit citations
D-day Peleliu, African Americans of one of the two segregated units that supported the 7th Marines - the 16th Marine Field Depot or the 17th Naval Construction Battalion Special take a break in the 115 degree heat, 09-15-1944 - NARA - 532535
Presidential Unit Citation:
1st Marine Division, September 15 to 29, 1944[26]
1st Amphibian Tractor Battalion, FMF[27]
U. S. Navy Flame Thrower Unit Attached[27]
6th Amphibian Tractor Battalion (Provisional), FMF[27]
3d Armored Amphibian Battalion (Provisional), FMF[27]
Detachment Eighth Amphibian Tractor Battalion, FMF[27]
454th Amphibian Truck Company, U. S. Army[27]
456th Amphibian Truck Company, U. S. Army[27]
4th Joint Assault Signal Company, FMF[27]
5th Separate Wire Platoon, FMF[27]
6th Separate Wire Platoon, FMF[27]
Detachment 33rd Naval Construction Battalion (202 Personnel)[27]
Detachment 73rd Naval Construction Battalion's Shore Party (241 Personnel)[27]
USMC Commendatory Letter:[i]
11th Marine Depot Company (segregated)
7th Marine Ammunition Company (segregated)
17th Special Naval Construction Battalion (segregated)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
IndustryCargo and passenger shipping
SuccessorRederi Swedish American Line AB
Founded1915
Defunct1984 (former SAL)
HeadquartersGothenburg, Sweden
Key people
Dan Broström
ParentBroström Group
SubsidiariesSouth Atlantic Lines, Home Lines, Hoverlloyd, Swedish Atlantic Line, Atlantic Container Line
Swedish American Line (Swedish: Svenska Amerika Linien, abbreviated SAL) was a Swedish passenger shipping line. It was founded in December 1914 under the name Rederiaktiebolaget Sverige-Nordamerika, beginning ocean liner service from Gothenburg to New York in 1915.[1][2] In 1925 the company changed its name to Svenska Amerika Linien / Swedish American Line.[2]
The Swedish American Line was amongst the first companies to build liners with provisions for off-season cruising, as well as the world's first company to build a diesel-engined transatlantic liner.[3] Increased operational costs and stronger competition from aeroplanes[4][5] forced the company to abandon passenger traffic in 1975,[1] but cargo operations continued until the 1980s.[6]
History
1915–1924
Rederiaktiebolaget Sverige-Nordamerika (literally, "shipping corporation Sweden-North America") was born from the idea of Wilhelm R. Lundgren, the owner of Rederiaktiebolaget Transatlantic, with the purpose of offering ocean liner service from Sweden to North America. Both Norway and Denmark already operated their own transatlantic liners, and the establishing of a Swedish company for the trade was a matter of national pride.[7][8] Lundgren died in September 1914, but his successor Gunnar Carlsson managed to attract the attention of Dan Broström of the Broström Concern, and on 4 December 1914 the new Rederiaktiebolaget Sverige-Nordamerika was founded in Gothenburg.[2][7][8] The Broström Concern had already operated freighters across the North Atlantic since 1911 under the name of Swedish American Mexico Line (often abbreviated SAML).[9][10] Originally the new company had planned to commission two purpose-built 18000-ton ships, but this plan was never realised. Instead, in September 1915 the company acquired the 1900-built Holland America Line vessel SS Potsdam, which was renamed SS Stockholm.[11][12] On 11 December 1915, in the midst of World War I, the Stockholm left on her first crossing from Gothenburg to New York. En route she was stopped by a British naval vessel and forced to make a stop at Kirkwall, where all mail onboard was confiscated. In the end, the Stockholm's first transatlantic crossing took no less than 15½ days.[2] Initially the new company concentrated on immigrant trade, with substantial provision made for passengers traveling in steerage.[13] Despite the difficulties caused by the war, the Stockholm continued transatlantic services until 1917, when Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare forced her to be laid up in Gothenburg until June 1918, when she resumed service.[11]
In February 1920 RAB Sverige-Nordamerika acquired a second ship, the former Allan Line vessel SS Virginian from Canadian Pacific Steamships. The ship had most recently been used as a troopship by the British Admiralty. She was renamed SS Drottningholm and entered service for her new owners on 30 May 1920. In 1922–1923 the Drottningholm was refurbished, re-engined and her superstructure enlarged.[2][13][14] As a partial replacement, the 1902-built SS Noordam was chartered from Holland America Line as SS Kungsholm from 27 February 1923 until 18 December 1924.[1][2][15] In April 1924 the company acquired SS Borgholm, a small coastal steamer that became the first in a series of feeder ships used to transport passengers from ports around the Baltic Sea to Gothenburg.[2][16][17][18]
In March 1923 RAB Sverige-Nordamerika placed an order for their first newbuilding, the first MS Gripsholm, with Armstrong Whitworth & Co in Newcastle upon Tyne.[2] She was the first diesel-engined liner to be built for the transatlantic service.[1] The Gripsholm was launched and christened on 26 November 1924, and delivered on 7 November 1925. On the same date her owners officially changed their name to Svenska Amerika Linien / Swedish American Line, and on 21 November the Gripsholm set out on her maiden voyage from Gothenburg to New York.[2][19] Encouraged by the success of the Gripsholm, SAL placed an order for a ship of similar but larger design with the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg on 28 October 1926.[2] In 1927 the company decided to enter the cruise market, offering various cruises during the northern hemisphere winter season.[20]
On 17 March 1928 the new MS Kungsholm was launched at Blohm & Voss.[2][21] The Kungsholm's interiors were designed with off-season cruising in mind, with her passenger capacity shrunk from 1344 on liner service to around 600 for cruising. She was also one of the first liners with interior decorations in art deco style, following the lead of the SS Ile de France, built in 1927.[3] The ship was delivered to SAL on 13 October 1928, and left on her maiden voyage on 24 November 1928.[2][21] Coinciding with the delivery of the new ship, the first SS Stockholm was sold to Norwegian interests for conversion to a whale factory ship, SS Solglimt.[11] With the Gripsholm and Kungsholm the SAL gained popularity with West European and American passengers, both in liner and cruise service.[3] In May 1929 the United States and Canada imposed extensive restrictions on immigration.[2] At some point after the delivery of the Kungsholm, SAL decided to abandon the traditional black hull colour and their entire fleet was repainted with white hulls.[1]
The Swedish American Line continued operations with the Drottningholm, Gripsholm and Kungsholm throughout the 1930s. In November 1936 the company placed an order for a new ship, MS Stockholm, with Cantieri Riuniti dell'Adriatico, Monfalcone, Italy.[2] The planned delivery date for the ship was in March 1939, but she was destroyed by a fire during the final stages of construction on 19 December 1938. Construction of a second ship based on the same design, also named MS Stockholm, began soon after the destruction of the original.[2][22][23]
1939–1946
Due to World War II breaking out in Europe, the Kungsholm made her last transatlantic crossing in October 1939, after which she was used for cruising around the West Indies until 1941. Also due to the war the Gripsholm and Drottningholm were taken out of service and are laid up on 24 November 1939 and March 1940, respectively.[2] Meanwhile, the construction work continued on the third Stockholm in Italy, and she was launched on 10 March 1940. In October 1941 the ship was ready for delivery, but due to the war SAL had no service to place her on. As a result, the ship was sold to the Italian government on 3 November 1941 and converted to the troopship MS Sabaudia. The Sabaudia eventually sunk outside Trieste on 6 July 1944.[2][23][24] Had the Stockholm ever entered service for SAL, she would have been the largest ship ever operated by the company.[25]
Stigbergskajen quay in Gothenburg where the steamers of the Swedish American Line moored, and the port terminal "The American Shed". Shown in 1944.
In December 1941 the US Government confiscated the Kungsholm while she was in New York. After negotiations with the Swedish American Line, the company agreed to sell the ship to the War Shipping Administration (WSA) for $6 million which renamed the ship John Ericsson for operation under WSA contract by United States Lines with allocation first to the State Department and then in January 1942 to Army troop transportation until 1945 when she was laid up.[2][21][26][27][28] The Drottningholm meanwhile was chartered by the US government 4 March 1942 for use as a repatriation vessel, to exchange official personnel between the United States and the Axis powers. As Sweden was a neutral country during the war, the Swedish-flagged ship could be used to transport passengers between the warring nations, under the command of Sea Captain John Nordlander. The Drottningsholm made two exchange trips for the US government, after which she was chartered for similar use by the British government. In June 1942 the Gripsholm was also chartered to the US government for the same use as the Drottningholm. For this purpose the Gripsholm was managed by the American Export Lines but kept her original Swedish crew and flag. Unlike the Drottningholm, the Gripsholm was chartered to the US government until 1946. Together the Drottningholm and Gripsholm made a total of 33 repatriation voyages during the war.[29]
In October 1944, before the end of World War II, SAL placed an order with the Götaverken shipyard in Gothenburg for a cargo/passenger liner of 12,165 gross register tons (GRT).[2]
1946–1951
In March 1946 the Swedish American Line re-commenced commercial service, with the Drottningholm setting on her first post-war crossing from Gothenburg on 26 March 1946, while the Gripsholm set out on her corresponding crossing from New York on 31 March 1946. On 9 September 1946 the company's newest ship was launched at the Götaverken shipyard and named MS Stockholm.[2] The new Stockholm was the product of an entirely different thinking from her two predecessors with the same name—instead of offering luxurious surroundings, the new ship was to offer cheap transportation for the masses with austere interiors—despite the protests from the company's chief executive and Stateside offices.[30][31] During the same year the Swedish American Line founded Home Lines together with Cosulich Lines and the Greek businessman Eugen Eugenides.[1] Additionally the operations of Swedish American Mexico Line were merged into those of the Swedish American Line in 1946, bringing five cargo-carrying ships to the fleet of SAL.[6][9] On 18 July 1947 Swedish American Line bought back the USS John Ericsson from the US Navy, and restored her to her original name. The ship sailed to the Ansaldo shipyard in Genoa, where she was rebuilt for service with Home Lines under the name MS Italia.[21]
On 7 February 1948 the new Stockholm was delivered to SAL. She set out on her maiden voyage from Gothenburg to New York on 21 February 1948.[32] When the Stockholm entered service, the Drottningholm was transferred to South Atlantic Lines (a subsidiary of SAL) and renamed SS Brazil for traffic with Home Lines.[14] Between 18 December 1949 and 14 February 1950 the Gripsholm was rebuilt at Howaldtswerke, Kiel with amongst others new funnels, a new bow and modern navigational equipment.[19] In March 1950 the company placed an order for a new combined cruise ship/ocean liner with De Schelde shipyard at Vlissingen, Netherlands. On 18 January 1951 the Swedish American Line re-commenced cruise service for the first time since 1941, when the Stockholm embarked on a cruise to the West Indies.[2]
1952–1962
The new ship under construction at De Schelde was launched on 18 October 1952 and named MS Kungsholm, becoming the third SAL ship to bear the name. The new Kungsholm was delivered on 30 September 1953, and set out on her maiden voyage from Gothenburg on 24 November 1953.[2][33] Following the Kungsholm's delivery the Stockholm was rebuilt with larger passenger accommodations.[31] Coinciding with the completion of the Stockholm's refit, the ageing Gripsholm was sold to the North German Lloyd, becoming their MS Berlin.[19][32] On 14 September 1954 SAL ordered another new ship, essentially an enlarged version of the most recent Kungsholm, from the Ansaldo shipyard. The new ship was named MS Gripsholm (the second ship to bear that name in the SAL fleet) and launched on 8 April 1956.[2]
On 25 July 1956 the Stockholm collided with the SS Andrea Doria outside Nantucket in one of the most famous maritime disasters of the 20th century. 47 people on the Andrea Doria were lost, while five members of the Stockholm's crew were lost in the collision. Several of the Andrea Doria's passengers were rescued by the Stockholm. She was able to return to New York under her own power, and was subsequently repaired at Bethlehem Steel, returning to service on 5 November 1956.[2][31][32] On 14 May 1957 the new Gripsholm started on her maiden voyage from Gothenburg to New York. For the next three years the company operated with three ships.[2] In May 1959 the Stockholm was sold to VEB Deutsche Seereederei, East Germany, with a delivery date on 3 January 1960, becoming their MS Völkerfreundschaft.[32]
1963–1975
On 23 August 1963 the Swedish American Line ordered another new ship, this time from John Brown and Company, Clydebank. The new ship, named MS Kungsholm (the fourth SAL ship with that name), was launched on 14 April 1964. Her design featured several cruise-friendly innovations, including all-outside cabins and large lido decks.[34] In preparation for the delivery of the new Kungsholm, the old (third) Kungsholm was sold to North German Lloyd on 5 October 1965, becoming their third MS Europa. The SAL operated with just one passenger-carrying ship until 24 April 1966, when the fourth (and final) Kungsholm was delivered. She began service with a transatlantic crossing from Gothenburg to New York, after which she was used for cruising around the world.[2][35] In 1966 SAL's ships made only nine transatlantic crossings.[34] In 1965 SAL had founded Hoverlloyd together with Swedish Lloyd to offer a fast hovercraft connection across the English Channel. Hoverlloyd begun operations in 1966 with two hovercraft, Swift and Sure.[36][37] Another joint operation was formed in the mid-60s when SAL, Rederiaktiebolaget Transatlantic and Wallenius Rederiet founded Atlantic Container Line as a joint marketing entity for transatlantic freight operations. Some time later the decision was made to establish a new company, Swedish Atlantic Line (AB Svenska Atlant Linjen), for Swedish American Line's freight operations. In the early 70s another joint company, Atlantic Gulf Services, was founded, this time in collaboration with Finnlines.[10]
In 1970 SAL's passenger ships made only three transatlantic crossings, and from 1971 onwards the only crossings made were repositioning cruises.[34] In June 1972 the Swedish American Line purchased the expedition cruise ship MS Lindblad Explorer via their Panama-based subsidiary United Cruising Co. Unlike other SAL passenger vessels, the Lindblad Explorer was registered in Panama, not Sweden.[38] Increased operational costs of Swedish-flagged ships forced the company to start negotiations with Swedish trade unions for re-flagging the Gripsholm and Kungsholm. The negotiations failed however, and 22 March 1975 the company decided to abandon passenger traffic despite protests from the company's United States offices, according to whom the ships would have continued to be highly profitable even under the Swedish flag.[1][2][25] The Gripsholm and Kungsholm were taken out-of-service and laid up in August 1975. The Kungsholm was sold to Flagship Cruises in October of the same year for only 65 million Swedish krona, a half of what SAL had paid for her nine years earlier. Flagship maintained her under the name Kungsholm for cruising under Liberian flag.[25][35] The Gripsholm found a buyer in November when she was sold to Karageorgis Lines, Greece, becoming their MS Navarino.[39] The Lindblad Explorer however stayed under SAL's ownership.[38] At the end of 1975 SAL withdrew from Atlantic Gulf Services.[10]
1975 onwards
SAL continued freight operations, maintained their share in Hoverlloyd and ownership of the Lindblad Explorer until the early 1980s. The Lindblad Explorer was sold to Lindblad Swire Cruises in 1980,[38] and soon afterwards SAL withdrew from Hoverlloyd.[36] Apparently the last ship owned by the company was sold in 1986.[6] In 1984 the company was bought by competing ship owner Rederi AB Transatlantic, which in turn was bought by transportation company Bilspedition AB in 1988. The last vestiges of SAL disappeared in 1990, when Bilspedition closed down its shipping department.[40]
Map of comparative sizes of major rivers and mountains of the World 1868. (see comment below for Numbered Reference to Principal Mountains). Two page engraving.
From the National Encyclopedia Atlas 1868.
Published by William Mackenzie London. 19cm x 29cm
Mahane Yehuda Market
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Mahane Yehuda Market
Shuk Mahane Yehuda
Shuk (26).JPG
Mahane Yehuda Market on a busy Friday
Mahane Yehuda Market is located in JerusalemMahane Yehuda Market
Location within Jerusalem
Alternative namesThe Shuk or Machne
General information
LocationJerusalem, Israel
Coordinates31°47′08″N 35°12′44″E
OpenedLate 19th century
ManagementMachane Yehuda Management
Mahane Yehuda Market (Hebrew: שוק מחנה יהודה, Shuk Mahane Yehuda), often referred to as "The Shuk",[1] is a marketplace (originally open-air, but now partially covered) in Jerusalem, Israel. Popular with locals and tourists alike, the market's more than 250 vendors[2] sell fresh fruits and vegetables; baked goods; fish, meat and cheeses; nuts, seeds, and spices; wines and liquors; clothing and shoes; and housewares, textiles, and Judaica.[3][4]
In and around the market are falafel, shawarma, kibbeh, kebab, shashlik, kanafeh, baklava, halva, zalabiya and jerusalem mixed grill stands, juice bars, cafes, and restaurants.[2] The color and bustle of the marketplace is accentuated by vendors who call out their prices to passersby.[2] On Thursdays and Fridays, the marketplace is filled with shoppers stocking up for Shabbat,[5] until the Friday afternoon sounding of the bugle that signifies the market will close for the Sabbath.[2][6] In recent years, the 'shuk' has emerged as another Jerusalemic nightlife center, with restaurants, bars and live music.[7]
Contents
1Geography
2History
3Tourism
3.1Artwork
4Management
5Clientele
6Hours of operation
7Transportation
8Notable residents and businesses
9Holiday markets
10Terrorist attacks
11See also
12References
13External links
Geography
Jaffa oranges and Judaica at Mahane Yehuda.
Mahane Yehuda market is bounded by Jaffa Road to the north, Agrippas Street to the south, Beit Yaakov Street to the west, and Kiach Street to the east.[8] The market itself has two major streets: Eitz Chaim Street (the covered market) and Mahane Yehuda Street (the open-air market). Bisecting these two streets are smaller streets that all used to be named for fruits and nuts—Afarsek (Peach) Street, Agas (Pear) Street, Egoz (Walnut) Street, Shaked (Almond) Street, Shezif (Plum) Street, Tapuach (Apple) Street, and Tut (Berry) Street[4]—until the municipality changed the name of Agas St. to Yaakov Eliyahu Banai St.[9]
History
In 1887 the neighborhood of Mahane Yehuda was established on the north side of Jaffa Road. It was founded by three business partners—Johannes Frutiger (a German Protestant and owner of the largest bank in Palestine), Shalom Konstrum, and Joseph Navon—and was named after Navon's brother, Yehuda.[4] On the south side of the street to the west stood another neighborhood, Beit Ya'akov, founded in 1885.[10]
At the end of the 19th century, a marketplace was established on an empty lot to the east of Beit Ya'akov and across the road from Mahane Yehuda which was owned by the Sephardi Valero family;[4] this market was known as Shuk Beit Yaakov (Beit Yaakov Market).[10] Here Arab merchants and fellaheen sold their goods to the residents who lived outside the Old City. As the new neighborhoods outside the Old City grew, the Beit Yaakov Market grew apace with more stalls, tents and pavilions.[10]
Under Ottoman rule, the market expanded haphazardly and sanitary conditions worsened. In the late 1920s, the British Mandate authorities cleared out all the merchants and built permanent stalls and roofing.[4] Afterwards the market began to be known as the Mahane Yehuda Market, after the larger neighborhood.[11]
In 1931 a new section was built to the west of the market by 20 traders, who previously had only temporary wooden stalls in the area. It was later named the Iraqi Market, as many traders of Iraqi Jewish descent acquired shops there.[12] Today the Iraqi Market is located off Mahane Yehuda Street.
A halvah seller arranges his wares.
In the 2000s, major renovations were made to the Mahane Yehuda Market, including infrastructure work, repaving roads and covering some open areas.[4] The market's Board of Directors worked to make at least some of these changes in response to a decrease in visitors after terrorist attacks in 1997 and 2002 killed 23 people.[13] Changes driven by the Board included renovations to the streets and alleyways, but also included efforts to draw in cafes and boutiques that would entice more middle-class customers who might become frequent shoppers.[13] According to Eli Mizrachi, chairman of the Mahane Yehuda Merchants Association, whereas shoppers used to come to buy produce, the "new generation" wants a place with entertainment, a place to sit and have a cup of coffee, and a place to shop for gifts.[14]
In the mid-2000s, Ethiopian food sellers began to appear in and around the market.[15][16] In addition, a number of "trendy shops and cafés" began appearing among the market's retail stalls."[17] New "non-Middle Eastern" restaurants include eateries such as "Pasta Basta," specializing in Italian pasta dishes,[18] "Fish and Chips," described by one guide book as "the only fish and chips bar in Jerusalem,"[14][19] and "Ha'Agas 1," a vegetarian restaurant.[20] Other recent additions to the market's stalls include an espresso bar, "hip jewelry" stores, and designer clothing "boutiques".[3][21][22][23] Three new designer clothing stores opened in 2007 alone.[24]
Bread and pita vendor.
Changes in the market have transformed the area into a "night spot," with bars featuring specialty drinks, live music, and singers.[14] The change has been so pronounced that a Jerusalem Post article listed one shuk restaurant as one of the five highest-rated restaurants in the city for romantic dates.[25] The shuk also now hosts special events like the "Balabasta" dance and music festival, launched in 2010, which attracts large crowds that remain until late at night, in areas that used to be deserted.[14] The annual festival includes street performances, artwork, puppet shows, and events linked to the market's foods, such as chili-eating contests and produce-carving workshops.[26][27]
While some supporters of changes to the market claim that the revitalized shuk has actually helped to revitalize the whole city,[14][28] others are less enthusiastic about the changes, noting that real estate prices have quadrupled since the 2000s, forcing out many older shops (like vegetable and fish shops) that were staples of the market.[14] They fear that the arrival of chain stores is "part of a global phenomenon that may erase local culture".[29]
Tourism
A boutique in the marketplace.
Beit Zvul, a storefront synagogue.
The Jerusalem Municipality has invested millions in modernizing the center of Jerusalem and creating many pedestrian malls in order to elevate commerce, tourism, and culture.[30] Nir Barkat, mayor of Jerusalem, said, "We realized if we wanted to increase our market share of tourism and the time people spend in Jerusalem, nightlife is key". In recent years, as part of this strategy, many bars and restaurant have opened in the alleyways of the Mahane Yehuda market to draw young and sophisticated customers.[7][31]
Another sign of change is the fact that in 2012 at least one Mahane Yehuda shop, Eli's, has a page on the social media website Facebook.[32][33] Additionally, the shuk as a whole now has an "interactive website" in Hebrew and another in English that include articles, photos, advertisements, and maps.[13][34][35] Additionally, free Wi-Fi internet access is now available to customers in some of the market's shops.[36][37]
Another innovation, offered through the website, is a ticket for a self-guided tour of the market called "Shuk Bites", where for 99 shekels (as of 2012) a ticket includes both a map with a pre-planned route through the market and "punch-card" vouchers that allow visitors to enjoy tastes of a variety of foods and drinks.[34][38]
In addition to the self-guided tour, more and more tours of Jerusalem include visits to the market, including a special "market cooking tour" offered to residents of the nearby "Abraham Hostel"—where members of the group are first given a tour, and then purchase food that they bring back to the hostel for a "hands on lesson in cooking a traditional vegetarian Middle-East meal."[39] As of 2012, tours listed on the shuk's official website include the classic tour; bakery tour; wine and cheese tour; chef-guided tasting tour; and shuk cooking workshop.[1] These tours are aimed at attracting a "new breed of culinary tourists."[40]
Artwork
In 2011 the city-sponsored project "Tabula Rasa" (Blank Slate) supported urban artwork decorating walls, concrete surfaces, and even the trash bins of the market.[17] Street artist Itamar Paloge, curator for the project, recruited some 30 other artists from schools of art and photography in the city, including Bezalel, Hadassah, and Musrara, in addition to local sculptors, painters, photographers, and various artists, including street artists.[17] Jerusalem mayor Nir Barkat noted that the project is a joint venture between the merchants, the Student Union, and the municipality. Barkat stressed that Mahane Yehuda has become more than a market: it is an important part of the city's public space – and it's a unique part because of the way Jews and Arabs bargain shop side-by-side in its crowded alleyways and streets.[17]
Beginning in January 2015 the metal shutters and doors of the shops became an after-hours attraction as they were spray painted by street artist Solomon Souza.[41][42] Souza's partner in the project, Berel Hahn, arranges permission from the shopkeepers.[41][43] As of July 2016, Souza had spray-painted more than 150 of the 360 shutters in the market.[41][43]
Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
United States
Name:Picking
Namesake:Sherwood Picking
Builder:Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Staten Island, N.Y.
Laid down:24 November 1942
Launched:1 June 1943
Commissioned:21 September 1943
Decommissioned:20 December 1945
Recommissioned:26 January 1951
Decommissioned:6 September 1969
Struck:1 March 1975
Fate:sunk as a target, 27 February 1997
General characteristics
Class and type:Fletcher-class destroyer
Displacement:2,050 tons
Length:376.4 ft (114.7 m)
Beam:39.6 ft (12.1 m)
Draft:13.8 ft (4.2 m)
Propulsion:
60,000 shp (45,000 kW);
2 propellers
Speed:38 kn (70 km/h; 44 mph)
Range:6,500 nmi (12,000 km; 7,500 mi) at 15 kn (28 km/h; 17 mph)
Complement:329
Armament:
5 × 5 in (127 mm)/38 cal. guns
10 × 40 mm AA guns,
7 × 20 mm AA guns,
10 × 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes
USS Picking (DD-685), a Fletcher-class destroyer, was a ship of the United States Navy named for Sherwood Picking (1890–1941), a submarine commander during World War I.
She was decommissioned at Mare Island in 1969 not Long Beach. I was part of decommissioning crew.
Construction and commissioning
Picking (DD–685) was laid down on 24 November 1942 by Bethlehem Steel Co., Inc., Staten Island, N.Y.; launched on 1 June 1943; sponsored by Mrs. Sherwood Picking; and commissioned on 21 September 1943, Commander Raymond S. Lamb in command.
Service history
World War II
Following shakedown off Bermuda, Picking proceeded via the Panama Canal to Dutch Harbor, Alaska, where she arrived 28 December 1943 to serve with the North Pacific Fleet, Destroyer Squadron 49. She bombarded Paramushiro, Kuriles, 4 February 1944, Matsuwa Island, Kuriles, 13 June, and Paramushiro again 26 June. In August she steamed to San Francisco, California for upkeep, and then to Hawaii, arriving Pearl Harbor on the 31st where she joined the 3rd Fleet. Escorting attack transports, she arrived at Manus Island 3 October.
Picking in World War II.
Assigned to the 7th Fleet, she screened for the southern landings on Leyte 20 October. While escorting unloaded transports bound for Hollandia, New Guinea, she splashed one plane 24 October. Upon news of the Battle off Samar Island, Picking rushed to provide protection. She and Hale splashed one plane on 25 October. After the Battle for Leyte Gulf, she escorted Mount Olympus and Auriga to Manus Island and returned to Leyte 20 November to protect Allied convoys bringing reinforcements.
Following replenishment at Manus, Picking provided antiaircraft protection for the beachhead at Lingayen Gulf, Philippines on 9 January 1945. She screened landings at San Antonio, Philippines on 29 January and provided fire support and screen protection as troops went ashore on Mariveles on 15 February, and on Corregidor 16 February.
Following replenishment at Leyte, the destroyer arrived off Kerama Retto, Ryukyus on 26 March, and screened transports during landings that morning. Assigned to fire support duty on 1 April, she bombarded Japanese positions on Okinawa vigorously. She splashed two enemy planes on 6 April, another on 9 April, and saved one Navy aviator on 17 April. She rescued survivors from the destroyer Longshaw, off Naha, Okinawa, 18 May. Relieved of fire support duties on 7 June, she served as a radar picket until 23 June when she sailed for Saipan. Following her return to San Francisco at the end of the war, Picking decommissioned 20 December 1945, and entered the Pacific Reserve Fleet at San Diego.
1951 – 1969
Picking off Oahu, 1963.
In response to the Korean War, Picking recommissioned 26 January 1951. Following duty out of Newport, Rhode Island, she arrived at Yokosuka, Japan, 4 May 1953. Off Korea she operated with Task Forces 77 and 95, conducting shore bombardment with 95 and saved one naval aviator. Upon completion of Korean duty, she departed Sasebo, Japan on 5 August, and proceeded via the Suez Canal to Boston arriving 2 October.
Following stateside operations in 1954, she sailed 5 January 1955 for European and Mediterranean duty. Operating out of Derry, Northern Ireland, she studied British convoy escort techniques, and then served with the 6th Fleet, before returning to Newport 26 May.
Transferred to the Pacific Fleet, she arrived at Long Beach, California, 15 April 1956. She departed 5 June for a tour of duty with the 7th Fleet, which included a Taiwan patrol, and returned to Long Beach 18 November. Departing Long Beach 13 August, she made another tour of the Far East, and returned 24 January 1958. On her next WestPac deployment, 8 October 1958 to 27 March 1959, she operated with an antisubmarine hunter-killer group led by the aircraft carrier Yorktown. During this tour, she carried emergency supplies to the fire-damaged Japanese town of Koniya. In the fall she participated in antisubmarine exercises with Canadian forces off the west coast. From January to June 1960, and from August 1961 to February 1962, she made two more WestPac deployments. During the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962, she escorted the aircraft carrier Ranger. East coast operations and training filled 1963.
Deployed to the 7th Fleet on 13 March 1964, she performed escort duty off Vietnam in response to the Gulf of Tonkin incident before returning to Long Beach 2 October. Sailing for WestPac 10 July 1965, she arrived at Dixie Station off Vietnam 11 September. During September and November, she bombarded enemy positions in South Vietnam. She returned to Long Beach 16 December. Following training and local operations in 1966, she departed for WestPac 27 December. She bombarded enemy military, naval, and logistical areas in North and South Vietnam, and destroyed several logistical craft in coastal waters off North Vietnam. Training off the west coast in antisubmarine warfare and gunnery completed 1967. In February 1968 she departed for WestPac, and arrived at Yankee Station 25 April. Following gunfire support duty off South Vietnam and a return to Yankee Station, she arrived Long Beach 17 August.
Following duties with the Pacific Fleet in 1969, Picking decommissioned 6 September 1969 at Long Beach, Calif., and entered the Reserve Fleet.[1] She was stricken from the Navy list 1 March 1975, and sunk as a target 27 February 1997.
Honors and awards
Picking received five battle stars for World War II service. and one battle star for Korean service.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
United States
Name: St. Louis
Namesake: City of St. Louis, Missouri
Ordered: 13 February 1929
Awarded: 16 October 1935
Builder: Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company, Newport News, Virginia
Cost: $13,196,000 (contract price)
Laid down: 10 December 1936
Launched: 15 April 1938
Sponsored by: Miss Nancy Lee Morrill
Commissioned: 19 May 1939
Decommissioned: 20 June 1946
Struck: 22 January 1951
Identification:
Hull symbol:CL-49
Code letters:NABX
ICS November.svgICS Alpha.svgICS Bravo.svgICS X-ray.svg
Nickname(s): "Lucky Lou"
Honors and
awards: Bronze-service-star-3d.png Silver-service-star-3d.png 11 × battle stars
Fate: Sold to Brazil on 29 January 1951
History
Brazil
Name: Tamandare (C-12)
Namesake: Municipality of Tamandaré, Pernambuco, Brazil
Acquired: 22 January 1951
Commissioned: 29 January 1951
Decommissioned: 28 June 1976
Struck: 1976
Identification: Hull symbol:C-12
Fate: sunk while under tow from Rio de Janeiro to the ship-breakers in Taiwan for scrapping, 24 August 1980, 38°48′S 01°24′W
General characteristics (as built)[1][2]
Class & type: St. Louis-class light cruiser
Displacement:
10,000 long tons (10,000 t) (standard)
13,327 long tons (13,541 t) (max)
Length: 608 ft 8 in (185.52 m)
Beam: 61 ft 5 in (18.72 m)
Draft:
19 ft 10 in (6.05 m) (mean)
24 ft (7.3 m) (max)
Installed power:
8 × Steam boilers
100,000 shp (75,000 kW)
Propulsion:
4 × geared turbines
4 × screws
Speed: 32.5 kn (37.4 mph; 60.2 km/h)
Complement: 868 officers and enlisted
Armament:
15 × 6 in (150 mm)/47 caliber Mark 16 guns (5x3)
8 × twin 5 in (130 mm)/38 caliber anti-aircraft guns
8 × caliber 0.50 in (13 mm) machine guns
Armor:
Belt: 3 1⁄4–5 in (83–127 mm)
Deck: 2 in (51 mm)
Barbettes: 6 in (150 mm)
Turrets: 1 1⁄4–6 in (32–152 mm)
Conning Tower: 2 1⁄4–5 in (57–127 mm)
Aircraft carried: 4 × SOC Seagull floatplanes
Aviation facilities: 2 × stern catapults
General characteristics (1945)[3][4]
Armament:
15 × 6 in (150 mm)/47 caliber Mark 16 guns (5x3)
8 × twin 5 in (130 mm)/38 caliber anti-aircraft guns
4 × quad 40 mm (1.6 in) Bofors anti-aircraft guns
6 × twin 40 mm (1.6 in) Bofors anti-aircraft guns
18 × single 20 mm (0.79 in) Oerlikon anti-aircraft cannons
USS St. Louis (CL-49), the lead ship of her class of light cruiser, was the fifth ship of the United States Navy named after the city of St. Louis, Missouri. Commissioned in 1939, she was very active in the Pacific during World War II, earning eleven battle stars.
She was deactivated shortly after the war, but was recommissioned into the Brazilian Navy as Almirante Tamandaré in 1951. She served until 1976, and sank under tow to the scrappers in 1980.
Construction
St. Louis was laid down on 10 December 1936 by the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company, Newport News, Virginia; launched on 15 April 1938; sponsored by Miss Nancy Lee Morrill; and commissioned on 19 May 1939, Captain Charles H. Morrison in command.[5]
Inter-war period
Atlantic
Fitted out and based at Norfolk, St. Louis completed shakedown on 6 October, then commenced Neutrality Patrol operations which, during the next 11 months, took her from the West Indies into the North Atlantic. On 3 September 1940, she put to sea with an inspection board embarked to evaluate possible sites, from Newfoundland to British Guiana, for naval and air bases to be gained in exchange for destroyers transferred to the British government. She returned to Norfolk on 27 October.[5]
Pacific
St. Louis sailed for the Pacific on 9 November. Transiting the Panama Canal five days later, St. Louis reached Pearl Harbor on 12 December. She participated in fleet maneuvers and conducted patrols during the winter of 1940-1941, then steamed to California for an overhaul at Mare Island. She returned to Pearl Harbor on 20 June and resumed operations in Hawaiian waters.[5]
Two months later, St. Louis sailed west with other cruisers of the Battle Force, patrolled between Wake Island, Midway Atoll, and Guam, then, proceeded to Manila, returning to Hawaii at the end of September. On 28 September 1941, she entered the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard for upkeep.[5]
World War II
This message denotes the first US ship, USS St. Louis (CL49) to clear Pearl Harbor. (National Archives and Records Administration) [Note that this is in answer to question "Is channel clear?" and faint writing at bottom concerning the answer being held until St. Louis had successfully cleared.]
On 7 December 1941, St. Louis was moored to the pier in Southeast Lock at the time of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. At 7:56, Japanese planes were sighted by observers on board St. Louis. Within minutes, the ship was at general quarters, and her operable anti-aircraft guns were manned and firing on the attackers. By 8:06, preparations for getting underway had begun. At about 8:20, one of the cruiser's gun crews shot down its first Japanese torpedo plane. By 9:00, two more Japanese aircraft had joined the first. At 9:31, St. Louis moved away from the pier and headed for South Channel and the open sea. 15 minutes later, her 6 in (150 mm) guns, whose power leads had been disconnected, were in full operating order.[5]
As the cruiser moved into the channel entrance, she became the target of a midget submarine. The Japanese torpedoes, however, exploded on striking a shoal less than 200 yd (180 m) from the ship. Destroyers then pounded the bottom with depth charges and St. Louis continued out to sea where she joined Detroit and Phoenix, both of which also left Pearl Harbor during the attack, and a few destroyers in the search for the Japanese fleet. After failing to locate the Japanese strike force, the hunters returned to Pearl Harbor on 10 December. St. Louis turned to escorting transports carrying casualties to San Francisco and troops to Hawaii.[5]
For her success during the attack on Pearl Harbor, the ship was given the nickname "Lucky Lou."[6]
1942
On 6 January 1942, she departed San Francisco with Task Force 17 (TF 17), centered around Yorktown, and escorted the ships transporting the Marine Expeditionary Force to Samoa to reinforce defenses there. From 20–24 January, the Yorktown group covered the offloading at Pago Pago, then moved to conduct air strikes in the Marshalls and the Gilberts before returning to Pearl Harbor on 7 February.[5]
Upon her return to Pearl Harbor, St. Louis resumed escort duty with Hawaii–California convoys. In the spring, after a trip to the New Hebrides, she escorted President Coolidge, which was carrying President Manuel L. Quezon of the Philippines to the west coast, arriving at San Francisco on 8 May. The following day, she was again bound for Pearl Harbor. There, she switched to a reinforcement group carrying Marine aircraft and personnel to Midway in anticipation of Japanese efforts to take that key outpost. On the 25th, she delivered her charges to their mid-ocean destination, then moved north as a unit of TF 8 to reinforce Aleutian defenses.[5]
On 31 May, St. Louis arrived at Kodiak Island, refueled, and got underway to patrol south of the Alaskan Peninsula. Through July, she continued the patrols, ranging westward to intercept enemy shipping. On 3 August, she headed for Kiska for her first shore bombardment mission. Four days later, she shelled that enemy-held island, then returned to Kodiak on the 11th.[5]
After that mission, the cruiser continued patrols in the Aleutian area and covered the Allied occupation of Adak Island. On 25 October, she proceeded via Dutch Harbor to California for an overhaul at Mare Island.[5]
1943
On 4 December 1942, she departed San Francisco with transports bound for New Caledonia. She shepherded the convoy into its Nouméan anchorage on the 21st, then shifted to Espiritu Santo, New Hebrides, where she proceeded into the Solomons. She commenced operations there in January 1943 with bombardments of Japanese air facilities at Munda and Kolombangara, and during the next five months, repeated those raids and patrolled "the Slot" in the Central Solomons in an effort to halt the "Tokyo Express": reinforcement and supply shipping that sought, almost nightly, to bolster Japanese garrisons.[5]
Shortly after midnight on 4–5 July, she participated in the bombardment of Vila and Bairoko Harbor, New Georgia. Her division, Cruiser Division 9 (CruDiv 9) and its screen, Destroyer Squadron 21 (DesRon 21), then retired back toward Tulagi to replenish as troops were landed at Rice Anchorage. Early on the morning of the 6th, however, the force located and engaged ten enemy destroyers headed for Vila with reinforcements embarked. In the Battle of Kula Gulf, Helena and two enemy ships were sunk.[5]
St. Louis after the Battle of Kolombangara, showing torpedo damage to her bows
Six nights later, the force, TF 18, reinforced by DesRon 12, moved back up "the Slot" from Tulagi, and soon after 0100 on the 13th, engaged an enemy force consisting of the Japanese cruiser Jintsu and five destroyers in the Battle of Kolombangara. During the battle, which raged for over an hour, Jintsu and Gwin were sunk and HMNZS Leander, Honolulu, and St. Louis were damaged. St. Louis took a torpedo which hit well forward and twisted her bow, but caused no serious casualties.[5]
She returned to Tulagi on the afternoon of the 13th. From there, she moved on to Espiritu Santo for temporary repairs, then steamed east, to Mare Island, to complete the work. In mid-November, she returned to the Solomons, and from the 20th-25th covered Marines fighting for Bougainville Island. In December, she returned to that island to shell troop concentrations and, in January 1944, shifted southward to bombard enemy installations in the Shortland Islands. Then, she moved back to Bougainville to cover the landing of reinforcements at Cape Torokina.[5]
1944-1945
On 10 January 1944, St. Louis headed back to Florida Island. In February, she again moved northwest, this time into the extreme northern Solomons and the Bismarcks. On the 13th, she arrived in the area between Buka and St. George Channel to support landing operations in the Green Islands, off of New Ireland.[5]
At 1855 on the 14th, six Aichi D3A "Val" dive bombers were sighted approaching St. Louis's group. Crossing astern of the ships, the enemy planes went out to the southeast before turning and coming back. Only five remained in the formation, which split off into two groups. Two of the planes closed on St. Louis.[5]
The first plane dropped three bombs, all near misses. The second released three more. One scored on the light cruiser, the others being near misses just off the port quarter. The bomb that hit penetrated the 40 mm clipping room near the No. 6 gun mount, and exploded in the midships living compartment. Twenty-three died and 20 were wounded, 10 seriously. A fire, which had started in the clipping room, was extinguished. Both of her scout planes were rendered inoperable, and her ventilation system was damaged. Communication with the after engine room ceased, and the cruiser slowed to 18 kn (21 mph; 33 km/h). On the 15th, she survived another air attack and was then ordered back to Purvis Bay.[5]
Repairs were completed by the end of the month, and in March, St. Louis resumed operations with her division. Through May, she remained in the Solomons. On 4 June, she moved north to the Marshalls, where on the 10th, she sailed for the Mariana Islands in TF 52, the Saipan assault force. Four days later, she cruised off southern Saipan. On the 15th, she shelled the Chalan Kanoa area, retired as the landings took place, then moved back to provide call fire support and to shell targets of opportunity. On the 16th, she proceeded south and bombarded the Asan beach area of Guam. She then returned to Saipan and, on the 17th, shifted to an area north of that island where she remained through the battle of the Philippine Sea. On the 22nd, she returned to Saipan and, after screening the refueling group for two days, proceeded to the Marshalls.[5]
On 14 July 1944, St. Louis again headed for the Marianas. The next day, she damaged her No. 3 propeller and lost 39 ft (12 m) of the tail shaft. Nevertheless, two days later, she arrived off Guam as scheduled; and, during the afternoon, covered underwater demolition teams working the proposed landing beaches. Pre-invasion shore bombardment followed, and after the landings on the 21st, she provided support fire and call fire. On the 29th, St. Louis departed the Marianas for Pearl Harbor, where she was routed on to California for overhaul. In mid-October, she steamed back to Hawaii, trained until the end of the month, then moved on across the Pacific, via Ulithi and Kossol Roads, to the Philippines, arriving in Leyte Gulf on 16 November.[5]
St. Louis hit by a kamikaze off Leyte, 27 November 1944
During the next 10 days, she patrolled in the gulf and in Surigao Strait, adding her batteries to the anti-aircraft guns protecting shipping in the area. Shortly before noon on 27 November, a formation of 12-14 enemy planes attacked the cruiser's formation. St. Louis was unscathed in the brief battle. A request was made for CAP cover, but Japanese planes continued to command the air. At 1130, another 10 enemy planes filled the space vacated by the first flight and broke into three attack groups of four, four, and two. At 1138, a "Val" made a kamikaze dive on St. Louis from the port quarter, and exploded with its bomb on impact. Fires broke out in the cruiser's hangar area and spaces. All crew members of 20 mm guns 7-10 were killed or wounded.[5]
At 1139, a second burning enemy plane headed at her on the port beam. Flank speed was rung up and the rudder was put hard right. The plane passed over No. 4 turret and crashed 100 yd (91 m) out.[5]
At 1146, there was still no CAP cover over the cruiser's formation, and at 1151, two more enemy planes, both burning, attacked St. Louis. The first was splashed off the port quarter, and the second drove in from starboard and crashed almost on board on the port side. A 20 ft (6.1 m) section of armor belt was lost and numerous holes were torn in her hull. By 1152, the ship had taken on a list to port. At 1210, another kamikaze closed on St. Louis. It was stopped 400 yd (370 m) astern. Ten minutes later, enemy torpedo bombers moved in to attack. St. Louis, warned by a PT boat, barely avoided contact with a lethal package dropped by one of the planes.[5]
By 1236, the cruiser was back on an even keel. Thirty minutes later, all major fires were out, and salvage work had been started. Medical work was well under way: 15 were dead, one was missing, 21 were seriously wounded, and 22 had sustained minor injuries. On the 28th, St. Louis's seriously injured were transferred, and on the 30th, she put into San Pedro Bay for temporary repairs which allowed her to reach California toward the end of December.[5]
On 1 March 1945, St. Louis departed California, and at mid-month, she joined the fast carrier force at Ulithi. By the end of the month, she had participated in strikes against the southern Japanese home islands, then moved south to the Ryukyu Islands to join TF 54, bombarded Okinawa, and guarded minesweepers and underwater demolition teams clearing channels to the assault beaches. On the 31st, she put into Kerama Retto to replenish, then returned to the larger island to support the forces landed on the Hagushi beaches on 1 April.[5]
Five days later, the cruiser covered minesweepers off Iwo Jima, then resumed fire support and antiaircraft duties off Okinawa. On 18 May, she departed Hagushi for a brief respite at Leyte, and in mid-June, she resumed support operations off Okinawa. On 25 July, she shifted to TF 95, and on the 28th, she supported air strikes against Japanese installations on the Asiatic mainland. Sweeps of the East China Sea followed, and in early August, she anchored in Buckner Bay, where she remained until the end of hostilities on 15 August.[5]
Post-war
China
Post-war duties kept the cruiser in the Far East for another two and one-half months. In late August 1945, while in the Philippines, she was assigned to TF 73 of the Yangtze River Patrol Force. During September, as other ships joined the force, she was at Buckner Bay, and in October, she moved on to Shanghai. In mid-October, she helped to lift Chinese Army units to Formosa.[5]
Magic Carpet
St. Louis joined the "Magic Carpet" fleet to carry World War II veterans back to the United States. She completed her first "Magic Carpet" run at San Francisco on 9 November 1945, and by mid-January 1946 had made two more runs, both to islands in the Central and Southwest Pacific.[5]
In early February 1946, St. Louis sailed for the east coast and arrived at Philadelphia for deactivation on the 25th. She was decommissioned on 20 June and berthed at League Island with the 16th (Inactive) Fleet through the decade.[5]
Transfer to Brazil
In the 1951, St. Louis was designated for transfer to the government of Brazil. Her name was struck from the Navy List on 22 January 1951, and on the 29th, she was commissioned in the Brazilian Navy as Tamandare (C-12). Formally activated for duty on January 29, 1951, the St. Louis was renamed C Tamandare (C-12)[5] and served with the Marinha do Brasil as Fleet Flagship until 1976. Decommissioned for the final time and once again placed into reserve, the Tamandare was eventually sold for scrapping in Taiwan in 1980 and was under tow to the breakers yard (Taiwan) when she flooded and sunk on August 24, 1980, near Cape of Good Hope, at 38°48′28″S 1°23′59″W
Children's Encyclopedia, edited by Arthur Mee, and published in 10 volumes by the Educational Book Company, London. It was published from 1908 to 1964
Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
....Shows the Way.
Written by Donald Sobol
Illustrated by Leonard Shortall
Published by Weekly Reader Books (1972)
John Everett
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Portrait of the painter Herbert Barnard John Everett, by William Orpen
(Herbert Barnard) John Everett (1876 – 1949), was an English painter.
Biography[edit]
Known as Herbert by his family, he was born in Dorchester, Dorset.[1] on 18 August 1876. His father Rev. Henry Everett was Rector of Holy Trinity in Dorchester and his mother, Augusta Stewart (also known as Aurelia) could trace her maternal ancestry back to Viscount Sackville, third son of the Duke of Dorset and her paternal to the 7th Earl of Galloway and the 7th Earl of Wemyss. Herbert was their only son.
In the 1880s his parents had contacts with Thomas and Emma Hardy who spent time there before moving to Max Gate.[1] In the autumn of 1896 after his father died, Everett went to London to enroll at the Slade School of Fine Art.[1] After studying briefly at the Académie Julian in Paris, Everett's life took an unconventional path when he embarked on the first of his 16 sea voyages. He signed on in the London docks, as a working member of the crew of the sailing ship, Iquique, in 1898, travelling to Sydney and returning in 1899. Back in London in 1899, Everett returned to the Slade, working and socializing with his fellow students who formed part of London's cafe society. They all went on painting excursions to Cornwall and France, and these trips had a profound effect on their work. In 1901 he married his Irish cousin and fellow Slade student, Kathleen Olive Herbert (known as Katherine), 1872–1951.[1]
His works, mostly landscapes of his native Dorset and maritime paintings, became known after the rediscovery of a set of plates that he made of Dorset based on fictional places in the works of the writer Thomas Hardy.[1] The plates were meant to be published in a book by American writer Ernest Brennecke, but the book was banned in Britain through intervention by Hardy himself, who felt it was too inaccurate.[1]
After their marriage, he and his wife Katherine initially lived in Fitzroy Street, London and went on honeymoon at sea, arranging passage to Australia on a 700 ton barque. The trip took 117 days and was intended as an opportunity for John Everett to paint, but according to his wife's autobiography it was "...the one thing he had not done and never did on that voyage."[2]
Around 1904 the Herberts moved to Wool in Dorset, renting the Manor House that belonged to a Mrs. Drax and had been the home of the Turbervilles.[3][better source needed] Because of this they were visited by Thomas Hardy and Katherine, herself also an artist, copied the frescos from the Manor House's walls which were reproduced in his novel.[4]
It was at Wool that the Everett's first son Henry was born in 1904. He was an ill child who initially failed to thrive and Katherine was left to look after him on her own. Herbert eventually returned and the couple moved to Paris and then Swanage where their second child Anthony Blaze was born in 1906.
Some time in 1906/7 the couple moved to Corfe Castle, where they rented a mill house called Arfleet.[5] Katharine and her son Anthony can be seen in the garden of Arfleet in Henry Tonks' 1908 painting "Summer".[6] In her autobiography Katherine mentions the execution of this painting, and how neither she or the artist considered it a success, but rather "a confused failure".[7]
The Everetts spent several years at Arfleet, but had to move when claypit excavations nearby threatened to undermine the house. They bought land at Broadstone and designed and built their own home, called Prospect. However, by 1914 their marriage had ended. In Katherine's own words "In the past if things had been uncomfortable, as for instance directly after my babies were born, Herbert went away, perhaps to Paris or Cornwall or I might not know where he was. This time he informed me that his disappearance was to be final[8] After this point, John Everett made no effort to see or pay for the education of his children, and his wife Katherine looked after them exclusively.[9]
In 1918 he joined the Merchant Navy as a Seaman; his rank was Fourth Officer.
He died in London.
History of the Queen's House
Introduction
The Queen's House, Greenwich, was commissioned by Anne of Denmark, wife of James I (reigned 1603–25). James was often at the Tudor Palace of Greenwich, where the Old Royal Naval College now stands – it was as important a residence of the early Stuart dynasty as it had been for the Tudors. Traditionally he is said to have given the manor of Greenwich to Anne in apology for having sworn at her in public, after she accidentally shot one of his favourite dogs while hunting in 1614.
17th and 18th centuries
Greenwich and London from One Tree Hill.
Greenwich and London from One Tree Hill.
In 1616 Anne commissioned Inigo Jones (1573–1652), who had risen to fame as a designer of court entertainments and was appointed Surveyor of the King's Works the following year, to design a new pavilion for her at Greenwich. It was apparently a place of private retreat and hospitality and was also designed as a bridge over the Greenwich to Woolwich Road, between the palace gardens and the Royal Park.
James I, 1566-1625
James I, 1566-1625
Jones had recently spent three years in Italy studying Roman and Renaissance architecture. It was his first important commission and the first fully Classical building seen in England. Though generally called Palladian in style, its prime model was the Medici villa at Poggio a Caiano, by Giuliano de Sangallo.
Anne of Denmark
Anne of Denmark
Work stopped on the House in April 1618 when Anne became ill: she died the following year. It was thatched over at first floor level and building only restarted when James's son Charles I gave Greenwich to his queen, Henrietta Maria (daughter of Henri IV of France), in 1629. It was structurally completed in 1635. Reflecting Renaissance ideas of mathematical, Classical proportion and harmony, the House's design was revolutionary in Britain at a time when even the best native building was still in red-brick, Tudor-derived style.
Leading European painters - including Jordaens and Orazio Gentileschi - were commissioned to provide decorative ceiling panels and other art works, and Classical sculpture was provided from the collection Charles had purchased en bloc from the Gonzaga dukes of Mantua. Of this original splendour all that survives in the House is the 'grotesque' style painted ceiling of the Queen's Presence Chamber, the ironwork of the 'tulip stairs' (the first centrally unsupported spiral stair in Britain), the much discoloured but original painted woodwork of the Hall, and its finely laid 1635 marble floor.
Gentileschi's ceiling panels, much altered, survive in Marlborough House, London, since Queen Anne allowed their removal in the early-18th century.
Queen Henrietta Maria, 1609-69
Queen Henrietta Maria, 1609-69
Henrietta Maria had little time to enjoy the House. The Civil War broke out in 1642 shattering the Stuart idyll. Always an object of suspicion because of her Catholicism, the Queen went into exile in France and Charles was beheaded in 1649, his property being seized and dispersed by the Commonwealth regime (1649–60). The House lost its treasures and became an official government residence. It however survived, while the Tudor palace on the riverside fell into decay.
Charles I (1600-1649)
Charles I (1600-1649)
After his restoration to the throne (1660), Henrietta Maria's son, Charles II, refitted the House for her temporary use in 1662 before she moved to Somerset House, though she died in Paris in 1669. His principal changes were the addition of two upper 'bridge' rooms to east and west over the road. This produced a square plan on the first floor, rather than the original 'H' of two separate blocks either side of the roadway only connected by a central first-floor bridge.
A Mediterranean brigantine wrecked on a rocky coast
A Mediterranean brigantine wrecked on a rocky coast
From 1673 studio space in the House was allocated to the Willem van de Veldes, father and son Dutch marine artists.
They came to England at the invitation of Charles and founded the English school of marine painting. Find out more about the van de Veldes in the Art of the van de Veldes gallery in the Queens' House.
The House continued to be used for various Royal 'grace-and-favour' residential purposes in the 18th century, when the replacement of most of its original windows with Georgian sashes gave it its modern external appearance.
19th century to present day
In 1805, George III granted the Queen's House to the Royal Naval Asylum - a charity caring for and educating the orphan children of seamen. This moved to Greenwich from Paddington the following year and eventually became part of the Royal Hospital School, which itself moved to Suffolk in 1933.
Playing cricket
Schoolboys playing cricket in front of the Queen's House, c.1898
In 1807–12, to meet the need for dormitories, classrooms and other facilities, the architect Daniel Asher Alexander added the Colonnades and immediately flanking wings which still frame the House in its modern role as the 'jewel in the crown' of the National Maritime Museum which took over in 1934.
Staircase in the Queen's House
Staircase in the Queen's House
The House was first restored to something approaching its 1660s form and was fitted out to display the Museum's early collections in 1933–37. Further major restoration, including of all its services, was completed in 1990 with additional work in 1998–99.
The last included replacement of an unimportant 18th century service stairway with a new public stair and lift connecting basement, ground and first floor, augmenting the original 'tulip stairs' on the Hall (north) side.
From 1990 to 1998 the upper floor of the House was partly refitted as and furnished to give an impression of its use as a Royal residence of the 1670s, and to display the NMM's early art collection. It was also increasingly used as a place for appropriate events and corporate entertainment (analogous to some of its original courtly functions).
Images of Seapower, Queen's House
Images of Seapower, Queen's House
Images of Seapower, Queens House
Images of Seapower, Queens House
Since 2001 the House has been reorganised to showcase the Museum's fine-art collection, with an ongoing programme of displays and temporary exhibitions, including contemporary work. It has an active events and education programme and continues in its successful role as a place for corporate and private entertainment.
"editor-in-chief" James H.Marsh.
Edmonton, Hurtig Publishers Limited, [january] 1985. ISBN o-8883o-269-X.
3 volumes in 9-1/8 12-1/16 x 5 ivory linen-covered brown board slipbox, both sides printed gold foil letterpress:
1. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME I A - For..
ISBN o-8883o-27o-3.
8-7/16 x 1o-7/8, 176 sheets white Rolland 5o Lb S.T. Encyclopedia Opaque folded to 22 signatures of 8 sheets each, sewn pearl white in 11 stitches & glued into white heavy bond endpapers & 8-13/16 x 11-5/16 navy linen-covered boards with approx.1-7/16" yellow & blue cloth applique head~ & tailbands, spine only printed gold foil letterpress, interiors all except 5 pp (versos of free endleaves & 3rd, 4th & 19th leaves) printed black offset with 3-colour process additions to 257 pp (436 black only); paginated i-xxxvii/1-666;
2. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME II For - Pat.
ISBN o-8883o-271-1.
as volume 1 but sewn pearl cream in double-stitches, 3-colour process additions to 339 pp (365 black only); paginated 669-137o;
3. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME III Pat - Z.
ISBN o-8883o-272-X.
as volume 1 but 18o sheets in 23 signatures (the 18th of 4 sheets), with 3-colour process additions to 284 pp (431 black only); paginated 1373-2o89.
all volumes with uniform endpaper graphic by Tom McNeely.
2676 contributors ID'd (note: 376 asterisked names contribute to all 3 volumes; questioned names appear in the index without their contribution(s) having been located):
Caroline Louise Abbott*, Irving Abella*, Thomas S.Abler*, Baha R.Abu-Laban, Donald F.Acton, W.Peter Adams, Peter A.Adie, Catherine Ahearn, David E.Aiken*, Jim Albert, Frederick A.Aldrich, Peter Aliknak, Gratien Allaire, Jacques Allard, A.Richard Allen, Karyn Elizabeth Allen, Max Allen, Robert S.Allen*, Willard F.Allen, Marlene Michele Alt*, John Amatt, Laurent Amiot, Pierre Anctil, Bob Anderson, Donald W.Anderson*, Doris H.Anderson*, Duncan M.Anderson, Frank W.Anderson, Grace Merle Anderson, Peter S.Anderson*, Christopher A.Andreae, Bernard Andres*, Sheila Andrew, Florence K.Andrews, Donald F.P.Andrus, Paul Anicef, Thomas H.Anstey*, Louis Applebaum, Christon I.Archer*, David J.W.Archer, Clinton Archibald, Mary Archibald, Eugene Arima, Allan Arlett, Leslie Armour, G.M.H.Armstrong(?), Pat Armstrong, W.Armstrong, John T.Arnason, Georges Arsenault, Celine Arseneault*, Eric R.Arthur, Alan F.J.Artibise*, Michael I.Asch, Kenojuak Ashevak, Kiugak Ashoona, Athanasios Asimakopulos, Alain Asselin, Barbara Astman, John Atchison, Margaret Atwood, Irene E.Aubrey, Alasi Audla, Karl Aun, Peter J.Austin-Smith, Helgi H.Austman, Donald H.Avery, William A.Ayer, Hugh D.Ayers, G.Burton Ayles, John Ayre, Maureen Aytenfisu, Douglas R.Babcock, Robert H.Babcock, Robert E.Babe, Morrell P.Bachynski, George Back, Harry Baglole, David H.Bai, Margaret J.Baigent, Karen E.Bailey, David M.Baird, Patricia A.Baird, Allan J.Baker, G.Blaine Baker, Melvin Baker*, Douglas O.Baldwin, John R.Baldwin, Gordon Bale, Robert J.Bandoni, Paul A.Banfield, Marilyn J.Barber, Douglas F.Barbour*, Clifford A.V.Barker, Jon C.Barlow, Jean Barman, David T.Barnard, John Barnes, Reg Barnes, Elinor Barr, John J.Barr, Robert F.Barratt*, [--?--] Barrett, Tony Barrett, Wayne R.Barrett, H.J.Barrie, Ted Barris*, George S.Barry, Donald R.Bartlett, William Henry Bartlett, James F.Basinger, Peter A.Baskerville, Marilyn J.Baszczynski, Alan H.Batten*, Jean-Louis Baudouin(?), Carol Baum, Jules Bazin, Gladys Bean, William R.Beard, Belinda A.Beaton*, Henri Beau, Gerald-A.Beaudoin*, Rejean Beaudoin, Jacqueline Beaudoin-Ross, Louise Beaudry, France Beauregard, Brian P.N.Beaven, J.Murray Beck*, Margaret Beckman, John Beckwith, Roger Bedard, Michael Bedford, Don R.Beer, Michael D.Behiels*, Madeleine Beland, Mario Beland, Guy Belanger, Real Belanger, Rene Belanger, Jean Belisle, Norman W.Bell, Ruben C.Bellan, Andre Belleau, Jacques-Nicolas Bellin, Rene J.Belzile*, J.W.Bengough, Gerry Bennett, John Bennett*, Edward Horton Bensley, Douglas Bentham, D.M.R.Bentley, W.D.Bentley, David J.Bercuson, William Von Moll Berczy, John J.Bergen, Jeniva Berger, Thomas R.Berger, Claude Bergeron, A.T.Bergerud, Norbert Berkowitz, Andre Bernard, Frank R.Bernard*, Jean-Paul Bernard, Jean-Thomas Bernard, Jacques Bernier*, Marc Bernier, Silvie Bernier, Elliott Bernshaw, Nicole Bernshaw, Jonathan Berry, Michael J.Berry, Ralph Berry, Pierre Berton*, Neil Besner*, Diane E.Bessa, Carl Betke, Roger Betz, John Michael Bewers, Onnig Beylerian, M.Vincent Bezeau, Reginald W.Bibby, Gilles Bibeau, Ivan B.Bickell, Julius Bigauskas, Petro B.T.Bilaniuk, B.C.Binning, Carolyn J.Bird(?), Michael S.Bird, Richard M.Bird, Andrew Birrell, Carol Anne Bishop, Charles A.Bishop, Mary F.Bishop, Alastair Bissett-Johnson, Conrad M.Black, Joseph Laurence Black, Meredith Jean Black, Naomi Black, Robert G.Blackadar, Robert H.Blackburn, John D.Blackwell, Alex M.Blair, Robert Blair, Andre Blais, Phyllis R.Blakeley, Elsie Blaschke, J.Sherman Bleakney, Bertram C.Blevis, Lawrence C.Bliss, Michael Bliss, E.D.Blodgett, Jean Blodgett, Hans Blohn, Ronald Bloor, Arthur W.Blue, Robin W.Boadway, David A.Boag, Douglas H.Bocking*, Jack Boddington, Trevor Boddy, John M.Bodner, George J.Boer, James P.Bogart, Jean Sutherland Boggs, Tibor Bognar, Gilles Boileau, Aurelien Boivin, Bernard Boivin*, Jean Boivin, Andre Bolduc, Yves Bolduc, Glen W.Boles*, Francis W.P.Bolger, Kenneth E.Bollinger, George Bonavia, Flint Bondurant, Joseph Bonenfant, Gayle Bonish, Roy Bonisteel, Rudy Boonstra*, Paul-Emil Borduas, Robert Bothwell*, Robert D.Bott, Randy Bouchard*, Michel A.Boucher, Gilles Boulet, Roger H.Boulet, Doug Boult, Andre G.Bourassa*, Nicole Bourbonnais, Pierre L.Bourgault, Patricia E.Bovey, Wilbur Fee Bowker, Roy T.Bowles, Hartwell Bowsfield, Christine Boyanoski, Farrell M.Boyce, John Boyd, Oliver A.Bradt, William J.Brady, Chris Braiden, F.Gerald Brander, Guy R.Brassard, Ted J.Brasser, Bernard Brault, R.Matthew Bray*, David H.Breen*, Francois Bregha, Willard Brehaut*, J.William Brennan*, Paul W.Brennan, Fred Breummer, John E.C.Brierley*, Jean L.Briggs, David R.Brillinger, Jack Brink, Ralph O.Brinkhurst, Andre Brochu, Irwin M.Brodo, Somer Brodribb, Alan A.Brookes, Ian A.Brookes*, Bill Brooks*, David B.Brooks, Robert S.Broughton, David Brown, Desmond H.Brown*, E.Brown, Jennifer S.H.Brown*, R.G.B.Brown*, Robert Craig Brown, Roy I.Brown, Thomas E.Brown*, Lorne D.Bruce, John H.Brumley, Alan G.Brunger, Reinhart A.Brust, Rorke Bardon Bryan, Giles Bradley Bryant, Thomas A.Brzustowki, [--?--] Buache, Norman Buchignani, Ruth Matheson Buck, Phillip A.Buckner*, Geoff Budden, Susan Buggey, Lise Buisson, J.M.Bumsted*, James Burant, Joan Burke, Robert D.Burke, Jean Burnet, David Burnett*, Marilyn Schiff Burnett*, Dorothy K.Burnham, Eedson Louis Millard Burns, Robert J.Burns, Robin Burns, Ian Burton, Jack Bush, Paul Buteux*, Frank Taylor Butler, K.Jack Butler, William Butterfield, Edward Butts, Robert E.Butts, Marcel Cadotte, John C.Callaghan, John W.Callahan, Lorraine Camerlain, Bill Cameron, Christina Cameron, Duncan Cameron, Elspeth Cameron, Wendy Cameron*, A.Barrie Campbell, Beverly Campbell, Douglas F.Campbell, Gordon Campbell, Ian A.Campbell*, J.Milton Campbell, Neil John Campbell, Percy I.Campbell(?), Sandra Campbell, Richard Campion, William T.Cannon, Pierre Cantin, Usher Caplan, Emily F.Carasco, Clifton F.Carbin, Douglas Cardinal, Patrick Robert Thomas Cardy, Thomas H.Carefoot, J.M.S.Careless*, Jock Alan Carlisle, Derek Caron, Laurent G.Caron, Carole H.Carpenter, Ken Carpenter, Emily Carr, Gaston Carriere, Carman V.Carroll, Brian G.Carter, George E.Carter, Margaret Carter, Richard J.Cashin, Ian Casselman, George Catlin, Paul B.Cavers*, Richard Chabot, Roland Chagnon, Edward J.Chambers, Francis J.Chambers, James Chambers, Robert D.Chambers, Michel Champagne*, James K.Chapman, John D.Chapman, Louis Charbonneau, Murray Norman Charlton, L.Margaret Chartrand, Luc chatrand, Rene Chartrand, Brian D.E.Chatterton, Michael Vincent Cheff, Walter I.Childers, Peter D.Chimbos, Alexander J.Chisholm, Robert Choquette, Catherine D.Chorniawy, Timothy J.Christian, William E.Christian, Carl A.Christie, G.L.Christie, Innis Christie, B.Bert Chubey, Charles Stephen Churcher*, Janet Chute, S.Donald C.Chutter, Jacques Cinq-Mars, V.Claerhout*, John J.Clague, Michael Thomas Clandinin, A.McFadyen Clark, Howard C.Clark, Lovell C.Clark*, Paraskeva Clark, Robert H.Clark, T.Alan Clark, Thomas H.Clark, R.Allyn Clarke*, Stephen Clarkson, Wallace Clement, Nathalie Clerk*, Norman Clermont, Yves W.Clermont, Howard Clifford, Richard T.Clippingdae*, W.J.Clouston, Nicole Cloutier, Gigi Clowes, Brian W.Coad, John P.Coakley, Donna Coates, Bente Roed Cochran, J.P.Cockburn, James Cockburn, William James Cody*, Dale R.Cogswell, Fred Cogswell, Stanley A.Cohen, Susan G.Cole, Patricia H.Coleman, Elizabeth Collard, Malcolm M.C.Collins, John Robert Colombo*, Alex Colville, Charles Comfort, Odette Condemine, M.Patricia Connelly, James T.H.Connor, Leonard W.Conolly, Robert J.Conover*, Margaret Conrad, A.Brandon Conron, Brian E.Conway, F.Graham Cooch, Eung-Do Cook, Francis R.Cook, Owen Cook, Kenyon Cooke, O.A.Cooke*, David Cooper, Gordon William Cope, Pierre Corbeil, Frank Corcoran, J.Clement Cormier, Peter McCaul Cornell, Vincenzo Coronelli, Frank Cosentino*, Ronald L.Cosper, Jacques Cotnam, Robert T.Coupland, Thomas J.Courchene, John J.Courtney, John J.Cove, Jeff G.Cowan, Harold G.Coward, Bruce Cox, Diane Wilson Cox, Michael F.Crabb*, Laurence Harold Cragg, Mary M.Craig*, Terrence L.Craig, Ian K.Crain, Brian A.Crane, David Crane, John L.Cranmer-Byng, Donald A.Cranstone, David L.Craven, Roy D.Crawford, Tim Creery, Philippe Crine, Harold Crookell, John Crosby*, Michael S.Cross, Diane Crossley, E.J.Crossman, Omer Croteau, A.David Crowe, Keith Jeffray Crowe, David M.Cruden, David A.Cruickshank, Paul E.Crunican, Rudolf P.Cujes, Maurice Cullen, Carman W.Cumming, Leslie Merrill Cumming, Philip J.Currie, Raymond F.Currie, Walter A.Curtin*, Christopher G.Curtis*, James E.Curtis, Leonard J.Cusack, Maurice Cutler, Jerome S.Cybulski, Joachim B.Czypionka, Anne Innis Dagg, Lorraine G.D'Agincourt*, Edward H.Dahl, Hallvard Dahlie, Moshie E.Dahms, Hugh Monro Dale, Ralph Dale, John H.Dales, Micheline D'Allaire, F.Dally, D.Daly, Eric W.Daly, Pierre Dansereau, Ruth Danys, Regna Darnell, Hugh A.Daubeny, Paul Davenport, Gilbert David, Helene David, Peter P.David, William A.B.Davidson, Adriana A.Davies, Gwendolyn Davies, Jim Davies, John A.Davies, R.K.S.Davies, Thomas Davies, Ann Davis, Chuck Davis, Richard C.Davis, Michael J.Dawe, John M.Day, Lawrence Day, Barbara K.Deans, P.Dearden, Chris DeBresson, Theod De Bry, Malcolm Graeme Decarie, Samuel De Champlain*, Bart F.Deeg*, Ronald K.Deeprose, James DeFelice, C.G.Van Zyll De Jong, Nicolas J.De Jong*, J.De Lavoye, Vincent M.Del Buono, Guillaume Delisle, L.Denis Delorme, Hugh A.Dempsey*, L.James Dempsey, A.A.Den Otter, Dora De Pedery-Hunt, Honor De Pencier, D.De Richeterre, Jacques F.Derome, Duncan R.Derry, Ramsay Derry, Peter Desbarats, Pierre Desceliers, Donald Deschenes, Jean-Luc DesGranges, Andree Desilets*, Yvon Desloges, Gerald L.De Sorcy, Marquis De Tracy, John DeVisser*, Lyle Dick, Lloyd Merlin Dickie, John A.Dickinson, W.Trevor Dickinson, Nigel Dickson, Larry Dillon, Milan V.Dimic, Gerard Dion, Rene Dion, Gerald E.Dirks, Patricia G.Dirks, Richard J.Diubaldo, Murray Dobbin, Mike Dobel, A.Rodney Dobell, Diane Dodd, Donald Andrew Dodman, Audrey D.Doerr, Allen Doiron, Claude Ernest Dolman, Louise Dompierre, Mairi Donaldson, Sue Ann Donaldson, Mark A.Donelan(?), Margaret Mary Donnelly, John Donner, Andre Donneur, Penelope B.R.Doob*, Peter K.Doody, Joyce Doolittle, Anthony H.J.Dorsey, Gilles Dorian, Lydia Dotto, Roger A.Doucet, Leonard A.Doucette, Charles Dougall, Jane L.Dougan, Charles Douglas, W.A.B.Douglas*, William F.Dowbiggin, R.Keith Downey, Arthur T.Doyle*, Denzil J.Doyle, Richard J.Doyle, Pierre Doyon, Sharon Drache, Derek C.Drager, Wilhelmina M.Drake, D.W.Draper, James A.Draper, Nandor Fred Dreisziger, Kenneth F.Drinkwater, Bernadette Driscoll, Jean-Pierre Drolet, Glenn Drover, Ian M.Drummond*, R.Norman Drummond, Jean E.Dryden, Patrick D.Drysdale, Jean-Marie M.Dubois*, James R.Dubro, Leo Ducharme, Raymond Duchesne*, Francois Duchesneau, Jean-Marcel Duciaume, Madeleine Ducroq-Poirier, J.Dennis Duffy*, M.R.Dufresne, Walter W.Duley, Gaston Dulong, Micheline Dumont, Max J.Dunbar, Graham W.Duncan, Leonard Duncan, Neil J.Duncan, Marilyn E.Dunlop, A.Davidson Dunton, Jean R.Duperreault, Jean-Claude Dupont, Rene Durocher, Gabriel Dussault, Noel Dyck, Charles C.Dyer, James G.Dykes, John A.Eagle*, Peter R.Eakins, Ross Eaman, Harry C.Eastman, Dorothy Harley Eber, William John Eccles*, Christine Eddie, E.V.Eddie, Charles Edenshaw, Morris Edwards, Oliver Edward Edwards, Peggy Edwards, Roger B.Ehrhardt, Margrit Eichler, Neil Einarson, Wilfred L.Eisnor, R.Bruce Elder, Jean Elford, Peter Douglas Elias, C.W.J.Eliot, David R.Elliott, James A.Elliott, Kosso Eloul, John A.Elson, George Emery, Donald W.Emmerson, Douglas B.Emmons, Maurice Emond, William F.Empey, John R.English*, Murray W.Enkin, Philip C.Enros, Frank H.Epp, Robert Bruce Erb, Arthur Erickson, Anthony J.Erskine, Sorel Etrog, Brian L.Evans*, David Evans*, James Evans, John Evans, Ivan Kenneth Eyre, Joe Fafard, Curtis Fahey, Valerie J.Fall, A.Murray Fallis, Peter V.Fankboner, D.M.L.Farr*, Dorothy M.Farr, Fred Farrell*, Alison Feder, Sergey Fedoroff, Margery Fee, Kevin O'Brien Fehr, William Feindel, Seth R.Feldman, Donald Fenna, William O.Fennell, M.Brock Fenton, Terry L.Fenton, Bob L.Ferguson*, Howard L.Ferguson, Mary W.Ferguson*, Jean Ferron, Doug Fetherling*, George Field, John L.Field, Richard Henning Field, Leonard M.Findlay, Howard R.Fink, Maxwell Finklestein, Douglas A.Finlayson*, Gerard Finn, Douglas J.Fisher, Richard S.Fisher, Robin Fisher, Stan C.Fisher, John Walter Fitsell, Lionel LeMoine FitzGerald, Patrick J.Fitzgerald, Tim Fitzharris*, David J.Flaherty, Thomas Flanagan, R.B.Fleming, Sandford Fleming, Marilyn G.Flitton, Halle Flygare*, David G.Fong*, Maxwell L.Foran, Ernest R.Forbes*, R.E.Forbes, William B.Forbes, Richard G.Forbis, Dennis P.Forcese, Anne Rochon Ford, Clifford Ford, Derek C.Ford, Gillian Ford, Susan Ford, Bertrand Forest, Ronald W.Forrester, Warren D.Forrester, Eugene Alfred Forsey*, Frank R.Forsyth, Peter A.Forsyth, Claire-Andree Fortin, Gerald Fortin, Charles N.Forward, William F.Forward, Brian F.Foss, Franklin L.Foster, J.Bristol Foster, John E.Foster*, Michael K.Foster, Glenn B.Foulds, Nancy Brown Foulds, Edith M.Fowke, Marian Fowler, Charlie Fox, Paul W.Fox, Richard C.Fox, Daniel Francis*, Diane Francis, David Frank*, Julius F.Frank*, Colin Athel Franklin, C.E.S.Franks*, David Fransen, Robert T.Franson, Arman Frappier(?), Jorge Frascara, John A.Fraser, Kathleen D.J.Fraser, Robert Lochiel Fraser*, Pierre Frechette, Howard Townley Fredeen, Benjamin Freedman, Gordon Russel Freeman, Mac Freeman, Milton M.R.Freeman, Minnie Aodla Freeman, Roger D.Freeman, Walter H.P.Freitag, Carey French, Hugh M.French, James S.Frideres, Gerald Friesen, James D.Friesen, Stanley Brice Frost, Adam G.Fuerstenberg, Robert Fulford, Anthony M.Fuller, George R.Fuller, Thomas Fuller, William A.Fuller, Douglas H.Fullerton, Ian F.Furniss, Richard W.Fyfe*, William S.Fyfe, Rene Robert Gadacz*, Chad Gaffield, David P.Gagan, Michel Gagne, Francois-Marc Gagnon*, Victor Gaizauskas, Claude Galarneau, Peggy Gale, Gerald L.Gall*, Daniel T.Gallacher, Paul Gallagher, Strome Galloway, Natarajan Ganapathy, Herman Ganzevoort, David E.Gardner*, Eve Gardner, Norman Gardner, Ron Gardner, Christopher J.R.Garrett, John F.Garrett, Jane Gaskell, Lise Gauvin, M.J.Gauvin, Hugh J.Gayler, Douglas A.Geekie, John Grigsby Geiger*, Valerius Geist*, John Gellner, Paul Gendreau, Ghislain Gendron, M.V.George, Joseph F.Gerrath(?), Julia Gersovitz, Trisha Gessler, Ian A.L.Getty, Elmer N.Ghostkeeper(?), Jacques R.Giard, Sandra Gibb, Kenneth M.Gibbons, Graeme Gibson, Lee Gibson, William C.Gibson, Perry James Giffen, Elizabeth Hollingsworth Gignac, Richard Giguere, C.W.Gilchrist, J.N.Giles, John Patrick Gillese, Beryl C.Gillespie, Bill Gillespie, John M.Gillett, Margaret Gillett, Geraldine Gilliss, Alan M.Gillmor, Cedric Gillot, J.C.Gilson, Yves Gingras*, Andre Girouard, J.Gleadah, Burton Glendenning, Michael Gnarowski, David J.Goa, Barbara Godard, Ensley A.Godby, W.Earl Godfrey*, William G.Godfrey, R.Bruce Godwin(?), Cy Gonick, Cecilia A.Gonzales, Bryan N.S.Gooch, S.James Gooding, Jerry Goodis, John T.Goodman, R.G.Goold, Arthur S.Goos, Paul A.Goranson, Anne Gordon, Donald C.Gordon, Walter L.Gordon, Deborah Gorham, Harriet R.Gorham, Stanley W.Gorham, Calvin Carl Gotlieb, Daniel H.Gottesman, Barry Morton Gough, Joseph B.Gough, Judy Gouin*, Allan M.Gould*, Henri Goulet, Benoit-Beaudry Gourd*, James Iain Gow, Alan Gowans, J.Wesley Graham, Jane E.Graham, John F.Graham, Katherine A.Graham, Roger Graham, E.H.Grainger, J.L.Granatstein*, Alix Granger, Luc Granger, John A.G.Grant, John Webster Grant, Peter Grant*, Ted Grant, Carolyn Elizabeth Gray, David Robert Gray, Earle Gray*, G.Ronald Gray, James T.Gray, D'Arcy M.Greaves, Harold V.Green, J.Paul Green, Janet Green, Leslie C.Green*, Melvyn Green, Richard Green*, Reesa Greenberg, John P.Greene, Thomas B.Greenfield(?), Brereton Greenhous*, Cyril Greenland, John Edward Ross Greenshields, Allan Greer, Patrick T.Gregory, Robert W.Gregory, Julius H.Grey, Norman T.Gridgeman*, Foster J.K.Griezic, Herbert L.Griffin, John D.M.Griffin, Anthony J.F.Griffiths, Barry Griffiths, Graham C.D.Griffiths, Naomi E.S.Griffiths, Sergio Grinstein, Jack W.Grove, Patrick D.Gruber, Hans E.Gruen, Dennis Guest*, Hal J.Guest*, Arman Guilmette, Bernadette Guilmette, H.Pearson Gundy, Kristjana Gunnars, S.W.Gunner, Harry Emmet Gunning, Allan Guy, Julian Gwyn, Richard J.Gwyn, Peter P.Haanappel, Erich Haber, Carlotta Hacker, Jim Hackler, Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Keith D.Hage, H.Haig, G.Brenton Haliburton, David J.Hall*, Frederick A.Hall*, Jim Hall, John W.Hall, Roger Hall, Mary E.Hallett, Hugh A.Halliday, Ian Halliday, Mary Halloran, Gerald Hallowell, Beryl M.Hallworth*, Francess G.Halpenny, Marjorie M.Halpin, V.Carl Hamacher, Louis-Edmond Hamelin, Donald G.Hamilton, Sally A.Hamilton, William B.Hamilton, Brent M.Hamre, Geoffrey Hancock, Lyn Hancock*, Piers Handling*, James Hanrahan, Asbjorn T.Hansen, John D.Harbron, Peter Harcourt, David F.Hardwick, Jean-Pierre Hardy, Rene Hardy, F.Kenneth Hare, Clara Hargittay, J.Anthony Hargreaves, Alex M.Harper, J.Russell Harper*, Richard Harrington*, Cole Harris, G.J.Harris, Lawren Harris, Peter Harris, R.Cole Harris, Robert Harris, Stephen Harris*, Stuart A.Harris, Lionel G.Harrison, Peter J.Harte, Al Harvey, David J.Harvey, Fred J.Hatch, Wilbert O.Haufe, Jo Hauser, Ronald G.Haycock*, Michael Hayden, Florence C.Hayes, David M.Hayne*, Robert H.Haynes, Carol Hayter, Henry F.Heald, Trevor D.Heaver, Richard J.Hebda, Gerard Hebert, C.D.Heidenreich, Conrad E.Heidenreich, Frederick M.Helleiner, Rudolph A.Helling, June Helm, Bruce S.Heming, Odile Henault, William B.Henderson, Tom Hendry, E.Henn, Ralph L.Hennessy, Jacques Henripin, Michael M.Henry, Yude M.Henteleff, Frank Alec Herbert, George Heriot, Alex W.Herman, Craig Heron*, Don J.Herperger, Stephen M.Herrero, Ingo Hessel, Phillip Hewett, Irving Hexham, Benedykt Heydenkorn, Edward S.Hickcox, Michael Hickman, Donald Higgins, David Higgs, Walter Hildebrandt, Charles Christie Hill, Harry M.Hill, Stanley Hill, Tom Hill, James K.Hiller*, Anne Trowell Hillmer*, Norman Hillmer*, W.G.R.Hind, Ole Hindsgaul, Sherman Hines, Akira Hirose, Carolyn Hlus, Helen Hobbs, R.Gerald Hobbs, James Hockings, John Edwin Hodgetts*, Bruce W.Hodgins, J.W.Hodgins, Judith F.M.Hoeniger, J.J.Hogan*, Helen Sawyer Hogg, Gerald Holdsworth, H.T.Holman, C.Janet Holmes, Jeffrey Holmes, John W.Holmes, Eric J.Holmgren*, Alvin George Hong, Frances Ann Hopkins, Robin Hopper, Peter Hopwood, Michiel Horn, Alan S.Hourston, C.Stuat Houston*, James Houston, Ross K.Howard, Victor M.Howard, Colin D.Howell, Julie O.Hrapko, Raymond Hudon, Douglas R.Hudson, Raymond J.A.Huel, Fred Huffman, Richard David Hughes, Elizabeth Hulse, William Humber*, Stephen Hume, Monte Hummel, Jack Humphrey, Charles W.Humphries, Edward William Humphrys, [--?--] Hunsberger, Geoffrey Hunt, John R.Hunter, Tony Hunt, Kenneth E.Hunter, Mel Hurtig, Mervyn J.Huston, Linda Hutcheon, Gerald M.Hutchinson, Roger C.Hutchinson, Richard J.Huyda, A.M.J.Hyatt, Doreen Marie Indra, Elizabeth Ingolfsrud, Avrom Isaacs, Colin F.W.Isaacs, Bill Ivy, David Jackel, Susan Jackel*, Sydney W.Jackman, A.Y.Jackson, Bernard S.Jackson, Graham Jackson, Harold Jackson, John D.Jackson, John James Jackson, John N.Jackson, Lionel E.Jackson, Robert J.Jackson, Roger C.Jackson, Stephen O.Jackson, Peter Jacob, Ronny Jacques, Cornelius J.Jaenen*, Donna James, Ellen S.James, Ross D.James*, Sheilagh S.Jameson, Stuart M.Jamieson, Hudson N.Janisch, Christian T.L.Janssen, Lorraine L.Janus, Richard A.Jarrell, Marguerite Jean, Alan H.Jeeves, T.Jefferys, Robert Jekyll, Michael Jenkin, Phyllis Marie Jensen, Vickie D.Jensen, Jane Jenson, L.Martin Jerry, Alan M.Jessop, Dean Jobb, Louis Jobin, Jan C.Jofriet(?), Peter Johansen, Timothy Johns, Walter H.Johns, J.K.Johnson, Peter Wade Johnson, Alfred G.Johnston, C.Fred Johnston, Charles M.Johnston, Frances E.M.Johnston, Frank Johnston, Hugh Johnston, Patricia C.Johnston, Richard Johnston, W.Stafford Johnston, William Johnston, Brian Jones, David Phillip Jones, Elwood Hugh Jones, Gaynor G.Jones, Laura Jones, Richard A.Jones*, Alan V.Jopling*, Colin Jose, Neal R.Jotham, Walter Jungkind, Richard Kadulski, Joseph Kage, A.A.Kahil, Patricia Kaiser, Warren E.Kalbach, Henry Kalen, Stephan Felix Kaliski, Helmut Kallman*, Karen Dazelle Kallweit*, Harold D.Kalman*, Paul Kane*, George Kapelos, Martha Kaplan, William Edward Kaplan, Isabel Kaprielian, Urjo Kareda, Malak Karsh, Yousuf Karsh, Peter Karsten, Elinor Mary Kartzmark, Naim Kattan, Martin L.Kaufmann, Leslie S.Kawamura, Gregory S.Kealey*, David R.Keane, King S.Kearns, Michael J.Keen, David L.Keenlyside, Elaine Keillor, W.J.Keith, William Stirling Keizer*, Frances C.Kelley, Louis Gerard Kelly, David D.Kemp, Walter H.Kemp, Kay Kendall, John Edward Kendle, Dorothy Kennedy*, J.E.Kennedy, John L.Kennedy*, Elizabeth H.Kennell, John A.C.Kentfield, John P.B.Kenyon, Walter A.Kenyon, Kenneth Kernaghan, Lois Kathleen Kernaghan*, Adam J.Kerr, Gordon R.Kerr, Robert B.Kerr, Stephen R.Kerr, Paula Kestelman, Jean-Pierre Kesteman, Wilfred H.Kesterton, Keith S.Ketchen, Douglas Keith McEwan Kevan*, Peter G.Kevan(?), J.E.Michael Kew, John Keyes, Bruce Kidd, Thomas W.Kierans, Gerald Killan, M.G.Kingshott, Ray A.Kingsmith, Stanislav J.Kirschbaum, John James Kirton, Walter Klaassen, Murray S.Klamkin, Lewis N.Klar, Stanley Klenganberg, Harold R.Klinck, Robert B.Klymasz, Richard W.Knapton*, Judith Knelman, Alan R.Knight, David B.Knight, Robert Hugh Knowles, Brian M.Knudsen, Franz M.Koennecke, Wray E.Koepke, Lilly Koltun, Paul M.Koroscil, J.Anthony Koslow, Myrna Anne Kostash, Tony Kot, Vladimir J.Krajina, Kate Kranck, Stephen J.Kraseman, Cheryl Krasnick(?), Peter V.Krats, J.A.Kraulis*, Charles J.Krebs, F.Henry Krenz, Cornelius Krieghoff, Andrea Kristof, Jerg Kroener, Martin Krossel, Larry L.Kulisek, Walter O.Kupsch, William Kurelek, Eva M.Kushner, Ernie Kuyt*, David Kwavnick, C.Ian Kyar, Micheline Labelle, Danielle Laberge, Michele Lacombe*, [--?--] La Cosa, Estelle Lacoursiere*, Laurier Lacroix, Michel Laferriere, Guy Lafrance, William G.Laidlaw, Mabel H.Laine*, Dennis Laing, Gertrude M.Laing, Claude Lajeunesse, G.-Raymond Laliberte, Andre N.Lalonde, W.Kaye Lamb*, Geoffrey Lambert, James H.Lambert*, George E.Lammers, Yvan Lamonde, Peter Lancaster, R.Brian Land, Pierre Landreville, E.David Lane*, Robert B.Lane, Robert P.Langlands, Wayne Lankinen*, Robert Lansdale, Karlis O.Lapin, Pierre-Louis Lapointe, Eleanor R.Laquian, Peter Anthony Larkin, Jean B.D.Larmour, Emma D.LaRocque, Andre Larose, Serge Larose, Jeanette Larouche, Edward N.Larter, Pierre LaSalle, Daniel Latouche*, Viviane F.Launay, Gerard Laurence, Karen Laurence, Marc Laurendeau, Michael Lauzon, Omer Lavallee, Kathleen Laverty*, Kenneth R.Lavery, Marie Lavigne, Patricia Johnston Lavigueur(?), Leslie M.Lavkulich, Michel Lavoie*, Paul Lavoie, Pierre Lavoie, Charles Law, Don G.Law-West, Jim Laxer, Arleigh H.Laycock, David H.Laycock, Richard E.C.Layne, Marvin Lazerson, Fred Lebensold, Hugues LeBlanc, Charles P.Leblond, Paul H.LeBlond, Sylvio LeBlond, Antonio Lechasseur*, Donald J.Lecraw, Johanne Ledoux, Fernand Leduc, Laurence LeDuc, Rene Leduc-Park, David Lee, John Alan Lee, Robin Leech, John G.Leefe, Joseph Legare, Camille Legendre, Russel D.Legge, Robert F.Legget*, Doug Leighton, Jean M.Leiper, Michel Lemaire, Jean-Paul Lemay, Pierre H.Lemieux, Raymond U.Lemieux, Vincent Lemieux, Guy Lemire, Maurice Lemire, Robert Lemire, Robert E.Lemon(?), Dorothy A.Lenarsic, Jos L.Lennards, Frank Lennon, Yvan G.Lepage, Donald J.Le Roy, Rodney L.LeRoy, Peter M.Leslie, M.Claude Lessard, Carol Anne Letheren, Trevor H.Levere, Malcolm Levin, Allan E.Levine, Gilbert Levine, Joseph Levitt, Brian S.Lewis, John B.Lewis, Joyce C.Lewis, Laurie Lewis, Elliott H.Leyton, James W.Lightbody, Norman R.Lightfoot, Jack N.Lightstone, Gary M.Lindberg, Ernest Lindner, Evert E.Lindquist*, Peter L.Lindsay, Joseph D.Lindsey, Paul-Andre Linteau, Mary Jane Lipkin, Arthur Lismer, Marilyn Lister, Rota Herzberg Lister*, John W.Y.Lit, Moe M.Litman, Donna Livingstone, Douglas G.Lochhead, Carl J.Lochnan*, Anthony R.Lock, Jack L.Locke, Gulbrand Loken, D.Edwards Loney, Kathleen Lord, James Lorimer, Frances Loring, Marcel Lortie, Arthur Loughton, Laurence Dale Lovick, Raymond Nicholson Lowes, Peter J.M.Lown, W.Mark Lowry, Edward P.Lozowski*, Frere Luc, D.Paul Lumsden, Harry G.Lumsden, Ian Gordon Lumsden, John Lund, Gar Lunney, Mandy R.Lupul, Real Lussier, John M.Lyle, John Goodwin Lyman, Gerald Lynch, Deborah Maryth Lyon*, G.F.Lyon, William I.Macadam, J.Malcolm Macartney, Terence Macartney-Filgate, Hugh MacCallum, Cathy Macdonald, G.Edward MacDonald, Heather MacDonald*, J.E.H.MacDonald, Les MacDonald, Martha MacDonald, R.H.Macdonald, Roderick A.Macdonald, Stewart D.MacDonald, Valerie Isabel Macdonald, April J.MacDougall, Heather MacDougall, Laurel Sefton MacDowell*, Thomas F.Mace, Grant MacEwan, Royce MacGillivray, James G.MacGregor, Joseph B.MacInnis, Tessa macIntosh, David Clark MacKenzie, Heather M.Mackenzie, Robert C.MacKenzie, Ross G.MacKenzie, William C.MacKenzie, George O.Mackie, C.S.Mackinnon, Frank MacKinnon, William R.MacKinnon, Bruce B.MacLachlan, Roy MacLaren, Raymond A.MacLean, Kenneth Ogilvie MacLeod, Malcolm MacLeod, Pegi Nicol MacLeod, Roderick C.Macleod, Carrie H.MacMillan, Keith MacMillan, Andrew H.Macpherson, Duncan Macpherson, Ian MacPherson*, Kay Macpherson, Roger W.Macqueen, Donald A.MacRae, Anthony A.Magnin, Warren Magnuson, Gilles-D.Mailhiot, Laurent Mailhot*, Pierre Mailhot*, J.S.Maini, Lise Maisonneuve, Jean-Louis Major(?), Robert Major, Peter Malkin, David Malloch, Cedric R.Mann, Kenneth H.Mann, Martha Mann, J.R.Marchand, Anthony Mardiros, Michel Marengere, Leo Margolis, Salomon Marion, Philip De Lacey Markham, William E.Markham, James H.Marsh*, John S.Marsh*, J.Stewart Marshall, Victor W.Marshall, J.Douglas Martin, Jean-Claude Martin, John E.H.Martin, Sandra Martin, Andre Martineau(?), May Maskow, Allan M.Maslove, Donald C.Masters, Perry Mastrovito, John Ross Matheson, William A.Matheson, R.D.Mathews, Robin Mathews, William G.Mathewson, Thomas Mathien*, John R.Mathieson, Jacques Mathieu*, Keith Matthews, John S.Matthiasson, David Mattison, Mary McDougall Maude*, Jean Mauger, Christopher J.Maule, Alfred R.Maurer, Jean Mauvide, Valerie J.May, Valerie L.May, John Maybank*, Paul F.Maycock, Jack Maze, R.Ann McAfee, Don E.McAllister, William J.McAndrew, D.S.McBean, W.A.E.McBryde, Christina McCall, Douglas McCalla, Margaret Elizabeth McCallum, Lawrence D.McCann*, S.B.McCann, Bennett McCardle*, Peter J.McCart, Michael J.McCarthy, Catharine McClellan, P.McCloskey, W.H.McConnell, A.Ross McCormack, Jane McCracken, Harvey A.McCue, James A.W.McCulloch, A.B.McCullough, Michael McDonald, Allan K.McDougall, Anne McDougall*, John N.McDougall, Robert L.McDougall, Duncan McDowall, Alec C.McEwen, Freeman L.McEwen, K.D.McFadden, Jean McFall, Pat McFarlane(?), Tom McFeat, Elizabeth W.McGahan, Harold Franklin McGee Jr., Timothy J.McGee, Robert McGhee*, William B.McGill(?), Donald G.McGillivray, Roderick Alan McGinn, Janice Dickin McGinnis*, Pauline McGregor, Eric McGuinness, Dave McIntosh, W.John McIntyre, Alexander G.McKay, Gordon A.McKay, J.Alex McKeague, John McKee, Ruth McKendry, Barbara A.McKenna, Brian McKenna, Ruth McKenzie, Rita McKeough, A.Brian McKillop*, J.McLachlan, Angus McLaren, Ian A.McLaren, K.M.McLaughlin, Kenneth McLaughlin, Catherine M.McLay, A.Anne McLellan, Cam McLeod(?), Elizabeth McLuhan, Gerald R.McMaster, Barclay McMillan*, Donald Burley McMillan, Michael McMordie*, Lorraine McMullen*, Stanley E.McMullin, William C.McMurray, Debra A.McNabb*, Anne McNamara, Kenneth McNaught, Tom McNeely*, Martin K.McNicholl*, Jean McNulty, Hugo A.McPherson, Sandra F.McRae, King G.McShane*, Ian McTaggart-Cowan*, Peter B.E.McVetty, Ian R.McWhinney, Stanley R.Mealing*, Sheva Medjuck, John Medley, Harry Medovy, Sharon P.Meen, Benoit Melancon, William H.Melody*, James R.Melvin, Philip E.Merilees, Jim Merrithew*, Ann Messenger, George Metcalf, David R.Metcalfe, Janis John Mezaks, T.H.Glynn Michael, Jacques Michon, F.W.Micklethwaite, Tom Middlebro', Ivan Mihaychuk, James Francis Verchere Millar, A.J.Miller, Carman Miller*, Elizabeth Russell Miller, J.R.Miller, John A.Miller, Judith N.Miller, Mark Miller*, Mary Jane Miller, Orlo Miller, Leslie Millin, Peter B.Millman, Thomas R.Millman, Charles A.Mills, Dave Mills, David Mills*, Eric L.Mills, Isabel Margaret Mills, Trevor Mills, Brian Milne, David Milne, David A.Milne*, William J.Milne, Marc Milner, David G.Milton, Janice Milton, Gordon Minnes, Dale Miquelon*, Edward D.Mitchell*, Ken R.Mitchell, Lillian Mitchell, Wendy L.Mitchinson, Johann W.Mohr, John S.Moir*, George Dempster Molnar, Patrick M.Moncrieff, Jacques Monet*, Ian Montagnes, D.Wayne Moodie, Susanna Moodie, Barry M.Moody, Peter N.Moogk*, Kathleen A.Mooney, Christopher Moore, James G.G.Moore, Keith L.Moore, Teresa Moore, Andrew J.Moriarty, E.Alan Morinis, Pierre Morisset, Yves-Marie Morissette, Raymond Moriyama, Richard E.Morlan, J.Terence Morley*, Patricia A.Morley, T.J.Morley, J.W.Morrice, Cerise Morris, Peter Morris*, David A.Morrison, Jack W.Morrison, Jean Morrison*, Kenneth L.Morrison*, Rod Morrison, W.Douglas Morrison, William R.Morrison*, Norval Morrisseau, Don Morrow, Pat Morrow*, Desmond Morton*, John K.Morton, Allan Moscovitch, John Moss, Mary Jane Mossman, Roger Motut, Farley Mowat, Susanne Mowat, David S.Moyer, R.Gordon Moyles, Maria Muehlen, R.D.Muir, Del A.Muise, Francis C.Muldoon, Robert M.Mummery, Mohiudden Munawar, R.E.Munn, J.Ian Munro, Sean Murphy, Joan Murray*, Robert G.E.Murray, Brian T.P.Mutimer, Luba Mycio, John Myles, Robert Nadeau, Vincent Nadeau, Josephine C.Naidoo, George Nakash, Agnes Nanogak, A.Nantel, Roald Nasgaard, Roger P.Nason, Susan M.Nattrass, Francis P.D.Navin, Margaret Neal, Peter Neary, H.Blair Neatby, Leslie H.Neatby*, Edwin H.Neave, A.W.H.Needler, George T.Needler, James M.Neelin, Robert F.Neill, H.Vivian Nelles, Joseph S.Nelson, Pierre Nepveu*, David N.Nettleship*, Edward Peter Neufeld, Ronald W.Newfeldt, Shirley Neuman, William H.New, Michael J.Newark*, Dianne Newell, David L.Newlands, Peter C.Newman, Roy Nicholls, Norman L.Nicholson*, John S.Nicks, Murray William Nicolson, N.Ole Nielsen, Jorge E.Niosi*, Thomas Nisbet, Lawrence C.Nkendirim, William C.Noble, Ib L.Nonnecke, Kenneth H.Norrie, William Notman*, Barbara Novak*, J.Ralph Nursall, V.Walter Nuttall*, Allan O'Brien, John O'Brien, Lucius O'Brien, Serge Occhietti*, Shane O'Dea, Daphne Odjig, Ronald K.O'Dor, [--?--] Odesse, Jillian M.Officer*, Will Ogilvie, James A.Ogilvy*, Jean O'Grady, Timothy R.Oke, Kim Patrick O'Leary, R.V.Oleson, W.J.Oliver, Patrick B.O'Neill, Mario Onyszchuk, Robert R.Orford, Mark M.Orkin, Lionel Orlikow, Margaret A.Ormsby, Brian Stuart Osborne, Fernand Ouellet, Henri Ouellet, Real Ouellet, John N.Owens*, Doug R.Owram, Charles Pachter, John G.Packer(?), Donald M.Page, Garnet T.Page, James E.Page, Malcolm Page, Lee Paikin*, Sandra Paikowsky*, Howard Pain, Michael F.Painter, Jean Palardy, Murray S.Palay, Bryan D.Palmer, Howard Palmer, Tamara Jeppson Palmer, Khayyam Zev Paltiel, Leo Panitch, Frits Pannekoek*, Gerald Ernest Panting, Jean-Marc Paradis, Jean Pariseau*, Seth Park, George L.Parker, Graham E.Parker, Tom W.Parkin*, Timothy R.Parkins, [Joy?] Parr, Keith Parry, John Parsons, Ralph T.Pastore, Thomas H.Patching, Donald G.Paterson, Peter Paterson, W.Stan B.Paterson, Mariko Patrie*, E.P.Patterson, Freeman Patterson, G.James Patterson, Diane Paulette Payment, John G.Peacey*, Gordon B.Peacock, Frank A.Peake, Jane H.Pease, William H.Pease, Diana Pedersen, Susan Pedwell, Bruce Peel, Frank W.Peers, Alfred Pellan, Gerard Pelletier, Jacques Pelletier, Rejean Pelletier, W.Richard Peltier, Terence Penelhum, Norman Penner, M.James Penton*, Michael B.Percy, William T.Perks*, R.I.Perla, Trivedi V.N.Persaud, Erik J.Peters*, Robert Henry Peters, Jean Peterson, Jeannie Peterson, R.L.Peterson, Thomas E.Peterson, Jaroslav Petryshyn, Louis-Philippe Phaneuf, P.P.Phelan(?), Edward Phelps, Carol A.Phillips, David W.Phillips, Paul Phillips*, Roy A.Phillips*, Ruth Bliss Phillips, Truman P.Phillips, Ronald J.C.Phillipson*, Fred Phipps, Ellen I.Picard, Victor Piche, George L.Pickard, Richard A.Pierce, Claudine Pierre-Deschenes*, Ruth Roach Pierson, Juri Pill, Mike Pinder, K.A.Pirozynski, David G.Pitt, Janet E.M.Pitt*, Robert D.Pitt*, Joseph Pivato, Antoine Plamondon, Rejean Plamondon, Richard L.Plant, Jozinus Ploeg, Helene Plouffe*, T.J.Plunkett, Thomas K.Poiker, Mario Polese, H.Pollard, Frank Polnaszek, J.Rick Ponting, Annelies M.Pool*, Kananginak Pootoogook, Carol Ann Pope, Hugh A.Porteous, Arthur Porter, John R.Porter, Marion Porter, Michael Posluns, Bernard Pothier, Gilles Potvin, Gabrielle Poulin, Deborah J.Powell, James V.Powell, Margaret E.Prang, Christopher Pratt, Larry R.Pratt, Mary Pratt, Norman E.P.Pressman, E.Carter Preston, Richard A.Preston*, Richard J.Preston, Hugh Preston-Thomas, John A.Price, Alexander D.Pringle*, Gordon Pritchard*, John Pritchard, John T.A.Proctor, Michel Proulx, Pudlo Pudlat, Garth Charles Pugh, Nancy Pukingrnak, Terrence M.Punch, Eric D.Putt, Zenon W.Pylyshyn(?), Terence H.Qualter, Harvey A.Quamme, D.B.Quayle, Karl-Heinz Raach*, H.Keith Ralston, Victor J.Ramraj, Donald A.Ramsay, Peter G.Ramsden, P.Keith Raney, Toby Rankin, Egon Rapp, John Rasmussen, Mark A.Rasmussen*, Anthony W.Rasporich, Beverly J.Rasporich, George A.Rawlyk, Arthur J.Ray, Alan Rayburn, Gordon Rayner, Ed Rea, J.E.Rea*, John H.Read, Walter Redinger, Gerald Redmond*, Austin Reed, F.Leslie C.Reed, John Reeves, Randall R.Reeves*, Ellen M.Regan, T.D.Regehr*, Alison M.Reid, Bill Reid, David C.Reid, George Agnew Reid, Ian A.Reid, John G.Reid*, M.H.Lefty Reid, Richard Reid, Robert G.B.Reid, J.Nolan Reilly, Sharon Reilly, Henry M.Reiswig, Gil Remillard, A.Jim Rennie, Donald Andrews Rennie, Viljo Revell, Francois Ricard, Pierre Richard, John Richards, William D.Richards, Eric Harvey Richardson, Keith W.Richardson, W.George Richardson, Alex Richman, Roger R.Rickwood, Laurie Ricou, W.Craig Riddell, Peter E.Rider*, Robin Ridington, Walter E.Riedel, Paul W.Riegert*, Bert Riggs, Peter Rindisbacher, J.C.Ritchie, S.Andrew Robb, Jean-Claude Robert*, Lucie Robert, Eugene Roberto, Goodridge Roberts, John S.Roberts(?), William Roberts, Ian Ross Robertson*, J.A.L.Robertson, Raleigh John Robertson, Rejean Robidoux, Denise Robillard, Bart T.Robinson, J.Lewis Robinson*, Sinclair Robinson, Tom W.Robson, Yves Roby, Douglas Roche, Guy Rocher, William Rodney , Russell G.A.Rodrigo, Juan Rodriguez, Robert C.Roeder, Jacob Rogers*, Robert J.Rogerson*, Charles G.Roland, Eugene W.Romaniuk, Joseph R.Romanow(?), Barbara Romanowski, David Rome, George Romney, Keith Ronald, William Ronald, Donna Yavorsky Ronish, Edward Roper, Albert Rose, Phyllis Rose, Earl Rosen(?), Ann C.Rosenberg, Alexander M.Ross, Catherine Sheldrick Ross, David J.Ross, David P.Ross, Henry U.Ross, Gordon Rostoker, Gordon Oliver Rothney, George A.Rothrock, Samuel Rothstein, Abraham Rotstein, Leonard R.Roueche, Jacques Rouillard*, Guildo Rousseau, Henri-Paul Rousseau, Adolphe-Basile Routhier, Marie Routledge, Donald Cameron Rowat, R.Geoffrey Rowberry, Frederick W.Rowe, John Stanley Rowe, Kenneth Rowe, Percy A.Rowe, Gordon G.Rowland, Diana Rowley, Harry C.Rowsell, David J.Roy, Fernande Roy, Patricia E.Roy, Reginald H.Roy*, Kenneth Roy Rozee, Lorne Rubenstein*, Ken Rubin, Leon J.Rubin, Gerald J.Rubio, Mary H.Rubio, David-Thierry Ruddel, Norman J.Ruff, Wilson Ruiz, Norman A.Rukavina, Oliver John Clyve Runnalls, Robert John Rupert, Karl M.Ruppenthal, Roger Rushdy, Dale A.Russell, Hilary Russell, Loris S.Russell*, Peter A.Russell, Victor L.Russell*, Paul Frederick William Rutherford, R.W.Rutherford, Nathaniel W.Rutter, Douglas E.Ryan, James T.Ryan, John Ryan, Shannon Ryan, June M.Ryder, Stanley-Brehaut Ryerson(?), Oiva W.Saarinen, Ann P.Sabina, Nickolay Sabolotny, Moshe Safdie, Eric W.Sager, Marc Saint Hilaire*, Bernard Saint-Jacques, Gaston J.Saint Laurent, B.Saladin-D'Anglure, Arnaud Sales, Jeff Sallot, Liora Salter, Douglas D.Sameoto, G.M.Sanders, Marie E.Sanderson, Margaret J.Sandison, Joan Sangster, [N.B?] Sanson, Joy L.Santink*, Allen Sapp, A.Margaret Sarjeant, William A.S.Sarjeant, Roger Sarty*, David J.Sauchyn, John S.Saul, Pierre Sauriol, Harry Savage, Pierre Savard, D.B.O.Savile, Joel S.Savishinsky, Ronald Savitt, Rodney J.Sawatsky, Ronald G.Sawatsky, Lorne William Sawula, Deborah C.Sawyer*, John T.Saywell, Christopher M.Scarfe, M.H.Scargill, Otto Schaefer, Barbara Ann Schau, Sidney S.Schipper, Peter Schledermann, Benjamin Schlesinger, Wilhelm Schmidt, Nancy Schmitz*, Norbert Schoenauer*, Barbara Schrodt*, A.Karstad Schueler, George A.Schultz, Joan M.Schwartz*, Elizabeth J.Schweizer, Karl W.Schweizer, Charles Schwier, Stephen Scobie*, David S.Scott, Peter J.Scott, Stephen A.Scott, W.Beverly Scott*, Geoffrey G.E.Scudder, Allen Seager*, D.Bruce Sealey, Gary Sealey(?), Spencer G.Sealey, Louis M.Sebert, Harold N.Segall, Martin Segger, Norman Seguin, Alec H.Sehon, H.John Selwoood, Neil A.Semple*, Yoshio Senda, Elinor Senior, Hereward Senior, Robert Allan Serne, John Sewell, Christopher M.Seymour, Patrick D.Seymour, Aqjangajuk Shaa, Doris Shadbolt, Douglas Shadbolt, Ed Shaffer, Fouad E.Shaker, Elizabeth E.Shannon, Bernard J.Shapiro, Frances M.Shaver, Gordon C.Shaw, Joseph W.Shaw, L.Shaw, Murray C.Shaw*, Steve Shaw, Clifford D.Shearing, Carol Sheehan*, Nancy M.Sheehan*, Harry Sheffer, Edward Ottawa Sheffield, Rose Sheinen, Ben-Z.Shek, Jaroslaw W.Shelest, Roy J.Shephard, R.Ronald Sheppard, Robert Sheppard, Ellen Shifrin, Chang-Tai Shih, Rosemary Shipton, Thomas K.Shoyama, William L.H.Shuter, Nicholas Sidor, Arthur Siegel, David P.Silcox, Lennard Sillanpaa, Elaine Leslau Silver man, C.Ross Silversides, Richard Simeon*, Tom Sinclair-Faulkner*, Antoine Sirois, Rebecca Sisler, O.F.G.Sitwell, Alan Edward Skeoch, Grace Skogstad, Peter Slater, Yar Slavutych, H.Olav Slaymaker, William A.Sloan*, D.Scott Slocombe, Charles E.Slonecker, Peter Gerent Sly, Patricia Smart, Andre Smith, Barry L.Smith, Bill Smith, David B.Smith*, David E.Smith, Denis Smith*, Derek G.Smith, Donald A.Smith, Donald B.Smith*, Douglas A.Smith, Frances K.Smith, James G.E.Smith, James N.M.Smith, Kenneth V.Smith, Maurice V.Smith*, Peter C.Smith*, Peter J.Smith, Shirlee Anne Smith, T.Bradbrooke Smith, William Young Smith(?), Joseph Smucker, D.Laureen Snider, Dean R.Snow, Michael Snow, James D.Snowdon, Thomas P.Socknat, Omond M.Solandt, Margaret A.Somerville, Karl Sommerer, James Herbert Soper, John R.Sorfleet, Mary E.Southcott, Jack G.Souther, David A.E.Spalding, Roman Spalek, Stephen A.Speisman, Andrew N.Spencer, Deirdre Spencer, Don Spencer, John F.T.Spencer, John H.Spencer, Douglas O.Spettigue, Godfrey L.Spragge, D.N.Sprague*, William A.Spray, R.A.Sproule, Irene M.Spry, C.P.Stacey, C.R.Stacey, Robert Stacey*, Shirley Stacey, John K.Stager, Ronald J.Stagg, Elvira Stahl, Denis Stairs, Douglas G.Stairs, Robert M.Stamp*, W.T.Stanbury, David M.Stanley, Della M.M.Stanley*, George F.G.Stanley, Laurie C.C.Stanley, Charles R.Stanton, Gail Starr(?), Michael Staveley, Margaret M.Stayner, Gordon W.Stead, James Steele, Taylor A.Steeves, Baldur R.Stefansson, Con Stefurak, Janet R.Stein, Michael B.Stein, Gilbert A.Stelter, Philip C.Stenning, Philip H.R.Stepney*, Howard A.Steppler*, Theodor D.Sterling, H.H.Stern, Peter Stevens, Charlotte Stevenson, Garth Stevenson*, John T.Stevenson, F.Stewart, J.Douglas Stewart, John B.Stewart*, John R.Stewart*, Kenneth W.Stewart, Lillian D.Stewart*, Michael E.Stiles, John R.Stocking, Jennifer Stoddart, Boris Peter Stoicheff, Kay F.Stone, Donald H.Stonehouse, Anna K.Storgaard, Gerald J.Stortz, George Morley Story*, Jon C.Stott, Grant Strate*, Otto P.Strausz, Elwood W.Stringham, Charles Strong*, Veronica Strong-Boag, J.R.Tim Struthers, James Struthers, Richard Stuart, Ross Stuart, Konrad W.Studnicki-Gizbert, Franc Sturino, Peter Stursberg, Richard Stursberg, Brian E.Sullivan, William F.Summers, Ann G.Sunahara, Shan-Ching Sung, Maxwell Sutherland, Neil Sutherland, Sharon L.Sutherland, Stuart R.J.Sutherland*, Maia-Mari Sutnik, David Takayoshi Suzuki, Donald Swainson, Neil A.Swainson, Robert Sward, Alastair Sweeny, George Swinton, William Elgin Swinton, Frances A.Swyripa, T.Sykes, Philippe Sylvain*, Guy Sylvestre, Rodney Symington, E.Leigh Syms, Emoke J.E.Szathmary, Gerald Tailfeathers, James J.Talman, Adrian Tanner, Louis-Paul Tardif(?), Walter Surma Tarnopolsky, Leslie K.Tarr, Sylvie Taschereau, Jeremy B.Tatum, Thomas E.Tausky, C.J.Taylor*, Charles Taylor, Christopher Edward Taylor, J.Garth Taylor, J.Mary Taylor, Jeff Taylor, John H.Taylor, John Leonard Taylor, M.Brook Taylor*, Philip S.Taylor, Roy Lewis Taylor, Sylvia Taylor, William Clyne Taylor, William E.Taylor, Ghassem Tehrani, Robert G.Telewiak, R.John Templin, Brian D.Tennyson, Lorne Tepperman, Joan Terasmae, Yves Tessier, Pierre Theberge, Sharon Thesen*, George J.Thiessen, Stuart A.Thiesson, Marise Thivierge, Nicole Thivierge, Ann W.Thomas, Clara Thomas, Eileen Mitchell Thomas, Gregory Thomas, Morley K.Thomas*, Paul G.Thomas, Andrew Royden Thompson, Dixon A.R.Thompson, John R.Thompson, Teresa Thompson, William Paul Thompson*, Alex J.Thomson, J.Thomson, Malcolm [H?] Thomson, Malcolm M.Thomson, Reginald George Thomson, Stanley Thomson, Tom Thomson, Hugh G.Thorburn, Frederick J.Thorpe*, Catherine M.V.Thuro, John L.Tiedje, Herman Tiessen, Louis C.Tiffany, Seha M.Tinic, Ewen C.D.Todd, James M.Toguri, George S.Tomkins, Vladislav A.Tomovic, Peter M.Toner, Pierre Tousignant, Harold B.Town*, Joan B.Townsend, Richard G.Townsend, Charlotte Townsend-Gault, Anthony A.Travill*, Claire Tremblay*, Gaetan Tremblay, Jean-Yves Tremblay, Marc-Adelard Tremblay*, Pierre Trepanier, Stanley G.Triggs, Susan Mann Trofimenkoff, Harold Troper, Elizabeth A.Trott*, Barry D.Truax, Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Marc J.Trudel, Marcel Trudel, Mark E.H.Trueman, James A.Tuck*, Albert V.Tucker, Jaap J.Tuinman, Verena J.Tunnicliffe, Archie L.W.Tuomi, Allan Tupper, Gael Turnbull, H.E.Turner, Nancy J.Turner*, William J.Turnock, Katherine Tweedie, Christopher D.Tyler, Edward W.Tyrchniewicz, M.C.Urquhart, Auguste Vachon, G.Oliver Vagt, Gail C.Valaskakis, Frank G.Vallee, Marc Vallieres, Andre Vanasse, Rosamond M.Vendenburgh, Robert O.Van Everdingen, Blanche Lemco Van Ginkel, Walter Van Nus, Francoise Van Roey-Roux, Charles E.Van Wagner, Alice Van Wart, Christine Van Zwamen, Christopher Varley*, Frederick Horsman Varley, Joan M.Vastokas, Frederick Vaughan, Edmund W.Vaz, Bill Vazan, Richard Veatch, Michele M.Veeman, Terrence S.Veeman, Arjen Verkaik, Andre Vermeirre, F.A.Verner, Pierre Veronneau*, Claude Vezina, Raymond Vezina, Roger Vick*, Bernard L.Vigod*, Aubrey R.Vincent, Thomas B.Vincent, Kati Vita, Vadim D.Vladykov, Douglas Voice, Nive Voisine*, George M.Volkoff, Michael Vollmer, C.Haehling Von Lanzenauer, Roger D.Voyer, Richard Vroom*, Pamela S.Wachna, Stephen M.Waddams, Susan Wagg, Anton Wagner*, W.A.Waiser, P.B.Waite*, Michael John Wakroft, David B.Walden, Deward E.Walker Jr, James W.St.G.Walker, John P.Walker, Susan Walker, Thomas Walkom, Birgitta Linderoth Wallace, Carl M.Wallace*, Hugh N.Wallace, P.R.Wallace, Jean-Pierre Wallot*, J.A.Walper, Susan Walsh, J.Grant Wanzel*, Norman Ward*, Philip R.Ward, W.Peter Ward, Tracy Ware, John Warkentin, John Anson Warner, A.M.C.Waterman, Janice Waters, Elizabeth Waterston*, Mel Watkins, Homer Watson, Lorne Watson, Robert D.Watt, Ron Watts* Douglas Waugh, Earle H.Waugh, Morris Wayman, Christopher Weait, John C.Weaver, James L.Webb, Anna Weber, Roland Weber, D.B.Webster*, Douglas R.Webster, Gloria Cranmer Webster, Helen R.Webster, William G.Wegenast, Peter H.Weinrich, Robert Stanley Weir, Thomas R.Weir, Merrily Weisbord, G.Vernon Wellburn, John Wells, Harry L.Welsh, Carl J.Wenaas, Leo H.Werner, Douglas Wertheimer, D.V.Chip Weseloh, Benjamin West, J.Thomas West*, Roxroy West, Marla L.Weston, Robert Reginald Whale, Linda D.Whalen, C.F.J.Whebell, John O.Wheeler, Reginald Whitaker, Clinton Oliver White, John White, M.Lillian White, Alan Whitehorn, Leon Whiteson, James R.Whiteway, Gordon Francis Whitmore, Donald R.Whyte, Edgar B.Wickberg, Joyce Wieland, Thomas Wien, Clifford Wiens, Ernest J.Wiggins, Darlene Wight, Betty Wilcox, Frank Shorty Wilcox, Norman J.Wilimovsky, Karen Wilkin*, Bruce William Wilkinson, J.A.Wilkinson*, Robert C.Willey, Al Williams, David Ricardo Williams, Glyndwr Williams, Patricia Lynn Williams*, Richard M.Williams, S.Ridgeley Williams, Sydney B.Williams, M.W.Williams, Mary F.Williamson, Moncrieff Williamson, Christopher J.Willis, Norman M.Willis, Rod Willmot, Frank Wills, Bruce G.Wilson, H.E.Wilson, Ian E.Wilson, J.Donald Wilson, J.Tuzo Wilson, Jean Wilson*, Helmut K.Wimmer, Brent Windwick, Robin W.Winks, Gregory Wirick, Ronald G.Wirick, S.F.Wise, William J.Withrow, Henry Wittenberg, Leonhard S.Wolfe, William C.Wonders, Bernard Wood, George Woodcock*, John Woodruff, M.Emerson Woodruff, Robert James Woods, Glenn T.Wright, Harold E.Wright, J.F.C.Wright, J.V.Wright, Janet Wright*, Kenneth O.Wright, Roy A.Wright*, Paul Wyczynski, Jan Wyers, Max Wyman, Graeme Wynn, Leo Yaffe, Maxwell F.Yalden, Dong Yee, Derek York, A.J.Sandy Young, C.Maureen Young, David A.Young, Gayle Young, H.Brig Young, Jane Young, Jeffery Young, John H.Young, Roland S.Young, Walter D.Young, Manuel Zack, Jas Zagan, Suzanne E.Zeller*, Jarold K.Zeman, Joyce Zemans*, Norman W.Zepp, Jacob S.Ziegel, Bruce Ziff, Frank D.Zingrone, Stephen C.Zoltai*, Louise Zuk.
includes:
i) Governor General's Literary Awards, by [anonymous] (pp.758-761; in 2 parts, bpNichol listed for poetry, 197o, in part (chart) 2, Governor General's Award Winners)
ii) Humorous Writing in English, by Stephen Scobie (pp.847-848; prose, with a halfparagraph on Nichol's the martyrology)
iii) Literature in English, by W.H.New (pp1o17-1o2o; prose in 4 parts, passing reference to Nichol in part 4, History, itself in 6 parts, Nichol reference in part 6, 1959-80s)
iv) Nichol, Barrie Phillip, by Douglas Barbour (p.1259; prose)
v) Ondaatje, Michael, by Sharon Thesen (p.1318; prose, passing reference to Nichol/sons of captain poetry)
vi) Oral Literature in English, by Barbara Godard (pp.1331-1332; prose, passing reference to Nichol/Four Horsemen)
vii) Poetry in English, 1960-1980s, by Douglas Barbour (pp.1433-1434; prose, multiple references to Nichol)
viii) Short Fiction in English, by J.R.Tim Struthers (pp.1692-1693; prose in 9 parts, Nichol & Craft Dinner referenced in part 6, Experimental Writing)
ix) INDEX, by Eve Gardner & Ron Gardner (pp.1993-2o89; secondary references only includes Four Horsemen but with no way to access Nichol references other than (iv) above)
___________________________
- 2nd edition, 1988
Le Café la Nuit in Arles, Place de Forum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Arles
Arles is located in France
Arles is located in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
Coordinates: 43°40′36″N 4°37′40″ECoordinates: 43°40′36″N 4°37′40″E
Country France
Region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
Department Bouches-du-Rhône
Arrondissement Arles
Canton Arles
Intercommunality CA Arles-Crau-Camargue-Montagnette
Government
• Mayor (2014–2020) Hervé Schiavetti (PCF)
Area1 758.93 km2 (293.02 sq mi)
Population (2012)2 52,439
• Density 69/km2 (180/sq mi)
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
• Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)
INSEE/Postal code 13004 /13200
Elevation 0–57 m (0–187 ft)
(avg. 10 m or 33 ft)
1 French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers > 1 km² (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries.
2 Population without double counting: residents of multiple communes (e.g., students and military personnel) only counted once.
Arles (French pronunciation: [aʁl]; Provençal [ˈaʀle] in both classical and Mistralian norms; Arelate in Classical Latin) is a city and commune in the south of France, in the Bouches-du-Rhône department, of which it is a subprefecture, in the former province of Provence.
A large part of the Camargue is located on the territory of the commune, making it the largest commune in Metropolitan France in terms of territory (though Maripasoula, French Guiana, is much larger). The city has a long history, and was of considerable importance in the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis. The Roman and Romanesque Monuments of Arles were listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1981. The Dutch post-Impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh lived in Arles from 1888 to 1889 and produced over 300 paintings and drawings during his time there. An international photography festival has been held in the city since 1970.
Geography
The river Rhône forks into two branches just upstream of Arles, forming the Camargue delta. Because the Camargue is for a large part administratively part of Arles, the commune as a whole is the largest commune in Metropolitan France in terms of territory, although its population is only slightly more than 50,000. Its area is 758.93 km2 (293.02 sq mi), which is more than seven times the area of Paris.
Climate
Arles has a Mediterranean climate with a mean annual temperature of 14.6 °C (1948 - 1999). The summers are warm and moderately dry, with seasonal averages between 22 °C and 24 °C, and mild winters with a mean temperature of about 7 °C. The city is constantly, but especially in the winter months, subject to the influence of the mistral, a cold wind which can cause sudden and severe frosts. Rainfall (636 mm per year) is fairly evenly distributed from September to May, with the summer drought being less marked than in other Mediterranean areas.[1]
Climate data for Arles, 1948–1999
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high °C (°F) 10.4
(50.7) 12.3
(54.1) 15.7
(60.3) 18.5
(65.3) 22.8
(73) 27.1
(80.8) 30.3
(86.5) 29.7
(85.5) 25.5
(77.9) 20.3
(68.5) 14.4
(57.9) 11.0
(51.8) 19.8
(67.6)
Average low °C (°F) 2.1
(35.8) 2.8
(37) 5.3
(41.5) 7.5
(45.5) 11.2
(52.2) 14.5
(58.1) 17.7
(63.9) 17.3
(63.1) 14.4
(57.9) 10.4
(50.7) 5.9
(42.6) 3.1
(37.6) 9.4
(48.9)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 54.7
(2.154) 50.8
(2) 49.3
(1.941) 50.3
(1.98) 48.6
(1.913) 37.3
(1.469) 17.1
(0.673) 39.2
(1.543) 81.7
(3.217) 85.7
(3.374) 66.7
(2.626) 54.7
(2.154) 636.1
(25.043)
Source: Italian Wikipedia article on Arles
History
Arles Amphitheatre, a Roman arena.
Passageway in Roman arena
Church of St. Trophime and its cloister.
Ancient era
The Ligurians were in this area from about 800 BC. Later, Celtic influences have been discovered. The city became an important Phoenician trading port, before being taken by the Romans.
The Romans took the town in 123 BC and expanded it into an important city, with a canal link to the Mediterranean Sea being constructed in 104 BC. However, it struggled to escape the shadow of Massalia (Marseilles) further along the coast.
Its chance came when it sided with Julius Caesar against Pompey, providing military support. Massalia backed Pompey; when Caesar emerged victorious, Massalia was stripped of its possessions, which were transferred to Arelate as a reward. The town was formally established as a colony for veterans of the Roman legion Legio VI Ferrata, which had its base there. Its full title as a colony was Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelatensium Sextanorum, "the ancestral Julian colony of Arles of the soldiers of the Sixth."
Arelate was a city of considerable importance in the province of Gallia Narbonensis. It covered an area of some 40 hectares (99 acres) and possessed a number of monuments, including an amphitheatre, triumphal arch, Roman circus, theatre, and a full circuit of walls. Ancient Arles was closer to the sea than it is now and served as a major port. It also had (and still has) the southernmost bridge on the Rhône. Very unusually, the Roman bridge was not fixed but consisted of a pontoon-style bridge of boats, with towers and drawbridges at each end. The boats were secured in place by anchors and were tethered to twin towers built just upstream of the bridge. This unusual design was a way of coping with the river's frequent violent floods, which would have made short work of a conventional bridge. Nothing remains of the Roman bridge, which has been replaced by a more modern bridge near the same spot.
The city reached a peak of influence during the 4th and 5th centuries, when Roman Emperors frequently used it as their headquarters during military campaigns. In 395, it became the seat of the Praetorian Prefecture of the Gauls, governing the western part of the Western Empire: Gaul proper plus Hispania (Spain) and Armorica (Brittany). At that time, the city was perhaps home to 75,000–100,000 people.[2][3][4][5]
It became a favorite city of Emperor Constantine I, who built baths there, substantial remains of which are still standing. His son, Constantine II, was born in Arles. Usurper Constantine III declared himself emperor in the West (407–411) and made Arles his capital in 408.
Arles became renowned as a cultural and religious centre during the late Roman Empire. It was the birthplace of the sceptical philosopher Favorinus. It was also a key location for Roman Christianity and an important base for the Christianization of Gaul. The city's bishopric was held by a series of outstanding clerics, beginning with Saint Trophimus around 225 and continuing with Saint Honoratus, then Saint Hilarius in the first half of the 5th century. The political tension between the Catholic bishops of Arles and the Visigothic kings is epitomized in the career of the Frankish St. Caesarius, bishop of Arles 503–542, who was suspected by the Arian Visigoth Alaric II of conspiring with the Burgundians to turn over the Arelate to Burgundy, and was exiled for a year to Bordeaux in Aquitaine. Political tensions were evident again in 512, when Arles held out against Theodoric the Great and Caesarius was imprisoned and sent to Ravenna to explain his actions before the Ostrogothic king.[6]
The friction between the Arian Christianity of the Visigoths and the Catholicism of the bishops sent out from Rome established deep roots for religious heterodoxy, even heresy, in Occitan culture. At Treves in 385, Priscillian achieved the distinction of becoming the first Christian executed for heresy (Manichaean in his case, see also Cathars, Camisards). Despite this tension and the city's decline in the face of barbarian invasions, Arles remained a great religious centre and host of church councils (see Council of Arles), the rival of Vienne, for hundreds of years.
Roman aqueduct and mill
Aqueduct of Arles at Barbegal
The Barbegal aqueduct and mill is a Roman watermill complex located on the territory of the commune of Fontvieille, a few kilometres from Arles. The complex has been referred to as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world".[7] The remains of the mill streams and buildings which housed the overshot water wheels are still visible at the site, and it is by far the best-preserved of ancient mills. There are two aqueducts which join just north of the mill complex, and a sluice which enabled the operators to control the water supply to the complex. The mill consisted of 16 waterwheels in two separate rows built into a steep hillside. There are substantial masonry remains of the water channels and foundations of the individual mills, together with a staircase rising up the hill upon which the mills are built. The mills apparently operated from the end of the 1st century until about the end of the 3rd century.[8] The capacity of the mills has been estimated at 4.5 tons of flour per day, sufficient to supply enough bread for 6,000 of the 30-40,000 inhabitants of Arelate at that time.[9] A similar mill complex existed also on the Janiculum in Rome. Examination of the mill leat still just visible on one side of the hill shows a substantial accretion of lime in the channel, tending to confirm its long working life.
It is thought that the wheels were overshot water wheels with the outflow from the top driving the next one down and so on, to the base of the hill. Vertical water mills were well known to the Romans, being described by Vitruvius in his De Architectura of 25 BC, and mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia of 77 AD. There are also later references to floating water mills from Byzantium and to sawmills on the river Moselle by the poet Ausonius. The use of multiple stacked sequences of reverse overshot water-wheels was widespread in Roman mines.
Middle Ages
Place de la République.
Cafe Terrace at Night by Vincent van Gogh (September 1888), depicts the warmth of a café in Arles
In 735, after raiding the Lower Rhône, Andalusian Saracens led by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri moved into the stronghold summoned by Count Maurontus, who feared Charles Martel's expansionist ambitions, though this may have been an excuse to further Moorish expansion beyond Iberia. The next year, Charles campaigned south to Septimania and Provence, attacking and capturing Arles after destroying Avignon. In 739. Charles definitely drove Maurontus to exile, and brought Provence to heel. In 855, it was made the capital of a Frankish Kingdom of Arles, which included Burgundy and part of Provence, but was frequently terrorised by Saracen and Viking raiders. In 888, Rudolph, Count of Auxerre (now in north-western Burgundy), founded the kingdom of Transjuran Burgundy (literally, beyond the Jura mountains), which included western Switzerland as far as the river Reuss, Valais, Geneva, Chablais and Bugey.
In 933, Hugh of Arles ("Hugues de Provence") gave his kingdom up to Rudolph II, who merged the two kingdoms into a new Kingdom of Arles. In 1032, King Rudolph III died, and the kingdom was inherited by Emperor Conrad II the Salic. Though his successors counted themselves kings of Arles, few went to be crowned in the cathedral. Most of the kingdom's territory was progressively incorporated into France. During these troubled times, the amphitheatre was converted into a fortress, with watchtowers built at each of the four quadrants and a minuscule walled town being constructed within. The population was by now only a fraction of what it had been in Roman times, with much of old Arles lying in ruins.
The town regained political and economic prominence in the 12th century, with the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa traveling there in 1178 for his coronation. In the 12th century, it became a free city governed by an elected podestat (chief magistrate; literally "power"), who appointed the consuls and other magistrates. It retained this status until the French Revolution of 1789.
Arles joined the countship of Provence in 1239, but, once more, its prominence was eclipsed by Marseilles. In 1378, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV ceded the remnants of the Kingdom of Arles to the Dauphin of France (later King Charles VI of France) and the kingdom ceased to exist even on paper.
Modern era
Arles remained economically important for many years as a major port on the Rhône. In the 19th century, the arrival of the railway diminished river trade, leading to the town becoming something of a backwater.
This made it an attractive destination for the painter Vincent van Gogh, who arrived there on 21 February 1888. He was fascinated by the Provençal landscapes, producing over 300 paintings and drawings during his time in Arles. Many of his most famous paintings were completed there, including The Night Cafe, the Yellow Room, Starry Night Over the Rhone, and L'Arlésienne. Paul Gauguin visited van Gogh in Arles. However, van Gogh's mental health deteriorated and he became alarmingly eccentric, culminating in the well-known ear-severing incident in December 1888 which resulted in two stays in the Old Hospital of Arles. The concerned Arlesians circulated a petition the following February demanding that van Gogh be confined. In May 1889, he took the hint and left Arles for the Saint-Paul asylum at nearby Saint-Rémy-de-Provence.
Jewish history
Main article: History of the Jews in Arles
Arles had an important and evident Jewish community between the Roman era and until the end of the 15th century. A local legend describes the first Jews in Arles as exiles from Judaea after Jerusalem fell to the Romans. Nevertheless, the first documented evident of Jews in Arles is not before fifth century, when a distinguished community had already existed in town. Arles was an important Jewish crossroads, as a port city and close to Spain and the rest of Europe alike. It served a major role in the work of the Hachmei Provence group of famous Jewish scholars, translators and philosophers, who were most important to Judaism throughout the Middle Ages. At the eighth century, the jurisdiction of the Jews of Arles were passed to the local Archbishop, making the Jewish taxes to the clergy somewhat of a shield for the community from mob attacks, most frequent during the Crusades. The community lived relatively peacefully until the last decade of the 15th century, when they were expelled out of the city never to return. Several Jews did live in the city in the centuries after, though no community was found ever after. Nowadays, Jewish archaeological findings and texts from Arles can be found in the local museum.[10]
Population
Historical population
Year Pop. ±%
1806 20,151 —
1820 20,150 −0.0%
1831 20,236 +0.4%
1836 20,048 −0.9%
1841 20,460 +2.1%
1846 23,101 +12.9%
1851 23,208 +0.5%
1856 24,816 +6.9%
1861 25,543 +2.9%
1866 26,367 +3.2%
1872 24,695 −6.3%
1876 25,095 +1.6%
1881 23,480 −6.4%
1891 24,288 +3.4%
1896 24,567 +1.1%
1901 28,116 +14.4%
1906 31,010 +10.3%
1911 31,014 +0.0%
1921 29,146 −6.0%
1926 32,485 +11.5%
1946 35,017 +7.8%
1954 37,443 +6.9%
1962 41,932 +12.0%
1968 45,774 +9.2%
1975 50,059 +9.4%
1982 50,500 +0.9%
1990 52,058 +3.1%
1999 50,426 −3.1%
2008 52,729 +4.6%
2010 57,328 +8.7%
Main sights
Gallo-Roman theatre.
The Alyscamps.
Arles has important Roman remnants, most of which have been listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1981 within the Arles, Roman and Romanesque Monuments group. They include:
The Gallo-Roman theatre
The arena or amphitheatre
The Alyscamps (Roman necropolis)
The Thermae of Constantine
The cryptoporticus
Arles Obelisk
Barbegal aqueduct and mill
The Church of St. Trophime (Saint Trophimus), formerly a cathedral, is a major work of Romanesque architecture, and the representation of the Last Judgment on its portal is considered one of the finest examples of Romanesque sculpture, as are the columns in the adjacent cloister.
The town also has a museum of ancient history, the Musée de l'Arles et de la Provence antiques, with one of the best collections of Roman sarcophagi to be found anywhere outside Rome itself. Other museums include the Musée Réattu and the Museon Arlaten.
The courtyard of the Old Arles hospital, now named "Espace Van Gogh," is a center for Vincent van Gogh's works, several of which are masterpieces.[11] The garden, framed on all four sides by buildings of the complex, is approached through arcades on the first floor. A circulation gallery is located on the first and second floors.[12]
Archaeology
Main article: Arles portrait bust
In September–October 2007, divers led by Luc Long from the French Department of Subaquatic Archaeological Research, headed by Michel L'Hour, discovered a life-sized marble bust of an apparently important Roman person in the Rhône near Arles, together with smaller statues of Marsyas in Hellenistic style and of the god Neptune from the third century AD. The larger bust was tentatively dated to 46 BC. Since the bust displayed several characteristics of an ageing person with wrinkles, deep naso-labial creases and hollows in his face, and since the archaeologists believed that Julius Caesar had founded the colony Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelate Sextanorum in 46 BC, the scientists came to the preliminary conclusion that the bust depicted a life-portrait of the Roman dictator: France's Minister of Culture Christine Albanel reported on May 13, 2008, that the bust would be the oldest representation of Caesar known today.[13] The story was picked up by all larger media outlets.[14][15] The realism of the portrait was said to place it in the tradition of late Republican portrait and genre sculptures. The archaeologists further claimed that a bust of Julius Caesar might have been thrown away or discreetly disposed of, because Caesar's portraits could have been viewed as politically dangerous possessions after the dictator's assassination.
Historians and archaeologists not affiliated with the French administration, among them Paul Zanker, the renowned archaeologist and expert on Caesar and Augustus, were quick to question whether the bust is a portrait of Caesar.[16][17][18] Many noted the lack of resemblances to Caesar's likenesses issued on coins during the last years of the dictator's life, and to the Tusculum bust of Caesar,[19] which depicts Julius Caesar in his lifetime, either as a so-called zeitgesicht or as a direct portrait. After a further stylistic assessment, Zanker dated the Arles-bust to the Augustan period. Elkins argued for the third century AD as the terminus post quem for the deposition of the statues, refuting the claim that the bust was thrown away due to feared repercussions from Caesar's assassination in 44 BC.[20] The main argument by the French archaeologists that Caesar had founded the colony in 46 BC proved to be incorrect, as the colony was founded by Caesar's former quaestor Tiberius Claudius Nero on the dictator's orders in his absence.[21] Mary Beard has accused the persons involved in the find of having willfully invented their claims for publicity reasons. The French ministry of culture has not yet responded to the criticism and negative reviews.
Sport
AC Arles-Avignon is a professional French football team. They currently play in Championnat de France Amateur, the fourth division in French football. They play at the Parc des Sports, which has a capacity of just over 17,000.
Culture
A well known photography festival, Rencontres d'Arles, takes place in Arles every year, and the French national school of photography is located there.
The major French publishing house Actes Sud is also situated in Arles.
Bull fights are conducted in the amphitheatre, including Provençal-style bullfights (courses camarguaises) in which the bull is not killed, but rather a team of athletic men attempt to remove a tassle from the bull's horn without getting injured. Every Easter and on the first weekend of September, during the feria, Arles also holds Spanish-style corridas (in which the bulls are killed) with an encierro (bull-running in the streets) preceding each fight.
The film Ronin was partially filmed in Arles.
European Capital of Culture
Arles played a major role in Marseille-Provence 2013, the year-long series of cultural events held in the region after it was designated the European Capital of Culture for 2013. The city hosted a segment of the opening ceremony with a pyrotechnical performance by Groupe F on the banks of the Rhône. It also unveiled the new wing of the Musée Départemental Arles Antique as part of Marseille-Provence 2013.
Economy
Arles's open-air street market is a major market in the region. It occurs on Saturday and Wednesday mornings.
Transport
The Gare d'Arles railway station offers connections to Avignon, Nîmes, Marseille, Paris, Bordeaux and several regional destinations.
Notable people
Vincent van Gogh, lived here from February 1888 until May 1889.
The Provençal poet Frédéric Mistral (1830–1914) was born near Arles
Jeanne Calment (1875–1997), the oldest human being whose age is documented, was born, lived and died, at the age of 122 years and 164 days, in Arles
Anne-Marie David, singer (Eurovision winner in 1973)
Christian Lacroix, fashion designer
Lucien Clergue, photographer
Djibril Cissé, footballer
Antoine de Seguiran, 18th-century encyclopédiste
Genesius of Arles, a notary martyred under Maximianus in 303 or 308
Blessed Jean Marie du Lau, last Archbishop of Arles, killed by the revolutionary mob in Paris on September 2, 1792
Juan Bautista (real name Jean-Baptiste Jalabert), matador
Maja Hoffmann, art patron
Mehdi Savalli, matador
The medieval writer Antoine de la Sale was probably born in Arles around 1386
Home of the Gipsy Kings, a music group from Arles
Gael Givet, footballer
Lloyd Palun, footballer
Fanny Valette, actress
Luc Hoffmann, ornithologist, conservationist and philanthropist.
Saint Caesarius of Arles, bishop who lived from the late 5th to the mid 6th century, known for prophecy and writings that would later be used by theologians such as St. Thomas Aquinas
Samuel ibn Tibbon, famous Jewish translator and scholar during the Middle Ages.
Kalonymus ben Kalonymus, famous Jewish scholar and philosopher, Arles born, active during the Middle Ages.
Twin towns — sister cities
See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in France
Arles is twinned with:
Pskov, Russia
Jerez de la Frontera, Spain
Fulda, Germany
York, Pennsylvania, United States
Cubelles, Spain
Vercelli, Italy
Sagné, Mauritania
Kalymnos, Greece
Wisbech, United Kingdom
Zhouzhuang, Kunshan, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
Verviers, Belgium
See also
Archbishopric of Arles
Montmajour Abbey
Trinquetaille
Langlois Bridge
Saint-Martin-de-Crau
Communes of the Bouches-du-Rhône department
References
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Archdiocese of Aix". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton.
INSEE
The table contains the temperatures and precipitation of the city of Arles for the period 1948-1999, extracted from the site Sophy.u-3mrs.fr.
www.academia.edu/1166147/_The_Fall_and_Decline_of_the_Rom...
Rick Steves' Provence & the French Riviera, p. 78, at Google Books
Nelson's Dictionary of Christianity: The Authoritative Resource on the Christian World, p. 1173, at Google Books
Provence, p. 81, at Google Books
Wace, Dictionary)
Greene, Kevin (2000). "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered". The Economic History Review. New Series. 53 (1): 29–59 [p. 39]. doi:10.1111/1468-0289.00151.
"Ville d'Histoire et de Patrimoine". Patrimoine.ville-arles.fr. Retrieved 2013-03-25.
"La meunerie de Barbegal". Etab.ac-caen.fr. Retrieved 2013-03-25.
jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1784-arles
Fisher, R, ed (2011). Fodor's France 2011. Toronto and New York: Fodor's Travel, division of Random House. p. 563 ISBN 978-1-4000-0473-7.
"Espace Van Gogh". Visiter, Places of Interest. Arles Office de Tourisme. Retrieved 2011-04-29.
Original communiqué (May 13, 2008); second communiqué (May 20, 2008); report (May 20, 2008)
E.g."Divers find marble bust of Caesar that may date to 46 B.C.". Archived from the original on 2008-06-05. Retrieved 2008-05-14. , CNN-Online et al.
Video (QuickTime) Archived May 28, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. on the archaeological find (France 3)
Paul Zanker, "Der Echte war energischer, distanzierter, ironischer" Archived May 29, 2008, at the Wayback Machine., Sueddeutsche Zeitung, May 25, 2008, on-line
Mary Beard, "The face of Julius Caesar? Come off it!", TLS, May 14, 2008, on-line
Nathan T. Elkins, 'Oldest Bust' of Julius Caesar found in France?, May 14, 2008, on-line
Cp. this image at the AERIA library
A different approach was presented by Mary Beard, in that members of a military Caesarian colony would not have discarded portraits of Caesar, whom they worshipped as god, although statues were in fact destroyed by the Anti-Caesarians in the city of Rome after Caesar's assassination (Appian, BC III.1.9).
Konrat Ziegler & Walther Sontheimer (eds.), "Arelate", in Der Kleine Pauly: Lexikon der Antike, Vol. 1, col. 525, Munich 1979; in 46 BC, Caesar himself was campaigning in Africa, before later returning to Rome.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
December 1943.
Date26 December 1943 – 16 January 1944
Location
Cape Gloucester, New Britain, Territory of New Guinea
5°27′S 148°25′E
ResultAllied victory
Belligerents
United States
Australia Japan
Commanders and leaders
United States William H. Rupertus
United States William J. Whaling
United States Julian N. FrisbieEmpire of Japan Yasushi Sakai
Empire of Japan Iwao Matsuda
Units involved
1st Marine Division
1st Marine Regiment
5th Marine Regiment
7th Marine Regiment
11th Marine Regiment
17th Marine Regiment
65th Brigade
53rd Infantry Regiment
141st Infantry Regiment
4th Shipping Group
Casualties and losses
310 killed
1,083 wounded2,000 killed
Battle of Cape Gloucester is located in Papua New Guinea
New Britain campaign
The Battle of Cape Gloucester was fought in the Pacific theater of World War II between Japanese and Allied forces on the island of New Britain, Territory of New Guinea, between 26 December 1943 and 16 January 1944. Codenamed Operation Backhander, the US landing formed part of the wider Operation Cartwheel, the main Allied strategy in the South West Pacific Area and Pacific Ocean Areas during 1943–1944. It was the second landing the US 1st Marine Division had conducted during the war thus far, after Guadalcanal. The objective of the operation was to capture the two Japanese airfields near Cape Gloucester that were defended by elements of the Japanese 17th Division.
The main landing came on 26 December 1943, when US Marines landed on either side of the peninsula. The western landing force acted as a diversion and cut the coastal road near Tauali to restrict Japanese freedom of movement, while the main force, landing on the eastern side, advanced north towards the airfields. The advance met light resistance at first, but was slowed by the swampy terrain which channeled the US troops onto a narrow coastal trail. A Japanese counterattack briefly slowed the advance but by the end of December, the airfields had been captured and consolidated by the Marines. Fighting continued into early January 1944 as the US troops extended their perimeter south from the airfields towards Borgen Bay. Organized resistance ceased on 16 January 1944 when US troops captured Hill 660; however, mopping up operations in the vicinity continued into April 1944 until the Marines were relieved by US Army forces.
Background
Geography
Cape Gloucester is a headland that sits on the northern peninsula at the west end of the island of New Britain, which lies to the northeast of mainland New Guinea. It is roughly opposite to the Huon Peninsula, from which it is separated by Rooke Island with the intervening sea lane divided into the Vitiaz and Dampier Straits.[1] At the time of the battle it was part of the Territory of New Guinea. It is 230 miles (370 km) west of Rabaul, and 245 miles (394 km) northeast of Port Moresby.[2] The peninsula on which Cape Gloucester sits consists of a rough semi-circular coast, extending from Lagoon Point in the west to Borgen Bay in the east. At the base of the peninsula is Mount Talawe, a 6,600-foot (2,000 m) extinct volcano, which runs laterally east to west. Southwest of Talawe, a semi-active volcano, Langila, rises 3,800 feet (1,200 m), while further to the south, a second extinct volcano, Mount Tangi rises to 5,600 feet (1,700 m).[2] The area is densely vegetated with thick rainforest, sharp kunai grass and deep mangrove swamps. In 1943, there were only a few beaches suitable for landing operations and there were no roads around the coast along which troops and vehicles could quickly advance.[3]
Temperatures ranged from 72 to 90 °F (22 to 32 °C), with high humidity. Rainfall was heavy, especially during the northwest monsoon season that ran until February. Air operations in this period could be mounted from Finschhafen but after February, the climate there was expected to restrict air operations, which would have to be conducted from Cape Gloucester. The climate dictated the timetable for the Cape Gloucester operation.[4] In 1943, an Allied intelligence survey of the area estimated the local population around Cape Gloucester at around 3,000. There were numerous villages spread across four main areas: on the western coast, near Kalingi; on the western bank of the Itini River in the south; inland from Sag Sag and towards Tauali (on the western coast); and to the east of Mount Tangi, around Niapaua, Agulupella and Relmen. Prior to the Japanese invasion of New Britain in 1942, there had been two European missions around Cape Gloucester: a Roman Catholic mission at Kalingi and an Anglican one at Sag Sag.[5]
Before the war a landing ground had been established on the relatively flat ground that lay at the apex of the peninsula. Following the Japanese invasion of New Britain in early 1942, the landing ground had been developed into two airstrips (the larger of the two being 3,900 feet (1,200 m) long).[6] The area was assessed by Allied intelligence as largely being unsuitable for large-scale development, with reefs to the south, west and north hampering the movement of large vessels, and a lack of protected anchorages suitable for such vessels. The few areas suitable for such vessels were open to the sea and were not considered perennial, being affected by the changing seasons.[7] Nevertheless, small craft could operate along the coast,[7] and Borgen Bay had been developed into a staging area for barge operations between mainland New Guinea and the main Japanese base around Rabaul on the eastern end of New Britain.[6]
Strategic situation
By late 1943, the fighting in New Guinea had turned in the favor of the Allies after a period of hard fighting. The Japanese drive on Port Moresby during 1942 and early 1943 had been defeated during the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Kokoda Track campaign.[8] The Japanese beachhead at Buna–Gona was subsequently destroyed, albeit with many casualties.[9] The Japanese had been forced to abandon their efforts on Guadalcanal and the Allies had secured the Salamaua region.[10][11] The Allies then seized the initiative and implemented Operation Cartwheel, a series of subordinate operations aimed at the reduction of the Japanese base at Rabaul and the severing of lines of communication in the South-West Pacific Area,[12] as the Allies advanced towards the Philippines where operations were planned for 1944–1945.[13] The Australians had secured Lae by 16 September 1943 and operations to capture the Huon Peninsula had begun in earnest shortly after, to secure Finschafen before a drive on Saidor.[14] A secondary effort pushed inland from Lae through the Markham and Ramu Valleys, with the two drives eventually aiming towards Madang.[15][16] As Allied forces began to make headway on the Huon Peninsula, Allied attention then turned to securing their seaward flank on the other side of the Vitiaz and Dampier Straits.[17]
On 22 September 1943, General Douglas MacArthur issued orders for the invasion of New Britain, codenamed Operation Dexterity. This operation was conceived with several phases, with the broad Allied scheme of maneuver being to secure all of New Britain west of the line between Gasmata and Talasea on the north coast.[18] Within this scheme, Operation Backhander was a landing around Cape Gloucester aimed at the capture, and expansion of, two Japanese military airfields. This was to contribute to the increased isolation and harassment of the major Japanese base at Rabaul, which was subjected to heavy aerial bombing in October and November,[19] as part of ongoing efforts to neutralize the large Japanese garrison there without the need to assault it head on.[20] A secondary goal was to ensure free Allied sea passage through the straits separating New Britain from New Guinea. Amongst Allied commanders there was some debate about the necessity of invading New Britain. Lieutenant General George Kenney, the US air commander, believed that the landing at Cape Gloucester was unnecessary. He believed that it would take too long for the airfields to be developed and that the pace of Allied advance would ultimately outstrip their usefulness. Nevertheless, army and naval commanders felt it was necessary to secure convoy routes through the Vitiaz Strait to support operations in western New Guinea and to the north.[21][22]
The landing at Gasmata was later cancelled and replaced with a diversionary landing around Arawe, with the plan being to potentially establish a PT boat base there.[23] Believing that the Allies could not bypass Rabaul as they attempted to advance towards the Japanese inner perimeter and would seek to capture it as quickly as possible, the Japanese sought to maintain a sizeable force for the defense of Rabaul, thus reducing the forces available for the defense of western New Britain.[24]
Prelude
Opposing forces
Responsibility for the seizure of western New Britain was given to Lieutenant General Walter Krueger's Alamo Force.[25] For the Cape Gloucester operation, US planners assigned the 1st Marine Division (Major General William H. Rupertus) which had previously fought on Guadalcanal.[26][27] The operation would be the 1st Marine Division's second landing of the war.[28] Initial planning had envisaged an airborne landing from the 503rd Parachute Infantry near the airfields in conjunction with a two-pronged seaborne landing either side of the cape, with two battalions of the 7th Marine Regiment advancing on the airfields from the beaches north of Borgen Bay, while another blocked ingress and egress routes along the opposite coast around Tauali. However, the airborne landing was later removed from the plan due to concerns about overcrowding of staging airfields and possible delays due to weather. To compensate, the size of the seaborne assault forces was increased.[29] The main force assigned to the assault was drawn from the 7th Marine Regiment (Colonel Julian N. Frisbie) reinforced by the 1st Marine Regiment (Colonel William J. Whaling). In addition, the 5th Marine Regiment (Colonel John T. Selden) formed the reserve. Artillery was provided by the 11th Marines (Colonel Robert H. Pepper and later Colonel William H. Harrison).[30] These troops were organized into three combat teams, designated 'A' to 'C': the 5th Marines formed Combat Team 'A'; the 1st Marines formed Combat Team 'B' and the 7th Marines were Combat Team 'C'.[31]
Staging areas for Operation Backhander
In mid-1943, elements of the 1st Marine Division had still been in Australia, where they had been withdrawn following the fighting on Guadalcanal. Around this time, preliminary landing rehearsals had been conducted around Port Phillip Bay, prior to the division's movement to the forward assembly areas in New Guinea in August and September; however, the majority of Allied amphibious assets were tied up with operations around the Huon Peninsula, which meant that only limited rehearsals could take place until after November 1943. The combat teams moved into three staging locations (Milne Bay, Cape Sudest and Goodenough Island) after which further practice landings were conducted around the Taupota Bay area, before they concentrated at Cape Sudest in the Oro Bay area, southeast of Buna in December 1943.[32][33]
The US troops were opposed by elements of the Japanese 17th Division (Lieutenant General Yasushi Sakai), which had previously served in China before arriving on New Britain in October and November 1943. These troops were known as "Matsuda Force", after their commander, Major General Iwao Matsuda and consisted of the 65th Brigade, with the 53rd and 141st Infantry Regiments and elements of the 4th Shipping Group. These troops were supported by field and anti-aircraft artillery, and a variety of supporting elements including engineers and signals troops. Just prior to the battle, there were 3,883 troops in the vicinity of Cape Gloucester.[34][35] Matsuda's headquarters had been at Kalingi, along the coastal trail northwest of Mount Talawe, within 5 miles (8.0 km) of the Cape Gloucester airfields but after the Allied bombardment prior to the battle, it had been moved to Egaroppu, closer to Borgen Bay. The headquarters at Kalingi was taken over by the Colonel Koki Sumiya, commander of the 53rd Infantry Regiment, which defended the airfields primarily with the regiment's 1st Battalion, supported by elements of two artillery battalions, a heavy weapons company and a battalion of anti-aircraft guns.[36] The 2nd Battalion, 53rd Infantry Regiment was in reserve around Nakarop,[37] while the 141st Infantry Regiment (Colonel Kenshiro Katayama) was positioned well to the south around Cape Bushing.[38] At the time of the fighting around Cape Gloucester, the effectiveness of these troops had been degraded by disease and lack of supplies, due to interdiction of the Japanese coastal supply barges.[39] Air support was available from the naval 11th Air Fleet and 6th Air Division.[40]
Preparations
The landing on Cape Gloucester was scheduled for 26 December. Prior to the operation, planners directed that a stockpile of supplies – enough for a month of combat operations – be built up around Oro Bay, and this was in place by 16 December and would be shuttled to Cape Gloucester by landing craft as required.[41] The day before, supporting operations began, when the US Army 112th Cavalry Regiment landed at Arawe on the south-central coast, to block the route of Japanese reinforcements and supplies from east to west and as a diversion from the Cape Gloucester landings.[42][39] The operation around Arawe succeeded in diverting about 1,000 Japanese troops from Cape Gloucester.[43]
For several months before the landings, the area around the airfields and the coastal plain between Cape Gloucester and Natamo, south of Borgen Bay, was bombed by Allied aircraft, mainly from the US Fifth Air Force.[44] Japanese entrenchments were destroyed and the airfields around Cape Gloucester were put out of action from November.[45][43] A total of 1,845 sorties were launched by US aircraft around Cape Gloucester, with the expenditure of almost 3,000,000 rounds of ammunition and 3,926 tonnes (3,926,000 kg) of bombs.[46] Diversionary air raids were also made by AirSols aircraft in the days before the assault, focused on the Japanese airfields around Rabaul, while naval aircraft bombed Kavieng. Raids were also launched against Madang and Wewak.[44] Meanwhile, the Allies undertook extensive aerial reconnaissance of the area, while ground teams of Marines, Alamo Scouts and Coastwatchers were landed at various locations except Borgen Bay over three separate occasions from PT boats between September and December 1943.[47][48]
Japanese defensive planning was focused upon holding the airfield sector. Bunkers, trenches and fortified positions were built along the coast to the east and west, with the strongest position being established to the southeast, to defend against an approach through the flat grasslands. A complex was also established at the base of Mount Talawe, affording a commanding view of the airfields, which were held by a battalion of infantry supported by service troops and several artillery pieces. To the east of the peninsula, the beaches around Silimati Point, which were bounded by heavy swamps, were largely left unfortified, the Japanese defensive scheme based on holding several high features, Target Hill and Hill 660 and maintaining control of lateral tracks, rapidly to move forces in response to an attack.[49]
Embarkation
The Allied plan called for a two-pronged landing at several beaches to the east and west of the peninsula, followed by an advance north towards the airfields at Cape Gloucester. Final rehearsals were carried out on 21 December after which the troops embarked on their vessels early on Christmas Day at Oro Bay and Cape Cretin, near Finschhafen. The convoy, designated Task Force 76 under Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey,[50] consisted of nine APDs, 19 Landing Craft Infantry (LCIs), 33 Landing Ship Tank (LSTs), 14 Landing Craft Mechanized (LCMs) and 12 Landing Craft Tank (LCTs), escorted by 12 destroyers as well as the task force flagship Conyngham, three minesweepers and two rocket-carrying DUKWs that were carried aboard the LCMs. These two amphibians would support the western landings, while two LCIs had been similarly modified to support the eastern landing.[51]
The troops were carried aboard the APDs, while the LSTs carried the heavy vehicles including bulldozers, tanks and trucks. In order to supply the force, a total of 20 days of supply of rations was detailed for assault troops, while the follow-on troops were to land with 30 days of supply. Both groups were to carry three units of ammunition resupply, while five days were needed for anti-aircraft weapons. Nevertheless, space was at a premium and in some instances, this could not be met. In order to speed up the unloading process and reduce congestion on the eastern beaches, a mobile loading scheme was devised with the supplies preloaded directly on 500 2.5-ton trucks. These vehicles would arrive on the beaches with the first echelon that would land the assault troops in the morning, and would be able to drive straight off the LSTs and unload their cargo at several dumps ashore before re-embarking on LSTs assigned to the second echelon that would land in the afternoon on the first day with the follow-on troops. Medical teams, including doctors and corpsmen, were assigned to each transport and some LSTs, and these personnel would form part of an evacuation chain that would see casualties transported back to Cape Sudest where an 88-bed floating hospital was established aboard an LST, which would serve as a casualty-receiving station prior to onward movement to base hospitals ashore.[41][52]
This force was escorted United States Navy (USN) and Royal Australian Navy (RAN) cruisers and destroyers from Task Force 74, under Rear Admiral Victor Crutchley of the Royal Navy. Maintaining a speed of 12 knots, the convoy proceeded through the Vitiaz Strait towards Cape Gloucester, traversing between Rooke and Sakar Islands. As they made their way towards their objective, Allied patrol boats operated to the north and western approaches, in the Dampier Strait and the southern coast of New Britain.[53][44] While heading towards their objective, the convoy was spotted by a Japanese reconnaissance plane as well as an observer around Cape Ward Hunt. As a result, their progress reported to Rabaul. However, the commander of the Japanese Southeast Area Fleet, Admiral Jinichi Kusaka, incorrectly assessed that the convoy was bound for Arawe instead, as reinforcements, and subsequently ordered a heavy air attack there instead of around Cape Gloucester with 63 Zero fighters and 25 bombers from Rabaul.[44][54]
Battle
The main operation began just after dawn on 26 December with a naval barrage on the Japanese positions on the cape followed by air attacks by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF).[53][55] A total of 14 squadrons from the 1st Air Task Force under Brigadier General Frederick A. Smith, were provided for close air support, of which nine were bomber squadrons and five were attack. In addition, several fighter squadrons flew combat air patrols to negate the threat from Japanese aircraft: one squadron covered the approaching convoy, three would cover the landing beaches, and another would cover the seaborne elements that would withdraw in the afternoon.[56][51] These attacks and an aerial smoke screen were followed by the landing of the 1st Marine Division, at Yellow Beaches 1 and 2, to the east near Silimati Point and Borgen Bay, about 5 miles (8.0 km) southeast of the airfield and a diversion at Green Beach, to the west at Tauali, about 6.5 miles (10.5 km) from Cape Gloucester.[47] The main assault came at Silimati Point with only one battalion landing in the west.[57] After being transported aboard the APDs from Cape Sudest, the force came ashore aboard landing craft of various types including, LSTs and LCIs.[58]
The diversionary western landing at Tauali (Green Beach), on the Dampier Strait side of the peninsula was assigned to Landing Team 21 (LT 21), consisting of the 2nd Battalion, 1st Marines with a battery of artillery from the 11th Marines. Escorted by two destroyers and two patrol boats, the force was embarked upon 31 landing craft of various types (five LCIs, 12 LCTs and 14 LCMs). They carried with them 20 days of rations and six units of artillery ammunition. After departing Oro Bay with the main convoy, this force had broken off around Finschhafen and proceeded on its own through the Dampier Strait.[59] After a preliminary naval and aerial bombardment around 07:30, the Japanese defenses around Green Beach were found abandoned. LT 21 experienced no opposition coming ashore, preceded by heavy preparatory fires including rockets fired from several amphibious vehicles.[60][43] The beachhead was established by 08:35 and all first day objectives had been secured by 10:00. Due to interference from the surrounding terrain, the Marines were unable to raise their divisional headquarters, and were instead had to relay messages through headquarters Sixth Army (Alamo Force).[61] By nightfall, the Marines had secured a perimeter and had cut the coast road, establishing a road block.[60] This prevented the Japanese from using it to reinforce their positions around the airfields, but a secondary route, to the east of Mount Talawe, remained open to the Japanese, having gone undetected by US intelligence.[62]
Shortly after the western landing, the Japanese dispatched two companies of the 53rd Infantry Regiment to respond.[63] In the days that followed, the Marines clashed with small groups of Japanese, and Japanese artillery and mortars fired on the US perimeter from Dorf Point. Patrol clashes increased until early morning on 30 December when the two companies of the 53rd Infantry attacked the Marines around Coffin Corner, exploiting the concealment of a heavy storm and darkness to launch a concentrated assault along a narrow avenue of approach between two defended ridges. Supported with mortars, machine guns and artillery, a five-hour firefight followed before the assault was turned back. Casualties amounted to 89 killed and five captured for the Japanese, against six Marines killed and 17 wounded. Following this, there were no further assaults on the western perimeter. Artillery fell on the position on 31 December, but was met counterbattery fire from the 11th Marines who labored to get their guns into action despite the terrain. Although the Japanese sought mainly to avoid contact as most withdrew to support the fighting on the east coast, patrol actions continued throughout early January 1944, when contact was established around Dorf Point with a company-sized patrol from the 5th Marines that had set out overland from the eastern lodgment. The wounded and heavy equipment were subsequently embarked on 11 January, having been hampered by poor weather previously, and LT 21 then collapsed its position, marching east towards the airfields, and on 13 January they linked up with the main body of US troops, who had captured the airfields in late December.[64]
Eastern landing and advance to the airfields
The remainder of Task Force 76 consisting of 9 APDs, 14 LCIs, and 33 LSTs were allocated to the eastern zone (Yellow Beaches 1 and 2).[51] The 7th Marines were to go ashore first and were tasked with securing the beachhead, while the 1st Marines – less the battalion assigned to the diversionary landing around Tauali – would follow them up after the initial assault, and would pass through their lines to begin the advance north towards the airfield.[65] The 5th Marines would remain embarked as a floating commander's reserve and would only be released on Krueger's orders.[66]
As the task force moved into position, the approaches to the beach were marked and cleared during the darkness, and at 06:00, an hour and 45 minutes prior to H-Hour, a heavy naval bombardment began, with the cruisers engaging targets around the airfields, as well as around the beaches and towards Target Hill. As H-Hour approached, the escorting destroyers also joined in the bombardment, followed by a carefully co-ordinated aerial bombing raid with five squadrons of B-24s, and one squadron of B-25s, attacking Target Hill.[67] The first wave of assault troops disembarked from the APDs and were loaded into 12 Landing Craft, Vehicle, Personnel (LCVPs): six were bound for Yellow 1 and the other six for Yellow 2. While the APDs withdrew, the LCVPs began their run to the shore. After the B-25s made a final strafing run over the beach, two rocket-equipped LCIs stationed to the flanks fired onto the beach defenses.[68]
Drifting smoke from the aerial bombardment of Target Hill, obscured the beaches and the approaches, and briefly hampered the landing with some troops coming ashore in the wrong spot. Nevertheless, the first wave made landfall around Yellow 1 one minute after H-Hour followed two minutes later at Yellow 2. There was no opposition in the vicinity of these two beaches, but the small group from the 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines which landed 300 yards (270 m) northwest of Yellow 1 by mistake came under fire from machine guns firing at maximum range from a number of bunkers after pushing through the thick jungle to locate the coastal trail. Throughout the morning, follow-up troops from the remainder of the 1st Marines came ashore and pushed through the 7th Marines, to begin the advance north towards the airfields. The landing area to the north of Borgen Bay, was surrounded largely by swamp, with only a small narrow beach along which the Marine infantry and their supporting Sherman tanks from the 1st Tank Battalion could advance towards the airfields. This slowed the advance inland and resulted in heavy congestion on the beaches, hampering the unloading process.[69][70]
After initially being diverted towards Arawe in the morning, Japanese aircraft, after refueling and rearming at Rabaul began attacking the Allied ships around the landing beaches around 14:30, resulting in the loss of the destroyer USS Brownson with over a hundred of her crew and casualties aboard the destroyers USS Shaw and Mugford. Nevertheless, around 13,000 troops and about 7,600 tons of equipment were pushed ashore during the first day of the operation on either side of the cape, and the attacking Japanese aircraft suffered losses to US fighters and ship-borne anti-aircraft fire.[71] Opposition in the main landing area was limited initially to rear-area troops that had been overrun but a hasty counterattack by the 2nd Battalion, 53rd Infantry Regiment (Major Shinichi Takabe), which had marched from Nakarop, lasted through the afternoon and evening of the first day, falling mainly against the 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines under Lieutenant Colonel Odell M. Conoley.[72][73] By the end of the day, the 7th Marines held the beachhead, while the 11th Marines had brought their artillery pieces ashore and the 1st Marines had begun a slow advance north, forced into a long column along the narrow trail.[69]
The following day the Marines advanced westward, pushing 3 miles (4.8 km) towards their objective, before reaching a Japanese blocking position, identified by the Marines as Hell's Point, on the eastern side of the airfields. This position was well concealed, and equipped with anti-tank and 75 mm field guns.[74][75] Teams from the 19th Naval Construction Battalion (designated as the 3rd Battalion, 17th Marines[76]) worked to improve the routes along which the US forces were advancing as large quantities of supplies were landed.[77] Amphibian landing vehicles were used to ferry ammunition forward,[78] but the volume of traffic, coupled with the heavy rain, churned up the narrow coastal road.[79] As a result, the movement of combat supplies forward from Yellow Beach, as well as evacuation of the wounded back from the engagement areas, proved difficult. On 28 December, a secondary landing beach – Blue Beach – was established about 4 miles (6.4 km) closer to the fighting to reduce the distance supplies had to travel ashore.[80] At the same time, the blocking position was attacked and US armor was brought up. Nine Marines were killed and 36 were wounded, while Japanese losses amounted to at least 266 killed.[81]
Suicide Creek, Aogiri Ridge, Hill 660
The 5th Marines, which had been in reserve for the initial landing, were landed on 29 December. There was some confusion during the landing due to a last minute change in orders for the regiment to land on Blue Beach instead of Yellow Beach 1 and 2. As a result, the regiment came ashore in both locations, with those who arrived on the Yellow Beaches route marching to Blue Beach or being ferried by truck.[82] After establishing themselves ashore, the 5th Marines carried out a flanking move to the south-west, while the 1st Marine Regiment continued to advance along the coast. By the end of the day, the Marines had broken through the Japanese defenses and were in control of most of the airfield.[39][83] Japanese air attacks ended on 29 December, when bad weather set in. This was followed by much US air activity around Rabaul, which prevented further air attacks on Cape Gloucester.[84] During the final days of December, the Marines overran the airfield and expanded their perimeter, incorporating Razorback Ridge, a key feature about 1,500 yards (1,400 m) to the south of No. 2 Strip running north to south.[85][86] In early January, Company E, from the 2nd Battalion, 5th Marines effected a link up with the western lodgment around Dorf Point on the western coast.[62]
Advance to Borgen Bay
In the weeks that followed the capture of the airfield, US troops pushed south towards Borgen Bay to extend the perimeter beyond Japanese artillery range. In this time, further actions were fought by the 5th and 7th Marines against the remnants of the 53rd Infantry Regiment and the 141st Infantry Regiment, which had undertaken a march north across difficult terrain from Cape Bushing, following the initial landings.[63] On 2 January, there was a sharp engagement around Suicide Creek, when the advancing Marines came up against a heavily entrenched defending force from the 53rd Infantry. Held up by strong defenses that were well concealed amongst the dense jungle, the Marines were halted and dug-in temporarily around Suicide Creek. The following day, a reinforced company from the Japanese 141st Infantry Regiment launched an unsuccessful counterattack on the US troops around Target Hill. This was followed by renewed fighting around Suicide Creek, as the Japanese put up a stubborn defense, which was eventually overcome with the assistance of tanks and artillery on 4 January.[87]
In the foreground Marines watch as a light tank climbs up the bank of creek in a jungle setting.
US troops cross Suicide Creek with tank support.
After reorganizing on 5 January, US troops secured Aogiri Ridge and Hill 150 on 6 January.[88] This was followed by an action towards the high ground around Hill 660.[89][90] Slowed by bad weather, rugged terrain and Japanese resistance, progress for the Marines around Hill 660 was slow. The position was finally secured on 16 January 1944 following three days of fighting in which 50 Marines and over 200 Japanese were killed. The capture of this position represented the end of Japanese defensive operations in the Cape Gloucester and Borgen Bay areas.[91] Following this, Matsuda withdrew with around 1,100 troops, ceding the area to the Americans, who captured his command post intact.[92]
Base development
The Base Engineer and his operations staff landed on 27 December 1943 and completed a reconnaissance of the two Japanese airfields by 30 December. They found that they were 3 feet (0.91 m) deep in kunai grass and that the Japanese had neither attempted to construct proper drainage nor to re-grade the airstrips. They decided not to proceed with any work on No. 1 Airstrip and to concentrate on No. 2. The 1913th Engineer Aviation Battalion arrived on 2 January, followed by the 864th Engineer Aviation Battalion on 10 January and the 841st Engineer Aviation Battalion on 17 January. Work hours were limited by blackout restrictions imposed by the Task Force Commander, which limited work to daylight hours until 8 January 1944 and by heavy and continuous rain from 27 December 1943 until 21 January 1944, averaging 10 inches (254 mm) a week. Grading removed 3 to 6 feet (0.91 to 1.83 m) of material, mostly kunai humus, from two-thirds of the area. The subgrade was then stabilized with red volcanic ash that had to be hauled from the nearest source 8 miles (13 km) away. Marston Mat was then laid over the top but this did not arrive until 25 January 1944, resulting in further delay. By 31 January, 4,000 feet (1,200 m) of runway was usable and by 18 March a 5,200-foot (1,600 m) runway was complete. Natural obstacles prevented the runway being lengthened to 6,000 feet (1,800 m) as originally planned but there were four 100-by-750-foot (30 by 229 m) alert areas, 80 hardstands, a control tower, taxiways, access roads and facilities for four squadrons.[93]
A Beechcraft Model 18 had landed on the runway at Cape Gloucester in January, followed by a C-47. Lieutenant General Walter Krueger, the commander of Alamo Force, inspected the airstrip with Brigadier General Frederic H. Smith, Jr., on 9 January 1944. They estimated that the 8th Fighter Group could move in as early as 15 January. This did not prove feasible; the airbase was not finished and was at capacity with transport aircraft bringing in much-needed supplies. The 35th Fighter Squadron arrived on 13 February, followed by the 80th Fighter Squadron on 23 February. Heavy rains made mud ooze up through the holes in the steel plank, making the runway slick. This did not bother the 35th Fighter Squadron which flew nimble and rugged P-40 Kittyhawks but the P-38 Lightnings of the 80th Fighter Group found themselves overshooting the short runway. Major General Ennis C. Whitehead, the commander of the Fifth Air Force Advanced Echelon (ADVON), decided to move the 8th Fighter Group to Nadzab and replace it with RAAF Kittyhawk squadrons from Kiriwina.[94] No. 78 Wing RAAF began moving to Cape Gloucester on 11 March. No. 80 Squadron RAAF arrived on 14 March, followed by No. 78 Squadron RAAF on 16 March and No. 75 Squadron RAAF two days later. No, 78 Wing provided close air support for the 1st Marine Division, assisted the PT boats offshore and provided vital air cover for convoys headed to the Admiralty Islands campaign. Operations were maintained at a high tempo until 22 April, when No. 78 Wing was alerted to prepare for Operations Reckless and Persecution, the landings at Hollandia (Jayapura) and Aitape.[95]
To support air operations, 18,000 US barrels (2,100,000 l; 570,000 US gal; 470,000 imp gal) of bulk petroleum storage was provided, along with a tanker berth with connections to the five storage tanks, which became operational in May 1944. The 19th Naval Construction Battalion worked on a rock-filled pile and crib pier 130 feet (40 m) long and 540 feet (160 m) wide for Liberty ships. It was not completed before the 19th Naval Construction Battalion left for the Russell Islands, along with the 1st Marine Division, in April 1944. Other works included 800,000 square feet (74,000 m2) of open storage, 120,000 square feet (11,000 m2) of covered warehouse storage and 5,400 cubic feet (150 m3) of refrigerated storage; a 500-bed hospital was completed in May 1944 and a water supply system with a capacity of 30,000 US gallons (110,000 l; 25,000 imp gal) per day was installed. Despite problems obtaining suitable road surface materials, 35 miles (56 km) of two-lane all-weather roads were provided, surfaced with sand, clay, volcanic ash and beach gravel. Timber was obtained locally, and a sawmill operated by the 841st Engineer Aviation Battalion produced 1,000,000 board feet (2,400 m3) of lumber.[96]
Aftermath
Analysis and statistics
Casualties during operations to secure Cape Gloucester amounted to 310 killed and 1,083 wounded for the Americans.[90] Japanese losses exceeded 2,000 killed in the December 1943 to January 1944 period.[97] Ultimately, according to historian John Miller, Cape Gloucester "never became an important air base".[90] Plans to move Thirteenth Air Force units there were cancelled in August 1944.[98] In assessing the operation, historians such as Miller and Samuel Eliot Morison have argued that it was of limited strategic importance in achieving the Allied objectives of Operation Cartwheel.[99] Morison called it a "waste of time and effort".[3] Nevertheless, the airstrip played a vital role in supporting the Admiralty Islands operation commencing in February 1944 and as an emergency landing field for aircraft damaged in raids on Kavieng and Rabaul; it remained in use until April 1945. In June, the base at Cape Gloucester became part of Base F at Finschhafen.[98]
Elsewhere, US and Australian forces conducted the Landing on Long Island, 80 miles (130 km) to the northwest, where a radar station was established in December.[89] Alamo Force switched its attention to the landing at Saidor in January 1944 as part of the next stage of operations in New Guinea.[100] In mid-January, the 17th Division commander, Yasushi Sakai, sought permission to withdraw his command from western New Britain.[101] On 16 February, US patrols from Cape Gloucester and Arawe linked up around Gilnit.[102] A company from the 1st Marines landed on Rooke Island on 12 February aboard six LCMs to ensure it was clear of Japanese troops. After coming shore unopposed, the Marines sent out patrols to reconnoiter the island. Finding it abandoned, they returned to Cape Gloucester on the 20th [103] Commencing on 23 February, the Japanese forces sought to disengage from the Americans in western New Britain and move towards the Talasea area.[90] Marine patrols kept up the pressure, with several minor engagements being fought in the center of the island and along its north coast.[104]
Mopping up operations around Cape Gloucester continued throughout early 1944, although by February 1944 the situation had stabilized enough for US planners to begin preparations to expand the lodgment further east. In early March 1944, the Americans launched an operation to capture Talasea on the northern coast of New Britain, while following up a general Japanese withdrawal towards Cape Hoskins and Rabaul.[105][106] The 1st Marine Division was relieved around Cape Gloucester on 23 April 1944, and were replaced by the US Army's 40th Infantry Division,[107] which arrived from Guadalcanal.[108] A lull on New Britain followed as the US confined their operations largely to the western end of the island, having decided to bypass Rabaul, while the Japanese stayed close to Rabaul at the opposite end of the island.[109] Responsibility for operations on New Britain was later transferred from US forces to the Australians. In November 1944, they conducted the Landing at Jacquinot Bay for a limited offensive with the Battle of Wide Bay–Open Bay securing the bays, to confine the larger Japanese force to the Gazelle Peninsula, where they remained until the end of the war.[110]
Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).
Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..
Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.
At Italian restaurant, Nagoya, Japan
I found Compton's Encyclopedia at the restaurant I had lunch today. Copilot says this is genuine book published in the 80s.
Abu Bakr
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other people named Abu Bakr, see Abu Bakr (name).
Abu Bakr
Caliph Abu Bakr's Empire at its greatest extent.
Born c. 573 CE Mecca, Arabia or present-day Saudi Arabia
Died 23 August 634 Medina, Saudi Arabia
Reign 8 June 632–23 August 634
Title(s) as-Siddeeq, as-Sadiq, Sadiq al-Akbar, Khalifa-tul-Rasool (Successor of messenger of Allah)
Buried Al-Masjid al-Nabawi
Predecessor Muhammad
Successor Umar
Abu Bakr Abdallah ibn Abi Quhafa As-Siddiq (Arabic: أبو بكر الصديق or عبد الله بن أبي قحافة; Transliteration: Abū Bakr as-Siddīq or 'Abdallah bin Abī Quhāfah, c. 573 CE – 23 August 634/13 AH)[1] was an early person to convert to Islam and a senior companion (Sahaba) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[2] Throughout his life, Abu Bakr remained a friend and confidante of Muhammad. Upon Muhammad's death he became the first Muslim ruler (632–634), regarded in Sunni Islam as the first of the Rashidun (righteously guided Caliphs).[3] His caliphate lasted two years and three months, during which time he consolidated the Muslim state. Upon the death of Muhammad, some tribes rebelled, and in return he fought the Ridda wars against these Arab tribes to establish Islamic rule over all of Arabia. He also conquered the lands of Syria and Iraq.[4]
Lineage
Full name 'Abd Allah ibn 'Uthman ibn Amir ibn Amru ibn Ka'ab ibn Sa'ad ibn Taim ibn Murrah ibn Ka'ab ibn Lu'ai ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr al-Quraishi at-Taimi [5][6].
Early life
Abu Bakr was born in Mecca some time in the year 573 CE, in the Banu Taym branch of the Quraysh tribe. Abu Bakr's father's name was Uthman Abu Qahafa nicknamed Abu Qahafa, and his mother was Salma Umm-ul-Khair nicknamed Umm-ul-Khair. The birth name of Abu Bakr was Abdul Kaaba (servant of Kaaba) and when he accepted Islam in 610 he was named Abdullah (servant of Allah) by Muhammad. Abu Bakr was a thin man with white skin [7]. Tabari relates (Suyuti also relates the same through Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi's report) from Aisha her description of Abu Bakr:
He was a man with fair skin, thin, emaciated, with a sparse beard, a slightly hunched frame, sunken eyes and protruding forehead, and the bases of his fingers were hairless. [8]
By most reports he was very handsome,[citation needed] and for his beauty he earned the nickname of Atiq. He was born in a rich family. He spent his early childhood like other Arab children of the time among the Bedouins who called themselves Ahl-i-Ba'eer- the people of the camel, he developed a particular fondness for camels.
Wazir Khan Mosque, in Pakistan, (16th century) sayings of the companions of Muhammad on the northern wall of the arched gateway of the central prayer chamber.In his early years he played with the camel foals and goats, and his love for camels earned him the nickname of Abu Bakr, the father of the foal of the camel.[9] It is said that he didn't worship idols since his youth. When Abu Bakr was 10 years old he went to Syria along with his father with the merchants' caravan. Muhammad who was 12 years old at the time, was also with the caravan. Like other children of the rich Meccan merchant families, he was literate and developed a fondness for poetry. He used to attend the annual fair at Ukaz, and participate in poetical symposia. He had a very good memory. In 591 at the age of 18, Abu Bakr went into trade and adopted the profession of a cloth merchant which was the family's business. In the coming years Abu Bakr traveled extensively with caravans. Business trips took him to Yemen, Syria, and elsewhere. These travels brought him wealth and added to his experience. His business flourished and he rose in the scale of social importance. Though his father Uthman Abu Qahafa was still alive, he came to be recognized as chief of his tribe. Abu Bakr was assigned the office of awarding blood money in cases of murder. His office was something like the office of an honorary magistrate.[10] Abu Bakr was an expert in genealogical lore and he knew intimately who was who in Mecca, and what his ancestry was.
During Muhammad's times
When Muhammad married Khadijah bint Khuwaylid and moved to her house, he became a neighbor of Abu Bakr who lived in the same locality. That was the quarter of Meccan aristocracy. Like the house of Khadija, the house of Abu Bakr was double storied and palatial in structure.
As neighbors, Muhammad and Abu Bakr came in contact with each other. Both of them were of the same age, traders and good managers.
Acceptance of Islam
On his return from a business trip from Yemen, he was informed by some of his friends that in his absence Muhammad had declared himself as the Messenger of God, and proclaimed a new religion. Abu Bakr was the first akhir baligh (post-puberty) free male to accept Muhammad's Prophethood. Scholars, as well as other Sunnis and all Shi'a Muslims maintain that the second person (and first male) to accept Muhammed as the messenger of Allah was Ali ibn Abi Talib.[11] However, 'Ali was still a pre-pubescent child when he accepted Islam, and therefore excluded from the duties of a Muslim. Also he was the first person outside the family of Muhammad to become a Muslim.
Life after accepting Islam
Part of a series on
Sunni Islam
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Holy Books • Angels
Judgement Day • Predestination
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Declaration of Faith • Prayer
Charity • Fasting • Pilgrimage
Rightly Guided Caliphs
Abu Bakr • Umar ibn al-Khattab
Uthman ibn Affan • Ali ibn Abi Talib
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Hanafi • Shafi`i • Maliki • Hanbali
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His birth name Abdul Kaaba was changed to Abdullah, because the former was indicative of paganism. His wife Qutaylah bint Abd-al-Uzza did not accept Islam and he divorced her. His other wife, Um Ruman, became a Muslim at his insistence. All his children except ‘Abd ar-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr accepted Islam, and Abu Bakr separated from his son Abdur Rahman.
His conversion brought the most benefit to Islam. Abu Bakr's dawah brought many people to Islam. He persuaded his intimate friends to convert to Islam. [12][13] He presented Islam to others in such a way that many of his friends opted for Islam. Those who converted to Islam at the instance of Abu Bakr were:
Uthman Ibn Affan (who would became the 3rd Caliph)
Al-Zubayr (part of the Muslim conquest of Egypt)
Talhah
Abdur Rahman bin Awf (who would remain an important part of the Rashidun Empire)
Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas (part of the Islamic conquest of Persia)
Umar ibb Masoan
Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (who remained commander in chief of the Rashidun army in Syria )
Abdullah bin Abdul Asad
Abu Salma
Khalid ibn Sa`id
Abu Hudhaifah ibn al-Mughirah
Abu Bakr's acceptance proved to be a milestone in Muhammad's mission. Slavery was common in Mecca, and many slaves accepted Islam. When an ordinary free man accepted Islam, despite opposition, he would enjoy the protection of his tribe. For slaves however, there was no such protection, and were subjected to persecution. He gave 40.000 dinar for the sake of Islam. [14][15] Abu Bakr felt for these slaves, so he purchased them and set them free. Abu Bakr purchased the freedom of eight slaves, four men and four women.
The men were:
Bilal ibn Ribah
Abu Fakih
Ammar ibn Yasir
Abu Fuhayra
The women were:
Lubaynah
Al-Nahdiah
Umm Ubays
Harithah bint al-Muammil
Most of the slaves liberated by Abu Bakr were either women or old and frail men.[16] The father of Abu Bakr asked him to for why doesn't he liberate strong and young slaves who could be a source of strength for him, Abu Bakr replied that he was freeing the slaves for the sake of Allah, and not for his own sake. According to Sunni tradition the following verses of the Qur'an were revealed due to this:
He who gives in charity and fears Allah And in all sincerity testifies to the Truth; We shall indeed make smooth for him the path of Bliss {92:5-7}.
Those who spend their wealth for increase in self-purification; And have in their minds no favor from any one For which a reward is expected in return, But only the desire to seek the Countenance, Of their Lord, Most High; And soon they shall attain complete satisfaction {92:8-21}.
Persecution by the Quraysh
Main article: Persecution of Muslims by the Meccans
For three years after the advent of Islam, Muslims kept secret their faith, and prayed in secret. In 613 Muhammad received a revelation to call people to Islam openly. The first public address inviting people to offer allegiance to Muhammad was delivered by Abu Bakr. In a fit of fury the young men of the Quraysh tribe rushed at Abu Bakr, and beat him mercilessly till he lost consciousness.[17] Following this incident Abu Bakr's mother converted to Islam. Abu Bakr was persecuted many times by the Quraysh.
Last years in Mecca
In 617, the Quraysh enforced a boycott against the Banu Hashim. Muhammad along with his supporters from Banu Hashim, were shut up in a pass away from Mecca. All social relations with the Banu Hashim were cut off and their state was that of imprisonment. Before it many Muslims migrated to Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). Abu Bakr, feeling distress, set out for Yemen and then to Abyssinia from there. He met a friend of his named Ad-Dughna (chief of the Qarah tribe) outside Mecca, who invited Abu Bakr to seek his protection against the Quraysh. Abu Bakr went back to Mecca, it was a relief for him, but soon due to the pressure of Quraysh, Ad-Dughna was forced to renounce his protection. Once again the Quraysh were free to persecute Abu Bakr. In the year 620 Muhammad's wife and uncle died. Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha was engaged to Muhammad, however it was decided that the actual marriage ceremony would be held later. In the year 620 Abu Bakr was the first person to testify to Muhammad's Isra and Mi'raj (night Journey).[18] According to Sunni traditions, he was given title al-Siddîq, meaning "the truthful," "the upright," or "the one who counts true," due to his immediate belief of the journey. During the Roman-Persian Wars, the sympathies of the Quraysh of Mecca was with the Persians who were Zoroastrian. The Muslims on the other hand had their sympathies for the Byzantines who were Christians and were the People of the Book with a belief in the Abrahamic God. After the Persian victories over Byzantine, verses of the Qur'an revealed of Surah rum with the prophesy that Byzantine (Romans) will regain what they lost and the Persians will be defeated within few years. Over this Abu Bakr had a wager with Ubaiy bin Khalf, it was decided that one who lost the wager will pay one hundred camels. With a decisive Byzantine victory in 627 against the Persians, Abu Bakr won the wager, though Ubaiy bin Khalf was not alive but his heirs honored the agreement and gave Abu Bakr one hundred camels. Abu Bakr gave away all the camels as charity..
Migration to Medina
Main article: Hijra (Islam)
In 622 on the invitation of the Muslims of Medina, Muhammad ordered Muslims to migrate to Medina. The migration began in batches. Abu Bakr accompanied Muhammad in his migration for Medina. Due to the danger of the Quraysh, they did not take the road to Medina. They moved in the opposite direction, and took refuge in a cave in Mount Thaur some five miles south of Mecca. `Abdullah ibn Abi Bakr the son of Abu Bakr would listen to the plans and talks of the Quraysh, and at night he would carry the news to the fugitives in the cave. Asma bint Abi Bakr the daughter of Abu Bakr brought them meals every day.[19] Aamir a servant of Abu Bakr would bring a flock of goats to the mouth of the cave every night where they were milked. The Quraysh sent search parties in all directions. One party came close to the entrance to the cave, but was unable to sight them. Due to this the following verse of the Qur'an was revealed:
If ye help not (your Leader) (it is no matter): for Allah did indeed help him; when the unbelievers drove him out: he had no more than one companion: they two were in the cave, and he said to his companion "Have no Fear, for Allah is with us": then Allah sent down His peace upon him, and strengthened him with forces which ye saw not, and humbled to the depths the word of the Unbelievers. But the word of Allah is exalted to the heights: for Allah is Exalted in might, Wise. [Qur'an 9:40]
'Aa'ishah, Abu Sa`eed al-Khudri and ibn 'Abbaas in interpreting this verse said
Abu Bakr was the one who stayed with the Prophet in that cave
It is narrated from al-Barra' ibn 'Azib, he said,
Once Abu Bakr bought a ride from 'Azib for 10 Dirham, then Abu Bakr said to 'Azib, "Tell your son the Barra to deliver that beast." Then 'Azib said, "No, until you tell us how yourjourney with the Messenger of Allah when he went out of Makkah while the Mushrikeen were busy looking for you." Abu Bakr said, "We set out from Makkah, walking day and night, until it came the time of Zuhr, so I was looking for a place to so that we can rest under it, it came to be that I saw a big rock, so I came to it and there was the place, so I spread a matress for the Prophet, then I said to him, " Rest O' Prophet of Allah." So he rested, while I surveyed the area around me, are there people looking for us coming here to spy. Suddenly I saw there was a shepherd herding his sheep to the direction of the place under the rock wanting to shade himself like us, so I asked, "Who is your master O' slave?" He answered, "Slave of the fulan, someone of the Quraish." He mentioned the name of his master and I knew him, then I asked, "Does your sheep have milk?" He answered, "Yes!" So he took one of the sheep, after that I ordered him to clean the breasts of the sheep first from dirt and dust, then I ordered him to blow his hand from dust, so he pat his two hands and he started milking, while I prepared a vessel with its mouth wrapped with cloth to contain the milk, so I poured the milk that was milked to the vessel and I waited until the bottom was cold, then I brought to the Prophet and it was that he had waken up, instantly I told him him, "Drink O' Messenger of Allah." So he started to drink until I saw that he was full, then I told him, "Are we not going to continue walking O' Messenger of Allah?" He answered, "Yes!" At last we continued the journey while the mushrikeen keep looking for us, not one one that could pursue us except Suraqah ibn Malik ibn Ju'sham who rode his horse, so I said to the Messenger of Allah, "This man has succeded in pursuing us O' Messenger of Allah," but he answered, "ﻻ ﺗﺤﺰ ﻥ ﺇ ﻥ ﺍﷲ ﻣﻌﻨﺎ" (Do not worry, verily Allah is with us).
It is narrated from Anas from Abu Bakr he said,
I said to the Prophet when were in the cave, "If only they had looked under their feet we would assuredly be seen" The Messenger answered, "ﻣﺎ ﻇﻨﻚ ﻳﺎ ﺃ ﺑﺎ ﺑﻜﺮ ﺑﺎ ﺛﻨﻴﻦ ﺍﷲ ﺛﺎ ﻟﺘﻬﻤﺎ" (What do you think O' Abu Bakr with two people while Allah is the third)[20]
After staying at the cave for three days and three nights, Abu Bakr and Muhammad proceed to Medina, staying for some time at Quba, a suburb of Medina.
Life in Medina
In Medina, Muhammad decided to construct a mosque. A piece of land was chosen and the price of the land was paid for by Abu Bakr. Muslims constructed a mosque named Al-Masjid al-Nabawi at the site and Abu Bakr also took part in construction. Abu Bakr was paired with Khaarij ah bin Zaid Ansari as a brother in faith. Abu Bakr's relationship with his brother-in-Islam was most cordial, which was further strengthened when Abu Bakr married Habiba, a daughter of Khaarijah.
Khaarij ah bin Zaid Ansari used to live at Sukh, a suburb of Medina, and Abu Bakr also settled there. After Abu Bakr's family arrived in Medina he bought another house near Muhammad's.[21]
The climate of Mecca was dry, but the climate of Medina was damp and this adversely affected the health of the immigrants, so that on arrival most of them fell sick. Abu Bakr also suffered from fever for several days and during this time he was attended to by Khaarijah and his family. At Mecca, Abu Bakr was a trader in cloth and he started the same business in Medina. He was a wholesaler, and had his store at Sukh, and from there cloth was supplied to the market at Medina. Soon his business flourished at Medina. Early in 623, Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha, who was already engaged to Muhammad, was handed over to Muhammad in a simple marriage ceremony, and this further strengthen the relation between Abu Bakr and Muhammad.
In 624 Abu Bakr participated in the first battle between the Muslims and the Quraysh of Mecca known as the Battle of Badr. In 625 he participated in the Battle of Uhud. Before the battle begun, Abu Bakr's son ‘Abd ar-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr who was still non-Muslim and was fighting from the side of the Quraysh, came forward and threw down a challenge for a duel. Abu Bakr accepted the challenge but was stopped by Muhammad. His son later converted to Islam and gained fame during the Muslim conquest of Syria as a fierce warrior. In the second phase of the battle, Khalid ibn al-Walid’s cavalry attacked the Muslims from behind, changing a Muslim victory to defeat. Many Muslim warriors were routed from the battle field but Abu Bakr remained, guarding Muhammad from the attacks of the Quraysh soldiers. During one such attack, two discs from Muhammad’s shield penetrated into Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah's cheeks. Abu Bakr went forward with the intention of extracting these discs but Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah requested he leave the matter to him, losing his two incisors during the process. Subsequently, Abu Bakr, along with other companions, led Muhammad to a place of safety. Later in the year Abu Bakr was a part of campaign again the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir.
Later, in 627 he participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Battle of Banu Qurayza.[22] In 628 he participated in Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and was made one of the witnesses over the pact.[22]
In the year 628 he was a part of the Muslim campaign to Khaybar. In 629 Muhammad sent 'Amr ibn al-'As to Zaat-ul-Sallasal from where he called for reinforcements and Muhammad sent Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah. Commanding an army under him were Abu Bakr and Umar and they attacked and defeated the enemy.[23]
In 630 when Muslim armies rushed for the Conquest of Mecca, Abu Bakr was a part of the army. Before the conquest of Mecca his father Uthman Abu Qahafa converted to Islam. In 630 he was part of Battle of Hunayn and Siege of Ta'if. He was part of the Muslim army in the campaign of Tabuk under Muhammad's command and he was reported to have given all his wealth for the preparation of this expedition.
In 631, Muhammad sent from Medina a delegation of three hundred Muslims to perform the Hajj according to the new Islamic way. Abu Bakr was appointed as the leader of the delegates. Abu Bakr had thus the honor of being the first Amir-ul-Haj in the history of Islam. In the year 632 Abu Bakr followed Muhammad to Mecca for the farewell Hajj.
Information from: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Cod
Cape Cod
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This article is about the area of Massachusetts. For other uses, see Cape Cod (disambiguation).
For other uses, see Cod (disambiguation).
Coordinates: 41°41′20″N 70°17′49″W / 41.68889°N 70.29694°W / 41.68889; -70.29694
Map of Massachusetts, with Cape Cod (Barnstable County) indicated in red
Dunes on Sandy Neck are part of the Cape's barrier beach which helps to prevent erosion
Cape Cod, often referred to locally as simply the Cape, is an island and a cape in the easternmost portion of the state of Massachusetts, in the Northeastern United States. It is coextensive with Barnstable County. Several small islands right off Cape Cod, including Monomoy Island, Monomoscoy Island, Popponesset Island, and Seconsett Island, are also in Barnstable County, being part of municipalities with land on the Cape. The Cape's small-town character and large beachfront attract heavy tourism during the summer months.
Cape Cod was formed as the terminal moraine of a glacier, resulting in a peninsula in the Atlantic Ocean. In 1914, the Cape Cod Canal was cut through the base or isthmus of the peninsula, forming an island. The Cape Cod Commission refers to the resultant landmass as an island; as does the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in regards to disaster preparedness.[1] It is still identified as a peninsula by geographers, who do not change landform designations based on man-made canal construction.[citation needed]
Unofficially, it is one of the biggest barrier islands in the world, shielding much of the Massachusetts coastline from North Atlantic storm waves. This protection helps to erode the Cape shoreline at the expense of cliffs, while protecting towns from Fairhaven to Marshfield.
Road vehicles from the mainland cross over the Cape Cod Canal via the Sagamore Bridge and the Bourne Bridge. The two bridges are parallel, with the Bourne Bridge located slightly farther southwest. In addition, the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge carries railway freight as well as tourist passenger services.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Geography and political divisions
o 1.1 "Upper" and "Lower"
* 2 Geology
* 3 Climate
* 4 Native population
* 5 History
* 6 Lighthouses of Cape Cod
* 7 Transportation
o 7.1 Bus
o 7.2 Rail
o 7.3 Taxi
* 8 Tourism
* 9 Sport fishing
* 10 Sports
* 11 Education
* 12 Islands off Cape Cod
* 13 See also
* 14 References
o 14.1 Notes
o 14.2 Sources
o 14.3 Further reading
* 15 External links
[edit] Geography and political divisions
Towns of Barnstable County
historical map of 1890
The highest elevation on Cape Cod is 306 feet (93 m), at the top of Pine Hill, in the Bourne portion of the Massachusetts Military Reservation. The lowest point is sea level.
The body of water located between Cape Cod and the mainland, bordered to the north by Massachusetts Bay, is Cape Cod Bay; west of Cape Cod is Buzzards Bay. The Cape Cod Canal, completed in 1916, connects Buzzards Bay to Cape Cod Bay; it shortened the trade route between New York and Boston by 62 miles.[2] To the south of Cape Cod lie Nantucket Sound; Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, both large islands, and the mostly privately owned Elizabeth Islands.
Cape Cod incorporates all of Barnstable County, which comprises 15 towns: Bourne, Sandwich, Falmouth, and Mashpee, Barnstable, Yarmouth, Dennis, Harwich, Brewster, Chatham, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. Two of the county's fifteen towns (Bourne and Sandwich) include land on the mainland side of the Cape Cod Canal. The towns of Plymouth and Wareham, in adjacent Plymouth County, are sometimes considered to be part of Cape Cod but are not located on the island.
In the 17th century the designation Cape Cod applied only to the tip of the peninsula, essentially present-day Provincetown. Over the ensuing decades, the name came to mean all the land east of the Manomet and Scussett rivers - essentially the line of the 20th century Cape Cod Canal. Now, the complete towns of Bourne and Sandwich are widely considered to incorporate the full perimeter of Cape Cod, even though small parts of these towns are located on the west side of the canal. The canal divides the largest part of the peninsula from the mainland and the resultant landmass is sometimes referred to as an island.[3][4] Additionally some "Cape Codders" – residents of "The Cape" – refer to all land on the mainland side of the canal as "off-Cape."
For most of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, Cape Cod was considered to consist of three sections:
* The Upper Cape is the part of Cape Cod closest to the mainland, comprising the towns of Bourne, Sandwich, Falmouth, and Mashpee. Falmouth is the home of the famous Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and several other research organizations, and is also the most-used ferry connection to Martha's Vineyard. Falmouth is composed of several separate villages, including East Falmouth, Falmouth Village, Hatchville, North Falmouth, Teaticket, Waquoit, West Falmouth, and Woods Hole, as well as several smaller hamlets that are incorporated into their larger neighbors (e.g., Davisville, Falmouth Heights, Quissett, Sippewissett, and others).[5]
* The Mid-Cape includes the towns of Barnstable, Yarmouth and Dennis. The Mid-Cape area features many beautiful beaches, including warm-water beaches along Nantucket Sound, e.g., Kalmus Beach in Hyannis, which gets its name from one of the inventors of Technicolor, Herbert Kalmus. This popular windsurfing destination was bequeathed to the town of Barnstable by Dr. Kalmus on condition that it not be developed, possibly one of the first instances of open-space preservation in the US. The Mid-Cape is also the commercial and industrial center of the region. There are seven villages in Barnstable, including Barnstable Village, Centerville, Cotuit, Hyannis, Marstons Mills, Osterville, and West Barnstable, as well as several smaller hamlets that are incorporated into their larger neighbors (e.g., Craigville, Cummaquid, Hyannisport, Santuit, Wianno, and others).[6] There are three villages in Yarmouth: South Yarmouth, West Yarmouth and Yarmouthport. There are five villages in Dennis including, Dennis Village(North Dennis), East Dennis, West Dennis, South Dennis and Dennisport.[7]
* The Lower Cape traditionally included all of the rest of the Cape,or the towns of Harwich, Brewster, Chatham, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. This area includes the Cape Cod National Seashore, a national park comprising much of the outer Cape, including the entire east-facing coast, and is home to some of the most popular beaches in America, such as Coast Guard Beach and Nauset Light Beach in Eastham. Stephen Leatherman, aka "Dr. Beach", named Coast Guard Beach the 5th best beach in America for 2007.[8]
[edit] "Upper" and "Lower"
The terms "Upper" and "Lower" as applied to the Cape have nothing to do with north and south. Instead, they derive from maritime convention at the time when the principal means of transportation involved watercraft, and the prevailing westerly winds meant that a boat with sails traveling northeast in Cape Cod Bay would have the wind at its back and thus be going downwind, while a craft sailing southwest would be going against the wind, or upwind.[9] Similarly, on nearby Martha's Vineyard, "Up Island" still is the western section and "Down Island" is to the east, and in Maine, "Down East" is similarly defined by the winds and currents.
Over time, the reasons for the traditional nomenclature became unfamiliar and their meaning obscure. Late in the 1900s, new arrivals began calling towns from Eastham to Provincetown the "Outer Cape", yet another geographic descriptor which is still in use, as is the "Inner Cape."
[edit] Geology
Cape Cod and Cape Cod Bay from space.[10]
East of America, there stands in the open Atlantic the last fragment of an ancient and vanished land. Worn by the breakers and the rains, and disintegrated by the wind, it still stands bold.
“
”
Henry Beston, The Outermost House
Cape Cod forms a continuous archipelagic region with a thin line of islands stretching toward New York, historically known by naturalists as the Outer Lands. This continuity is due to the fact that the islands and Cape are all terminal glacial moraines laid down some 16,000 to 20,000 years ago.
Most of Cape Cod's geological history involves the advance and retreat of the Laurentide ice sheet in the late Pleistocene geological era and the subsequent changes in sea level. Using radiocarbon dating techniques, researchers have determined that around 23,000 years ago, the ice sheet reached its maximum southward advance over North America, and then started to retreat. Many "kettle ponds" — clear, cold lakes — were formed and remain on Cape Cod as a result of the receding glacier. By about 18,000 years ago, the ice sheet had retreated past Cape Cod. By roughly 15,000 years ago, it had retreated past southern New England. When so much of Earth's water was locked up in massive ice sheets, the sea level was lower. Truro's bayside beaches used to be a petrified forest, before it became a beach.
As the ice began to melt, the sea began to rise. Initially, sea level rose quickly, about 15 meters (50 ft) per 1,000 years, but then the rate declined. On Cape Cod, sea level rose roughly 3 meters (11 ft) per millennium between 6,000 and 2,000 years ago. After that, it continued to rise at about 1 meter (3 ft) per millennium. By 6,000 years ago, the sea level was high enough to start eroding the glacial deposits that the vanished continental ice sheet had left on Cape Cod. The water transported the eroded deposits north and south along the outer Cape's shoreline. Those reworked sediments that moved north went to the tip of Cape Cod.
Provincetown Spit, at the northern end of the Cape, consists largely of marine deposits, transported from farther up the shore. Sediments that moved south created the islands and shoals of Monomoy. So while other parts of the Cape have dwindled from the action of the waves, these parts of the Cape have grown.
Cape Cod National Seashore
This process continues today. Due to their position jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean, the Cape and islands are subject to massive coastal erosion. Geologists say that, due to erosion, the Cape will be completely submerged by the sea in thousands of years.[11] This erosion causes the washout of beaches and the destruction of the barrier islands; for example, the ocean broke through the barrier island at Chatham during Hurricane Bob in 1991, allowing waves and storm surges to hit the coast with no obstruction. Consequently, the sediment and sand from the beaches is being washed away and deposited elsewhere. While this destroys land in some places, it creates land elsewhere, most noticeably in marshes where sediment is deposited by waters running through them.
[edit] Climate
Although Cape Cod's weather[12] is typically more moderate than inland locations, there have been occasions where Cape Cod has dealt with the brunt of extreme weather situations (such as the Blizzard of 1954 and Hurricane of 1938). Because of the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, temperatures are typically a few degrees cooler in the summer and a few degrees warmer in the winter. A common misconception is that the climate is influenced largely by the warm Gulf Stream current, however that current turns eastward off the coast of Virginia and the waters off the Cape are more influenced by the cold Canadian Labrador Current. As a result, the ocean temperature rarely gets above 65 °F (18 °C), except along the shallow west coast of the Upper Cape.
The Cape's climate is also notorious for a delayed spring season, being surrounded by an ocean which is still cold from the winter; however, it is also known for an exceptionally mild fall season (Indian summer), thanks to the ocean remaining warm from the summer. The highest temperature ever recorded on Cape Cod was 104 °F (40 °C) in Provincetown[13], and the lowest temperature ever was −12 °F (−24.4 °C) in Barnstable.[14]
The water surrounding Cape Cod moderates winter temperatures enough to extend the USDA hardiness zone 7a to its northernmost limit in eastern North America.[15] Even though zone 7a (annual low = 0–5 degrees Fahrenheit) signifies no sub-zero temperatures annually, there have been several instances of temperatures reaching a few degrees below zero across the Cape (although it is rare, usually 1–5 times a year, typically depending on locale, sometimes not at all). Consequently, many plant species typically found in more southerly latitudes grow there, including Camellias, Ilex opaca, Magnolia grandiflora and Albizia julibrissin.
Precipitation on Cape Cod and the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket is the lowest in the New England region, averaging slightly less than 40 inches (1,000 mm) a year (most parts of New England average 42–46 inches). This is due to storm systems which move across western areas, building up in mountainous regions, and dissipating before reaching the coast where the land has leveled out. The region does not experience a greater number of sunny days however, as the number of cloudy days is the same as inland locales, in addition to increased fog. Snowfall is annual, but a lot less common than the rest of Massachusetts. On average, 30 inches of snow, which is a foot less than Boston, falls in an average winter. Snow is usually light, and comes in squalls on cold days. Storms that bring blizzard conditions and snow emergencies to the mainland, bring devastating ice storms or just heavy rains more frequently than large snow storms.
[hide]Climate data for Cape Cod
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high °C (°F) 2.06
(35.7) 2.5
(36.5) 6.22
(43.2) 11.72
(53.1) 16.94
(62.5) 23.5
(74.3) 26.39
(79.5) 26.67
(80.0) 25.06
(77.1) 18.39
(65.1) 12.56
(54.6) 5.44
(41.8) 26.67
(80.0)
Average low °C (°F) -5.33
(22.4) -5
(23.0) -1.33
(29.6) 2.72
(36.9) 8.72
(47.7) 14.61
(58.3) 19.22
(66.6) 20.28
(68.5) 15.56
(60.0) 9.94
(49.9) 3.94
(39.1) -2.22
(28.0) -5.33
(22.4)
Precipitation mm (inches) 98
(3.86) 75.4
(2.97) 95
(3.74) 92.5
(3.64) 83.6
(3.29) 76.7
(3.02) 62.2
(2.45) 65
(2.56) 74.7
(2.94) 84.8
(3.34) 90.7
(3.57) 92.7
(3.65) 990.9
(39.01)
Source: World Meteorological Organisation (United Nations) [16]
[edit] Native population
Cape Cod has been the home of the Wampanoag tribe of Native American people for many centuries. They survived off the sea and were accomplished farmers. They understood the principles of sustainable forest management, and were known to light controlled fires to keep the underbrush in check. They helped the Pilgrims, who arrived in the fall of 1620, survive at their new Plymouth Colony. At the time, the dominant group was the Kakopee, known for their abilities at fishing. They were the first Native Americans to use large casting nets. Early colonial settlers recorded that the Kakopee numbered nearly 7,000.
Shortly after the Pilgrims arrived, the chief of the Kakopee, Mogauhok, attempted to make a treaty limiting colonial settlements. The effort failed after he succumbed to smallpox in 1625. Infectious diseases such as smallpox, measles and influenza caused the deaths of many other Kakopee and Wampanoag. They had no natural immunity to Eurasian diseases by then endemic among the English and other Europeans. Today, the only reminder of the Kakopee is a small public recreation area in Barnstable named for them. A historic marker notes the burial site of Mogauhok near Truro, although the location is conjecture.
While contractors were digging test wells in the eastern Massachusetts Military Reservation area, they discovered an archeological find.[citation needed] Excavation revealed the remains of a Kakopee village in Forestdale, a location in Sandwich. Researchers found a totem with a painted image of Mogauhok, portrayed in his chief's cape and brooch. The totem was discovered on property on Grand Oak Road. It is the first evidence other than colonial accounts of his role as an important Kakopee leader.
The Indians lost their lands through continued purchase and expropriation by the English colonists. The documentary Natives of the Narrowland (1993), narrated by actress Julie Harris, shows the history of the Wampanoag people through Cape Cod archaeological sites.
In 1974, the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribal Council was formed to articulate the concerns of those with Native American ancestry. They petitioned the federal government in 1975 and again in 1990 for official recognition of the Mashpee Wampanoag as a tribe. In May 2007, the Wampanoag tribe was finally federally recognized as a tribe.[17]
[edit] History
Cranberry picking in 1906
Cape Cod was a landmark for early explorers. It may have been the "Promontory of Vinland" mentioned by the Norse voyagers (985-1025). Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 approached it from the south. He named Martha's Vineyard Claudia, after the mother of the King of France.[18] The next year the explorer Esteban Gómez called it Cape St. James.
In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold named it Cape Cod, the surviving term and the ninth oldest English place-name in the U.S.[19] Samuel de Champlain charted its sand-silted harbors in 1606 and Henry Hudson landed there in 1609. Captain John Smith noted it on his map of 1614 and at last the Pilgrims entered the "Cape Harbor" and – contrary to the popular myth of Plymouth Rock – made their first landing near present-day Provincetown on November 11, 1620. Nearby, in what is now Eastham, they had their first encounter with Native Americans.
Cape Cod was among the first places settled by the English in North America. Aside from Barnstable (1639), Sandwich (1637) and Yarmouth (1639), the Cape's fifteen towns developed slowly. The final town to be established on the Cape was Bourne in 1884.[20] Provincetown was a group of huts until the 18th century. A channel from Massachusetts Bay to Buzzards Bay is shown on Southack's map of 1717. The present Cape Cod Canal was slowly developed from 1870 to 1914. The Federal government purchased it in 1928.
Thanks to early colonial settlement and intensive land use, by the time Henry Thoreau saw Cape Cod during his four visits over 1849 to 1857[21], its vegetation was depauperate and trees were scarce. As the settlers heated by fires, and it took 10 to 20 cords (40 to 80 m³) of wood to heat a home, they cleared most of Cape Cod of timber early on. They planted familiar crops, but these were unsuited to Cape Cod's thin, glacially derived soils. For instance, much of Eastham was planted to wheat. The settlers practiced burning of woodlands to release nutrients into the soil. Improper and intensive farming led to erosion and the loss of topsoil. Farmers grazed their cattle on the grassy dunes of coastal Massachusetts, only to watch "in horror as the denuded sands `walked' over richer lands, burying cultivated fields and fences." Dunes on the outer Cape became more common and many harbors filled in with eroded soils.[22]
By 1800, most of Cape Cod's firewood had to be transported by boat from Maine. The paucity of vegetation was worsened by the raising of merino sheep that reached its peak in New England around 1840. The early industrial revolution, which occurred through much of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, mostly bypassed Cape Cod due to a lack of significant water power in the area. As a result, and also because of its geographic position, the Cape developed as a large fishing and whaling center. After 1860 and the opening of the American West, farmers abandoned agriculture on the Cape. By 1950 forests had recovered to an extent not seen since the 18th century.
Cape Cod became a summer haven for city dwellers beginning at the end of the 19th century. Improved rail transportation made the towns of the Upper Cape, such as Bourne and Falmouth, accessible to Bostonians. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Northeastern mercantile elite built many large, shingled "cottages" along Buzzards Bay. The relaxed summer environment offered by Cape Cod was highlighted by writers including Joseph C. Lincoln, who published novels and countless short stories about Cape Cod folks in popular magazines such as the Saturday Evening Post and the Delineator.
Guglielmo Marconi made the first transatlantic wireless transmission originating in the United States from Cape Cod, at Wellfleet. The beach from which he transmitted has since been called Marconi Beach. In 1914 he opened the maritime wireless station WCC in Chatham. It supported the communications of Amelia Earhart, Howard Hughes, Admiral Byrd, and the Hindenburg. Marconi chose Chatham due to its vantage point on the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded on three sides by water. Walter Cronkite narrated a 17-minute documentary in 2005 about the history of the Chatham Station.
Much of the East-facing Atlantic seacoast of Cape Cod consists of wide, sandy beaches. In 1961, a significant portion of this coastline, already slated for housing subdivisions, was made a part of the Cape Cod National Seashore by President John F. Kennedy. It was protected from private development and preserved for public use. Large portions are open to the public, including the Marconi Site in Wellfleet. This is a park encompassing the site of the first two-way transoceanic radio transmission from the United States. (Theodore Roosevelt used Marconi's equipment for this transmission).
The Kennedy Compound in Hyannisport was President Kennedy's summer White House during his presidency. The Kennedy family continues to maintain residences on the compound. Other notable residents of Cape Cod have included actress Julie Harris, US Supreme Court justice Louis Brandeis, figure skater Todd Eldredge, and novelists Norman Mailer and Kurt Vonnegut. Influential natives included the patriot James Otis, historian and writer Mercy Otis Warren, jurist Lemuel Shaw, and naval officer John Percival.
[edit] Lighthouses of Cape Cod
Race Point Lighthouse in Provincetown (1876)
Lighthouses, from ancient times, have fascinated members of the human race. There is something about a lighted beacon that suggests hope and trust and appeals to the better instincts of mankind.
“
”
Edward Rowe Snow
Due to its dangerous constantly moving shoals, Cape Cod's shores have featured beacons which warn ships of the danger since very early in its history. There are numerous working lighthouses on Cape Cod and the Islands, including Highland Light, Nauset Light, Chatham Light, Race Point Light, and Nobska Light, mostly operated by the U.S. Coast Guard. The exception is Nauset Light, which was decommissioned in 1996 and is now maintained by the Nauset Light Preservation Society under the auspices of Cape Cod National Seashore. These lighthouses are frequently photographed symbols of Cape Cod.
Others include:
Upper Cape: Wings Neck
Mid Cape: Sandy Neck, South Hyannis, Lewis Bay, Bishop and Clerks, Bass River
Lower Cape: Wood End, Long Point, Monomoy, Stage Harbor, Pamet, Mayo Beach, Billingsgate, Three Sisters, Nauset, Highland
[edit] Transportation
Cape Cod is connected to the mainland by a pair of canal-spanning highway bridges from Bourne and Sagamore that were constructed in the 1930s, and a vertical-lift railroad bridge. The limited number of access points to the peninsula can result in large traffic backups during the tourist season.
The entire Cape is roughly bisected lengthwise by U.S. Route 6, locally known as the Mid-Cape Highway and officially as the Grand Army of the Republic Highway.
Commercial air service to Cape Cod operates out of Barnstable Municipal Airport and Provincetown Municipal Airport. Several bus lines service the Cape. There are ferry connections from Boston to Provincetown, as well as from Hyannis and Woods Hole to the islands.
Cape Cod has a public transportation network comprising buses operated by three different companies, a rail line, taxis and paratransit services.
The Bourne Bridge over the Cape Cod Canal, with the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge in the background
[edit] Bus
Cape Cod Regional Transit Authority operates a year-round public bus system comprising three long distance routes and a local bus in Hyannis and Barnstable Village. From mid June until October, additional local routes are added in Falmouth and Provincetown. CCRTA also operates Barnstable County's ADA required paratransit (dial-a-ride) service, under the name "B-Bus."
Long distance bus service is available through Plymouth and Brockton Street Railway, with regular service to Boston and Logan Airport, as well as less frequent service to Provincetown. Peter Pan Bus Lines also runs long distance service to Providence T.F. Green Airport and New York City.
[edit] Rail
Regular passenger rail service through Cape Cod ended in 1959, quite possibly on June 30 of that year. In 1978, the tracks east of South Dennis were abandoned and replaced with the very popular bicycle path, known as the Cape Cod Rail Trail. Another bike path, the Shining Sea Bikeway, was built over tracks between Woods Hole and Falmouth in 1975; construction to extend this path to North Falmouth over 6.3 miles (10.1 km) of inactive rail bed began in April 2008[23] and ended in early 2009. Active freight service remains in the Upper Cape area in Sandwich and in Bourne, largely due to a trash transfer station located at Massachusetts Military Reservation along the Bourne-Falmouth rail line. In 1986, Amtrak ran a seasonal service in the summer from New York City to Hyannis called the Cape Codder. From 1988, Amtrak and the Massachusetts Department of Transportation increased service to a daily frequency.[24] Since its demise in 1996, there have been periodic discussions about reinstating passenger rail service from Boston to reduce car traffic to and from the Cape, with officials in Bourne seeking to re-extend MBTA Commuter Rail service from Middleboro to Buzzards Bay[25], despite a reluctant Beacon Hill legislature.
Cape Cod Central Railroad operates passenger train service on Cape Cod. The service is primarily tourist oriented and includes a dinner train. The scenic route between Downtown Hyannis and the Cape Cod Canal is about 2½ hours round trip. Massachusetts Coastal Railroad is also planning to return passenger railroad services eventually to the Bourne-Falmouth rail line in the future. An August 5, 2009 article on the New England Cable News channel, entitled South Coast rail project a priority for Mass. lawmakers, mentions a $1.4-billion railroad reconstruction plan by Governor Deval Patrick, and could mean rebuilding of old rail lines on the Cape. On November 21, 2009, the town of Falmouth saw its first passenger train in 12 years, a set of dinner train cars from Cape Cod Central. And a trip from the Mass Bay Railroad Enthusiasts on May 15, 2010 revealed a second trip along the Falmouth line.
[edit] Taxi
Taxicabs are plentiful, with several different companies operating out of different parts of the Cape. Except at the airport and some bus terminals with taxi stands, cabs must be booked ahead of time, with most operators preferring two to three hours notice. Cabs cannot be "hailed" anywhere in Barnstable County, this was outlawed in the early nineties after several robbery attempts on drivers.
Most companies utilize a New York City-style taximeter and charge based on distance plus an initial fee of $2 to $3. In Provincetown, cabs charge a flat fare per person anywhere in the town.
[edit] Tourism
Hyannis Harbor on Nantucket Sound
Although Cape Cod has a year-round population of about 230,000, it experiences a tourist season each summer, the beginning and end of which can be roughly approximated as Memorial Day and Labor Day, respectively. Many businesses are specifically targeted to summer visitors, and close during the eight to nine months of the "off season" (although the "on season" has been expanding somewhat in recent years due to Indian Summer, reduced lodging rates, and the number of people visiting the Cape after Labor Day who either have no school-age children, and the elderly, reducing the true "off season" to six or seven months). In the late 20th century, tourists and owners of second homes began visiting the Cape more and more in the spring and fall, softening the definition of the high season and expanding it somewhat (see above). Some particularly well-known Cape products and industries include cranberries, shellfish (particularly oysters and clams) and lobstering.
Provincetown, at the tip of Cape Cod, also berths several whale watching fleets who patrol the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. Most fleets guarantee a whale sighting (mostly humpback whale, fin whale, minke whale, sei whale, and critically endangered, the North Atlantic Right Whale), and one is the only federally certified operation qualified to rescue whales. Provincetown has also long been known as an art colony, attracting writers and artists. The town is home to the Cape's most attended art museum, the Provincetown Art Association and Museum. Many hotels and resorts are friendly to or cater to gay and lesbian tourists and it is known as a gay mecca in the summer.[26]
Cape Cod is a popular destination for beachgoers from all over. With 559.6 miles (900.6 km) of coastline, beaches, both public and private, are easily accessible. The Cape has upwards of sixty public beaches, many of which offer parking for non-residents for a daily fee (in summer). The Cape Cod National Seashore has 40 miles (64 km) of sandy beach and many walking paths.
Cape Cod is also popular for its outdoor activities like beach walking, biking, boating, fishing, go-karts, golfing, kayaking, miniature golf, and unique shopping. There are 27 public, daily-fee golf courses and 15 private courses on Cape Cod.[27] Bed and breakfasts or vacation houses are often used for lodging.
Each summer the Naukabout Music Festival is held at the Barnstable County Fair Grounds located in East Falmouth,(typically) during the first weekend of August. This Music festival features local, regional and national talent along with food, arts and family friendly activities.
[edit] Sport fishing
Cape Cod is known around the world as a spring-to-fall destination for sport anglers. Among the species most widely pursued are striped bass, bluefish, bluefin tuna, false albacore (little tunny), bonito, tautog, flounder and fluke. The Cape Cod Bay side of the Cape, from Sandwich to Provincetown, has several harbors, saltwater creeks, and shoals that hold bait fish and attract the larger game fish, such as striped bass, bluefish and bluefin tuna.
The outer edge of the Cape, from Provincetown to Falmouth, faces the open Atlantic from Provincetown to Chatham, and then the more protected water of Nantucket and Vineyard Sounds, from Chatham to Falmouth. The bays, harbors and shoals along this coastline also provide a robust habitat for game species, and during the late summer months warm-water species such as mahi-mahi and marlin will also appear on the southern edge of Cape Cod's waters. Nearly every harbor on Cape Cod hosts sport fishing charter boats, which run from May through October.[28]
[edit] Sports
The Cape has nine amateur baseball franchises playing within Barnstable County in the Cape Cod Baseball League. The Wareham Gatemen also play in the Cape Cod Baseball League in nearby Wareham, Massachusetts in Plymouth County. The league originated 1923, although intertown competition traces to 1866. Teams in the league are the Bourne Braves, Brewster Whitecaps, Chatham Anglers (formerly the Chatham Athletics), Cotuit Kettleers, Falmouth Commodores, Harwich Mariners, Hyannis Harbor Hawks (formerly the Hyannis Mets), Orleans Firebirds (formerly the Orleans Cardinals), Wareham Gatemen and the Yarmouth-Dennis Red Sox. Pro ball scouts frequent the games in the summer, looking for stars of the future.
Cape Cod is also a national hot bed for baseball and hockey. Along with the Cape Cod Baseball League and the new Junior Hockey League team, the Cape Cod Cubs, many high school players are being seriously recruited as well. Barnstable and Harwich have each sent multiple players to Division 1 colleges for baseball, Harwich has also won three State titles in the past 12 years (1996, 2006, 2007). Bourne and Sandwich, known rivals in hockey have won state championships recently. Bourne in 2004, and Sandwich in 2007. Nauset, Barnstable, and Martha's Vineyard are also state hockey powerhouses. Barnstable and Falmouth also hold the title of having one of the longest Thanksgiving football rivalries in the country. The teams have played each other every year on the Thanksgiving since 1895. The Bourne and Barnstable girl's volleyball teams are two of the best teams in the state and Barnstable in the country. With Bourne winning the State title in 2003 and 2007. In the past 15 years, Barnstable has won 12 Division 1 State titles and has won the state title the past two years.
The Cape also is home to the Cape Cod Frenzy, a team in the American Basketball Association.
Soccer on Cape Cod is represented by the Cape Cod Crusaders, playing in the USL Premier Development League (PDL) soccer based in Hyannis. In addition, a summer Cape Cod Adult Soccer League (CCASL) is active in several towns on the Cape.
Cape Cod is also the home of the Cape Cod Cubs, a new junior league hockey team that is based out of Hyannis at the new communtiy center being built of Bearses Way.
The end of each summer is marked with the running of the world famous Falmouth Road Race which is held on the 3rd Saturday in August. It draws about 10,000 runners to the Cape and showcases the finest runners in the world (mainly for the large purse that the race is able to offer). The race is 7.2 miles (11.6 km) long, which is a non-standard distance. The reason for the unusual distance is that the man who thought the race up (Tommy Leonard) was a bartender who wanted a race along the coast from one bar (The Cap'n Kidd in Woods Hole) to another (The Brothers Four in Falmouth Heights). While the bar in Falmouth Heights is no longer there, the race still starts at the front door of the Cap'n Kidd in Woods Hole and now finishes at the beach in Falmouth Heights. Prior to the Falmouth race is an annual 5-mile (8.0 km) race through Brewster called the Brew Run, held early in August.
[edit] Education
Each town usually consists of a few elementary schools, one or two middle schools and one large public high school that services the entire town. Exceptions to this include Dennis-Yarmouth Regional High School located in Yarmouth which services both the town of Yarmouth as well as Dennis and Nauset Regional High School located in Eastham which services the town of Brewster, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown (optional). Bourne High School is the public school for students residing in the town of Bourne, which is gathered from villages in Bourne, including Sagamore, Sagamore Beach, and Buzzards Bay. Barnstable High School is the largest high school and is known for its girls' volleyball team which have been state champions a total of 12 times. Barnstable High School also boasts one of the country's best high school drama clubs which were awarded with a contract by Warner Brothers to created a documentary in webisode format based on their production of Wizard of Oz. Sturgis Charter Public School is a public school in Hyannis which was featured in Newsweek's Magazine's "Best High Schools" ranking. It ranked 28th in the country and 1st in the state of Massachusetts in the 2009 edition and ranked 43rd and 55th in the 2008 and 2007 edition, respectively. Sturgis offers the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme in their junior and senior year and is open to students as far as Plymouth. The Cape also contains two vocational high schools. One is the Cape Cod Regional Technical High School in Harwich and the other is Upper Cape Cod Regional Technical High School located in Bourne. Lastly, Mashpee High School is home to the Mashpee Chapter of (SMPTE,) the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. This chapter is the first and only high school chapter in the world to be a part of this organization and has received much recognition within the Los Angeles broadcasting industry as a result. The officers of this group who have made history are listed below:
* President: Ryan D. Stanley '11
* Vice-President Kenneth J. Peters '13
* Treasurer Eric N. Bergquist '11
* Secretary Andrew L. Medlar '11
In addition to public schools, Cape Cod has a wide range of private schools. The town of Barnstable has Trinity Christian Academy, Cape Cod Academy, St. Francis Xavier Preparatory School, and Pope John Paul II High School. Bourne offers the Waldorf School of Cape Cod, Orleans offers the Lighthouse Charter School for elementary and middle school students, and Falmouth offers Falmouth Academy. Riverview School is located in East Sandwich and is a special co-ed boarding school which services students as old as 22 who have learning disabilities. Another specialized school is the Penikese Island School located on Penikese Island, part of the Elizabeth Islands off southwestern Cape Cod, which services struggling and troubled teenage boys.
Cape Cod also contains two institutions of higher education. One is the Cape Cod Community College located in West Barnstable, Barnstable. The other is Massachusetts Maritime Academy in Buzzards Bay, Bourne. Massachusetts Maritime Academy is the oldest continuously operating maritime college in the United States.
[edit] Islands off Cape Cod
Like Cape Cod itself, the islands south of the Cape have evolved from whaling and trading areas to resort destinations, attracting wealthy families, celebrities, and other tourists. The islands include Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, as well as Forbes family-owned Naushon Island, which was purchased by John Murray Forbes with profits from opium dealing in the China trade during the Opium War. Naushon is one of the Elizabeth Islands, many of which are privately owned. One of the publicly accessible Elizabeths is the southernmost island in the chain, Cuttyhunk, with a year-round population of 52 people. Several prominent families have established compounds or estates on the larger islands, making these islands some of the wealthiest resorts in the Northeast, yet they retain much of the early merchant trading and whaling culture.
"The Golden Pathway to a Treasury of Knowledge" by the International University Society of England, Canada and Australia. Printed in Great Britain. Undated. This is Volume IV. Our Wonderful World.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Career
Name: Lurline
Owner: Matson Lines
Chandris Lines
Builder: Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Fore River Shipyard
Laid down: 1931
Launched: 1932
Christened: Lurline, 12 July 1932
Ellinis, September 1963
Maiden voyage: 12 January 1933
Fate: Scrapped in Taiwan in 1987
General characteristics
Type: Ocean liner
Tonnage: 18,163 GRT
Length: 632 ft (193 m)
Beam: 79 ft (24 m)
Speed: 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph) (service)
22 knots (41 km/h; 25 mph) (maximum)
Capacity: 715 passengers
475 first class, 240 tourist class
Crew: 359
SS Lurline was the third Matson Lines vessel to hold that name and the last of four fast and luxurious ocean liners that Matson built for the Hawaii and Australasia runs from the West Coast of the United States. Lurline's sister ships were SS Malolo, SS Mariposa and SS Monterey. Lurline served as a troopship in World War II operated by War Shipping Administration agents serving Army troop transport requirements.[1]
Rechristened in 1963 by Chandris Lines as the MS Ellinis, the ship became one of the most important luxury cruise ships on the Australian and New Zealand services. She operated in Australasia and Oceania until 1980.
Contents
Lurline of the Matson Line
William Matson had first come to appreciate the name in the 1870s while serving as skipper aboard the Claus Spreckels family yacht Lurline (a poetic variation of Loreley, the Rhine river siren)[2] out of San Francisco Bay. Matson met his future wife, Lillie Low, on a yacht voyage he captained to Hawaii; the couple named their daughter Lurline Berenice Matson. Spreckels sold a 150-foot brigantine named Lurline to Matson so that Matson could replace his smaller schooner Emma Claudina and double the shipping operation which involved hauling supplies and a few passengers to Hawaii and returning with cargos of Spreckels sugar. Matson added other vessels to his nascent fleet and the brigantine was sold to another company in 1896.[3] Matson built a steamship named Lurline in 1908;[4] one which carried mainly freight yet could hold 51 passengers along with 65 crew. This steamer served Matson for twenty years, including a stint with United States Shipping Board during World War I. Matson died in 1917; his company continued under a board of directors.
Lurline Matson married William P. Roth in 1914; in 1927 Roth became president of Matson Lines. That same year saw the SS Malolo (Hawaiian for "flying fish") enter service inaugurating a higher class of tourist travel to Hawaii. In 1928, Roth sold the old steamship Lurline to the Alaska Packers' Association. That ship served various duties including immigration and freight under the Yugoslavian flag (renamed Radnik) and was finally broken up in 1953.
In 1932, the last of four smart liners designed by William Francis Gibbs and built for the Matson Lines' Pacific services was launched: the SS Lurline christened on 12 July 1932 in Quincy, Massachusetts by Lurline Matson Roth (who had also christened her father's 1908 steamship Lurline as a young woman of 18). On 12 January 1933, the SS Lurline left New York City bound for San Francisco via the Panama Canal on her maiden voyage, thence to Sydney and the South Seas, returning to San Francisco on 24 April 1933. She then served on the express San Francisco to Honolulu service with her older sister with whom she shared appearance, the Malolo.
Famous aviator Amelia Earhart rode Lurline from Los Angeles to Honolulu with her Lockheed Vega airplane secured on deck during December 22–27, 1934. The voyage prepared her for the record-breaking Honolulu-to-Oakland solo flight she made in January 1935.[5]
Lurline was half-way from Honolulu to San Francisco on 7 December 1941, when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor. She made her destination safely, travelling at maximum speed, and soon returned to Hawaii with her Matson sisters Mariposa and Monterey in a convoy laden with troops and supplies.
She spent the war providing similar services, often voyaging to Australia, and once transported Australian Prime Minister John Curtin to America to confer with President Roosevelt. Wartime events put the Lurline at risk. Royal Australian Air Force trainee pilot Arthur Harrison had been put on watch without adequate training. "A straight line of bubbles extending from away out on the starboard side of the ship to across the bow. I had never seen anything quite like it, but it reminded me of bubbles behind a motorboat. I called to the lad on watch on the next gun forward. A few seconds later the ship went into a hard 90 degree turn to port. We RAAF trainees received a severe reprimand from the captain for not reporting the torpedo. Anyway, it was a bad miss."[6]
Lurline was returned to Matson Lines in mid-1946 and extensively refitted at Bethlehem-Alameda Shipyard in Alameda, California in 1947 at the then huge cost of $US 20 million. She resumed her San Francisco to Honolulu service from 15 April 1948 and regained her pre-war status as the Pacific Ocean's top liner.
Her high occupancy rates during the early 1950s caused Matson to also refit her sister ship SS Monterey (renaming her SS Matsonia) and the two liners provided a first class-only service between Hawaii and the American mainland from June 1957 to September 1962, mixed with the occasional Pacific cruise. Serious competition from jet airliners caused passenger loads to fall in the early 1960s and Matsonia was laid up in late 1962.
Only a few months later, the Lurline arrived in Los Angeles with serious engine trouble in her port turbine and was laid up with the required repairs considered too expensive. Matson instead brought the Matsonia out of retirement and, characteristically, changed her name to Lurline. The original Lurline was sold to Chandris Lines in 1963.
Ellinis of the Chandris Line
The Lurline was bought by Chandris Lines in September 1963 to replace the SS Brittany, wrecked by fire earlier in the year. The Ellinis sailed under her new name from California to North East England for repairs in North Shields and was refitted with increased accommodation for 1,668 passengers in one class.
She was given new Chandris livery and a modernised superstructure with new funnels and embarked on her maiden voyage from Piraeus to Sydney on 30 December 1963. Her homeward voyages were alternately routed east via the Panama Canal to Southampton. The ship took occasional cruises.
In April 1974, cruising to Japan, Ellinis developed major problems in one engine. Fortunately, Chandris were able to buy a surplus engine from her sister ship Homeric (ex-Mariposa) which was being broken up in Taiwan at the time. The replacement was carried out in Rotterdam, finishing in March 1975.
Ellinis provided mainly cruise services from 1975 and, in October 1981, she was finally laid up in Greece after providing passenger services for nearly fifty years. Despite various plans to utilize the ship whole, she was sold in 1986 and scrapped in Taiwan in 1987. Some of her fittings were installed in other Chandris ships; her engine parts were stored against future need by her aging sister Britanis (ex-Monterey)