View allAll Photos Tagged encyclopedia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Marycrest College Historic District
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. Historic district
Davenport Register of Historic Properties
Marycrest International University.jpg
Marycrest College Historic District is located in Iowa
Marycrest College Historic District
Show all
LocationPortions of the 1500 and 1600 blocks of W. 12th St., Davenport, Iowa
Coordinates41°31′51.60″N 90°35′55.43″WCoordinates: 41°31′51.60″N 90°35′55.43″W
Area15 acres (6.1 ha)
Built1938, 1939, 1941
ArchitectFrederick G. Clausen
Temple and Temple
Raymond C. Whitaker
Architectural styleQueen Anne
Jacobean Revival
Late Gothic Revival
Collegiate Gothic
Modern
MPSDavenport MRA
NRHP reference No.04000341[1]
Significant dates
Added to NRHPApril 14, 2004
Designated DRHPJanuary 1, 2004[2]
Marycrest College Historic District is located on a bluff overlooking the West End of Davenport, Iowa, United States. The district encompasses the campus of Marycrest College, which was a small, private collegiate institution. The school became Teikyo Marycrest University and finally Marycrest International University after affiliating with a private educational consortium during the 1990s. The school closed in 2002 because of financial shortcomings. The campus has been listed on the Davenport Register of Historic Properties and on the National Register of Historic Places since 2004. At the time of its nomination, the historic district consisted of 13 resources, including six contributing buildings and five non-contributing buildings.[3] Two of the buildings were already individually listed on the National Register.
History
Marycrest was founded as a Catholic women's college in 1939 by the Congregation of the Humility of Mary (CHM) at the request of Bishop Henry Rohlman of Davenport. Mother Mary Geraldine Upham, CHM, who had been the congregation's Mother Superior at that time, became the school's first president. She had previously founded St. Joseph's Junior College, later renamed Ottumwa Heights College, in 1925. Sister Hazel Marie Roth, CHM was the first Dean.
Initially, Marycrest was organized as a division of St. Ambrose College, and it was incorporated as a separate college in 1954. The North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools independently accredited Marycrest in 1955 and said it "has the potential to be the Vassar of Catholic colleges."[3] St. Ambrose and Marycrest planned to merge in the early 1970s. They chose a new name for the school, Newman College, before the merger was discontinued and both schools remained independent of each other.
Marycrest opened with 76 students in 1939 and it grew to 935 students in 1961, the year that Mother Geraldine died.[4] The faculty in the same time period grew from 21 members to 67. As early as the mid-1940s, international students were welcomed to the campus. In 1969, educational opportunities were extended to men when the college became coeducational. In 1990, Marycrest College became affiliated with the Teikyo Yamanashi Education and Welfare Foundation of Japan and was renamed Teikyo Marycrest University.[5] It was networked with Teikyo campuses around the world and its mission was dedicated to international education without prejudice. The institution ended its formal association with the Catholic Church at this time, though many of the Sisters continued to teach and work at the university.
During the early 1990s, Japanese students formed a substantial part of the enrollment of the university. When Japan's economy declined in the mid-1990s,[6] enrollment at Marycrest also declined. In 1996, the institution's name was changed to Marycrest International University. This was an attempt to more fully reflect the global mission of the institution. It was also part of an effort to re-market the university in order to boost enrollment, which by this time had declined to approximately 500 students.
The campus was closed at the end of its 2001–2002 school year, as a result of continued enrollment declines and persistent financial difficulties.[5] Many of the remaining students transferred to nearby schools, including Augustana College in Rock Island, Illinois. All of the academic records are now housed at the University of Iowa in Iowa City.
Marycrest International University was respected for its solid programs in education, social work, and nursing. In its later years, the university also developed an interdisciplinary program in computer graphics and web design. The campus newspaper was The Crest. Marycrest athletic teams were called the Eagles and included men and women's soccer, basketball, volleyball, and women's softball, competing in the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA). Annual traditions included Pig Roast, midnight breakfast, and A Taste of Culture.
Although the university is closed, the campus continues to serve an important role in the local community. In 2006, a residential community for senior citizens known as Marycrest Senior Campus was established in the residence halls. The Marycrest Campus became unified under common ownership and management in 2010.
Athletics
The Marycrest International athletic teams were called the Eagles. The university was a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the Midwest Collegiate Conference (MCC) from 1988–89 to 2001–02.
Campus
The Marycrest College campus was located on the crest of a bluff 16 blocks west of downtown Davenport and 15 blocks north of the Mississippi River. It was bounded on the east by the Riverview Terrace neighborhood, which contains medium to large single-family homes. To the north is a residential neighborhood of mostly frame single-family houses that were built in the late 19th century and early 20th century. The former German-American commercial district was further north along Washington Street. Division Street was the campus' western boundary where the Putnam Museum and Fejervary Park are located. The south side of the campus is a steep bluff that rises 80 feet (24 m) from West 10th Street.[3]
Buildings
The Marycrest campus itself was made up of 13 buildings. The earliest buildings were built around a rectangular-shaped open space. Newer buildings were built down the slope of the bluff, along West 12th Street to the east and finally across West 12th Street. The two oldest buildings were built as single-family homes that predate the establishment of the college. The Max Petersen House, known as Clifton Hill, is the place the Rev. Thomas Lawlor from St. Ambrose College acquired in 1937 for $50,000 for the new school.[4] It is a 2½-story, dark red brick, Queen Anne style house designed by Davenport architect Frederick G. Clausen. It was built in 1888 for Max Petersen who was a partner in his family's prosperous retail store, the J.H.C. Petersen's Sons' Store.[7] The house served a variety of purposes including a convent, dining hall, and music classrooms. The second house is the Dr. Kuno Struck House, which was also called Clifton Manor. It was acquired by Marycrest in 1978 and served the college as a community center. This house is also 2½-stories but is covered in pink-red brick and a rock-faced stone that is smoothly dressed.[8] It is the only house in Davenport built in the Jacobean Revival style.[3] Built in 1910, the house was designed by Clausen & Clausen of Davenport. The Struck's garage, built in 1927 and used as a maintenance building by the college, is also a contributing property in the historic district. Both houses are individually listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Residence Halls
The first building built specifically for a dormitory was West Hall. It was built as a two-story structure in 1941 by the John C. Tunnicliff Construction Company for $23,950. It is possible that it was designed by Davenport architect Seth Temple, but that cannot be substantiated.[3] A third floor was added in 1958. The building is connected to the Max Petersen House by a narrow single-story corridor. Measuring 39 by 86 feet (12 by 26 m), the building follows a rectangular plan. Like all buildings built for the college through the 1960s, its exterior was composed of a mottled red face brick that was manufactured by the Hydraulic Press Brick Company of St. Louis. It sits on a poured concrete foundation. The main facade faces to the north and is divided into three bays. The center bay projects slightly forward. The east and west elevations are divided into eight bays. Belt courses separate floors on the end bays and the center bays are slightly recessed. Bedford stone is used for the belt courses between the floors, the plain coping, the vestibule trim, and the lintels and window sills. A stone cross is located on the center of the parapet above the main entrance vestibule. It is a contributing building.
Lawlor Hall
The first building that did not front the central campus on top of the hill was Lawlor Hall.[3] It sits 10 feet (3 m) to 20 feet (6 m) down the slope of the bluff from the Max Petersen House and West Hall. Designed by Davenport architect Raymond C. Whitaker, the first two floors were built in 1955 for $150,000 to house freshmen students, hence its original name was Freshman Hall. Once again John C. Tunnicliff Construction Company served as contractor. The third floor was added four years later with Whitaker again serving as architect and Tunnicliff and MacDonald as general contractors. The 164-by-36-foot (50 by 11 m) building follows a rectangular plan and has an exposed basement, which gives it the appearance as a four-story building from the south. While it is a Modern architectural style building its exterior is composed of the same brick as West Hall. The flat coping of the parapet is covered with brushed aluminum. The main entrance is located in a recessed bay in a single-story section on the east side of the building and faces to the north. The north elevation is 10 bays and the south elevation is 13 bays. Most bays have a paired three-light window group. A few of the bays on the south side have single windows. It is a contributing building.
Rohlman Hall
Raymond Whitaker and Ken Wagner designed Rohlman Hall, which was completed in 1966 by O. Jorgensen & Sons of Clinton, Iowa. It is 30 feet (9 m) down the slope from Lawlor Hall and 50 feet (15 m) lower than the center of campus.[3] The 197-by-123-foot (60 by 37 m) building has a total of six floors in two wings that form an L-shaped plan. The east-west oriented wing is three stories above grade and a partially exposed basement visible on the south side. The north-south oriented wing sits lower than the other wing and includes two floors plus a ground floor on the east elevation and a lower floor plus a basement floor beneath the ground floor on the south and west elevations. In many ways, Rohlman Hall is similar in design to Lawler Hall. It is built of the same brick, it does not feature a standard main facade, the coping is covered with brushed aluminum, and most bays have a paired three-light window group. Like Lawlor, the main entrance is located on the east side of the building and faces north, but here it is located in a separate wing rather than a single story entryway. Two flights of concrete steps on the eastern side of Lawlor Hall connect to a 10 feet (3 m) wide suspended concrete bridge that leads to the main entrance of Rohlman Hall. It is a non-contributing building.
Mixed-Use Halls
Upham Hall
The first building built specifically for college purposes was Upham Hall. It was originally named the Administration Building when it was built in 1939 and was also known as Liberal Arts Hall before it was named after Mother Mary Geraldine in 1963. The building was designed by Seth Temple and his son Arthur Temple in the Collegiate Gothic style. It was built by John C. Tunnicliff Construction Company for $165,000.[3] Upham Hall rises three floors on the north facade, which faces the center of the campus, and four flours and a tall foundation level on the south elevation. The foundation of the building is poured concrete, the walls are of the mottled red face brick used in other Marycrest buildings, and Bedford stone trim. The rectangular building features a central pavilion of four bays that is faced with Bedford stone to the third floor. Extending to the east and west are wings of five bays each whose brick is laid in an English cross bond with alternating courses of headers and stretchers. The Tudor arched main entrance is flanked by simple stone buttresses with vertical ornamentation. Simple brick buttresses separate the bays on the west wing. The east wing is dominated by four two-story Tudor arched windows. They denote the location of the 300-seat auditorium whose stage is against the central pavilion. Upham Hall has been used for a variety of purposes including as administrative offices, classrooms, some of which were used temporarily as dormitory rooms, faculty offices, the first chapel, an auditorium, and a gymnasium.[3] It is a key contributing building, and a utility shed immediately south of Upham Hall (c. 1940) is also a contributing building.
Petersen Hall
Temple and Temple designed the concept of Petersen Hall to be built in three stages, which it was.[3] The building embraces the Late Gothic Revival and Jacobethan Revival styles. The Temples completed the drawings for the first phase that was built in 1948 and for the second phase that was completed three years later. Raymond Whitaker completed drawings for the third phase that was completed in 1962. The first phase of the building is located in the center and is denoted by its four-story tower. The 186-by-40-foot (57 by 12 m) structure was built by John C. Tunnicliff for $250,000.[3] It housed dormitory rooms on the west, a lounge and business offices in the center, the primary kitchen was located in the basement, and a cafeteria and a chapel on the east. The west wing forms the second phase that was completed in 1951 by Tunnicliff for $160,000. The 50-by-70-foot (15 by 21 m) section contained dormitory rooms. Priester Construction Company of Davenport completed the third section for $280,000 in 1962. It provided additional space for the cafeteria and chapel on the first two floors and dormitory rooms on the third floor. The building was originally named North Hall and was renamed in honor of the Petersen family around 1964. It is a key contributing building.
Single-Use Buildings
Cone Library
Apart from residence halls, the Cone Library is the first single-purpose academic building constructed on campus.[3] Raymond Whitaker designed the building that was constructed by H. George Schloemer in 1958 for $250,000. The 186-by-40-foot (57 by 12 m) Modern structure follows an irregular rectangular plan and is dominated by large plate glass windows. The main facade of the building is divided into eight bays with the main entrance just off center. The entrance bay is set off by stone. The building's mottled red face brick is laid in American bond with a header course on every sixth course. Another dominate feature of the building are the deep eaves that overhang the walls. Along the upper part of the wall is a wide band of stone. The window lintels are likewise stone. There are also three basement level windows in each bay, save for the entrance bay. The east side of the south elevation is composed of solid brick with no windows. It features a decorative cut stone design that portrays Marycrest's insignia that is embedded in the wall. It was created by Sister Mary Clarice Ebert, CHM, who taught in the college's art department. The front section of the main level of the interior was divided into three large rooms. They were separated by wood and glass panel walls. The periodical reading room was on the north, the main desk and card catalog were in the center, and the reference reading room was on the south. The stacks were located across the back of the building. The basement originally housed the student union in the south half and an audio-visual room, alumnae office, and receiving room on the north. It is a non-contributing building.
Walsh Hall
Raymond Whitaker was already in retirement when he designed Walsh Hall with the assistance of Kenneth Wagner. It was completed in 1964 by O. Jorgensen & Sons of Clinton for $650,000.[3] The four-story structure housed science classrooms and laboratories. The 162-by-72-foot (49 by 22 m) building follows a rectangular plan with its main facade on the west elevation. The exterior brick is laid in American bond with a header course set between every fifth course. Parapet walls capped with stone rise above a flat roof. Brick piers separate the bays. The main facade is five bays while the side elevations are eight bays. The west elevation is composed of the main entrance in the center bay with windows similar to others found in the building above it. The center bay is flanked by two bays with a single column of windows centered in the bay. There is a combination of single, paired and triple window units in the building. The east elevation features window groupings similar to those found on the north elevation. The south elevation features an unusual arrangement of windows and stone panels that form a cross in the center bay. The clustered window groups have stone sills, frames and mullions. The stone belt courses on each floor double as window lintels. It is a non-contributing building.
Nursing Education Building
The Davenport architectural firm of Charles Richardson Associates designed the building that was built by Priester Construction in 1973 for $1.9 million.[3] The 103-by-71-foot (31 by 22 m), three-story structure follows a rectangular plan. There is a single-story lecture hall-auditorium that is attached to the west side of the building on the basement level. The exterior walls are composed of reinforced concrete and are partially faced with reddish-brown brick that is laid in a running bond. Both the north and south elevations are divided into seven bays and the east and west elevations are divided into three bays. The most dominant feature is the building's third floor that cantilevers around the entire perimeter of the structure. It is supported by square, pre-cast concrete columns. The building reflects the influence of the Miesian and New Formalism architectural styles.[3] The windows on the first and second floor are panels of tinted glass, with vertical window pairs on the third floor. Matching entrances are located in the center bay on the north and south elevations. The building housed a television studio and control room, lecture halls, offices, classrooms, a student lounge, study rooms, a laboratory, faculty lounge, media workroom and conference rooms. It is a non-contributing building.
Activities Center
The Activities Center was the only building constructed on the north side of West 12th Street. Designed by the Des Moines architectural firm of Frevent, Ramsey & Dray, it was constructed by Priester Construction Company in 1978. The 225-by-192-foot (69 by 59 m) single-story structure followed a T-shaped plan. Unlike all of the other buildings on the Marycrest campus, its exterior is covered with brown corrugated steel. It features a broad gable that faces the street. The roof over the gymnasium portion of the building is also corrugated steel. The facility housed four combination basketball/volleyball/tennis courts, a ⅛-mile jogging track, a fitness center, and the student center. The larger gymnasium section is joined to a smaller wing off of the east side that housed offices. It is faced with mottled tan and brown brick over concrete block on the lower portion of the walls and corrugated steel above. The office wing is divided into three bays, and it is capped by a shed roof that extends along the south side. The recessed main entrance is located in the center bay. The building continues to house a sports complex known as Beyond The Baseline. It is a non-contributing building.
Notable alumni
Kevin O'Neill (MA 1983), NBA and collegiate basketball coach, formerly the coach of the USC Trojans
Children's Encyclopedia, edited by Arthur Mee, and published in 10 volumes by the Educational Book Company, London. It was published from 1908 to 1964
Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).
Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..
Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.
. (Two page tinted engraving)
Map of The World (1868)
From the National Encyclopedia Atlas 1868.
Published by William Mackenzie London. 19cm x 29cm
(Open in Original: 4090 x 2920 pixels)
From the National Encyclopedia Atlas 1868.
Published by William Mackenzie London. 19cm x 29cm
Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
Children's Encyclopedia, edited by Arthur Mee, and published in 10 volumes by the Educational Book Company, London. It was published from 1908 to 1964.
A Christmas present. 20 volumes of photography encyclopedias. Any bets on how long it will take me to read them all?
Created and folded by Glenn Sapaden out of 15 dollar bills (one for each volume, three for the book shelf)
The new LEGO Character Encyclopedia is here and it has Mr. Gold in it!
Link To Article: www.groovebricks.com/lego-minifigures-character-encyclope...
-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-Groove Bricks-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-
Website: www.groovebricks.com
Twitter: www.twitter.com/#!/groovebricks
Flickr: www.flickr.com/photos/groovebricks/
YouTube: www.youtube.com/user/groovebricks
Facebook: www.facebook.com/pages/Groove-Bricks/391878220866206
Catacombs of Paris
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Catacombs of Paris or Catacombes de Paris are a famous underground ossuary in Paris, France. Located south of the city's former 'Barrière d'Enfer' city gate (at today's Denfert-Rochereau), the ossuary fills a renovated section of caverns and tunnels that are the remains of Paris' stone mines. Opened in the late 18th century, the underground cemetery became a tourist attraction on a small scale from the early 19th century, and has been open to the public on a regular basis from 1867.
Following an incident of vandalism, they were closed to the public in September of 2009 and reopened 19 December of the same year.
The official name for the catacombs is l'Ossuaire Municipal. Although this cemetery covers only a small section of underground tunnels comprising 'les carrières de Paris' ('the quarries of Paris'), Parisians today often refer to the entire tunnel network as 'the catacombs'.
Paris Catacombs
Paris since Roman times buried its dead to the outskirts of the city, but this changed with the rise of Christianity and its practice of burying its faithful deceased in consecrated ground in and adjoining its churches. By the 10th century, because of the city's expansion over the centuries, there were many parish cemeteries within city limits, even in central locations. When Paris' population began to rise rapidly in the following centuries, some of these cemeteries became overcrowded where expansion was impossible. Soon only the most wealthy could afford church burials, which led to the opening in the early 12th century of a central burial ground for more common burials: initially dependent upon the St. Opportune church, this cemetery near Paris' central Les Halles district was renamed as the 'Saints-Innocents cemetery' under its own church and parish towards the end of the same century.
Skull Catacombs of Paris 2010
The practice common then for burying the lesser-wealthy dead was mass inhumation. Once an excavation in one section of the cemetery was full, it would be covered over and another opened. Few of the dead buried in this way had the privilege of coffins; often the casket used for a burial ceremony would be re-used for the next. Thus the residues resulting from the decaying of organic matter, a process often chemically accelerated with the use of lime, entered directly into the earth, creating a situation quite unacceptable for a city whose then principle source of liquid sustenance was well-water.
By the 17th century the sanitary conditions around Saints-Innocents cemetery was unbearable. As it was one of Paris' most sought-after cemeteries and a large source of revenue for the parish and church, the clergy had continued burials there even when its grounds were filled to overflowing. By then the cemetery was lined on all four sides with "charniers" reserved for the bones of the dead exhumed from mass graves that had lain long enough for all the flesh they contained to decompose. Once emptied, a mass sepulture would be used again, but even then the earth was already filled beyond saturation with decomposable human remains.
A series of ineffective decrees limiting the use of the cemetery did little to remedy the situation, and it wasn't until the late 18th century that it was decided to create three new large-scale suburban burial grounds to the outskirts of the city, and to condemn all existing parish cemeteries within city limits.
Paris' former Mines
Part of the reason nothing was done about Paris' untenable burial practices was a lack of ideas where to dispose of the dead exhumed from Paris' intra-muros parish graveyards. The government had been searching for and consolidating long abandoned stone quarries in and around the Capital since 1777, and it was the Police Lieutenant General overseeing the renovations, Alexandre Lenoir, who first had the idea to use empty underground tunnels to the outskirts of the capital to this end. His successor, Thiroux de Crosne, chose a place to the south of Paris' 'porte d'Enfer' city gate (the place Denfert-Rochereau today), and the exhumation and transfer of all Paris' dead to the underground sepulture began in 1786.
Creation, decoration
From the eve of a consecration ceremony on the 7th April the same year, behind a procession of chanting priests, began a parade of black-covered bone-laden horse-drawn wagons that continued for years to come. In work overseen by the Inspector General of Quarries, Charles-Axel Guillaumot, the bones were deposited in a wide well dug in land bought from a property, 'La maison de la Tombe Issoire' (a house near the street of the same name), and distributed throughout the underground caverns by workers below. Also deposited near the same house were crosses, urns and other necropolis memorabilia recuperated from Paris' church graveyards.
The catacombs in their first years were practically only a bone repository, but Guillaumot's successor from 1810, Louis-Étienne Héricart de Thury, oversaw the renovations that would transform the underground caverns into a real and visitable sepulture on par with any mausoleum. In addition to directing the rearrangement of skulls and tibias into the arrangement that we see in the catacombs today, he used the tombstones and cemetery decorations he could find (many had disappeared after the 1789 Revolution) to complement the walls of bones.
General Description
The Catacombs entry is in the western pavilion of Paris' former Barrière d'Enfer city gate. After descending a narrow spiral stone stairwell of 19 metres to the darkness and silence broken only by the gurgling of a hidden aqueduct channelling local sources away from the area, and after passing through a long and twisting hallway of mortared stone, a visitor finds himself before a sculpture that existed from a time before this part of the mines became an ossuary, a model of France's Port-Mahon fortress created by a former Quarry Inspector. Soon after, he would find himself before a stone portal, the ossuary entry, graced with the inscription 'Arrête, c'est ici l'empire de la Mort' ('Stop, this is the empire of Death').
Beyond begin the halls and caverns of walls of carefully arranged bones. Some of the arrangements are almost artistic in nature, such as a heart-shaped outline in one wall formed with skulls embedded in surrounding tibias; another is a round room whose central pillar is also a carefully created 'keg' bone arrangement. Along the way one would find other 'monuments' created in the years before catacomb renovations, such as a source-gathering fountain baptised 'La Samaritaine'; because of later-added engravings. Also worthy of note are the rusty gates blocking passages leading to other 'unvisitable' parts of the catacombs - many of these are either un-renovated or were too un-navigable for regular tours.
In a cavern just before the exit stairway leading to a building on the rue Dareau (former 'rue des Catacombes') above, one could see an example of the Quarry Inspection's work in the rest of Paris' underground caverns: its roof is two 11-metre high domes of naturally degraded, but reinforced, rock; the dates painted into the highest point of each bear witness to what year the work to the collapsing cavern ceiling was done, and whether it has degraded since. These 'fontis' were the reason for a general panic in late-18th-century Paris, after several houses and roadways collapsed into previously unknown caverns below.
Other Inhumations
Bodies of the dead from the riots in the Place de Grève, the Hôtel de Brienne, and Rue Meslée were put in the catacombs on 28 and 29 August 1788.
The catacomb walls are covered in graffiti dating from the eighteenth century onwards. Victor Hugo used his knowledge about the tunnel system in Les Misérables. In 1871, communards killed a group of monarchists in one chamber. During World War II, Parisian members of the French Resistance used the tunnel system. Also during this period, German soldiers established an underground bunker in the catacombs below Lycée Montaigne, a high school in the 6th arrondissement.
In popular culture
Books
In Umberto Eco's novel Foucault's Pendulum, the catacombs were the resting place of a parchment concerning the Knights Templar.
In Barbara Hambly's Those Who Hunt the Night, two characters investigating the murders of London vampires descend into the catacombs. There they find Brother Anthony, a 600-year-old priest-turned-vampire, living among the bones of the dead.
In Robison Wells's novel The Counterfeit, the catacombs are the location of a meeting place of the Illuminati. The main characters, Eric and Rebekah, are guided through the catacombs by three cataphiles.
Catacombs of Paris
William T. Vollmann's Rising Up and Rising Down: Some Thoughts on Violence, Freedom, and Urgent Means begins with a section titled 'Three Medititations on Death' The first meditation, entitled 'Catacomb Thoughts', is a reflection on the Catacombs of Paris.
In Mr. Monk is Miserable by Lee Goldberg, based on the television series Monk, detective Adrian Monk and his assistant, Natalie Teeger, are taking a vacation in Paris when, during a tour of the catacombs, Monk sees a skull belonging to a recently murdered man hidden amongst the old bones.
In 'The Magician'; by Michael Scott, Dr. John Dee takes Josh into the Catacombs to have his magical powers awakened.
Film and television
The 2007 film Catacombs (starring Pink) is set in the catacombs.
In the 2007 film 2 Days in Paris, the catacombs are one of the desired stops during the two days in Paris, but they are unfortunately closed.
In the Disney film The Hunchback of Notre Dame, the catacombs are used by Captain Phoebus and Quasimodo to find the Court of Miracles.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
Name: USS S-30
Builder: Union Iron Works
Laid down: 1 April 1918
Launched: 21 November 1918
Commissioned: 29 October 1920
Decommissioned: 9 October 1945
Struck: 24 October 1945
Fate: Sold for scrap
General characteristics
Class and type: S-class submarine
Displacement:
854 long tons (868 t) surfaced
1,062 long tons (1,079 t) submerged
Length: 219 ft 3 in (66.83 m)
Beam: 20 ft 8 in (6.30 m)
Draft: 15 ft 11 in (4.85 m)
Speed:
14.5 knots (16.7 mph; 26.9 km/h) surfaced
11 knots (13 mph; 20 km/h) submerged
Complement: 38 officers and men
Armament:
1 × 4 in (102 mm) deck gun
4 × 21 in (533 mm) torpedo tubes
Service record
Operations: World War II
Victories: 2 battle stars
USS S-30 (SS-135) was an S-class submarine of the United States Navy during World War II.
S-30 was laid down on 1 April 1918 by the Union Iron Works at San Francisco, California. She was launched on 21 November 1918 sponsored by Mrs. Edward S. Stalnaker, and commissioned on 29 October 1920 with Lieutenant Commander Stuart E. Bray in command.
Service history
Based at San Pedro, California, with her home yard at Mare Island, S-30 conducted tests and exercises off the California coast into the summer of 1921. Then, on 15 August, she was placed in ordinary. Recommissioned in full on 14 February 1922, she was ordered to New London, Connecticut, where she was placed in ordinary again on 21 June for engine alterations by the prime contractor, the Electric Boat Company.
Trials and exercises off the southern New England coast followed her recommissioning in full on 21 November; and, in January 1923, she moved south to the Caribbean Sea to participate in winter maneuvers and Fleet Problem I, conducted to test the defenses of the Panama Canal Zone. In April, she returned to California and resumed operations off that coast with her division, Submarine Division (SubDiv) 16. During the winter of 1924, she again participated in fleet exercises and problems in the Canal Zone and in the Caribbean and, in the winter of 1925, she prepared for transfer to the Asiatic Fleet.
S-30 departed Mare Island, with her division, in mid-April. During May, she conducted exercises and underwent upkeep in the Hawaiian Islands; and, on 16 June, she continued on to the Philippines. On 12 July, she arrived at the Submarine Base, Cavite, Luzon, whence she operated until 1932. Her division rotated between exercises and patrols in the Philippines during the winter and operations off the China coast during the summer. In 1932, her division was ordered back to the eastern Pacific Ocean; and, on 2 May, she departed Manila for Pearl Harbor, her home port until transferred back to the East Coast in 1937.
Sailing from Pearl Harbor on 19 May 1937, S-30 arrived at New London on 8 August. For the next year and one-half, she trained along the Atlantic Ocean seaboard. Then, in May 1939, she was placed in commission, in reserve. On 1 September 1940, she was returned to full commission.
World War II
As World War II began its second year, German U-boats were raiding shipping in the western Atlantic and the Caribbean. The American S-boats, designed in World War I, were assigned to Submarines, Patrol Force (Submarines, Atlantic Fleet after February 1941) and were carrying out multipurpose missions which involved training and development of tactical skills.
First, Second, and Third (Defensive) War Patrols
S-30, homeported at New London, operated along the mid-Atlantic and northeast coasts into the spring of 1941. She then served briefly in the Bermuda area; returned to New London; and, in early July, proceeded to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for overhaul. In September, she emerged from the yard; returned to New England; and resumed submarine and antisubmarine warfare training operations.
She continued those duties in the Long Island Sound, Narragansett Bay, Casco Bay, and Placentia Bay areas, until after the United States officially entered the war. With 1942, however defensive patrols were added to her duties, and her division, SubDiv 52, was reassigned to the Panama Canal Zone. Departing New London on 31 January, she hunted for enemy submarines along her route which took her via Bermuda and Mona Passage into the Caribbean Sea. On 16 February, she arrived at Coco Solo, whence she conducted two defensive patrols in the western approaches to the canal, from 10–31 March and from 14 April to 13 May, before she was ordered to California to prepare for service in the Aleutian Islands. Into July, she underwent repairs at San Diego, California; and, at mid-month, she started for Alaska. While en route, engine trouble forced her into Mare Island, and, on 1 August, she headed north again.
Fourth War Patrol (First Offensive)
On 12 August, S-30 departed the submarine base at Dutch Harbor, Unalaska, on her first offensive war patrol. Moving through fog, she arrived off Attu Island on 16 August; sighted only the hazy outline of Cape Wrangell; and continued on to patrol across the anticipated Japanese shipping lanes between that island and the northern Kuril Islands. On the afternoon of 7 September, she was attacked by three enemy destroyers some ten miles north of the cape and, in that two and one-half hour encounter, gained her first close experience with Japanese depth charges. Three days later, she turned for home.
Fifth War Patrol
On 24 September, S-30 got underway for her fifth war patrol, her second in the Aleutians. A cracked cylinder in her port engine forced her back to Dutch Harbor on 27 September; and, on 30 September, she again moved west. On 3 October, she entered her patrol area and commenced hunting enemy ships along traffic lanes west of Kiska; but, by 9 October, additional engineering casualties, cracks, and leaks had developed and forced her to return to Unalaska. From there, the submarine was ordered to San Diego for an overhaul. During her yard period, she received a fathometer, a new distilling unit, and more up-to-date radar equipment. Then, from mid-February 1943 into March, she provided training services to the West Coast Sound School. On 16 March, she sailed for Dutch Harbor.
Sixth War Patrol
Following the submarine's arrival in the Aleutians on 21 March, air compressor failure and malfunctioning of her fathometer delayed her departure until 13 April. She then headed for Attu. On 15 April, she crossed the 180th meridian and, keeping Dutch Harbor dates, arrived at her destination on 17 April. For the next few days, she reconnoitered and, when possible photographed the island's principal coves, bays, and harbors. On 26 April, she was ordered to the east of 176°E and south of 52°40'N, where she remained until after an Allied strike against Attu. The next afternoon, she returned to the island but was unable to determine the extent of damage inflicted.
Seventh War Patrol
On 2 May, S-30 departed the area; returned to Dutch Harbor for refit; and, on 24 May, sailed west again, this time for the northern Kurils. On 31 May (Dutch Harbor date), she entered her assigned area; and, on 5 June, off the Kamchatka peninsula, she attacked her first target, a large sampan. Her guns set the enemy vessel on fire; but, as it burned, a Japanese destroyer appeared on the horizon and began closing the surfaced submarine at high speed. Three minutes later, the destroyer opened fire on the diving S-boat.
S-30 commenced an approach on the destroyer, but just as she reached firing bearing, she lost depth control. A few seconds later, depth charging started. In the next 20 minutes, 33 "ashcans" were dropped by the destroyer. Others followed sporadically over the next five hours. S-30 was then able to clear the area. On 6 June, the ship's force repaired all minor damage and commenced efforts to remove two torpedoes which had been crushed in the number-three and number-four tubes. The one in the latter tube was removed on 7 June, but the one in the number-three tube remained until the completion of the patrol.
On 8 June, S-30 headed down the Paramushiro coast; approached Onekotan; then transited Onekotan Strait and set a course for Araito. During the next two days, she sighted four targets but was able to close only the last two, merchantmen in column, contacted on 10 June (the 11th local date). Fog closed in rapidly as she made her approach; then blanketed the area as she launched three torpedoes. Two explosions were heard, but nothing could be seen. Post-war examination of Japanese records revealed that she had sunk Jinbu Maru, a 5228-ton cargo ship.
During the ensuing depth charging, S-30 began to move out of the area. Within two and one-half hours, she had left the pinging of the searchers behind and had resumed her own hunting. On 12 June, she retransited Onekotan Strait. The following day, she fired on a convoy, but missed. On 14 June, she departed the area; and, on 22 June, she returned to Dutch Harbor to begin extracting the damaged torpedo and commence refitting.
Eighth War Patrol
On 5 July, S-30 got underway on her eighth war patrol, which took her back to the Kurils and into the Sea of Okhotsk. She patrolled on both sides of the island chain and across the traffic lanes leading to Soya Strait and to Yokosuka. She took periscope pictures of facilities on various islands. She sighted several targets, but was unable to close on most and was unsuccessful on those she attacked. On 20 July, she attacked what appeared to be an inter-island steamer, but which turned straight down the torpedo track and dropped six depth charges in quick succession. S-30 went deep, reloaded and prepared to reattack. The target, however, was lost in the fog.
S-30 continued her patrol. A week later, she sent three torpedoes against a Japanese merchantman estimated at 7000 tons. Two hits, breaking-up noises, and distant depth charging were reported by the sound operator, but the damage went unverified. Four days later, she attacked another cargoman under similar circumstances. One torpedo was reported to have hit. Screw noises from the target stopped, breaking-up noises were heard, and periscope observation showed no ship at the site of the attack. But any damage which might have been inflicted was never verified.
Ninth War Patrol
S-30 left the Kurils behind and headed east on 7 August. Two days later, she arrived in Massacre Bay, Attu, whence she conducted her last war patrol. On that patrol, from 26 August to 23 September, she again hunted in the shipping lanes along the eastern and western sides of the Kurils. Again, several targets were lost in fog; nevertheless, she took pictures of the islands. Then, in mid-September, she added a new dimension to her activities and attempted to shell the enemy garrison on Matsuwa. Fog had interfered with an earlier attempt to bombard that post, but cleared off early on the morning of 15 September (local date) as she neared the firing point with her crew at battle stations. But, when the order to fire was given, the gun failed to respond. A new firing pin was a fraction of an inch too short, and the effort had to be abandoned.
Retirement
The following day, S-30 was ordered home. En route, on 17 September she was sighted and bombed by a Japanese patrol plane. Failure of the port motor at that moment caused anxiety; but the submarine escaped serious damage. On 23 September, she arrived at Dutch Harbor. Within the week, she headed south to San Diego, where, with others of her class, she provided training services for the West Coast Sound School for the remainder of World War II. In mid-September 1945, she proceeded to Mare Island, where she was decommissioned on 9 October. Fifteen days later, her name was struck from the Naval Vessel Register, and, in December 1946, she was sold and delivered to the Salco Iron and Metal Company, San Francisco, for scrapping.
S-30 was awarded two battle stars for her World War II service.
References
This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. The entry can be found here.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the capital of the Czech Republic. For other uses, see Prague (disambiguation).
"Praha" redirects here. For other uses, see Praha (disambiguation).
Prague
Praha
Capital city
Hlavní město Praha
Prague (/prɑːɡ/; Czech: Praha [ˈpraɦa] ( listen), German: Prag) is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic, the 14th largest city in the European Union[7] and also the historical capital of Bohemia. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its larger urban zone is estimated to have a population of 2.2 million.[8] The city has a temperate climate, with warm summers and chilly winters.
Prague has been a political, cultural and economic centre of central Europe complete with a rich history. Founded during the Romanesque and flourishing by the Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque eras, Prague was the capital of the kingdom of Bohemia and the main residence of several Holy Roman Emperors, most notably of Charles IV (r. 1346–1378).[9] It was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire. The city played major roles in the Bohemian and Protestant Reformation, the Thirty Years' War and in 20th-century history as the capital of Czechoslovakia, during both World Wars and the post-war Communist era.[10]
Prague is home to a number of famous cultural attractions, many of which survived the violence and destruction of 20th-century Europe. Main attractions include the Prague Castle, the Charles Bridge, Old Town Square with the Prague astronomical clock, the Jewish Quarter, Petřín hill and Vyšehrad. Since 1992, the extensive historic centre of Prague has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.
The city has more than ten major museums, along with numerous theatres, galleries, cinemas and other historical exhibits. An extensive modern public transportation system connects the city. Also, it is home to a wide range of public and private schools, including Charles University in Prague, the oldest university in Central Europe.[11]
Prague is classified as a "Beta+" global city according to GaWC studies[12] and ranked sixth in the Tripadvisor world list of best destinations in 2016.[13] Its rich history makes it a popular tourist destination and as of 2014, the city receives more than 6.4 million international visitors annually. Prague is the fifth most visited European city after London, Paris, Istanbul and Rome.[14]
History[edit]
Main articles: History of Prague and Timeline of Prague
During the thousand years of its existence, the city grew from a settlement stretching from Prague Castle in the north to the fort of Vyšehrad in the south, becoming the capital of a modern European country, the Czech Republic, a member state of the European Union.
Early history[edit]
The Prague astronomical clock was first installed in 1410, making it the third-oldest astronomical clock in the world and the oldest one still working.
The region was settled as early as the Paleolithic age.[15] Around the fifth and fourth century BC, the Celts appeared in the area, later establishing settlements including an oppidum in Závist, a present-day suburb of Prague, and giving name to the region of Bohemia, "home of the Boii".[15][16] In the last century BC, the Celts were slowly driven away by Germanic tribes (Marcomanni, Quadi, Lombards and possibly the Suebi), leading some to place the seat of the Marcomanni king Maroboduus on the southern Prague's site Závist.[17][18] Around the area where present-day Prague stands, the 2nd century map of Ptolemaios mentioned a Germanic city called Casurgis.[19]
In the late 5th century AD, during the great Migration Period following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes living in Bohemia moved westwards and, probably in the 6th century, the Slavic tribes (Venedi) settled Central Bohemian Region. In the following two centuries, the Czech tribes built several fortified settlements in the area, most notably in the Šárka valley, Butovice and later in Levý Hradec.[15]
The construction of what came to be known as the Prague Castle began near the end of the 9th century, with a fortified settlement already existing on the site in the year 800.[20] The first masonry under Prague Castle dates from the year 885 at the latest.[21] The other prominent Prague fort, the Přemyslid fort Vyšehrad, was founded in the 10th century, some 70 years later than Prague Castle.[22] Prague Castle is dominated by the cathedral, which was founded in 1344, but completed in the 20th century.
The legendary origins of Prague attribute its foundation to the 8th century Czech duchess and prophetess Libuše and her husband, Přemysl, founder of the Přemyslid dynasty. Legend says that Libuše came out on a rocky cliff high above the Vltava and prophesied: "I see a great city whose glory will touch the stars." She ordered a castle and a town called Praha to be built on the site.[15]
A 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the city was founded as Boihaem in c. 1306 BC by an ancient king, Boyya.[18]
The region became the seat of the dukes, and later kings of Bohemia. Under Roman Emperor Otto II the area became a bishopric in 973. Until Prague was elevated to archbishopric in 1344, it was under the jurisdiction of the Archbishopric of Mainz.
Prague was an important seat for trading where merchants from all of Europe settled, including many Jews, as recalled in 965 by the Hispano-Jewish merchant and traveller Ibrahim ibn Ya'qub. The Old New Synagogue of 1270 still stands. Prague contained an important slave market.[23]
At the site of the ford in the Vltava river, King Vladislaus I had the first bridge built in 1170, the Judith Bridge (Juditin most), named in honour of his wife Judith of Thuringia. This bridge was destroyed by a flood in 1342. Some of the original foundation stones of that bridge remain.
In 1257, under King Ottokar II, Malá Strana ("Lesser Quarter") was founded in Prague on the site of an older village in what would become the Hradčany (Prague Castle) area. This was the district of the German people, who had the right to administer the law autonomously, pursuant to Magdeburg rights. The new district was on the bank opposite of the Staré Město ("Old Town"), which had borough status and was bordered by a line of walls and fortifications.
The era of Charles IV[edit]
Prague flourished during the 14th-century reign (1346–1378) of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and the king of Bohemia of the new Luxembourg dynasty. As King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, he transformed Prague into an imperial capital and it was at that time the third-largest city in Europe (after Rome and Constantinople).
He ordered the building of the New Town (Nové Město) adjacent to the Old Town and laid out the design himself. The Charles Bridge, replacing the Judith Bridge destroyed in the flood just prior to his reign, was erected to connect the east bank districts to the Malá Strana and castle area. On 9 July 1357 at 5:31 am, Charles IV personally laid the first foundation stone for the Charles Bridge. The exact time of laying the first foundation stone is known because the palindromic number 135797531 was carved into the Old Town bridge tower having been chosen by the royal astrologists and numerologists as the best time for starting the bridge construction.[24] In 1347, he founded Charles University, which remains the oldest university in Central Europe.
He began construction of the Gothic Saint Vitus Cathedral, within the largest of the Prague Castle courtyards, on the site of the Romanesque rotunda there. Prague was elevated to an archbishopric in 1344, the year the cathedral was begun.
The city had a mint and was a centre of trade for German and Italian bankers and merchants. The social order, however, became more turbulent due to the rising power of the craftsmen's guilds (themselves often torn by internal fights), and the increasing number of poor people.
The Hunger Wall, a substantial fortification wall south of Malá Strana and the Castle area, was built during a famine in the 1360s. The work is reputed to have been ordered by Charles IV as a means of providing employment and food to the workers and their families.
Charles IV died in 1378. During the reign of his son, King Wenceslaus IV (1378–1419), a period of intense turmoil ensued. During Easter 1389, members of the Prague clergy announced that Jews had desecrated the host (Eucharistic wafer) and the clergy encouraged mobs to pillage, ransack and burn the Jewish quarter. Nearly the entire Jewish population of Prague (3,000 people) perished.[25][26]
Jan Hus, a theologian and rector at the Charles University, preached in Prague. In 1402, he began giving sermons in the Bethlehem Chapel. Inspired by John Wycliffe, these sermons focused on what were seen as radical reforms of a corrupt Church. Having become too dangerous for the political and religious establishment, Hus was summoned to the Council of Constance, put on trial for heresy, and burned at the stake in Constanz in 1415.
Four years later Prague experienced its first defenestration, when the people rebelled under the command of the Prague priest Jan Želivský. Hus' death, coupled with Czech proto-nationalism and proto-Protestantism, had spurred the Hussite Wars. Peasant rebels, led by the general Jan Žižka, along with Hussite troops from Prague, defeated Emperor Sigismund, in the Battle of Vítkov Hill in 1420.
During the Hussite Wars when the City of Prague was attacked by "Crusader" and mercenary forces, the city militia fought bravely under the Prague Banner. This swallow-tailed banner is approximately 4 by 6 feet (1.2 by 1.8 metres), with a red field sprinkled with small white fleurs-de-lis, and a silver old Town Coat-of-Arms in the centre. The words "PÁN BŮH POMOC NAŠE" (The Lord is our Relief) appeared above the coat-of-arms, with a Hussite chalice centred on the top. Near the swallow-tails is a crescent shaped golden sun with rays protruding.
One of these banners was captured by Swedish troops in Battle of Prague (1648), when they captured the western bank of the Vltava river and were repulsed from the eastern bank, they placed it in the Royal Military Museum in Stockholm; although this flag still exists, it is in very poor condition. They also took the Codex Gigas and the Codex Argenteus. The earliest evidence indicates that a gonfalon with a municipal charge painted on it was used for Old Town as early as 1419. Since this city militia flag was in use before 1477 and during the Hussite Wars, it is the oldest still preserved municipal flag of Bohemia.
In the following two centuries, Prague strengthened its role as a merchant city. Many noteworthy Gothic buildings[28][29] were erected and Vladislav Hall of the Prague Castle was added.
Habsburg era[edit]
In 1526, the Bohemian estates elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg. The fervent Catholicism of its members was to bring them into conflict in Bohemia, and then in Prague, where Protestant ideas were gaining popularity.[30] These problems were not pre-eminent under Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, elected King of Bohemia in 1576, who chose Prague as his home. He lived in the Prague Castle, where his court welcomed not only astrologers and magicians but also scientists, musicians, and artists. Rudolf was an art lover too, and Prague became the capital of European culture. This was a prosperous period for the city: famous people living there in that age include the astronomers Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler, the painter Arcimboldo, the alchemists Edward Kelley and John Dee, the poet Elizabeth Jane Weston, and others.
In 1618, the famous second defenestration of Prague provoked the Thirty Years' War, a particularly harsh period for Prague and Bohemia. Ferdinand II of Habsburg was deposed, and his place as King of Bohemia taken by Frederick V, Elector Palatine; however his army was crushed in the Battle of White Mountain (1620) not far from the city. Following this in 1621 was an execution of 27 Czech leaders (involved in the uprising) in Old Town Square and the exiling of many others. The city suffered subsequently during the war under Saxon (1631) and Battle of Prague (1648).[31] Prague began a steady decline which reduced the population from the 60,000 it had had in the years before the war to 20,000. In the second half of the 17th century Prague's population began to grow again. Jews had been in Prague since the end of the 10th century and, by 1708, they accounted for about a quarter of Prague's population.[32]
In 1689, a great fire devastated Prague, but this spurred a renovation and a rebuilding of the city. In 1713–14, a major outbreak of plague hit Prague one last time, killing 12,000 to 13,000 people.[33]
In 1744 Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Bohemia. He took Prague after a severe and prolonged siege in the course of which a large part of the town was destroyed.[34] In 1757 the Prussian Prussian bombardment[34] destroyed more than one quarter of the city and heavily damaged St. Vitus Cathedral. However a month later Frederick the Great was defeated and to retreat from Bohemia.
The economy of the city continued to improve during the 18th century. The population increased to 80,000 inhabitants by 1771. Many rich merchants and nobles enhanced the city with a host of palaces, churches and gardens full of art and music, creating a Baroque city renowned throughout the world to this day.
In 1784, under Joseph II, the four municipalities of Malá Strana, Nové Město, Staré Město, and Hradčany were merged into a single entity. The Jewish district, called Josefov, was included only in 1850. The Industrial Revolution had a strong effect in Prague, as factories could take advantage of the coal mines and ironworks of the nearby region. A first suburb, Karlín, was created in 1817, and twenty years later the population exceeded 100,000.
The revolutions in Europe in 1848 also touched Prague, but they were fiercely suppressed. In the following years the Czech National Revival began its rise, until it gained the majority in the town council in 1861. Prague had a German-speaking majority in 1848, but by 1880 the number of German speakers had decreased to 14% (42,000), and by 1910 to 6.7% (37,000), due to a massive increase of the city's overall population caused by the influx of Czechs from the rest of Bohemia and Moravia and also due to return of social status importance of the Czech language.
20th century[edit]
First Czechoslovak Republic[edit]
Main article: First Czechoslovak Republic
World War I ended with the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the creation of Czechoslovakia. Prague was chosen as its capital and Prague Castle as the seat of president Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. At this time Prague was a true European capital with highly developed industry. By 1930, the population had risen to 850,000.
Second World War[edit]
Further information: German occupation of Czechoslovakia
Hitler ordered the German Army to enter Prague on 15 March 1939, and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate. For most of its history, Prague had been a multi-ethnic city with important Czech, German and (mostly native German-speaking) Jewish populations.[citation needed] From 1939, when the country was occupied by Nazi Germany, and during the Second World War, most Jews were deported and killed by the Germans. In 1942, Prague was witness to the assassination of one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany – Reinhard Heydrich – during Operation Anthropoid, accomplished by Czechoslovak national heroes Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš. Hitler ordered bloody reprisals.
At the end of the war, Prague suffered several bombing raids by the US Army Air Forces. 701 people were killed, more than 1,000 people were injured and some of buildings, factories and historical landmarks (Emmaus Monastery, Faust House, Vinohrady Synagogue) were destroyed.[35] Many historic structures in Prague, however, escaped the destruction of the war and the damage was small compared to the total destruction of many other cities in that time. According to American pilots, it was the result of a navigational mistake.
On 5 May 1945, two days before Germany capitulated, an uprising against Germany occurred. Four days later, the 3rd Shock Army of the Red Army took the city, with fierce fighting until 11th May 1945. The majority (about 50,000 people) of the German population of Prague either fled or were expelled by the Beneš decrees in the aftermath of the war.
Cold War[edit]
Main article: History of Czechoslovakia (1948–89)
Prague was a city in the territory of military and political control of the Soviet Union (see Iron Curtain). The biggest Stalin Monument was unveiled on Letná hill in 1955 and destroyed in 1962. The 4th Czechoslovakian Writers' Congress held in the city in June 1967 took a strong position against the regime.[36] On 31 October 1967 students demonstrated at Strahov. This spurred the new secretary of the Communist Party, Alexander Dubček, to proclaim a new deal in his city's and country's life, starting the short-lived season of the "socialism with a human face". It was the Prague Spring, which aimed at the renovation of institutions in a democratic way. The other Warsaw Pact member countries, except Romania and Albania, reacted with the invasion of Czechoslovakia and the capital on 21 August 1968 by tanks, suppressing any attempt at reform. Jan Palach and Jan Zajíc committed suicide by self-immolation in January and February 1969 to protest against the "normalization" of the country.
After Velvet Revolution[edit]
In 1989, after the riot police beat back a peaceful student demonstration, the Velvet Revolution crowded the streets of Prague, and the Czechoslovak capital benefited greatly from the new mood. In 1993, after the split of Czechoslovakia, Prague became the capital city of the new Czech Republic. From 1995 high-rise buildings began to be built in Prague in large quantities. In the late 1990s, Prague again became an important cultural centre of Europe and was notably influenced by globalisation[clarification needed]. In 2000, IMF and World Bank summits took place in Prague. In 2002, Prague suffered from widespread floods that damaged buildings and its underground transport system.
Prague launched a bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics,[37] but failed to make the candidate city shortlist. In June 2009, as the result of financial pressures from the global recession, Prague's officials also chose to cancel the city's planned bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics.[38]
Name[edit]
See also: Names in different languages
The Czech name Praha is derived from an old Slavic word, práh, which means "ford" or "rapid", referring to the city's origin at a crossing point of the Vltava river.[39] The same etymology is associated with the Praga district of Warsaw.[40]
Another view to the origin of name is also related to the Czech word práh (in the mean of a threshold) and a legendary etymology connects the name of the city with princess Libuše, prophetess and a wife of mythical founder of the Přemyslid dynasty. She is said to have ordered the city "to be built where a man hews a threshold of his house". The Czech práh might thus be understood to refer to rapids or fords in the river, the edge of which could have acted as a means of fording the river – thus providing a "threshold" to the castle.
Another derivation of the name Praha is suggested from na prazě, the original term for the shale hillside rock upon which the original castle was built. At that time, the castle was surrounded by forests, covering the nine hills of the future city – the Old Town on the opposite side of the river, as well as the Lesser Town beneath the existing castle, appeared only later.[41]
The English spelling of the city's name is borrowed from French. Prague is also called the "City of a Hundred Spires", based on a count by 19th century mathematician Bernard Bolzano, today's count is estimated by Prague Information Service at 500.[42] Nicknames for Prague have also included: the Golden City, the Mother of Cities and the Heart of Europe.[43]
Geography[edit]
Prague is situated on the Vltava river, at 50°05"N and 14°27"E.[44] in the centre of the Bohemian Basin. Prague is approximately at the same latitude as Frankfurt, Germany;[45] Paris, France;[46] and Vancouver, Canada.[47]
Climate[edit]
Prague has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb). The winters are relatively cold with average temperatures at about freezing point, and with very little sunshine. Snow cover can be common between mid-November and late March although snow accumulations of more than 20 cm (8 in) are infrequent. There are also a few periods of mild temperatures in winter. Summers usually bring plenty of sunshine and the average high temperature of 24 °C (75 °F). Nights can be quite cool even in summer, though. Precipitation in Prague (and most of the Bohemian lowland) is rather low (just over 500 mm [20 in] per year) since it is located in the rain shadow of the Sudetes and other mountain ranges. The driest season is usually winter while late spring and summer can bring quite heavy rain, especially in form of thundershowers. Temperature inversions are relatively common between mid-October and mid-March bringing foggy, cold days and sometimes moderate air pollution. Prague is also a windy city with common sustained western winds and an average wind speed of 16 km/h (9.9 mph) that often help break temperature inversions and clear the air in cold months.
Culture[edit]
Historic Centre of Prague
Includes
Historic Centre of Prague and Průhonice Park
Criteria
Cultural: ii, iv, vi
Reference
616
Inscription
1992 (16th Session)
Area
1,106.36 ha
Buffer zone
9,887.09 ha
Prague Congress Centre has hosted the IMF-WBG meeting and NATO summit
The city is traditionally one of the cultural centres of Europe, hosting many cultural events. Some of the significant cultural institutions include the National Theatre (Národní Divadlo) and the Estates Theatre (Stavovské or Tylovo or Nosticovo divadlo), where the premières of Mozart's Don Giovanni and La clemenza di Tito were held. Other major cultural institutions are the Rudolfinum which is home to the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra and the Municipal House which is home to the Prague Symphony Orchestra. The Prague State Opera (Státní opera) performs at the Smetana Theatre.
The city has many world-class museums, including the National Museum (Národní muzeum), the Museum of the Capital City of Prague, the Jewish Museum in Prague, the Alfons Mucha Museum, the African-Prague Museum, the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague, the Náprstek Museum (Náprstkovo Muzeum), the Josef Sudek Gallery and The Josef Sudek Studio, the National Library and the National Gallery, which manages the largest collection of art in the Czech Republic.
There are hundreds of concert halls, galleries, cinemas and music clubs in the city. It hosts music festivals including the Prague Spring International Music Festival, the Prague Autumn International Music Festival, the Prague International Organ Festival and the Prague International Jazz Festival. Film festivals include the Febiofest, the One World Film Festival and Echoes of the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival. The city also hosts the Prague Writers' Festival, the Prague Folklore Days, Prague Advent Choral Meeting the Summer Shakespeare Festival,[55] the Prague Fringe Festival, the World Roma Festival, as well as the hundreds of Vernissages and fashion shows.
Many films have been made at Barrandov Studios and at Prague Studios. Hollywood films set in Prague include Mission Impossible, xXx, Blade II, Alien vs. Predator, Doom, Chronicles of Narnia, Hellboy, Red Tails, Children of Dune and Van Helsing.[56] Other Czech films shot in Prague include Empties, EuroTrip, Amadeus and The Fifth Horseman is Fear. Also, the romantic music video "Never Tear Us Apart" by INXS, "Diamonds from Sierra Leone" by Kanye West was shot in the city, and features shots of the Charles Bridge and the Astronomical Clock, among other famous landmarks. Rihanna's "Don't Stop the Music" video was filmed at Prague's Radost FX Club. The city was also the setting for the film Dungeons and Dragons in 2000. The music video "Silver and Cold" by AFI, an American rock band, was also filmed in Prague. Many Indian films have also been filmed in the city including Yuvraaj, Drona and Rockstar. Early 2000's europop hit "Something" by "Lasgo" was filmed at the central train station in Prague.
With the growth of low-cost airlines in Europe, Prague has become a popular weekend city destination allowing tourists to visit its many museums and cultural sites as well as try its famous Czech beers and hearty cuisine.
The city has many buildings by renowned architects, including Adolf Loos (Villa Müller), Frank O. Gehry (Dancing House) and Jean Nouvel (Golden Angel).
Recent major events held in Prague:
•International Monetary Fund and World Bank Summit 2000
•NATO Summit 2002
•International Olympic Committee Session 2004
•IAU General Assembly 2006 (Definition of planet)
•EU & USA Summit 2009
•Czech Presidency of the Council of the European Union 2009
•USA & Russia Summit 2010 (signing of the New START treaty)
Cuisine[edit]
In 2008 the Allegro restaurant received the first Michelin star in the whole of the post-Communist part of Central Europe. It retained its star until 2011. As of 2016 there are three Michelin-starred restaurants in Prague: Alcron, La Degustation, Bohême Bourgeoise, and Field.
In Malá Strana, Staré Město, Žižkov and Nusle there are hundreds of restaurants, bars and pubs, especially with Czech beer. Prague also hosts the Czech Beer Festival (Český pivní festival), which is the largest beer festival in the Czech Republic, held for 17 days every year in May. At the festival, more than 70 brands of Czech beer can be tasted.
Prague is home to many breweries including:
•Pivovary Staropramen (Praha 5)
•První novoměstský restaurační pivovar (Praha 1)
•Pivovar U Fleků (Praha 1)
•Klášterní pivovar Strahov (Praha 1)
•Pivovar Pražský most u Valšů (Praha 1)
•Pivovarský Hotel U Medvídků (Praha 1)
•Pivovarský dům (Praha 2)
•Jihoměstský pivovar (Praha 4)
•Sousedský pivovar U Bansethů (Praha 4)
•Vyukový a výzkumný pivovar – Suchdolský Jeník (Praha 6)
•Pivovar U Bulovky (Praha 8)
Economy[edit]
Prague's economy accounts for 25% of the Czech GDP[57] making it the highest performing regional economy of the country. According to the Eurostat, as of 2007, its GDP per capita in purchasing power standard is €42,800. Prague ranked the 5th best-performing European NUTS two-level region at 172 percent of the EU-27 average.[58]
The city is the site of the European headquarters of many international companies.[citation needed]
Prague employs almost a fifth of the entire Czech workforce, and its wages are significantly above average (~+25%). In December 2015, average salaries available in Prague reached 35,853 CZK, an annual increase of 3.4%, which was nevertheless lower than national increase of 3.9% both in nominal and real terms. (Inflation in Prague was 0.5% in December, compared with 0.1% nationally.)[58][59] Since 1990, the city's economic structure has shifted from industrial to service-oriented. Industry is present in sectors such as pharmaceuticals, printing, food processing, manufacture of transport equipment, computer technology and electrical engineering. In the service sector, financial and commercial services, trade, restaurants, hospitality and public administration are the most significant. Services account for around 80 percent of employment. There are 800,000 employees in Prague, including 120,000 commuters.[57] The number of (legally registered) foreign residents in Prague has been increasing in spite of the country's economic downturn. As of March 2010, 148,035 foreign workers were reported to be living in the city making up about 18 percent of the workforce, up from 131,132 in 2008.[60] Approximately one-fifth of all investment in the Czech Republic takes place in the city.
Almost one-half of the national income from tourism is spent in Prague. The city offers approximately 73,000 beds in accommodation facilities, most of which were built after 1990, including almost 51,000 beds in hotels and boarding houses.
From the late 1990s to late 2000s, the city was a popular filming location for international productions such as Hollywood and Bollywood motion pictures. A combination of architecture, low costs and the existing motion picture infrastructure have proven attractive to international film production companies.
The modern economy of Prague is largely service and export-based and, in a 2010 survey, the city was named the best city in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) for business.[61]
In 2005, Prague was deemed among the three best cities in Central and Eastern Europe according to The Economist's livability rankings.[62] The city was named as a top-tier nexus city for innovation across multiple sectors of the global innovation economy, placing 29th globally out of 289 cities, ahead of Brussels and Helsinki for innovation in 2010 in 2thinknow annual analysts Innovation Cities Index.[63] Na příkopě in New Town is the most expensive street in the whole of Central Europe.[64]
In the Eurostat research, Prague ranked fifth among Europe's 271 regions in terms of gross domestic product per inhabitant, achieving 172 percent of the EU average. It ranked just above Paris and well above the country as a whole, which achieved 80 percent of the EU average.[65][66]
Companies with highest turnover in the region in 2014:[67]
Name
Turnover, mld. Kč
ČEZ
200.8
Agrofert
166.8
RWE Supply & Trading CZ
146.1
Prague is also the site of some of the most important offices and institutions of the Czech Republic.
•President of the Czech Republic
•The Government and both houses of Parliament
•Ministries and other national offices (Industrial Property Office, Czech Statistical Office, National Security Authority etc.)
•Czech National Bank
•Czech Television and other major broadcasters
•Radio Free Europe – Radio Liberty
•Galileo global navigation project
•Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the capital of the Czech Republic. For other uses, see Prague (disambiguation).
"Praha" redirects here. For other uses, see Praha (disambiguation).
Prague
Praha
Capital city
Hlavní město Praha
Prague (/prɑːɡ/; Czech: Praha [ˈpraɦa] ( listen), German: Prag) is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic, the 14th largest city in the European Union[7] and also the historical capital of Bohemia. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its larger urban zone is estimated to have a population of 2.2 million.[8] The city has a temperate climate, with warm summers and chilly winters.
Prague has been a political, cultural and economic centre of central Europe complete with a rich history. Founded during the Romanesque and flourishing by the Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque eras, Prague was the capital of the kingdom of Bohemia and the main residence of several Holy Roman Emperors, most notably of Charles IV (r. 1346–1378).[9] It was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire. The city played major roles in the Bohemian and Protestant Reformation, the Thirty Years' War and in 20th-century history as the capital of Czechoslovakia, during both World Wars and the post-war Communist era.[10]
Prague is home to a number of famous cultural attractions, many of which survived the violence and destruction of 20th-century Europe. Main attractions include the Prague Castle, the Charles Bridge, Old Town Square with the Prague astronomical clock, the Jewish Quarter, Petřín hill and Vyšehrad. Since 1992, the extensive historic centre of Prague has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.
The city has more than ten major museums, along with numerous theatres, galleries, cinemas and other historical exhibits. An extensive modern public transportation system connects the city. Also, it is home to a wide range of public and private schools, including Charles University in Prague, the oldest university in Central Europe.[11]
Prague is classified as a "Beta+" global city according to GaWC studies[12] and ranked sixth in the Tripadvisor world list of best destinations in 2016.[13] Its rich history makes it a popular tourist destination and as of 2014, the city receives more than 6.4 million international visitors annually. Prague is the fifth most visited European city after London, Paris, Istanbul and Rome.[14]
History[edit]
Main articles: History of Prague and Timeline of Prague
During the thousand years of its existence, the city grew from a settlement stretching from Prague Castle in the north to the fort of Vyšehrad in the south, becoming the capital of a modern European country, the Czech Republic, a member state of the European Union.
Early history[edit]
The Prague astronomical clock was first installed in 1410, making it the third-oldest astronomical clock in the world and the oldest one still working.
The region was settled as early as the Paleolithic age.[15] Around the fifth and fourth century BC, the Celts appeared in the area, later establishing settlements including an oppidum in Závist, a present-day suburb of Prague, and giving name to the region of Bohemia, "home of the Boii".[15][16] In the last century BC, the Celts were slowly driven away by Germanic tribes (Marcomanni, Quadi, Lombards and possibly the Suebi), leading some to place the seat of the Marcomanni king Maroboduus on the southern Prague's site Závist.[17][18] Around the area where present-day Prague stands, the 2nd century map of Ptolemaios mentioned a Germanic city called Casurgis.[19]
In the late 5th century AD, during the great Migration Period following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes living in Bohemia moved westwards and, probably in the 6th century, the Slavic tribes (Venedi) settled Central Bohemian Region. In the following two centuries, the Czech tribes built several fortified settlements in the area, most notably in the Šárka valley, Butovice and later in Levý Hradec.[15]
The construction of what came to be known as the Prague Castle began near the end of the 9th century, with a fortified settlement already existing on the site in the year 800.[20] The first masonry under Prague Castle dates from the year 885 at the latest.[21] The other prominent Prague fort, the Přemyslid fort Vyšehrad, was founded in the 10th century, some 70 years later than Prague Castle.[22] Prague Castle is dominated by the cathedral, which was founded in 1344, but completed in the 20th century.
The legendary origins of Prague attribute its foundation to the 8th century Czech duchess and prophetess Libuše and her husband, Přemysl, founder of the Přemyslid dynasty. Legend says that Libuše came out on a rocky cliff high above the Vltava and prophesied: "I see a great city whose glory will touch the stars." She ordered a castle and a town called Praha to be built on the site.[15]
A 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the city was founded as Boihaem in c. 1306 BC by an ancient king, Boyya.[18]
The region became the seat of the dukes, and later kings of Bohemia. Under Roman Emperor Otto II the area became a bishopric in 973. Until Prague was elevated to archbishopric in 1344, it was under the jurisdiction of the Archbishopric of Mainz.
Prague was an important seat for trading where merchants from all of Europe settled, including many Jews, as recalled in 965 by the Hispano-Jewish merchant and traveller Ibrahim ibn Ya'qub. The Old New Synagogue of 1270 still stands. Prague contained an important slave market.[23]
At the site of the ford in the Vltava river, King Vladislaus I had the first bridge built in 1170, the Judith Bridge (Juditin most), named in honour of his wife Judith of Thuringia. This bridge was destroyed by a flood in 1342. Some of the original foundation stones of that bridge remain.
In 1257, under King Ottokar II, Malá Strana ("Lesser Quarter") was founded in Prague on the site of an older village in what would become the Hradčany (Prague Castle) area. This was the district of the German people, who had the right to administer the law autonomously, pursuant to Magdeburg rights. The new district was on the bank opposite of the Staré Město ("Old Town"), which had borough status and was bordered by a line of walls and fortifications.
The era of Charles IV[edit]
Prague flourished during the 14th-century reign (1346–1378) of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and the king of Bohemia of the new Luxembourg dynasty. As King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, he transformed Prague into an imperial capital and it was at that time the third-largest city in Europe (after Rome and Constantinople).
He ordered the building of the New Town (Nové Město) adjacent to the Old Town and laid out the design himself. The Charles Bridge, replacing the Judith Bridge destroyed in the flood just prior to his reign, was erected to connect the east bank districts to the Malá Strana and castle area. On 9 July 1357 at 5:31 am, Charles IV personally laid the first foundation stone for the Charles Bridge. The exact time of laying the first foundation stone is known because the palindromic number 135797531 was carved into the Old Town bridge tower having been chosen by the royal astrologists and numerologists as the best time for starting the bridge construction.[24] In 1347, he founded Charles University, which remains the oldest university in Central Europe.
He began construction of the Gothic Saint Vitus Cathedral, within the largest of the Prague Castle courtyards, on the site of the Romanesque rotunda there. Prague was elevated to an archbishopric in 1344, the year the cathedral was begun.
The city had a mint and was a centre of trade for German and Italian bankers and merchants. The social order, however, became more turbulent due to the rising power of the craftsmen's guilds (themselves often torn by internal fights), and the increasing number of poor people.
The Hunger Wall, a substantial fortification wall south of Malá Strana and the Castle area, was built during a famine in the 1360s. The work is reputed to have been ordered by Charles IV as a means of providing employment and food to the workers and their families.
Charles IV died in 1378. During the reign of his son, King Wenceslaus IV (1378–1419), a period of intense turmoil ensued. During Easter 1389, members of the Prague clergy announced that Jews had desecrated the host (Eucharistic wafer) and the clergy encouraged mobs to pillage, ransack and burn the Jewish quarter. Nearly the entire Jewish population of Prague (3,000 people) perished.[25][26]
Jan Hus, a theologian and rector at the Charles University, preached in Prague. In 1402, he began giving sermons in the Bethlehem Chapel. Inspired by John Wycliffe, these sermons focused on what were seen as radical reforms of a corrupt Church. Having become too dangerous for the political and religious establishment, Hus was summoned to the Council of Constance, put on trial for heresy, and burned at the stake in Constanz in 1415.
Four years later Prague experienced its first defenestration, when the people rebelled under the command of the Prague priest Jan Želivský. Hus' death, coupled with Czech proto-nationalism and proto-Protestantism, had spurred the Hussite Wars. Peasant rebels, led by the general Jan Žižka, along with Hussite troops from Prague, defeated Emperor Sigismund, in the Battle of Vítkov Hill in 1420.
During the Hussite Wars when the City of Prague was attacked by "Crusader" and mercenary forces, the city militia fought bravely under the Prague Banner. This swallow-tailed banner is approximately 4 by 6 feet (1.2 by 1.8 metres), with a red field sprinkled with small white fleurs-de-lis, and a silver old Town Coat-of-Arms in the centre. The words "PÁN BŮH POMOC NAŠE" (The Lord is our Relief) appeared above the coat-of-arms, with a Hussite chalice centred on the top. Near the swallow-tails is a crescent shaped golden sun with rays protruding.
One of these banners was captured by Swedish troops in Battle of Prague (1648), when they captured the western bank of the Vltava river and were repulsed from the eastern bank, they placed it in the Royal Military Museum in Stockholm; although this flag still exists, it is in very poor condition. They also took the Codex Gigas and the Codex Argenteus. The earliest evidence indicates that a gonfalon with a municipal charge painted on it was used for Old Town as early as 1419. Since this city militia flag was in use before 1477 and during the Hussite Wars, it is the oldest still preserved municipal flag of Bohemia.
In the following two centuries, Prague strengthened its role as a merchant city. Many noteworthy Gothic buildings[28][29] were erected and Vladislav Hall of the Prague Castle was added.
Habsburg era[edit]
In 1526, the Bohemian estates elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg. The fervent Catholicism of its members was to bring them into conflict in Bohemia, and then in Prague, where Protestant ideas were gaining popularity.[30] These problems were not pre-eminent under Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, elected King of Bohemia in 1576, who chose Prague as his home. He lived in the Prague Castle, where his court welcomed not only astrologers and magicians but also scientists, musicians, and artists. Rudolf was an art lover too, and Prague became the capital of European culture. This was a prosperous period for the city: famous people living there in that age include the astronomers Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler, the painter Arcimboldo, the alchemists Edward Kelley and John Dee, the poet Elizabeth Jane Weston, and others.
In 1618, the famous second defenestration of Prague provoked the Thirty Years' War, a particularly harsh period for Prague and Bohemia. Ferdinand II of Habsburg was deposed, and his place as King of Bohemia taken by Frederick V, Elector Palatine; however his army was crushed in the Battle of White Mountain (1620) not far from the city. Following this in 1621 was an execution of 27 Czech leaders (involved in the uprising) in Old Town Square and the exiling of many others. The city suffered subsequently during the war under Saxon (1631) and Battle of Prague (1648).[31] Prague began a steady decline which reduced the population from the 60,000 it had had in the years before the war to 20,000. In the second half of the 17th century Prague's population began to grow again. Jews had been in Prague since the end of the 10th century and, by 1708, they accounted for about a quarter of Prague's population.[32]
In 1689, a great fire devastated Prague, but this spurred a renovation and a rebuilding of the city. In 1713–14, a major outbreak of plague hit Prague one last time, killing 12,000 to 13,000 people.[33]
In 1744 Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Bohemia. He took Prague after a severe and prolonged siege in the course of which a large part of the town was destroyed.[34] In 1757 the Prussian Prussian bombardment[34] destroyed more than one quarter of the city and heavily damaged St. Vitus Cathedral. However a month later Frederick the Great was defeated and to retreat from Bohemia.
The economy of the city continued to improve during the 18th century. The population increased to 80,000 inhabitants by 1771. Many rich merchants and nobles enhanced the city with a host of palaces, churches and gardens full of art and music, creating a Baroque city renowned throughout the world to this day.
In 1784, under Joseph II, the four municipalities of Malá Strana, Nové Město, Staré Město, and Hradčany were merged into a single entity. The Jewish district, called Josefov, was included only in 1850. The Industrial Revolution had a strong effect in Prague, as factories could take advantage of the coal mines and ironworks of the nearby region. A first suburb, Karlín, was created in 1817, and twenty years later the population exceeded 100,000.
The revolutions in Europe in 1848 also touched Prague, but they were fiercely suppressed. In the following years the Czech National Revival began its rise, until it gained the majority in the town council in 1861. Prague had a German-speaking majority in 1848, but by 1880 the number of German speakers had decreased to 14% (42,000), and by 1910 to 6.7% (37,000), due to a massive increase of the city's overall population caused by the influx of Czechs from the rest of Bohemia and Moravia and also due to return of social status importance of the Czech language.
20th century[edit]
First Czechoslovak Republic[edit]
Main article: First Czechoslovak Republic
World War I ended with the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the creation of Czechoslovakia. Prague was chosen as its capital and Prague Castle as the seat of president Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. At this time Prague was a true European capital with highly developed industry. By 1930, the population had risen to 850,000.
Second World War[edit]
Further information: German occupation of Czechoslovakia
Hitler ordered the German Army to enter Prague on 15 March 1939, and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate. For most of its history, Prague had been a multi-ethnic city with important Czech, German and (mostly native German-speaking) Jewish populations.[citation needed] From 1939, when the country was occupied by Nazi Germany, and during the Second World War, most Jews were deported and killed by the Germans. In 1942, Prague was witness to the assassination of one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany – Reinhard Heydrich – during Operation Anthropoid, accomplished by Czechoslovak national heroes Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš. Hitler ordered bloody reprisals.
At the end of the war, Prague suffered several bombing raids by the US Army Air Forces. 701 people were killed, more than 1,000 people were injured and some of buildings, factories and historical landmarks (Emmaus Monastery, Faust House, Vinohrady Synagogue) were destroyed.[35] Many historic structures in Prague, however, escaped the destruction of the war and the damage was small compared to the total destruction of many other cities in that time. According to American pilots, it was the result of a navigational mistake.
On 5 May 1945, two days before Germany capitulated, an uprising against Germany occurred. Four days later, the 3rd Shock Army of the Red Army took the city, with fierce fighting until 11th May 1945. The majority (about 50,000 people) of the German population of Prague either fled or were expelled by the Beneš decrees in the aftermath of the war.
Cold War[edit]
Main article: History of Czechoslovakia (1948–89)
Prague was a city in the territory of military and political control of the Soviet Union (see Iron Curtain). The biggest Stalin Monument was unveiled on Letná hill in 1955 and destroyed in 1962. The 4th Czechoslovakian Writers' Congress held in the city in June 1967 took a strong position against the regime.[36] On 31 October 1967 students demonstrated at Strahov. This spurred the new secretary of the Communist Party, Alexander Dubček, to proclaim a new deal in his city's and country's life, starting the short-lived season of the "socialism with a human face". It was the Prague Spring, which aimed at the renovation of institutions in a democratic way. The other Warsaw Pact member countries, except Romania and Albania, reacted with the invasion of Czechoslovakia and the capital on 21 August 1968 by tanks, suppressing any attempt at reform. Jan Palach and Jan Zajíc committed suicide by self-immolation in January and February 1969 to protest against the "normalization" of the country.
After Velvet Revolution[edit]
In 1989, after the riot police beat back a peaceful student demonstration, the Velvet Revolution crowded the streets of Prague, and the Czechoslovak capital benefited greatly from the new mood. In 1993, after the split of Czechoslovakia, Prague became the capital city of the new Czech Republic. From 1995 high-rise buildings began to be built in Prague in large quantities. In the late 1990s, Prague again became an important cultural centre of Europe and was notably influenced by globalisation[clarification needed]. In 2000, IMF and World Bank summits took place in Prague. In 2002, Prague suffered from widespread floods that damaged buildings and its underground transport system.
Prague launched a bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics,[37] but failed to make the candidate city shortlist. In June 2009, as the result of financial pressures from the global recession, Prague's officials also chose to cancel the city's planned bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics.[38]
Name[edit]
See also: Names in different languages
The Czech name Praha is derived from an old Slavic word, práh, which means "ford" or "rapid", referring to the city's origin at a crossing point of the Vltava river.[39] The same etymology is associated with the Praga district of Warsaw.[40]
Another view to the origin of name is also related to the Czech word práh (in the mean of a threshold) and a legendary etymology connects the name of the city with princess Libuše, prophetess and a wife of mythical founder of the Přemyslid dynasty. She is said to have ordered the city "to be built where a man hews a threshold of his house". The Czech práh might thus be understood to refer to rapids or fords in the river, the edge of which could have acted as a means of fording the river – thus providing a "threshold" to the castle.
Another derivation of the name Praha is suggested from na prazě, the original term for the shale hillside rock upon which the original castle was built. At that time, the castle was surrounded by forests, covering the nine hills of the future city – the Old Town on the opposite side of the river, as well as the Lesser Town beneath the existing castle, appeared only later.[41]
The English spelling of the city's name is borrowed from French. Prague is also called the "City of a Hundred Spires", based on a count by 19th century mathematician Bernard Bolzano, today's count is estimated by Prague Information Service at 500.[42] Nicknames for Prague have also included: the Golden City, the Mother of Cities and the Heart of Europe.[43]
Geography[edit]
Prague is situated on the Vltava river, at 50°05"N and 14°27"E.[44] in the centre of the Bohemian Basin. Prague is approximately at the same latitude as Frankfurt, Germany;[45] Paris, France;[46] and Vancouver, Canada.[47]
Climate[edit]
Prague has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb). The winters are relatively cold with average temperatures at about freezing point, and with very little sunshine. Snow cover can be common between mid-November and late March although snow accumulations of more than 20 cm (8 in) are infrequent. There are also a few periods of mild temperatures in winter. Summers usually bring plenty of sunshine and the average high temperature of 24 °C (75 °F). Nights can be quite cool even in summer, though. Precipitation in Prague (and most of the Bohemian lowland) is rather low (just over 500 mm [20 in] per year) since it is located in the rain shadow of the Sudetes and other mountain ranges. The driest season is usually winter while late spring and summer can bring quite heavy rain, especially in form of thundershowers. Temperature inversions are relatively common between mid-October and mid-March bringing foggy, cold days and sometimes moderate air pollution. Prague is also a windy city with common sustained western winds and an average wind speed of 16 km/h (9.9 mph) that often help break temperature inversions and clear the air in cold months.
Culture[edit]
Historic Centre of Prague
Includes
Historic Centre of Prague and Průhonice Park
Criteria
Cultural: ii, iv, vi
Reference
616
Inscription
1992 (16th Session)
Area
1,106.36 ha
Buffer zone
9,887.09 ha
Prague Congress Centre has hosted the IMF-WBG meeting and NATO summit
The city is traditionally one of the cultural centres of Europe, hosting many cultural events. Some of the significant cultural institutions include the National Theatre (Národní Divadlo) and the Estates Theatre (Stavovské or Tylovo or Nosticovo divadlo), where the premières of Mozart's Don Giovanni and La clemenza di Tito were held. Other major cultural institutions are the Rudolfinum which is home to the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra and the Municipal House which is home to the Prague Symphony Orchestra. The Prague State Opera (Státní opera) performs at the Smetana Theatre.
The city has many world-class museums, including the National Museum (Národní muzeum), the Museum of the Capital City of Prague, the Jewish Museum in Prague, the Alfons Mucha Museum, the African-Prague Museum, the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague, the Náprstek Museum (Náprstkovo Muzeum), the Josef Sudek Gallery and The Josef Sudek Studio, the National Library and the National Gallery, which manages the largest collection of art in the Czech Republic.
There are hundreds of concert halls, galleries, cinemas and music clubs in the city. It hosts music festivals including the Prague Spring International Music Festival, the Prague Autumn International Music Festival, the Prague International Organ Festival and the Prague International Jazz Festival. Film festivals include the Febiofest, the One World Film Festival and Echoes of the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival. The city also hosts the Prague Writers' Festival, the Prague Folklore Days, Prague Advent Choral Meeting the Summer Shakespeare Festival,[55] the Prague Fringe Festival, the World Roma Festival, as well as the hundreds of Vernissages and fashion shows.
Many films have been made at Barrandov Studios and at Prague Studios. Hollywood films set in Prague include Mission Impossible, xXx, Blade II, Alien vs. Predator, Doom, Chronicles of Narnia, Hellboy, Red Tails, Children of Dune and Van Helsing.[56] Other Czech films shot in Prague include Empties, EuroTrip, Amadeus and The Fifth Horseman is Fear. Also, the romantic music video "Never Tear Us Apart" by INXS, "Diamonds from Sierra Leone" by Kanye West was shot in the city, and features shots of the Charles Bridge and the Astronomical Clock, among other famous landmarks. Rihanna's "Don't Stop the Music" video was filmed at Prague's Radost FX Club. The city was also the setting for the film Dungeons and Dragons in 2000. The music video "Silver and Cold" by AFI, an American rock band, was also filmed in Prague. Many Indian films have also been filmed in the city including Yuvraaj, Drona and Rockstar. Early 2000's europop hit "Something" by "Lasgo" was filmed at the central train station in Prague.
With the growth of low-cost airlines in Europe, Prague has become a popular weekend city destination allowing tourists to visit its many museums and cultural sites as well as try its famous Czech beers and hearty cuisine.
The city has many buildings by renowned architects, including Adolf Loos (Villa Müller), Frank O. Gehry (Dancing House) and Jean Nouvel (Golden Angel).
Recent major events held in Prague:
•International Monetary Fund and World Bank Summit 2000
•NATO Summit 2002
•International Olympic Committee Session 2004
•IAU General Assembly 2006 (Definition of planet)
•EU & USA Summit 2009
•Czech Presidency of the Council of the European Union 2009
•USA & Russia Summit 2010 (signing of the New START treaty)
Cuisine[edit]
In 2008 the Allegro restaurant received the first Michelin star in the whole of the post-Communist part of Central Europe. It retained its star until 2011. As of 2016 there are three Michelin-starred restaurants in Prague: Alcron, La Degustation, Bohême Bourgeoise, and Field.
In Malá Strana, Staré Město, Žižkov and Nusle there are hundreds of restaurants, bars and pubs, especially with Czech beer. Prague also hosts the Czech Beer Festival (Český pivní festival), which is the largest beer festival in the Czech Republic, held for 17 days every year in May. At the festival, more than 70 brands of Czech beer can be tasted.
Prague is home to many breweries including:
•Pivovary Staropramen (Praha 5)
•První novoměstský restaurační pivovar (Praha 1)
•Pivovar U Fleků (Praha 1)
•Klášterní pivovar Strahov (Praha 1)
•Pivovar Pražský most u Valšů (Praha 1)
•Pivovarský Hotel U Medvídků (Praha 1)
•Pivovarský dům (Praha 2)
•Jihoměstský pivovar (Praha 4)
•Sousedský pivovar U Bansethů (Praha 4)
•Vyukový a výzkumný pivovar – Suchdolský Jeník (Praha 6)
•Pivovar U Bulovky (Praha 8)
Economy[edit]
Prague's economy accounts for 25% of the Czech GDP[57] making it the highest performing regional economy of the country. According to the Eurostat, as of 2007, its GDP per capita in purchasing power standard is €42,800. Prague ranked the 5th best-performing European NUTS two-level region at 172 percent of the EU-27 average.[58]
The city is the site of the European headquarters of many international companies.[citation needed]
Prague employs almost a fifth of the entire Czech workforce, and its wages are significantly above average (~+25%). In December 2015, average salaries available in Prague reached 35,853 CZK, an annual increase of 3.4%, which was nevertheless lower than national increase of 3.9% both in nominal and real terms. (Inflation in Prague was 0.5% in December, compared with 0.1% nationally.)[58][59] Since 1990, the city's economic structure has shifted from industrial to service-oriented. Industry is present in sectors such as pharmaceuticals, printing, food processing, manufacture of transport equipment, computer technology and electrical engineering. In the service sector, financial and commercial services, trade, restaurants, hospitality and public administration are the most significant. Services account for around 80 percent of employment. There are 800,000 employees in Prague, including 120,000 commuters.[57] The number of (legally registered) foreign residents in Prague has been increasing in spite of the country's economic downturn. As of March 2010, 148,035 foreign workers were reported to be living in the city making up about 18 percent of the workforce, up from 131,132 in 2008.[60] Approximately one-fifth of all investment in the Czech Republic takes place in the city.
Almost one-half of the national income from tourism is spent in Prague. The city offers approximately 73,000 beds in accommodation facilities, most of which were built after 1990, including almost 51,000 beds in hotels and boarding houses.
From the late 1990s to late 2000s, the city was a popular filming location for international productions such as Hollywood and Bollywood motion pictures. A combination of architecture, low costs and the existing motion picture infrastructure have proven attractive to international film production companies.
The modern economy of Prague is largely service and export-based and, in a 2010 survey, the city was named the best city in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) for business.[61]
In 2005, Prague was deemed among the three best cities in Central and Eastern Europe according to The Economist's livability rankings.[62] The city was named as a top-tier nexus city for innovation across multiple sectors of the global innovation economy, placing 29th globally out of 289 cities, ahead of Brussels and Helsinki for innovation in 2010 in 2thinknow annual analysts Innovation Cities Index.[63] Na příkopě in New Town is the most expensive street in the whole of Central Europe.[64]
In the Eurostat research, Prague ranked fifth among Europe's 271 regions in terms of gross domestic product per inhabitant, achieving 172 percent of the EU average. It ranked just above Paris and well above the country as a whole, which achieved 80 percent of the EU average.[65][66]
Companies with highest turnover in the region in 2014:[67]
Name
Turnover, mld. Kč
ČEZ
200.8
Agrofert
166.8
RWE Supply & Trading CZ
146.1
Prague is also the site of some of the most important offices and institutions of the Czech Republic.
•President of the Czech Republic
•The Government and both houses of Parliament
•Ministries and other national offices (Industrial Property Office, Czech Statistical Office, National Security Authority etc.)
•Czech National Bank
•Czech Television and other major broadcasters
•Radio Free Europe – Radio Liberty
•Galileo global navigation project
•Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
Pride of our household.. not the girls, the Encyclopedia Britainica, which we paid $2500 for. (from left) sister with smug face, me with monkey face.
Some books from my collection.
RAC Rally Encyclopedia - Maurice Hamilton and David Campbell.
Published 1992.
190 pages.
Oneness Pentecostalism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards.
Please improve this article if you can. (September 2008)
This article or section needs sources or references that appear in reliable, third-party publications.
Primary sources and sources affiliated with the subject of the article are generally not sufficient for a Wikipedia article. Please include more appropriate citations from reliable sources, or discuss the issue on the talk page. (August 2008)
[hide]
Part of a series of articles on
Christianity
Jesus Christ
Virgin birth · Crucifixion · Resurrection
Foundations
Church · New Covenant
Apostles · Kingdom · Gospel · Timeline
Bible
Old Testament · New Testament
Books · Canon · Apocrypha
Christian theology
Trinity · (Father · Son · Holy Spirit)
History of · Theology · Apologetics
History and traditions
Early · Councils · Creeds · Missions
East-West Schism · Crusades · Reformation
Denominations
[show]Catholicism
Roman Catholic · Eastern Catholic · Anglican · Independent Catholic · Old Catholic ·
[show]Protestantism
Lutheran · Reformed · Anabaptist · Baptist · Methodist · Adventist · Evangelicalism · Holiness · Pentecostal
[show]Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy · Oriental Orthodoxy (Miaphysite) · Syriac Christianity (inc. Nestorian Assyrians)
[show]Nontrinitarian
Jehovah's Witnesses · Latter Day Saint movement · Unitarianism · Christadelphians · Oneness Pentecostalism
Topics in Christianity
Preaching · Prayer · Ecumenism
Relation to other religions · Movements
Music · Liturgy · Calendar
Symbols · Art · Criticism
Christianity Portal
This box: view • talk • edit
Oneness Pentecostalism is a movement of Pentecostal Christianity that believes in the atoning death of Jesus Christ, His resurrection, His soon return, and the Word of God as contained in the Bible, but differs from mainstream Pentecostalism by following the doctrine of Oneness. Oneness Pentecostalism teaches a literal interpretation of the biblical teaching of salvation with emphasis on the teaching of Jesus Christ & His Apostles, citing "John 3:1-12 & Acts 2:38 experience" as necessary for salvation and places special emphasis on the direct personal experience of God through the baptism of the Holy Spirit, as shown in the Biblical account of the Day of Pentecost. It teaches that personal conversion is to be followed by holy living and exhibiting the fruit of the Spirit (Galatians 5:22).
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Overview
* 2 History
o 2.1 The early Church
o 2.2 Modern History
* 3 Doctrine and theology
o 3.1 God
o 3.2 Salvation
o 3.3 Holiness
* 4 Common misunderstandings
o 4.1 Jesus' Name vs. Jesus Only
o 4.2 Oneness Theology IS NOT Unitarianism
* 5 Followers of Oneness Pentecostalism
o 5.1 Gospel and Contemporary Christian artists
* 6 References
* 7 See also
* 8 External links
o 8.1 Articles, indexes, & other resources
+ 8.1.1 Favoring views
+ 8.1.2 Comparative articles
+ 8.1.3 Other
* 9 Oneness Pentecostal Groups
o 9.1 North America
o 9.2 Other countries
[edit] Overview
Although both Oneness and Trinitarian denominations acknowledge the God of the Bible as the only God in existence, and that Jesus was born, died, and resurrected, Oneness doctrine differs from mainstream Christian denominations in that the traditional concept of the Trinity is rejected as an inadequate and inaccurate description of God. According to the United Pentecostal Church International, the largest Oneness Pentecostal body in the United States, Oneness Pentecostals identify Jesus essentially as the human manifestation of God (Jehovah), i.e. God incarnate. [1].
Citing 1Timothy 2:5, the Oneness doctrine affirms that God is indivisibly one, and sees the biblical distinction between God the Father and the man Jesus, as being a proper, observable father-son distinction, except between an incorporeal, transcendent, eternal God as Father, and a human, begotten man as Son, in whom God manifested Himself for the purpose of salvation. Oneness doctrine affirms the full deity of Jesus, by holding that God incarnate manifested Himself to humanity in the man Jesus. It refutes the Trinitarian proposal that the one, true God is composed of three co-divine, co-equal, co-eternal, co-powerful persons. In the sense that the one God and one man of 1Timothy 2:5 co-exist simultaneously, they teach that Jesus exists simultaneously both as man Jesus and as God (God the Father an invisible, transcendent, Spirit) inseparably united (see John 10:30) as the Son of God. Citing John 4:24 (God is a Spirit), Oneness doctrine uses the terms God the Father and Holy Spirit as references to the same one God, who is Spirit. It affirms that the Holy Spirit and God the Father are one in the same Godhead, but only as separate manifestations or relationships of the one person or being that is God.
"Oneness", "Apostolic" and "Jesus' Name" are adherents' preferred self-designations.[1].
Oneness Pentecostals have also been identified as "Holy Rollers" for their lively style of worship, which can include running church aisles, known as victory marches, as well as jumping, dancing, shouting, and clapping. The church services are also punctuated at times with acts of speaking in tongues (glossolalia), interpretations of tongues, prophetical messages, and the laying of hands for the purposes of healing. These events can happen spontaneously during normal service with no forewarning or direct guidance by the leader of the service, or more often at massive altar calls where the entire congregation is encouraged to come and pray together for various purposes at the altar.
Oneness Pentecostals commonly refer to all saved Christians as saints and often refer to the men as brothers and the women as sisters, often as a title (i.e. Bro. Smith or Sis. Henderson),in their normal day-to-day speech both in and outside of church.
While the UPCI, PAW, and other Oneness Pentecostal churches do allow women to serve as pastors and evangelize, some Oneness Pentecostals hold the belief that women ministers are unscriptural. Ministers at all levels are allowed to marry and have children. Homosexual marriages are forbidden under all circumstances.
[edit] History
Many people believe that the Oneness doctrine came into existence only in the early 20th century during the latter days of the Azusa Street Revival. Church historians, however, such as Dr. Curtis Ward, William Chalfant, Talmadge French, Dr. David Bernard, and Thomas Weisser in their research and writings argue there were Oneness believers long before the Azusa Street Revival that lead all the way to the beginning of the first century Christian church. Dr. Ward has proposed the view of an unbroken Church lineage and has chronologically traced its perpetuity throughout history. (see Matthew 16:18). Dr. Reckart has also done significant research in this area. Others teach the Apostolic church went into apostasy and became the Catholic Church. They believe modern Pentecostalism is a total restoration culminating after a step by step separation within Protestantism until the early Apostolic Church was fully restored (Acts 2:38 baptism and Oneness being the final restorations).
There are indications that the pioneering Oneness Pentecostal figures in the early twentieth century were guided and inspired by prior restorations within Protestantism. Yet none of them had any influence upon them by the ancient Modalists such as Sabellius, Noetus or Praxeas. Modern Oneness people respect the prior restorations within Protestantism but still stress dependence solely upon God and the Bible for the formation of their doctrines, seeking guidance not from ante and post-Nicene writings of men, but from illumination by the Holy Spirit upon the Scriptures. Pre and ante Nicene church history is deemed by Oneness people to be of great interest, but the neo-platoism, dogmas, creeds, and private interpretations are not binding upon them for their faith or doctrinal views. Thus, they are unorthodox to trinitarians but orthodox according to the literal sense of the word. Oneness Christians regard the historic Ecumenical Councils and creeds to be the opinions of men within an apostate falling away from the first Church. In contrast, Nicene (Catholic & Protestant) Christians (by their very definition of orthodox) regard all post-apostolic doctrinal developments as being guided by God's will using the councils and church leadership. As such all of the post-biblical stream of creeds, dogmas, decrees, papal decisions, and judgments of the councils and church leaders as binding upon them for their doctrinal views. Oneness discovered within trinitarian writings that the post-biblical interpretation of the trinity taken not from the Bible but classical Greek philosophy. It cannot be both Apostolic and a Greek invention thrust upon the Council of Nicaea. Catholics claim if Oneness Pentecostals deny the creeds and the actions of Catholic Bishops, they should not accept the Bible, as it was allegedly collected, compiled, and canonized by councils who believed in the Trinity. Oneness counter this by saying there was no Catholic church when the New Testament was written, therefore it was compiled and in a collected form two centuries before the Catholic church was born in 325AD. There are references to this collection before Nicaea and any such canonizing councils. In addition, sola scriptures, defines Oneness faith and that additional creeds, dogmas, papal decrees are unacceptable for doctrine, faith, and practice.
In the New Testament, Jews are described as rejecting Jesus' claims to divinity, accusing him of blasphemy. In the Gospel of Mark, for instance, Jesus forgives a man's sins and some Jewish teachers thought to themselves: "Why does this fellow talk like that? He's blaspheming! Who can forgive sins but God alone?" In the Gospel of John, some Jews began to stone Jesus, explaining that they did so "for blasphemy, because you, a mere man, claim to be God." This is the origin of dynamic monarchianism (Jesus is not God only a man). (see Unitarianism, Iglesia Ni Cristo, To God Be The Glory by Joel Hemphill, and Islam.
[edit] The early Church
Citing various sources, Oneness theologian David K. Bernard traces Oneness adherents back to the first converted Jews of the Apostolic Age, citing no evidence of Jews having any issues comprehending the new teachings and integrating them with their existing strict Judaistic monotheistic beliefs. In the Post-apostolic Age, he claims that Hermas, Clement of Rome, Polycarp, Polycrates and Ignatius from 90 to 140 A.D., and Irenaeus who died about 200 A.D, were either Oneness, modalist, or at most a follower of an "economic Trinity" (temporary Trinity, not eternal). [2]
Hear, O Israel: the LORD our God, the LORD is one. (The coming of the Messiah was not to bring the revelation of 2 or 3 god's [tritheism]- it was to make manifest the revelation of the One God (Jehovah/Yahweh) that manifested himself in human form.
—Deuteronomy 6:4
And without controversy great is the mystery of godliness: God was manifest in the flesh, justified in the Spirit, seen of angels, preached unto the Gentiles, believed on in the world, received up into glory.
—1Ti 3:16
In support of the theory that the majority of all believers up until Tertullian (died c. 225; first to use introduce the term "Trinity" to describe God) were Oneness adherents, Bernard quotes Tertullian as writing, "The simple, indeed (I will not call them unwise or unlearned), who always constitute the majority of believers, are startled at the dispensation (of the Three in One), on the very ground that their very Rule of Faith withdraws them from the world's plurality of gods to the one only true God; not understanding that, although He is the one only God, He must yet be believed in with His own economy. The numerical order and distribution of the Trinity, they assume to be a division of the Unity.[3]
Later Oneness, or closely similar to Oneness, teachers have been pointed out through history include the following: Abelard (1079-1142) who was accused of Sabellianism and forced into refuge in a monastery in France; Michael Servetus (1511-1553) eminent physician from Spain, sometimes cited as a motivating force of Unitarianism, who wrote, "There is no other person of God but Christ ... the entire Godhead of the Father is in him,"[4] was burned at the stake for heresy on October 27, 1553 for his anti-trinitarian doctrine, with the approval of John Calvin (for whom of Calvinism was named), though Calvin preferred Servetus be beheaded; Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772); Presbyterian minister John Miller, author of Is God a Trinity? (1876), John Clowes, pastor of St. John's Church in Manchester, reportedly wrote a book in 1828 that taught Oneness[5].
Bernard, as well as other Oneness historians and theologians, deny any direct link from earlier Oneness believers to the current Oneness Pentecostal movement.
[edit] Modern History
Oneness historian Morris Golder, cites PAW Bishop G. T. Haywood in an article from 1915 in The Voice in the Wilderness, as dating Oneness Pentecostalism to at least 1906 with the formation of the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World - PAW. The founders were E. W. Doak, G. T. Haywood, and D. C. Opperman. According to Dr. David Bundy, a Pentecostal historian at the Christian Theological Seminary, as early as 1907, a white Baptist minister in Los Angeles, was preaching non-Trinitarian water baptism in the Name of Jesus. According to Dr. Deborah Sims LeBlanc, William and Maggie Bowden, the parents of former Assistant Presiding Bishop Frank Bowden, were baptized in the Name of Jesus after the Azusa Street Mission Revival (1906-1909).
However, the beginning for many was in April 1913 at The World-Wide Apostolic Camp Meeting held in Arroyo Seco, California and conducted by Maria Woodworth-Etter, organizers promised that God would "deal with them, giving them a unity and power that we have not yet known." [6] Canadian R. E. McAlister preached a message about water baptism "just prior to a baptismal service to be conducted". His message defended the "single immersion" method and "noted that apostolic baptism was administered as a single immersion in a single name, Jesus Christ", saying "'The words Father, Son, and Holy Ghost were never used in Christian baptism.'" This caused a controversy to erupt immediately when Frank Denny, missionary to China, jumped on the platform and tried to censor McAlister.
Oneness Pentecostals mark this occasion as the initial "spark" in the Oneness revival movement. "John G. Schaepe, a young minister, was so moved by McAlister's revelation, that after praying and reading the Bible all night, he ran through the camp the following morning shouting that he'd received a 'revelation' on baptism that the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost was Lord Jesus Christ." [7] Ironically, Frank Denny himself, along with G. T. Haywood, Harry Morse, John G. Schaepe, R. J. Scott, George Studd, R. E. McAlister, Andrew D. Urshan, and Homer L. Falkner embraced Lord Jesus Christ as the three-in-one name of the trinity for baptism as the "exclusive apostolic formula." When other Oneness objected to this trinitarian baptism and said Lord Jesus Christ was the full name only of Jesus (began Jesus-Only new issue), trinitarians such as John Schaepe, Robert McAlister, and E. N. Bell bolted and returned to the use of the titles "Father, Son, and Holy Ghost in Matthew 28:19.[8]
Schaepe (whose name is often misspelled Scheppe in a number of sources) claimed that the revelation he'd received during the camp meeting revival was that the baptismal command posited by Peter in Acts 2:38 - i.e., baptism "in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ" - was the fulfillment and counterpart of the Great Commission in Matthew 28:19 - i.e., baptism "in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit." This conclusion was accepted by several others in the camp and developed further theologically by a minister named Frank J. Ewart. By 1914, Frank Ewart and Glenn Cook publicly baptized each other in "the name of the Lord Jesus Christ but as the one name of Jesus not as a trinitarian formula." Thus, in 1913 Oneness Pentecostalism was again "revealed and restored" to a group of Holy Spirit filled individuals. In 1914 it was again publicly practiced as was done in the Apostles time in Acts 2:38. A number of ministers claimed they were baptized "in the Name of Jesus Christ" before 1914, including Frank Small and Andrew D. Urshan. Urshan claims to have baptized in Jesus Christ name as early as 1910. [9] Even Charles Parham himself baptized using a Christological baptismal formula prior to Azusa Street (Dr. Charles Wilson, Our Heritage, p. 12). However it was not their baptismal formula which was the issue, but rather the rejection of the Trinity that was the bigger issue to other Pentecostal ministers.
Schaepe's revelation caused a great stir within Pentecostalism. During the next year, Frank J. Ewart, another Pentecostal minister, struggled between his Trinitarian teachings and the new issue. He often spent hours debating with R. E. McAlister, attempting to bring the two doctrines together. (R.E. McAlister, the man who had fired the shot heard around the world at Arroyo Seco, defected. He formally renounced the Oneness doctrine in 1919 [8]. Thereafter, he became one of the Canadian teachers of orthodox Trinitarianism among Pentecostals in Canada as well as a propagator of the 'finished work of Calvary' doctrine[10]. The camp ground in Arroyo Seco, California, just outside Los Angeles, where the revelation occurred was also owned by Seymour's Mission. Many were re-baptized in the name of Jesus Christ, including E.N.Bell, who did so out of conviction for obedience to scripture. He recanted after undergoing severe pressure from J.Roswell Flowers. The re-baptisms also had the opposite effect on the Assemblies causing a backlash from many Trinitarians who feared the direction their organization might be heading. The fear was within J. Roswell Flowers, who initiated a resolution designed to cause the "Jesus' name" baptizers to withdraw from the organization. He was successful and is now considerered the "father" of the AG. By October 1916 the issue finally came to a head at the Fourth General Council of the Assemblies of God. The mostly Trinitarian leadership, fearing the new issue might overtake their organization, drew up a doctrinal statement affirming the Trinity among other issues. When the final votes were tallied the "Statement of Fundamental Truths" was adopted. More than one quarter of their ministerial and assembly membership left to form their own Oneness fellowships.[citation needed]
According to PAW historians, "From 1913 to 1914, for one year, the battle raged within the Association regarding the God-head and the "new issue."[citation needed] Consequently, in 1914, the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World experienced its first split.[citation needed] Essentially, there were two questions around which the debate was centered: (1) "Is there one God, or are there three distinct persons in the God-head? and (2) How then, should an individual be baptized? Should one be baptized in the Name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost, or should one be baptized in the Name of Jesus Christ? In 1916, after four years (1912-1916) of this intense and bitter debate, those leaders and individuals who embraced the Trinitarian concept (Father, Son and Holy Ghost) did not want the "Jesus' Name" baptizers among them any longer.[citation needed] The ministers who were rejected then formed the PAW which had no organizational board until 1919. During the transition period some minsters took their ministerial credentials from the Church of God in Christ group. In 1916 the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World was loosely organized in Indianapolis, Indiana, at the Christ Temple Assembly of the Apostolic Faith, where Bishop G. T. Haywood was the pastor.[citation needed] Bishop Haywood became the organization's first Presiding Bishop at that meeting.[citation needed] During that meeting, the organization's headquarters were established in Portland, Oregon.[citation needed] In 1919, the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World headquarters were moved from Portland to Indianapolis, and was incorporated in the state of Indiana. The incorporators were E. W. Doak, G. T. Haywood, and D. C. Opperman". [11]
Several small Oneness ministerial groups formed after the 1914 restorations. Many of these merged into the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World (PAW) and some remained independent. Division occurred within the PAW over the role of women in ministry, wine or grape juice for communion, divorce and remarriage, and proper mode of water baptism. There were reports of racial tension in the early PAW. African Americans were joining the PAW in great numbers and were in many significant positions of leadership.[citation needed] In particular the African-American pastor G. T. Haywood served as General Secretary and signed all ministerial credentials. PAW resolutions were proposed that credentials be signed by individuals of the same race.[citation needed] This factor, along with Jim Crow segregation policy, contributed greatly to the split primarily along racial lines. In later decades progress has somewhat been made in racial relations in the UPCI in regard to leadership roles for all members of this fellowship.[citation needed] In 1932, the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World was reorganized and elected Elder Samuel Grimes of New York, as the new Presiding Bishop.[citation needed] Bishop Grimes served as the Presiding Bishop for 35 years (1932-1967).
In 1945, a merger of two predominantly White Oneness Pentecostal organizations (the Pentecostal Church Incorporated and the Pentecostal Assemblies of Jesus Christ) resulted in the formation of the United Pentecostal Church [12] Presently they are called United Pentecostal Church International (UPCI), adding the word "International" in 1972.
The UPCI has suffered several splinters since its inception in 1945.
* In 1955, a group of ministers led by Bishop C. B. Gillespie (Fairmont, WV), Bishop Ray Cornell (Cleveland, Ohio), and Bishop Carl Angle (Nashville, Tennessee) rechartered the PAJC using the original charter.[citation needed]
* 1968 a number of ministers organized the Apostolic Ministerial Fellowship - AMF, citing the UPCI as 'too liberal'. Central issues were holiness and local church government.
* In 1986, Pastor L. H. Hardwick, a UPCI pastor in Nashville, Tennessee, broke away from what he called "legalists" (referring to the issue of dress code and standards), and formed Global Christian Ministries (now Global Network of Christian Ministries).[citation needed]
* In 2001, Bishop Teklemarim Gezahagne and the more than 1 million members of the Apostolic Church of Ethiopia (ACI)broke their 45 year alignment with the UPCI. The official position of the UPCI is that the division was over Christology. Bishop Teklemarim taught that the flesh of Jesus was God and had no human connection to the seed of Adam, David, or his mother Mary. He taught one nature in Christ and it was divine. The UPCI has always taught two natures in Christ, human and Divine. Bishop Tekelmarim refused to reconsider his stance after high ranking envoys came from the UPCI to Ethiopia to discuss his error. Thus the interpretation of Christology caused the division.
* The Apostolic Assembly of the Faith in Christ Jesus (AAFCJ) and its sister church the Apostolic Church of the Faith in Christ Jesus (IAFCJ), left the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World to serve the Hispanic community in the United States and the nations of Latin America.[citation needed] The Apostolic Assembly is the largest Oneness Pentecostal group of primarily Spanish-speaking denomination in the United States of America, and it is also the oldest primarily Hispanic denomination in the World.[citation needed]
The Pentecostal Assemblies of the World has never left their original vision of a racially integrated body of believers. To this day, although predominantly black, they continue to reach out and work toward racial unity in worship and organization. There have been both white and black presiding bishops in this group. The United Pentecostal Church International in its worldwide ministry has accomplished a racially integrated body and this can be witnessed at the annual general convention. The same may be said of other "Jesus' Name" groups who are not only integrated, they hold no overt racist policies and engage in missionary work in many nations.
The Pentecostal Assemblies of the World is the oldest Oneness Pentecostal organization in existence.[citation needed] As a result of the Azusa Street Revival, a number of independent Pentecostal churches and their leaders, in an effort to stabilize these new works, felt the need to come together and form an Association of Churches of "like precious faith", thus forming the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World. Its goal was to further spread the Gospel and to give support to each other. It should be noted, that after 1914 and the Hot Springs meeting, G.T.Haywood was baptized by Glen Cook, a white man, who had been the treasurer at Azusa street mission in Los Angeles.[citation needed]
The substantial number of Pentecostal congregations formed in the years immediately following the Azusa Street Revival inevitably caused the new movement to be faced with the problem of formal organization. The independent churches and missions of the first type were somewhat remedied by the recognition of lay boards and elected pastors.
For the next few years, the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World focused upon general meetings and the development of its organizational structure.[citation needed] The late Bishop Morris E. Golder wrote: "The original organization bearing the name of the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World came into existence in the year of 1906 in the city of Los Angeles, State of California.[citation needed] The late Bishop G. T. Haywood concurs with this fact, writing in the Voice In The Wilderness in 1921: "It (The Pentecostal Assemblies of the World) was started in 1906 in Los Angeles, California."[citation needed]
This was also the position asserted by Bishop Ross Paddock, the former Presiding Bishop of the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World. He declared that after one year of being organized, the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World had its first annual business meeting and that, at the same time, it was Trinitarian in its doctrine and liturgy of water baptism.[citation needed]
It was in this context of varying ideas, personal differences, doctrinal and other conflicting elements that not only was the need of organization seen, but the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World in its original state (1906) came into existence.[citation needed] However, it was not until 1919 that it became incorporated and took on the identity of being an Apostolic "Oneness" body of ministers and believers.[citation needed]
According to Dr. David Bundy, a Pentecostal historian at the Christian Theological Seminary, as early as 1907, a white Baptist minister in Los Angeles, was preaching non-Trinitarian water baptism in the Name of Jesus. According to Dr. Deborah Sims LeBlanc, William and Maggie Bowden, the parents of former Assistant Presiding Bishop Frank Bowden, were baptized in the Name of Jesus Christ after the Azusa Street Mission Revival (1906-1909). It began in 1906, the same year the Azusa Street Revival began, making it older than even most of the Trinitarian Pentecostal organizations.[citation needed] It was never a part of the Assemblies of God and therefore never came out from it.[citation needed] "A few in the group which was ousted by the Assemblies of God later joined the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World, but then demerged later [13].
[edit] Doctrine and theology
[edit] God
Oneness Pentecostalism holds to a conservative Jewish monotheistic view of God and stress Jesus Christ is the visible manifestation of God in the New Testament (the Father in the Son). God was known by several names and titles in the Old Testament, but with the New Covenant He has revealed His name as Jesus. It rejects all concepts of a polytheism, trinity, or other doctrines they see as representing multiple and separate Gods. As such it rejects three separate persons in the trinity who are each separately God. All concepts of Jesus Christ are explained as either the Father or the Son, the divine Spirit or the man Christ in two different modes. Jesus is fully God and fully human. As to his humanity Christ is the only begotten Son of God. They reject Jesus being seen as only one of three Gods. They believe Jesus as the Son is the only present high priest and at the same time God. Attempts to put into the mouth of Oneness that they believe the Son was only human (Unitarianism) have failed.
[edit] Salvation
Oneness Pentecostal doctrine and theology typically maintains that salvation comes by faith through grace. The acts of faith and subsequent grace is by obedience to specific commands and requirements that are found in the New Testament. These requirements necessary for salvation are: faith in Jesus Christ, repentance by faith, water baptism by faith in the name of Jesus Christ, and the gift of Holy Ghost baptism by faith with the evidence of speaking in tongues. The view of Oneness Pentecostals is that scripture either records the commandment of these acts of faith for salvation and explains that the lack of them would result in not having salvation. However, it should also be noted that not all Pentecostals who are Oneness regarding their view of the nature of God hold to this type of soteriology (the doctrine of salvation) and believe that water baptism and the baptism of the Holy Spirit are subsequent to salvation. One of the predecessor organizations of the UPCI, the Pentecostal Church, Inc. (PCI),brought this view over into the Oneness merger in 1945. These were called "one steppers"(which this view was held by a vocal minority) whereas those of the Pentecostal Assemblies of Jesus Christ (PAJC) following strictly Acts 2:38 were called "three steppers.
[edit] Holiness
Oneness Pentecostals believe that a Christian's lifestyle should be one characterized by holiness. This holiness begins at baptism where the blood of Jesus washes away sin and a person stands before God holy for the first time in their life. Subsequent to this sanctification, they hold separation from the world in both practical and moral areas will keep converts from lapsing back into the sins of their baptism. Moral or inward holiness is righteous living guided and powered by the indwelling Holy Spirit. Practical or outward holiness involves modest apparel and gender distinction. For some Oneness Pentecostal organizations, because of what they consider the amoral conduct of society in dress and nakedness, this involves establishing dress codes for its members (also known as "holiness standards") similar to those all Pentecostal denominations used for much of the first half of the 20th century. While these dress codes are officially treated as a matter of personal conviction, in practice there is strong social pressure in most circles to comply. Generally, women are expected not to wear pants, wear makeup or cut their hair; men are expected to be clean-shaven and short-haired. For a more in-depth review, see Oneness Pentecostalism (doctrine)
For a contrast and comparison of Oneness and Trinity, see Oneness vs Trinity.
[edit] Common misunderstandings
[edit] Jesus' Name vs. Jesus Only
Jesus' Name doctrine is often misunderstood as is the pejorative "Jesus Only". These terms are even misunderstood and applied by Oneness believers themselves. Critics of Oneness believers refer to them as "Jesus Only", meaning they deny the Father and the Holy Spirit of the trinity. Most Oneness Pentecostals consider that term to be a misreprentation of their true beliefs on the issue. Oneness believers do not deny the Father or the Son; they just describe them differently from trinitarians. Oneness historians claim the usage of the term "Jesus-Only" is misleading many to believe they reject the Father and the Holy Spirit. Rejection and different interpretation are two different things. Oneness believers prefer the phrase Jesus' Name when referring to their baptism beliefs or themselves as believers who were baptized in the name of Jesus Christ only (with no reference to the Father or Holy Spirit). "Jesus' Name", to Oneness Pentecostals refers to the revealed name of God for the present Church age. Jesus inherited his name from the eternal name of the Godhead. I am come in my Father's name. Oneness Pentecostals place "essential" emphasis on use of the name of Jesus, and regard it as the "Name above all names". They invoke it in word or deed in all things.
Oneness Pentecostals generally see the use of the term "Jesus Only" by trinitarians as being an attempt to mislead and/or confuse those interested in study of the Oneness doctrine. The label arose early on in reference to their insistence on baptizing only in the name of Jesus, but it tends to be used only by the movement's critics. The Oneness position is that do indeed believe in baptism into the name of Jesus only, but that to describe them as "Jesus Only" Pentecostals implies a denial of the Father and Holy Spirit -- a contention they vigorously reject as false.
Oneness believers generally consider the term "Jesus Only" to be inflammatory, because the speaker is generally a trinitarian critic trying to lead interested persons away from the Oneness doctrine. True, Oneness believers do not believe in three separate persons in the Godhead who each have a separate Spirit, Body, Mind, and Being. To Oneness believers this constitutes three Gods. They see Jesus as the true personality of God manifest in the flesh (1Timothy 3:16). Trinitarians infer by this that Oneness Pentecostals deny the separate being of Father and the separate being of the Holy Spirit. Oneness believers in fact deny the entire concept of a Trinity including the use of the term "God the Son", since this is never found in the New Testament. "Jesus Only" as explained by trinitarians is an incorrect use of the term because Oneness Pentecostals actually affirm the Father and the Holy Spirit, but assert that the Father is the Holy Spirit, and vice versa. Oneness Pentecostals believe there is Father, Son, and Holy Spirit: one God.
[edit] Oneness Theology IS NOT Unitarianism
Some confuse the terms Unitarian and Oneness. Although Unitarians and Oneness people are similar in the belief that there is not a plurality of persons in the Godhead, Unitarians believe that Jesus was only a moral authority whereas the Deity and humanity of Jesus Christ are essential to Oneness doctrine.
[edit] Followers of Oneness Pentecostalism
Some of the better-known persons associated, or said to be associated, with Oneness Pentecostals are
* T.D. Jakes [14]
* Noel Jones
* Dr Bernie L. Wade
* Gaddi Vasquez
* Norman Wagner
* Tommy Tenney
[edit] Gospel and Contemporary Christian artists
* The Katinas
* Phillips, Craig and Dean
* Lee Greenwood
* Elvis Presley, the well known entertainer of early rock and roll, frequented Oneness Pentecostal Churches as well as Trinitarian Assemblies of God Churches and it is claimed that from these sources he picked up the rhythm and lively antics he incorporated into his performances. It is reported that Presley was baptized in the AG church, but was later rebaptized in the name of Jesus Christ by Bishop Joseph Rex Dyson a Oneness Pentecostal with the Church of Jesus Christ in Tennessee. (http://www.calvaryslighthouse.com/Memphis,TN.htm) [15] (http://www.commercialappeal.com/mca/elvis_presley/article/0,1426,MCA_457_1328348,00.html)[16]
* Jonny Lang, Grammy award winning singer and guitar player. Attends a UPCI church in Los Angeles.
[edit] References
1. ^ Dr. David K. Bernard, Unmasking Prejudice, Cyberjournal for Pentecostal-Charismatic Research
2. ^ Bernard, David K., The Oneness of God, Word Aflame Press, 1983, Ch. 10.
3. ^ Tertullian, Against Praxeas, 3, rpt. in Alexander Robers and James Donaldson, eds., The Ante-Nicene Fathers (rpt. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), III, 598-599.
4. ^ "Unitarianism", Encyclopedia of Religion and Thics, XII, 520.
5. ^ Campbell, David, All the Fulness, Word Aflame Press, 1975, p. 167-173.
6. ^ "World-Wide Apostolic Faith Camp Meeting", Word and Witness, 20 March 1913, 1; Blumhofer, The Assemblies of God, 222; Blumhofer, Restoring, 20.
7. ^ Reckart, Sr. Dr. Gary P., Great Cloud Of Witnesses, Apostolic Theological Bible College, 124; Ewart, Phenomenon, 123-124; C. M. Rabic, Jr., "John G. Schaepe", in Dictionary, Burgess and McGee, 768-769; J. Schaepe, "A Remarkable Testimony", Meat in Due Season, 21 August 1917, 4; Minute Book and Ministerial Record of the General Assembly of the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World, 1919-1920, 11.
8. ^ a b Reckart, Sr. Dr. Gary P, Great Cloud Of Witnesses, Apostolic Theological Bible College, 1998, 124
9. ^ Andrew D. Urshan, Pentecost As It Was in the Early 1900's (by the author, 1923; revised edition Portland, OR: ApostolicBook Publishers, 1981, 77; The Life Story of Andrew Bar David Urshan: An Autobiography of the Author's First Forty Years (Apostolic Book Publishers, 1967),102; Cf. E. N. Bell, "The Sad New Issue", Word & Witness, June 1915, 2-3; Anderson, Disinherited, 176.
10. ^ Miller, Thomas William, Canadian Pentecostals, A History of Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada, Full Gospel Publishing House, Messissauga, ON, 1994
11. ^ PAW - Taking the Word to the World!
12. ^ PCI and the remaining PAJC ministers, composed mostly of whites merged as the United Pentecostal Church (UPC). Beginning with 1,800 ministers and 900 churches, it has become the largest and, through aggressive evangelism and publishing efforts, most influential Oneness organization. thebereans.net/prof-onep.shtml
13. ^ (Dr. Charles Wilson, Our Heritage, p. 22)
14. ^ Christianity Today, February 2000
15. ^ www.calvaryslighthouse.com/Memphis,TN.htm
16. ^ Was the King baptized in two beliefs? : Local : Memphis Commercial Appeal
[edit] See also
[show]
v • d • e
Oneness Pentecostalism
Denominations
AAFCJ • ALJC • AM • Bible Way COOLJC • CJCI • CLJC • COOLJC • ICOF• PAJC • PAW • TJC • UPCI
People
Gilson Levi • Charles Gillespie • Raymond Cornell • T. D. Jakes • Bernie L. Wade • Noel Jones • William M. Branham; Kenneth Haney • Nathaniel Urshan • Don Johnson • John Pollard • David Bernard • Harold McFarlane •
Other Pages of Interest
Oneness Pentecostalism (doctrine) •Oneness vs Trinity • Jesus' Name doctrine
* Jesus' Name doctrine
[edit] External links
[edit] Articles, indexes, & other resources
[edit] Favoring views
* Apostolic Network Ministries
* Institute for Biblical Studies (Index of Oneness Pentecostal theological articles)
* Website of Apostolic results
* The Oneness of God (Book by Oneness scholar David K. Bernard, J.D., part of Series in Pentecostal Theology, Volume 1, freely available online)
* Testimonies of Jesus Christ by Oneness Pentecostals
* The Voice of the Pastor Study And The Word Became Flesh
* Understanding Pentecostal Theology (Blog about Oneness Pentecostal Theology with articles)
* Center for Oneness Research and Education (Blog by scholar Dr. Daniel Segraves with articles)
* Pentecostales del Nombre de Jesucristo page in Spanish
* Spanish Web Site Apostolic Studies in Spanish
* Articles of Study By Oneness Theologian Mike Blume
* Apostolic Theology.com Oneness Pentecostal Theology Site
[edit] Comparative articles
* Oneness Versus Trinity Links to various writings concerning Oneness vs. Trinity. Link is an opposing view site.
* Responding to Oneness Pentecostalism in the Light of Scripture
[edit] Other
* Apostolic Doctrine
* My Views on the Godhead - Christianity Today Magazine Bishop T. D. Jakes responds to Christianity Today article, "Apologetics Journal Criticizes Jakes."
* Apostolic Archives International Web Site dedicated to preserve the history of organizational leaders of various Oneness Pentecostal Denominations
[edit] Oneness Pentecostal Groups
Here are major and historical Oneness Pentecostal organizations. Not all Oneness Pentecostal churches affiliate with an organization. See Category:Oneness Pentecostalism for individual churches and organizations that may not be listed here.
[edit] North America
This is a list of Oneness Pentecostal organizations headquartered in North America.
* United Pentecostal Church International
* Apostolic Assembly of the Faith in Christ Jesus
* Assemblies of the Lord Jesus Christ
* Bible Way Church of Our Lord Jesus Christ
* Church of Our Lord Jesus Christ of the Apostolic Faith
* International Circle of Faith
* Pentecostal Assemblies of the World
* Pentecostal Assemblies of Jesus Christ
* Church of the Lord Jesus Christ
* Churches of Jesus Christ International
* World Christian Ministries Association
* Worldwide Pentecostal Fellowship
* Truelight Pentecostal Church
[edit] Other countries
This is a list of Oneness Pentecostal organizations headquartered outside North America.
* United Pentecostal Church of Australia
* True Jesus Church - China/Taiwan
* Assemblies Lord Jesus Christ - Canada
* Apostolic Church International - Ethiopia
* International Circle of Faith of Togo
* Church of Jesus Christ-Greece
* Jesus' Name Apostolic Church - Ecuador
* Apostolische Pfingstgemeinde Deutschland - Germany
* Assemblea Apostolica della fede in Cristo Gesù - Italy
The depiction of the head in this 1868 engraving suggests the artist may have never seen a panda bear!
Wiki: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_panda
Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).
Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..
Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The European Roller, Coracias garrulus, is the only member of the roller family of birds to breed in Europe. Its overall range extends into the Middle East and Central Asia and Morocco.
There are two subspecies: the nominate garrulus, which breeds from in north Africa from Morocco east to Tunisia, southwest and south-central Europe and Asia Minor east through northwest Iran to southwest Siberia; and semenowi, which breeds in Iraq and Iran (except northwest) east to Kashmir and north to Turkmenistan, south Kazakhstan and northwest China (west Xinjiang). The European Roller is a long-distance migrant, wintering in southern Africa in two distinct regions, from Senegal east to Cameroon and from Ethiopia west to Congo and south to South Africa.
It is a bird of warm, dry, open country with scattered trees, preferring lowland open countryside with patches of oak Quercus forest, mature pine Pinus woodland with heathery clearings, orchards, mixed farmland, river valleys, and plains with scattered thorny or leafy trees. It winters primarily in dry wooded savanna and bushy plains, where it typically nests in tree holes.
*Visit my website www.qatarphotogallery.com.
All pictures in my photostream are copyright © All rights reserved.
Illustrations of various Pneumatic apparatus.
Copperplate engraving from the First Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, or Dictionary of the Arts and Sciences, founded in 1768 and first printed in 1771. 3 Volumes, this is Volume 3.
The largest encyclopedia of general knowledge published to date, with contributions by leaders in their fields.
Printed for Bell and Macfarquhar, Edinburgh. Original half leather binding, 970 pages this volume. 26cm x 21cm.
Colosseum
Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.
The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).
Exterior
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.
The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]
The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.
Interior
According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]
The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.
It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.
Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.
At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.
Coliseu (Colosseo)
A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:
O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.
O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.
Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.
O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.
Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.
Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.
Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.
Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.
O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".
A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.
Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.
O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.
Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.
O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.
Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.
Glenn Shorrock
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Glenn Barrie Shorrock (born 30 June 1944) is an English-born Australian singer-songwriter. He was a founding member of pop groups The Twilights, Axiom and Little River Band as well as being a solo performer.
The Twilights had eight consecutive national hit singles including "Needle in a Haystack" and "What's Wrong with the Way I Live". Axiom's top 10 hits were "Arkansas Grass", "Little Ray of Sunshine" and "My Baby's Gone". Little River Band had national and international chart success, including the Shorrock-penned "Emma", "Help Is on Its Way" and "Cool Change".
Shorrock was inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame as a solo artist in 1991 and as a member of Little River Band in 2004. In May 2001 the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), as part of its 75th Anniversary celebrations, named "Cool Change" as one of the APRA Top 30 Australian songs of all time.
Twighlights
Glenn Barrie Shorrock was born on 30 June 1944 in Chatham, Kent, United Kingdom. His family migrated to Adelaide, South Australia in August 1954 when he was ten.[1] His father was a Yorkshire-born fitter and turner at the Weapons Research Establishment in Salisbury.[2] The 1954–55 summer had days of 42 °C (108 °F) and Black Sunday bushfires ravaged the Adelaide Hills in January 1955.[3] His London-born mother was not impressed with Australia, and she took Shorrock and his younger sister back to UK, only to return to Australia for a second attempt in 1956.[2] The family settled in Elizabeth 20 km (12 mi) north of Adelaide.[4]
Shorrock's first public performance took place in 1958 in a Lutheran church hall—he was miming to Elvis Presley's "All Shook Up" on a gramophone and strumming on a cardboard guitar when the player stopped—he was forced to continue singing by himself and realised he had a good voice.[1][5]
In 1962, Shorrock formed his first band, The Checkmates, with Clem McCartney, Mike Sykes and Billy Volraat.[6] They were a doo wop harmony group covering The Platters and The Crew Cuts material.[7] Sometimes teaming up with instrumental groups, The Vector Men or The Hurricanes, The Checkmates performed in Adelaide cafes and folk clubs.[8] As a result of The Beatles' popularity, members of The Checkmates and The Hurricanes merged to form The Twilights in 1964.[7][8]
Main article: The Twilights
In 1964 Shorrock, with McCartney as co-lead vocalist, formed The Twilights by merging with The Hurricanes' Frank Barnard on drums, Peter Brideoak on guitar, Terry Britten on guitar and John Bywaters on bass guitar.[7][8] Their debut single, "I'll Be Where You Are", co-written by Shorrock and Britten,[9] was released in June 1965.[8] The band had eight consecutive hit singles including covers of The Velvelettes' "Needle in a Haystack" and The Hollies' "What's Wrong with the Way I Live" (recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London).[8] With two lead singers, two guitarists and five vocalists, the Twilights performed note-perfect covers of pop-rock songs and were famed for their live prowess.[8] They relocated to Melbourne late in 1965 and were popular with teenage audiences and respected by fellow musicians. In July 1966, they won Hoadley's Battle of the Sounds with the prize including a trip to London.[8] In 1967, shortly after returning from London, the group regularly performed the entire Sgt Pepper's album live in sequence, weeks before it was released in Australia.[8] Shorrock married his first wife, Sue, while he was a member of The Twilights.[1] The Twilights disbanded in January 1969 and Shorrock became band manager for Brisbane pop group, The Avengers.[4]
Axiom
In May 1969 in Melbourne, Shorrock formed an early Australian 'supergroup', Axiom, with Brian Cadd on keyboards and vocals, Don Mudie on lead guitar (both ex-The Groop), Doug Lavery (The Valentines) on drums and Chris Stockley (Cam-Pact) on guitar.[10] They recorded two highly acclaimed albums, Fool's Gold and If Only...; and had three top 10 singles, "Arkansas Grass", "Little Ray of Sunshine" and "My Baby's Gone" on the Go-Set national charts.[10] Axiom travelled to UK but disbanded there in March 1971, Shorrock had also parted with his first wife of four years, Sue.[2][3]
Shorrock remained in the UK to pursue his solo career, he signed with MAM Records and released the self-penned "Let's Get the Band Together" single in October 1971.[4] This was followed by a cover of "Rock'n'Roll Lullaby" (written by Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil) in March 1972.[4] As Andre L'Escargot and His Society Syncopaters, he released "Purple Umbrella" with his backing band being Quartet members Britten, Kevin Peek, Trevor Spencer and Alan Tarney.[4] He joined the multinational progressive rock band Esperanto, which released their debut album Esperanto Rock Orchestra in 1973 with the Shorrock written track "Statue of Liberty".[4] He left Esperanto before their third album was released in 1974 and performed backing vocals for Cliff Richard.[1][4]
Little River Band
Mississippi was an Australian rock band which was working in UK with Beeb Birtles on vocals and guitar, Graham Goble (later Graeham Goble) on guitar and vocals and Derek Pellicci on drums. They contacted Glenn Wheatley (former bass guitarist for The Masters Apprentices) to become their manager. Birtles, previously in Adelaide band Zoot, called Shorrock to take part in the line up. Shorrock returned to Australia in October 1974 and joined Mississippi in January 1975 in Melbourne.[11] They were soon renamed as Little River Band with the original line up of Birtles, Goble, Pellicci, Shorrock and lead guitarist Ric Formosa and bassist Roger McLachlan.[2] The group went on to become one of the most successful bands ever to come out of Australia, and the first to achieve major commercial success in the United States.[3] For Little River Band, Shorrock wrote the hits "Emma", "Help Is on Its Way" (Australian No. 1) and "Cool Change".[4]
While still a member of Little River Band, Shorrock released a solo single, a cover of Bobby Darin's 1959 hit "Dream Lover" in April 1979 on EMI, which peaked at No. 8 on the Kent Music Report Singles Chart.[6][12] In February 1982, Shorrock left Little River Band and was replaced by former 1960s pop singer, John Farnham who was managed by Wheatley.[8] Shorrock returned to Little River Band in 1988 but, despite several quality albums, they did not regain the earlier stellar recognition. He left again in 1991 leaving the naming rights with guitarist Stephen Housden.[3] In May 2001 the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), as part of its 75th Anniversary celebrations, named "Cool Change", as one of the Top 30 Australian songs of all time.[13]
Later solo career
In 1982 Shorrock released a solo album Villain of the Peace and a single, "Rock and Roll Soldier" on Capitol Records recorded in Los Angeles with John Boylan (Charlie Daniels, Little River Band) producing. "Rock and Roll Soldier" reached the Australian top 40 in November but he did not achieve the international success attained with Little River Band. Late in 1982 he toured Australia and then teamed with Renée Geyer to release a duet, "Goin' Back" on Mushroom Records in February 1983. One of his backing singers was Wendy Matthews who had been a session singer in Los Angeles.[14] "We're Coming to Get You", which peaked at No. 6 in October, was recorded with folk group, The Bushwackers it was the theme for the film, We're Coming to Get You. He released "Don't Girls Get Lonely?" in November. In 1984, he recorded "Restless" for the documentary World Safari II: The Final Adventure.[4]
In 1985, Shorrock released The First Twenty Years, which was a double-LP album compilation of his career work with tracks by The Twilights, Axiom, Little River Band and solo work.[15] He was compere of Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) TV music series, Rock Arena in 1986 and as a breakfast announcer for radio station Magic 11 in Sydney.[16] His solo single, "American Flyers" appeared in July. He performed on the tour of stage show One for the Money in 1986–87.[16] He appeared in other stage shows including his own showcase productions Go Cat Go (1990–91) and Two Up (1996).
On 25 March 1991, Shorrock was inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame, alongside contemporary rocker Billy Thorpe, bass-baritone Peter Dawson and jazz musician Don Burrows.[17] In 1993, he re-joined with Axiom band mate, Brian Cadd, to record Blazing Salads and three singles for Blue Martin Records, and a subsequent two-year tour.[18] On tour Shorrock played his hit songs, along with those of Axiom accompanied by Cadd and a backing band of Rex Goh on guitar (ex-Air Supply), Kirk Lorange on guitar (Richard Clapton Band) and Mark Kennedy on drums (Spectrum, Ayers Rock, Marcia Hines Band).[4][18]
Long Way to the Top was a 2001 ABC TV six-part documentary on the history of Australian rock and roll from 1956 to the modern era.[19] Shorrock provided interviews, "In Awe of The Beatles", "Being Pop Stars" and "Coming from the UK", on his early years with The Twilights.[20] Long Way to the Top Tour followed in August–September 2002 with Shorrock appearing with The Twilights in the first set performing "What's Wrong with the Way I Live?" and "Needle in a Haystack"; he returned in the second set with Axiom to perform "Arkansas Grass" and "Little Ray of Sunshine".[16][21]
In 2002 Shorrock reunited with other Little River Band founders Beeb Birtles and Graeham Goble to form Birtles Shorrock Goble.[16] On 17 October 2004, the 1970s members of Little River Band: Birtles, David Briggs, Goble, George McArdle, Derek Pellicci and Shorrock, were inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame.[22] The later members including fellow Australian, John Farnham, and US-based musicians, were not included in this induction.[22] Due to a 2002 legal ruling on their right to use the band's name—two US-based members held the trademark—they performed "Help Is on the Way" as Classic Lineup of the Little River Band or Little River Band – Classic Lineup (sources vary).[22] Birtles Shorrock Goble recorded a successful DVD and CD, Full Circle (2005) and toured until 2007. In August–September, the trio played a medley of Little River Band hits at the Countdown Spectacular 2 concert series.
In 2005 Shorrock also undertook his career-spanning The Reminiscing Tour – Glenn Shorrock & Friends with invited guest singers including Doug Parkinson and Wendy Matthews.[16] In May–June 2006, he partnered actress Judy Nunn on the first season of reality TV singing competition, It Takes Two, they were voted off after week three.[23] His first solo CD for seven years, Meanwhile, which contains acoustic versions of his career hits was released in 2007 on the Liberation Blue label. He performed The Beatles tribute show Let It Be with Parkinson, Sharon O'Neill and Mark Williams.[24]
In 2008 Shorrock toured with the musical Shout! The Legend of the Wild One, based on the life of Australian rocker Johnny O'Keefe.[24][25] In July 2010, Shorrock performed a retrospective of his 45 years in the music industry.[2][5] Currently Glenn Shorrock continues to tour Australia performing for public and private events in Australia and promotes new local music artists. In early 2013 Glenn and his band were headlining performers in Macau, New York and London for the media launch of the Titanic II project. This was at the personal invitation of Australian entrepreneur Clive Palmer.
Glenn Shorrock
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Glenn Barrie Shorrock (born 30 June 1944) is an English-born Australian singer-songwriter. He was a founding member of pop groups The Twilights, Axiom and Little River Band as well as being a solo performer.
The Twilights had eight consecutive national hit singles including "Needle in a Haystack" and "What's Wrong with the Way I Live". Axiom's top 10 hits were "Arkansas Grass", "Little Ray of Sunshine" and "My Baby's Gone". Little River Band had national and international chart success, including the Shorrock-penned "Emma", "Help Is on Its Way" and "Cool Change".
Shorrock was inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame as a solo artist in 1991 and as a member of Little River Band in 2004. In May 2001 the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), as part of its 75th Anniversary celebrations, named "Cool Change" as one of the APRA Top 30 Australian songs of all time.
Twighlights
Glenn Barrie Shorrock was born on 30 June 1944 in Chatham, Kent, United Kingdom. His family migrated to Adelaide, South Australia in August 1954 when he was ten.[1] His father was a Yorkshire-born fitter and turner at the Weapons Research Establishment in Salisbury.[2] The 1954–55 summer had days of 42 °C (108 °F) and Black Sunday bushfires ravaged the Adelaide Hills in January 1955.[3] His London-born mother was not impressed with Australia, and she took Shorrock and his younger sister back to UK, only to return to Australia for a second attempt in 1956.[2] The family settled in Elizabeth 20 km (12 mi) north of Adelaide.[4]
Shorrock's first public performance took place in 1958 in a Lutheran church hall—he was miming to Elvis Presley's "All Shook Up" on a gramophone and strumming on a cardboard guitar when the player stopped—he was forced to continue singing by himself and realised he had a good voice.[1][5]
In 1962, Shorrock formed his first band, The Checkmates, with Clem McCartney, Mike Sykes and Billy Volraat.[6] They were a doo wop harmony group covering The Platters and The Crew Cuts material.[7] Sometimes teaming up with instrumental groups, The Vector Men or The Hurricanes, The Checkmates performed in Adelaide cafes and folk clubs.[8] As a result of The Beatles' popularity, members of The Checkmates and The Hurricanes merged to form The Twilights in 1964.[7][8]
Main article: The Twilights
In 1964 Shorrock, with McCartney as co-lead vocalist, formed The Twilights by merging with The Hurricanes' Frank Barnard on drums, Peter Brideoak on guitar, Terry Britten on guitar and John Bywaters on bass guitar.[7][8] Their debut single, "I'll Be Where You Are", co-written by Shorrock and Britten,[9] was released in June 1965.[8] The band had eight consecutive hit singles including covers of The Velvelettes' "Needle in a Haystack" and The Hollies' "What's Wrong with the Way I Live" (recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London).[8] With two lead singers, two guitarists and five vocalists, the Twilights performed note-perfect covers of pop-rock songs and were famed for their live prowess.[8] They relocated to Melbourne late in 1965 and were popular with teenage audiences and respected by fellow musicians. In July 1966, they won Hoadley's Battle of the Sounds with the prize including a trip to London.[8] In 1967, shortly after returning from London, the group regularly performed the entire Sgt Pepper's album live in sequence, weeks before it was released in Australia.[8] Shorrock married his first wife, Sue, while he was a member of The Twilights.[1] The Twilights disbanded in January 1969 and Shorrock became band manager for Brisbane pop group, The Avengers.[4]
Axiom
In May 1969 in Melbourne, Shorrock formed an early Australian 'supergroup', Axiom, with Brian Cadd on keyboards and vocals, Don Mudie on lead guitar (both ex-The Groop), Doug Lavery (The Valentines) on drums and Chris Stockley (Cam-Pact) on guitar.[10] They recorded two highly acclaimed albums, Fool's Gold and If Only...; and had three top 10 singles, "Arkansas Grass", "Little Ray of Sunshine" and "My Baby's Gone" on the Go-Set national charts.[10] Axiom travelled to UK but disbanded there in March 1971, Shorrock had also parted with his first wife of four years, Sue.[2][3]
Shorrock remained in the UK to pursue his solo career, he signed with MAM Records and released the self-penned "Let's Get the Band Together" single in October 1971.[4] This was followed by a cover of "Rock'n'Roll Lullaby" (written by Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil) in March 1972.[4] As Andre L'Escargot and His Society Syncopaters, he released "Purple Umbrella" with his backing band being Quartet members Britten, Kevin Peek, Trevor Spencer and Alan Tarney.[4] He joined the multinational progressive rock band Esperanto, which released their debut album Esperanto Rock Orchestra in 1973 with the Shorrock written track "Statue of Liberty".[4] He left Esperanto before their third album was released in 1974 and performed backing vocals for Cliff Richard.[1][4]
Little River Band
Mississippi was an Australian rock band which was working in UK with Beeb Birtles on vocals and guitar, Graham Goble (later Graeham Goble) on guitar and vocals and Derek Pellicci on drums. They contacted Glenn Wheatley (former bass guitarist for The Masters Apprentices) to become their manager. Birtles, previously in Adelaide band Zoot, called Shorrock to take part in the line up. Shorrock returned to Australia in October 1974 and joined Mississippi in January 1975 in Melbourne.[11] They were soon renamed as Little River Band with the original line up of Birtles, Goble, Pellicci, Shorrock and lead guitarist Ric Formosa and bassist Roger McLachlan.[2] The group went on to become one of the most successful bands ever to come out of Australia, and the first to achieve major commercial success in the United States.[3] For Little River Band, Shorrock wrote the hits "Emma", "Help Is on Its Way" (Australian No. 1) and "Cool Change".[4]
While still a member of Little River Band, Shorrock released a solo single, a cover of Bobby Darin's 1959 hit "Dream Lover" in April 1979 on EMI, which peaked at No. 8 on the Kent Music Report Singles Chart.[6][12] In February 1982, Shorrock left Little River Band and was replaced by former 1960s pop singer, John Farnham who was managed by Wheatley.[8] Shorrock returned to Little River Band in 1988 but, despite several quality albums, they did not regain the earlier stellar recognition. He left again in 1991 leaving the naming rights with guitarist Stephen Housden.[3] In May 2001 the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), as part of its 75th Anniversary celebrations, named "Cool Change", as one of the Top 30 Australian songs of all time.[13]
Later solo career
In 1982 Shorrock released a solo album Villain of the Peace and a single, "Rock and Roll Soldier" on Capitol Records recorded in Los Angeles with John Boylan (Charlie Daniels, Little River Band) producing. "Rock and Roll Soldier" reached the Australian top 40 in November but he did not achieve the international success attained with Little River Band. Late in 1982 he toured Australia and then teamed with Renée Geyer to release a duet, "Goin' Back" on Mushroom Records in February 1983. One of his backing singers was Wendy Matthews who had been a session singer in Los Angeles.[14] "We're Coming to Get You", which peaked at No. 6 in October, was recorded with folk group, The Bushwackers it was the theme for the film, We're Coming to Get You. He released "Don't Girls Get Lonely?" in November. In 1984, he recorded "Restless" for the documentary World Safari II: The Final Adventure.[4]
In 1985, Shorrock released The First Twenty Years, which was a double-LP album compilation of his career work with tracks by The Twilights, Axiom, Little River Band and solo work.[15] He was compere of Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) TV music series, Rock Arena in 1986 and as a breakfast announcer for radio station Magic 11 in Sydney.[16] His solo single, "American Flyers" appeared in July. He performed on the tour of stage show One for the Money in 1986–87.[16] He appeared in other stage shows including his own showcase productions Go Cat Go (1990–91) and Two Up (1996).
On 25 March 1991, Shorrock was inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame, alongside contemporary rocker Billy Thorpe, bass-baritone Peter Dawson and jazz musician Don Burrows.[17] In 1993, he re-joined with Axiom band mate, Brian Cadd, to record Blazing Salads and three singles for Blue Martin Records, and a subsequent two-year tour.[18] On tour Shorrock played his hit songs, along with those of Axiom accompanied by Cadd and a backing band of Rex Goh on guitar (ex-Air Supply), Kirk Lorange on guitar (Richard Clapton Band) and Mark Kennedy on drums (Spectrum, Ayers Rock, Marcia Hines Band).[4][18]
Long Way to the Top was a 2001 ABC TV six-part documentary on the history of Australian rock and roll from 1956 to the modern era.[19] Shorrock provided interviews, "In Awe of The Beatles", "Being Pop Stars" and "Coming from the UK", on his early years with The Twilights.[20] Long Way to the Top Tour followed in August–September 2002 with Shorrock appearing with The Twilights in the first set performing "What's Wrong with the Way I Live?" and "Needle in a Haystack"; he returned in the second set with Axiom to perform "Arkansas Grass" and "Little Ray of Sunshine".[16][21]
In 2002 Shorrock reunited with other Little River Band founders Beeb Birtles and Graeham Goble to form Birtles Shorrock Goble.[16] On 17 October 2004, the 1970s members of Little River Band: Birtles, David Briggs, Goble, George McArdle, Derek Pellicci and Shorrock, were inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame.[22] The later members including fellow Australian, John Farnham, and US-based musicians, were not included in this induction.[22] Due to a 2002 legal ruling on their right to use the band's name—two US-based members held the trademark—they performed "Help Is on the Way" as Classic Lineup of the Little River Band or Little River Band – Classic Lineup (sources vary).[22] Birtles Shorrock Goble recorded a successful DVD and CD, Full Circle (2005) and toured until 2007. In August–September, the trio played a medley of Little River Band hits at the Countdown Spectacular 2 concert series.
In 2005 Shorrock also undertook his career-spanning The Reminiscing Tour – Glenn Shorrock & Friends with invited guest singers including Doug Parkinson and Wendy Matthews.[16] In May–June 2006, he partnered actress Judy Nunn on the first season of reality TV singing competition, It Takes Two, they were voted off after week three.[23] His first solo CD for seven years, Meanwhile, which contains acoustic versions of his career hits was released in 2007 on the Liberation Blue label. He performed The Beatles tribute show Let It Be with Parkinson, Sharon O'Neill and Mark Williams.[24]
In 2008 Shorrock toured with the musical Shout! The Legend of the Wild One, based on the life of Australian rocker Johnny O'Keefe.[24][25] In July 2010, Shorrock performed a retrospective of his 45 years in the music industry.[2][5] Currently Glenn Shorrock continues to tour Australia performing for public and private events in Australia and promotes new local music artists. In early 2013 Glenn and his band were headlining performers in Macau, New York and London for the media launch of the Titanic II project. This was at the personal invitation of Australian entrepreneur Clive Palmer.
Glenn Shorrock
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Glenn Barrie Shorrock (born 30 June 1944) is an English-born Australian singer-songwriter. He was a founding member of pop groups The Twilights, Axiom and Little River Band as well as being a solo performer.
The Twilights had eight consecutive national hit singles including "Needle in a Haystack" and "What's Wrong with the Way I Live". Axiom's top 10 hits were "Arkansas Grass", "Little Ray of Sunshine" and "My Baby's Gone". Little River Band had national and international chart success, including the Shorrock-penned "Emma", "Help Is on Its Way" and "Cool Change".
Shorrock was inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame as a solo artist in 1991 and as a member of Little River Band in 2004. In May 2001 the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), as part of its 75th Anniversary celebrations, named "Cool Change" as one of the APRA Top 30 Australian songs of all time.
Twighlights
Glenn Barrie Shorrock was born on 30 June 1944 in Chatham, Kent, United Kingdom. His family migrated to Adelaide, South Australia in August 1954 when he was ten.[1] His father was a Yorkshire-born fitter and turner at the Weapons Research Establishment in Salisbury.[2] The 1954–55 summer had days of 42 °C (108 °F) and Black Sunday bushfires ravaged the Adelaide Hills in January 1955.[3] His London-born mother was not impressed with Australia, and she took Shorrock and his younger sister back to UK, only to return to Australia for a second attempt in 1956.[2] The family settled in Elizabeth 20 km (12 mi) north of Adelaide.[4]
Shorrock's first public performance took place in 1958 in a Lutheran church hall—he was miming to Elvis Presley's "All Shook Up" on a gramophone and strumming on a cardboard guitar when the player stopped—he was forced to continue singing by himself and realised he had a good voice.[1][5]
In 1962, Shorrock formed his first band, The Checkmates, with Clem McCartney, Mike Sykes and Billy Volraat.[6] They were a doo wop harmony group covering The Platters and The Crew Cuts material.[7] Sometimes teaming up with instrumental groups, The Vector Men or The Hurricanes, The Checkmates performed in Adelaide cafes and folk clubs.[8] As a result of The Beatles' popularity, members of The Checkmates and The Hurricanes merged to form The Twilights in 1964.[7][8]
Main article: The Twilights
In 1964 Shorrock, with McCartney as co-lead vocalist, formed The Twilights by merging with The Hurricanes' Frank Barnard on drums, Peter Brideoak on guitar, Terry Britten on guitar and John Bywaters on bass guitar.[7][8] Their debut single, "I'll Be Where You Are", co-written by Shorrock and Britten,[9] was released in June 1965.[8] The band had eight consecutive hit singles including covers of The Velvelettes' "Needle in a Haystack" and The Hollies' "What's Wrong with the Way I Live" (recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London).[8] With two lead singers, two guitarists and five vocalists, the Twilights performed note-perfect covers of pop-rock songs and were famed for their live prowess.[8] They relocated to Melbourne late in 1965 and were popular with teenage audiences and respected by fellow musicians. In July 1966, they won Hoadley's Battle of the Sounds with the prize including a trip to London.[8] In 1967, shortly after returning from London, the group regularly performed the entire Sgt Pepper's album live in sequence, weeks before it was released in Australia.[8] Shorrock married his first wife, Sue, while he was a member of The Twilights.[1] The Twilights disbanded in January 1969 and Shorrock became band manager for Brisbane pop group, The Avengers.[4]
Axiom
In May 1969 in Melbourne, Shorrock formed an early Australian 'supergroup', Axiom, with Brian Cadd on keyboards and vocals, Don Mudie on lead guitar (both ex-The Groop), Doug Lavery (The Valentines) on drums and Chris Stockley (Cam-Pact) on guitar.[10] They recorded two highly acclaimed albums, Fool's Gold and If Only...; and had three top 10 singles, "Arkansas Grass", "Little Ray of Sunshine" and "My Baby's Gone" on the Go-Set national charts.[10] Axiom travelled to UK but disbanded there in March 1971, Shorrock had also parted with his first wife of four years, Sue.[2][3]
Shorrock remained in the UK to pursue his solo career, he signed with MAM Records and released the self-penned "Let's Get the Band Together" single in October 1971.[4] This was followed by a cover of "Rock'n'Roll Lullaby" (written by Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil) in March 1972.[4] As Andre L'Escargot and His Society Syncopaters, he released "Purple Umbrella" with his backing band being Quartet members Britten, Kevin Peek, Trevor Spencer and Alan Tarney.[4] He joined the multinational progressive rock band Esperanto, which released their debut album Esperanto Rock Orchestra in 1973 with the Shorrock written track "Statue of Liberty".[4] He left Esperanto before their third album was released in 1974 and performed backing vocals for Cliff Richard.[1][4]
Little River Band
Mississippi was an Australian rock band which was working in UK with Beeb Birtles on vocals and guitar, Graham Goble (later Graeham Goble) on guitar and vocals and Derek Pellicci on drums. They contacted Glenn Wheatley (former bass guitarist for The Masters Apprentices) to become their manager. Birtles, previously in Adelaide band Zoot, called Shorrock to take part in the line up. Shorrock returned to Australia in October 1974 and joined Mississippi in January 1975 in Melbourne.[11] They were soon renamed as Little River Band with the original line up of Birtles, Goble, Pellicci, Shorrock and lead guitarist Ric Formosa and bassist Roger McLachlan.[2] The group went on to become one of the most successful bands ever to come out of Australia, and the first to achieve major commercial success in the United States.[3] For Little River Band, Shorrock wrote the hits "Emma", "Help Is on Its Way" (Australian No. 1) and "Cool Change".[4]
While still a member of Little River Band, Shorrock released a solo single, a cover of Bobby Darin's 1959 hit "Dream Lover" in April 1979 on EMI, which peaked at No. 8 on the Kent Music Report Singles Chart.[6][12] In February 1982, Shorrock left Little River Band and was replaced by former 1960s pop singer, John Farnham who was managed by Wheatley.[8] Shorrock returned to Little River Band in 1988 but, despite several quality albums, they did not regain the earlier stellar recognition. He left again in 1991 leaving the naming rights with guitarist Stephen Housden.[3] In May 2001 the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), as part of its 75th Anniversary celebrations, named "Cool Change", as one of the Top 30 Australian songs of all time.[13]
Later solo career
In 1982 Shorrock released a solo album Villain of the Peace and a single, "Rock and Roll Soldier" on Capitol Records recorded in Los Angeles with John Boylan (Charlie Daniels, Little River Band) producing. "Rock and Roll Soldier" reached the Australian top 40 in November but he did not achieve the international success attained with Little River Band. Late in 1982 he toured Australia and then teamed with Renée Geyer to release a duet, "Goin' Back" on Mushroom Records in February 1983. One of his backing singers was Wendy Matthews who had been a session singer in Los Angeles.[14] "We're Coming to Get You", which peaked at No. 6 in October, was recorded with folk group, The Bushwackers it was the theme for the film, We're Coming to Get You. He released "Don't Girls Get Lonely?" in November. In 1984, he recorded "Restless" for the documentary World Safari II: The Final Adventure.[4]
In 1985, Shorrock released The First Twenty Years, which was a double-LP album compilation of his career work with tracks by The Twilights, Axiom, Little River Band and solo work.[15] He was compere of Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) TV music series, Rock Arena in 1986 and as a breakfast announcer for radio station Magic 11 in Sydney.[16] His solo single, "American Flyers" appeared in July. He performed on the tour of stage show One for the Money in 1986–87.[16] He appeared in other stage shows including his own showcase productions Go Cat Go (1990–91) and Two Up (1996).
On 25 March 1991, Shorrock was inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame, alongside contemporary rocker Billy Thorpe, bass-baritone Peter Dawson and jazz musician Don Burrows.[17] In 1993, he re-joined with Axiom band mate, Brian Cadd, to record Blazing Salads and three singles for Blue Martin Records, and a subsequent two-year tour.[18] On tour Shorrock played his hit songs, along with those of Axiom accompanied by Cadd and a backing band of Rex Goh on guitar (ex-Air Supply), Kirk Lorange on guitar (Richard Clapton Band) and Mark Kennedy on drums (Spectrum, Ayers Rock, Marcia Hines Band).[4][18]
Long Way to the Top was a 2001 ABC TV six-part documentary on the history of Australian rock and roll from 1956 to the modern era.[19] Shorrock provided interviews, "In Awe of The Beatles", "Being Pop Stars" and "Coming from the UK", on his early years with The Twilights.[20] Long Way to the Top Tour followed in August–September 2002 with Shorrock appearing with The Twilights in the first set performing "What's Wrong with the Way I Live?" and "Needle in a Haystack"; he returned in the second set with Axiom to perform "Arkansas Grass" and "Little Ray of Sunshine".[16][21]
In 2002 Shorrock reunited with other Little River Band founders Beeb Birtles and Graeham Goble to form Birtles Shorrock Goble.[16] On 17 October 2004, the 1970s members of Little River Band: Birtles, David Briggs, Goble, George McArdle, Derek Pellicci and Shorrock, were inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame.[22] The later members including fellow Australian, John Farnham, and US-based musicians, were not included in this induction.[22] Due to a 2002 legal ruling on their right to use the band's name—two US-based members held the trademark—they performed "Help Is on the Way" as Classic Lineup of the Little River Band or Little River Band – Classic Lineup (sources vary).[22] Birtles Shorrock Goble recorded a successful DVD and CD, Full Circle (2005) and toured until 2007. In August–September, the trio played a medley of Little River Band hits at the Countdown Spectacular 2 concert series.
In 2005 Shorrock also undertook his career-spanning The Reminiscing Tour – Glenn Shorrock & Friends with invited guest singers including Doug Parkinson and Wendy Matthews.[16] In May–June 2006, he partnered actress Judy Nunn on the first season of reality TV singing competition, It Takes Two, they were voted off after week three.[23] His first solo CD for seven years, Meanwhile, which contains acoustic versions of his career hits was released in 2007 on the Liberation Blue label. He performed The Beatles tribute show Let It Be with Parkinson, Sharon O'Neill and Mark Williams.[24]
In 2008 Shorrock toured with the musical Shout! The Legend of the Wild One, based on the life of Australian rocker Johnny O'Keefe.[24][25] In July 2010, Shorrock performed a retrospective of his 45 years in the music industry.[2][5] Currently Glenn Shorrock continues to tour Australia performing for public and private events in Australia and promotes new local music artists. In early 2013 Glenn and his band were headlining performers in Macau, New York and London for the media launch of the Titanic II project. This was at the personal invitation of Australian entrepreneur Clive Palmer.
An-Naziat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Surat Al-Naziʿat (Arabic: سورة النازعات) (Those Who Drag Forth, Soul-snatchers) is the 79th sura of the Qur'an with 46 ayat.
وَأَمَّا مَنْ خَافَ مَقَامَ رَبِّهِ وَنَهَى النَّفْسَ عَنِ الْهَوَىٰ
And for such as had entertained the fear of standing before their Lord's (tribunal) and had restrained (their) soul from lower desires,
79:41 فَإِنَّ الْجَنَّةَ هِيَ الْمَأْوَىٰ
Their abode will be the Garden.
وَأَمَّا مَنْ خَافَ مَقَامَ رَبِّهِ وَنَهَى النَّفْسَ عَنِ الْهَوَىٰ
And for such as had entertained the fear of standing before their Lord's (tribunal) and had restrained (their) soul from lower desires,
79:41 فَإِنَّ الْجَنَّةَ هِيَ الْمَأْوَىٰ
Their abode will be the Garden.
79:42 يَسْأَلُونَكَ عَنِ السَّاعَةِ أَيَّانَ مُرْسَاهَا
They ask thee about the Hour,-'When will be its appointed time?
79:43 فِيمَ أَنْتَ مِنْ ذِكْرَاهَا
Wherein art thou (concerned) with the declaration thereof?
79:44 إِلَىٰ رَبِّكَ مُنْتَهَاهَا
With thy Lord in the Limit fixed therefor.
79:45 إِنَّمَا أَنْتَ مُنْذِرُ مَنْ يَخْشَاهَا
Thou art but a Warner for such as fear it.
79:46 كَأَنَّهُمْ يَوْمَ يَرَوْنَهَا لَمْ يَلْبَثُوا إِلَّا عَشِيَّةً أَوْ ضُحَاهَا
The Day they see it, (It will be) as if they had tarried but a single evening, or (at most till) the following morn
ما تفسير قوله تعالى وأما من خاف مقام ربه ونهى النفس عن الهوى
أرجو لو تكرمتم تفسير قول الله سبحانه تعالى من سورة النازعات: ((وَأَمَّا مَنْ خَافَ مَقَامَ رَبِّهِ وَنَهَى النَّفْسَ عَنِ الْهَوَى * فَإِنَّ الْجَنَّةَ هِيَ الْمَأْوَى))[النازعات:40-41]، وما هي الأمور التي تنهى النفس عن الهوى، وهل يكون عمل المرأة من هذه الأمور التي يجب نهي النفس عنها في حالة عدم احتياج المرأة للعمل مادياً؟
الآية عظيمة ومعناها واضح، يقول سبحانه: (وَأَمَّا مَنْ خَافَ مَقَامَ رَبِّهِ وَنَهَى النَّفْسَ عَنِ الْهَوَى * فَإِنَّ الْجَنَّةَ هِيَ الْمَأْوَى) قبلها قوله سبحانه: (فَأَمَّا مَن طَغَى * وَآثَرَ الْحَيَاةَ الدُّنْيَا * فَإِنَّ الْجَحِيمَ هِيَ الْمَأْوَى * وَأَمَّا مَنْ خَافَ مَقَامَ رَبِّهِ) (النازعات 37-40) يعني خاف مقامه بين يدي الله، فلهذا نهى نفسه عن هواها يعني هواها المحرم، (وَنَهَى النَّفْسَ عَنِ الْهَوَى) (ال) بدل المضاف إليه يعني عن هواها الذي حرم الله عليها، فهذا هو الذي له الجنة والكرامة، فإن النفس قد تميل إلى الزنا قد تميل إلى الخمر قد تميل إلى الربا قد تميل إلى ظلم الناس قد تميل إلى أشياء أخرى مما حرمه الله وتهوى ذلك لأسباب، فإذا وفق الله المؤمن أو المؤمنة لمحاربة هذا الهوى ومخالفته وعدم الانصياع إليه صار هذا من أسباب دخول الجنة، (وَأَمَّا مَنْ خَافَ مَقَامَ رَبِّهِ وَنَهَى النَّفْسَ عَنِ الْهَوَى) يعني خاف وقوفه بين يدي الله فلهذا نهى نفسه عن هواها، يعني زجرها عن هواها، وخالفها وألزمها بالحق وكبح جماحها حتى لا تقع فيما حرم الله من الزنا أو شرب المسكر أو تعاطي الربا أو الغيبة أو النميمة أو العقوق للوالدين أو قطيعة الرحم أو ظلم الناس في أموالهم ودمائهم وأعراضهم إلى غير ذلك، فهذا الذي نهى نفسه عن هواها وألزمها بالحق خوفاً من الله وطلباً لمرضاته له الجنة والكرامة.
قال الله تعالى :
(فأما من طغى واثر الحياه الدنيا فإن الجحيم هى المأوى واما من خاف مقام ربه ونهى النفس عن الهوى فإن الجنه هى المأوى)
وايضا قوله جل وعلى:
(ولمن خاف مقام ربه جنتان )
قيل فى تفسير هذه الايه ان العبد يهوى المعصية فينكر مقام الله عز وجل ورقابته عليه
اخبر الله جل وعلا ان إتباع الهوى يضل عن سبيل الله فقال:
(يا داود ان جعلناك خليفه فى الارض فحكم بين الناس بالحق ولا تتبع الهوى فيضلك عن سبيله )
ايضا اخبر الله عز وجل ان لإتباع الهوى ممكن يطبع على القلب فقال سبحانه وتعالى:
(أولئك الذين طبع الله على قلوبهم واتبعوا أهوائهم )
الله عز وجل فى ايات كثيره فى القرآن حزر من اتباع اصحاب الاهواء فقال فى بعض ايات القران:
(ولن ترضى عنك اليهود ولا النصارى حتى تتبع ملتهم قل ان هدى الله هو الهدى ولإن اتبعت أهوآءهم بعد الذى جاءك من العلم مالك من الله من ولى ولا نصير )
كذلك الله عز وجل امر بعدم اتباع الهوى فى الحكم مما يعى ان اتباع الهوى يسبب الجور فى الحكم
(يأيها الذين امنوا كونوا قوامين بالقسط شهداء لله ولو على أنفسكم أو الوالدين والأقربين إن يكن
غنيا او فقيرا فالله أولى بهما فلا تتبعوا الهوى أن تعدلوا )
-----------------------------------------------
-----------------****-----------------
:: وصف الجنة كما جاء في القران
-----------------****-----------------
فالله سبحانه و تعالى يقول (( إِلا مَنْ رَحِمَ رَبُكَ وَ لِذلِك َخلقهُمْ )) و يقول جل و علا (( وَمَا خَلَقْتُ الْجِنَّ وَالإِنسَ إِلا لِيَعْبُدُونِ )) فالله سبحانه يبين لنا في هاتين الآيتين أنه خلقنا لنعبده فنسعد بعبادته فيرحمنا فالله سبحانه غني عن تعذيب عباده .. خلقنا ليرحمنا .. و يسعدنا و يسكننا جنته يقول تبارك و تعالى في الحديث القدسي (( أعددت لعبادي الصالحين ما لا عين رأت و لا أذن سمعت و لا خطر على قلب بشر )) و يقول سبحانه في محكم التنزيل (( فلا تعلم نفس ما أخفي لهم من قرة أعين جزاء بما كانوا يعملون )) ..
فالله سبحانه و تعالى أعد جنات عرضها كعرض السماوات و الأرض لمن أطاعه فيما أمر ، و انتهى عما نهى عنه و زجر ... و جاءت الآيات الكريمة و الأحاديث الشريفة لتصف لنا الجنة و ما فيها من النعيم ، و تصف لنا الطريق القويم للوصول إلى هذه الجنة ...و لتحثنا على الجد و العمل للوصول إلى الجنة .. قال تعالى : ((سَابِقُوا إِلَى مَغْفِرَةٍ مِّن رَّبِّكُمْ وَجَنَّةٍ عَرْضُهَا كَعَرْضِ السَّمَاء والأَرْضِ أُعِدَّتْ لِلَّذِينَ آمَنُوا بِاللَّهِ وَرُسُلِهِ ذَلِكَ فَضْلُ اللَّهِ يُؤْتِيهِ مَن يَشَاء وَاللَّهُ ذُو الْفَضْلِ الْعَظِيمِ )) و قال تعالى : ((وَسَارِعُواْ إِلَى مَغْفِرَةٍ مِّن رَّبِّكُمْ وَجَنَّةٍ عَرْضُهَا السَّمَاوَاتُ وَالأَرْضُ أُعِدَّتْ لِلْمُتَّقِينَ ))
و قبل أن نذهب في رحلتنا إلى الجنة لنتعرف أوصافها ، و طرقها ، علينا أن ننتبه أنها فوق ما نسمع و نقرأ ؛ فكل ما جاء في القرآن الكريم و السنة النبوية المطهرة من أوصاف الجنة و أنهارها و قصورها و طعامها و شرابها .. لا يشبه شيئاً من جنسه في الدنيا إلا في الاسم !!
1- أرضها وتربتها
روى الترمذيُّ عن أبي هريرة رضي الله عنه قال : قلت : يا رسول الله مِمَّ خُـلـِقَ الخَـلْـقُ قال: (( من الماء))، قلت : الجنَّة ما بناؤها قال)) :لِبنةٌ فضةٌ و لِبنةٌ ذهبٌ ، ومِلاطها المسك الأذفر ،وحصباؤها اللؤلؤ والياقوت , وتربتها الزَّعفران ,من يدخلها ينعم لا يبأس , ويخلد لا يموت , ولا تبلى ثيابهم ، ولا يفنى شبابهم)).
فالجنة ليست من الدنيا في شيء فبناؤها من الذهب و الفضة و طينها مسك يفوح رائحة عطرة و إذا تعثرت قدمك بشيء و أنت تسير في الجنة – جعلنا الله من أهلها – فلا تظن أبداً أنها حصاة صغيرة و إنما هي لؤلؤة ثمينة ، و أما التربة فهي زعفران يبهج المقلتين و يسعد الناظرين ...
2- أنهارها
قال تعالى : (( مَثَلُ الْجَنَّةِ الَّتِي وُعِدَ الْمتقونَ فِيهَا أَنْهَارٌ مِّن مَّاء غَيْرِ آسِنٍ وَأَنْهَارٌ مِن لَّبَنٍ لَّمْ يَتَغَيَّرْ طَعْمُهُ وَأَنْهَارٌ مِّنْ خَمْرٍ لَّذَّةٍ لِّلشَّارِبِينَ وَأَنْهَارٌ مِّنْ عَسَلٍ مُّصَفًّى وَلَهُمْ فِيهَا مِن كُلِّ الثَّمَرَاتِ وَمَغْفِرَةٌ مِّن رَّبِّهِمْ كَمَنْ هُوَ خَالِدٌ فِي النَّارِ وَسُقُوا مَاء حَمِيمًا فَقَطَّعَ أَمْعَاءهُمْ))
و قال تعالى : (( وَبَشِّرِ الَّذِين آمَنُواْ وَعَمِلُواْ الصَّالِحَاتِ أَنَّ لَهُمْ جَنَّاتٍ تَجْرِي مِن تَحْتِهَا الأَنْهَارُ كُلَّمَا رُزِقُواْ مِنْهَا مِن ثَمَرَةٍ رِّزْقاً قَالُواْ هَذَا الَّذِي رُزِقْنَا مِن قَبْلُ وَأُتُواْ بِهِ مُتَشَابِهاً وَلَهُمْ فِيهَا أَزْوَاجٌ مُّطَهَّرَةٌ وَهُمْ فِيهَا خَالِدُونَ ))
فأنهار الجنة أربعة نهر من العسل المصفى لا شمع فيه ، و نهر من الماء الجاري الذي هو ألذ بكثير من ماء الدنيا ، ستقول لكن هل لماء الجنة طعم خاص نعم فهو ليس كماء الدنيا دون طعم !
و نهر من لبن لا يفسده لا صيف و لا شتاء بل تشعر و أنت تغترفه من النهر و كأنك تحلبه من ضرع لا ينضب و لا يتغير طعم ما فيه مهما طال الزمن عليه...و أما النهر الأخير فهو نهر الخمر الذي هو ألذ من خمر الدنيا و لا يفتك بالجسد كفتك الخمر الدنيوي ، و لا يسكر و لا يذهب بالعقل .. قال تعالى : (( لا يصدعون عنها و لا ينزفون )) و قال تعالى : (( لا فِيهَا غَوْلٌ وَلا هُمْ عَنْهَا يُنزَفُونَ))
3- قصورها ومساكنها
قال تعالى ( لـَكِنِ الذين اتـَّـقوا ربَّهم لـَهُمْ غُرفٌ مِنْ فَوْقِهَا غُرَفٌ مبنيَّة ٌ تجري مِنْ تـَحتِهَا الأنـْهَارُ وعْدَ اللهِ لا يُخْلِفُ الله ُ المِيعَادْ )).
و قال صلى الله عليه وسلم (في الجَنـَّة خَيْمَة من لؤلؤةٍ مجوَّفةٍ عرضُها سُتونَ ميلاً (( .
و من الطبيعي أن الجنة التي يكون ترابها زعفران و طينها مسك أن تكون خيامها لؤلؤاً و زبرجداً و قصورها فهي غرف تطل على الأنهار فلا تسمع فيها ضجيج السيارات أو صراخ الأطفال ... و إنما تسمع صوت المياه المترقرقة في أنهار الجنة الأربعة ... قال تعالى : (( لا يسمعون فيها لغوا ً و لا تأثيماً * إلا قيلاً سلاماً سلاماً))
4- الفـُـرُش والأوَانِي
قال تعالى : ((متـَّكِئِينَ فِيها على فـُرُشٍ بَطَائِنُها مِنْ اسْـتـَبْرَقْ ))
فإذا كانت البطائن من استبرق فما بالك بظاهر الفرش ! و أما عن الأواني : فقال تعالى : (( يُطاف عليهم بصحاف من ذهب ٍ و أكواب )). و قال تعالى : (( و َيُطَافُ عَلَيْهِم بِآنِيَةٍ مِّن فِضَّةٍ وَأَكْوَابٍ كَانَتْ قَوَارِيرَاً )) .؛ قال الإمام الطبري في تفسير هذه الآية : ( و يُطاف على هؤلاء الأبرار بآنية من الأواني التي يشربون فيها شرابهم، هي من فضة كانت قوارير، فجعلها فضة، وهي في صفاء القوارير، فلها بياض الفضة وصفاء الزجاج) .5-
5- الطعام والشراب
قال تعالى : (( و فاكهةٍ ممَّا يتخيـَّرون * ولحمُ طيرٍ ممَّا يشـْتهون((.
و قال سبحانه : (( وفاكهة كثيرة لامقطوعة ولاممنوعة ))
روى الترمذيُّ :عن أنس رضي الله عنه : قال : قال صلى الله عليه وسلم : (( إن في الجنة شجرةَ يسير الراكب في ظلِّها مئة عام لا يقطعها ،اقرؤوا إن شئتم - وظلٍ ممدود ) (
وعَنْ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ بْنِ عَبَّاسٍ رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُمَا قَالَ خَسَفَتْ الشَّمْسُ عَلَى عَهْدِ رَسُولِ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ فَصَلَّى قَالُوا يَا رَسُولَ اللَّهِ رَأَيْنَاكَ تَنَاوَلْتَ شَيْئًا فِي مَقَامِكَ ثُمَّ رَأَيْنَاكَ تَكَعْكَعْتَ قَالَ (( إِنِّي أُرِيتُ الْجَنَّةَ فَتَنَاوَلْتُ مِنْهَا عُنْقُودًا وَلَوْ أَخَذْتُهُ لأكَلْتُمْ مِنْهُ مَا بَقِيَتْ الدُّنْيَا))
6- نساؤها :
قال تعالى : (( كأنـَّهُنََّ بَيضٌ مَكْنونْ ))
و لنتأمل معاً هذه الآيات من سورة الرحمن
و قال تعالى : (( فِيهِنَّ قَاصِرَاتُ الطَّرْفِ لَمْ يَطْمِثْهُنَّ إِنسٌ قَبْلَهُمْ وَلاَ جَآنٌّ * فَبِأَيِّ آلاۤءِ رَبِّكُمَا تُكَذِّبَانِ * كَأَنَّهُنَّ الْيَاقُوتُ وَالْمَرْجَانُ * فَبِأَيِّ آلاۤءِ رَبِّكُمَا تُكَذِّبَانِ * هَلْ جَزَآءُ الإِحْسَانِ إِلاَّ الإِحْسَانُ * فَبِأَيِّ آلاۤءِ رَبِّكُمَا تُكَذِّبَانِ )) قاصرات الطرف أي تقصر طرفها على زوجها فلا تنظر إلى غيره و لا تطمح لسواه و هن كما قال تبارك و تعالى : (( عرباً أتراباً )) عرباً تعني غنجات متحببات إلى أزواجهنّ يحسنَّ التبعل و نساء الجنة أبكار لم يطمثهن إنس و لا جان و لكن مهما بلغن من الجمال و الروعة فإنهن لن يكن أبداً أجمل من النساء المؤمنات فتلك المرأة التي قامت الليل و صامت النهار و بكت و سجدت و استغفرت في الأسحار و استترت كما أمرها ربها بالخمار لا يمكن أن يساويها الملك العدل بحورية لم تفعل من هذا شيئاً ، و لذلك فخير الحور للرجل في الجنة هي زوجته في الدنيا ....
و قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم : (( لو أن امرأة ً من نِسَاءِ أهل الجنة اطّلعتْ إلى الأرضِ لأضاءت ما بينهما و لملأت ما بينهما ريحاً )) .
و مهما أطلقنا العنان لخيالنا في تصور هذا الحديث الشريف ... و الحديث التالي أجمل و أروع فكلنا يحب الاستماع إلى الغناء و إلى ما يطرب النفس و ينشيها و لكن شتان بين غناء و غناء و شتان بين مستمع و مستمع .... فمن آثر غناء الدنيا و مغنوا و مغنيات الدنيا فله ما أراد و لكنه يحرم من سماع أصوات لم تسمع الخلائق مثلها ....
قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم : ((إن في الجنة لمجتمعاً للحور العين يغنين بأصوات لم يسمع الخلائق مثلها ، يقلن نحن الخالدات فلا نبيد ونحن الناعمات فلا نبأس ونحن الراضيات فلا نسخط طوبى لمن كان لنا وكنا له )).7-
7- الخدم والغلمان
قال تعالى ( ويطوف عليهم ولدان مخلَّدون إذا رأيتهم حسبتهم لؤلؤاً منثوراً )).
و قال تعالى : (( يطوف عليهم ولدان ٌ مخلدون * بأكوابٍ و أباريق وكأس ٍ من معين)).
و قال تعالى: ((ويطوف عليهم غلمان ٌ كأنـَّهم لؤلؤ مكنون ))
و روي أن أطفال المشركين الذين يموتون دون سن البلوغ يكونون خدماً لأهل الجنة و هؤلاء الغلمان ليس لهم وظيفة إلا خدمة أهل الجنة ، و لكن قائلاً قد يقول : أو ليس كل ما في الجنة قريباً مني و القطوف دانية و الأكواب موضوعة و النمارق مصفوفة فما فائدة الخدم فنقول إن من إكرام الله لأهل الجنة أن خلق لهم خدماً فأغلب ملوك الدنيا قد لا يحتاجون لهذه الأعداد الكبيرة من الخدم و لكنه مظهر من مظاهر الترف و التكريم للملك و هكذا حال خدم أهل الجنة ...
8- لباسها وزينتها
قال سبحانه و تعالى ( عَالِيَهُمْ ثِيَابُ سُندُسٍ خُضْرٌ وَإِسْتَبْرَقٌ وَحُلُّوا أَسَاوِرَ مِن فِضَّةٍ وَسَقَاهُمْ رَبُّهُمْ شَرَابًا طَهُورًا))
روى الترمذي عن أبي هريرة رضي الله عنه : قال : قال رسول الله صلى الله عليه وسلم) ( أهل الجنة جُردٌ مُردٌ - ليس في وجوههم شعر بل شباب – كُحلٌ لا يفنى شبابهم ولا تبلى ثيابهم عليهم التيجان ،و إن لؤلؤة منها لتضيء ما بين المشرق والمغرب ((
روى الترمذيُّ عن سعد رضي الله عنه : قال عليه الصلاة والسلام ))لو أن رجلاً من أهل الجنة طلع فبدا أساوره لطمس ضوء الشمس ، كما تطمس الشمس ضوء النجوم(.)
9- حال أهلها
عن أبي هريرة رضي الله عنه عن النبي عليه الصلاة والسلام : (( أول زمرة تلج الجنة صورتهم على صورة القمر ليلة البدر ، لا يبصقون ولا يتمخطون ولا يتغوطون ))
و قال سبحانه : (( تحيَّتـُهم فيها سلام وآخر دعواهم أن الحمد لله رب العالمين)) 20-
وأعظم ثواب أهل الجنة
قال تعالى : (( وجوه يومئذ ناضرة إلى ربها ناظرة ))21-
أدنى أهل الجنة منزلة
قال صلى الله عليه وسلم : (( أدنى أهل الجنة منزلة ً ، الذي له ثمانون ألف خادم ، و اثنان وسبعون زوجة ، وتنصب له قبة ٌ من لؤلؤٍ وزبرجد وياقوت كما بين الجابية وصنعاء))
واما من خاف مقام ربه ونهى النفس عن الهوى فإن الجنة هي المؤوى
هذه الاية ملخص للاسلام باكمله فالخوف من الله وعدم اتباع هوى النفس هو السبيل لدخول الجنة لكن مفهوم هوى النفس يختلط عاى الناس حتى علماء الدين منهم ويزين لهم الشيطان ان الحق هو فيما هوته انفسهم فيخلصون لتحقيق الهوى وهم مقتنعون تدليسا ان هذا هو الحق الذي يجب اتباعه.
ترى عالم دين مثلا يخرج براي مخالف لاراء السابقين واللاحقين ويصاره في الدفاع عنه وكانه هو الراي الحق وتكون الحقيقة في بعض الاحيان ان ما دفعه الى ذلك او القوة الجاذبة له ليفعل ذلك هب حبه الخفي بالبروز وينسى ان هذا هو هوى نفسه
اذا كان عالم الدين كذلك فكيف بالناس العاديين ؟ ترى السواد الاعظم منهم يزين لهم الشيطان بان هوى انفسهم هو الحق فيضلون
هل نستطيع التمييز بين هوى انفسنا وبين ما يجب فنكبحها؟
وتايا تفسير الاية الكريمة
أَيْ حَذِرَ مَقَامه بَيْن يَدَيْ رَبّه . وَقَالَ الرَّبِيع : مَقَامه يَوْم الْحِسَاب . وَكَانَ قَتَادَة يَقُول : إِنَّ لِلَّهِ عَزَّ وَجَلَّ مَقَامًا قَدْ خَافَهُ الْمُؤْمِنُونَ . وَقَالَ مُجَاهِد : هُوَ خَوْفه فِي الدُّنْيَا مِنْ اللَّه عَزَّ وَجَلَّ عِنْد مُوَاقَعَة الذَّنْب فَيُقْلِع . نَظِيره : " وَلِمَنْ خَافَ مَقَام رَبّه جَنَّتَانِ " [ الرَّحْمَن : 46 ] . وَالْآيَتَانِ نَزَلَتَا فِي مُصْعَب بْن عُمَيْر وَأَخِيهِ عَامِر بْن عُمَيْر ; فَرَوَى الضَّحَّاك عَنْ اِبْن عَبَّاس قَالَ : أَمَّا مَنْ طَغَى فَهُوَ أَخ لِمُصْعَبِ بْن عُمَيْر أُسِرَ يَوْم بَدْر , فَأَخَذَتْهُ الْأَنْصَار فَقَالُوا : مَنْ أَنْتَ ؟ قَالَ : أَنَا أَخُو مُصْعَب بْن عُمَيْر , فَلَمْ يَشُدُّوهُ فِي الْوَثَاق , وَأَكْرَمُوهُ وَبَيَّتُوهُ عِنْدهمْ , فَلَمَّا أَصْبَحُوا حَدَّثُوا مُصْعَب بْن عُمَيْر حَدِيثه ; فَقَالَ : مَا هُوَ لِي بِأَخٍ , شُدُّوا أَسِيركُمْ , فَإِنَّ أُمَّهُ أَكْثَر أَهْل الْبَطْحَاء حُلِيًّا وَمَالًا . فَأَوْثَقُوهُ حَتَّى بَعَثَتْ أُمُّهُ فِي فَدَائِهِ . " وَأَمَّا مَنْ خَافَ مَقَام رَبّه " فَمُصْعَب بْن عُمَيْر , وَقَى رَسُول اللَّه صَلَّى اللَّه عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ بِنَفْسِهِ يَوْم أُحُد حِين تَفَرَّقَ النَّاس عَنْهُ , حَتَّى نَفَذَتْ الْمَشَاقِص فِي جَوْفه . وَهِيَ السِّهَام , فَلَمَّا رَآهُ رَسُول اللَّه صَلَّى اللَّه عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ مُتَشَحِّطًا فِي دَمه قَالَ : [ عِنْد اللَّه أَحْتَسِبُك ] وَقَالَ لِأَصْحَابِهِ : [ لَقَدْ رَأَيْته وَعَلَيْهِ بُرْدَانِ مَا تُعْرَف قِيمَتهمَا وَإِنَّ شِرَاك نَعْلَيْهِ مِنْ ذَهَب ] . وَقِيلَ : إِنَّ مُصَعَّب بْن عُمَيْر قَتَلَ أَخَاهُ عَامِرًا يَوْم بَدْر . وَعَنْ اِبْن عَبَّاس أَيْضًا قَالَ : نَزَلَتْ هَذِهِ الْآيَة فِي رَجُلَيْنِ : أَبِي جَهْل بْن هِشَام الْمَخْزُومِيّ وَمُصْعَب بْن عُمَيْر الْعَبْدَرِيّ . وَقَالَ السُّدِّيّ : نَزَلَتْ هَذِهِ الْآيَة " وَأَمَّا مَنْ خَافَ مَقَام رَبّه " فِي أَبِي بَكْر الصِّدِّيق رَضِيَ اللَّه عَنْهُ . وَذَلِكَ أَنَّ أَبَا بَكْر كَانَ لَهُ غُلَام يَأْتِيه بِطَعَامٍ , وَكَانَ يَسْأَلهُ مِنْ أَيْنَ أَتَيْت بِهَذَا , فَأَتَاهُ يَوْمًا بِطَعَامٍ فَلَمْ يَسْأَلْهُ وَأَكَلَهُ , فَقَالَ لَهُ غُلَامه : لِمَ لَا تَسْأَلُنِي الْيَوْم ؟ فَقَالَ : نَسِيت , فَمِنْ أَيْنَ لَك هَذَا الطَّعَام . فَقَالَ : تَكَهَّنْت لِقَوْمٍ فِي الْجَاهِلِيَّة فَأَعْطَوْنِيهِ . فَتَقَايَأَهُ مِنْ سَاعَته وَقَالَ : يَا رَبّ مَا بَقِيَ فِي الْعُرُوق فَأَنْتَ حَبَسْته فَنَزَلَتْ : " وَأَمَّا مَنْ خَافَ مَقَام رَبِّهِ " . وَقَالَ الْكَلْبِيّ : نَزَلَتْ فِي مَنْ هَمَّ بِمَعْصِيَةٍ وَقَدَرَ عَلَيْهَا فِي خَلْوَة ثُمَّ تَرَكَهَا مِنْ خَوْف اللَّه . وَنَحْوه عَنْ اِبْن عَبَّاس . يَعْنِي مَنْ خَافَ عِنْد الْمَعْصِيَة مَقَامه بَيْن يَدَيْ اللَّه , فَانْتَهَى عَنْهَا . وَاَللَّه أَعْلَم .
أَيْ زَجَرَهَا عَنْ الْمَعَاصِي وَالْمَحَارِم . وَقَالَ سَهْل : تَرْك الْهَوَى مِفْتَاح الْجَنَّة ; لِقَوْلِهِ عَزَّ وَجَلَّ : " وَأَمَّا مَنْ خَافَ مَقَام رَبِّهِ وَنَهَى النَّفْس عَنْ الْهَوَى " قَالَ عَبْد اللَّه بْن مَسْعُود : أَنْتُمْ فِي زَمَان يَقُود الْحَقّ الْهَوَى , وَسَيَأْتِي زَمَان يَقُود الْهَوَى الْحَقّ فَنَعُوذ بِاَللَّهِ مِنْ ذَلِكَ الزَّمَان . وَالْآيَتَانِ نَزَلَتَا فِي مُصْعَب بْن عُمَيْر وَأَخِيهِ عَامِر بْن عُمَيْر ; فَرَوَى الضَّحَّاك عَنْ اِبْن عَبَّاس قَالَ : أَمَّا مَنْ طَغَى فَهُوَ أَخ لِمُصْعَبِ بْن عُمَيْر أُسِرَ يَوْم بَدْر , فَأَخَذَتْهُ الْأَنْصَار فَقَالُوا : مَنْ أَنْتَ ؟ قَالَ : أَنَا أَخُو مُصْعَب بْن عُمَيْر , فَلَمْ يَشُدُّوهُ فِي الْوَثَاق , وَأَكْرَمُوهُ وَبَيَّتُوهُ عِنْدهمْ , فَلَمَّا أَصْبَحُوا حَدَّثُوا مُصْعَب بْن عُمَيْر حَدِيثه ; فَقَالَ : مَا هُوَ لِي بِأَخٍ , شُدُّوا أَسِيركُمْ , فَإِنَّ أُمّه أَكْثَر أَهْل الْبَطْحَاء حُلِيًّا وَمَالًا . فَأَوْثَقُوهُ حَتَّى بَعَثَتْ أُمّه فِي فَدَائِهِ . " وَأَمَّا مَنْ خَافَ مَقَام رَبّه " فَمُصْعَب بْن عُمَيْر , وَقَى رَسُول اللَّه صَلَّى اللَّه عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ بِنَفْسِهِ يَوْم أُحُد حِين تَفَرَّقَ النَّاس عَنْهُ , حَتَّى نَفَذَتْ الْمَشَاقِص فِي جَوْفه . وَهِيَ السِّهَام , فَلَمَّا رَآهُ رَسُول اللَّه صَلَّى اللَّه عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ مُتَشَحِّطًا فِي دَمه قَالَ : [ عِنْد اللَّه أَحْتَسِبُك ] وَقَالَ لِأَصْحَابِهِ : [ لَقَدْ رَأَيْته وَعَلَيْهِ بُرْدَانِ مَا تُعْرَف قِيمَتُهُمَا وَإِنَّ شِرَاك نَعْلَيْهِ مِنْ ذَهَب ] . وَقِيلَ : إِنَّ مُصْعَب بْن عُمَيْر قَتَلَ أَخَاهُ عَامِرًا يَوْم بَدْر . وَعَنْ اِبْن عَبَّاس أَيْضًا قَالَ : نَزَلَتْ هَذِهِ الْآيَة فِي رَجُلَيْنِ : أَبِي جَهْل بْن هِشَام الْمَخْزُومِيّ وَمُصْعَب بْن عُمَيْر الْعَبْدَرِيّ . وَقَالَ السُّدِّيّ : نَزَلَتْ هَذِهِ الْآيَة " وَأَمَّا مَنْ خَافَ مَقَام رَبّه " فِي أَبِي بَكْر الصِّدِّيق رَضِيَ اللَّه عَنْهُ . وَذَلِكَ أَنَّ أَبَا بَكْر كَانَ لَهُ غُلَام يَأْتِيه بِطَعَامٍ , وَكَانَ يَسْأَلهُ مِنْ أَيْنَ أَتَيْت بِهَذَا , فَأَتَاهُ يَوْمًا بِطَعَامٍ فَلَمْ يَسْأَل وَأَكَلَهُ , فَقَالَ لَهُ غُلَامه : لِمَ لَا تَسْأَلنِي الْيَوْم ؟ فَقَالَ : نَسِيت , فَمِنْ أَيْنَ لَك هَذَا الطَّعَام . فَقَالَ : تَكَهَّنْت لِقَوْمٍ فِي الْجَاهِلِيَّة فَأَعْطَوْنِيهِ . فَتَقَايَأَهُ مِنْ سَاعَته وَقَالَ : يَا رَبّ مَا بَقِيَ فِي الْعُرُوق فَأَنْتَ حَبَسْته فَنَزَلَتْ : " وَأَمَّا مَنْ خَافَ مَقَام رَبّه " . وَقَالَ الْكَلْبِيّ : نَزَلَتْ فِي مَنْ هَمَّ بِمَعْصِيَةٍ وَقَدَرَ عَلَيْهَا فِي خَلْوَة ثُمَّ تَرَكَهَا مِنْ خَوْف اللَّه . وَنَحْوه عَنْ اِبْن عَبَّاس . يَعْنِي مَنْ خَافَ عِنْد الْمَعْصِيَة مَقَامه بَيْن يَدَيْ اللَّه , فَانْتَهَى عَنْهَا . وَاَللَّه أَعْلَم .
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
‹ The template Infobox automobile is being considered for merging. ›
Tatra 87
Tatra 87 front (Foto Hilarmont).JPG
Overview
ManufacturerTatra
Production
1936–1950
3,056 produced[1]
AssemblyKopřivnice, Moravia, Czechoslovakia
Designer
Hans Ledwinka
Erich Übelacker
Body and chassis
ClassLuxury car, 5-seater Sedan
Body stylelimousine (Finned Fastback)
LayoutRR layout
Powertrain
Engine2969 cc (3.0L) Tatra 87 V8[2]
Transmission4-speed manual[1] (3 and 4 synchronized)
Dimensions
Wheelbase2,850 mm (112.2 in)[3]
Length4,740 mm (186.6 in)[4]
Width1,670 mm (65.7 in)[4]
Height1,500 mm (59.1 in)[4]
Curb weight1,370 kg (3,020 lb)[3]
Chronology
PredecessorTatra 77a
SuccessorTatra 603
The history of the Tatra brand began in 1850. Ignaz Schustala set up a vehicle manufacturing workshop in the village of Nesseldorf in Moravia (today the Czech Republic). This region was then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. A little later, after Schustala's death, Baron Therodor von Liebig took over the business and turned it into a car and truck company.
And Tatra inspired Porsche...
In 1933, the V570 with air-cooled rear engine was born, followed closely by the Tatra 77, the first large aerodynamic limousine in the world to go into series production in 1934. These two models had a strong impact and inspired Ferdinand Porsche in particular in the design of the Beetle and some post-war Porsches.
In 1948, however, Tatra's automobile production was reduced by the directives of a new political regime heavily influenced by the USSR and the manufacturer was reduced to supplying limousines to the Communist Party. Finally, in 1999, the Tatra's automotive history came to an end with the Tatra 700, of which only 65 cars were built.
At the same time, its truck activity developed after the war until it was able to take part several times in the Paris Dakar, an event that the Czech firm won 6 times!
Models, images and films to retrace the history of Tatra
It is this fascinating history that Retromobile proposes to discover or rediscover through the exhibition of several models of the brand in partnership with the Tatra Museum in Koprivnice (in the Czech Republic), the Museum of the Manoir de l'Automobile located in Brittany, and the Ecorra workshop (Czech specialist of the Tatra brand).
The Museum of Zlin, also in the Czech Republic, will bring "images and films that retrace the great moments in the history of this manufacturer", also announces Retromobile, which will allow visitors "to discover the moving adventure of two Czech students, Jiří Hanzelka and Miroslav Zikmund, who left to go around the world at the wheel of a Tatra 87 from 1947 to 1950".
The Tatra 87 (T87) was a car built by Czechoslovak manufacturer Tatra. It was powered by a rear-mounted 2.9-litre air-cooled 90-degree overhead cam V8 engine that produced 85 horsepower and could drive the car at nearly 100 mph (160 km/h). It is ranked among the fastest production cars of its time. Competing cars in this class, however, used engines with almost twice the volume, and with fuel consumption of 20 liters per 100 km (11.8 mpg). Thanks to its aerodynamic shape, the Tatra 87 had a consumption of just 12.5 litres per 100 km (18.8 mpg). After the war between 1950 and 1953, T87s were fitted with more modern 2.5-litre V8 T603 engines.[5]
The 87 was used by Hanzelka and Zikmund for their travel through Africa and Latin America from 1947 to 1950.[6]
Contents
1Design
2Examples on display
3Notable owners
4See also
5References
6External links
Design[edit]
The Tatra 87 has unique bodywork. Its streamlined shape was designed by Hans Ledwinka and Erich Übelacker and was based on the Tatra 77, the first car designed with aerodynamics in mind.[1] The body design was based on proposals submitted by Paul Jaray of Hungarian descent, who designed the famous German Graf Zeppelin dirigibles. A fin in the sloping rear of the Tatra helps to divide the air pressure on both sides of the car, a technique used in later aircraft. Tatra 87 had a drag coefficient of 0.36 as tested in the VW tunnel in 1979 as well as reading of 0.244 for a 1:5 model tested in 1941.[7]
Art deco-styled dashboard in a 1947 T87
Small sets of windows in the dividers between the passenger, luggage space and engine compartments, plus louvres providing air for the air-cooled engine, allowed limited rear visibility. Its entire rear segment could be opened, to service the engine. The front doors are rear-hinged coach doors, sometimes termed "suicide doors", and the rear doors are front-hinged.
A 1940 Tatra 87 Saloon, showing the identifiable rear 'Sharks-fin' and lack of rear windows.
Many design elements of the Tatra 87, V570 and the later T97, were copied by later car manufacturers. Ferdinand Porsche was heavily influenced by the Tatra 87 and T97 and the flat-four-cylinder engine in his design of the Volkswagen Beetle, and was subsequently sued by Tatra.
The price new (in the 1940s) was 25,000 SFr.[2] Its value today is around $125,000.[8] A 1941 Tatra 87, owned and restored by Paul Greenstein and Dydia DeLyser of Los Angeles California, won a New York Times reader's poll of collector's cars in 2010, beating strong competition from 651 cars.[9]
The entire rear segment of the Tatra 87 formed an engine cowling.
Examples on display[edit]
A T87 is on display in the United States at the Lane Motor Museum in Nashville, Tennessee, United States. The museum displays 13 Tatras, including a 613 ambulance. It was this car, used to pick up comedian Jay Leno from the airport, that prompted him to purchase one as well, and become an advocate for the brand.
A 1948-built T87 is exhibited at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts in Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
A T87 is on display at the Riga Motor Museum in Riga, Latvia.
A T87 is on display at the Volkswagen Autostadt in Wolfsburg, Germany.
Notable owners[edit]
Tatra 87 (Foto Hilarmont).JPG
Streamlined Tatras
Tatra V570 1931, 1933
Tatra 77 1933-1938
Tatra 87 1936-1950
Tatra 97 1936-1939
Tatra 600 Tatraplan 1946-1952
Tatra 603 1956-1975
Hans Ledwinka - the Tatra constructer (when pensioned he got one as a gift from Felix Wankel. This car is now on display in the Deutsches Museum in Munich)
Eliška Junková - one of the greatest female drivers in Grand Prix motor racing history
Ernst Heinkel - German Nazi aircraft designer, whose company produced the world's first turbojet aircraft and jet plane, as well as the first rocket aircraft
Felix Wankel - German engineer, inventor of the Wankel engine
Emil František Burian - Czech poet, journalist, singer, actor, musician, composer, dramatic adviser, playwright and director
Vítězslav Nezval - one of the most prolific avant-garde Czech writers in the first half of the twentieth century and a co-founder of the Surrealist movement in Czechoslovakia
Erwin Rommel - German General and Field Marshal of World War II (used also Tatra's Czech competitor, Škoda Superb, in the field)
Andrey Yeryomenko - Soviet General and Field Marshal of World War II (received the first T87 manufactured after WW2 as a present, this car is now on display in the Tatra museum)
John Steinbeck - American writer
Farouk I of Egypt - the tenth ruler from the Muhammad Ali Dynasty and the penultimate King of Egypt and Sudan
Josef Beran - Czech Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and Archbishop of Prague
Edvard Beneš - a leader of the Czechoslovak independence movement, Minister of Foreign Affairs and the second President of Czechoslovakia
Antonín Zápotocký, Klement Gottwald - communist leaders, presidents of Czechoslovakia after the 1948 coup d'état
Jay Leno - an American stand-up comedian and television host
Norman Foster - a British architect
[4]
The Tatra 87 was praised by German officers in World War II for the superior speed and handling it offered for use on the Autobahn. The Nazi armaments and munitions minister Fritz Todt declared: "This 87 is the Autobahn car ..."[citation needed] It was known, however, as the 'Czech secret weapon' because it killed so many Nazi officers during World War II that the German Army eventually forbade its officers from driving the Tatra.[10]
See also[edit]
Volkswagen controversy
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "1948 Tatra 87". conceptcarz.com. Retrieved 2008-03-12.
^ Jump up to: a b "1947 TATRA 87 SALOON". Lane Motor Museum.
^ Jump up to: a b "Tatra 87". tatraportal.sk. Retrieved November 3, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Tatra 87". aerotatra.czweb.org. Retrieved November 3, 2010.
^ Karel Rosenkranz, 100 Years of Tatra Passenger Cars, Motormedia 1998
^ Horáková, Pavla (29 December 2005), "Zikmund and Hanzelka's legendary Tatra 87 car added to cultural heritage list", Radio Praha, retrieved 3 June 2016
^ Ralf J. F. Kieselbach, Stromlinienautos in Europa und USA, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 1982, page 19
^ Tori Tellem (2010-07-23). "Collectible Car of the Year: Votes Are In, and the Fin Has Won". New York Times. Retrieved 2011-08-22.
^ "1941 Tatra T 87". The New York Times. 2010-07-25.
^ "Slavné české auto slaví osmdesátiny. Průkopnice aerodynamiky Tatra 77". iDNES.cz. 2014-03-31. Retrieved 2017-09-06.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tatra 87.
Tatra 87 in 1947 Popular Science Magazine
Tatra Auto Klub Slovakia
Jay Leno's T87
hidevte
Tatra models
Cars
NW Präsident NW A NW Elektromobil NW B NW C NW D NW E NW F NW J NW L NW S NW T NW U 10 11 12 17 20 26/30 26/52 30 30/52 31 52 52 Sports 54 57 57A 57B 70 70A 75 77 77a 80 87 87-603 97 600 Tatraplan 603 2-603 613 623 700
Civilian trucks
NW First Truck NW TL-2 NW TL-4 13 22 23 24 25 26 27 27B 28 43 49 50 51 72 74 79 81 85 85A 86 111 114 115 128 138 141 147 148 158 Phoenix 163 Jamal 400 500 700 805 810 813 815 815-2 815-7 816 Beta
Military trucks
57K 72 82 92 93 111 805 809 810 813 815 815-2 816 DANA OT-62 OT-64 OT-810 V750 V799 V809
Concept cars/Racing cars
NW Rennzweier 12 Targa Florio 30 Sport 84 90 107 116 118 130 131 137 157 201 401 600 Diesel 601 Convertible 601 Monte Carlo 602 Tatraplan Sports 603A 603 B5 603 B6 603 MB 603 Monte Carlo 603 X 604 605 607 607-2 625 803 804 806 Baghira Dolphin JK 2500 microbus MTX V8 Prezident V570 V855 Jamal Evo
Roadtrip, Koln(Cologne) Photokina and Luik(Liege)
Photokina
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the 1920s sound-on-disc movie sound system, see Photokinema.
Photokina logo
South Entrance of the Cologne Trade Fair during Photokina 2008.
The Photokina (rendered in the promoters' branding as photokina) is the world's largest trade fair for the photographic and imaging industries. The first Photokina was held in Cologne, Germany, in 1950, and it is now held biennially in September at the koelnmesse Trade Fair and Exhibition Centre. Many photographic and imaging companies introduce and showcase state of the art imaging products at Photokina. The show has two main competitors, both annual shows held in different parts of the world. The CP+ show in Yokohama, Japan, originally the Japan Camera Show, has been held since the early 1960s. In the U.S., the main photography show is PMA@CES, which since 2012 has coincided with the International CES consumer electronics show in Las Vegas.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photokina
Cologne
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the German city. For the perfume, see Eau de Cologne. For other uses, see Cologne (disambiguation) and Köln (disambiguation).
Cologne
Köln
From top to bottom, left to right: Hohenzollern Bridge by night, Great St. Martin Church, Colonius TV-tower, Cologne Cathedral, Kranhaus buildings in Rheinauhafen, MediaPark
From top to bottom, left to right:
Hohenzollern Bridge by night, Great St. Martin Church, Colonius TV-tower, Cologne Cathedral, Kranhaus buildings in Rheinauhafen, MediaPark
Flag of Cologne
Flag Coat of arms of Cologne
Coat of arms
Cologne is located in Germany
Cologne
Cologne
Cologne within North Rhine-Westphalia [show]
North rhine w K.svg
Coordinates: 50°56′11″N 6°57′10″ECoordinates: 50°56′11″N 6°57′10″E
Country
Germany
State
North Rhine-Westphalia
Admin. region
Cologne
District
Urban districts of Germany
Founded
38 BC
Government
• Lord Mayor
Jürgen Roters (SPD)
Area
• Total
405.15 km2 (156.43 sq mi)
Elevation
37 m (121 ft)
Population (2013-12-31)[1]
• Total
1,034,175
• Density
2,600/km2 (6,600/sq mi)
Time zone
CET/CEST (UTC+1/+2)
Postal codes
50441–51149
Dialling codes
0221, 02203 (Porz)
Vehicle registration
K
Website
Cologne (English pronunciation: /kəˈloʊn/, German: Köln [kœln] ( listen), Colognian: Kölle [ˈkœɫə] ( listen)) is Germany's fourth-largest city (after Berlin, Hamburg, and Munich), and is the largest city both in the German Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and within the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Area, one of the major European metropolitan areas with more than ten million inhabitants.
Cologne is located on both sides of the Rhine River. The city's famous Cologne Cathedral (Kölner Dom) is the seat of the Catholic Archbishop of Cologne. The University of Cologne (Universität zu Köln) is one of Europe's oldest and largest universities.[2]
Cologne was founded and established in the first century AD, as the Roman Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium in Ubii territory.[3] It was the capital of the Roman province of Germania Inferior and the headquarters of the military in the region until occupied by the Franks in 462. During the Middle Ages it flourished as one of the most important major trade routes between east and west in Europe. Cologne was one of the leading members of the Hanseatic League and one of the largest cities north of the Alps in medieval and renaissance times. Up until World War II the city had undergone several other occupations by the French and also the British. Cologne was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II. The bombing reduced the population by 95% and destroyed almost the entire city. With the intention of restoring as many historic buildings as possible, the rebuilding has resulted in a very mixed and unique cityscape.
Cologne is a major cultural centre for the Rhineland; it is home to more than thirty museums and hundreds of galleries. Exhibitions range from local ancient Roman archeological sites to contemporary graphics and sculpture. The Cologne Trade Fair hosts a number of trade shows such as Art Cologne, imm Cologne, Gamescom, and the Photokina.
Liège
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the Belgian city. For other uses, see Liège (disambiguation).
"Liege" redirects here. For other uses, see Liege (disambiguation).
Liège
Municipality of Belgium
Liege View 03.jpg
Flag of Liège
Flag Coat of arms of Liège
Coat of arms
Liège is located in Belgium
Liège
Liège
Location in Belgium
Map of Liège[show]
LuikLocatie.png
Coordinates: 50°38′N 05°34′ECoordinates: 50°38′N 05°34′E
Country
Belgium
Community
French Community
Region
Wallonia
Province
Liège
Arrondissement
Liège
Government
• Mayor
Willy Demeyer (PS)
• Governing party/ies
PS – cdH
Area
• Total
69.39 km2 (26.79 sq mi)
Population (1 January 2013)[1]
• Total
195,576
• Density
2,800/km2 (7,300/sq mi)
Postal codes
4000–4032
Area codes
04
Website
Liège (French pronunciation: [ljɛʒ]; Dutch: Luik, [lœyk] ( listen); Walloon: Lidje; German: Lüttich; Latin: Leodium; Limburgish: Luuk; Luxembourgish: Léck) is a major city and a municipality in the European country of Belgium. It is located in the province of the same name, Liège, of which it is the capital and is part of the Walloon (French-speaking) region of Belgium.
The city is situated in the valley of the Meuse River, in the east of Belgium, not far from borders with the Netherlands and with Germany. At Liège the Meuse river meets the river Ourthe. The city is part of the sillon industriel, the former industrial backbone of Wallonia. It still is the principal economic and cultural centre of the region.
The Liège municipality (i.e. the city proper) includes the former communes of Angleur, Bressoux, Chênée, Glain, Grivegnée, Jupille-sur-Meuse, Rocourt, and Wandre. In November 2012, Liège had 198,280 inhabitants. The metropolitan area, including the outer commuter zone, covers an area of 1,879 km2 (725 sq mi) and had a total population of 749,110 on 1 January 2008.[2][3] This includes a total of 52 municipalities, among others, Herstal and Seraing. Liège ranks as the third most populous urban area in Belgium, after Brussels and Antwerp, and the fourth municipality after Antwerp, Ghent and Charleroi.[3]
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%C3%A8ge
Station Luik-Guillemins
Ga naar: navigatie, zoeken
Station Luik-Guillemins
Relax ... take it easy (7757527444).jpg
Opening 1 mei 1842
Telegrafische code FL
Aantal perrons 9
Lijn(en) 34 - 36 - 37 - 125 (- HSL 2 - HSL 3)
Coördinaten 50° 37′ NB, 5° 34′ OL
Reizigerstellingen[1]
-Weekdag
-Zaterdag
-Zondag (2009)
15.153
7.590
7.508
Beheerder NMBS
Station Luik-Guillemins
Station Luik-Guillemins
Stationsinformatie NMBS - Live stationsbord
Portaal Portaalicoon Openbaar vervoer
2013
Station Luik-Guillemins (Frans: Liège-Guillemins) is het belangrijkste spoorwegstation van de stad Luik. Het station ligt op het einde van verschillende spoorlijnen. In reizigersaantallen is dit het op tien na drukste station in België en het op twee na drukste station van Wallonië, na Ottignies en Namen (reizigerstelling 2009)[2].
Het station is genoemd naar de wijk Guillemins, waarin het ligt. Deze wijk is op zijn beurt weer genoemd naar de kloosterorde van de Wilhelmieten, die daar in 1287 een klooster stichtte.