From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

Name: Köln

Launched: 23 May 1928

Commissioned: January 1930

Fate: Sunk by American aircraft on 3 March 1945

General characteristics [a]

Class and type: Königsberg-class cruiser

Displacement: 7,700 long tons (7,800 t)

Length: 174 m (571 ft)

Beam: 15.3 m (50 ft)

Draft: 6.28 m (20.6 ft)

Propulsion: 3 shafts, two MAN 10-cylinder diesels, four geared turbines

Speed: 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph)

Range: 5,700 nmi (10,600 km; 6,600 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph)

Complement:

 

21 officers

493 enlisted men

 

Armament:

 

9 × 15 cm SK C/25 guns

2 × 8.8 cm SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns

12 × 50 cm torpedoes

120 mines

 

Armor:

 

Belt: 50 mm (2.0 in)

Deck: 40 mm (1.6 in)

Conning tower: 100 mm (3.9 in)

 

Köln was a light cruiser, the third member of the Königsberg class that was operated between 1929 and March 1945, including service in World War II. She was operated by two German navies, the Reichsmarine and the Kriegsmarine. She had two sister ships, Königsberg and Karlsruhe. Köln was built by the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel; she was laid down in August 1926, launched in May 1928, and commissioned into the Reichsmarine in January 1930. She was armed with a main battery of nine 15 cm SK C/25 guns in three triple turrets and had a top speed of 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph).

 

Like her sister ships, Köln served as a training ship for naval cadets in the 1930s, and joined the non-intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War during the latter part of the decade. After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, she conducted several operations in the North Sea, but did not encounter any British warships. She participated in the attack on Bergen during Operation Weserübung in April 1940, and she was the only member of her class to survive the operation. In 1942, she was modified to carry a Flettner Fl 282 helicopter experimentally. Later in 1942, she returned to Norway, but did not see significant action. She remained there until early 1945, when she returned to Germany; in March, she was sunk by American bombers in Wilhelmshaven. She remained on an even keel, with her gun turrets above water; this allowed her to provide gunfire support to defenders of the city until the end of the war in May 1945.

 

Characteristics

Line-drawing of Köln

Main article: Königsberg-class cruiser (1927)

 

Köln was 174 meters (571 ft) long overall and had a beam of 15.2 m (50 ft) and a maximum draft of 6.28 m (20.6 ft). She displaced 7,700 long tons (7,800 t) at full combat load. Her propulsion system consisted of four steam turbines and a pair of 10-cylinder four-stroke diesel engines. Steam for the turbines was provided by six Marine-type double-ended oil-fired boilers. The ship's propulsion system provided a top speed of 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph) and a range of approximately 5,700 nautical miles (10,600 km; 6,600 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). Köln had a crew of 21 officers and 493 enlisted men.[1]

 

The ship was armed with nine 15 cm SK C/25 guns mounted in three triple gun turrets. One was located forward, and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft. The rear gun turrets were offset to increase their arc of fire. They were supplied with 1,080 rounds of ammunition, for 120 shells per gun. The ship was also equipped with two 8.8 cm SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns in single mounts; they had 400 rounds of ammunition each. Köln also carried four triple torpedo tube mounts located amidships; they were supplied with twenty-four 50 cm (20 in) torpedoes. She was also capable of carrying 120 naval mines.[2] The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 40 mm (1.6 in) thick amidships and an armored belt that was 50 mm (2.0 in) thick. The conning tower had 100 mm (3.9 in) thick sides.[3]

Service history

 

Köln was ordered as "Cruiser D" under the contract name Ersatz Arcona, as a replacement for the old cruiser Arcona.[3] The keel for Köln was laid on 7 August 1926 at the Kriegsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven. She was launched on 23 May 1928, and commissioned into the Reichsmarine on 15 January 1930, the last member of her class to be completed.[4] She spent the year conducting sea trials and training in the Baltic Sea. In 1931, she was modified with dual 8.8 cm anti-aircraft guns to replace the original single mounts, the rear superstructure was enlarged, and a fire control system was installed aft.[5] Köln departed on a cruise into the Atlantic in early 1932 for more extensive sea trials. After returning to Germany, she took on her first crew of naval cadets for a world cruise, departing Germany in late 1932. The tour lasted a full year; she stopped in ports across the globe, including in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, and the Mediterranean Sea.[6]

 

In 1935, the ship had an aircraft catapult installed, along with cranes to handle float planes. A pole mast was also installed on the rear side of the aft funnel.[5] Köln continued to serve as a training ship until early 1936, when she was transferred to fishery protection duty. Later that year, she joined the non-intervention patrols off Spain during the Spanish Civil War. After the German heavy cruiser Deutschland was attacked by Republican bombers in the so-called "Deutschland incident", Köln transported wounded crew members from Deutschland back to Germany. Köln conducted a further four patrols off Spain before returning to fishery protection in the North Sea in 1938. Late in the year, she went into drydock for a refit in Kiel.[6]

World War II

 

In March 1939, Köln participated in the annexation of Memel which Germany had demanded from Lithuania. Later in the year, she joined the battleship Gneisenau and the heavy cruisers Deutschland, Admiral Scheer, and Admiral Graf Spee for a major series of maneuvers in the Atlantic.[6] In the final days of August, Köln was stationed in the western Baltic to prevent Polish vessels from fleeing after the German invasion of Poland on 1 September; she was unsuccessful in this task. She thereafter joined her sister ships in laying a series of defensive minefields.[7]

 

Köln joined Gneisenau and nine destroyers for a sortie into the North Sea on 7–9 October. The goal was to draw units of the Royal Navy over a U-boat line and into range of the Luftwaffe, though it failed on both counts. The British launched an air attack consisting of 12 Wellington bombers, though it too failed to hit any of the German warships.[8] On 20–22 November, Köln and the cruiser Leipzig escorted the battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst on the first leg of their sortie into the North Atlantic. On the 22nd, Köln and Leipzig were detached to join an unsuccessful patrol for Allied merchant ships in the Skagerrak along with Deutschland and three torpedo boats.[9] The patrol lasted until 25 November, and failed to locate any Allied freighters.[10] On 13 December, Köln, Leipzig, and Nürnberg covered the return of several destroyers that had laid an offensive minefield off Newcastle.[11]

 

Köln took part in Operation Weserübung, the invasion of Norway, in April 1940. She was assigned Group 3, tasked with the assault on Bergen, along with her sister Königsberg.[12] She reached the harbor unscathed, but Königsberg was not so lucky; she was badly damaged by Norwegian coastal guns. Köln nevertheless supported the German infantry ashore with her main guns. After the port was secured, she returned to Germany, along with a pair of destroyers.[7] In late 1940, she went into drydock for further modifications. A degaussing coil was installed, along with a helicopter landing platform on top of turret "Bruno".[6] She thereafter served as a testbed for the Flettner Fl 282 helicopter, a task she performed until 1942.[13]

 

While still conducting experiments with the FI 282 in September 1941, Köln provided gunfire support to ground troops attacking Soviet positions on Dagö in the Gulf of Riga. She also bombarded Soviet positions on Ristna.[13] She joined the battleship Tirpitz, Admiral Scheer, Nürnberg, and several destroyers and torpedo boats formed the Baltic Fleet, which was intended to block any Soviet warships from fleeing the eastern Baltic. No Soviet vessels attempted to do so, however.[14] On 13 July, the Soviet submarine Shch-322 tried to attack Köln, but the cruiser's escorts forced the Soviet submarine to break off the attack.[15]

Köln sunk in Wilhelmshaven at the end of the war

 

Toward the end of 1941, she was transferred to the North Sea, and went into drydock for her last major modification.[13] This consisted of the installation of a FuMO 21 radar set on the forward command center roof.[6] In July 1942, Köln departed Germany to join the growing naval presence in Norway, though she saw no major action there.[13] On 13 September, she and the heavy cruisers Admiral Scheer and Admiral Hipper and two destroyers attempted to attack Convoy PQ 18. While en route from Narvik to Altenfjord, the flotilla was attacked by the British submarine HMS Tigris, but the torpedoes passed behind the German ships.[16] The convoy was instead attacked by U-boats and long-range bombers, which sank thirteen freighters.[17] She returned to Germany in January 1943, where she was decommissioned in Kiel on 17 February. She was sent to drydock in early 1944 for an overhaul to prepare her to return to combat duty; this was completed by 1 July. The cruiser served briefly as a training ship before escorting German merchant vessels in Norway.[13] While en route from Kristiansand on 7 July, the ship laid a defensive minefield in the Skagerrak. She and three destroyers laid another minefield on 14–15 July, before steaming to Trondheim.[18]

 

On the night of 13–14 December,[19] Köln was attacked by British bombers in Oslofjord; several near misses caused damage to her propulsion system that required repair in Germany.[13] She departed Norway on 23 January 1945 in company with Admiral Hipper and a destroyer, and arrived in Kiel on 8 February.[20] She then proceeded to Wilhelmshaven, where she was again attacked by Allied bombers repeatedly.[13] On 30 March, B-24 Liberators from the Eighth Air Force attacked the harbor;[21] Köln was hit and sank on an even keel. Since her guns remained above water, the ship was used as an artillery battery to defend the city from advancing Allied forces. She served in this capacity until the end of the war in May. She was partially dismantled in situ after the end of the war, and finally raised in 1956 for scrapping.[22]

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Le Café la Nuit in Arles, Place de Forum

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Arles

 

Arles is located in France

Arles is located in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur

Coordinates: 43°40′36″N 4°37′40″ECoordinates: 43°40′36″N 4°37′40″E

Country France

Region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur

Department Bouches-du-Rhône

Arrondissement Arles

Canton Arles

Intercommunality CA Arles-Crau-Camargue-Montagnette

Government

• Mayor (2014–2020) Hervé Schiavetti (PCF)

Area1 758.93 km2 (293.02 sq mi)

Population (2012)2 52,439

• Density 69/km2 (180/sq mi)

Time zone CET (UTC+1)

• Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)

INSEE/Postal code 13004 /13200

Elevation 0–57 m (0–187 ft)

(avg. 10 m or 33 ft)

 

1 French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers > 1 km² (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries.

2 Population without double counting: residents of multiple communes (e.g., students and military personnel) only counted once.

 

Arles (French pronunciation: ​[aʁl]; Provençal [ˈaʀle] in both classical and Mistralian norms; Arelate in Classical Latin) is a city and commune in the south of France, in the Bouches-du-Rhône department, of which it is a subprefecture, in the former province of Provence.

 

A large part of the Camargue is located on the territory of the commune, making it the largest commune in Metropolitan France in terms of territory (though Maripasoula, French Guiana, is much larger). The city has a long history, and was of considerable importance in the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis. The Roman and Romanesque Monuments of Arles were listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1981. The Dutch post-Impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh lived in Arles from 1888 to 1889 and produced over 300 paintings and drawings during his time there. An international photography festival has been held in the city since 1970.

 

Geography

 

The river Rhône forks into two branches just upstream of Arles, forming the Camargue delta. Because the Camargue is for a large part administratively part of Arles, the commune as a whole is the largest commune in Metropolitan France in terms of territory, although its population is only slightly more than 50,000. Its area is 758.93 km2 (293.02 sq mi), which is more than seven times the area of Paris.

Climate

 

Arles has a Mediterranean climate with a mean annual temperature of 14.6 °C (1948 - 1999). The summers are warm and moderately dry, with seasonal averages between 22 °C and 24 °C, and mild winters with a mean temperature of about 7 °C. The city is constantly, but especially in the winter months, subject to the influence of the mistral, a cold wind which can cause sudden and severe frosts. Rainfall (636 mm per year) is fairly evenly distributed from September to May, with the summer drought being less marked than in other Mediterranean areas.[1]

Climate data for Arles, 1948–1999

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Average high °C (°F) 10.4

(50.7) 12.3

(54.1) 15.7

(60.3) 18.5

(65.3) 22.8

(73) 27.1

(80.8) 30.3

(86.5) 29.7

(85.5) 25.5

(77.9) 20.3

(68.5) 14.4

(57.9) 11.0

(51.8) 19.8

(67.6)

Average low °C (°F) 2.1

(35.8) 2.8

(37) 5.3

(41.5) 7.5

(45.5) 11.2

(52.2) 14.5

(58.1) 17.7

(63.9) 17.3

(63.1) 14.4

(57.9) 10.4

(50.7) 5.9

(42.6) 3.1

(37.6) 9.4

(48.9)

Average precipitation mm (inches) 54.7

(2.154) 50.8

(2) 49.3

(1.941) 50.3

(1.98) 48.6

(1.913) 37.3

(1.469) 17.1

(0.673) 39.2

(1.543) 81.7

(3.217) 85.7

(3.374) 66.7

(2.626) 54.7

(2.154) 636.1

(25.043)

Source: Italian Wikipedia article on Arles

History

Arles Amphitheatre, a Roman arena.

Passageway in Roman arena

Church of St. Trophime and its cloister.

Ancient era

 

The Ligurians were in this area from about 800 BC. Later, Celtic influences have been discovered. The city became an important Phoenician trading port, before being taken by the Romans.

 

The Romans took the town in 123 BC and expanded it into an important city, with a canal link to the Mediterranean Sea being constructed in 104 BC. However, it struggled to escape the shadow of Massalia (Marseilles) further along the coast.

 

Its chance came when it sided with Julius Caesar against Pompey, providing military support. Massalia backed Pompey; when Caesar emerged victorious, Massalia was stripped of its possessions, which were transferred to Arelate as a reward. The town was formally established as a colony for veterans of the Roman legion Legio VI Ferrata, which had its base there. Its full title as a colony was Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelatensium Sextanorum, "the ancestral Julian colony of Arles of the soldiers of the Sixth."

 

Arelate was a city of considerable importance in the province of Gallia Narbonensis. It covered an area of some 40 hectares (99 acres) and possessed a number of monuments, including an amphitheatre, triumphal arch, Roman circus, theatre, and a full circuit of walls. Ancient Arles was closer to the sea than it is now and served as a major port. It also had (and still has) the southernmost bridge on the Rhône. Very unusually, the Roman bridge was not fixed but consisted of a pontoon-style bridge of boats, with towers and drawbridges at each end. The boats were secured in place by anchors and were tethered to twin towers built just upstream of the bridge. This unusual design was a way of coping with the river's frequent violent floods, which would have made short work of a conventional bridge. Nothing remains of the Roman bridge, which has been replaced by a more modern bridge near the same spot.

 

The city reached a peak of influence during the 4th and 5th centuries, when Roman Emperors frequently used it as their headquarters during military campaigns. In 395, it became the seat of the Praetorian Prefecture of the Gauls, governing the western part of the Western Empire: Gaul proper plus Hispania (Spain) and Armorica (Brittany). At that time, the city was perhaps home to 75,000–100,000 people.[2][3][4][5]

 

It became a favorite city of Emperor Constantine I, who built baths there, substantial remains of which are still standing. His son, Constantine II, was born in Arles. Usurper Constantine III declared himself emperor in the West (407–411) and made Arles his capital in 408.

 

Arles became renowned as a cultural and religious centre during the late Roman Empire. It was the birthplace of the sceptical philosopher Favorinus. It was also a key location for Roman Christianity and an important base for the Christianization of Gaul. The city's bishopric was held by a series of outstanding clerics, beginning with Saint Trophimus around 225 and continuing with Saint Honoratus, then Saint Hilarius in the first half of the 5th century. The political tension between the Catholic bishops of Arles and the Visigothic kings is epitomized in the career of the Frankish St. Caesarius, bishop of Arles 503–542, who was suspected by the Arian Visigoth Alaric II of conspiring with the Burgundians to turn over the Arelate to Burgundy, and was exiled for a year to Bordeaux in Aquitaine. Political tensions were evident again in 512, when Arles held out against Theodoric the Great and Caesarius was imprisoned and sent to Ravenna to explain his actions before the Ostrogothic king.[6]

 

The friction between the Arian Christianity of the Visigoths and the Catholicism of the bishops sent out from Rome established deep roots for religious heterodoxy, even heresy, in Occitan culture. At Treves in 385, Priscillian achieved the distinction of becoming the first Christian executed for heresy (Manichaean in his case, see also Cathars, Camisards). Despite this tension and the city's decline in the face of barbarian invasions, Arles remained a great religious centre and host of church councils (see Council of Arles), the rival of Vienne, for hundreds of years.

Roman aqueduct and mill

Aqueduct of Arles at Barbegal

 

The Barbegal aqueduct and mill is a Roman watermill complex located on the territory of the commune of Fontvieille, a few kilometres from Arles. The complex has been referred to as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world".[7] The remains of the mill streams and buildings which housed the overshot water wheels are still visible at the site, and it is by far the best-preserved of ancient mills. There are two aqueducts which join just north of the mill complex, and a sluice which enabled the operators to control the water supply to the complex. The mill consisted of 16 waterwheels in two separate rows built into a steep hillside. There are substantial masonry remains of the water channels and foundations of the individual mills, together with a staircase rising up the hill upon which the mills are built. The mills apparently operated from the end of the 1st century until about the end of the 3rd century.[8] The capacity of the mills has been estimated at 4.5 tons of flour per day, sufficient to supply enough bread for 6,000 of the 30-40,000 inhabitants of Arelate at that time.[9] A similar mill complex existed also on the Janiculum in Rome. Examination of the mill leat still just visible on one side of the hill shows a substantial accretion of lime in the channel, tending to confirm its long working life.

 

It is thought that the wheels were overshot water wheels with the outflow from the top driving the next one down and so on, to the base of the hill. Vertical water mills were well known to the Romans, being described by Vitruvius in his De Architectura of 25 BC, and mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia of 77 AD. There are also later references to floating water mills from Byzantium and to sawmills on the river Moselle by the poet Ausonius. The use of multiple stacked sequences of reverse overshot water-wheels was widespread in Roman mines.

Middle Ages

Place de la République.

Cafe Terrace at Night by Vincent van Gogh (September 1888), depicts the warmth of a café in Arles

 

In 735, after raiding the Lower Rhône, Andalusian Saracens led by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri moved into the stronghold summoned by Count Maurontus, who feared Charles Martel's expansionist ambitions, though this may have been an excuse to further Moorish expansion beyond Iberia. The next year, Charles campaigned south to Septimania and Provence, attacking and capturing Arles after destroying Avignon. In 739. Charles definitely drove Maurontus to exile, and brought Provence to heel. In 855, it was made the capital of a Frankish Kingdom of Arles, which included Burgundy and part of Provence, but was frequently terrorised by Saracen and Viking raiders. In 888, Rudolph, Count of Auxerre (now in north-western Burgundy), founded the kingdom of Transjuran Burgundy (literally, beyond the Jura mountains), which included western Switzerland as far as the river Reuss, Valais, Geneva, Chablais and Bugey.

 

In 933, Hugh of Arles ("Hugues de Provence") gave his kingdom up to Rudolph II, who merged the two kingdoms into a new Kingdom of Arles. In 1032, King Rudolph III died, and the kingdom was inherited by Emperor Conrad II the Salic. Though his successors counted themselves kings of Arles, few went to be crowned in the cathedral. Most of the kingdom's territory was progressively incorporated into France. During these troubled times, the amphitheatre was converted into a fortress, with watchtowers built at each of the four quadrants and a minuscule walled town being constructed within. The population was by now only a fraction of what it had been in Roman times, with much of old Arles lying in ruins.

 

The town regained political and economic prominence in the 12th century, with the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa traveling there in 1178 for his coronation. In the 12th century, it became a free city governed by an elected podestat (chief magistrate; literally "power"), who appointed the consuls and other magistrates. It retained this status until the French Revolution of 1789.

 

Arles joined the countship of Provence in 1239, but, once more, its prominence was eclipsed by Marseilles. In 1378, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV ceded the remnants of the Kingdom of Arles to the Dauphin of France (later King Charles VI of France) and the kingdom ceased to exist even on paper.

Modern era

 

Arles remained economically important for many years as a major port on the Rhône. In the 19th century, the arrival of the railway diminished river trade, leading to the town becoming something of a backwater.

 

This made it an attractive destination for the painter Vincent van Gogh, who arrived there on 21 February 1888. He was fascinated by the Provençal landscapes, producing over 300 paintings and drawings during his time in Arles. Many of his most famous paintings were completed there, including The Night Cafe, the Yellow Room, Starry Night Over the Rhone, and L'Arlésienne. Paul Gauguin visited van Gogh in Arles. However, van Gogh's mental health deteriorated and he became alarmingly eccentric, culminating in the well-known ear-severing incident in December 1888 which resulted in two stays in the Old Hospital of Arles. The concerned Arlesians circulated a petition the following February demanding that van Gogh be confined. In May 1889, he took the hint and left Arles for the Saint-Paul asylum at nearby Saint-Rémy-de-Provence.

Jewish history

Main article: History of the Jews in Arles

 

Arles had an important and evident Jewish community between the Roman era and until the end of the 15th century. A local legend describes the first Jews in Arles as exiles from Judaea after Jerusalem fell to the Romans. Nevertheless, the first documented evident of Jews in Arles is not before fifth century, when a distinguished community had already existed in town. Arles was an important Jewish crossroads, as a port city and close to Spain and the rest of Europe alike. It served a major role in the work of the Hachmei Provence group of famous Jewish scholars, translators and philosophers, who were most important to Judaism throughout the Middle Ages. At the eighth century, the jurisdiction of the Jews of Arles were passed to the local Archbishop, making the Jewish taxes to the clergy somewhat of a shield for the community from mob attacks, most frequent during the Crusades. The community lived relatively peacefully until the last decade of the 15th century, when they were expelled out of the city never to return. Several Jews did live in the city in the centuries after, though no community was found ever after. Nowadays, Jewish archaeological findings and texts from Arles can be found in the local museum.[10]

Population

Historical population

Year Pop. ±%

1806 20,151 —

1820 20,150 −0.0%

1831 20,236 +0.4%

1836 20,048 −0.9%

1841 20,460 +2.1%

1846 23,101 +12.9%

1851 23,208 +0.5%

1856 24,816 +6.9%

1861 25,543 +2.9%

1866 26,367 +3.2%

1872 24,695 −6.3%

1876 25,095 +1.6%

1881 23,480 −6.4%

1891 24,288 +3.4%

1896 24,567 +1.1%

1901 28,116 +14.4%

1906 31,010 +10.3%

1911 31,014 +0.0%

1921 29,146 −6.0%

1926 32,485 +11.5%

1946 35,017 +7.8%

1954 37,443 +6.9%

1962 41,932 +12.0%

1968 45,774 +9.2%

1975 50,059 +9.4%

1982 50,500 +0.9%

1990 52,058 +3.1%

1999 50,426 −3.1%

2008 52,729 +4.6%

2010 57,328 +8.7%

Main sights

Gallo-Roman theatre.

The Alyscamps.

 

Arles has important Roman remnants, most of which have been listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1981 within the Arles, Roman and Romanesque Monuments group. They include:

 

The Gallo-Roman theatre

The arena or amphitheatre

The Alyscamps (Roman necropolis)

The Thermae of Constantine

The cryptoporticus

Arles Obelisk

Barbegal aqueduct and mill

 

The Church of St. Trophime (Saint Trophimus), formerly a cathedral, is a major work of Romanesque architecture, and the representation of the Last Judgment on its portal is considered one of the finest examples of Romanesque sculpture, as are the columns in the adjacent cloister.

 

The town also has a museum of ancient history, the Musée de l'Arles et de la Provence antiques, with one of the best collections of Roman sarcophagi to be found anywhere outside Rome itself. Other museums include the Musée Réattu and the Museon Arlaten.

 

The courtyard of the Old Arles hospital, now named "Espace Van Gogh," is a center for Vincent van Gogh's works, several of which are masterpieces.[11] The garden, framed on all four sides by buildings of the complex, is approached through arcades on the first floor. A circulation gallery is located on the first and second floors.[12]

Archaeology

Main article: Arles portrait bust

 

In September–October 2007, divers led by Luc Long from the French Department of Subaquatic Archaeological Research, headed by Michel L'Hour, discovered a life-sized marble bust of an apparently important Roman person in the Rhône near Arles, together with smaller statues of Marsyas in Hellenistic style and of the god Neptune from the third century AD. The larger bust was tentatively dated to 46 BC. Since the bust displayed several characteristics of an ageing person with wrinkles, deep naso-labial creases and hollows in his face, and since the archaeologists believed that Julius Caesar had founded the colony Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelate Sextanorum in 46 BC, the scientists came to the preliminary conclusion that the bust depicted a life-portrait of the Roman dictator: France's Minister of Culture Christine Albanel reported on May 13, 2008, that the bust would be the oldest representation of Caesar known today.[13] The story was picked up by all larger media outlets.[14][15] The realism of the portrait was said to place it in the tradition of late Republican portrait and genre sculptures. The archaeologists further claimed that a bust of Julius Caesar might have been thrown away or discreetly disposed of, because Caesar's portraits could have been viewed as politically dangerous possessions after the dictator's assassination.

 

Historians and archaeologists not affiliated with the French administration, among them Paul Zanker, the renowned archaeologist and expert on Caesar and Augustus, were quick to question whether the bust is a portrait of Caesar.[16][17][18] Many noted the lack of resemblances to Caesar's likenesses issued on coins during the last years of the dictator's life, and to the Tusculum bust of Caesar,[19] which depicts Julius Caesar in his lifetime, either as a so-called zeitgesicht or as a direct portrait. After a further stylistic assessment, Zanker dated the Arles-bust to the Augustan period. Elkins argued for the third century AD as the terminus post quem for the deposition of the statues, refuting the claim that the bust was thrown away due to feared repercussions from Caesar's assassination in 44 BC.[20] The main argument by the French archaeologists that Caesar had founded the colony in 46 BC proved to be incorrect, as the colony was founded by Caesar's former quaestor Tiberius Claudius Nero on the dictator's orders in his absence.[21] Mary Beard has accused the persons involved in the find of having willfully invented their claims for publicity reasons. The French ministry of culture has not yet responded to the criticism and negative reviews.

Sport

 

AC Arles-Avignon is a professional French football team. They currently play in Championnat de France Amateur, the fourth division in French football. They play at the Parc des Sports, which has a capacity of just over 17,000.

Culture

 

A well known photography festival, Rencontres d'Arles, takes place in Arles every year, and the French national school of photography is located there.

 

The major French publishing house Actes Sud is also situated in Arles.

 

Bull fights are conducted in the amphitheatre, including Provençal-style bullfights (courses camarguaises) in which the bull is not killed, but rather a team of athletic men attempt to remove a tassle from the bull's horn without getting injured. Every Easter and on the first weekend of September, during the feria, Arles also holds Spanish-style corridas (in which the bulls are killed) with an encierro (bull-running in the streets) preceding each fight.

 

The film Ronin was partially filmed in Arles.

European Capital of Culture

 

Arles played a major role in Marseille-Provence 2013, the year-long series of cultural events held in the region after it was designated the European Capital of Culture for 2013. The city hosted a segment of the opening ceremony with a pyrotechnical performance by Groupe F on the banks of the Rhône. It also unveiled the new wing of the Musée Départemental Arles Antique as part of Marseille-Provence 2013.

Economy

 

Arles's open-air street market is a major market in the region. It occurs on Saturday and Wednesday mornings.

Transport

 

The Gare d'Arles railway station offers connections to Avignon, Nîmes, Marseille, Paris, Bordeaux and several regional destinations.

Notable people

 

Vincent van Gogh, lived here from February 1888 until May 1889.

The Provençal poet Frédéric Mistral (1830–1914) was born near Arles

Jeanne Calment (1875–1997), the oldest human being whose age is documented, was born, lived and died, at the age of 122 years and 164 days, in Arles

Anne-Marie David, singer (Eurovision winner in 1973)

Christian Lacroix, fashion designer

Lucien Clergue, photographer

Djibril Cissé, footballer

Antoine de Seguiran, 18th-century encyclopédiste

Genesius of Arles, a notary martyred under Maximianus in 303 or 308

Blessed Jean Marie du Lau, last Archbishop of Arles, killed by the revolutionary mob in Paris on September 2, 1792

Juan Bautista (real name Jean-Baptiste Jalabert), matador

Maja Hoffmann, art patron

Mehdi Savalli, matador

The medieval writer Antoine de la Sale was probably born in Arles around 1386

Home of the Gipsy Kings, a music group from Arles

Gael Givet, footballer

Lloyd Palun, footballer

Fanny Valette, actress

Luc Hoffmann, ornithologist, conservationist and philanthropist.

Saint Caesarius of Arles, bishop who lived from the late 5th to the mid 6th century, known for prophecy and writings that would later be used by theologians such as St. Thomas Aquinas

Samuel ibn Tibbon, famous Jewish translator and scholar during the Middle Ages.

Kalonymus ben Kalonymus, famous Jewish scholar and philosopher, Arles born, active during the Middle Ages.

 

Twin towns — sister cities

See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in France

 

Arles is twinned with:

 

Pskov, Russia

Jerez de la Frontera, Spain

Fulda, Germany

York, Pennsylvania, United States

Cubelles, Spain

Vercelli, Italy

Sagné, Mauritania

Kalymnos, Greece

Wisbech, United Kingdom

Zhouzhuang, Kunshan, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China

Verviers, Belgium

 

See also

 

Archbishopric of Arles

Montmajour Abbey

Trinquetaille

Langlois Bridge

Saint-Martin-de-Crau

Communes of the Bouches-du-Rhône department

 

References

 

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Archdiocese of Aix". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton.

INSEE

 

The table contains the temperatures and precipitation of the city of Arles for the period 1948-1999, extracted from the site Sophy.u-3mrs.fr.

www.academia.edu/1166147/_The_Fall_and_Decline_of_the_Rom...

Rick Steves' Provence & the French Riviera, p. 78, at Google Books

Nelson's Dictionary of Christianity: The Authoritative Resource on the Christian World, p. 1173, at Google Books

Provence, p. 81, at Google Books

Wace, Dictionary)

Greene, Kevin (2000). "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered". The Economic History Review. New Series. 53 (1): 29–59 [p. 39]. doi:10.1111/1468-0289.00151.

"Ville d'Histoire et de Patrimoine". Patrimoine.ville-arles.fr. Retrieved 2013-03-25.

"La meunerie de Barbegal". Etab.ac-caen.fr. Retrieved 2013-03-25.

jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1784-arles

Fisher, R, ed (2011). Fodor's France 2011. Toronto and New York: Fodor's Travel, division of Random House. p. 563 ISBN 978-1-4000-0473-7.

"Espace Van Gogh". Visiter, Places of Interest. Arles Office de Tourisme. Retrieved 2011-04-29.

Original communiqué (May 13, 2008); second communiqué (May 20, 2008); report (May 20, 2008)

E.g."Divers find marble bust of Caesar that may date to 46 B.C.". Archived from the original on 2008-06-05. Retrieved 2008-05-14. , CNN-Online et al.

Video (QuickTime) Archived May 28, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. on the archaeological find (France 3)

Paul Zanker, "Der Echte war energischer, distanzierter, ironischer" Archived May 29, 2008, at the Wayback Machine., Sueddeutsche Zeitung, May 25, 2008, on-line

Mary Beard, "The face of Julius Caesar? Come off it!", TLS, May 14, 2008, on-line

Nathan T. Elkins, 'Oldest Bust' of Julius Caesar found in France?, May 14, 2008, on-line

Cp. this image at the AERIA library

A different approach was presented by Mary Beard, in that members of a military Caesarian colony would not have discarded portraits of Caesar, whom they worshipped as god, although statues were in fact destroyed by the Anti-Caesarians in the city of Rome after Caesar's assassination (Appian, BC III.1.9).

Konrat Ziegler & Walther Sontheimer (eds.), "Arelate", in Der Kleine Pauly: Lexikon der Antike, Vol. 1, col. 525, Munich 1979; in 46 BC, Caesar himself was campaigning in Africa, before later returning to Rome.

And something a bit different. While stopping in Kinsella, I stepped inside an abandoned house to take a few photos. These books and a bunch of magazines, intrigued me. Upon a bit of research, this specific Encyclopedia is from 1913.

I need to go back there and spend a bit more time documenting what is there.

 

Love exploring these abandoned houses.

Brazilian three-banded armadillo

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Brazilian three-banded armadillo

 

Conservation status

 

Vulnerable (IUCN 3.1)[1]

Scientific classification

Kingdom:Animalia

Phylum:Chordata

Class:Mammalia

Order:Cingulata

Family:Dasypodidae

Genus:Tolypeutes

Species:T. tricinctus

Binomial name

Tolypeutes tricinctus

(Linnaeus, 1758)

 

Geographic range

The Brazilian three-banded armadillo (Tolypeutes tricinctus) is an armadillo species endemic to Brazil, where it is known as tatu-bola (Portuguese pronunciation: [tɐˈtu ˈbɔlɐ], lit. ball armadillo). It is one of only two species of armadillo (the other is the southern three-banded armadillo) that can roll into a ball. It has suffered a 30% decline in population in the last 10 years.

 

Habitat

 

The Brazilian three-banded armadillo lives primarily in open savannahs and dry woodlands, where low rainfall and poor soil limit the vegetation to tall, woody grasses, scattered bushes, and gnarled trees. There is an abundance of cactus-like plants in the northern reaches of its range.[2]

Range

 

As its name suggests, the Brazilian three-banded armadillo is indigenous to Brazil, living primarily in the eastern part of the country, just south of the equator. They are rarely seen west of 50°W longitude.[2]

 

Diet

 

The main staples of its diet are ants and termites, which it can smell through up to eight inches (20 cm) of soil. It finds food by shuffling slowly along with its nose to the ground. When it detects prey, it frantically digs a hole and thrust its nose into it, using its long, sticky tongue to lap up any insects it may find. Other foods include mollusks, worms, fruit, and carrion.[2]

 

Anatomy

 

Brazilian three-banded armadillos weigh approximately 3.5 lbs (1.5 kg). They typically have a combined head and body length of 14–18 inches (35–45 cm) and a 2.5–3.5-inch (6–8-cm) tail, giving them a total length of 16.5–21.5 inches (41–53 cm). The armor is composed of ossified dermal scutes covered by nonoverlapping, keratinized epidermal scales, which are connected by flexible bands of skin. This armor covers the back, sides, head, tail, ears, and outside surfaces of the legs. The underside of the body and the inner surfaces of the legs have no armored protection, and are covered instead by long, coarse hair. The genus Tolypeutes, which includes both the Brazilian and southern species of three-banded armadillos, is unique in the ability to roll up in a tight, almost impenetrable ball. This is because their armor is slightly looser than that of other armadillo genera, which allows for greater freedom of movement. The loose armor also creates a layer of air between the shell and the body, which insulates the animal. This higher capacity for thermoregulation allows them to survive in climates too arid for some of the other armadillo species. When the armadillo rolls into a defensive ball, the ears are tucked into the shell and the head and tail interlock to seal the shell completely. The teeth are soft and peg-like, adapted solely for smashing the exoskeletons of insects.[2]

 

Behavior

 

Armadillos are chiefly solitary, but this species will occasionally travel in small family groups of up to three members. They are largely nocturnal, but have been known to forage during the day. All armadillos are spectacular diggers, but unlike most of the other species, three-banded armadillos do not dig in defense or to find shelter. They prefer to rest under bushes, rather than dig burrows, and their ability to roll into a ball makes defensive digging unnecessary. When they are not foraging, they move with a sort of trot, bouncing on the tips of their front toes, while their hind feet slap flatly on the ground. They mark their territories with secretions from glands on their face, feet, and rump. When threatened, they occasionally do not seal their armor completely, but wait until they are touched. They then quickly snap shut in an effort to startle the predator.[2]

 

Reproduction

 

The mating season lasts from October to January, during which there is a brief courtship before mating. The female carries the young for a gestation period of 120 days at the end of which single, blind offspring is born. The newborn’s armor is soft, but its claws are fully developed, and it can walk and roll into a ball within hours of birth. The armor hardens by the third or fourth week, around the same time the eyes and earflaps open. The young armadillo is weaned at 10 weeks and reaches sexual maturity at 9–12 months.[2]

Threats

 

The defense system of the Brazilian three-banded armadillo makes it safe from the majority of predators. Adult pumas are the only South American animals powerful enough to be a natural threat. The real danger to armadillos is the destruction of their habitats to make room for livestock.[2]

 

2014 World Cup mascot

 

The Caatinga Association, a Brazilian environmental NGO, launched in January 2012 a national campaign proposing the three-banded armadillo to become mascot of the 2014 World Cup. In March 2012, the Brazilian weekly, Veja, reported the three-banded armadillo would be the official mascot for the 2014 World Cup hosted by Brazil. Official announcement came in September 2012.[3]

  

Tatu-bola

 

Nota: Para o crustáceo terrestre, veja Bicho-de-conta.

Tatu-bola

 

Mataco (Tolypeutes matacus)

Classificação científica

Reino:Animalia

Filo:Chordata

Classe:Mammalia

Infraclasse:Placentalia

Superordem:Xenarthra

Ordem:Cingulata

Família:Dasypodidae

Género:Tolypeutes

Illiger, 1811

Espécies

Tatu-bola-da-caatinga (T. tricinctus)

Mataco (T. matacus)

Tatu-bola é a denominação comum para as espécies de tatu do gênero Tolypeutes, Tolypeutes tricinctus e Tolypeutes matacus,1 conhecidas respectivamente como tatu-bola-da-caatinga e mataco. Essas espécies são também conhecidas em algumas regiões como tatuapara, apara e apar.2 São encontrados no Brasil, Paraguai, Bolívia e Argentina,3 sendo que a T. tricinctus é endêmica do Brasil.4

As espécies de tatu do gênero Tolypeutes contam com cerca de 30 cm de comprimento, têm coloração marrom anegrada e, geralmente, três cintas móveis. São os únicos tatus capazes de se enrolar completamente dentro da carapaça, assumindo o formato de bola.4 De acordo com a União Internacional para a Conservação da Natureza e dos Recursos Naturais (IUCN), enquanto o tatu-bola-da-caatinga é uma espécie ameaçada, com estado de conservação vulnerável, o mataco tem um menor risco de ser extinto, com estado de conservação quase-vulnerável.4 5

O tatu-bola-da-caatinga foi anunciado em 16 de setembro de 2012 como mascote da copa do mundo de 2014.6

Etimologia[editar]

 

"Tatu-bola" é uma referência à sua capacidade de se enrolar, adquirindo o formato de uma bola. "Tatuapara", "apara" e "apar" vêm do tupi tatua'para, "tatu vergado".2

TATU-BOLA - TOLYPEUTES TRICINCTUS

 

É a menor, menos conhecida e única espécie de tatu endêmica do Brasil, pois a sua distribuição se restringe à Caatinga e ao Cerrado brasileiros. Facilmente reconhecidas pela capacidade muito peculiar de se defender, fechando-se na forma de uma bola, protegendo as partes moles do corpo no interior da carapaça rígida, o que justifica o nome de tatu-bola.

O tatu-bola se diferencia de sua espécie irmã pela presença, de 5 unhas nas patas anteriores. Durante a época de acasalamento, observa-se mais de um macho acompanhando uma mesma fêmea, o que facilita ainda mais a captura de vários exemplares por vez. As fêmeas produzem, por ninhada, um ou mais raramente 2 filhotes, que nascem completamente formados. Alimenta-se de cupins, formigas, areia e material vegetal (MARINHO FILHO; REIS, 2008).

www.youtube.com/watch?v=niv4gjbhJ6s

Fuleco, mascote oficial da Copa do Mundo FIFA de 2014, é um tatu-bola (Tolypeutes tricinctus), espécie nativa do Brasil, que tem a capacidade de se enrolar e virar uma bola quase impenetrável.

 

Adora passar o tempo em qualquer lugar que tenha savanas e cerrados abertos, florestas com vegetação seca e, de preferência, um campo de futebol por perto.

 

A carapaça azul que o protege representa a beleza natural do Brasil. Os tons azuis representam o céu e as águas límpidas que correm pelo Brasil e que estão cheias de vida.

 

As cores ainda contrastam com os tons verdes do campo de futebol e permitem que ele se destaque quando está jogando seu esporte favorito!

 

O Fuleco mede aproximadamente 22 cm de altura. Ele é feito em vinil com cabeça e braços articulados.

Ameaçado de extinção, o tatu-bola (Tolypeutes tricinctus), pode ganhar mais chances ao ser conhecido pelo mundo como o mascote de um mega evento: a Copa do Mundo de Futebol do Brasil em 2014.

 

A Fifa e o Comitê Organizador Local (COL) disseram, na apresentação do mascote, que o tatu-bola, que se protege das ameaças externas se fechando em sua carapaça redonda, lembra "ligeiramente" uma bola de futebol.

 

Após uma votação popular em que mais de 1 milhão de pessoas participou, o mascote foi batizado "Fuleco", palavra que une "futebol" e "ecologia". O nome no entanto é polêmico e recebeu críticas em massa nas redes sociais.

 

Os organizadores do espetáculo esportivo acreditam que o mascote, como espécie ameaçada, pode sensibilizar a opinião pública sobre a importância do meio ambiente e da ecologia.

 

O tatu-bola frequentemente é alvo do tráfico ilegal de animais protegidos. Considerado um fóssil vivo, o animal é vulnerável pela destruição do meio ambiente, e ainda por sua caça devido ao sabor de sua carne, rica em proteínas, uma iguaria tradicional em algumas regiões do continente.

Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

 

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

 

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

 

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Martha Raye

 

Born Margy Reed

August 27, 1916

Butte, Montana, U.S.

Died October 19, 1994 (aged 78)

Los Angeles, California, U.S.

Cause of death Cardiovascular disease

Resting place Main Post Cemetery, Fort Bragg NC[1]

Occupation Actress/Singer/Comedian

Years active 1934–1989

Spouse(s) Bud Westmore (1937-1937)

David Rose (1938-1941)

Neal Lang (1941-1944)

Nick Condos (1944-1953)

Edward T. Begley (1954-1956)

Robert O'Shea (1956-1960)

Mark Harris (1991-1994; her death)

 

Martha Raye (August 27, 1916 – October 19, 1994) was an American comic actress and singer who performed in movies, and later on television. She also acted in plays, including Broadway.[2] She was honored in 1969 with an Academy Award as the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award recipient for her volunteer efforts and services to the troops.[3]

 

Early years

 

Raye's life as a singer and comedic performer began in very early childhood. She was born at St. James Hospital in Butte, Montana, as Margy Reed.[4][5]

 

Her father, Peter F. Reed Jr., was an Irish immigrant, while her mother, Maybelle Hazel (Hooper) Reed, was raised in Milwaukee and Montana.[6] Her parents were performing in a local vaudeville theatre as "Reed and Hooper" when their daughter was born.[7] Two days later, her mother was performing again. Martha first appeared in their act when she was three years old. She later performed with her brother "Bud", and the children became so popular that their parents' act was renamed "Margie and Bud."

Career

 

In the early 1930s, Raye was a band vocalist with the Paul Ash and Boris Morros orchestras. She made her first film appearance in 1934 in a band short titled A Nite in the Nite Club. In 1936, she was signed for comic roles by Paramount Pictures, and made her first picture for Paramount. Her first feature film was Rhythm on the Range with crooner Bing Crosby.

 

From 1936-39, she was a featured cast member in 39 episodes of Al Jolson's weekly CBS radio show, The Lifebuoy Program, also called Cafe Trocadero. In addition to comedy, Martha sang both solos and duets with Jolson. Over the next quarter century, she would appear with many of the leading comics of her day, including Joe E. Brown, Bob Hope, W. C. Fields, Abbott and Costello, Charlie Chaplin, and Jimmy Durante. She joined the USO soon after the US entered World War II.[8]

 

She was known for the size of her mouth, which was large in proportion to her face, earning her the nickname The Big Mouth. She later referred to this in a series of commercials for Polident denture cleaner in the 1980s: "So take it from The Big Mouth: new Polident Green gets tough stains clean!" Her large mouth would relegate her motion picture work to supporting comic parts, and was often made up so it appeared even larger. In the Disney cartoon Mother Goose Goes Hollywood, she is caricatured while dancing alongside Joe E. Brown, another actor known for a big mouth. In the Warner Bros. cartoon The Woods Are Full Of Cuckoos (1937), she was caricatured as a jazzy scat-singing donkey named 'Moutha Bray'.[9]

 

In 1968, she was awarded the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award in the form of an Oscar.[10]

 

On November 2, 1993, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Bill Clinton for her service to her country.[8] The citation reads:

 

"A talented performer whose career spans the better part of a century, Martha Raye has delighted audiences and uplifted spirits around the globe. She brought her tremendous comedic and musical skills to her work in film, stage, and television, helping to shape American entertainment. The great courage, kindness, and patriotism she showed in her many tours during World War II, the Korean conflict, and the Vietnam conflict earned her the nickname 'Colonel Maggie'. The American people honor Martha Raye, a woman who has tirelessly used her gifts to benefit the lives of her fellow Americans."[11]

 

TV career

 

She was a television star very early in its history, and even had her own program for a while, The Martha Raye Show (1954–1956), with an awkward boyfriend portrayed by retired middleweight boxer Rocky Graziano (whom she called "goombah", Sicilian slang for the Italian 'compadre' [companion]). (The writer and producer was future The Phil Silvers Show creator Nat Hiken.)

 

Some of the guest stars on the show were Zsa Zsa Gabor, Cesar Romero, and Broadway dancer Wayne Lamb. She also appeared on other TV shows in the 1950s, such as What's My Line?.

 

Following the demise of her TV variety show, the breakup of her fifth marriage, and a series of other personal and health problems, she attempted suicide by overdosing on sleeping pills on August 14, 1956. Well-wishers gave her a St. Christopher's medal, a St. Genesius medal, and a Star of David. After her recovery, she wore these amulets faithfully, although she was neither Roman Catholic nor Jewish. At the conclusion of each episode of her TV shows, she would thank the nuns at the Sisters of St. Francis Hospital in Miami, Florida, where she had recovered. She would always say, "Goodnight, Sisters" as a sign of appreciation and gratitude.

 

Later in her career, she made television commercials for Polident denture cleanser, principally during the 1970s and 1980s.

Later career

 

In 1970, she portrayed Boss Witch, the "Queen of all Witchdom", in the feature film Pufnstuf for Sid and Marty Krofft. This led to her being cast as villainess Benita Bizarre in The Bugaloos (1970), which the Kroffts produced the same year.

 

She often appeared as a guest on other programs, particularly ones that often had older performers as guest stars such as ABC's The Love Boat, and on variety programs including the short-lived The Roy Rogers and Dale Evans Show. She appeared from the third to the ninth seasons as Carrie Sharples on Alice, making two or three appearances a season. She made guest appearances or did cameo roles in such series as Murder, She Wrote on CBS and The Andy Williams Show and McMillan & Wife, both on NBC. She appeared again as Agatha for the six-episode run of the retooled McMillan, taking over for Nancy Walker, who had left the series. Her last film appearance was as an incontinent airline passenger in the disaster film The Concorde ... Airport '79 (1979).

 

Personal life

 

Raye's personal life was complex and emotionally tumultuous.[12] She was married seven times.

 

Raye was a devout Methodist who regularly attended church, read the Bible daily, and even taught Sunday school classes.[13]

 

She was married to Hamilton "Buddy" Westmore from May 30, 1937, until September 1937, filing for divorce on the basis of extreme cruelty; to composer-conductor David Rose from October 8, 1938 to May 19, 1941; to Neal Lang from May 25, 1941 to February 3, 1944; to Nick Condos from February 22, 1944 to June 17, 1953; to Edward T. Begley from April 21, 1954 to October 6, 1956; to Robert O'Shea from November 7, 1956 to December 1, 1960; and to Mark Harris from September 25, 1991 until her death in 1994. She had one child, a daughter, Melodye Condos (born July 26, 1944), with fourth husband Condos.

 

Politically, Raye was conservative, affirming her political views by informing an interviewer, "I am a Republican because I believe in the constitution, strength in national defense, limited government, individual freedom, and personal responsibility as the concrete foundation for American government. They reinforce the resolve that the United States is the greatest country in the world and we can all be eternally grateful to our founding fathers for the beautiful legacy they left us today."[14]

Death

 

Her final years were plagued by ill health. She suffered from Alzheimer's disease and had lost both legs in 1993 from poor circulation. While in poor health and resting in the hospital bed that had to be placed in her home, Martha and husband Mark Harris moved into a hotel after their home was completely destroyed by the 1994 earthquake. Raye died in Los Angeles at 78 of pneumonia on October 19, 1994, after a long history of cardiovascular disease.[15]

 

In appreciation of her work with the USO during World War II and subsequent wars, special consideration was given to bury her in Arlington National Cemetery on her death, but on her request, she was buried with full military honors in the Fort Bragg, North Carolina, post cemetery as an honorary colonel in the U.S. Marines and an honorary lieutenant colonel in the U.S. Army.[8] She is the only civilian buried at this location who receives military honors each Veterans' Day.[citation needed]

 

Raye has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame — one for motion pictures at 6251 Hollywood Boulevard and the other for television at 6547 Hollywood Blvd.

Archive

 

The moving image collection of Martha Raye is held at the Academy Film Archive. The collection consists of an audio tape and home movies.[16]

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

United States

Name:Helena

Namesake:City of Helena, Montana

Laid down:9 September 1943

Launched:28 April 1945

Sponsored by:Mrs. John T. Haytin

Commissioned:4 September 1945

Decommissioned:29 June 1963

Struck:1 January 1974

Identification:CA-75

Fate:Sold 13 November 1974 for scrapping

General characteristics

Class and type:Baltimore-class cruiser

Displacement:13,600 tons

Length:674 ft 11 in (206 m)

Beam:70 ft 10 in (22 m)

Draft:20 ft 6 in (6 m)

Speed:33 knots (38.0 mph; 61.1 km/h)

Complement:1,142

Armament:

 

9 × 8-inch/55 caliber guns

12 × 5-inch/38 caliber guns

48 × 40 mm guns

22 × 20 mm guns

 

USS Helena (CA-75), a Baltimore-class heavy cruiser, was the third ship of the United States Navy to be named for the city of Helena, Montana. She was named Helena while under construction after the cancellation of the light cruiser CL-113.

 

Construction and commissioning

 

Helena was launched at the Bethlehem Steel Company in Quincy, Massachusetts, on 28 April 1945, sponsored by Mrs. John T. Haytin, wife of the mayor of Helena. She was commissioned on 4 September 1945 with Captain Arthur Howard McCollum in command.

Service history

1940s

 

Helena completed her outfitting in the Boston, Massachusetts, area and departed on 24 October 1945, arriving New York City the next day to take part in the tremendous celebration of the U.S. Navy's role in World War II victory that marked Navy Day, 27 October 1945. After two shakedown and training periods at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, Helena returned to Boston in February 1946 to prepare for her first deployment, a round-the-world cruise. Helena departed Boston on 12 February 1946 for England, where Admiral H. Kent Hewitt boarded and broke his flag as Commander Naval Forces, Europe, and Commander, 12th Fleet. During the next three months, Helena conducted training exercises in Northern European waters and paid good-will visits to major ports in England and Scotland.

 

Relieved as flagship on 1 May 1946, Helena departed for East Asia via the Suez Canal, calling at major Mediterranean ports; Colombo, Ceylon; and Singapore before arriving at Tsingtao, China, on 18 June 1946. During her tour in East Asia, Helena took part in a wide variety of training exercises and fleet maneuvers until she finally departed Shanghai, China, on 22 March 1947 for the United States after more than a year in foreign waters.

 

After training operations in California waters Helena departed once more for the East Asia on 3 April 1948, arriving at Shanghai 24 days later. Throughout the summer and fall of 1948, she operated primarily in Chinese waters, returning to Long Beach, California, in December 1948.

 

Helena spent much of the spring of 1949 in training a new crew and in May 1949 cruised to train Naval Reservists, returning to Long Beach for a conversion necessary to equip her to carry a helicopter. During July and August 1949, Helena took part in a six-week at-sea training cruise for men of the Naval Reserve Officers' Training Corps to the Galapagos Islands and Panama. She then took part in Operation Miki, a joint United States Army-U.S. Navy amphibious training exercise in the Hawaiian Islands conducted in November 1949.

 

Helena then proceeded via Yokosuka, Japan, and Hong Kong to the Philippines, where she conducted training exercises. She returned to Japan in January 1950, and soon after experienced the highlights of her service as flagship of the United States Seventh Fleet when the Joint Chiefs of Staff, then touring East Asia, embarked on 2 February 1950. During the remainder of her East Asian tour she carried out a schedule of large-scale fleet exercises off Okinawa and visits to Japanese ports. She departed for the United States on 21 May 1950.

1950s

Korean War

 

Helena's schedule called for a summer spent in Long Beach, followed by overhaul at San Francisco. Suddenly came word of the communist aggression in Korea. Hurriedly she prepared for sea; and, on 6 July 1950, sped westward. Stopping at Pearl Harbor only to take on ammunition, she plowed across the Pacific and into action on the east coast of Korea. On 7 August, she first unleashed her guns on an enemy target—the railroad marshalling yards, trains, and power plant near Tanchon.

 

Serving as flagship of the Bombardment Task Group, Helena pounded enemy positions, aiding immeasurably in keeping the invaders off balance and preventing them from mounting a formidable drive, as United Nations forces prepared to take the offensive. Operations such as hers provided the diversion necessary to cover the powerful amphibious assault into Inchon, 15 September 1950, Later, Helena provided gunfire support for Korean troops pushing the invaders north along the east coast, and it was Helena's, concentrated firepower that aided in creating a diversion at Samchok, and in the recapture of Pohang.

 

Valuable as she was in Korean waters, Helena could no longer put off overhaul, and in November 1950 she arrived at Long Beach to prepare for the now twice-postponed yard period.

 

After her overhaul, she reported for duty at Sasebo 18 April 1951, and was assigned to Task Force 77, the fast carrier group making daily air strikes against the enemy. While operating as heavy support for the carriers, Helena was often detached to pound shore targets. During June 1951, she was occupied almost continually in interdiction fire at targets along the east coast of Korea, subsequently she returned to the Task Force, At twilight on a day late in July, Helena was straddled and then hit by shore gunfire. Damage was light, and, swiftly twisting around the harbor in the maneuver which came to be called "the war dance", Helena delivered rapid continuous fire that destroyed seven enemy gun positions and an ammunition dump. After a short respite at Yokosuka, she returned again to the Task Force, but was soon detached for special duty supporting a massive air strike on supply depots and rail road marshalling yards at Rashin, acting as radar picket.

 

Helena's accurate gunnery was next sought by the Eighth Army, for whom she fired at 13 targets along the bombline in aid of advancing infantry. Her support to ground forces continued with missions fired for United States Marines and Republic of Korea Army units. On 20 September 1951 she returned to Yokosuka. Here, at a ceremony on her decks, President Syngman Rhee of Korea presented to Task Force 95 the first Korean Presidential Unit Citation awarded to a naval unit. Helena received the award for her operations in the fall of 1950.

 

After rejoining the Task Force, Helena was ordered to duty as fire support vessel in the Hungnam-Hamhung area. With her helicopter providing its usual efficient spotting, she fired with great success on rail and highway bridges, marshalling yards and gun positions for the next 2 weeks.

 

Helena returned to Long Beach 8 December 1951 and her entire battery of nine 8-inch (200 mm) guns was replaced. In February, she commenced training for return to the Far East. One of the highlights of this training period came from 14 February to 23 February 1952 when she took part in "Lex Baker One", the largest scale training exercise held since the outbreak of the Korean War. Over 70 ships and 15,000 sailors and Marines took active part in this operation.

 

Helena arrived once again at Yokosuka 8 June 1952 and the next day was underway to rendezvous with Task Force 77 off the coast of Korea. For 5 months her mission again was to burn buildings, destroy gun positions, and smash transportation facilities; all were left in her wake after shore bombardments. She also performed air rescue of pilots, two of whom were deep in enemy territory.

 

On 24 November 1952, Helena was relieved of her normal duties at Yokosuka and 5 days later sailed on a special mission. She called first at Iwo Jima where on 1 December Admiral Arthur W. Radford, Commander In Chief Pacific Fleet, boarded the ship by helicopter to visit briefly. Two days later she proceeded to Guam, where President-Elect Dwight D. Eisenhower, with several of his prospective cabinet members, and Admiral Radford embarked for passage to Pearl Harbor. Top-level policy conferences were held on board. Helena's distinguished passengers disembarked at Pearl Harbor 11 December 1952, and she returned to Long Beach 16 December.

Post-Korean War

 

Helena departed for the Far East on 4 August 1953 to join Task Force 77 on security patrol in the Sea of Japan and after another voyage to the United States for upkeep and training, rejoined the 7th Fleet at Yokosuka as flagship on 11 October 1954. Helena spent much of her time in waters off Taiwan. The highlights of Helena's service during this tour of duty came in February 1955 during the evacuation of the Tachen Islands. These off-shore islands posed a possible point of contention between the Nationalist and Communist Chinese; and it was determined to neutralize them by means of evacuation. On 6 February came the "execute" from President Eisenhower, and the fleet, led by Helena, got underway. By 1500 on 9 February 1955, with Helena on watchful patrol, all civilians had been removed to safety from the islands—a total of 18,000 people. Early on 12 February the remaining 20,000 Nationalist troops were removed and, as Helena steamed on rear guard patrol, the Task Force sailed south.

 

After 6 months' training in home waters, Helena again sailed for Yokosuka, arriving 25 January 1956. During the 6 months of this tour of duty, she once more operated primarily in the Taiwan area and briefly in Philippine waters on exercises. She returned to Long Beach 8 July.

 

Exercises, which included firing of the Regulus I missile from Helena's launching gear, continued for 9 months, and then she headed for another Far East tour 10 April 1957. During the ensuing tour of duty, she played her flagship role fully, combining sea power and diplomacy.

 

Helena returned to Long Beach 19 October. Following a major overhaul completed 31 March 1958 and intensive training, including missile launching, she again sailed west.

 

Helena's 1958 cruise in the Far East began 3 August. Her first port of call was Keelung, Taiwan, arriving 21 August. On the next day, students and faculty of the Taiwan National Defense College were received on board for a tour of the ship. Her schedule next called for a visit to Manila, but the crisis brought on by the Chinese Communist shelling of the off-shore islands of Quemoy and Matsu governed by the Nationalists interrupted normal operations.

 

During the next weeks, Helena patrolled the troubled area. On 7 September she steamed to within 10 miles (16 km) of the Chinese mainland, covering Chinese Nationalist supply ships replenishing Quemoy Island. While on this duty, she was illustrating once more the fact that the mere presence of the overwhelming naval strength of the United States is one of the most formidable protections the free world has in deterring such aggression.

 

On 9 October 1958, while off the Philippines, word flashed to Helena to proceed to the aid of a stricken merchant vessel of Norwegian registry, the Hoi Wong, which had run aground on Bombay Reef in the Paracel Islands. Helena reached the scene at 1000, 10 October 1958. Her helicopters rescued men, women and children, whom she transported to Hong Kong. Her men had skillfully and courageously carried out a difficult humanitarian mission, another contribution to strengthening American relationships with Asian nations. Helena resumed patrol and readiness operations until her return to Long Beach 17 February 1959.

1960s

 

On 5 January 1960 Helena departed for the Western Pacific in company with Yorktown and her escort of Destroyer Squadron 23. Visits to Korea and to Taiwan prefaced her participation in Operation Blue Star, one of the largest peacetime amphibious exercises in our history.

 

After a period in Japan, Helena sailed with Ranger and Saint Paul to Guam. On 24 April 1960, Helena, in company with destroyers Taylor and Jenkins, set sail for Australia. She then returned to Long Beach and from June until November underwent extensive overhaul. In mid-January 1961 she became the permanent flagship of Commander, 1st Fleet.

 

On 17 May 1961, led by the Helena, 12 1st Fleet ships put on a firepower demonstration for more than 700 members of the American Ordnance Association. In June, Helena, with eight guests of the Secretary of the Navy on board, cruised to Portland, Oregon, for the Rose Festival.

 

During the next months, Helena joined in Exercise Tail Wind, rendezvousing with the cruiser Los Angeles, the guided missile frigate Coontz and their destroyer escort to form the largest "Fleet Sail" in 4 years. Helena visited major ports of the Far East, rode out Typhoon Olga off Hong Kong, then returned to San Diego 6 October, soon to participate in Exercise Covered Wagon. During the remainder of the year, Helena participated in a major fleet demonstration observed by the Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral George W. Anderson. Her last operation of the year was Exercise "Black Bear."

 

During 1961 and 1962, Helena, operated in United States West Coast and western Pacific waters, taking part in several amphibious operations with ships of the 1st Fleet and elements of the 1st Marine Division and 3rd Marine Air Wing. Helena embarked foreign and staff officers from the Naval War College March 1962, and two groups of Navy League members engaged in orientation cruises in June and August.

 

As 1962 ended, Helena was scheduled for inactivation at Long Beach Naval Shipyard. On 18 March 1963, Commander 1st Fleet shifted his flag to Saint Paul.

Decommissioning and disposal

 

Helena was placed out of commission in Reserve 29 June 1963, after serving (just two months shy of) 18 continuous years of service. Helena was transferred on 30 June 1963 to San Diego Group Pacific Reserve Fleet. Stricken on 1 January 1974, and sold to Levin Metals Co., San Jose, Calif., on 13 November 1974, and scrapped in Richmond, Calif the following year.

Honors and awards

 

For her service in the Korean War, Helena was presented the Presidential Unit Citation of the Republic of Korea and the Korean Service Medal with four stars.

Legacy

 

Helena's ship's bell, her anchor chain, and one of her propellers are located in downtown Helena, Montana, on the grounds of the Walking Mall, outside the Lewis & Clark County Library.

 

Boilers from the Helena continue to be used in the ArcJet Complex at NASA Ames Research Center to operate a large steam injection vacuum pump system.[1]

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

United States

Name:Denver

Namesake:City of Denver, Colorado

Builder:New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Camden, New Jersey

Laid down:26 December 1940

Launched:4 April 1942

Sponsored by:Miss L. J. Stapleton

Commissioned:15 October 1942

Decommissioned:7 February 1947

Struck:March 1959

Identification:

Hull symbol:CL-58

Code letters:NADG

ICS November.svgICS Alpha.svgICS Delta.svgICS Golf.svg

Honors and

awards:

Bronze-service-star-3d.png Silver-service-star-3d.png 11 × battle stars

U.S. Navy Unit Commendation ribbon.svg Navy Unit Commendation

Fate:Scrapped in 1960

General characteristics

Class and type:Cleveland-class light cruiser

Displacement:

11,744 long tons (11,932 t) (standard)

14,131 long tons (14,358 t) (max)

Length:

610 ft 1 in (185.95 m) oa

608 ft (185 m)pp

Beam:66 ft 4 in (20.22 m)

Draft:

25 ft 6 in (7.77 m) (mean)

25 ft (7.6 m) (max)

Installed power:

4 × 634 psi Steam boilers

100,000 shp (75,000 kW)

Propulsion:

4 × geared turbines

4 × screws

Speed:32.5 kn (37.4 mph; 60.2 km/h)

Range:11,000 nmi (20,000 km) at 15 kn (17 mph; 28 km/h)

Complement:1,255 officers and enlisted

Armament:

4 × triple 6 in (150 mm)/47 caliber Mark 16 guns

6 × dual 5 in (130 mm)/38 caliber anti-aircraft guns

4 × quad 40 mm (1.6 in) Bofors anti-aircraft guns

8 × dual 40 mm (1.6 in) Bofors anti-aircraft guns

17 × single 20 mm (0.79 in) Oerlikon anti-aircraft cannons

Armor:

Belt: 3 1⁄2–5 in (89–127 mm)

Deck: 2 in (51 mm)

Barbettes: 6 in (150 mm)

Turrets: 1 1⁄2–6 in (38–152 mm)

Conning Tower: 2 1⁄4–5 in (57–127 mm)

Aircraft carried:4 × floatplanes

Aviation facilities:2 × stern catapults

Service record

Operations:World War II

Awards:Navy Unit Commendation,11 × battle stars

 

USS Denver (CL-58) was a Cleveland-class light cruiser. Denver launched on 4 April 1942 by New York Shipbuilding Corp., Camden, New Jersey; sponsored by Miss L. J. Stapleton, daughter of the Mayor of Denver; and commissioned on 15 October 1942, Captain Robert Carney in command.[1] It was the second ship named for the city of Denver, Colorado.

 

Service history

1943

Denver sailed from Philadelphia on 23 January 1943, and arrived at Efate, New Hebrides on 14 February. Thomas Darden was in command.[2] The new cruiser first saw combat in the bombardment of Vila on Kolombangara in the Solomon Islands, on 6 March. During this action her force engaged and sank the Japanese destroyers Minegumo and Murasame in the Battle of Blackett Strait. Continuing her operations in the Solomons, Denver joined the bombardment of Ballale Island on 29–30 June in conjunction with the invasion landings on New Georgia, then remained in the area on patrol.[1]

 

On the last day of October 1943, Denver sortied from Port Purvis with Task Force 39 (TF 39) to intercept an enemy force attempting to disrupt the landings at Cape Torokina, Bougainville. In the resulting battle of Empress Augusta Bay on the night of 1/2 November, the American ships sank one enemy light cruiser and a destroyer and damaged two heavy cruisers and two destroyers, while the four other enemy ships broke off the action and retired. During the heavy firing Denver was hit by three 8-inch (203 mm) shells which fortunately did not explode. She shared in the Navy Unit Commendation awarded her division for its outstanding performance in this battle.[1]

 

Denver covered the support landings on Cape Torokina on 10–11 November 1943, and two days later during a heavy air attack was hit by an aerial torpedo which knocked out all power and communications and killed 20 of her men. She was towed by Sioux to Port Purvis and then by Pawnee to Espiritu Santo for temporary repairs, then sailed to Mare Island for permanent repairs, arriving on 2 January 1944.[1]

 

1944

Denver returned to the forward area at Eniwetok, arriving on 22 June. Eight days later, she put to sea to screen carriers as they launched strikes to neutralize Japanese bases in the Bonins and Marianas during the invasion of the Marianas. She bombarded Iwo Jima on 4 July, and after screening continued air assaults returned to Eniwetok on 5 August.[1]

 

Denver sailed from Port Purvis on 6 September for the invasion of the Palaus. She bombarded Angaur Island from 12 to 18 September, then covered a task unit engaged in minesweeping, reconnaissance and underwater demolition operations before the landings on Ulithi on 23 September. She returned to Manus Island on 28 September to prepare for the return to the Philippines.[1]

 

Denver departed on 12 October for the landings on Leyte, bombarding Suluan Island and Dulag to open the vast invasion fleet's way into Leyte Gulf, then sailed on to bombard the southern landing beaches. As the Japanese sent the major portion of their remaining combatant fleet south in a desperate attempt to break up the landings, Denver's group took station in Surigao Strait on 24 October to prevent the passage of the Japanese Southern Force into Leyte Gulf. Attacks were made by motor torpedo boats and destroyers stationed in advance of the battle line. Yamashiro, Mogami, and Shigure were all that remained of the Japanese ships when Denver and the others of the battle line opened fire at 0351. With three other cruisers, she made a material contribution to the cumulative gunfire which sank Yamashiro. Mogami was later sunk by aircraft, and Shigure was the sole survivor of Nishimura's fleet which had sailed forth for this phase of the decisive Battle for Leyte Gulf. After this action, Denver sailed to aid in the destruction of any surviving enemy vessels, aiding in sinking Asagumo early in the day on 25 October.[1]

 

Continuing her service in Leyte Gulf, she fought off numerous attacks; during the one of 28 October, a bomb released from one of the planes she shot down exploded nearby causing minor damage and slight flooding. She screened reinforcement landings in November and fought off a kamikaze attack on 27 November, suffering four men wounded from fragments of a bomb which exploded 200 yards (180 m) off the starboard quarter. She joined the heavy covering group, for the Mindoro landings of 13–16 December, then returned to Manus on 24 December.[1]

 

1945

Returning to San Pedro Bay on 3 January, Denver sortied the next day to cover the landings at Lingayen Gulf. She remained in the Philippines to join in the consolidation of those islands. She covered the landings on Zambales on 29–30 January, supported minesweeping near and landings on Grande Island; provided fire support at Nasugbu on 31 January; escorted a replenishment convoy to Mindoro from 1 to 7 February; covered the Army landings around Mariveles Bay from 13 to 16 February, rescuing the survivors of the destroyer La Vallette; and supported the operations on Palawan and Mindanao Islands from February to May.[1]

 

On 7 June, Denver sailed from Subic Bay for the amphibious assaults on Brunei Bay, Borneo, and later at Balikpapan. She covered the pre-invasion work of minesweeping units and underwater demolition teams, and provided fire support for the invading troops until returning to San Pedro Bay, Leyte on 4 July for brief overhaul.[1]

 

Denver got underway for Okinawa on 13 July to hunt Japanese shipping off the China coast until 7 August. She sailed from Okinawa on 9 September to cover the evacuation of men of the Allied forces rescued from prison camps in the Wakayama area and covered the landing of occupation troops at Wakanoura Wan from 25 September to 20 October, when she sailed for home.[1]

 

Denver arrived at Norfolk on 21 November, and after overhaul, reported to Newport, Rhode Island in January 1946 for duty training men of the Naval Reserve, and a good-will visit to Quebec, Canada. In April, she arrived at Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, where she was placed out of commission in reserve on 7 February 1947. Stricken on 1 March 1959, ex-Denver was sold on 4 February 1960 to Union Minerals and Alloy Corp., New York City, for $260,689.89, and broken-up at Kearny, New Jersey, during November 1960.[1]

 

Awards

In addition to the Navy Unit Commendation, Denver received 11 battle stars for her World War II service.[1]

Plaza de España

Seville, Spain

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:

 

In 1929 Seville hosted the Ibero-American Exposition World's Fair, located in the celebrated Maria Luisa Park (Parque de Maria Luisa) designed by Jean-Claude Nicolas Forestier.[2] The entire southern end of the city was redeveloped into an expanse of gardens and grand boulevards. The centre of it is Parque de Maria Luisa, a 'Moorish paradisical style' with a half mile of: tiled fountains, pavilions, walls, ponds, benches, and exhedras; lush plantings of palms, orange trees, Mediterranean pines, and stylized flower beds; and with vine hidden bowers. Numerous buildings were constructed for the exhibition.

 

The Plaza de España, designed by Aníbal González, was a principal one built on the park's edge to showcase Spain's industry and technology exhibits. He combined a mix of 1920s Art Deco and 'mock Mudejar', and Neo-Mudéjar styles. The Plaza de España complex is a huge half-circle with buildings continually running around the edge accessible over the moat by numerous beautiful bridges. In the centre is a large fountain. By the walls of the Plaza are many tiled alcoves, each representing a different province of Spain.

 

More info:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaza_de_Espa%c3%b1a_(Seville)

 

20100502_7D_IMG_0939_Sevilha

Read more here: www.thebrickfan.com/lego-star-wars-character-encyclopedia...

Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères

A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/39522499

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14492515

Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).

Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..

Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/12381209

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14492604

"The Golden Pathway to a Treasury of Knowledge" by the International University Society of England, Canada and Australia. Printed in Great Britain. Undated. This is Volume IV. Our Wonderful World.

Battlestar Galactica book

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/12381115

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

United States

Name:Zeilin

Namesake:Brigadier General Jacob Zeilin, USMC

Builder:Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company, Newport News, Virginia

Laid down:1920

Launched:11 December 1920[1]

Acquired:July 1940

Commissioned:3 January 1942

Decommissioned:19 April 1946

Stricken:5 June 1946

Nickname(s):"The Mighty Z"

Fate:Scrapped

General characteristics

Class and type:Harris-class attack transport

Displacement:21,350 long tons (21,693 t)

Length:535 ft 2 in (163.12 m)

Beam:72 ft 6 in (22.10 m)

Draft:31 ft 3 in (9.53 m) (mean)

Propulsion:

 

8 Yarrow header-type boilers

2 Curtis type turbines

2 shafts

12,000 shp (8,948 kW)

 

Speed:17.5 knots (32.4 km/h; 20.1 mph)

Capacity:190,000 cu. ft., 2,000 t

Troops:121 Officers and 1558 Enlisted

Complement:29 Officers, 638 Enlisted

Armament:

 

4 × 3"/50 caliber guns

1 × quad 1.1"/75 caliber gun

1 × twin 40 mm gun mount

10 × twin 20 mm gun mounts

 

USS Zeilin (APA-3) was an Emergency Fleet Corporation Design 1029 ship launched for the United States Shipping Board (USSB) on 19 March 1921 by Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company in Newport News, Virginia as Silver State. After operation by commercial lines for the USSB, during which the ship was renamed President Jackson, the ship was purchased and operated commercially until laid up in the late 1930s.

 

During World War II, the U.S. Navy acquired the ship in July 1940 and classified the ship as a transport, hull number AP-9. On 3 January 1942 the ship was commissioned USS Zeilin. On 26 November 1942 Zeilin was reclassified to Harris-class attack transport, hull number APA-3. Zeilin served throughout the war and was decommissioned on 19 April 1946 at Portsmouth, Virginia. The ship was delivered for scrapping on 4 May 1948.

 

Construction

 

The Silver State was constructed by the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company in Newport News, Virginia for delivery to the United States Shipping Board as an Emergency Fleet Corporation Design 1029 combination passenger and cargo ship.[2] The design was a modification of a World War I troop transport design upon the end of the war. Commercially the ships were known as "535's" due to their length overall of 535 ft (163 m).[2]

 

The ship had accommodations for 280 first class passengers and 194 third class.

History

Commercial Service

 

Silver State operated between Seattle, Washington, and the Far East with the Admiral Orient Line a subsidiary of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. On 23 June 1922 the SS Silver State was renamed the SS President Jackson when the ship was purchased by the Dollar Line owned by Robert Dollar. In 1938 the SS President Jackson was transferred to the American President Lines.[3]

 

Starting in 1937, the U.S. Navy studied converting the Dollar Line 535-foot (163 m) class ships to troop transports.

 

Commissioning

 

The SS President Jackson was acquired by the United States Navy in July 1940 and was renamed the Zeilin with the designation AP-9 after Brigadier General Jacob Zeilin (16 July 1806–18 November 1880) who was the first United States Marine Corps general.[3]

 

The Todd Pacific Shipyards in Seattle, Washington, reconfigured the Zeilin as a troop transport. Commissioning occurred on 3 January 1942 with Captain Pat Buchanan, USNR, in command.[3]

World War II

Pacific Service

 

After a shakedown cruise and training along the west coast of the United States, the Zeilin left San Diego on 13 April 1942 transporting troops to Samoa for garrison duty and returning to San Diego on 17 June.[3]

South Pacific Force and Guadalcanal

 

On 8 July 1942, Zeilin again departed San Diego and traveled via Pearl Harbor to Suva in Fiji. At Suva, Zeilin prepared for the invasion of the Solomon Islands.[3] Zeilin was flagship of Transport Division Two[note 1] with the Amphibious Force, South Pacific Force under Rear Admiral Kelly Turner designated Task Force 62, re-designated from Task Group 61.2 under Operation Order 1—42 of 28 July issued by Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher.[3][4] Zeilin, with Betelgeuse part of Transport Division Two, was ordered to sail on or about 20 July 1942 for the South Pacific.[5]

 

Early on the morning of 7 August 1942 Zeilin arrived off Guadalcanal with Task Force 62. On 8 August Marines from the 3rd Defense Battalion were landed by Zeilin on Tulagi, Gavutu, and Tanambogo. After completing disembarkation of the Marines, Zeilin traveled to Nouméa, New Caledonia.[3]

 

For the next two months, Zeilin traveled a route between Nouméa; Espiritu Santo, New Hebrides, and Wellington, New Zealand. On 9 October, Zeilin departed Nouméa to carry troops and supplies to the Solomon Islands.[3]

 

Arriving off Guadalcanal on 11 October, Zeilin began unloading at Lunga Point. On 13 October, Zeilin was attacked by a Japanese shore battery; but the ship did not receive any damage. Zeilin returned to Nouméa on 17 October and then proceeded to Espiritu Santo before returning to Lunga Point on 11 November.[3]

 

At 09:00, the task group received a report that nine carrier bombers and 12 fighters were approaching from the northwest and would reach their vicinity at about 09:30. At about 09:20, Atlanta (CL-51) led the Zeilin and two other auxiliaries to the north, in column, with destroyers spaced in a circle around them. Fifteen minutes later, nine Japanese Aichi D3A "Val" dive bombers from the Japanese aircraft carrier Hiyō emerged from the clouds over Henderson Field.

 

At 09:40 the Zeilin opened fire. The Japanese airplanes dove on the Zeilin and released bombs at 1,200 feet (370 m). One aircraft was set on fire by Zeilin's guns There were three near misses registered on the ship; two on the port side - one about amidships, the other aft; and one on the starboard side at about frame 45 opposite No. 8 hatch, depth about 15–30 feet. The ship suffered severely from this bomb. The number 8 hold was flooded to the third deck; number 7 to the fourth deck. The starboard shaft was carried away. Zeilin took on approximately 2,000 tons of water. Examination by diver later disclosed cracked and ruptured hull plating as the cause of the flooding.[3]

 

A second attack at 10:55 by 27 Mitsubishi G3M bombers was repulsed with anti-aircraft fire and fighter aircraft from Henderson Field.[3]

 

Though damaged and listing, Zeilin carried casualties to Espiritu Santo and then sailed via Tutuila, Samoa to San Pedro, California. Zeilin arrived at the Terminal Island Naval Shipyard (later known as the Long Beach Naval Shipyard) on 22 December 1942 for repair. This repair work was completed in March 1943.[3]

Aleutian Islands

 

On 17 April 1943, Zeilin left San Diego, California, for the Aleutian Islands. After a six-day stop in San Francisco, California, Zeilin continued on and arrived at Cold Bay, Alaska on 1 May. Cold Bay was the rendezvous point for the Attu Island invasion force. By 11 May the Zeilin was located off the south coast of Attu Island, at Massacre Bay. After the initial landings, Zeilin remained off Attu Island until 16 May. On 17 May, Zeilin stopped at Adak, Alaska, before leaving on 22 May and arriving at San Diego, California, on 31 May.[3]

 

On 15 June 1943 Zeilin was designated as relief flagship, the battleship Pennsylvania being the flagship, for Commander Amphibious Force, Pacific Fleet.[6] In June and July 1943, Zeilin operated along the west coast of the United States before returning to Adak on 5 August to participate in the invasion of Kiska, Alaska. Zeilin left Adak on 26 August, arriving at San Diego, California on 2 September.[3]

Tarawa

 

The Zeilin traveled to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, in mid-September 1943. After a five-day stay at Pearl Harbor Zeilin continued to Wellington, New Zealand, via Funafuti and Espiritu Santo arriving on 17 October. The ship remained at Wellington before departing on 1 November and proceeding to Efate in the Vanuatu where the attack force concentrated and practiced for the invasion of Tarawa.[3]

 

On 13 November, Zeilin departed Efate and arrived off Betio on 19 November. Early the following morning, Marines from 2nd Battalion 2nd Marines were offloaded into landing craft from Zeilin for their assault. During the unloading operation Zeilin was under fire from Japanese shore guns. The ship did not sustain any damage from the attack.[3] During this operation, Commander Thomas Benjamin Fitzpatrick was in command of the ship.[7]

Kwajalein Atoll

 

Zeilin returned to Pearl Harbor at the beginning of December 1943 to reload for the Marshall Islands operation leaving on 22 January 1944 with the Southern Attack Force. Zeilin arrived at Kwajalein Atoll on 31 January. Unloading elements of the Army's 7th Infantry Division, Zeilin departed on 2 February arriving at Funafuti, on 8 February.[3]

Southwest Pacific and the Solomon Islands

 

For the next three months, Zeilin carried troops and supplies for units operating in the Solomon Islands and in New Guinea. During this time period Zeilin visited Guadalcanal and Bougainville in the Solomon Islands, Espiritu Santo, Milne Bay and Cape Sudest on New Guinea, and the newly conquered Admiralty Islands. On 10 May 1944, Zeilin returned to Guadalcanal to prepare for the invasion of the Mariana Islands.[3]

Mariana Islands

 

Task Force 53, including Zeilin, departed the Solomon Islands on 4 June carrying Marines of the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade. Zeilin initially waited east of Guam during the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Later the Marines on Zeilin functioned as a floating reserve. Leaving the Marianas Islands on 30 June, Zeilin arrived at the Eniwetok Atoll in the Marshall Islands on 3 July. After 15 days, Zeilin left Eniwetok and joined other transports carrying troops from Hawaii. Zeilin arrived off Guam on 22 July and unloaded the Marines over four days departing on 26 July.[3]

 

Zeilin stopped overnight at Eniwetok again on 29 July before arriving at Pearl Harbor on 7 August. Then after three days, Zeilin departed for the west coast of the United States arriving at San Francisco, California for a three-month overhaul.[3]

Southwest Pacific

 

On 21 October 1944, Zeilin departed San Francisco arriving at Finschhafen on the west coast of New Guinea on 6 November. Zeilin visited Langemak Bay and Hollandia (now known as Jayapura) before arriving at Nouméa on 22 November.[3]

Philippine Islands

 

Zeilin loaded elements of the Army's 25th Infantry Division at Nouméa and departed for Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands in December 1944. At Guadalcanal, the task group including the Zeilin conducted training exercises. The task group left Guadalcanal on 25 December arriving at Manus in the Admiralty Islands on 29 December.[3]

 

On 2 January 1945, Zeilin left Manus and arrived off San Fabian, Luzon, in the Philippine Islands on 11 January. After offloading Zeilin departed on 12 January in convoy. The next morning, a single Japanese kamikaze aircraft attacked the convoy missing the amphibious command ship Mount Olympus (AGC-8) and striking Zeilin. The right wing of the Japanese aircraft struck cargo loading equipment next to the number 6 cargo hatch. The fuselage crashed into the starboard side of the housetop. Incendiary weapons carried by the aircraft exploded and started several fires on the ship. Topside damage to the Zeilin was extensive. The superstructure deck was destroyed, deck framing was damaged, and several staterooms were destroyed. The aircraft's engine pierced the deck, the outboard bulkhead and landed in a landing craft carried by the Zeilin. Seven crew members were killed, three crew members were declared missing, and 30 crew members were injured. After the attack Zeilin continued with the convoy and arrived at Leyte island in the Philippines. After receiving temporary repairs at Leyte, Zeilin departed on 16 February arriving at Ulithi Atoll in the Caroline Islands on 18 February.[3]

Iwo Jima

 

Zeilin traveled to Iwo Jima Island arriving on 9 March with reinforcements. On 16 March Zeilin departed Iwo Jima arriving at Pearl Harbor on 12 April. Zeilin left Pearl on 17 April and arrived in San Francisco, California, on 23 April.[3]

Ulithi

 

Following two months of repairs in San Francisco, Zeilin departed on 30 June 1945 arriving at San Diego, California on 1 July. On 8 July, Zeilin departed San Diego for Seattle, Washington. Departing from Seattle on 23 July, Zeilin arrived at Eniwetok Atoll on 4 August. Zeilin stayed until 7 August before moving on to Ulithi Atoll.[3]

Post World War II Service

Philippine Islands and Korea

 

After hostilities ceased on 15 August 1945 Zeilin departed Ulithi Atoll on 17 August arriving at Okinawa Island on 21 August. Zeilin left Okinawa on 29 August bound for Leyte. During September, Zeilin transported cargo and passengers within the Philippine Islands. In October, Zeilin was tasked to carry the Army's 106th Regimental Combat Team to occupation duty at Jinsen, Korea.[3]

West Coast

 

Departing from Jinsen, Zeilin made stops at Ulithi and Guam before arriving at San Francisco on 14 November. For the remainder of 1945 and through January 1946, Zeilin traveled between San Diego, San Francisco, San Pedro, Bremerton, Washington, and Seattle.[3]

Decommissioning

 

On 4 February 1946, Zeilin departed San Pedro and transited the Panama Canal on 14 February before arriving on 21 February at Hampton Roads, Virginia. Zeilin was decommissioned at Portsmouth, Virginia, on 19 April 1946.[3]

Disposal

 

Zeilin was struck from the Navy List on 5 June 1946. Zeilin was transferred to the United States Maritime Commission on 3 July 1946 for disposal. On 4 May 1948 she was delivered to American Shipbreaker, Inc., for scrapping.[3]

Awards

 

Zeilin earned eight battle stars for her World War II service.[3]

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/10453168

2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

Map of 2021 Cumbre Vieja eruption

 

An eruption at the Cumbre Vieja volcanic ridge, comprising the southern half of the Spanish island of La Palma in the Canary Islands, lasted from 19 September to 13 December 2021. It was the first volcanic eruption on the island since the eruption of Teneguía in 1971. At 85 days, it is the longest known eruption of a volcano on La Palma.

 

The eruption has caused the evacuation of around 7,000 people, and the lava flow has covered over 1000 hectares. The lava flow was about 3.5 kilometre (2.3 mile) wide at its widest point, about 6.2 kilometre long (3.9 mile) and reached the sea, destroying more than 3,000 buildings, cutting the coastal highway and forming a new peninsula. The town of Todoque, including its easternmost neighbourhood Los Campitos, was completely destroyed by lava, which also reached La Laguna (a town within the municipality of Los Llanos de Aridane). One death has been linked to the volcano but the cause has yet to be determined.

 

It is the most damaging volcanic eruption on La Palma since records began. The total damage caused by the volcano amounts up to 843 million euros as calculated by the government of the Canary Islands.

 

Volcanic activity began decreasing in early December 2021 and stopped on 13 December. Noting weak seismicity and tremors, scientists said that a resumption of the eruption was highly improbable, giving locals hope that it had ended. On 25 December 2021, after 12 days with no activity from the volcano, the eruption was officially declared to have ended.

 

Previous eruptions

 

The Cabeza de Vaca area is northwest of the two 1949 eruptive centers, San Juan and Duraznero. During the 1949 eruption, fault displacements also had westward components with movement down the volcano's flanks.

 

The last subaerial eruption in Spain, also on La Palma, was the 1971 Teneguía eruption, which asphyxiated a nearby photographer with its fumes. The eruption also caused some property damage to roads, crops, and homes. The last eruption of any kind in the Canaries was the 2011–2012 eruption of El Hierro, a submarine volcano.

 

An earthquake swarm started under Cumbre Vieja on 11 September 2021. It slowly migrated to the surface, with earthquakes of up to around mbLg magnitude 3.5, and more than 22,000 earthquakes were recorded in the space of a week. A yellow warning of potential volcanic activity was issued on 13 September, covering 35,000 people in the municipalities of Los Llanos de Aridane, Fuencaliente, El Paso and Villa de Mazo. At least 40 individuals and some livestock on La Palma were evacuated by authorities due to this warning, although no complete evacuation of the vicinity around the volcano had been declared.

 

Eruption

 

The eruption began at 14:13 local time (14:13 UTC) on 19 September 2021 in a forested area[26][32] called "Cabeza de Vaca", of Montaña Rajada, in the Las Manchas section of the municipality of El Paso.

 

Around 300 people from the local area were evacuated shortly after the eruption, and then a further 700 people (including 500 tourists) were evacuated from the Los Llanos de Aridane coastal region in case the lava flowed to the sea and cut off the main access roads. The total number of evacuees is now estimated to be 5,000 to 10,000. The alert level was raised to its highest level—red—due to the eruption.

The eruption took place from at least five main vents.

 

On the fourth day, according to the Volcanological Institute of the Canary Islands, the volcano entered a more explosive phase, expelling less volcanic gas.

 

For its first two months, the eruption was assigned a rating on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of VEI 2 (on a scale of 8). On 20 November 2021, the scientific committee of the Canary Islands Volcanic Emergency Plan (Pevolca) raised the rating from VEI 2 to VEI 3. Though in modern eruptions where it can be measured, eruption column height is often seen as a more accurate measure, in this case the change was based on the 10 million cubic metres of ejected material measure alone. The VEI rating was increased despite no change in the eruptive mechanism or explosiveness.

 

On the afternoon of 19 September, the Emergency Committee of the General Hospital of La Palma suspended all non-urgent surgeries, outpatient consultations and patient visits, with exceptions in the latter case, as a preventive measure to guarantee the hospital's capacity to attend in the event that it was required due to the eruption. The hospital resumed normal operations the following day.

 

On the morning of 20 September, the Canarian Ministry of Education ordered the suspension of all classes in the schools of the nearby municipalities of El Paso, Los Llanos de Aridane and Tazacorte. That same morning, direct flights to the island of La Gomera were suspended, but were restored a few hours later. The day before, the public company in charge of civil air navigation and civil airports in Spain, ENAIRE, together with Eurocontrol, activated the action procedure for volcanic ash, but assured the public that air traffic over the Canary Islands was not affected.

 

On 20 September, around two hundred houses have been destroyed by the flow, according to local authorities. No casualties were reported and flights continued into the islands

 

In the early afternoon of 21 September, the lava reached the neighborhood of Todoque, in the municipality of Los Llanos de Aridane, with 1,200 inhabitants. At the end of that day, 185 buildings were destroyed, 400 hectares of arable land were burnt and 5,500 people were evacuated. Los Campitos public school in Los Llanos de Aridane is among those affected, which was destroyed on Monday 20 September.

 

On 24 September, the eruptive activity intensified, with further ash and volcanic material falling greater distances, forcing firefighters to withdraw from the neighbourhood of Todoque. Two new vents had opened in the side of the main cone, outpouring lava. Authorities extended the exclusion zone and ordered the evacuation of the neighbourhoods of Tajuya, Tacande de Abajo and Tacande de Arriba in the afternoon. Several civilian airlines suspended flights to the island due to the ash cloud.

 

On 25 September, Aena, the operator of the La Palma Airport, suspended all flights due to ash accumulation with cleaning tasks underway. On the same day, a part of the volcano's principal cone collapsed and a new emissive vent opened to the west of the principal cone (or possibly a previous one that had reopened). The new lava flow followed the previous path, although slightly widening in area.

 

On 26 September, the previously stalled lava flows started again to advance towards the coast, destroying the Todoque neighbourhood church of Saint Pius X and advancing to the sea at a speed of 100 to 200 metres (330 to 660 feet) per hour, mostly on top of the older flow. Meanwhile, the volcano seemed to have entered a more stabilised period after the previous days of more explosive eruptions with a slight fall in seismic activity that took place at deeper depths than before, according to IGN.

 

On 28 September, at around 23:02 local time (22:02 UTC), the lava flow reached the sea at the Beach of Los Guirres, also called New Beach, of the municipality of Tazacorte. The heating of the seawater to a high temperature might produce laze containing emissions of sulfuric, hydrochloric, and hydrofluoric acid into the air. Traces of sulphur dioxide emissions from the volcano had been detected in the upper stratosphere as far north as Scandinavia, but the actual impacts of the SO2 emissions on the weather and air quality were said to be globally negligible so far, mostly due to the emitted amounts and their altitude. Earlier on that day, Spain's government classified the island of La Palma as a disaster zone, due to the steadily increasing property and economic damage caused by the eruption, a move that will trigger emergency subsidies and other support measures.

The course of the molten lava flow between its source (right) and the sea (left), seen by Copernicus on 1 October

 

The lava flow into the sea created a new lava delta, or fajana. As of 30 September 2021, this was 20 hectares (49 acres) in size and continuing to grow. It was 27.7 hectares (68 acres) by 2 October. The new land is claimed by the Spanish Government.

 

On 1 October, a new vent opened, the third in addition to the main crater. This emitted two streams of lava that cut the important LP2 highway and threatened more of the populated area of Los Llanos de Aridane. The total amount of lava emitted since the eruption began was by now estimated to be at least 80 million cubic metres.

 

On 4 October, the main cone of the volcano collapsed, increasing the lava flow.

 

On 7 October, at 12:17 local time, an earthquake of magnitude 4.3 mbLg was detected on the island at a depth of 35 km. This was the strongest earthquake since the start of the eruption. By the end of the day, the lava had covered 422 hectares of land and the lava delta had grown to cover an area of 38 hectares.

 

By 8 October, according to the Copernicus Emergency Management Service, the lava flow had affected 497 hectares of land and more than 1100 buildings had been destroyed.

 

On 9 October, part of the north face of the volcano collapsed, causing the lava within the crater to spill out. Three new lava streams were formed.

 

On 10 October, large chunks of red-hot lava the size of three-storey buildings rolled down and one of the new lava streams reached Callejón de la Gata, an industrial area of Los Llanos de Aridane, and destroyed what was left of the town of Todoque.

 

On 11 October, the northern side of the volcanic crater collapsed creating a new lava flow which threatened another urban district known as La Laguna.

 

By 12 October, the lava flow had covered over 595 hectares. A fire at a cement factory and the risk of lava affecting more factories and warehouses in an industrial area led to the confinement of 3,500 people in El Paso and Los Llanos de Aridane, with the northern lava flow around 300 metres from the sea. A magnitude 4.1 earthquake also occurred at a depth of 11 kilometers.

 

On 13 October, the strongest earthquake since the start of the earthquake storm was felt across the island, with magnitude 4.4 at a depth of 36 km.

 

The northern lava flow entered La Laguna on 14 October, destroying a football pitch and a supermarket, as well as other buildings. By 15 October, further evacuations of regions that might be affected by the lava flow meant that nearly 7,000 people had been displaced, and the lava flow covered over 670 hectares.

 

A magnitude 4.6 earthquake occurred at 4.41am on 16 October, along with a 4.5 earthquake at 6.07am, both at a depth of 37 km below Mazo.

 

On 17 October, the advance of the lava flows had slowed. There were plans to rescue five dogs who are trapped in a water tank between lava flows, although it was confirmed that one of them had died. The rescue would involve a specialist company, and the use of drones that usually transport cargo to ships in Gibraltar. By the evening, though, the lava flows reactivated, and it was expected that a second one of them will reach the sea shortly. Another earthquake of magnitude 4.6 occurred below Mazo. Meanwhile, 4,500 children went back to school again for the first time in 30 days, despite the volcanic eruption and COVID-19, with students from Los Campitos and Todoque relocated to a building in Los Llanos. The lava flows have also impacted industrial structures such as cement plants, which have also caused gas clouds and explosions, and have affected flights at Tenerife North–Ciudad de La Laguna Airport.

 

By 19 October, one month after the start of the eruption, the lava had covered 762 hectares (1,880 acres) of land, almost 30% of which were banana plantations, 1086 land plots, 1692 buildings and 56.4 kilometres (35.0 mi) of roads.

 

On 24 October, a magnitude 4.9 earthquake occurred beneath Mazo at 4.34pm. The total extent of the lava flows had by now covered an area of at least seven square kilometres.

 

On 25 October, the intensity of the earth tremors had increased and the lava flows to date had destroyed over 2,000 buildings.

 

On 26 October, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake under Mazo was also felt in Tenerife, La Gomera and El Hierro.[82] The upper main part of the volcano also had a partial collapse, with the resulting lava flow following the previous flows into the sea.

 

As of 26 October 2021, the lava that has flowed from the volcano (on 26 October estimated to be 215 million cubic metres) has destroyed or affected over 2,100 buildings, over 66 kilometres (41 mi) of roads and covered an area of over 900 hectares (2,200 acres), with volcanic ash fall covering over 5,500 hectares (14,000 acres) within the limits of the monitored area, according to estimates from visual and radar satellite data by the Copernicus EMS.

 

On 27 October, the volcano emitted at least 50,000 tons of sulphur dioxide gas. This caused the authorities to advise the public to close the windows of their homes and remain indoors.

 

On 28 October, at least 8 earthquakes over a magnitude 4 were felt in La Palma.

 

On 29 October, the lava flows had covered a total of around 900 hectares and a total number of 7000 people had been evacuated from the surrounding area.[81]

 

On 30 October, a magnitude 5 earthquake occurred, again under Mazo. The area covered by lava flows had increased to around 963 hectares.

 

On 31 October, a second magnitude 5 earthquake occurred and it was reported that more would be expected. The area covered by lava flows had increased to at least 1000 hectares. It was also reported that all hotels, hostels, guest-houses, etc. at La Palma were fully booked on account of the large number of tourists travelling there wanting to see the volcano.

 

On 10 November, a second lava flow reached the sea.

 

On 14 November, a 72-year-old man died from injuries sustained when the roof of his house collapsed while he was clearing ash off it. His death was the first associated with the eruption.

 

On 15 November, a third lava flow reached the sea increasing the island area by a further 40 hectares. Volcanic activity had lessened although the local air quality was still serious.

 

On 20 November, the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) was upgraded from VEI 2 to VEI 3, when the ejected pyroclastic material reached 10 million m³. It was expressly emphasized that the upgrade does not mean an increased risk, since the activity of the volcanic eruption had not increased.

 

On 25 November, a new fissure opened to the south of the original cone, spewing lava which was less viscous and flowed faster.

 

On 28 November, at 03:00 local time (02:00 UTC), a new fissure opened at the foot of the northeastern flank of the main cone, spewing lava and pyroclastic ash.

 

The eruption on 4 December

 

On 12 December, the volcanic eruption broke the local record, when it reached 85 days of continuous activity. The eruption is considered to be the longest known eruption of a volcano on La Palma. Previously, the eruption of the Tajuya Volcano in 1585 was the longest at 84 days. No reliable data is available about previous volcanic eruptions.

 

On 13 December, the volcano released large amounts of toxic sulphur dioxide gas. As a result, the authorities ordered 30,000 residents of three municipalities to remain indoors. On the same day, the volcanic eruption ceased.

 

On 25 December, the eruption was declared to have ended after three months.

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/27538420

Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).

Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..

Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/12381205

Ethel Barrymore

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ethel Barrymore

 

Ethel Barrymore, 1896,

BornEthel Mae Blythe

August 15, 1879

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.

DiedJune 18, 1959 (aged 79)

Los Angeles, California, U.S.

OccupationActress

Years active1895–1957

SpouseRussel Griswold Colt (m. 1909–1923) (divorced) 3 children

Ethel Barrymore (August 15, 1879 – June 18, 1959) was an American actress and a member of the Barrymore family of actors.[1]

 

Contents [hide]

1 Early life

2 Career

3 Private life

4 Death

5 Filmography

6 See also

7 References

8 External links

[edit]Early life

 

Ethel Barrymore was born Ethel Mae Blythe in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the second child of the actors Maurice Barrymore (whose real name was Herbert Blythe) and Georgiana Drew. Named after her father’s favorite character—Ethel in William Makepeace Thackeray’s The Newcomes—she was one of the twentieth century’s most elegant, beautiful and gifted actresses.

 

She was the sister of actors John Barrymore and Lionel Barrymore, the aunt of actor John Drew Barrymore, and the great-aunt of actress Drew Barrymore. She was also the niece of Broadway matinée idol John Drew Jr and early Vitagraph movie star Sidney Drew.

 

She spent her childhood in Philadelphia, and attended Roman Catholic schools there.

 

[edit]Career

 

Ethel Barrymore was a highly regarded stage actress in New York City and a major Broadway performer. Many today consider her to be the greatest actress of her generation.

 

Her first appearance in Broadway was in 1895, in a play called The Imprudent Young Couple which starred her uncle John Drew, Jr. and Maude Adams. She appeared with Drew and Adams again in 1896 in Rosemary.

 

In 1897 Ethel went with William Gillette to London to play Miss Kittridge in Gillette's Secret Service. The play, Gillette’s greatest work, was a huge success, but Ethel remained pretty much beneath everyone's radar scopes until one night when the leading actress, Odette Taylor, became ill and went home, still dressed in her costume. Ethel was standing in the wings in her nurse’s costume when the theater manager told her she would have to replace Taylor, dressed as she was. Ethel protested that she didn’t know Ms. Taylor’s part, but she went out in her nurse’s uniform and carried the show. It was a splendid performance, and she was noticed.

 

She was about to return to the States with Gillette's troupe when Henry Irving and Ellen Terry offered her the role of Annette in The Bells. A full London tour was on and, before it was over, Ethel created, on New Years Day 1898, Euphrosine in Peter the Great at the Lyceum, the play having been written by Irving's son, Laurence. Men everywhere were smitten with Ethel, most notably young Winston Churchill, who asked her to marry him. Not wishing to be a politician's wife, she refused. Winston, several years later, married Clementine Hozier, a ravishing beauty who looked very much like Ethel, but Winston and Ethel remained friends until the end of her life. Their “romance” was their own little secret until his son let the cat out of the bag 63 years after it happened.[2]

 

After her big season in London, Ethel returned to America. Charles Frohman cast her first in Catherine and then as Stella de Grex in His Excellency the Governor. After that, Frohman finally gave Ethel the role that would make her a star: Madame Trentoni in Captain Jinks of the Horse Marines, which opened at the Garrick Theatre on February 4, 1901. When the tour concluded in Boston in June, she had out-drawn two of the most prominent actresses of her day, Mrs. Patrick Campbell and Minnie Maddern Fiske.

 

Following her triumph in Captain Jinks, Ethel gave sterling performances in many top-rate productions, and it was in Sunday that she uttered what would be her most famous line, "That's all there is, there isn't any more."[3]

 

Ethel portrayed Nora in A Doll's House by Ibsen (1905), and Juliet in Romeo and Juliet by Shakespeare (1922).

   

Barrymore playing the male character Carrots in a play of the same name, 1902

  

Ethel Barrymore in 1901 in one of the famous dresses from Captain Jinks of the Horse Marines

She was also a strong supporter of the Actors' Equity Association and had a high-profile role in the 1919 strike. In 1926, she scored one of her greatest successes as the sophisticated spouse of a philandering husband in W. Somerset Maugham's comedy, The Constant Wife. She starred in Rasputin and the Empress (1932), with John and Lionel Barrymore, playing the Czarina married to Czar Nicholas. In July 1934, she starred in the play Laura Garnett, by Leslie and Sewell Stokes, at Dobbs Ferry, New York State.

 

After she became a stage star, she would often dismiss adoring audiences who kept demanding curtain calls by saying "That's all there is - there isn't any more!" This became a popular catch phrase in the 1920s and 1930s. Many references to it can be found in the media of the period, including the Laurel and Hardy 1933 film Sons of the Desert, and Arthur Train's 1930 Wall Street Crash novel Paper Profits.

 

Barrymore was a baseball and boxing fan. Her admiration for boxing ended when she witnessed as a spectator the brutality of the July 4, 1919, Dempsey/Willard fight in which Dempsey broke Willard's jaw and knocked out several of his teeth. Ethel vowed never to attend another boxing match though she would later watch boxing on television.

 

She appeared in her first motion picture, The Nightingale, in 1914. Members of her family were already in pictures; uncle Sidney and Lionel had entered films in 1911 and John made his first feature in 1913. She made 15 silent pictures between 1914 and 1919 most of them for the old Metro studio. Most of these pictures were made on the East Coast, as her Broadway career and children came first. All of her silent films are lost with the exception of The Awakening of Helena Ritchie (1916) which survives incomplete at the Library of Congress and The Call of Her People(1917) held at George Eastman House, Rochester.[4][5] In the 1940s, she moved to Hollywood, California. The only two films that featured all three siblings—Ethel, John and Lionel—were National Red Cross Pageant (1917) and Rasputin and the Empress (1932). The former film is now lost.

 

She won the Oscar for Best Supporting Actress for her role in the 1944 film None but the Lonely Heart opposite Cary Grant, but made plain that she was not overly impressed by it. On March 22, 2007, her Oscar was offered for sale on eBay.

 

She appeared in The Spiral Staircase (1946) directed by Robert Siodmak, The Paradine Case (1947) directed by Alfred Hitchcock, and Portrait of Jennie (1948), among others. Her last film appearance was in Johnny Trouble (1957). She also made a number of television appearances in the 1950s, including one memorable encounter with comedian Jimmy Durante on NBC's All Star Revue on December 1, 1951 (preserved on a kinescope).

 

In 1949, Barrymore appeared in the Academy Award winning film Pinky for which she was awarded an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress.

 

[edit]Private life

   

Ethel Barrymore by Carl Van Vechten (December 12, 1937)

  

Ethel Barrymore, husband Russell Griswold Colt and their three children, circa 1914.

Winston Churchill was among the closest of many of Barrymore's dear friends. Some have claimed Churchill proposed to her in 1900; however, Barrymore mentions no such thing in her autobiography, Memories. She had, at the age of 19, while on tour in England, been rumored to be engaged to the Duke of Manchester, actor Gerald Du Maurier, writer Richard Harding Davis and the aforementioned Churchill.[6]

 

Ethel Barrymore married Russell Griswold Colt (1882–1959), grandnephew of American arms maker Samuel Colt (1814–1862), on March 14, 1909. The couple had been introduced, according to Barrymore's autobiography, when Colt had strolled by the table where she was having lunch with her uncle, actor John (Jack) Drew, in Sherry's Restaurant in New York.[7] A New York Times article of 1911, when Barrymore first took preliminary divorce measures against Colt, states that Colt had been introduced to Barrymore by her brother John Barrymore while Colt was still a student at Yale.[8] The couple had three children: actress/singer Ethel Barrymore Colt (1912–1977), who appeared on Broadway in Stephen Sondheim's Follies; Samuel Colt (1909–1986); and John Drew Colt (1913–1975).

 

Barrymore's marriage to Colt was a precarious one from the start, with Barrymore filing divorce papers as early in the marriage as 1911, much to Colt's surprise. At least one source claims that Colt abused her and also that he fathered a child with another woman while married to Barrymore. They divorced in 1923 and, quite surprisingly, she did not seek alimony from Colt, which was her right.

 

Ethel Barrymore never remarried. She had platonic relationships with other men, most notably actors Henry Daniell and Louis Calhern.

 

[edit]Death

 

Ethel Barrymore died of cardiovascular disease in 1959, at her home in Hollywood, California, after having lived for many years with a heart condition. She was two months shy of her 80th birthday. She was entombed at Calvary Cemetery. The Ethel Barrymore Theatre in New York City is named after her

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

United States

Builder: New York Shipbuilding Corporation

Laid down: 1 May 1941

Launched: 22 August 1942

Commissioned: 14 January 1943

Decommissioned: 28 August 1946

Fate: Target in nuclear weapons testing, 1946; scuttled 1951

General characteristics

Class and type: Independence-class aircraft carrier

Displacement:

 

10,662 tons standard,

14,751 tons loaded

 

Length: 623 ft (190 m)

Beam:

 

71.5 ft (21.8 m) (waterline)

109.2 ft (33.3 m) (extreme)

 

Draught: 24.3 ft (7.4 m)

Draft: 26 ft (7.9 m)

Propulsion: General Electric turbines, 4 shafts, 4 boilers; 100,000 shp

Speed: 31 knots (57 km/h)

Range: 13,000 nautical miles (24,000 km) at 15 knots (28 km/h)

Complement: 1,569 officers and men (inc. air group)

Armament: 26 × Bofors 40 mm guns

Aircraft carried:

 

original plan was 30;

9 dive bombers

9 torpedo-bombers

12 fighters; for most of war operated 33–34, 24–26 fighters and 8–9 torpedo bombers.

 

The fourth USS Independence (CVL-22) (also CV-22) was a United States Navy light aircraft carrier, lead ship of her class and served during the Second World War.

 

Converted from the hull of a cruiser, she was built by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation and commissioned in January 1943. She took part in the attacks on Rabaul and Tarawa before being torpedoed by Japanese planes, having to be repaired and refitted in San Francisco from January to July 1944.

 

After repairs, she launched many strikes against targets in Luzon and Okinawa. Independence was part of the carrier group that sank the remnants of the Japanese Mobile Fleet in the Battle of Leyte Gulf and several other Japanese ships in the Surigao Strait. Until the surrender of Japan, she was assigned to strike duties against targets in the Philippines and Japan. She would finish her operational duty off the coast of Japan supporting occupation forces until being assigned to return American veterans back to the United States as part of Operation Magic Carpet.

 

Independence was later used for testing during Operation Crossroads. After being transported back to Pearl Harbor and San Francisco for study, she was later sunk near the Farallon Islands.

 

Construction and deployment

 

Begun as light cruiser Amsterdam, CL-59, she was launched as CV-22 on 22 August 1942 by New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Camden, New Jersey, sponsored by Mrs. Dorothy Warner, wife of Rawleigh Warner, Sr, Chairman of Pure Oil Co., and commissioned 14 January 1943, Captain G. R. Fairlamb, Jr., in command.

 

The first of a new class of carriers converted from cruiser hulls, Independence conducted shakedown training in the Caribbean. She then steamed through the Panama Canal to join the Pacific Fleet, arriving San Francisco 3 July 1943. Independence got underway for Pearl Harbor 14 July, and after 2 weeks of training exercises sailed with carriers Essex and Yorktown for a raid on Marcus Island.[1][2] Planes from the carrier force struck on 1 September and destroyed over 70 percent of the installations on the island. The carrier began her next operation, a similar strike against Wake Island 5 to 6 October as CVL-22, having been redesignated 15 July 1943.[1][2]

Rabaul and Gilbert Islands strikes

 

Independence sailed from Pearl Harbor for Espiritu Santo 21 October, and, during an ensuing carrier attack on Rabaul[2] 11 November, the ship's gunners scored their first success – six Japanese planes shot down. After this operation, the carrier refueled at Espiritu Santo and headed for the Gilberts and conducted prelanding strikes on Tarawa 18 to 20 November 1943. During a Japanese counterattack 20 November, Independence was attacked by a group of planes low on the water. Six were shot down, but the planes managed to launch at least five torpedoes one of which scored a hit on the carrier's starboard quarter. Seriously damaged, the ship steamed to Funafuti 23 November for repairs. With the Gilberts operation, first step on the mid-Pacific road to Japan, underway, Independence returned to San Francisco 2 January 1944 for more permanent repairs.

Refitting and training for night operations

 

The now-veteran carrier returned to Pearl Harbor 3 July 1944. During her repair period, the ship had been fitted with an additional catapult, and upon her arrival in Hawaiian waters, Independence began training for night carrier operations. She continued this pioneering work 24 to 29 August out of Eniwetok. The ship sailed with a large task group 29 August to take part in the Palau operation and the Battle of Peleliu, aimed at securing bases for the final assault on the Philippines in October. Independence provided night reconnaissance and night combat air patrol for Task Force 38 during this operation.

Philippines

 

In September the fast carrier task force regularly pounded the Philippines in preparation for the invasion. When no Japanese counterattacks developed in this period, Independence shifted to regular daytime operations, striking targets on Luzon. After replenishment at Ulithi in early October, the great force sortied 6 October for Okinawa. In the days that followed the carriers struck Okinawa, Formosa, and the Philippines. Japanese air counterattacks were repulsed, with Independence providing day strike groups in addition to night fighters and reconnaissance aircraft for defensive protection.

 

As the carrier groups steamed east of the Philippines 23 October, it became apparent, as Admiral Carney later recalled, that "something on a grand scale was underfoot." And indeed it was, as the Japanese fleet moved in a three-pronged effort to turn back the American beachhead on Leyte Gulf. Planes from Independence's Task Group 38.2, under Rear Admiral Bogan, spotted Kurita's striking force in the Sibuyan Sea 24 October and the carriers launched a series of attacks. Planes from Independence and other ships sank the battleship Musashi and disabled a cruiser.

 

That evening Admiral Halsey made the decision to turn Task Force 38 northward in search of Admiral Ozawa's carrier group. Independence's night search planes made contact and shadowed the Japanese ships until dawn 26 October, when the carriers launched an attack. In this second part of the great Battle for Leyte Gulf, all four Japanese carriers were sunk. Meanwhile, American heavy ships had won a victory in Surigao Strait; and a light carrier force had outfought the remainder of Kurita's ships in the Battle off Samar; Independence also assisted TF38 in the destruction of Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa's diversion fleet off Cape Engaño. After the battle, which virtually spelled the end of the Japanese Navy as a major threat, Independence continued to provide search planes and night fighter protection for TF 38 in strikes on the Philippines.

 

Independence returned to Ulithi for long-delayed rest and replenishment 9 to 14 November, but soon got underway to operate off the Philippines on night attacks and defensive operations. This phase continued until 30 December 1944, when the task force sortied from Ulithi once more and moved northward. From 3 to 9 January 1945 the carriers supported the Lingayen landings on Luzon, after which Halsey took his fleet on a foray into the South China Sea. In the days that followed the aircraft struck at air bases on Formosa and on the coasts of Indo-China and China. These operations in support of the Philippines campaign marked the end of the carrier's night operations, and she sailed 30 January 1945 for repairs at Pearl Harbor.

Okinawa

 

Independence returned to Ulithi 13 March 1945 and got underway next day for operations against Okinawa. She carried out pre-invasion strikes 30 to 31 March, and after the assault 1 April remained off the island supplying CAP and strike aircraft. Her planes shot down numerous enemy planes during the desperate Japanese attacks on the invasion force. Independence remained off Okinawa until 10 June when she sailed for Leyte.

 

During July and August the carrier took part in the final carrier strikes against Japan itself. After the end of the war 15 August, Independence aircraft continued surveillance flights over the mainland locating prisoner of war camps and covered the landings of Allied occupation troops. The ship departed Tokyo 22 September 1945, arriving at San Francisco via Saipan and Guam 31 October.

Operation Crossroads and fate

USS Independence Able test damage aft port quarter (note two sailors on the aft deck)

USS Independence is on fire aft following the Operation Crossroads shot Able atomic bomb test, 1 July 1946

 

Independence joined the Operation Magic Carpet fleet beginning 15 November 1945, transporting veterans back to the United States until arriving at San Francisco once more 28 January 1946. Assigned as a target vessel for the Operation Crossroads atomic bomb tests, she was placed within one-half-mile of ground zero for the 1 July explosion. The veteran ship did not sink, however (though her funnels and island were crumpled by the blast), and after taking part in another explosion on 25 July, was taken to Kwajalein and decommissioned 28 August 1946. The highly radioactive hull was later taken to Pearl Harbor and San Francisco for further tests and was finally scuttled near the Farallon Islands off the coast of California on 29 January 1951. Controversy has subsequently arisen about the sinking of Independence, as it is claimed that she was loaded with barrels of radioactive waste at the time of her sinking, and that the waste has subsequently contaminated the wildlife refuge and commercial fisheries associated with the Farallon Islands.[3] However, in 2015, it was considered that 'any public health risk was small', as might be expected after this period of time.[4]

Wreck

 

In 2009 the position of the wreck of Independence in 2,600 feet (790 m) of water in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary off the Farallon Islands at approximately 37°30′00″N 123°05′00″W was confirmed. In March 2015, scientists and technicians of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) embarked aboard the sanctuary vessel R/V Fulmar used the autonomous underwater vehicle Echo Ranger to make a survey of the wreck, employing the Echoscope three-dimensional imaging sonar to make a series of images of it. The wreck is resting upright with a slight list to starboard and most of the flight deck intact, although there are gaping holes in the flight deck leading to the hangar deck below it. What appears to be an airplane on the hangar deck is visible through the forward aircraft elevator hatch. No signs of radioactive contamination were detected, and a NOAA spokesman described the wreck as "amazingly intact."[5][6]

Honors and awards

 

Independence received eight battle stars for World War II service.

Tarzan / Heft-Reihe

> Tarzan's Animal Encyclopedia /

The Bharal, Tree-Hyrax, Star-Nosed Mole, Golden Lion Marmoset

(art: Morris Waldinger, Tom Nicolosi)

DC Comics / USA 1973

ex libris MTP

www.comics.org/issue/26294/?

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14470918

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  

De pupil is de opening van het midden van de iris in het oog.

Door de pupil is de donkere binnenkant van het oog te zien, daardoor lijkt de pupil zwart. De pupil zit achter het hoornvlies en voor het glasachtig lichaam.

De iris zorgt ervoor dat de pupil groter of kleiner wordt, onder invloed van lichtsterkte en psychologische invloeden: Bij veel licht wordt de pupil kleiner, terwijl ze in het donker groter wordt.

Ook geneesmiddelen zoals atropine en verdovende middelen kunnen de pupilafmeting beïnvloeden. Bovendien veranderen de pupillen ook bij emoties (groter) of bij kijken op korte afstand (kleiner). Bij pediatrisch oogonderzoek wordt cyclopentolaat gebruikt om de pupil te vergroten.

Na gebruik van dergelijke middelen, kan de patiënt heel lichtgevoelig zijn omdat de wijde pupil te veel licht doorlaat. Daarom wordt het tijdelijk (enkele uren) dragen van een zonnebril aangeraden.

 

Psychologisch effect

 

Ziet iemand iets wat hij leuk of mooi vindt, dan worden zijn pupillen onbewust wijder ('hij zet grote ogen op'). De pupil kan daarbij zelfs als leugendetector dienen: iemand die op dieet is kan zichzelf wijsmaken dat hij een hekel heeft aan slagroomtaarten, en daar op den duur zelf in gaan geloven (fabuleren). Zijn pupillen vertellen echter iets anders.

Iemand die wijde pupillen heeft, wordt vaak aardiger gevonden, hoewel men de wijde pupillen niet bewust opmerkt.

 

Er is een onderzoek waarbij men een proefpersoon twee foto's van een meisje laat zien. Hij moet kiezen welke foto hij het leukst vindt. De proefpersoon zal aanvankelijk het antwoord weigeren, want de foto's lijken volkomen identiek. Daar neemt de vraagsteller geen genoegen mee, er moet een foto gekozen worden. Dus kiest de proefpersoon een van de foto's. Nu blijkt dat de foto geretoucheerd is: het meisje op de leukste foto heeft wijdere pupillen.

Kennelijk heeft de proefpersoon de volgende gedachte: "Dat meisje heeft wijde pupillen als ze mij ziet. Kennelijk vindt ze mij aardig. Dan vind ik haar ook aardig." Deze gedachte is echter volkomen onbewust.

In de oudheid was dit verschijnsel al bekend, en vrouwen gebruikten vroeger het pupilverwijdende atropine, dat gewonnen werd uit de wolfskers, als cosmetisch middel. Dat verklaart ook de wetenschappelijke naam van de wolfskers: belladonna.

 

The pupil is a hole located in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the retina. It appears black because most of the light entering the pupil is absorbed by the tissues inside the eye. In humans the pupil is round, but other species, such as some cats, have slit pupils. In optical terms, the anatomical pupil is the eye's aperture and the iris is the aperture stop. The image of the pupil as seen from outside the eye is the entrance pupil, which does not exactly correspond to the location and size of the physical pupil because it is magnified by the cornea. On the inner edge lies a prominent structure, the collarette, marking the junction of the embryonic pupillary membrane covering the embryonic pupil.

 

Control

 

The iris is a contractile structure, consisting mainly of [smooth muscle], surrounding the pupil. Light enters the eye through the pupil, and the iris regulates the amount of light by controlling the size of the pupil. In humans the pupil is round, but other species, such as some cats, have slit pupils.[2] The iris contains two groups of smooth muscles; a circular group called the sphincter pupillae, and a radial group called the dilator pupillae. When the sphincter pupillae contract, the iris decreases or constricts the size of the pupil. The dilator pupillae, innervated by sympathetic nerves from the superior cervical ganglion, cause the pupil to dilate when they contract. These muscles are sometimes referred to as intrinsic eye muscles. The sensory pathway (rod or cone, bipolar, ganglion) is linked with its counterpart in the other eye by a partial crossover of each eye's fibers. This causes the effect in one eye to carry over to the other. If the drug pilocarpine is administered, the pupils will constrict and accommodation is increased due to the parasympathetic action on the circular muscle fibers, conversely, atropine will cause paraylsis of accommodation (cycloplegia) and dilation of the pupil. The sympathetic nerve system can dilate the pupil in two ways: by the stimulation of the sympathetic nerve in the neck, or by influx of adrenaline.

 

Optic effects

 

When bright light is shone on the eye light sensitive cells in the retina, including rod and cone photoreceptors and melanopsin ganglion cells, will send signals to the oculomotor nerve, specifically the parasympathetic part coming from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus, which terminates on the circular iris sphincter muscle. When this muscle contracts, it reduces the size of the pupil. This is the pupillary light reflex, which is an important test of brainstem function. Furthermore, the pupil will dilate if a person sees an object of interest.

The pupil gets wider in the dark but narrower in light. When narrow, the diameter is 3 to 4 millimeters. In the dark it will be the same at first, but will approach the maximum distance for a wide pupil 4 to 9 mm. In any human age group there is however considerable variation in maximal pupil size. For example, at the peak age of 15, the dark-adapted pupil can vary from 4 mm to 9 mm with different individuals. After 25 years of age the average pupil size decreases, though not at a steady rate. At this stage the pupils do not remain completely still, therefore may lead to oscillation, which may intensify and become known as hippus. When only one eye is stimulated, both eyes contract equally. The constriction of the pupil and near vision are closely tied. In bright light, the pupils constrict to prevent aberrations of light rays and thus attain their expected acuity; in the dark this is not necessary, so it is chiefly concerned with admitting sufficient light into the eye.

A condition called bene dilitatism occurs when the optic nerves are partially damaged. This condition is typified by chronically widened pupils due to the decreased ability of the optic nerves to respond to light. In normal lighting, people afflicted with this condition normally have dilated pupils, and bright lighting can cause pain. At the other end of the spectrum, people with this condition have trouble seeing in darkness. It is necessary for these people to be especially careful when driving at night due to their inability to see objects in their full perspective. This condition is not otherwise dangerous.

 

Psychological effects

 

The pupil dilates in response to extreme emotional situations such as fear, or to contact of a sensory nerve, such as pain. Task-evoked pupillary response is the tendency of pupils to dilate slightly in response to loads on working memory, increased attention, sensory discrimination, or other cognitive loads.

Facial expressions of sadness with small pupils are judged significantly more intensely sad with decreasing pupil size though people are unaware of pupil size affecting their judgment. A person's own pupil size also mirrors this with them being smaller when viewing sad faces with small pupils. There is no parallel effect when people look at neutral, happy or angry expressions. Brain areas involved in this include those processing social signals in the amygdala, and areas involved in the mirror neuron system such as the left frontal operculum. The degree of empathetic contagion activated the brainstem pupillary control Edinger-Westphal nucleus in proportion to a person's pupil size change response to that in another. The greater degree to which a person's pupil dilation mirrors another person's coincides with that person having a greater empathy score.

 

Effect of drugs

 

The sphincter muscle has a parasympathetic innervation, and the dilator has a sympathetic innervation. In pupillary constriction induced by pilocarpine, not only is the sphincter nerve supply activated but that of the dilator is inhibited. The reverse is true, so control of pupil size is controlled by differences in contraction intensity of each muscle.

Certain drugs cause constriction of the pupils, such as alcohol and opioids. Other drugs, such as atropine, LSD, MDMA, mescaline, psilocybin mushrooms, cocaine and amphetamines may cause pupil dilation.

Another term for the constriction of the pupil is miosis. Substances that cause miosis are described as miotic. Dilation of the pupil is mydriasis. Dilation can be caused by mydriatic substances such as an eye drop solution containing tropicamide.

A text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:

The Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia) (ex-Athene cunicularia) is a small, long-legged owl found throughout open landscapes of North and South America. Burrowing owls can be found in grasslands, rangelands, agricultural areas, deserts, or any other dry, open area with low vegetation (Lewis 2005). They nest and roost in burrows, such as those abandoned by prairie dogs. Unlike most owls, burrowing owls are often active during the day. However, most hunting is done at dusk or at night.

Burrowing owls are able to live for at least 9 years in the wild and over 10 years in captivity.[citation needed] They are often killed by vehicles when crossing roads, and have many natural enemies, including badgers, coyotes, and snakes. They are also killed by both feral and domestic cats and dogs.

Burrowing owls have bright yellow eyes. The bill can be yellow or greenish depending on the subspecies. The legs are incompletely feathered, and the toes are grayish in color. They lack ear tufts and have a flattened facial disc. The owls have prominent white eyebrows and a white "chin" patch which they expand and display during certain behaviors.

Adult owls have brown upperparts with white spotting. The breast and belly are white with variable brown spotting or barring. Juvenile owls are similar in appearance, but they lack most of the white spotting above and brown barring below. Also, the young owls have a buff bar across the upper wing and their breast may be buffy rather than white.

Males and females are similar in size and appearance. However, adult males sometimes appear lighter in color because they spend more time outside the burrow during daylight, and their feathers become sun-bleached. The average adult is slightly larger than an American Robin, at 25 cm (10 inches) length, 53 cm (21 inches) wingspan, and 170g (6 oz) weight (Lewis 2005).

The typical "who who" call of a burrowing owl is associated with territory defense and breeding, often given by adult males to attract a female to a promising burrow. They also make other sounds, which are described as chucks, chattering, and screams. These sounds are usually accompanied by an up and down bobbing of the head. When alarmed, young birds will give a hissing call - a case of acoustic Batesian mimicry - that sounds like a rattlesnake (Haug et al. 1993).

Before European colonization, burrowing owls probably inhabited every suitable area of the New World, but they have experienced some restrictions in distribution since. They range from the southern portions of the western Canadian provinces through southern Mexico and western Central America. They are also found in Florida and many Caribbean islands. In South America, they are patchy in the northwest and through the Andes, but widely distributed from southern Brazil to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.

Burrowing owls are year-round residents in most of their range. Birds that breed in Canada and northern USA usually migrate south to Mexico and southern USA during winter months.

The burrowing owl is endangered in Canada[1], threatened in Mexico, and a species of special concern in Florida and most of the western USA. It is common and widespread in open regions of many Neotropical countries, where they sometimes even inhabit fields and parks in cities. In regions bordering the Amazon Rainforest they are spreading with deforestation. It is therefore listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.

The major reasons for declining populations in North America are control programs for prairie dogs and loss of habitat, although burrowing owls readily inhabit some anthropogenic landscapes, such as airport grasslands or golf courses (Korfanta et al. 2005).

Burrowing owls are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. They are also included in CITES Appendix II.

Genetic analysis of the two North American subspecies indicates that inbreeding is not a problem within those populations (Korfanta et al. 2005).

The nesting season begins in late March or April in North America. Burrowing owls are usually monogamous, but occasionally a male will have two mates (Lewis 2005). Pairs of owls will sometimes nest in loose colonies. Their typical breeding habitat is open grassland or prairie, but they can occasionally adapt to other open areas like airports, golf courses, and agricultural fields. Burrowing owls are slightly tolerant of human presence, often nesting near roads, farms, homes, and regularly maintained irrigation canals.

The owls nest in an underground burrow, hence the name Burrowing Owl. They use burrows created by other burrowing animals such as prairie dogs, ground squirrels, or badgers (Holt et al. 1999). If burrows are unavailable and the soil is not hard or rocky, the owls may excavate their own. Burrowing owls will also nest in shallow, underground, man-made structures that have easy access to the surface.

The female will lay as many as 8-12 eggs over a two week period. She will then incubate the eggs for three to four weeks while the male brings her food. After the eggs hatch both parents will feed the chicks. Four weeks after hatching, the chicks are able to make short flights and begin leaving the nest burrow. The parents will still help feed the chicks for 1 to 3 months. While most of the eggs will hatch, only four to five chicks usually survive to leave the nest.

During the nesting season, burrowing owls will line the burrow with mammal dung, usually from cattle. The dung helps to control the microclimate inside the burrow and to attract insects, which the owls may eat (Levey et al. 2004).

Site fidelity rates appear to vary among populations. In some locations, owls will frequently reuse a nest several years in a row. Owls in migratory northern populations are less likely to return to the same burrow every year. Also, as with many other birds, the female owls are more likely to disperse to a different site than are male owls (Lutz & Plumpton 1999).

The highly variable diet includes small mammals, small birds, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, and scorpions. But the owls mainly eat large insects and small rodents. Although burrowing owls often live in close proximity to ground squirrels, they rarely prey upon them. Unlike other owls, they also eat fruits and seeds, especially the fruit of tasajillo (Cylindropuntia leptocaulis) and other prickly pear and cholla cacti. When hunting they wait on a perch until they spot prey. Then they swoop down on prey or fly up to catch insects in flight. Sometimes they chase prey on foot across the ground.

The burrowing owl is sometimes separated in the monotypic genus Speotyto. This is based on an overall different morphology and karyotype. On the other hand, osteology and DNA sequence data suggests that the Burrowing Owl is just a terrestrial version of the Athene little owls, and it is today placed in that genus by most authorities.

A considerable number of subspecies have been described, but they differ little in appearance and the taxonomy of several needs to be validated (Holt et al. 1999). Most subspecies are found in the Andes and the Antilles. Only A. c. hypugaea and A. c. floridana are found in North America. Although distinct from each other, the relationship of the Floridan subspecies to (and its distinctness from) the Caribbean birds is not quite clear (Korfanta et al. 2005).

Um texto em português:

Coruja-buraqueira (Speotyto cunicularia).

Veja um vídeo clicando no endereço a seguir:

br.youtube.com/watch?v=BhCP0YqJDnY

Ficha Técnica

Nome comum: coruja-buraqueira, coruja-martelo, coruja-do-campo, caburé-de-cupim, caburé-do-campo, coruja-barata, coruja-buraqueira, coruja-do-campo, coruja-mineira, corujinha-buraqueira, corujinha-do-buraco, corujinha-do-campo, guedé, urucuera, urucuréia e urucuriá.

Nome científico: Speotyto cunicularia

Reino: Animal

Filo: Vertebrado

Classe: Aves

Ordem: Strigiformes

Família: Strigidae

Ave muito interessante e com características peculiares é tida pelo povo grego como a ave da sabedoria. Outros povos porém, acham que causa azar e arrepios seu canto quando rasga o silêncio noturno. Dizem ainda que é sinal de mal agouro e que o seu canto está pressagiando alguma tragédia, o que é pura crendice popular, pois o que se sabe é que as corujas são muito úteis ao homem predando pragas nas lavouras e controlando a população de ratos ao redor das cidades e no campo.

Pode girar seu pecoço em 270º

Características:

A coruja-buraqueira é muito comum pelos campos do Brasil.

Mede em torno de 20-30 cm com envergadura de 50-61cm e pesando em média 170g.

Com peito branco e plumagem amarelada o macho é ligeiramente maior que a fêmea, possuem cabeça arredondada e são aves muito tímidas.

Com olhos grandes e amarelos, a coruja-buraqueira tem a visão 100 vezes mais aguçada que a do homem e seus olhos estão dispostos frontalmente, como os do ser humano.

Quando necessita olhar algum objeto ao seu redor gira o pescoço em um ângulo de até 270 graus, aumentando assim o seu campo visual.

Essa disposição frontal, proporciona à coruja uma visão binocular (enxerga um objeto com ambos os olhos e ao mesmo tempo), isso significa que a coruja pode ver objetos em três dimensões, ou seja, altura, largura e profundidade.

Pode julgar distâncias similares ao ser humano e seu campo visual é de 110 graus, sendo 70 graus de visão binocular.

Os olhos da coruja-buraqueira são bem grandes, em algumas espécies de corujas até maiores que o próprio cérebro, a fim de melhorar sua eficiência em condições de baixa luminosidade, captando e processando melhor a luz disponível.

Além de sua privilegiada visão, a coruja-buraqueira é dona de uma audição potentíssima, conseguindo localizar e abater sua presa com apenas este sentido.

Abate preferencialmente pequenos roedores, insetos, anfíbios e pássaros. A coruja é uma ave de rapina, portanto mata para se alimentar. A tradução da palavra rapina é "roubo", o que caracteriza o fato de tais aves retirarem a vida de suas presas.

Rapineira e atenta à tudo

A coruja como a grande maioria dos animais possue território de caça. São ""equipadas "" com adaptações especiais que as tornam predadoras eficientes, sendo uma delas o vôo.

Sempre muito silenciosa e sorrateira, isso devido às penas especiais de sua asa, muito macias e em grande quantidade, conseguem cortar o ar e planar por muito tempo sendo muito discretas e imperceptíveis às suas presas.

A observação das presas se dá no alto de árvores ou em mourões de cercas nos pastos e até durante o vôo silencioso, quando fazem uma varredura na área de caça. Quando um alvo é avistado a coruja voa silenciosamente até ele, mantendo sua cabeça em linha reta ao alvo, quando então a joga para trás e empurra suas garras para frente a fim de prender seguramente sua presa. A força do impacto é violenta e certeira não dando chances à presa. Posteriormente a vítima é morta pela pressão do bico, num processo de abatimento de presas no solo.

O período reprodutivo da coruja-buraqueira começa nos meses de março e abril, os ninhos são feitos no solo, aproveitando antigas tocas de tatus ou simplesmente promovem a abertura de novos ninhos, num trabalho revezado entre o casal.

Os ninhos são escavados com os pés e bicos, formando uma galeria horizontal de até 3 m de profundidade por 30cm-60cm de largura.

Em média botam de 6 a 12 ovos, que são incubados por 28 dias pela fêmea; fica por conta do macho proteger o ninho e procurar alimento para toda a prole.

Com 14 dias os filhotes já ficam empoleirados na saída da cova, aos 44 dias saem do ninho e com 60 dias estão caçando pequenos insetos.

Informações do site: www.cuestajardins.com.br/?id=149&codigo=426&PHPSE...

Steel engraving from The Encyclopaedia Britannica - 9th edition - 1876-1889.

 

Published by Adam and Charles Black, Edinburgh, for The Times Publications of London. 24 volumes red half leather, gilt spines and marbled endpapers and edges. About 20,000 pages 28cm x 22cm. .

Children's Encyclopedia, edited by Arthur Mee, and published in 10 volumes by the Educational Book Company, London. It was published from 1908 to 1964.

s472a 5551 EncLZ1961-5 Njemačka Zagreb MCMLXI Enciklopedija Leksikografskog zavoda Zagreb MCMLXI Encyclopedia of the Lexicographical Institute Izrada Zdenka Sertić DEUTSCHLAND GERMANY NJEMAČKA

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/4154457

Summer holiday 2014

In and around Berlin Germany

  

Berlin

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

Jump to: navigation, search

  

This article is about the capital of Germany. For other uses, see Berlin (disambiguation).

  

Berlin

 

State of Germany

Clockwise: Charlottenburg Palace, Fernsehturm Berlin, Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, Alte Nationalgalerie, Potsdamer Platz and Brandenburg Gate.

Clockwise: Charlottenburg Palace, Fernsehturm Berlin, Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, Alte Nationalgalerie, Potsdamer Platz and Brandenburg Gate.

 

Flag of Berlin

Flag Coat of arms of Berlin

Coat of arms

 

Location within European Union and Germany

Location within European Union and Germany

Coordinates: 52°31′N 13°23′ECoordinates: 52°31′N 13°23′E

 

Country

Germany

 

Government

  

• Governing Mayor

Michael Müller (SPD)

 

• Governing parties

SPD / CDU

 

• Votes in Bundesrat

4 (of 69)

 

Area

  

• City

891.85 km2 (344.35 sq mi)

 

Elevation

34 m (112 ft)

 

Population (December 2013)[1]

  

• City

3,517,424

 

• Density

3,900/km2 (10,000/sq mi)

 

Demonym

Berliner

 

Time zone

CET (UTC+1)

 

• Summer (DST)

CEST (UTC+2)

 

Postal code(s)

10115–14199

 

Area code(s)

030

 

ISO 3166 code

DE-BE

 

Vehicle registration

B[2]

 

GDP/ Nominal

€109.2 billion (2013) [3]

 

NUTS Region

DE3

 

Website

berlin.de

 

Berlin (/bərˈlɪn/; German pronunciation: [bɛɐ̯ˈliːn] ( listen)) is the capital of Germany and one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.5 million people,[4] Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union.[5] Located in northeastern Germany on the River Spree, it is the center of the Berlin-Brandenburg Metropolitan Region, which has about 4.5 million residents from over 180 nations.[6][7][8][9] Due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one third of the city's area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers and lakes.[10]

 

First documented in the 13th century, Berlin became the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1417), the Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1918), the German Empire (1871–1918), the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) and the Third Reich (1933–1945).[11] Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world.[12] After World War II, the city was divided; East Berlin became the capital of East Germany while West Berlin became a de facto West German exclave, surrounded by the Berlin Wall (1961–1989).[13] Following German reunification in 1990, the city was once more designated as the capital of all Germany, hosting 158 foreign embassies.[14]

 

Berlin is a world city of culture, politics, media, and science.[15][16][17][18] Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the service sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations, and convention venues.[19][20] Berlin serves as a continental hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination.[21] Significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction, and electronics.

 

Modern Berlin is home to renowned universities, orchestras, museums, entertainment venues, and is host to many sporting events.[22] Its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions.[23] The city is well known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts, and a high quality of living.[24] Over the last decade Berlin has seen the upcoming of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene.[25]

  

20th to 21st centuries[edit]

     

Street, Berlin (1913) by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner

After 1910 Berlin had become a fertile ground for the German Expressionist movement. In fields such as architecture, painting and cinema new forms of artistic styles were invented. At the end of World War I in 1918, a republic was proclaimed by Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building. In 1920, the Greater Berlin Act incorporated dozens of suburban cities, villages, and estates around Berlin into an expanded city. The act increased the area of Berlin from 66 to 883 km2 (25 to 341 sq mi). The population almost doubled and Berlin had a population of around four million. During the Weimar era, Berlin underwent political unrest due to economic uncertainties, but also became a renowned center of the Roaring Twenties. The metropolis experienced its heyday as a major world capital and was known for its leadership roles in science, the humanities, city planning, film, higher education, government, and industries. Albert Einstein rose to public prominence during his years in Berlin, being awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921.

     

Berlin in ruins after World War II (Potsdamer Platz, 1945).

In 1933, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power. NSDAP rule effectively destroyed Berlin's Jewish community, which had numbered 160,000, representing one-third of all Jews in the country. Berlin's Jewish population fell to about 80,000 as a result of emigration between 1933 and 1939. After Kristallnacht in 1938, thousands of the city's persecuted groups were imprisoned in the nearby Sachsenhausen concentration camp or, starting in early 1943, were shipped to death camps, such as Auschwitz.[39] During World War II, large parts of Berlin were destroyed in the 1943–45 air raids and during the Battle of Berlin. Around 125,000 civilians were killed.[40] After the end of the war in Europe in 1945, Berlin received large numbers of refugees from the Eastern provinces. The victorious powers divided the city into four sectors, analogous to the occupation zones into which Germany was divided. The sectors of the Western Allies (the United States, the United Kingdom and France) formed West Berlin, while the Soviet sector formed East Berlin.[41]

     

The Berlin Wall in 1986, painted on the western side. People crossing the so-called "death strip" on the eastern side were at risk of being shot.

All four Allies shared administrative responsibilities for Berlin. However, in 1948, when the Western Allies extended the currency reform in the Western zones of Germany to the three western sectors of Berlin, the Soviet Union imposed a blockade on the access routes to and from West Berlin, which lay entirely inside Soviet-controlled territory. The Berlin airlift, conducted by the three western Allies, overcame this blockade by supplying food and other supplies to the city from June 1948 to May 1949.[42] In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was founded in West Germany and eventually included all of the American, British, and French zones, excluding those three countries' zones in Berlin, while the Marxist-Leninist German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in East Germany. West Berlin officially remained an occupied city, but it politically was aligned with the Federal Republic of Germany despite West Berlin's geographic isolation. Airline service to West Berlin was granted only to American, British, and French airlines.

     

The fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989. On 3 October 1990, the German reunification process was formally finished.

The founding of the two German states increased Cold War tensions. West Berlin was surrounded by East German territory, and East Germany proclaimed the Eastern part as its capital, a move that was not recognized by the western powers. East Berlin included most of the historic center of the city. The West German government established itself in Bonn.[43] In 1961, East Germany began the building of the Berlin Wall between East and West Berlin, and events escalated to a tank standoff at Checkpoint Charlie. West Berlin was now de facto a part of West Germany with a unique legal status, while East Berlin was de facto a part of East Germany. John F. Kennedy gave his "Ich bin ein Berliner" – speech in 1963 underlining the US support for the Western part of the city. Berlin was completely divided. Although it was possible for Westerners to pass from one to the other side through strictly controlled checkpoints, for most Easterners travel to West Berlin or West Germany prohibited. In 1971, a Four-Power agreement guaranteed access to and from West Berlin by car or train through East Germany.[44]

 

In 1989, with the end of the Cold War and pressure from the East German population, the Berlin Wall fell on 9 November and was subsequently mostly demolished. Today, the East Side Gallery preserves a large portion of the Wall. On 3 October 1990, the two parts of Germany were reunified as the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin again became the official German capital. In 1991, the German Parliament, the Bundestag, voted to move the seat of the (West) German capital from Bonn to Berlin, which was completed in 1999. Berlin's 2001 administrative reform merged several districts. The number of boroughs was reduced from 23 to twelve. In 2006 the FIFA World Cup Final was held in Berlin.

  

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin

  

Alexanderplatz

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

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View over Alexanderplatz

    

Neighborhoods in Berlin-Mitte: Old Cölln [1] (with Museum Island [1a], Fisher Island [1b]), Altberlin [2] (with Nikolaiviertel [2a]), Friedrichswerder [3], Neukölln am Wasser [4], Dorotheenstadt [5], Friedrichstadt [6], Luisenstadt [7], Stralauer Vorstadt (with Königsstadt) [8], Alexanderplatz Area (Königsstadt and Altberlin) [9], Spandauer Vorstadt [10] (with Scheunenviertel [10a]), Friedrich-Wilhelm-Stadt [11], Oranienburger Vorstadt [12], Rosenthaler Vorstadt [13]

Alexanderplatz (pronounced [ʔalɛkˈsandɐˌplats] ( listen)) is a large public square and transport hub in the central Mitte district of Berlin, near the Fernsehturm. Berliners often call it simply Alex, referring to a larger neighbourhood stretching from Mollstraße in the northeast to Spandauer Straße and the Red City Hall in the southwest

 

History[edit]

     

Alexanderplatz in 1796

Early history[edit]

 

Originally a cattle market outside the city fortifications, it was named in honor of a visit of the Russian Emperor Alexander I to Berlin on 25 October 1805 by order of King Frederick William III of Prussia. The square gained a prominent role in the late 19th century with the construction of the Stadtbahn station of the same name and a nearby market hall, followed by the opening of a department store of Hermann Tietz in 1904, becoming a major commercial centre. The U-Bahn station of the present-day U2 line opened on 1 July 1913.

 

Its heyday was in the 1920s, when together with Potsdamer Platz it was at the heart of Berlin's nightlife, inspiring the 1929 novel Berlin Alexanderplatz (see 1920s Berlin) and the two films based thereon, Piel Jutzi's 1931 film and Rainer Werner Fassbinder's 15½ hour second adaptation, released in 1980. About 1920 the city's authorities started a rearrangement of the increasing traffic flows laying out a roundabout, accompanied by two buildings along the Stadtbahn viaduct, Alexanderhaus and Berolinahaus finished in 1932 according to plans designed by Peter Behrens.

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexanderplatz

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

USNS Lt. David C. Shanks (T-AP-180)

USNS David C. Shanks (T-AP-180), San Francisco, 1950s

History

Name: USNS David C. Shanks (T-AP-180)

Namesake: US Army General David C. Shanks

Builder: Ingalls Shipbuilding

Christened: American Farmer

Completed: April 1943

Acquired: (By the Army): 24 April 1943

In service:

 

Army:1943–1950

MSTS: 15 Mar 1950 – Oct 1958

 

Identification:

 

MC Hull Type C3-1N-P&C

MC Hull No. 165

 

Honors and

awards: One battle star for Korean War service

Fate: Scrapped, 1973

General characteristics

Class and type: George W. Goethals-class transport[1]

Displacement: 10,418 tons (fl)[2]

Length: 489 ft[2]

Beam: 69 ft 6 in[2]

Draft: 27 ft 4 in[2]

Propulsion: Steam turbine, single screw[2]

Speed: 16.5 knots[2]

Troops: 1,976[2]

Armament: None

 

David C. Shanks was a troop transport that served with the US Army during World War II as USAT David C. Shanks, and during the Korean War with the US Navy's Military Sea Transportation Service as the USNS David C. Shanks (T-AP-180).

Service history

 

The ship was originally laid down under the name SS American Farmer as a Maritime Commission Type C3 ship (specifically, a Type C3-1N-P&C, or Passenger & Cargo type) by Ingalls Shipbuilding of Pascagoula, Mississippi. She was delivered on 24 April 1943 and turned over to the US Army Transportation Service, who renamed her USAT David C . Shanks.

 

On 15 March 1950 the ship was transferred to the MSTS and became the USNS David C. Shanks (T-AP-180). The ship participated in operations to contain the Communist Chinese advance in Korea during the conflict there between December 1950 – January 1951, and earned a battle star for her service.

 

David C. Shanks was inactivated and returned to the Maritime Administration in October 1958, after which she was laid up in the National Defense Reserve Fleet. She was scrapped in 1973.

 

Just a note regarding the above reference to the ship's being inactivated in October 1958. I believe this is slightly inaccurate because I sailed with my parents (I was 13 at the time) from San Francisco to Honolulu on the USNS David C. Shanks in August 1959, docking at the Aloha Tower on 8/24/1959, three days after Hawaii became a state. Perhaps the ship was inactivated in October 1959. (?)

 

Just another note this ship was used to carry military personnel and dependents to Japan after the WWII. I was six months old when my mother and I (6mos old) along with my brother (4 yrs old) sailed on the Shanks to Japan where my father was stationed in Tokyo on 15 June, 1947.

Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères

A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/39522367

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14470558

1965 World Book Encyclopedia Advertisement Life Magazine June 25 1965

www.behance.net/gallery/Illustrated-Encyclopedia-of-Crypt...

This book exclusively covers collector edition Barbie dolls including her friends and family members. Augustyniak features all of Barbie's various ethnic counterparts, and even included facial close-ups for them. I find looking at all the many variations very interesting, and extremely handy for identification purposes. I do feel that his photograph quality lacks in that the pictures are very small and the dolls are boxed generally speaking. As I've mentioned before, I find it hard to see what a doll truly looks like when photographed in his/her box. I am pleased that Augustyniak included facial close-ups for every doll in this book though. For the most part, it seems like he didn't picture more than three different Barbies on each page (not including variations), so I feel that everything is spaced out nicely. He also included many pictures of packaging for those who are interested in boxes. This book is organized by series and then subdivided by release date. Each item has a decently lengthy description, a "value," a release date, and a stock number. This book also features a multitude of one of a kind dolls at the back. I appreciate how Augustyniak also included pictures of collectible fashion and accessory packs in this book as well, not just dolls. However, like with several of his other books, he chose to include random Barbie related merchandise such as mugs, ceramics, purses, and posters, which are jumbled with the dolls. To me, I feel that these random items interrupt the flow of the book, but to some they may find these pictures useful.

 

One of the major pitfalls with this book is the fact that Augustyniak covered many of the dolls in his other books. As I have mentioned several times now, he always had the tendency to include redundant information in his books, making it somewhat pointless to purchase them all. I own two of his Barbie exclusives books, and I can tell that he pictured many of the same collector dolls in all three books. This repetitiveness of information makes me very wary and hesitant to purchase anymore of his books. I believe there are several Collector Encyclopedias available written by Augustyniak. I believe this 2008 edition is the newest, which is why I purchased it. I cannot say for sure if his previous editions contain all the same information or not, but I would assume they would.

 

Being more of a play line collector, I don't use this book particular often, especially since many of the dolls are featured in books I prefer more, such as his second edition exclusives book. I think that this book would be incredibly useful and interesting though for the individuals whom are very interested in collectible Barbie dolls and one of a kind dolls. This book is very thick and comes in hardcover, so it is definitely worth the price if these dolls are the type that interest you. Since it spans up to 2008, it includes many dolls that have not been featured in any other books, because it seems that the most prevalent time for Barbie books ended in 1995. All in all, I would say that this is one of Augustyniak's finer books since it is well organized and he seemed to stay on topic for the most part, and although his pictures are on the small side, they are much brighter and crisper than those in his other books.

Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères

A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/39522423

Children's Encyclopedia, edited by Arthur Mee, and published in 10 volumes by the Educational Book Company, London. It was published from 1908 to 1964