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Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ford River Rouge Complex
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. National Historic Landmark District
Michigan State Historic Site
River Rouge aerial 4a25915r.jpg
Aerial view of the Rouge Complex in 1927
Ford River Rouge Complex is located in MichiganFord River Rouge Complex
LocationDearborn, Michigan
Area900 acres (360 ha) (landmarked area)
Built1917–1928
ArchitectAlbert Kahn
Visitation148,000 (2017)
NRHP reference #78001516
Significant dates
Added to NRHPJune 2, 1978[1]
Designated NHLDJune 2, 1978[2]
Designated MSHSDecember 14, 1976
The Ford River Rouge Complex (commonly known as the Rouge Complex or just The Rouge) is a Ford Motor Company automobile factory complex located in Dearborn, Michigan, along the River Rouge, upstream from its confluence with the Detroit River at Zug Island. Construction began in 1917, and when it was completed in 1928, it was the largest integrated factory in the world.
It inspired the GAZ factory built in the 1930s in the Soviet Union, and the later Hyundai factory complex in Ulsan, South Korea, which was developed beginning in the late 1960s. Designed by Albert Kahn, the Rouge was designated as a National Historic Landmark District in 1978 for its architecture and historical importance to the industry and economy of the United States.[3]
Structure
The Rouge measures 1.5 miles (2.4 km) wide by 1 mile (1.6 km) long, including 93 buildings with nearly 16 million square feet (1.5 km²) of factory floor space. With its own docks in the dredged Rouge River, 100 miles (160 km) of interior railroad track, its own electricity plant, and integrated steel mill, the titanic Rouge was able to turn raw materials into running vehicles within this single complex, a prime example of vertical-integration production. More than 100,000 workers were employed there even during the Great Depression of the 1930s.
Some of the Rouge buildings were designed by architect Albert Kahn. His Rouge glass plant was regarded at the time as an exemplary and humane factory building, with ample natural light provided through windows in the ceiling. Since the late 20th century, several buildings have been converted to "green" structures with a number of environmentally friendly features.
In the summer of 1932, through Edsel Ford's support, Mexican artist Diego Rivera was invited to study the facilities at the Rouge. These studies informed his set of murals known as Detroit Industry, which has been on continuous display at the Detroit Institute of Arts since their completion in 1933.
Production
Interior of the Rouge Tool & Die works, 1944
The Rouge's first products were Eagle Boats, World War I anti-submarine warfare boats produced in Building B. The original Building B, a three-story structure, is part of the legendary Dearborn Assembly Plant, which started producing Model A's in the late 1920s and continued production through 2004. After the war, production turned to Fordson tractors. Although the Rouge's coke ovens and foundry produced nearly all the parts of the Model T, assembly of that vehicle remained at Highland Park. It was not until 1927 that automobile production began there, with the introduction of the Ford Model A. Later Rouge products included the 1932 Model B, the original Mercury, the Ford Thunderbird, Mercury Capri, and four decades of Ford Mustangs. The old assembly plant was idled with the construction and launch of a new assembly facility on the Miller Road side of the complex, currently producing Ford F-150 pickup trucks.
The River Rouge Complex manufactured most of the components of Ford vehicles, starting with the Model T, where many of the vehicles were compiled into "knock-down kits", then sent by railroad to various assembly locations across the United States to be locally assembled, using local labor and supplies as necessary.[4] After the 1960s, Ford began to decentralize manufacturing, building several factories in major metropolitan centers. The Rouge was downsized, with many units (including the famous furnaces and docks) sold off to independent companies.
On May 26, 1937, a group of workers attempting to organize a union at the Rouge were severely beaten, an event later called the Battle of the Overpass. Peter E. Martin's respect for labor led to Walter Reuther, a UAW leader, allowing Martin to be the only Ford manager to retrieve his papers or gain access to the plant.[5]
It was one of only three locations where Ford manufactured the Mustang; the other sites were Metuchen Assembly and Milpitas Assembly in San Jose, California.
By 1987, only Mustang production remained at the Dearborn Assembly Plant (DAP). In 1987 Ford planned to replace that car with the front wheel drive Ford Probe, but public outcry quickly turned to surging sales. With the fourth-generation Mustang a success, the Rouge was saved as well. Ford decided to modernize its operations. A gas explosion on February 1, 1999, killed six employees and injured two dozen more, resulting in the idling of the power plant. Michigan Utility CMS Energy built a state-of-the-art Power Plant across Miller Road to replace the electricity and steam production, as well as the Blast-Furnace waste gas consumption of the original power plant[6] As it ended production, Dearborn Assembly Plant (DAP) was one of six plants within the Ford Rouge Center. The plant was open from 1918 to May 10, 2004, with a red convertible 2004 Ford Mustang GT being the last vehicle built at the historic site. Demolition of the historic DAP facility was completed in 2008. All that remains is a 3000 place parking lot to hold light truck production from the new Dearborn Truck Plant.
Ford Rouge Center
Lake freighters maneuver in the canal to unload ore at the plant, 1973
Today, the Rouge site is home to Ford's Rouge Center. This industrial park includes six Ford factories on 600 acres (2.4 km²) of land, as well as steelmaking operations run by AK Steel, a U.S. steelmaker. The new Dearborn Truck factory famously features a vegetation-covered roof and rainwater reclamation system designed by sustainability architect William McDonough. This facility is still Ford's largest factory and employs some 6,000 workers. Mustang production, however, has moved to the Flat Rock Assembly Plant in Flat Rock, Michigan.
Tours of the Rouge complex were a long tradition. Free bus tours of the facility began in 1924 and ran until 1980, at their peak hosting approximately a million visitors per year. They resumed in 2004 in cooperation with The Henry Ford Museum with multimedia presentations, as well as viewing of the assembly floor. The Ford Rouge Factory Tour had 148,000 visitors in 2017.[7]
The management of Dearborn Truck has decreed that no vehicles from other manufacturers may park at the front of the main employee lot. Non Ford Family vehicles are required to park in the back 12 rows of parking spaces.[citation needed] Hourly workers from both Ford and AK Steel facilities at the complex are represented by UAW Local 600.
A fleet of three Ford-owned Great Lakes freighters initially named for the Ford grandsons or later, renamed for top company executives, was based at the River Rouge Plant. When the ships were retired, one was scrapped, but the deckhouse of the SS William Clay Ford[citation needed] was relocated to a museum in the Belle Isle Detroit city park in the Detroit River and the deckhouse of the SS Benson Ford was transported by crane barge to Put-in-Bay, Ohio and placed on an 18-foot cliff as a private home above Lake Erie.[8]
Renovated architecture
Ford Rogue Plant in 2019
Green roof in 2019
In 1999, architect William McDonough entered into an agreement with Ford Motor Company to redesign its 85-year-old, 1,212-acre (490 ha) Rouge River facility.[9] The roof of the 1.1 million square foot (100,000 m2) Dearborn truck assembly plant was covered with more than 10 acres (4.0 ha) of sedum, a low-growing groundcover. The sedum retains and cleanses rainwater and moderates the internal temperature of the building, saving energy.
The roof is part of an $18 million rainwater treatment system designed to collect and clean rainwater annually, sparing Ford from a $50 million mechanical treatment facility.[10]
Current product made
Ford F-150 (1948–present)
Former products made
Ford Mustang (1964–2004)
Mercury Capri (1979–1986)
Mercury Cougar (1966–1973)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is a family of single-seat, single-engine, all-weather, stealth, fifth-generation, multirole combat aircraft, designed for ground-attack and air-superiority missions. It is built by Lockheed Martin and many subcontractors, including Northrop Grumman, Pratt & Whitney, and BAE Systems.
The F-35 has three main models: the conventional takeoff and landing F-35A (CTOL), the short take-off and vertical-landing F-35B (STOVL), and the catapult-assisted take-off but arrested recovery, carrier-based F-35C (CATOBAR). The F-35 descends from the Lockheed Martin X-35, the design that was awarded the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program over the competing Boeing X-32. The official Lightning II name has proven deeply unpopular and USAF pilots have nicknamed it Panther, instead.
The United States principally funds F-35 development, with additional funding from other NATO members and close U.S. allies, including the United Kingdom, Italy, Australia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and formerly Turkey. These funders generally receive subcontracts to manufacture components for the aircraft; for example, Turkey was the sole supplier of several F-35 parts until its removal from the program in July 2019. Several other countries have ordered, or are considering ordering, the aircraft.
As the largest and most expensive military program ever, the F-35 became the subject of much scrutiny and criticism in the U.S. and in other countries. In 2013 and 2014, critics argued that the plane was "plagued with design flaws", with many blaming the procurement process in which Lockheed was allowed "to design, test, and produce the F-35 all at the same time," instead of identifying and fixing "defects before firing up its production line". By 2014, the program was "$163 billion over budget [and] seven years behind schedule". Critics also contend that the program's high sunk costs and political momentum make it "too big to kill".
The F-35 first flew on 15 December 2006. In July 2015, the United States Marines declared its first squadron of F-35B fighters ready for deployment. However, the DOD-based durability testing indicated the service life of early-production F-35B aircraft is well under the expected 8,000 flight hours, and may be as low as 2,100 flight hours. Lot 9 and later aircraft include design changes but service life testing has yet to occur. The U.S. Air Force declared its first squadron of F-35As ready for deployment in August 2016. The U.S. Navy declared its first F-35Cs ready in February 2019. In 2018, the F-35 made its combat debut with the Israeli Air Force.
The U.S. stated plan is to buy 2,663 F-35s, which will provide the bulk of the crewed tactical airpower of the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps in coming decades. Deliveries of the F-35 for the U.S. military are scheduled until 2037 with a projected service life up to 2070.
Development
F-35 development started in 1992 with the origins of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program and was to culminate in full production by 2018. The X-35 first flew on 24 October 2000 and the F-35A on 15 December 2006.
The F-35 was developed to replace most US fighter jets with the variants of a single design that would be common to all branches of the military. It was developed in co-operation with a number of foreign partners, and, unlike the F-22 Raptor, intended to be available for export. Three variants were designed: the F-35A (CTOL), the F-35B (STOVL), and the F-35C (CATOBAR). Despite being intended to share most of their parts to reduce costs and improve maintenance logistics, by 2017, the effective commonality was only 20%. The program received considerable criticism for cost overruns during development and for the total projected cost of the program over the lifetime of the jets.
By 2017, the program was expected to cost $406.5 billion over its lifetime (i.e. until 2070) for acquisition of the jets, and an additional $1.1 trillion for operations and maintenance. A number of design deficiencies were alleged, such as: carrying a small internal payload; performance inferior to the aircraft being replaced, particularly the F-16; lack of safety in relying on a single engine; and flaws such as the vulnerability of the fuel tank to fire and the propensity for transonic roll-off (wing drop). The possible obsolescence of stealth technology was also criticized.
Design
Overview
Although several experimental designs have been developed since the 1960s, such as the unsuccessful Rockwell XFV-12, the F-35B is to be the first operational supersonic STOVL stealth fighter. The single-engine F-35 resembles the larger twin-engined Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, drawing design elements from it. The exhaust duct design was inspired by the General Dynamics Model 200, proposed for a 1972 supersonic VTOL fighter requirement for the Sea Control Ship.
Lockheed Martin has suggested that the F-35 could replace the USAF's F-15C/D fighters in the air-superiority role and the F-15E Strike Eagle in the ground-attack role. It has also stated the F-35 is intended to have close- and long-range air-to-air capability second only to that of the F-22 Raptor, and that the F-35 has an advantage over the F-22 in basing flexibility and possesses "advanced sensors and information fusion".
Testifying before the House Appropriations Committee on 25 March 2009, acquisition deputy to the assistant secretary of the Air Force, Lt. Gen. Mark D. "Shack" Shackelford, stated that the F-35 is designed to be America's "premier surface-to-air missile killer, and is uniquely equipped for this mission with cutting-edge processing power, synthetic aperture radar integration techniques, and advanced target recognition".
Improvements
Ostensible improvements over past-generation fighter aircraft include:
Durable, low-maintenance stealth technology, using structural fiber mat instead of the high-maintenance coatings of legacy stealth platforms
Integrated avionics and sensor fusion that combine information from off- and on-board sensors to increase the pilot's situational awareness and improve target identification and weapon delivery, and to relay information quickly to other command and control (C2) nodes
High-speed data networking including IEEE 1394b and Fibre Channel (Fibre Channel is also used on Boeing's Super Hornet.
The Autonomic Logistics Global Sustainment, Autonomic Logistics Information System (ALIS), and Computerized maintenance management system to help ensure the aircraft can remain operational with minimal maintenance manpower The Pentagon has moved to open up the competitive bidding by other companies. This was after Lockheed Martin stated that instead of costing 20% less than the F-16 per flight hour, the F-35 would actually cost 12% more. Though the ALGS is intended to reduce maintenance costs, the company disagrees with including the cost of this system in the aircraft ownership calculations. The USMC has implemented a workaround for a cyber vulnerability in the system. The ALIS system currently requires a shipping-container load of servers to run, but Lockheed is working on a more portable version to support the Marines' expeditionary operations.
Electro-hydrostatic actuators run by a power-by-wire flight-control system
A modern and updated flight simulator, which may be used for a greater fraction of pilot training to reduce the costly flight hours of the actual aircraft
Lightweight, powerful lithium-ion batteries to provide power to run the control surfaces in an emergency
Structural composites in the F-35 are 35% of the airframe weight (up from 25% in the F-22). The majority of these are bismaleimide and composite epoxy materials. The F-35 will be the first mass-produced aircraft to include structural nanocomposites, namely carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy. Experience of the F-22's problems with corrosion led to the F-35 using a gap filler that causes less galvanic corrosion to the airframe's skin, designed with fewer gaps requiring filler and implementing better drainage. The relatively short 35-foot wingspan of the A and B variants is set by the F-35B's requirement to fit inside the Navy's current amphibious assault ship parking area and elevators; the F-35C's longer wing is considered to be more fuel efficient.
Costs
A U.S. Navy study found that the F-35 will cost 30 to 40% more to maintain than current jet fighters, not accounting for inflation over the F-35's operational lifetime. A Pentagon study concluded a $1 trillion maintenance cost for the entire fleet over its lifespan, not accounting for inflation. The F-35 program office found that as of January 2014, costs for the F-35 fleet over a 53-year lifecycle was $857 billion. Costs for the fighter have been dropping and accounted for the 22 percent life cycle drop since 2010. Lockheed stated that by 2019, pricing for the fifth-generation aircraft will be less than fourth-generation fighters. An F-35A in 2019 is expected to cost $85 million per unit complete with engines and full mission systems, inflation adjusted from $75 million in December 2013.
Information from: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Cod
Cape Cod
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about the area of Massachusetts. For other uses, see Cape Cod (disambiguation).
For other uses, see Cod (disambiguation).
Coordinates: 41°41′20″N 70°17′49″W / 41.68889°N 70.29694°W / 41.68889; -70.29694
Map of Massachusetts, with Cape Cod (Barnstable County) indicated in red
Dunes on Sandy Neck are part of the Cape's barrier beach which helps to prevent erosion
Cape Cod, often referred to locally as simply the Cape, is an island and a cape in the easternmost portion of the state of Massachusetts, in the Northeastern United States. It is coextensive with Barnstable County. Several small islands right off Cape Cod, including Monomoy Island, Monomoscoy Island, Popponesset Island, and Seconsett Island, are also in Barnstable County, being part of municipalities with land on the Cape. The Cape's small-town character and large beachfront attract heavy tourism during the summer months.
Cape Cod was formed as the terminal moraine of a glacier, resulting in a peninsula in the Atlantic Ocean. In 1914, the Cape Cod Canal was cut through the base or isthmus of the peninsula, forming an island. The Cape Cod Commission refers to the resultant landmass as an island; as does the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in regards to disaster preparedness.[1] It is still identified as a peninsula by geographers, who do not change landform designations based on man-made canal construction.[citation needed]
Unofficially, it is one of the biggest barrier islands in the world, shielding much of the Massachusetts coastline from North Atlantic storm waves. This protection helps to erode the Cape shoreline at the expense of cliffs, while protecting towns from Fairhaven to Marshfield.
Road vehicles from the mainland cross over the Cape Cod Canal via the Sagamore Bridge and the Bourne Bridge. The two bridges are parallel, with the Bourne Bridge located slightly farther southwest. In addition, the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge carries railway freight as well as tourist passenger services.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Geography and political divisions
o 1.1 "Upper" and "Lower"
* 2 Geology
* 3 Climate
* 4 Native population
* 5 History
* 6 Lighthouses of Cape Cod
* 7 Transportation
o 7.1 Bus
o 7.2 Rail
o 7.3 Taxi
* 8 Tourism
* 9 Sport fishing
* 10 Sports
* 11 Education
* 12 Islands off Cape Cod
* 13 See also
* 14 References
o 14.1 Notes
o 14.2 Sources
o 14.3 Further reading
* 15 External links
[edit] Geography and political divisions
Towns of Barnstable County
historical map of 1890
The highest elevation on Cape Cod is 306 feet (93 m), at the top of Pine Hill, in the Bourne portion of the Massachusetts Military Reservation. The lowest point is sea level.
The body of water located between Cape Cod and the mainland, bordered to the north by Massachusetts Bay, is Cape Cod Bay; west of Cape Cod is Buzzards Bay. The Cape Cod Canal, completed in 1916, connects Buzzards Bay to Cape Cod Bay; it shortened the trade route between New York and Boston by 62 miles.[2] To the south of Cape Cod lie Nantucket Sound; Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, both large islands, and the mostly privately owned Elizabeth Islands.
Cape Cod incorporates all of Barnstable County, which comprises 15 towns: Bourne, Sandwich, Falmouth, and Mashpee, Barnstable, Yarmouth, Dennis, Harwich, Brewster, Chatham, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. Two of the county's fifteen towns (Bourne and Sandwich) include land on the mainland side of the Cape Cod Canal. The towns of Plymouth and Wareham, in adjacent Plymouth County, are sometimes considered to be part of Cape Cod but are not located on the island.
In the 17th century the designation Cape Cod applied only to the tip of the peninsula, essentially present-day Provincetown. Over the ensuing decades, the name came to mean all the land east of the Manomet and Scussett rivers - essentially the line of the 20th century Cape Cod Canal. Now, the complete towns of Bourne and Sandwich are widely considered to incorporate the full perimeter of Cape Cod, even though small parts of these towns are located on the west side of the canal. The canal divides the largest part of the peninsula from the mainland and the resultant landmass is sometimes referred to as an island.[3][4] Additionally some "Cape Codders" – residents of "The Cape" – refer to all land on the mainland side of the canal as "off-Cape."
For most of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, Cape Cod was considered to consist of three sections:
* The Upper Cape is the part of Cape Cod closest to the mainland, comprising the towns of Bourne, Sandwich, Falmouth, and Mashpee. Falmouth is the home of the famous Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and several other research organizations, and is also the most-used ferry connection to Martha's Vineyard. Falmouth is composed of several separate villages, including East Falmouth, Falmouth Village, Hatchville, North Falmouth, Teaticket, Waquoit, West Falmouth, and Woods Hole, as well as several smaller hamlets that are incorporated into their larger neighbors (e.g., Davisville, Falmouth Heights, Quissett, Sippewissett, and others).[5]
* The Mid-Cape includes the towns of Barnstable, Yarmouth and Dennis. The Mid-Cape area features many beautiful beaches, including warm-water beaches along Nantucket Sound, e.g., Kalmus Beach in Hyannis, which gets its name from one of the inventors of Technicolor, Herbert Kalmus. This popular windsurfing destination was bequeathed to the town of Barnstable by Dr. Kalmus on condition that it not be developed, possibly one of the first instances of open-space preservation in the US. The Mid-Cape is also the commercial and industrial center of the region. There are seven villages in Barnstable, including Barnstable Village, Centerville, Cotuit, Hyannis, Marstons Mills, Osterville, and West Barnstable, as well as several smaller hamlets that are incorporated into their larger neighbors (e.g., Craigville, Cummaquid, Hyannisport, Santuit, Wianno, and others).[6] There are three villages in Yarmouth: South Yarmouth, West Yarmouth and Yarmouthport. There are five villages in Dennis including, Dennis Village(North Dennis), East Dennis, West Dennis, South Dennis and Dennisport.[7]
* The Lower Cape traditionally included all of the rest of the Cape,or the towns of Harwich, Brewster, Chatham, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. This area includes the Cape Cod National Seashore, a national park comprising much of the outer Cape, including the entire east-facing coast, and is home to some of the most popular beaches in America, such as Coast Guard Beach and Nauset Light Beach in Eastham. Stephen Leatherman, aka "Dr. Beach", named Coast Guard Beach the 5th best beach in America for 2007.[8]
[edit] "Upper" and "Lower"
The terms "Upper" and "Lower" as applied to the Cape have nothing to do with north and south. Instead, they derive from maritime convention at the time when the principal means of transportation involved watercraft, and the prevailing westerly winds meant that a boat with sails traveling northeast in Cape Cod Bay would have the wind at its back and thus be going downwind, while a craft sailing southwest would be going against the wind, or upwind.[9] Similarly, on nearby Martha's Vineyard, "Up Island" still is the western section and "Down Island" is to the east, and in Maine, "Down East" is similarly defined by the winds and currents.
Over time, the reasons for the traditional nomenclature became unfamiliar and their meaning obscure. Late in the 1900s, new arrivals began calling towns from Eastham to Provincetown the "Outer Cape", yet another geographic descriptor which is still in use, as is the "Inner Cape."
[edit] Geology
Cape Cod and Cape Cod Bay from space.[10]
East of America, there stands in the open Atlantic the last fragment of an ancient and vanished land. Worn by the breakers and the rains, and disintegrated by the wind, it still stands bold.
“
”
Henry Beston, The Outermost House
Cape Cod forms a continuous archipelagic region with a thin line of islands stretching toward New York, historically known by naturalists as the Outer Lands. This continuity is due to the fact that the islands and Cape are all terminal glacial moraines laid down some 16,000 to 20,000 years ago.
Most of Cape Cod's geological history involves the advance and retreat of the Laurentide ice sheet in the late Pleistocene geological era and the subsequent changes in sea level. Using radiocarbon dating techniques, researchers have determined that around 23,000 years ago, the ice sheet reached its maximum southward advance over North America, and then started to retreat. Many "kettle ponds" — clear, cold lakes — were formed and remain on Cape Cod as a result of the receding glacier. By about 18,000 years ago, the ice sheet had retreated past Cape Cod. By roughly 15,000 years ago, it had retreated past southern New England. When so much of Earth's water was locked up in massive ice sheets, the sea level was lower. Truro's bayside beaches used to be a petrified forest, before it became a beach.
As the ice began to melt, the sea began to rise. Initially, sea level rose quickly, about 15 meters (50 ft) per 1,000 years, but then the rate declined. On Cape Cod, sea level rose roughly 3 meters (11 ft) per millennium between 6,000 and 2,000 years ago. After that, it continued to rise at about 1 meter (3 ft) per millennium. By 6,000 years ago, the sea level was high enough to start eroding the glacial deposits that the vanished continental ice sheet had left on Cape Cod. The water transported the eroded deposits north and south along the outer Cape's shoreline. Those reworked sediments that moved north went to the tip of Cape Cod.
Provincetown Spit, at the northern end of the Cape, consists largely of marine deposits, transported from farther up the shore. Sediments that moved south created the islands and shoals of Monomoy. So while other parts of the Cape have dwindled from the action of the waves, these parts of the Cape have grown.
Cape Cod National Seashore
This process continues today. Due to their position jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean, the Cape and islands are subject to massive coastal erosion. Geologists say that, due to erosion, the Cape will be completely submerged by the sea in thousands of years.[11] This erosion causes the washout of beaches and the destruction of the barrier islands; for example, the ocean broke through the barrier island at Chatham during Hurricane Bob in 1991, allowing waves and storm surges to hit the coast with no obstruction. Consequently, the sediment and sand from the beaches is being washed away and deposited elsewhere. While this destroys land in some places, it creates land elsewhere, most noticeably in marshes where sediment is deposited by waters running through them.
[edit] Climate
Although Cape Cod's weather[12] is typically more moderate than inland locations, there have been occasions where Cape Cod has dealt with the brunt of extreme weather situations (such as the Blizzard of 1954 and Hurricane of 1938). Because of the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, temperatures are typically a few degrees cooler in the summer and a few degrees warmer in the winter. A common misconception is that the climate is influenced largely by the warm Gulf Stream current, however that current turns eastward off the coast of Virginia and the waters off the Cape are more influenced by the cold Canadian Labrador Current. As a result, the ocean temperature rarely gets above 65 °F (18 °C), except along the shallow west coast of the Upper Cape.
The Cape's climate is also notorious for a delayed spring season, being surrounded by an ocean which is still cold from the winter; however, it is also known for an exceptionally mild fall season (Indian summer), thanks to the ocean remaining warm from the summer. The highest temperature ever recorded on Cape Cod was 104 °F (40 °C) in Provincetown[13], and the lowest temperature ever was −12 °F (−24.4 °C) in Barnstable.[14]
The water surrounding Cape Cod moderates winter temperatures enough to extend the USDA hardiness zone 7a to its northernmost limit in eastern North America.[15] Even though zone 7a (annual low = 0–5 degrees Fahrenheit) signifies no sub-zero temperatures annually, there have been several instances of temperatures reaching a few degrees below zero across the Cape (although it is rare, usually 1–5 times a year, typically depending on locale, sometimes not at all). Consequently, many plant species typically found in more southerly latitudes grow there, including Camellias, Ilex opaca, Magnolia grandiflora and Albizia julibrissin.
Precipitation on Cape Cod and the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket is the lowest in the New England region, averaging slightly less than 40 inches (1,000 mm) a year (most parts of New England average 42–46 inches). This is due to storm systems which move across western areas, building up in mountainous regions, and dissipating before reaching the coast where the land has leveled out. The region does not experience a greater number of sunny days however, as the number of cloudy days is the same as inland locales, in addition to increased fog. Snowfall is annual, but a lot less common than the rest of Massachusetts. On average, 30 inches of snow, which is a foot less than Boston, falls in an average winter. Snow is usually light, and comes in squalls on cold days. Storms that bring blizzard conditions and snow emergencies to the mainland, bring devastating ice storms or just heavy rains more frequently than large snow storms.
[hide]Climate data for Cape Cod
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high °C (°F) 2.06
(35.7) 2.5
(36.5) 6.22
(43.2) 11.72
(53.1) 16.94
(62.5) 23.5
(74.3) 26.39
(79.5) 26.67
(80.0) 25.06
(77.1) 18.39
(65.1) 12.56
(54.6) 5.44
(41.8) 26.67
(80.0)
Average low °C (°F) -5.33
(22.4) -5
(23.0) -1.33
(29.6) 2.72
(36.9) 8.72
(47.7) 14.61
(58.3) 19.22
(66.6) 20.28
(68.5) 15.56
(60.0) 9.94
(49.9) 3.94
(39.1) -2.22
(28.0) -5.33
(22.4)
Precipitation mm (inches) 98
(3.86) 75.4
(2.97) 95
(3.74) 92.5
(3.64) 83.6
(3.29) 76.7
(3.02) 62.2
(2.45) 65
(2.56) 74.7
(2.94) 84.8
(3.34) 90.7
(3.57) 92.7
(3.65) 990.9
(39.01)
Source: World Meteorological Organisation (United Nations) [16]
[edit] Native population
Cape Cod has been the home of the Wampanoag tribe of Native American people for many centuries. They survived off the sea and were accomplished farmers. They understood the principles of sustainable forest management, and were known to light controlled fires to keep the underbrush in check. They helped the Pilgrims, who arrived in the fall of 1620, survive at their new Plymouth Colony. At the time, the dominant group was the Kakopee, known for their abilities at fishing. They were the first Native Americans to use large casting nets. Early colonial settlers recorded that the Kakopee numbered nearly 7,000.
Shortly after the Pilgrims arrived, the chief of the Kakopee, Mogauhok, attempted to make a treaty limiting colonial settlements. The effort failed after he succumbed to smallpox in 1625. Infectious diseases such as smallpox, measles and influenza caused the deaths of many other Kakopee and Wampanoag. They had no natural immunity to Eurasian diseases by then endemic among the English and other Europeans. Today, the only reminder of the Kakopee is a small public recreation area in Barnstable named for them. A historic marker notes the burial site of Mogauhok near Truro, although the location is conjecture.
While contractors were digging test wells in the eastern Massachusetts Military Reservation area, they discovered an archeological find.[citation needed] Excavation revealed the remains of a Kakopee village in Forestdale, a location in Sandwich. Researchers found a totem with a painted image of Mogauhok, portrayed in his chief's cape and brooch. The totem was discovered on property on Grand Oak Road. It is the first evidence other than colonial accounts of his role as an important Kakopee leader.
The Indians lost their lands through continued purchase and expropriation by the English colonists. The documentary Natives of the Narrowland (1993), narrated by actress Julie Harris, shows the history of the Wampanoag people through Cape Cod archaeological sites.
In 1974, the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribal Council was formed to articulate the concerns of those with Native American ancestry. They petitioned the federal government in 1975 and again in 1990 for official recognition of the Mashpee Wampanoag as a tribe. In May 2007, the Wampanoag tribe was finally federally recognized as a tribe.[17]
[edit] History
Cranberry picking in 1906
Cape Cod was a landmark for early explorers. It may have been the "Promontory of Vinland" mentioned by the Norse voyagers (985-1025). Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 approached it from the south. He named Martha's Vineyard Claudia, after the mother of the King of France.[18] The next year the explorer Esteban Gómez called it Cape St. James.
In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold named it Cape Cod, the surviving term and the ninth oldest English place-name in the U.S.[19] Samuel de Champlain charted its sand-silted harbors in 1606 and Henry Hudson landed there in 1609. Captain John Smith noted it on his map of 1614 and at last the Pilgrims entered the "Cape Harbor" and – contrary to the popular myth of Plymouth Rock – made their first landing near present-day Provincetown on November 11, 1620. Nearby, in what is now Eastham, they had their first encounter with Native Americans.
Cape Cod was among the first places settled by the English in North America. Aside from Barnstable (1639), Sandwich (1637) and Yarmouth (1639), the Cape's fifteen towns developed slowly. The final town to be established on the Cape was Bourne in 1884.[20] Provincetown was a group of huts until the 18th century. A channel from Massachusetts Bay to Buzzards Bay is shown on Southack's map of 1717. The present Cape Cod Canal was slowly developed from 1870 to 1914. The Federal government purchased it in 1928.
Thanks to early colonial settlement and intensive land use, by the time Henry Thoreau saw Cape Cod during his four visits over 1849 to 1857[21], its vegetation was depauperate and trees were scarce. As the settlers heated by fires, and it took 10 to 20 cords (40 to 80 m³) of wood to heat a home, they cleared most of Cape Cod of timber early on. They planted familiar crops, but these were unsuited to Cape Cod's thin, glacially derived soils. For instance, much of Eastham was planted to wheat. The settlers practiced burning of woodlands to release nutrients into the soil. Improper and intensive farming led to erosion and the loss of topsoil. Farmers grazed their cattle on the grassy dunes of coastal Massachusetts, only to watch "in horror as the denuded sands `walked' over richer lands, burying cultivated fields and fences." Dunes on the outer Cape became more common and many harbors filled in with eroded soils.[22]
By 1800, most of Cape Cod's firewood had to be transported by boat from Maine. The paucity of vegetation was worsened by the raising of merino sheep that reached its peak in New England around 1840. The early industrial revolution, which occurred through much of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, mostly bypassed Cape Cod due to a lack of significant water power in the area. As a result, and also because of its geographic position, the Cape developed as a large fishing and whaling center. After 1860 and the opening of the American West, farmers abandoned agriculture on the Cape. By 1950 forests had recovered to an extent not seen since the 18th century.
Cape Cod became a summer haven for city dwellers beginning at the end of the 19th century. Improved rail transportation made the towns of the Upper Cape, such as Bourne and Falmouth, accessible to Bostonians. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Northeastern mercantile elite built many large, shingled "cottages" along Buzzards Bay. The relaxed summer environment offered by Cape Cod was highlighted by writers including Joseph C. Lincoln, who published novels and countless short stories about Cape Cod folks in popular magazines such as the Saturday Evening Post and the Delineator.
Guglielmo Marconi made the first transatlantic wireless transmission originating in the United States from Cape Cod, at Wellfleet. The beach from which he transmitted has since been called Marconi Beach. In 1914 he opened the maritime wireless station WCC in Chatham. It supported the communications of Amelia Earhart, Howard Hughes, Admiral Byrd, and the Hindenburg. Marconi chose Chatham due to its vantage point on the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded on three sides by water. Walter Cronkite narrated a 17-minute documentary in 2005 about the history of the Chatham Station.
Much of the East-facing Atlantic seacoast of Cape Cod consists of wide, sandy beaches. In 1961, a significant portion of this coastline, already slated for housing subdivisions, was made a part of the Cape Cod National Seashore by President John F. Kennedy. It was protected from private development and preserved for public use. Large portions are open to the public, including the Marconi Site in Wellfleet. This is a park encompassing the site of the first two-way transoceanic radio transmission from the United States. (Theodore Roosevelt used Marconi's equipment for this transmission).
The Kennedy Compound in Hyannisport was President Kennedy's summer White House during his presidency. The Kennedy family continues to maintain residences on the compound. Other notable residents of Cape Cod have included actress Julie Harris, US Supreme Court justice Louis Brandeis, figure skater Todd Eldredge, and novelists Norman Mailer and Kurt Vonnegut. Influential natives included the patriot James Otis, historian and writer Mercy Otis Warren, jurist Lemuel Shaw, and naval officer John Percival.
[edit] Lighthouses of Cape Cod
Race Point Lighthouse in Provincetown (1876)
Lighthouses, from ancient times, have fascinated members of the human race. There is something about a lighted beacon that suggests hope and trust and appeals to the better instincts of mankind.
“
”
Edward Rowe Snow
Due to its dangerous constantly moving shoals, Cape Cod's shores have featured beacons which warn ships of the danger since very early in its history. There are numerous working lighthouses on Cape Cod and the Islands, including Highland Light, Nauset Light, Chatham Light, Race Point Light, and Nobska Light, mostly operated by the U.S. Coast Guard. The exception is Nauset Light, which was decommissioned in 1996 and is now maintained by the Nauset Light Preservation Society under the auspices of Cape Cod National Seashore. These lighthouses are frequently photographed symbols of Cape Cod.
Others include:
Upper Cape: Wings Neck
Mid Cape: Sandy Neck, South Hyannis, Lewis Bay, Bishop and Clerks, Bass River
Lower Cape: Wood End, Long Point, Monomoy, Stage Harbor, Pamet, Mayo Beach, Billingsgate, Three Sisters, Nauset, Highland
[edit] Transportation
Cape Cod is connected to the mainland by a pair of canal-spanning highway bridges from Bourne and Sagamore that were constructed in the 1930s, and a vertical-lift railroad bridge. The limited number of access points to the peninsula can result in large traffic backups during the tourist season.
The entire Cape is roughly bisected lengthwise by U.S. Route 6, locally known as the Mid-Cape Highway and officially as the Grand Army of the Republic Highway.
Commercial air service to Cape Cod operates out of Barnstable Municipal Airport and Provincetown Municipal Airport. Several bus lines service the Cape. There are ferry connections from Boston to Provincetown, as well as from Hyannis and Woods Hole to the islands.
Cape Cod has a public transportation network comprising buses operated by three different companies, a rail line, taxis and paratransit services.
The Bourne Bridge over the Cape Cod Canal, with the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge in the background
[edit] Bus
Cape Cod Regional Transit Authority operates a year-round public bus system comprising three long distance routes and a local bus in Hyannis and Barnstable Village. From mid June until October, additional local routes are added in Falmouth and Provincetown. CCRTA also operates Barnstable County's ADA required paratransit (dial-a-ride) service, under the name "B-Bus."
Long distance bus service is available through Plymouth and Brockton Street Railway, with regular service to Boston and Logan Airport, as well as less frequent service to Provincetown. Peter Pan Bus Lines also runs long distance service to Providence T.F. Green Airport and New York City.
[edit] Rail
Regular passenger rail service through Cape Cod ended in 1959, quite possibly on June 30 of that year. In 1978, the tracks east of South Dennis were abandoned and replaced with the very popular bicycle path, known as the Cape Cod Rail Trail. Another bike path, the Shining Sea Bikeway, was built over tracks between Woods Hole and Falmouth in 1975; construction to extend this path to North Falmouth over 6.3 miles (10.1 km) of inactive rail bed began in April 2008[23] and ended in early 2009. Active freight service remains in the Upper Cape area in Sandwich and in Bourne, largely due to a trash transfer station located at Massachusetts Military Reservation along the Bourne-Falmouth rail line. In 1986, Amtrak ran a seasonal service in the summer from New York City to Hyannis called the Cape Codder. From 1988, Amtrak and the Massachusetts Department of Transportation increased service to a daily frequency.[24] Since its demise in 1996, there have been periodic discussions about reinstating passenger rail service from Boston to reduce car traffic to and from the Cape, with officials in Bourne seeking to re-extend MBTA Commuter Rail service from Middleboro to Buzzards Bay[25], despite a reluctant Beacon Hill legislature.
Cape Cod Central Railroad operates passenger train service on Cape Cod. The service is primarily tourist oriented and includes a dinner train. The scenic route between Downtown Hyannis and the Cape Cod Canal is about 2½ hours round trip. Massachusetts Coastal Railroad is also planning to return passenger railroad services eventually to the Bourne-Falmouth rail line in the future. An August 5, 2009 article on the New England Cable News channel, entitled South Coast rail project a priority for Mass. lawmakers, mentions a $1.4-billion railroad reconstruction plan by Governor Deval Patrick, and could mean rebuilding of old rail lines on the Cape. On November 21, 2009, the town of Falmouth saw its first passenger train in 12 years, a set of dinner train cars from Cape Cod Central. And a trip from the Mass Bay Railroad Enthusiasts on May 15, 2010 revealed a second trip along the Falmouth line.
[edit] Taxi
Taxicabs are plentiful, with several different companies operating out of different parts of the Cape. Except at the airport and some bus terminals with taxi stands, cabs must be booked ahead of time, with most operators preferring two to three hours notice. Cabs cannot be "hailed" anywhere in Barnstable County, this was outlawed in the early nineties after several robbery attempts on drivers.
Most companies utilize a New York City-style taximeter and charge based on distance plus an initial fee of $2 to $3. In Provincetown, cabs charge a flat fare per person anywhere in the town.
[edit] Tourism
Hyannis Harbor on Nantucket Sound
Although Cape Cod has a year-round population of about 230,000, it experiences a tourist season each summer, the beginning and end of which can be roughly approximated as Memorial Day and Labor Day, respectively. Many businesses are specifically targeted to summer visitors, and close during the eight to nine months of the "off season" (although the "on season" has been expanding somewhat in recent years due to Indian Summer, reduced lodging rates, and the number of people visiting the Cape after Labor Day who either have no school-age children, and the elderly, reducing the true "off season" to six or seven months). In the late 20th century, tourists and owners of second homes began visiting the Cape more and more in the spring and fall, softening the definition of the high season and expanding it somewhat (see above). Some particularly well-known Cape products and industries include cranberries, shellfish (particularly oysters and clams) and lobstering.
Provincetown, at the tip of Cape Cod, also berths several whale watching fleets who patrol the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. Most fleets guarantee a whale sighting (mostly humpback whale, fin whale, minke whale, sei whale, and critically endangered, the North Atlantic Right Whale), and one is the only federally certified operation qualified to rescue whales. Provincetown has also long been known as an art colony, attracting writers and artists. The town is home to the Cape's most attended art museum, the Provincetown Art Association and Museum. Many hotels and resorts are friendly to or cater to gay and lesbian tourists and it is known as a gay mecca in the summer.[26]
Cape Cod is a popular destination for beachgoers from all over. With 559.6 miles (900.6 km) of coastline, beaches, both public and private, are easily accessible. The Cape has upwards of sixty public beaches, many of which offer parking for non-residents for a daily fee (in summer). The Cape Cod National Seashore has 40 miles (64 km) of sandy beach and many walking paths.
Cape Cod is also popular for its outdoor activities like beach walking, biking, boating, fishing, go-karts, golfing, kayaking, miniature golf, and unique shopping. There are 27 public, daily-fee golf courses and 15 private courses on Cape Cod.[27] Bed and breakfasts or vacation houses are often used for lodging.
Each summer the Naukabout Music Festival is held at the Barnstable County Fair Grounds located in East Falmouth,(typically) during the first weekend of August. This Music festival features local, regional and national talent along with food, arts and family friendly activities.
[edit] Sport fishing
Cape Cod is known around the world as a spring-to-fall destination for sport anglers. Among the species most widely pursued are striped bass, bluefish, bluefin tuna, false albacore (little tunny), bonito, tautog, flounder and fluke. The Cape Cod Bay side of the Cape, from Sandwich to Provincetown, has several harbors, saltwater creeks, and shoals that hold bait fish and attract the larger game fish, such as striped bass, bluefish and bluefin tuna.
The outer edge of the Cape, from Provincetown to Falmouth, faces the open Atlantic from Provincetown to Chatham, and then the more protected water of Nantucket and Vineyard Sounds, from Chatham to Falmouth. The bays, harbors and shoals along this coastline also provide a robust habitat for game species, and during the late summer months warm-water species such as mahi-mahi and marlin will also appear on the southern edge of Cape Cod's waters. Nearly every harbor on Cape Cod hosts sport fishing charter boats, which run from May through October.[28]
[edit] Sports
The Cape has nine amateur baseball franchises playing within Barnstable County in the Cape Cod Baseball League. The Wareham Gatemen also play in the Cape Cod Baseball League in nearby Wareham, Massachusetts in Plymouth County. The league originated 1923, although intertown competition traces to 1866. Teams in the league are the Bourne Braves, Brewster Whitecaps, Chatham Anglers (formerly the Chatham Athletics), Cotuit Kettleers, Falmouth Commodores, Harwich Mariners, Hyannis Harbor Hawks (formerly the Hyannis Mets), Orleans Firebirds (formerly the Orleans Cardinals), Wareham Gatemen and the Yarmouth-Dennis Red Sox. Pro ball scouts frequent the games in the summer, looking for stars of the future.
Cape Cod is also a national hot bed for baseball and hockey. Along with the Cape Cod Baseball League and the new Junior Hockey League team, the Cape Cod Cubs, many high school players are being seriously recruited as well. Barnstable and Harwich have each sent multiple players to Division 1 colleges for baseball, Harwich has also won three State titles in the past 12 years (1996, 2006, 2007). Bourne and Sandwich, known rivals in hockey have won state championships recently. Bourne in 2004, and Sandwich in 2007. Nauset, Barnstable, and Martha's Vineyard are also state hockey powerhouses. Barnstable and Falmouth also hold the title of having one of the longest Thanksgiving football rivalries in the country. The teams have played each other every year on the Thanksgiving since 1895. The Bourne and Barnstable girl's volleyball teams are two of the best teams in the state and Barnstable in the country. With Bourne winning the State title in 2003 and 2007. In the past 15 years, Barnstable has won 12 Division 1 State titles and has won the state title the past two years.
The Cape also is home to the Cape Cod Frenzy, a team in the American Basketball Association.
Soccer on Cape Cod is represented by the Cape Cod Crusaders, playing in the USL Premier Development League (PDL) soccer based in Hyannis. In addition, a summer Cape Cod Adult Soccer League (CCASL) is active in several towns on the Cape.
Cape Cod is also the home of the Cape Cod Cubs, a new junior league hockey team that is based out of Hyannis at the new communtiy center being built of Bearses Way.
The end of each summer is marked with the running of the world famous Falmouth Road Race which is held on the 3rd Saturday in August. It draws about 10,000 runners to the Cape and showcases the finest runners in the world (mainly for the large purse that the race is able to offer). The race is 7.2 miles (11.6 km) long, which is a non-standard distance. The reason for the unusual distance is that the man who thought the race up (Tommy Leonard) was a bartender who wanted a race along the coast from one bar (The Cap'n Kidd in Woods Hole) to another (The Brothers Four in Falmouth Heights). While the bar in Falmouth Heights is no longer there, the race still starts at the front door of the Cap'n Kidd in Woods Hole and now finishes at the beach in Falmouth Heights. Prior to the Falmouth race is an annual 5-mile (8.0 km) race through Brewster called the Brew Run, held early in August.
[edit] Education
Each town usually consists of a few elementary schools, one or two middle schools and one large public high school that services the entire town. Exceptions to this include Dennis-Yarmouth Regional High School located in Yarmouth which services both the town of Yarmouth as well as Dennis and Nauset Regional High School located in Eastham which services the town of Brewster, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown (optional). Bourne High School is the public school for students residing in the town of Bourne, which is gathered from villages in Bourne, including Sagamore, Sagamore Beach, and Buzzards Bay. Barnstable High School is the largest high school and is known for its girls' volleyball team which have been state champions a total of 12 times. Barnstable High School also boasts one of the country's best high school drama clubs which were awarded with a contract by Warner Brothers to created a documentary in webisode format based on their production of Wizard of Oz. Sturgis Charter Public School is a public school in Hyannis which was featured in Newsweek's Magazine's "Best High Schools" ranking. It ranked 28th in the country and 1st in the state of Massachusetts in the 2009 edition and ranked 43rd and 55th in the 2008 and 2007 edition, respectively. Sturgis offers the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme in their junior and senior year and is open to students as far as Plymouth. The Cape also contains two vocational high schools. One is the Cape Cod Regional Technical High School in Harwich and the other is Upper Cape Cod Regional Technical High School located in Bourne. Lastly, Mashpee High School is home to the Mashpee Chapter of (SMPTE,) the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. This chapter is the first and only high school chapter in the world to be a part of this organization and has received much recognition within the Los Angeles broadcasting industry as a result. The officers of this group who have made history are listed below:
* President: Ryan D. Stanley '11
* Vice-President Kenneth J. Peters '13
* Treasurer Eric N. Bergquist '11
* Secretary Andrew L. Medlar '11
In addition to public schools, Cape Cod has a wide range of private schools. The town of Barnstable has Trinity Christian Academy, Cape Cod Academy, St. Francis Xavier Preparatory School, and Pope John Paul II High School. Bourne offers the Waldorf School of Cape Cod, Orleans offers the Lighthouse Charter School for elementary and middle school students, and Falmouth offers Falmouth Academy. Riverview School is located in East Sandwich and is a special co-ed boarding school which services students as old as 22 who have learning disabilities. Another specialized school is the Penikese Island School located on Penikese Island, part of the Elizabeth Islands off southwestern Cape Cod, which services struggling and troubled teenage boys.
Cape Cod also contains two institutions of higher education. One is the Cape Cod Community College located in West Barnstable, Barnstable. The other is Massachusetts Maritime Academy in Buzzards Bay, Bourne. Massachusetts Maritime Academy is the oldest continuously operating maritime college in the United States.
[edit] Islands off Cape Cod
Like Cape Cod itself, the islands south of the Cape have evolved from whaling and trading areas to resort destinations, attracting wealthy families, celebrities, and other tourists. The islands include Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, as well as Forbes family-owned Naushon Island, which was purchased by John Murray Forbes with profits from opium dealing in the China trade during the Opium War. Naushon is one of the Elizabeth Islands, many of which are privately owned. One of the publicly accessible Elizabeths is the southernmost island in the chain, Cuttyhunk, with a year-round population of 52 people. Several prominent families have established compounds or estates on the larger islands, making these islands some of the wealthiest resorts in the Northeast, yet they retain much of the early merchant trading and whaling culture.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Battle of Peleliu
Part of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign of the Pacific Theater (World War II)
Date15 September – 27 November 1944
(2 months, 1 week and 5 days)
Location
Peleliu, Palau Islands
7°00′N 134°15′ECoordinates: 7°00′N 134°15′E
ResultAmerican victory
Belligerents
United States Japan
Commanders and leaders
United States William H. Rupertus
United States Paul J. Mueller
United States Roy S. Geiger
United States Herman H. Hanneken
United States Harold D. Harris
United States Lewis B. PullerEmpire of Japan Kunio Nakagawa †
Empire of Japan Sadae Inoue
Units involved
United States III Amphibious Corps
1st Marine Division
81st Infantry Division
Additional support units
Empire of Japan Peleliu garrison
14th Infantry Division
49th Mixed Brigade
45th Guard Force
46th Base Force
Additional support units
Strength
47,561[1]:3610,900[1]:37
17 tanks[2]
Casualties and losses
10,786
2,336 killed
8,450 wounded[3]10,897
10,695 killed
202 captured (183 foreign laborers, 19 Japanese soldiers)[1]:89[3]
17 tanks lost
Battle of Peleliu is located in Palau
Battle of Peleliu
Mariana and Palau Islands campaign
The Battle of Peleliu, codenamed Operation Stalemate II by the United States military, was fought between the U.S. and Japan during the Mariana and Palau Campaign of World War II, from September to November 1944, on the island of Peleliu.
U.S. Marines of the 1st Marine Division, and later soldiers of the U.S. Army's 81st Infantry Division, fought to capture an airstrip on the small coral island of Peleliu. This battle was part of a larger offensive campaign known as Operation Forager, which ran from June to November 1944, in the Pacific Theater.
Major General William Rupertus, Commander of the 1st Marine Division, predicted the island would be secured within four days.[4] However, after repeated Imperial Army defeats in previous island campaigns, Japan had developed new island-defense tactics and well-crafted fortifications that allowed stiff resistance,[5] extending the battle through more than two months. The heavily outnumbered Japanese defenders put up such stiff resistance, often fighting to the death in the Emperor's name, that the island became known in Japanese as the "Emperor's Island."[6]
In the United States, this was a controversial battle because of the island's negligible strategic value and the high casualty rate, which exceeded that of all other amphibious operations during the Pacific War.[7] The National Museum of the Marine Corps called it "the bitterest battle of the war for the Marines".[8]
Background
By 1944, American victories in the Southwest and Central Pacific had brought the war closer to Japan, with American bombers able to strike at the Japanese main islands from air bases secured during the Mariana Islands campaign (June–August 1944). There was disagreement among the U.S. Joint Chiefs over two proposed strategies to defeat the Japanese Empire. The strategy proposed by General Douglas MacArthur called for the recapture of the Philippines, followed by the capture of Okinawa, then an attack on the Japanese mainland. Admiral Chester Nimitz favored a more direct strategy of bypassing the Philippines, but seizing Okinawa and Taiwan as staging areas to an attack on the Japanese mainland, followed by the future invasion of Japan's southernmost islands. Both strategies included the invasion of Peleliu, but for different reasons.[9]
The 1st Marine Division had already been chosen to make the assault. President Franklin D. Roosevelt traveled to Pearl Harbor to personally meet both commanders and hear their arguments. MacArthur's strategy was chosen. However, before MacArthur could retake the Philippines, the Palau Islands, specifically Peleliu and Angaur, were to be neutralized and an airfield built to protect MacArthur's right flank.
Preparations
Japanese
By 1944, Peleliu Island was occupied by about 11,000 Japanese of the 14th Infantry Division with Korean and Okinawan labourers. Colonel Kunio Nakagawa, commander of the division's 2nd Regiment, led the preparations for the island's defense.
After their losses in the Solomons, Gilberts, Marshalls, and Marianas, the Imperial Army assembled a research team to develop new island-defense tactics. They chose to abandon the old strategy of stopping the enemy at the beach, where they were exposed to naval gunfire. The new tactics would only disrupt the landings at the water's edge and depend on an in-depth defense farther inland. Colonel Nakagawa used the rough terrain to his advantage, by constructing a system of heavily fortified bunkers, caves, and underground positions all interlocked into a "honeycomb" system. The traditional "banzai charge" attack was also discontinued as being both wasteful of men and ineffective. These changes would force the Americans into a war of attrition, requiring increasingly more resources.
Japanese fortifications
Nakagawa's defenses were centred on Peleliu's highest point, Umurbrogol Mountain, a collection of hills and steep ridges located at the center of Peleliu overlooking a large portion of the island, including the crucial airfield. The Umurbrogol contained some 500 limestone caves, interconnected by tunnels. Many of these were former mine shafts that were turned into defensive positions. Engineers added sliding armored steel doors with multiple openings to serve both artillery and machine guns. Cave entrances were opened or altered to be slanted as a defense against grenade and flamethrower attacks. The caves and bunkers were connected to a vast tunnel and trench system throughout central Peleliu, which allowed the Japanese to evacuate or reoccupy positions as needed, and to take advantage of shrinking interior lines.
The Japanese were well armed with 81 mm (3.19 in) and 150 mm (5.9 in) mortars and 20 mm (0.79 in) anti-aircraft cannons, backed by a light tank unit and an anti-aircraft detachment.
The Japanese also used the beach terrain to their advantage. The northern end of the landing beaches faced a 30-foot (9.1 m) coral promontory that overlooked the beaches from a small peninsula, a spot later known to the Marines who assaulted it simply as "The Point". Holes were blasted into the ridge to accommodate a 47 mm (1.85 in) gun, and six 20 mm cannons. The positions were then sealed shut, leaving just a small slit to fire on the beaches. Similar positions were crafted along the 2-mile (3.2 km) stretch of landing beaches.
The beaches were also filled with thousands of obstacles for the landing craft, principally mines and a large number of heavy artillery shells buried with the fuses exposed to explode when they were run over. A battalion was placed along the beach to defend against the landing, but they were meant to merely delay the inevitable American advance inland.
American
Unlike the Japanese, who drastically altered their tactics for the upcoming battle, the American invasion plan was unchanged from that of previous amphibious landings, even after suffering 3,000 casualties and two months of delaying tactics against the entrenched Japanese defenders at the Battle of Biak.[10] On Peleliu, American planners chose to land on the southwest beaches because of their proximity to the airfield on South Peleliu. The 1st Marine Regiment, commanded by Colonel Lewis B. (Chesty) Puller, was to land on the northern end of the beaches. The 5th Marine Regiment, under Colonel Harold D. Harris, would land in the center, and the 7th Marine Regiment, under Col. Herman H. Hanneken, would land at the southern end.
The division's artillery regiment, the 11th Marines under Col. William H. Harrison, would land after the infantry regiments. The plan was for the 1st and 7th Marines to push inland, guarding the 5th Marines left and right flank, and allowing them to capture the airfield located directly to the center of the landing beaches. The 5th Marines were to push to the eastern shore, cutting the island in half. The 1st Marines would push north into the Umurbrogol, while the 7th Marines would clear the southern end of the island. Only one battalion was left behind in reserve, with the U.S. Army's 81st Infantry Division available for support from Angaur, just south of Peleliu.
On September 4, the Marines shipped off from their station on Pavuvu, just north of Guadalcanal, a 2,100-mile (3,400 km) trip across the Pacific to Peleliu. A U.S. Navy's Underwater Demolition Team went in first to clear the beaches of obstacles, while Navy warships began their pre-invasion bombardment of Peleliu on September 12.
The battleships Pennsylvania, Maryland, Mississippi, Tennessee and Idaho, heavy cruisers Indianapolis, Louisville, Minneapolis and Portland, and light cruisers Cleveland, Denver and Honolulu,[1]:29 led by the command ship Mount McKinley, subjected the tiny island, only 6 sq mi (16 km2) in size, to a massive three-day bombardment, pausing only to permit air strikes from the three aircraft carriers, five light aircraft carriers, and eleven escort carriers with the attack force.[11] A total of 519 rounds of 16 in (410 mm) shells, 1,845 rounds of 14 in (360 mm) shells and 1,793 500 lb (230 kg) bombs were dropped on the islands during this period.
The Americans believed the bombardment to be successful, as Rear Admiral Jesse Oldendorf claimed that the Navy had run out of targets.[11] In reality, the majority of the Japanese positions were completely unharmed. Even the battalion left to defend the beaches was virtually unscathed. During the assault, the island's defenders exercised unusual firing discipline to avoid giving away their positions. The bombardment managed only to destroy Japan's aircraft on the island, as well as the buildings surrounding the airfield. The Japanese remained in their fortified positions, ready to attack the American landing troops.
Opposing forces
Naval command structure for Operation Stalemate II
Admiral Chester W. Nimitz
Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr.
Vice Adm. Theo. S. Wilkinson
Expeditionary Troops and III Amphibious Corps commanders
Maj. Gen. Julian C. Smith
Maj. Gen. Roy S. Geiger
Marine ground commanders on Peleliu
Maj. Gen. William H. Rupertus
Oliver P. Smith as a major general
Lewis B. Puller as a major general
American order of battle
United States Pacific Fleet[12]
Admiral Chester W. Nimitz
US Third Fleet
Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr.
Joint Expeditionary Force (Task Force 31)
Vice Admiral Theodore S. Wilkinson
Expeditionary Troops (Task Force 36)
III Amphibious Corps[a]
Major General Julian C. Smith,[b] USMC
Western Landing Force (TG 36.1)
Major General Roy S. Geiger, USMC
1st Marine Division
Division Commander: Maj. Gen. William H. Rupertus,[c] USMC
Asst. Division Commander: Brig. Gen. Oliver P. Smith,[d] USMC
Chief of Staff: Col. John T. Selden, USMC
Beach assignments
Left (White 1 & 2)
1st Marine Regiment (Col. Lewis B. "Chesty" Puller,[e] USMC)
Co. A of the following: 1st Engineer Battalion, 1st Pioneer Battalion, 1st Medical Battalion, 1st Tank Battalion
Center (Orange 1 & 2)
5th Marine Regiment (Col. Harold D. "Bucky" Harris, USMC)
Co. B of the following: 1st Engineer Battalion, 1st Pioneer Battalion, 1st Medical Battalion, 1st Tank Battalion (reduced)
Right (Orange 3)
7th Marine Regiment (Col. Herman H. "Hard-Headed" Hanneken, USMC)
Co. C of the following: 1st Engineer Battalion, 1st Pioneer Battalion, 1st Medical Battalion, 1st Tank Battalion (reduced)
Other units
11th Marine Regiment, Artillery (Col. William H. Harrison, USMC)
12th Antiaircraft Artillery Battalion
1st Amphibian Tractor Battalion
3rd Armored Amphibian Tractor Battalion
4th, 5th, 6th Marine War Dog Platoons
UDT 6 and UDT 7
Japanese order of battle
Lt. Col. Kunio Nakagawa
Marine with captured Japanese 141mm mortar
Palau District Group[15]
Lieutenant General Inoue Sadao[f] (HQ on Koror Island)
Vice Admiral Yoshioka Ito
Maj. Gen. Kenjiro Murai[g]
14th Division (Lt. Gen. Sadao)
Peleliu Sector Unit (Lt. Col. Kunio Nakagawa[h])
2nd Infantry Regiment, Reinforced
2nd Bttn. / 2nd Infantry Regiment
3rd Bttn. / 2nd Infantry Regiment
3rd Bttn. / 15th Infantry Regiment
346th Bttn. / 53rd Independent Mixed Brigade
Battle
Landing
Routes of Allied landings on Peleliu, 15 September 1944
U.S. Marines landed on Peleliu at 08:32, on September 15, the 1st Marines to the north on White Beach 1 and 2 and the 5th and 7th Marines to the center and south on Orange Beach 1, 2, and 3.[1]:42–45 As the other landing craft approached the beaches, the Marines were caught in a crossfire when the Japanese opened the steel doors guarding their positions and fired artillery. The positions on the coral promontories guarding each flank fired on the Marines with 47 mm guns and 20 mm cannons. By 09:30, the Japanese had destroyed 60 LVTs and DUKWs.
5th Marines on Orange Beach
The 1st Marines were quickly bogged down by heavy fire from the extreme left flank and a 30-foot-high coral ridge, "The Point".[1]:49 Colonel Chesty Puller narrowly escaped death when a dud high velocity artillery round struck his LVT. His communications section was destroyed on its way to the beach by a hit from a 47 mm round. The 7th Marines faced a cluttered Orange Beach 3, with natural and man-made obstacles, forcing the Amtracs to approach in column.[1]:52
The 5th Marines made the most progress on the first day, aided by cover provided by coconut groves.[1]:51 They pushed toward the airfield, but were met with Nakagawa's first counterattack. His armored tank company raced across the airfield to push the Marines back, but was soon engaged by tanks, howitzers, naval guns, and dive bombers. Nakagawa's tanks and escorting infantrymen were quickly destroyed.[1]:57
At the end of the first day, the Americans held their 2-mile (3.2 km) stretch of landing beaches, but little else. Their biggest push in the south moved 1 mile (1.6 km) inland, but the 1st Marines to the north made very little progress because of the extremely thick resistance.[1]:42 The Marines had suffered 200 dead and 900 wounded. Rupertus, still unaware of his enemy's change of tactics, believed the Japanese would quickly crumble since their perimeter had been broken.[18]
Airfield/South Peleliu
On the second day, the 5th Marines moved to capture the airfield and push toward the eastern shore.[1]:61 They ran across the airfield, enduring heavy artillery fire from the highlands to the north, suffering heavy casualties in the process. After capturing the airfield, they rapidly advanced to the eastern end of Peleliu, leaving the island's southern defenders to be destroyed by the 7th Marines.[1]:58
This area was hotly contested by the Japanese, who still occupied numerous pillboxes. Heat indices[19] were around[20] 115 °F (46 °C), and the Marines soon suffered high casualties from heat exhaustion. Further complicating the situation, the Marines' water was distributed in empty oil drums, contaminating the water with the oil residue.[21] Still, by the eighth day the 5th and 7th Marines had accomplished their objectives, holding the airfield and the southern portion of the island, although the airfield remained under threat of sustained Japanese fire from the heights of Umurbrogol Mountain until the end of the battle.[11]
American forces put the airfield to use on the third day. L-2 Grasshoppers from VMO-3 began aerial spotting missions for Marine artillery and naval gunfire support. On September 26 (D+11), Marine F4U Corsairs from VMF-114 landed on the airstrip. The Corsairs began dive-bombing missions across Peleliu, firing rockets into open cave entrances for the infantrymen, and dropping napalm; it was only the second time the latter weapon had been used in the Pacific.[citation needed] Napalm proved useful, burning away the vegetation hiding spider holes and usually killing their occupants.
The time from liftoff to the target area for the Corsairs based on Peleliu Airfield was very short, sometimes only 10 to 15 seconds. Consequently, there was almost no time for pilots to raise their aircraft undercarriage; most pilots did not bother and left them down during the air strike. After the air strike was completed and the payload dropped, the Corsair simply turned back into the landing pattern again.
The Point
The fortress at the end of the southern landing beaches (a.k.a. “The Point”) continued to cause heavy Marine casualties due to enfilading fire from Japanese heavy machine guns and anti-tank artillery across the landing beaches. Puller ordered Captain George P. Hunt, commander of K Company, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines, to capture the position. Hunt's company approached The Point short on supplies, having lost most of its machine guns while approaching the beaches. Hunt's second platoon was pinned down for nearly a day in an anti-tank trench between fortifications. The rest of his company was endangered when the Japanese cut a hole in their line, surrounding his company and leaving his right flank cut off.[1]:49
However, a rifle platoon began knocking out the Japanese gun positions one by one. Using smoke grenades for concealment, the platoon swept through each hole, destroying the positions with rifle grenades and close-quarters combat. After knocking out the six machine gun positions, the Marines faced the 47 mm gun cave. A lieutenant blinded the 47 mm gunner's visibility with a smoke grenade, allowing Corporal Henry W. Hahn to launch a grenade through the cave's aperture. The grenade detonated the 47 mm's shells, forcing the cave's occupants out with their bodies alight and their ammunition belts exploding around their waists. A Marine fire team was positioned on the flank of the cave where the emerging occupants were shot down.
K Company had captured The Point, but Nakagawa counterattacked. The next 30 hours saw four major counterattacks against a sole company, critically low on supplies, out of water, and surrounded. The Marines soon had to resort to hand-to-hand combat to fend off the Japanese attackers. By the time reinforcements arrived, the company had successfully repulsed all of the Japanese attacks, but had been reduced to 18 men, suffering 157 casualties during the battle for The Point.[1]:50–51 Hunt and Hahn were both awarded the Navy Cross for their actions.
Ngesebus Island
The 5th Marines—after having secured the airfield—were sent to capture Ngesebus Island, just north of Peleliu. Ngesebus was occupied by many Japanese artillery positions, and was the site of an airfield still under construction. The tiny island was connected to Peleliu by a small causeway, but 5th Marines commander Harris opted instead to make a shore-to-shore amphibious landing, predicting the causeway to be an obvious target for the island's defenders.[1]:77
Harris coordinated a pre-landing bombardment of the island on September 28, carried out by Army 155 mm (6.1 in) guns, naval guns, howitzers from the 11th Marines, strafing runs from VMF-114's Corsairs, and 75 mm (2.95 in) fire from the approaching LVTs.[1]:77 Unlike the Navy's bombardment of Peleliu, Harris' assault on Ngesebus successfully killed most of the Japanese defenders. The Marines still faced opposition in the ridges and caves, but the island fell quickly, with relatively light casualties for the 5th Marines. They had suffered 15 killed and 33 wounded, and inflicted 470 casualties on the Japanese.
Bloody Nose Ridge
After capturing The Point, the 1st Marines moved north into the Umurbrogol pocket,[1]:81 named "Bloody Nose Ridge" by the Marines. Puller led his men in numerous assaults, but each resulted in severe casualties from Japanese fire. The 1st Marines were trapped in the narrow paths between the ridges, with each ridge fortification supporting the other with deadly crossfire.
The Marines took increasingly high casualties as they slowly advanced through the ridges. The Japanese again showed unusual fire discipline, striking only when they could inflict maximum casualties. As casualties mounted, Japanese snipers began to take aim at stretcher bearers, knowing that if stretcher bearers were injured or killed, more would have to return to replace them, and the snipers could steadily pick off more and more Marines. The Japanese also infiltrated the American lines at night to attack the Marines in their fighting holes. The Marines built two-man fighting holes, so one Marine could sleep while the other kept watch for infiltrators.
One particularly bloody battle on Bloody Nose came when the 1st Battalion, 1st Marines—under the command of Major Raymond Davis—attacked Hill 100. Over six days of fighting, the battalion suffered 71% casualties. Captain Everett Pope and his company penetrated deep into the ridges, leading his remaining 90 men to seize what he thought was Hill 100. It took a day's fighting to reach what he thought was the crest of the hill, which was in fact another ridge occupied by more Japanese defenders.
Marine Pfc. Douglas Lightheart (right) cradles his .30 caliber (7.62×63mm) M1919 Browning machine gun in his lap, while he and Pfc. Gerald Thursby Sr. take a cigarette break, during mopping up operations on Peleliu on 15 September 1944.
Trapped at the base of the ridge, Captain Pope set up a small defense perimeter, which was attacked relentlessly by the Japanese throughout the night. The Marines soon ran out of ammunition, and had to fight the attackers with knives and fists, even resorting to throwing coral rock and empty ammunition boxes at the Japanese. Pope and his men managed to hold out until dawn came, which brought on more deadly fire. When they evacuated the position, only nine men remained. Pope later received the Medal of Honor for the action. (Picture of the Peleliu Memorial dedicated on the 50th anniversary of the landing on Peleliu with Captain Pope's name)
The Japanese eventually inflicted 70% casualties on Puller's 1st Marines, or 1,749 men.[1]:66 After six days of fighting in the ridges of Umurbrogol, General Roy Geiger, commander of the III Amphibious Corps, sent elements of U.S. Army's 81st Infantry Division to Peleliu to relieve the regiment.[1]:66 The 321st Regiment Combat Team landed on the western beaches of Peleliu—at the northern end of Umurbrogol mountain—on 23 September. The 321st and the 7th Marines encircled The Pocket by 24 Sept., D+9.[1]:75,81
By 15 October, the 7th Marines had suffered 46% casualties and General Geiger relieved them with the 5th Marines.[1]:83 Col. Harris adopted siege tactics, using bulldozers and flame-thrower tanks, pushing from the north.[1]:83–84 On October 30, the 81st Infantry Division took over command of Peleliu, taking another six weeks, with the same tactics, to reduce The Pocket.[1]:85
On 24 November, Nakagawa proclaimed "Our sword is broken and we have run out of spears". He then burnt his regimental colors and performed ritual suicide.[1]:86 He was posthumously promoted to lieutenant general for his valor displayed on Peleliu. On 27 November, the island was declared secure, ending the 73-day-long battle.[18]
A Japanese lieutenant with twenty-six 2nd Infantry soldiers and eight 45th Guard Force sailors held out in the caves in Peleliu until April 22, 1947, and surrendered after a Japanese admiral convinced them the war was over.[1]:81
Aftermath
The reduction of the Japanese pocket around Umurbrogol mountain has been called the most difficult fight that the U.S. military encountered in the entire war.[21] The 1st Marine Division was severely mauled and it remained out of action until the invasion of Okinawa began on April 1, 1945. In total, the 1st Marine Division suffered over 6,500 casualties during their month on Peleliu, over one third of their entire division. The 81st Infantry Division also suffered heavy losses with 3,300 casualties during their tenure on the island.
Postwar statisticians calculated that it took U.S. forces over 1500 rounds of ammunition to kill each Japanese defender and that, during the course of the battle, the Americans expended 13.32 million rounds of .30-calibre, 1.52 million rounds of .45-calibre, 693,657 rounds of .50-calibre bullets, 118,262 hand grenades, and approximately 150,000 mortar rounds.[11]
The battle was controversial in the United States due to the island's lack of strategic value and the high casualty rate. The defenders lacked the means to interfere with potential US operations in the Philippines[11] and the airfield captured on Peleliu did not play a key role in subsequent operations. Instead, the Ulithi Atoll in the Caroline Islands was used as a staging base for the invasion of Okinawa. The high casualty rate exceeded all other amphibious operations during the Pacific War.[7]
In addition, few news reports were published about the battle because Rupertus' prediction of a "three days" victory motivated only six reporters to report from shore. The battle was also overshadowed by MacArthur's return to the Philippines and the Allies' push towards Germany in Europe.
The battles for Angaur and Peleliu showed Americans the pattern of future Japanese island defense but they made few adjustments for the battles for Iwo Jima and Okinawa.[22] Naval bombardment prior to amphibious assault at Iwo Jima was only slightly more effective than at Peleliu, but at Okinawa the preliminary shelling was much improved.[23] Frogmen performing underwater demolition at Iwo Jima confused the enemy by sweeping both coasts, but later alerted Japanese defenders to the exact assault beaches at Okinawa.[23] American ground forces at Peleliu gained experience in assaulting heavily fortified positions such as they would find again at Okinawa.[24]
On the recommendation of Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr., the planned occupation of Yap Island in the Caroline Islands was canceled. Halsey actually recommended that the landings on Peleliu and Angaur be canceled, too, and their Marines and soldiers be thrown into Leyte Island instead, but was overruled by Nimitz.[25]
In popular culture
In the March of Time's 1951 documentary TV series, Crusade in the Pacific, Episode 17 is "The Fight for Bloody Nose Ridge."
In NBC-TV's 1952-53 documentary TV series Victory at Sea, Episode 18, "Two if by Sea" covers the assaults at Peleliu and Angaur.
The Battle of Peleliu is featured in many World War II themed video games, including Call of Duty: World at War. The player takes the role of a US Marine tasked with taking Peleliu Airfield, repelling counter-attacks, destroying machine-gun and mortar positions and eventually securing Japanese artillery emplacements at the point. In flight-simulation game War Thunder, two teams of players clash to hold the southern and northern airfields. In multi-player shooter Red Orchestra 2: Rising Storm, a team of American troops attack the defensive Japanese team's control points.
The battle including footage and stills are featured in the fifth episode of Ken Burns' The War.
The battle features in episodes 5, 6 and 7 of the TV mini-series The Pacific.
In his book, With the Old Breed, Eugene Bondurant Sledge described his experiences in the battle for Peleliu.
In 2015, the Japanese magazine Young Animal commenced serialization of Peleliu: Rakuen no Guernica by Masao Hiratsuka and artist Kazuyoshi Takeda, telling the story of the battle in manga form.
One of the final scenes in Parer's War, a 2014 Australian television film, shows the Battle of Peleliu recorded by Damien Parer with his camera at the time of his death.
The Peleliu Campaign features as one of the campaigns in the 2019 solitaire tactical wargame “Fields of Fire” Volume 2, designed by Ben Hull, published by GMT Games LLC.
Individual honors
Japan
Posthumous promotions
For heroism:
Colonel Kunio Nakagawa – lieutenant general
Kenjiro Murai – lieutenant general
United States
Pfc. Richard Kraus, USMC (age 18), killed in action
Medal of Honor recipients
Captain Everett P. Pope – 1st Battalion, 1st Marines
First Lieutenant Carlton R. Rouh – 1st Battalion, 5th Marines
Private First Class Arthur J. Jackson – 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines
Corporal Lewis K. Bausell –1st Battalion, 5th Marines (Posthumous)
Private First Class Richard E. Kraus – 8th Amphibian Tractor Battalion, 1st Marine Division (Reinforced) (Posthumous)
Private First Class John D. New – 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines (Posthumous)
Private First Class Wesley Phelps – 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines (Posthumous)
Private First Class Charles H. Roan – 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines (Posthumous)
Unit citations
D-day Peleliu, African Americans of one of the two segregated units that supported the 7th Marines - the 16th Marine Field Depot or the 17th Naval Construction Battalion Special take a break in the 115 degree heat, 09-15-1944 - NARA - 532535
Presidential Unit Citation:
1st Marine Division, September 15 to 29, 1944[26]
1st Amphibian Tractor Battalion, FMF[27]
U. S. Navy Flame Thrower Unit Attached[27]
6th Amphibian Tractor Battalion (Provisional), FMF[27]
3d Armored Amphibian Battalion (Provisional), FMF[27]
Detachment Eighth Amphibian Tractor Battalion, FMF[27]
454th Amphibian Truck Company, U. S. Army[27]
456th Amphibian Truck Company, U. S. Army[27]
4th Joint Assault Signal Company, FMF[27]
5th Separate Wire Platoon, FMF[27]
6th Separate Wire Platoon, FMF[27]
Detachment 33rd Naval Construction Battalion (202 Personnel)[27]
Detachment 73rd Naval Construction Battalion's Shore Party (241 Personnel)[27]
USMC Commendatory Letter:[i]
11th Marine Depot Company (segregated)
7th Marine Ammunition Company (segregated)
17th Special Naval Construction Battalion (segregated)
Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
United Kingdom
Name:Unicorn
Namesake:Unicorn
Ordered:14 April 1939
Builder:Harland and Wolff, Belfast, Northern Ireland
Cost:£2,531,000
Yard number:1031[1]
Laid down:26 June 1939
Launched:20 November 1941
Completed:12 March 1943[1]
Decommissioned:January 1946
Recommissioned:Mid-1949
Decommissioned:17 November 1953
Identification:Pennant number: I72
Fate:Scrapped beginning 15 June 1959
General characteristics (as completed)
Type:Maintenance aircraft carrier
Displacement:
16,510 long tons (16,770 t) (standard)
20,300 long tons (20,600 t) (deep load)
Length:640 ft (195.1 m)
Beam:90 ft 3 in (27.51 m)
Draught:23 ft (7.0 m) (deep load)
Installed power:40,000 shp (30,000 kW)
Propulsion:
2 × shafts
2 × Parsons geared steam turbine sets
4 × Admiralty water-tube boilers
Speed:24 knots (44 km/h; 28 mph)
Range:7,000 nmi (13,000 km; 8,100 mi) at 13.5 knots (25.0 km/h; 15.5 mph)
Complement:1,200 (wartime)
Sensors and
processing systems:
1 × Type 281B Early-warning radar
2 × Type 285 gunnery radars
Armament:
4 × 2 – QF 4-inch Mk XVI dual purpose guns
4 × 4 – 2-pounder anti-aircraft guns
2 × 2, 8 × 1 – 20 mm Oerlikon anti-aircraft cannon
Armour:
Flight deck: 2 in (51 mm)
Magazines: 2–3 in (51–76 mm)
Bulkheads: 1.5 in (38 mm)
Aircraft carried:Approximately 33 (operational use)
HMS Unicorn was an aircraft repair ship and light aircraft carrier built for the Royal Navy in the late 1930s. She was completed during World War II and provided air cover over the amphibious landing at Salerno, Italy, in September 1943. The ship was transferred to the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean at the end of the year. Unicorn supported the aircraft carriers of the fleet on their operations until the British Pacific Fleet (BPF) was formed in November 1944. She was transferred to Australia in early 1945 to support the BPF's operations during Operation Iceberg, the Allied invasion of Okinawa in May. To shorten the time required to replenish the BPF's carriers, the ship was based in the Admiralty Islands and in the Philippine Islands until the Japanese surrender in August. Unicorn was decommissioned and placed in reserve when she returned to the UK in January 1946.
The ship was recommissioned in 1949 to support the light carrier of the Far East Fleet, as the Eastern Fleet had been redesignated after the end of World War II. She was unloading aircraft and equipment in Singapore in June 1950 when the Korean War began. She spent most of the war ferrying aircraft, troops, stores and equipment in support of Commonwealth operations in Korea. Unicorn supported other carriers during operations in Korea, but she became the only aircraft carrier to conduct a shore bombardment with her guns during wartime when she attacked North Korean observers on the coast during the war.[2] The ship returned to the UK after the end of the war and was again placed in reserve. She was listed for disposal in 1958 and sold for scrap in 1959.
Design and description
The Abyssinia Crisis of 1934–35 demonstrated to the Admiralty that it needed a depot ship to support the aircraft carriers in active service, just like submarine and destroyer tenders supported those types. Such a ship would be able to perform a wider range of aircraft repair and maintenance tasks than aircraft carriers and on the full range of aircraft operated by the Royal Navy, including amphibians. Admiral Reginald Henderson, Controller of the Navy was instrumental for gaining approval for the ship and ensuring that she had a complete flight deck that would allow her to land, service and launch aircraft on active operations.[3] She was the first ship built in any navy that could "carry out the full range of aircraft maintenance and repair work in addition to the ability to operate aircraft from the flight deck".[4] In practice, Unicorn proved the value of the concept and two similar support ships, Perseus and Pioneer were converted into aircraft maintenance ships by modifying light aircraft carriers still under construction.[5]
Unicorn had an overall length of 640 feet (195.1 m), a beam of 90 feet 3 inches (27.5 m), and a draught of 23 feet (7.0 m) at deep load. She was somewhat overweight as completed and displaced 16,510 long tons (16,770 t) at standard load rather than her designed 14,750 long tons (14,990 t).[6] Each of the ship's two sets of Parsons geared steam turbines drove one 15-foot (4.6 m) propeller.[7] Steam was supplied by six Admiralty three-drum water-tube boilers operating at a pressure of 400 psi (2,758 kPa; 28 kgf/cm2). The turbines were designed for a total of 40,000 shaft horsepower (30,000 kW) and gave Unicorn a speed of 24 knots (44 km/h; 28 mph).[6] The ship carried 3,000 long tons (3,000 t) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 7,000 nautical miles (13,000 km; 8,100 mi) at 13.5 knots (25.0 km/h; 15.5 mph).[7]
In order to land aircraft aboard, Unicorn was designed with a full-length, 600-foot (180 m)-long flight deck with arresting gear. She was also fitted with a catapult capable of launching a 14,000-pound (6,400 kg) aircraft to a speed of 66 knots (122 km/h; 76 mph).[8] The ship had two hangars, each 16 feet 6 inches (5.03 m) high. The upper hangar was 324ft by 65ft, and the lower 360ft by 62ft. Aircraft were transported between the hangars and the flight deck by two aircraft lifts (elevators); the forward lift measured 33 by 45 feet (10.1 m × 13.7 m) and the rear one 24 by 46 feet (7.3 m × 14.0 m). Unicorn could carry about 36 operational aircraft. Bulk petrol storage consisted of 36,500 imperial gallons (166,000 l; 43,800 US gal).[9] During wartime, the ship's crew totaled 1200.[10] The ship carried a self-propelled lighter under the rear of the flight deck to allow unflyable aircraft to be transferred between ships or to shore facilities. This lighter was lowered flush with the upper hangar deck so that an aircraft could be rolled onto it or an aircraft could be lifted onto it once the lighter was in the water.[11]
Unicorn was armed with four twin mounts for the 45-calibre QF 4-inch Mk XVI dual purpose gun.[6] This mounting could elevate from −10 to +80°. The Mk XVI gun fired about 12 35-pound (16 kg) high-explosive shells per minute at a muzzle velocity of 2,660 ft/s (810 m/s). Against surface targets it had a range of 19,850 yards (18,150 m) and a maximum ceiling of 39,000 ft (12,000 m), but an effective anti-aircraft range of much less.[12] She was also equipped with four quadruple mounts for the 40-millimetre (1.6 in) QF 2-pounder Mk VIII gun ("pom-pom").[10] These gun mounts could depress to −10° and elevate to a maximum of +80°. The Mk VIII 2-pounder gun fired a 40-millimetre (1.6 in) 0.91-pound (0.41 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1,920 ft/s (590 m/s) to a distance of 3,800 yards (3,500 m). The gun's rate of fire was approximately 96–98 rounds per minute.[13] Close-range air defence was provided by twelve 20 mm Oerlikon autocannon, in two twin mounts and eight single ones.[6] The Oerlikon fired a 0.272-pound (0.123 kg) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2,750 ft/s (840 m/s). It had a rate of fire of 465–480 rounds per minute and a maximum range of 4,800 yards (4,400 m).[14]
The ship was equipped with two HACS (High Angle Control System) directors on her island and each "pom-pom" mount had its own director as well.[6] Unicorn was the first ship to mount a Type 281B early-warning radar,[15] and each HACS director was fitted with a Type 285 gunnery radar.[6]
Construction and service
Unicorn was ordered on 14 April 1939, and laid down at Harland and Wolff in Belfast, Northern Ireland on 29 June. Her construction was delayed several times in favour of higher priority projects and she was not launched until 20 November 1941. The ship was completed on 12 March 1943.[6] In order to accelerate the ship's completion, the Admiralty decided in 1942 that she would not be equipped with her full suite of maintenance and repair equipment.[16] Excluding her armament, Unicorn cost £2,531,000.[7] [Note 1]
Whilst working up, 818 and 824 Squadrons flew aboard in April 1943. 818 Squadron had nine Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers and 824 Squadron had six. 887 Squadron, with nine Supermarine Seafire IIC fighters was also embarked during this time.[18] In late May, Unicorn escorted Convoy MKF 15 to Gibraltar while carrying a number of Royal Air Force Bristol Beaufighters that she off-loaded there. She escorted the returning convoy back to the Clyde in early June. Together with the aircraft carrier Illustrious, the ship made a sweep towards the Norwegian coast as part of Operation Governor, a diversion for the Allied landings in Sicily in early July.[19] For this operation, 887 Squadron was replaced by 800 Squadron with Hawker Sea Hurricanes.[20]
Unicorn was assigned to Force V, a flotilla of British carriers, commanded by Admiral Philip Vian, intended to provide air cover to Operation Avalanche, the Allied landings at Salerno. In preparation for this mission, the ship disembarked all of her Swordfish, except for a small detachment of three from 818 Squadron for self-defence, and the Sea Hurricanes of 800 Squadron. They were replaced by Seafires of 809 and 897 Squadrons. Each of the Seafire squadrons had 10 aircraft, for a total of 33.[21] Unicorn joined the escort carriers of Force V in August at Gibraltar before they moved forward to the Central Mediterranean for intensive training prior to the commencement of the amphibious landing on 9 September.[22]
The ship's Seafires flew 75 sorties on the first day of operations and 60 on 10 September, but the Seafire was not well suited to carrier landings in low wind conditions and many were damaged in landing accidents. 44 sorties were flown on 11 September and only 18 on 12 September, even though Unicorn's mechanics had managed to repair ten Seafires over the previous night. The fighter shortage grew so acute during the operation that fighters from the carriers Illustrious and Formidable, intended to provide distant cover against an attempt by the Italian fleet to interfere with the invasion, staged forward to Unicorn in order to provide air cover over the landings.[23] By 12 September, the situation had improved so that 887 Squadron was able to fly off six Seafires to a temporary airfield ashore.[21]
The ship returned to the UK on 20 September with a full load of damaged Seafires, in addition to her own aircraft, that were off-loaded at Glasgow to be repaired. Afterwards, she was refitted by her builders and reconfigured for her designed role as an aircraft repair ship.[24]
In the Far East
At the end of December 1943, Unicorn joined Illustrious, the battlecruiser Renown and the battleships Queen Elizabeth and Valiant, the other reinforcements for the Eastern Fleet.[25] Only four Swordfish from 818 Squadron were carried aboard at this time.[26] The ship delivered a consignment of aircraft to Royal Navy Air Station Cochin, India, on 27 January 1944 before arriving at Trincomalee, Ceylon on 2 February. In addition to her repair duties, the ship was often used for deck-landing practice. She was given a brief refit in Bombay during May.[25] On 23 August, 818 Squadron was transferred to Atheling and later disbanded. On 7 November, 817 Squadron flew aboard to provide anti-submarine protection with its Fairey Barracudas[27] as Unicorn was ordered to Durban, South Africa. There she was to be modified with separate workshops and additional equipment to accommodate American engines which used different screw threads and electrical fittings.[28]
That same month, Unicorn was transferred to the newly formed BPF. She left Durban on 1 January 1945 and arrived at Colombo, Ceylon where she conducted deck-landing practice for pilots new to the BPF. The ship loaded 82 aircraft and 120 engines later in the month for transport to Australia, emptying the available stocks of the Eastern Fleet, and departed for Sydney on 29 January. Unicorn arrived on 12 February and disembarked her stored aircraft. She sailed for Manus Island, in the Admiralty Islands, on 28 February to support the BPF's training before the opening stages of Operation Iceberg. The ship arrived at San Pedro Bay, Philippines on 27 March which was to serve as the BPF's intermediate replenishment base while it supported Operation Iceberg.[29]
The BPF was tasked to attack Japanese airfields in the Sakishima Islands and Formosa before and during the early stages of the invasion of Okinawa. Unicorn was primarily engaged in preparing aircraft for issue to the operational squadrons aboard the fleet carriers during this time,[30] rather than repair them, but she did repair, modify or service 105 aircraft in March–May 1945. The ship sailed for Australia on 22 May and arrived in Sydney on 1 June. She sailed for Brisbane on 6 June to have her bottom cleaned at the Cairncross Dockyard and to load more replacement aircraft. Unicorn arrived at Manus on 22 July to prepare for operations off Japan. She was still there when Japan surrendered on 15 August. The ship began to ferry aircraft, equipment and men back to Australia after the surrender, a task which ended on 6 November, when she arrived at Sydney. Unicorn departed for home in December 1945 and arrived in Plymouth in January 1946. She was decommissioned and placed in reserve.[31]
Post-war
In 1949, Unicorn was reactivated for service in the Far East, in support of the carrier Triumph. She sailed from HMNB Devonport on 22 September with a cargo of Seafires and Fireflies. When the Korean War broke out in June 1950, the ship was disembarking aircraft, equipment and her maintenance personnel at RAF Sembawang, Singapore in preparation to return home and then to reserve. The Admiralty ordered her to be used as a replenishment carrier to ferry replacement aircraft and supplies to the Royal Navy and Commonwealth aircraft carriers operating in Korean waters. Unicorn left Singapore on 11 July and arrived at Sasebo, Japan, on 20 July and transferred seven Seafires and five Fireflies to Triumph. In August, the ship ferried the 1st Battalion of the Middlesex Regiment and the Headquarters of the 27th Brigade from Hong Kong to Pusan, arriving on 29 August. She delivered supplies to Sasebo before returning to Singapore to begin a refit.[32]
Unicorn resumed her duties in December, carrying about 400 troops in addition to the usual aircraft, stores and equipment. She was used by pilots for deck-landing practice en route. In March, she ferried the Gloster Meteor jet fighters of No. 77 Squadron RAAF to Iwakuni, Japan. The ship remained there for the next three months so she could be used as an accommodation ship. Afterwards, Unicorn resumed her role as a ferry carrier. Whilst transiting the Shimonoseki Strait on 2 October, she destroyed the overhead power cables stretching between Honshu and Kyushu as they were sagging lower than normal due to a heavy snowfall. On 21 November, Unicorn and the carrier Warrior exchanged crews at Singapore and the ship began a refit shortly afterwards. After her refit was completed on 20 January 1952, she returned to her ferry duties.[33] In April, she was "adopted" by the Middlesex Regiment (possibly one of only three ships to be honoured by an Army regiment).[34] During operations by Ocean in July, the ship acted as a spare flight deck to allow for damaged aircraft to land without disrupting the strike operations. She arrived back at Singapore on 27 July to load more replacement aircraft, including Meteors, and sailed on 9 August for Japan. During September, Unicorn borrowed four of Ocean's Hawker Sea Fury fighters to fly combat air patrols over the fleet whilst the latter ship conducted strike operations. She was docked for maintenance in October, and embarked the First Sea Lord, Admiral Rhoderick McGrigor and the Commander-in-Chief, Far East Station for a tour of Commonwealth forces in Japan. At one point, Unicorn became the only aircraft carrier to conduct a shore bombardment during wartime when she engaged North Korean coastwatchers at Chopekki Point.[35]
The ship returned to Singapore for another refit on 15 December and did not leave Singapore until 17 July 1953. On 26 July, en route for Japan, Unicorn received a distress call from SS Inchkilda, saying that she was under attack by pirates. The carrier closed on the freighter's position at high speed and the pirates abandoned their prize when Unicorn circled the freighter with all guns bearing at less than 3,000 yards (2,700 m). The Korean Armistice Agreement came into effect the following day, but the ship accompanied Ocean on two patrols on 30 July and 25–29 August to monitor North Korean compliance with the terms of the armistice. She sailed for home on 15 October and arrived at Devonport on 17 November, where she returned to reserve.[36]
Disposal
In 1951, Unicorn was considered for modernisation to make her capable of operating modern, heavier jet aircraft. This would have required fitting of a steam catapult, reinforcing her flight deck to handle heavier aircraft and moving and enlarging her forward lift to make room for the new catapult and larger aircraft. A new crane would also have been necessary to handle the heavier aircraft. The Director of Naval Construction proposed to combine both of her hangars into a single one to eliminate problems with hangar height, but this was rejected because of the excessive cost. This reconstruction would have begun in July 1954, but the entire scheme was cancelled in November 1952 because providing existing carriers with angled flight decks was much more important.[37]
Unicorn was redesignated as a Ferry Carrier in June 1953.[38] The ship was reduced to extended reserve in March 1957 and placed on the disposal list in 1958. Unicorn was sold for scrap in June 1959 and arrived at Dalmuir on 15 June to begin the process. Her hull was broken up at Troon in 1960.[39]
MAMAC - Exposition Sarah Sze.
"Cette pièce de Sarah Sze aborde le passé et le futur comme étant à la fois une ruine archéologique et un site en construction."
Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).
Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..
Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.
Zuihō during the Battle of Cape Engaño
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Zuihō, 1940
History
Empire of Japan
Name:Takasaki
Namesake:Auspicious Phoenix or Fortunate Phoenix
Builder:Yokosuka Naval Arsenal
Laid down:20 June 1935
Launched:19 June 1936
Commissioned:27 December 1940
Renamed:Zuihō
Fate:Sunk by air attack during the Battle of Cape Engaño, 25 October 1944
General characteristics (as converted)
Class and type:Zuihō-class aircraft carrier
Displacement:11,443 tonnes (11,262 long tons) (standard)
Length:205.49 m (674 ft 2 in)
Beam:18.19 m (59 ft 8 in)
Draft:6.58 m (21 ft 7 in)
Installed power:52,000 shp (39,000 kW)
Propulsion:
2 × shafts
2 × geared steam turbines
4 × boilers
Speed:28 knots (52 km/h; 32 mph)
Range:7,800 nmi (14,400 km; 9,000 mi) at 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph)
Complement:785
Armament:
4 × 2 - 12.7 cm/40 Type 89 gun
4 × 2 - Type 96 25 mm anti-aircraft guns
Aircraft carried:30
Zuihō (瑞鳳, "Auspicious Phoenix" or "Fortunate Phoenix") was a light aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Originally laid down as the submarine support ship Takasaki, she was renamed and converted while under construction into an aircraft carrier. The ship was completed during the first year of World War II and participated in many operations. Zuihō played a secondary role in the Battle of Midway in mid-1942 and did not engage any American aircraft or ships during the battle. The ship participated in the Guadalcanal Campaign during the rest of 1942. She received significant damage during the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands during this campaign and covered the evacuation of Japanese forces from the island in early 1943 after repairs.
Afterwards, her aircraft were disembarked several times in mid- to late-1943 and used from land bases in a number of battles in the South West Pacific. Zuihō participated in the Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf battles in mid-1944. In this last battle, Zuihō mainly served as a decoy for the main striking forces and she was finally sunk by American aircraft fulfilling her task. In between engagements, the ship served as a ferry carrier and a training ship.
Design and conversion
The submarine support ship Takasaki was laid down on 20 June 1935 at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal and was designed to be converted to either a fleet oiler or a light aircraft carrier as needed. She was launched on 19 June 1936 and began a lengthy conversion into a carrier while fitting-out. The ship was renamed Zuihō during the process which was not completed until 27 December 1940 when she was commissioned.[1]
After her conversion, Zuihō had a length of 205.49 meters (674 ft 2 in) overall. She had a beam of 18.19 meters (59 ft 8 in) and a draft of 6.58 meters (21 ft 7 in). She displaced 11,443 tonnes (11,262 long tons) at standard load. As part of her conversion, her original diesel engines, which had given her a top speed of 29 knots (54 km/h; 33 mph), were replaced by a pair of destroyer-type geared steam turbine sets with a total of 52,000 shaft horsepower (39,000 kW), each driving one propeller. Steam was provided by four water-tube boilers and Zuihō now had a maximum speed of 28 knots (52 km/h; 32 mph). The boilers exhausted through a single downturned starboard funnel and she carried 2,600 tonnes (2,600 long tons) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 7,800 nautical miles (14,400 km; 9,000 mi) at a speed of 18 knots (33 km/h; 21 mph).[2] Her crew numbered 785 officers and men.[1]
Zuihō's flight deck was 179.98 meters (590 ft 6 in) long and had a maximum width of 23.01 meters (75 ft 6 in). The ship was designed with a single hangar 124.00 meters (406 ft 10 in) long and 17.98 meters (59 ft 0 in) wide.[3] The hangar was served by two octagonal centerline aircraft elevators. The forward elevator was 13.01 by 11.99 meters (42.67 by 39.33 ft) in size and the smaller rear elevator measured 11.99 by 10.79 meters (39.33 by 35.4 ft). She had arresting gear with six cables, but she was not fitted with an aircraft catapult. Zuihō was a flush-deck design and lacked an island superstructure. She was designed to operate 30 aircraft.[1]
The ship's primary armament consisted of eight 40-caliber 12.7 cm Type 89 anti-aircraft (AA) guns in twin mounts on sponsons along the sides of the hull. Zuihō was also initially equipped with four twin 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns, also in sponsons along the sides of the hull. In 1943, her light AA armament was increased to 48 twenty-five mm guns. The following year, an additional twenty 25 mm guns were added in addition to six 28-round AA rocket launchers.[4]
Service
After commissioning, Zuihō remained in Japanese waters until late 1941. Captain Sueo Ōbayashi assumed command on 20 September and Zuihō became flagship of the Third Carrier Division ten days later. On 13 October she was briefly assigned to the 11th Air Fleet in Formosa and arrived in Takao the following day. The ship returned to Japan in early November and was given a brief refit later in the month. Together with the carrier Hōshō and six battleships, Zuihō covered the return of the ships of the 1st Air Fleet as they returned from the Attack on Pearl Harbor in mid-December.[5]
On February 1942, the ship ferried Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters to Davao City, Philippines. Zuihō remained in Japanese waters until June when she participated in the Battle of Midway.[5] She led the Support Fleet and did not engage American carriers directly. Her aircraft complement consisted of six Mitsubishi A5M "Claude" and six Mitsubishi A6M2 "Zero" fighters, and twelve Nakajima B5N2 "Kate" torpedo bombers.[6] After a brief refit in July–August, the ship was assigned to First Carrier Division with Shōkaku and Zuikaku on 12 August.[5]
The division sailed to Truk on 1 October to support Japanese forces in the Guadalcanal Campaign and left Truk on 11 October[5] based on the promise of the Japanese Army to capture Henderson Field on Guadalcanal. At this time, Zuihō carried 18 A6Ms and 6 B5Ns. The Japanese and American carrier forces discovered each other in the early morning of 26 October during the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and each side launched air strikes. The aircraft passed each other en route and 9 of Zuihō's Zeros attacked the aircraft launched by the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise. They shot down 3 each Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters and Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers and damaged one more of each type while losing four of their own. Two of Enterprise's Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers hit Zuihō with 500-pound (230 kg) bombs and damaged her flight deck enough that she could not conduct flight operations although she was not seriously damaged otherwise.[7] Together with the damaged Shōkaku, the ship withdrew from the battle and reached Truk two days later. After temporary repairs, the two carriers returned to Japan in early November and Zuihō's repairs were completed on 16 December. In the meantime, Captain Bunjiro Yamaguchi assumed command.[5]
A Mitsubishi A6M Zero, painted to represent a section leader's aircraft from the aircraft carrier Zuihō during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea.
The ship left Kure on 17 January 1943 and sailed for Truk with a load of aircraft. Upon arrival she was assigned to the Second Carrier Division to provide cover for the evacuation of Guadalcanal, along with Jun'yō and Zuikaku, later in the month and in early February. Zuihō's fighters were transferred to Wewak, New Guinea in mid-February and then to Kavieng in early March. They were transferred to Rabaul on mid-March to participate in Operation I-Go, a land-based aerial offensive against Allied bases in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. The fighters returned to Truk on 18 March after claiming 18 Allied aircraft shot down.[8] Zuihō arrived at Sasebo on 9 May and received a brief refit in mid-June. She returned to Truk on 15 July and remained in the area until 5 November when she returned to Yokosuka.[5] Her air group, 18 Zeros and eight D3As, was briefly deployed to Kavieng in late August – early September before returning to Truk.[9] By this time, Zuihō was assigned to the First Carrier Division with Shōkaku and Zuikaku and they sailed for Eniwetok Atoll on 18 September for training and to be in position to intercept any attacks by American carriers in the vicinity of Wake Island and the Marshall Islands area. That day the American carriers raided the Gilbert Islands and were gone by the time the Japanese reached Eniwetok on 20 September. Japanese intelligence reports pointed to another American attack in the Wake-Marshall Islands area in mid-October and Admiral Mineichi Koga sortied the Combined Fleet, including the First Carrier Division, on 17 October. They arrived at Eniwetok two days later and waited for reports of American activity until 23 October. They then sailed for Wake Island and then returned to Truk on 26 October without encountering any American ships.[10]
Three-way view of Zuihō
Zuihō's air group was transferred to Rabaul at the beginning of November, just in time to participate in the raid on Rabaul a few days later. The fighters claimed to have shot down 25 American aircraft at the cost of 8 of their own; the survivors flew back to Truk where they remained.[9] On 30 November, Zuihō, together with the escort carriers Chūyō and Unyō, departed Truk for Japan, escorted by four destroyers. The Americans had cracked the Japanese naval codes and positioned several submarines along their route to Yokosuka. Skate unsuccessfully attacked Zuihō on 30 November, while Sailfish torpedoed and sank Chūyō five days later with heavy loss of life.[11] From December to May 1944, Zuihō ferried aircraft and supplies to Truk and Guam although she was reassigned to the Third Carrier Division on 29 January,[5] together with the converted carriers Chitose and Chiyoda. Each of the three carriers was intended to be equipped with 21 fighters and 9 torpedo bombers, but this plan was changed on 15 February to a consolidated air group, the 653rd, that controlled the aircraft of all three carriers.[9] While fully equipped by May with 18 Zero fighters, 45 Zero fighter-bombers, 18 B5Ns, and 9 Nakajima B6N "Jill" torpedo bombers,[12] the air group's pilots were largely drawn from the two most recent classes and lacked experience.[13] The ship sailed for Tawi-Tawi on 11 May in the Philippines. The new base was closer to the oil wells in Borneo on which the Navy relied and also to the Palau and western Caroline Islands where the Japanese expected the next American attack. However, the location lacked an airfield on which to train the green pilots and American submarines were very active in the vicinity which restricted the ships to the anchorage.[14]
Battle of the Philippine Sea
Main article: Battle of the Philippine Sea
The 1st Mobile Fleet was en route to Guimares Island in the central Philippines on 13 June, where they intended to practice carrier operations in an area better protected from submarines, when Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa learned of the American attack on the Mariana Islands the previous day. Upon reaching Guimares, the fleet refueled and sortied into the Philippine Sea where they spotted Task Force 58 on 18 June. The Americans failed to locate Ozawa's ships that day and the Japanese turned south to maintain a constant distance between them and the American carriers as Ozawa had decided on launching his air strikes early the following morning. He had deployed his forces in a "T"- shaped formation with the 3rd Carrier Division at the end of the stem, 115 nautical miles (213 km; 132 mi) ahead of the 1st and 2nd Carrier Divisions that formed the crossbar of the "T". Zuihō and her consorts were intended to draw the attentions of the Americans while the other carriers conducted their air strikes without disruption. Sixteen Aichi E13A floatplanes were launched by the heavy cruisers accompanying the carriers at 04:30 to search for the Americans; the three carriers launched a follow up wave of 13 B5Ns at 05:20. The first wave spotted one group of four carriers from Task Force 58 at 07:34 and the Japanese carriers launched their aircraft an hour later. This consisted of 43 Zero fighter-bombers and 7 B6Ns, escorted by 14 A6M5 fighters; the carriers retained only 3 fighters, 2 fighter-bombers, 2 B6Ns and 2 B5Ns for self-defense and later searches. While the air strike was still forming up, the second wave of searchers located Task Force 58's battleships and the air strike was diverted to attack them. The Americans detected the incoming Japanese aircraft at 09:59 and had a total of 199 Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters in the air by the time the Japanese aircraft were in range of the American ships. The defending fighters decimated the Japanese aircraft and only 21 survived. The only damage inflicted was from one A6M2 that hit the battleship South Dakota in her superstructure with a single 250-kilogram (550 lb) bomb that wounded 50 crewmen, but did little other damage. Only 3 Hellcats were lost in the affair, one to a B6N, although the Japanese claimed four victories. Some of the surviving Japanese aircraft landed at Guam while others, including the five surviving B6Ns, returned to their carriers where they claimed one carrier definitely damaged and another probably hit.[15]
At dusk, the Japanese turned away to the northwest to regroup and to refuel and the Americans turned west to close the distance. Both sides launched aircraft the next day to locate each other; Zuihō launched three aircraft at 12:00 to search east of the fleet, but they did not discover the Americans. The Americans discovered the retiring Japanese fleet during the afternoon and Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher ordered an air strike launched. While they sank the carrier Hiyō and damaged two others, Zuihō was not attacked and successfully disengaged that evening.[16] By the end of the battle, Air Group 653 was reduced to 2 Zero fighters, 3 Zero fighter-bombers and 6 torpedo bombers.[17] After reaching Japan on 1 July, the ship remained in Japanese waters until October,[5] training replacements for her air group.[18]
Battle of Leyte Gulf
Main article: Battle of Leyte Gulf
Zuihō during the Battle of Cape Engaño
Zuihō during the Battle of Cape Engaño
After the Battle of the Philippine Sea, the commander of the Combined Fleet, Admiral Soemu Toyoda, prepared four "victory" plans: Shō-Gō 1 (捷１号作戦 Shō ichigō sakusen) was a major naval operation in the Philippines, while Shō-Gō 2 was intended to defend Formosa, the Ryukyu Islands and southern Kyushu. Shō-Gō 3 and Shō-Gō 4 were responses to attacks on Kyushu-Shikoku-Honshu and Hokkaido respectively.[19] He activated Shō-Gō 2 after the Americans attacked the Philippines, Formosa and the Ryukyu Islands beginning on 10 October.[20] This required the transfer of most of Air Group 652 to Formosa and Luzon to attack the American forces, with only a few aircraft retained for carrier operations.[18] Most of these aircraft were lost for little gain as the Americans suppressed Japanese defenses in the Philippines, preparatory to the actual invasion.[21]
On 17 October, Admiral Toyoda alerted the fleet that Shō-Gō 1 was imminent and activated the plan the following day after receiving reports of the landings on Leyte. Zuihō's role in Shō-Gō 1, together with Chiyoda, Chitose and Zuikaku and the rest of the Main Body of the 1st Mobile Fleet, approaching Leyte Gulf from the north, was to serve as decoys to attract attention away from the two other forces approaching from the south and west. All forces were to converge on Leyte Gulf on 25 October and the Main Body left Japan on 20 October. As decoys, the carriers were only provided with a total of 116 aircraft: 52 Zero fighters, 28 Zero fighter-bombers, 7 Yokosuka D4Y "Judy" dive bombers, 26 B6N and 4 B5N torpedo bombers. By the morning of 24 October, the Main Body was within range of the northernmost American carriers of Task Force 38 and Ozawa ordered an air strike launched to attract the attention of the Americans. This accomplished little else as the Japanese aircraft failed to penetrate past the defending fighters; the survivors landed at airfields on Luzon. The Americans were preoccupied dealing with the other Japanese naval forces and defending themselves from air attacks launched from Luzon and Leyte and could not spare any aircraft to search for the Japanese carriers until the afternoon. They finally found them at 16:05, but Admiral William Halsey, Jr., commander of Task Force 38, decided that it was too late in the day to mount an effective strike. He did, however, turn all of his ships north to position himself for a dawn attack on the Japanese carriers the next day in what came to be called the Battle of Cape Engaño.[22]
Aircraft from the light carrier Independence were able to track the Japanese ships for most of the night and Halsey ordered an air strike of 60 Hellcat fighters, 65 Helldiver dive bombers and 55 Avenger torpedo bombers launched shortly after dawn in anticipation of locating the Japanese fleet. They spotted them at 07:35 and brushed aside the 13 Zeros that the Japanese had retained for self-defense. Zuihō attempted to launch her few remaining aircraft, but was hit by a single bomb on her aft flight deck after a number of torpedo-carrying Avengers missed.[23] The 500-pound (230 kg) bomb started several small fires, lifted the rear elevator, bulged the flight deck, knocked out steering and gave the ship a small list to port. Twenty minutes later, the fires were put out, steering repaired and the list corrected. A second attack an hour later focused on Chiyoda and ignored Zuihō. The third wave arrived around 1300 and badly damaged the ship. She was hit once by a torpedo and twice by small bombs, although fragments from as many as 67 near misses cut steam pipes and caused flooding of both engine rooms and one boiler room. Zuihō was forced to reduce speed to 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph) and flooding increased so that all available hands were ordered to man the pumps at 14:10. The ship took on a 13° list to starboard and went dead in the water at 14:45 when the port engine room fully flooded. A fourth wave of American aircraft attacked ten minutes later, but only damaged her with splinters from another ten near misses. This was enough to increase her list to 23° and she was ordered abandoned at 15:10. Zuihō sank at 15:26 at position 19°20′N 125°15′ECoordinates: 19°20′N 125°15′E with the loss of 7 officers and 208 men. The destroyer Kuwa and the battleship Ise rescued 58 officers and 701 men between them.[5]
References
Peattie, p. 242
Jentschura, Jung and Mickel, p. 48
Brown, p. 22
Jentschura, Jung and Mickel, p. 49
Tully
Parshall & Tully, p. 543
Polmar & Genda, pp. 292–96
Hata & Izawa, p. 55
Hata & Izawa, p. 56
Polmar & Genda, p. 377
Polmar & Genda, p. 370
Polmar & Genda, p. 389
Hata & Izawa, p. 83
Polmar & Genda, pp. 380–81
Brown, pp. 258–60
Brown, pp. 263–65
Hata & Izawa, pp. 84–85
Hata & Izawa, p. 85
Polmar & Genda, p. 415
Brown 2009, p. 270
Polmar & Genda, p. 412
Polmar & Genda, pp. 420, 422, 428
Polmar & Genda, pp. 429–30
Bibliography
Brown, David (1977). WWII Fact Files: Aircraft Carriers. New York: Arco Publishing. ISBN 0-668-04164-1.
Brown, J. D. (2009). Carrier Operations in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-108-2.
Hata, Ikuhiko; Yasuho, Izawa (1989) [1975]. Japanese Naval Aces and Fighter Units in World War II. Gorham, Don Cyril (translator) (translated ed.). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-315-6.
Jentschura, Hansgeorg; Jung, Dieter; Mickel, Peter (1977). Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945. Annapolis, Maryland: United States Naval Institute. ISBN 0-87021-893-X.
Parshall, Jonathan; Tully, Anthony (2005). Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books. ISBN 1-57488-923-0.
Peattie, Mark (2001). Sunburst: The Rise of Japanese Naval Air Power 1909–1941. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-432-6.
Polmar, Norman; Genda, Minoru (2006). Aircraft Carriers: A History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World Events. Volume 1, 1909-1945. Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books. ISBN 1-57488-663-0.
Tully, Anthony P. (2007). "IJN Zuiho: Tabular Record of Movement". Kido Butai. Combinedfleet.com. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
Further reading
Stille, Mark (2005). Imperial Japanese Navy Aircraft Carriers 1921–1945. New Vanguard. 109. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-853-7.
Stille, Mark (2007). USN Carriers vs IJN Carriers: The Pacific 1942. Duel. 6. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84603-248-6.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Rencontres d'Arles
The Rencontres d’Arles (formerly called Rencontres internationales de la photographie d’Arles) is an annual summer photography festival founded in 1970 by the Arles photographer Lucien Clergue, the writer Michel Tournier and the historian Jean-Maurice Rouquette.
The Rencontres d’Arles has an international impact by showing material that has never been seen by the public before. In 2015, the festival welcomed 93,000 visitors.
The specially designed exhibitions, often organised in collaboration with French and foreign museums and institutions, take place in various historic sites. Some venues, such as 12th-century chapels or 19th-century industrial buildings, are open to the public throughout the festival.
The Rencontres d’Arles has revealed many photographers, confirming its significance as a springboard for photography and contemporary creativity.
In recent years the Rencontres d’Arles has invited many guest curators and entrusted some of its programming to such figures as Martin Parr in 2004, Raymond Depardon in 2006 and the Arles-born fashion designer Christian Lacroix.
Contents
1 Art directors
2 The festival
3 The Rencontres d'Arles award winners
4 Exhibitions
5 References
6 External links
Art directors
A photographer, Jean-Pierre Sudre, discussing his work, Rencontres d'Arles, 1975
1970 - 1972: Lucien Clergue, Michel Tournier, Jean-Maurice Rouquette
1973 - 1976: Lucien Clergue
1977: Bernard Perrine
1978: Jacques Manachem
1979 - 1982: Alain Desvergnes (fr)
1983 - 1985: Lucien Clergue
1986 - 1987: François Hébel
1988 - 1989: Claude Hudelot (fr)
1990: Agnès de Gouvion Saint-Cyr
1991 - 1993: Louis Mesplé (fr)
1994: Lucien Clergue
1995 - 1998, délégué général: Bernard Millet (fr)
1995, artistic director: Michel Nuridsany (fr)
1996, artistic director: Joan Fontcuberta
1997, artistic director: Christian Caujolle (fr)
1998, artistic director: Giovanna Calvenzi
1999 - 2001: Gilles Mora (fr)
2002 - 2014: François Hébel
Since 2015: Sam Stourdzé (fr)
The festival
A photography exhibition, Rencontres d'Arles, 2010
Events
Opening week at the Rencontres d’Arles features photography-focused events (projections at night, exhibition tours, panel discussions, symposia, parties, book signings, etc.) in the town’s historic venues, some of which are only open to the public during the festival. Memorable events in recent years include Europe Night (2008), an overview of European photography; Christian Lacroix’s fashion show for the festival’s closing (2008); and Patti Smith’s concert for the Vu agency’s 20th anniversary (2006).
Nights at the Roman Theatre
At night, work by a photographer or a photography expert is projected in the town’s open-air Roman theatre accompanied by concerts and performances. Each event is a one-off creation. In 2009, 8,500 people attended evenings at the Roman theatre, an average of 2,000 a night, and 2,500 were there on closing night, when the Tiger Lilies played during a projection of Nan Goldin’s “The Ballad of Sexual Dependency”. In 2013 over 6,000 people attended the nighttime photography projections, an average of approximately 1,000 each night.
The Night of the Year
The Night of the Year, which was created in 2006, allows visitors to walk around and see the festival’s favourite works by artists and photographers as well as carte blanche exhibitions by institutions.
Cosmos-Arles Books
Cosmos-Arles Books is a Rencontres d’Arles satellite event dedicated to new publishing practices.
Over the past 15 years large-scale photographic publications, self-published books, and ebooks have become essential media for experimentation by photographers and artists. They allow photography to be rediscovered as a means of expression and distribution, providing a rich terrain of expression for the art’s fundamentally hybrid forms.
Symposia and panel discussions
Photographers and professionals participating in symposia and panel discussions during opening week discuss their work or issues raised by the images on display. In recent years the themes included whether a black-and-white aesthetic is still conceivable in photography (2013); the impact of social networks on creativity and information (2011); breaking with past, a key idea for photography today (2009); photography commissions: freedom or constraint (2008); challenges and changes in the photography market (2007).
The Rencontres d’Arles awards
Since 2002 the Rencontres d’Arles awards have been an opportunity to discover new talents. In 2007 the number of annual awards was reduced to three, presented at the closing ceremony of the festival’s professional week: the Discovery Award (€25,000), Author’s Book Award (€8,000) and History Book Award (€8,000).
Luma Rencontres Dummy Book Award
In 2015 the Rencontres d’Arles offered an award to assist with the publication of a dummy book. Endowed with a €25,000 budget production budget, this new prize is open to all photographers and artists using photography who submit a dummy book that has never been published.
The winner’s book will be produced in autumn 2015 and be presented at the 2016 Rencontres d’Arles.
Photo Folio Review & Gallery
Since 2006 aspiring photographers have been able to submit their portfolios to international photography experts in various fields, including publishers, exhibition curators, heads of institutions, agency directors, gallery owners, collectors, critics and photo editors, for appraisal during the festival’s opening week. Photo Folio Review & Gallery offers them an opportunity to show their work throughout the festival.
Photography classes
The Rencontres d’Arles has always been a place where professional photographers and practitioners on every level have been able to meet each other and exchange ideas. Each year, photography class participants undertake a personal journey of creation through photography’s aesthetic, ethical and technological issues. Leading photographers such as Guy le Querrec, Antoine d’Agata, Martin Parr, René Burri and Joan Fontcuberta regularly teach at the Rencontres d’Arles.
Rentrée en Images
“Rentrée en Images” has been a key part of the festival’s educational activities since 2004. During the first two weeks in September, special mediators take students from the primary to graduate school level on guided tours of the exhibitions. Based on the festival’s programming, the event aims to introduce young people to the visual arts and fits in with a wider policy of cultural democratisation. “Rentrée en Images” reaches thousands of students, and for many of them it is their first exposure to contemporary art.
Budget
Public funding accounted for 40% of the 2015 festival’s €6.3-million budget, sales (mainly of tickets and derivative products), 40% and private partnerships, 20%[clarification needed][citation needed].
Executive Committee
Hubert Védrine, president
Hervé Schiavetti, vice-president
Jean-François Dubos, vice-president
Marin Karmitz, treasurer
Françoise Nyssen, secretary
Lucien Clergue, Jean-Maurice Rouquette, Michel Tournier, founding members
The Rencontres d'Arles award winners
2002
Jury: Denis Curti, Alberto Anault, Alice Rose George, Manfred Heiting, Erik Kessels, Claudine Maugendre, Val Williams
Discovery Award: Peter Granser
No Limit award: Jacqueline Hassink
Dialogue of the humanity award: Tom Wood
Photographer of the year award: Roger Ballen
Help to the project: Pascal Aimar, Chris Shaw
Author’s Book Award: Sibusiso Mbhele and His Fish Helicopter by Koto Bolofo (powerHouse Books, 2002)
Help to publishing: Une histoire sans nom by Anne-Lise Broyer
2003
Jury: Giovanna Calvenzi, Hou Hanru, Christine Macel, Anna Lisa Milella, Urs Stahel
Discovery Award: Zijah Gafic
No Limit award: Thomas Demand
Dialogue of the humanity award: Fazal Sheikh
Photographer of the year award: Anders Petersen
Help to the project: Jitka Hanzlova
Author’s Book Award: Hide That Can by Deirdre O’Callaghan (Trolley Books, 2002)
Help to publishing: A Personal Diary of Chinese Avant-Garde in the 1990s, China (1993-1998) by Xing Danwen
2004
Jury: Eikoh Hosoe, Joan Fontcuberta, Tod Papageorge, Elaine Constantine, Antoine d’Agata
Discovery Award: Yasu Suzuka
No Limit award: Jonathan de Villiers
Dialogue of the humanity award: Edward Burtynsky
Help to the project: John Stathatos
Author’s Book Award: Particulars by David Goldblatt (Goodman Gallery, 2003)
2005
Jury: Ute Eskildsen, Jean-Louis Froment, Michel Mallard, Kathy Ryan, Marta Gili
Discovery Award: Miroslav Tichy
No Limit award: Mathieu Bernard-Reymond
Dialogue of the humanity award: Simon Norfolk
Help to the project: Anna Malagrida
Author’s Book Award: Temporary Discomfort (Chapter I-V) by Jules Spinatsch (Lars Müller Publishers, 2005)
2006
Jury: Vincent Lavoie, Abdoulaye Konaté, Yto Barrada, Marc-Olivier Wahler, Alain d’Hooghe
Discovery Award: Alessandra Sanguinetti
No Limit award: Randa Mirza
Dialogue of the humanity award: Wang Qingsong
Help to the project: Walid Raad
Author’s Book Award: Form aus Licht und Schatten by Heinz Hajek-Halke (Steidl, 2005)
2007
[1]
Jury: Bice Curiger, Alain Fleischer, Johan Sjöström, Thomas Weski, Anne Wilkes Tucker
Discovery Award: Laura Henno
Author’s Book Award: Empty Bottles by WassinkLundgren (Thijs groot Wassink and Ruben Lundgren) (Veenman Publishers, 2007)
Historical Book Award: László Moholy-Nagy: Color in Transparency: Photographic Experiments in Color, 1934–1946 by Jeannine Fiedler (Steidl & Bauhaus-Archiv, 2006)
2008
[2]
Jury: Elisabeth Biondi, Luis Venegas, Nathalie Ours, Caroline Issa and Massoud Golsorkhi, Carla Sozzani
Discovery Award: Pieter Hugo
Author’s Book Award: Strange and Singular by Michael Abrams (Loosestrife, 2007)
Historical Book Award: Nein, Onkel: Snapshots from Another Front 1938–1945 by Ed Jones and Timothy Prus (Archive of Modern Conflict, 2007)
2009
[3]
Jury: Lucien Clergue, Bernard Perrine, Alain Desvergnes, Claude Hudelot, Agnès de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, Louis Mesplé, Bernard Millet, Michel Nuridsany, Joan Fontcuberta, Christian Caujolle, Giovanna Calvenzi, Martin Parr, Christian Lacroix, Arnaud Claass, Christian Milovanoff
Discovery Award: Rimaldas Viksraitis
Author’s Book Award: From Back Home by Anders Petersen and JH Engström (Bokförlaget Max Ström, 2009)
Historical Book Award: In History by Susan Meiselas (Steidl and International Center of Photography, 2008)
2010
[4] [5]
Discovery Award: Taryn Simon
LUMA award: Trisha Donnelly
Author’s Book Award: Photography 1965–74 by Yutaka Takanashi (Only Photograph, 2010)
Historical Book Award: Les livres de photographies japonais des années 1960 et 1970 by Ryuichi Kaneko and Ivan Vartanian (Seuil, 2009)
2011
[6] [7]
Discovery Award: Mikhael Subotzky and Patrick Waterhouse[8]
Author’s Book Award: A Living Man Declared Dead and Other Chapters by Taryn Simon (Mack, 2011)[8]
Historical Book Award: Works by Lewis Baltz (Steidl, 2010)[8]
2012
[9] [10] [11]
Discovery Award: Jonathan Torgovnik
Author’s Book Award: Redheaded Peckerwood by Christian Patterson (Mack, 2011)
Historical Book Award: Les livres de photographie d’Amérique latine by Horacio Fernández (Images en Manœuvres Éditions, 2011)
2013
Discovery Award: Yasmine Eid-Sabbagh and Rozenn Quéré
Author’s Book Award: Anticorps by Antoine d’Agata (Xavier Barral & Le Bal[disambiguation needed], 2013)[12]
Historical Book Award: AOI [COD.19.1.1.43] – A27 [S | COD.23 by Rosângela Rennó (Self-published, 2013)
2014
Discovery Award: Zhang Kechun
Author’s Book Award: Hidden Islam by Nicolo Degiorgis (Rorhof, 2014)
Historical Book Award: Paris mortel retouché by Johan van der Keuken (Van Zoetendaal Publishers, 2013)
2015
Discovery Award: Pauline Fargue
Author’s Book Award: H. said he loved us by Tommaso Tanini (Discipula Editions, 2014)
Historical Book Award: Monograph Vitas Luckus. Works & Biography by Margarita Matulytė and Tatjana Luckiene-Aldag (Kaunas Photography Gallery and Lithuanian Art Museum, 2014)
Dummy Book Award: The Jungle Book by Yann Gross
Photo Folio Review: Piero Martinelo (winner); Charlotte Abramow, Martin Essi, Elin Høyland, Laurent Kronenthal (special mentions)
2016
Discovery Award: Sarah Waiswa
Author’s Book Award: Taking Off. Henry My Neighbor by Mariken Wessels (Art Paper Editions, 2015)
Historical Book Award: (in matters of) Karl by Annette Behrens (Fw: Books, 2015)
Photo-Text Award: Negative Publicity: Artefacts of Extraordinary Rendition by Edmund Clark and Crofton Black (Aperture, 2015)
Dummy Book Award: You and Me: A project between Bosnia, Germany and the US by Katja Stuke and Oliver Sieber
Photo Folio Review: David Fathi (winner); Sonja Hamad, Eric Leleu, Karolina Paatos, Maija Tammi (special mentions)
2017
[13]
Discovery Award: Carlos Ayesta and Guillaume Bression
Author's Book Award: Ville de Calais by Henk Wildschut (self-published, 2017)
Special Mention for Author's Book Award: Gaza Works by Kent Klich (Koenig, 2017)
Historical Book Award: Latif Al Ani by Latif Al Ani (Hannibal Publishing, 2017)
Photo-Text Award: The Movement of Clouds around Mount Fuji by Masanao Abe and Helmut Völter (Spector Books, 2016)
Dummy Book Award: Grozny: Nine Cities by Olga Kravets, Maria Morina, and Oksana Yushko
Photo Folio Review: Aurore Valade (winner); Haley Morris Cafiero, Alexandra Lethbridge, Charlotte Abramow, Catherine Leutenegger (special mentions)
Exhibitions
1970
Gjon Mili, Edward Weston, ...
1971
Pedro Luis Raota, Charles Vaucher, Olivier Gagliani, Steve Soltar, Judy Dater, Jack Welpott, Gordon Bennett, John Weir, Linda Connor, Neal White, Jean-Claude Gautrand, Jean Rouet, Pierre Riehl, Roger Doloy, Georges Guilpin, Alain Perceval, Jean-Louis Viel, Jean-Luc Tartarin, Frédéric Barzilay, Jean-Claude Bernath, André Recoules, Etienne-Bertrand Weill, Rodolphe Proverbio, Jean Dieuzaide, Paul Caponigro, Jerry Uelsmann, Heinz Hajek-Halke, Rinaldo Prieri, Jean-Pierre Sudre, Denis Brihat, …
1972
Hiro, Lucien Clergue, Eugène Atget, Bruce Davidson, …
1973
Imogen Cunningham, Linda Connor, Judy Dater, Allan Porter, Paul Strand, Edward S. Curtis, …
1974
Brassaï, Ansel Adams, Georges A. Tice, …
1975
Agence Viva, André Kertész, Yousuf Karsh, Robert Doisneau, Lucien Clergue, Jean Dieuzaide, Ralph Gibson, Charles Harbutt, Tania Kaleya, Eva Rubinstein, Michel Saint Jean, Kishin Shinoyama, Hélène Théret, Georges Tourdjman, …
1976
Ernst Haas, Bill Brandt, Man Ray, Marc Riboud, Agence Magnum, Eikō Hosoe, Judy Dater, Jack Welpott, Doug Stewart, Duane Michals, Leslie Krims, Bob Mazzer, Horner, S. Sykes, David Hurn, Mary Ellen Mark, René Groebli, Guy Le Querrec, …
1977
Will Mac Bride, Paul Caponigro, Neal Slavin, Max Waldman, Dennis Stock, Josef Sudek, Harry Callahan, R. Benvenisti, P. Carroll, William Christenberry, S. Ciccone, W. Eggleston, R. Embrey, B. Evans, R. Gibson, D. Grégory, F. Horvat, W. Krupsan, W. Larson, U. Mark, J. Meyerowitz, S. Shore, N. Slavin, L. Sloan-Théodore, J. Sternfeld, R. Wol, …
1978
Lisette Model, Izis, William Klein, Hervé Gloaguen, Yan Le Goff, Serge Gal, Marc Tulane, Lionel Jullian, Alain Gualina, …
1979
David Burnett, Mary Ellen Mark, Jean-Pierre Laffont, Abbas, Pedro Meyer, Yves Jeanmougin, Manuel Alvarez Bravo, …
1980
Willy Ronis, Arnold Newman, Jay Maisel, Christian Vogt, Ben Fernandez, Julia Pirotte, …
1981
Guy Bourdin, Steve Hiett, Sarah Moon and Dan Weeks, Art Kane, Cheyco Leidman, André Martin, François Kollar, …
1982
Willy Zielke, Henri Cartier-Bresson, Alexey Brodovitch, Robert Frank, William Klein, Max Pam, Bernard Plossu, …
1983
Robert Rauschenberg, Bruce Davidson, …
1984
Jean Dieuzaide, Marilyn Bridges, Mario Giacomelli, Augusto De Luca, Joyce Tenneson, Luigi Ghirri, Albato Guatti, Mario Samarughi, Arman, Raoul Ubac, …
1985
David Hockney, Fritz Gruber, Franco Fontana, Milton Rogovin, Gilles Peress, Jane Evelyn Atwood, Eugene Richards, Sebastião Salgado, Robert Capa, Lucien Hervé, …
1986
Collection Graham Nash, Annie Leibovitz, Sebastião Salgado, Martin Parr, Robert Doisneau, Paulo Nozolino, Ugo Mulas, Bruce Gilden, Georges Rousse, Peter Knapp, Max Pam, Miguel Rio Branco, Michelle Debat, Andy Summers, Baron Wolman. …
1987
Brian Griffin, Dominique Issermann, Nan Goldin, Max Vadukul, Gabriele Basilico, Paul Graham, Thomas Florschuetz, Gianni Berengo Gardin, … Autres invités des Rencontres 88: Hans Namuth, Jean-Marc Tingaud, Mary Ellen Mark, Charles Camberoque, Martine Voyeux, Marie-Paule Nègre, Xavier Lambours, Patrick Zachmann, Jean-Marie Del Moral, Nittin Vadukul, Jean Larivière, Bruce Weber, Germaine Krull, Jean-Paul Goude, Jean-Louis Boissier, Sandra Petrillo, Daniel Schwartz, Laurent Septier, Jean-Marc Zaorski, Bernard Descamps, Marc Garanger, Yan Layma, Michel Delaborde, Michel Semeniako, Françoise Huguier, Paolo Calia, Deborah Turbeville, Gundunla Schulze. Ainsi que Henri Alekan, Arielle Dombasle, Jacques Séguéla, Roland Topor, Serge July, Lucinda Childs, invited to comment on their private screening at parties in Roman Theatre, where Christian Lacroix organised a show.
1988
La danse, la Chine, la pub. Chinese photography is presented for the first time abroad as a major exhibition with 40 Chinese photographers, including Wu Yinxian, Zhang Hai-er, Chen Baosheng, Ling Fei, Xia Yonglie, curated by Karl Kugel, co-director of the film China: Inner views / Chine: vues intérieures, released at the opening of the festival. Most major photographers who have covered this country are also present either in the exhibition of Magnum Photos, curated by François Hébel, either in solo exhibitions, such as Marc Riboud ou de Jeanloup Sieff.
1989
Arles fête ses vingt ans (1969-1989); with Lucien Clergue, Lee Friedlander, Cristina García Rodero, John Demos, Philippe Bazin, George Hashigushi, Eduardo Masférré, Hervé Gloaguen, Elizabeth Sunday, Pierre de Vallombreuse, Robert Frank's The lines of My Hand (commissioned by Charles-Henri Favrod); in honour of Pierre de Fenoÿl; Julio Mitchel, Roland Schneider, Rafael Vargas, John Phillips, Annette Messager, Christian Boltanski, la collection Bonnemaison, Javier Vallhonrat, Thierry Girard, Dennis Hopper. Exhibition Ils annoncent la couleur with Stéphane Sednaoui, Jean-Baptiste Mondino, Max Vadukul, Nick Night, Nigel Shafran, Tony Viramontes, Cindy Palmano; commissioned by Marc Vascoli. Exposition et soirée Deep South with Robert Frank, Bruce Davidson, Duane Michals, Gordon Parks, Alain Desvergnes, Gilles Mora, Paul Kwilecki, William Christenberry, William Eggleston, Marylin Futtermann, Debbie Fleming Caffery, Fern Koch, Jay Leviton, Eudora Welty; commissioned by Gilles Mora.
1990
Volker Hinz, Erasmus Schröter, Stéphane Duroy, Raymond Depardon, Frédéric Brenner, Drtikol, Saudek, …
1991
Tina Modotti, Edward Weston, Graciela Iturbide, Martín Chambi, Sergio Larrain, Sebastião Salgado, Juan Rulfo, Miguel Rio Branco, Eric Poitevin, Alberto Schommer, …
1992
Don McCullin, Dieter Appelt, Béatrix Von Conta, Denise Colomb, José Ortiz-Echagüe, Wout Berger, Thibaut Cuisset, Knut W. Maron, John Statathos, …
1993
Richard Avedon, Larry Fink, Ernest Pignon-Ernest, Cecil Beaton, Raymonde April, Koji Inove, Louis Jammes, Eiichiro Sakata, …
1994
Andres Serrano, Roger Pic, Marc Riboud, Bogdan Konopka, Sarah Moon, Pierre et Gilles, Marie-Paule Nègre, Edward Steichen and Josef Sudek, Robert Doisneau, André Kertész, …
1995
Alain Fleischer, Roger Ballen, Noda, Toyoura, Slocombe, Nam June Paik, France Bourély. …
1996
Ralph Eugene Meatyard, William Wegman, Grete Stern, Paolo Gioli, Nancy Burson, John Stathatos, Sophie Calle, Luigi Ghirri, Pierre Cordier, …
1997
Collection Marion Lambert, Eugene Richards, Mathieu Pernot, Aziz + Cucher, Jochen Gerz, Antoni Muntadas, Ricard Terré, …
1998
David LaChapelle, Herbert Spring, Mike Disfarmer, Francesca Woodman, Federico Patellani, Massimo Vitali, Dieter Appelt, Samuel Fosso, Urs Lu.thi, Pierre Molinier, Yasumasa Morimura, Roman Opalka, Cindy Sherman, Sophie Weibel, …
1999
Lee Friedlander, Walker Evans, …
2000
Tina Modotti, Jakob Tuggener, Peter Sakaer, Masahisa Fukase, Herbert Matter, Robert Heinecken, Jean-Michel Alberola, Tom Drahaos, Willy Ronis, Frederick Sommer, Lucien Clergue, Sophie Calle, …
2001
Luc Delahaye, Patrick Tosani, Stéphane Couturier, David Rosenfeld, James Casebere, Peter Lindbergh, …
2002
Guillaume Herbaut, Baader Meinhof, Astrid Proll, Josef Koudelka, Gabriele Basilico, Rineke Dijkstra, Lise Sarfati, Jochen Gerz, Collection Ordoñez Falcon, Larry Sultan, Alex Mac Lean, Alastair Thain, Raeda Saadeh, Zineb Sedira, Serguei Tchilikov, Jem Southam, Alexey Titarenko, Andreas Magdanz, Sophie Ristelhueber, …
2003
Collection Claude Berri, Lin Tianmiao & Wang Gongxin, Xin Danwen, Gao Bo, Shao Yinong & Mu Chen, Hong Li, Hai Bo, Chen Lingyang, Ma Liuming, Hong Hao, Naoya Hatakeyama, Roman Opalka, Jean-Pierre Sudre, Suzanne Lafont, Corinne Mercadier, Adam Bartos, Marie Le Mounier, Yves Chaudouët, Galerie VU, Harry Gruyaert, Vincenzo Castella, Alain Willaume, François Halard, Donovan Wylie, Jérôme Brézillon & Nicolas Guiraud, Jean-Daniel Berclaz, Monique Deregibus, Youssef Nabil, Tina Barney, …
2004
Dayanita Singh, Les archives du ghetto de Lodz, Stephen Gill, Oleg Kulik, Arsen Savadov, Keith Arnatt, Raphaël Dallaporta, Taiji Matsue, Tony Ray-Jones, Osamu Kanemura, Kawauchi Rinko, Chris Killip, Chris Shaw, Kimura Ihei, Neeta Madahar, Frank Breuer, Hans van der Meer, James Mollison, Chris Killip, Mathieu Pernot, Paul Shambroom, Katy Grannan, Lucien Clergue, AES + F, György Lörinczy, …
2005
Collection William M. Hunt, Miguel Rio Branco, Thomas Dworzak, Alex Majoli, Paolo Pellegrin, Ilkka Uimonen, Barry Frydlender, David Tartakover, Michal Heiman, Denis Rouvre, Denis Darzacq, David Balicki, Joan Fontcuberta, Christer Strömholm, Keld Helmer-Petersen, …
2006
La photographie américaine à travers les collections françaises, Robert Adams, Cornell Capa, Gilles Caron, Don McCullin, Guy Le Querrec, Susan Meiselas, Julien Chapsal, Michael Ackerman, David Burnett, Lise Sarfati, Sophie Ristelhueber, Dominique Issermann, Jean Gaumy, Daniel Angeli, Paul Graham, Claudine Doury, Jean-Christophe Bechet, David Goldblatt, Anders Petersen, Philippe Chancel, Meyer, Olivier Culmann, Gilles Coulon, …
2007
The 60th year of Magnum Photos, Pannonica de Koenigswarter, Le Studio Zuber, Collections d’Albums Indiens de la Collection Alkazi, Alberto Garcia-Alix, Raghu Rai, Dayanita Singh, Nony Singh, Sunil Gupta, Anay Mann, Pablo Bartholomew Bharat Sikka, Jeetin Sharma, Siya Singh, Huang Rui, Gao Brothers, RongRong & inri, Liu Bolin, JR, …
2008
Richard Avedon, Grégoire Alexandre, Joël Bartoloméo, Achinto Bhadra, Jean-Christian Bourcart, Samuel Fosso, Charles Fréger, Pierre Gonnord, Françoise Huguier, Grégoire Korganow, Peter Lindbergh, Guido Mocafico, Henri Roger, Paolo Roversi, Joachim Schmid, Nigel Shafran,[14] Georges Tony Stoll, Patrick Swirc, Tim Walker, Vanessa Winship, …
2009
Robert Delpire, Willy Ronis, Jean-Claude Lemagny, Lucien Clergue, Elger Esser, Roni Horn, Duane Michals, Nan Goldin (invitée d'honneur), Brian Griffin, Naoya Hatakeyama, JH Engström, David Armstrong, Eugene Richards[15] (The Blue Room), Martin Parr, Paolo Nozolino, …[16]
2010
Robert Mapplethorpe[17] Lea Golda Holterman[18]
2011
Chris Marker, photos du New York Times, Robert Capa, Wang Qingsong, Dulce Pinzon, JR, ...
2012
Les 30 ans de l'ENSP, Josef Koudelka, Amos Gitai, Klavdij Sluban & Laurent Tixador, Arnaud Claass,[19] Grégoire Alexandre, Édouard Beau, Jean-Christophe Béchet, Olivier Cablat, Sébastien Calvet, Monique Deregibus & Arno Gisinger, Vincent Fournier, Marina Gadonneix, Valérie Jouve, Sunghee Lee, Isabelle Le Minh, Mireille Loup, Alexandre Maubert, Mehdi Meddaci, Collection Jan Mulder, Alain Desvergnes,[20] Olivier Metzger, Joséphine Michel, Erwan Morère, Tadashi Ono, Bruno Serralongue, Dorothée Smith, Bertrand Stofleth & Geoffroy Mathieu, Pétur Thomsen, Jean-Louis Tornato, Aurore Valade, Christian Milovanoff,[21]
2013
Hiroshi Sugimoto, Sergio Larrain, Guy Bourdin, Alfredo Jaar,[22] John Stezaker,[23] Wolfgang Tillmans,[24] Viviane Sassen,[25] Jean-Michel Fauquet, Arno Rafael Minkkinen, Miguel Angel Rojas, Pieter Hugo,[26] Michel Vanden Eeckhoudt, Xavier Barral,[27] John Davis, Antoine Gonin,[28] Thabiso Sekgala, Philippe Chancel, Raphaël Dallaporta, Alain Willaume, Cedric Nunn, Santu Mofokeng, Harry Gruyaert, Jo Ractliffe, Zanele Muholi, Patrick Tourneboeuf, Thibaut Cuisset, Antoine Cairns, Jean-Louis Courtinat, Christina de Middel, Stéphane Couturier, Frédéric Nauczyciel, Jacques Henri Lartigue, Pierre Jamet, Raynal Pellicer, Studio Fouad, Erik Kessels.
2014
Lucien Clergue, Christian Lacroix, Raymond Depardon, Léon Gimpel, David Bailey, Vik Muniz, Patrick Swirc, Denis Rouvre, Vincent Pérez, Chema Madoz, Élise Mazac, Robert Drowilal, Anouck Durand, Refik Vesei, Pleurat Sulo, Katjusha Kumi,Ilit Azoulay, Katharina Gaenssler, Miguel Mitlag, Victor Robledo, Youngsoo Han, Kechun Zhang, Pieter Ten Hoopen, Will Steacy, Kudzanai Chiurai, Patrick Willocq, Ciril Jazbec, Milou Abel, Sema Bekirovic, Melanie Bonajo, Hans de Vries, Hans Eijkelboom, Erik Fens, Jos Houweling, Hans van der Meer, Maurice van Es, Benoît Aquin, Luc Delahaye, Mitch Epstein, Nadav Kander.
2015
Walker Evans, Stephen Shore, Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown, Toon Michiels, Olivier Cablat, Markus Brunetti, Paul Ronald, Sandro Miller, Eikoh Hosoe, Masahisa Fukase, Daido Moriyama, Masatoshi Naito, Issei Suda, Kou Inose, Sakiko Nomura, Daisuke Yokota, Martin Gusinde, Paolo Woods, Gabriele Galimberti, Natasha Caruana, Alex Majoli, Paolo Pellegrin, Ambroise Tézenas, Thierry Bouët, Anna Orlowska, Vlad Krasnoshchok, Sergiy Lebedynskyy, Vadym Trykoz, Lisa Barnard, Robert Zhao Renhui, Pauline Fargue, Julián Barón, Delphine Chanet, Omar Victor Diop, Paola Pasquaretta, Niccolò Benetton, Simone Santilli, Dorothée Smith, Rebecca Topakian, Denis Darzacq, Swen Renault, Paolo Woods, Elsa Leydier, Alice Wielinga, Cloé Vignaud, Louis Matton, Swen Renault et Pablo Mendez.
References
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_214_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_213_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_212_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_211_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_211_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_3_VFo...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_3_VFo...
O'Hagan, Sean (11 July 2011). "Tower blocks and tomes dominate the Rencontres d'Arles". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_709_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_709_V...
O'Hagan, Sean (9 July 2012). "Torgovnik's powerful portraits from Rwanda take top prize at Arles". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
O'Hagan, Sean (8 July 2013). "Lost and found: Discovery award winners at Recontres d'Arles 2013". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
"2017 Book Awards". Rencontres d'Arles. 4 July 2017. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
"Exhibitions". Rencontres d'Arles. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
"Exhibitions: Eugene Richards: The Blue Room". Rencontres d'Arles. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
"Rencontres d’Arles 2009 Photography", Rencontres d'Arles. Accessed 3 December 2014.
Présentation de Robert Mapplethorpe sur le site rencontres-arles.com
"Lea Golda Holterman, Orthodox Eros". Retrieved 24 August 2016.
Arles 2012: Arnaud Claass sur La Lettre de la Photographie.com
Arles 2012: Alain Desvergnes sur La Lettre de la Photographie.com
Signe des temps: Arles 2012, un festival courageux (Photographie.com)
Fiche d'Alfredo Jaar sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de John Stezaker sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Wolfgang Tillmans sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Viviane Sassen sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Pieter Hugo sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Xavier Barral sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Antoine Gonin sur rencontres-arles.com
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Rencontres d'Arles
The Rencontres d’Arles (formerly called Rencontres internationales de la photographie d’Arles) is an annual summer photography festival founded in 1970 by the Arles photographer Lucien Clergue, the writer Michel Tournier and the historian Jean-Maurice Rouquette.
The Rencontres d’Arles has an international impact by showing material that has never been seen by the public before. In 2015, the festival welcomed 93,000 visitors.
The specially designed exhibitions, often organised in collaboration with French and foreign museums and institutions, take place in various historic sites. Some venues, such as 12th-century chapels or 19th-century industrial buildings, are open to the public throughout the festival.
The Rencontres d’Arles has revealed many photographers, confirming its significance as a springboard for photography and contemporary creativity.
In recent years the Rencontres d’Arles has invited many guest curators and entrusted some of its programming to such figures as Martin Parr in 2004, Raymond Depardon in 2006 and the Arles-born fashion designer Christian Lacroix.
Contents
1 Art directors
2 The festival
3 The Rencontres d'Arles award winners
4 Exhibitions
5 References
6 External links
Art directors
A photographer, Jean-Pierre Sudre, discussing his work, Rencontres d'Arles, 1975
1970 - 1972: Lucien Clergue, Michel Tournier, Jean-Maurice Rouquette
1973 - 1976: Lucien Clergue
1977: Bernard Perrine
1978: Jacques Manachem
1979 - 1982: Alain Desvergnes (fr)
1983 - 1985: Lucien Clergue
1986 - 1987: François Hébel
1988 - 1989: Claude Hudelot (fr)
1990: Agnès de Gouvion Saint-Cyr
1991 - 1993: Louis Mesplé (fr)
1994: Lucien Clergue
1995 - 1998, délégué général: Bernard Millet (fr)
1995, artistic director: Michel Nuridsany (fr)
1996, artistic director: Joan Fontcuberta
1997, artistic director: Christian Caujolle (fr)
1998, artistic director: Giovanna Calvenzi
1999 - 2001: Gilles Mora (fr)
2002 - 2014: François Hébel
Since 2015: Sam Stourdzé (fr)
The festival
A photography exhibition, Rencontres d'Arles, 2010
Events
Opening week at the Rencontres d’Arles features photography-focused events (projections at night, exhibition tours, panel discussions, symposia, parties, book signings, etc.) in the town’s historic venues, some of which are only open to the public during the festival. Memorable events in recent years include Europe Night (2008), an overview of European photography; Christian Lacroix’s fashion show for the festival’s closing (2008); and Patti Smith’s concert for the Vu agency’s 20th anniversary (2006).
Nights at the Roman Theatre
At night, work by a photographer or a photography expert is projected in the town’s open-air Roman theatre accompanied by concerts and performances. Each event is a one-off creation. In 2009, 8,500 people attended evenings at the Roman theatre, an average of 2,000 a night, and 2,500 were there on closing night, when the Tiger Lilies played during a projection of Nan Goldin’s “The Ballad of Sexual Dependency”. In 2013 over 6,000 people attended the nighttime photography projections, an average of approximately 1,000 each night.
The Night of the Year
The Night of the Year, which was created in 2006, allows visitors to walk around and see the festival’s favourite works by artists and photographers as well as carte blanche exhibitions by institutions.
Cosmos-Arles Books
Cosmos-Arles Books is a Rencontres d’Arles satellite event dedicated to new publishing practices.
Over the past 15 years large-scale photographic publications, self-published books, and ebooks have become essential media for experimentation by photographers and artists. They allow photography to be rediscovered as a means of expression and distribution, providing a rich terrain of expression for the art’s fundamentally hybrid forms.
Symposia and panel discussions
Photographers and professionals participating in symposia and panel discussions during opening week discuss their work or issues raised by the images on display. In recent years the themes included whether a black-and-white aesthetic is still conceivable in photography (2013); the impact of social networks on creativity and information (2011); breaking with past, a key idea for photography today (2009); photography commissions: freedom or constraint (2008); challenges and changes in the photography market (2007).
The Rencontres d’Arles awards
Since 2002 the Rencontres d’Arles awards have been an opportunity to discover new talents. In 2007 the number of annual awards was reduced to three, presented at the closing ceremony of the festival’s professional week: the Discovery Award (€25,000), Author’s Book Award (€8,000) and History Book Award (€8,000).
Luma Rencontres Dummy Book Award
In 2015 the Rencontres d’Arles offered an award to assist with the publication of a dummy book. Endowed with a €25,000 budget production budget, this new prize is open to all photographers and artists using photography who submit a dummy book that has never been published.
The winner’s book will be produced in autumn 2015 and be presented at the 2016 Rencontres d’Arles.
Photo Folio Review & Gallery
Since 2006 aspiring photographers have been able to submit their portfolios to international photography experts in various fields, including publishers, exhibition curators, heads of institutions, agency directors, gallery owners, collectors, critics and photo editors, for appraisal during the festival’s opening week. Photo Folio Review & Gallery offers them an opportunity to show their work throughout the festival.
Photography classes
The Rencontres d’Arles has always been a place where professional photographers and practitioners on every level have been able to meet each other and exchange ideas. Each year, photography class participants undertake a personal journey of creation through photography’s aesthetic, ethical and technological issues. Leading photographers such as Guy le Querrec, Antoine d’Agata, Martin Parr, René Burri and Joan Fontcuberta regularly teach at the Rencontres d’Arles.
Rentrée en Images
“Rentrée en Images” has been a key part of the festival’s educational activities since 2004. During the first two weeks in September, special mediators take students from the primary to graduate school level on guided tours of the exhibitions. Based on the festival’s programming, the event aims to introduce young people to the visual arts and fits in with a wider policy of cultural democratisation. “Rentrée en Images” reaches thousands of students, and for many of them it is their first exposure to contemporary art.
Budget
Public funding accounted for 40% of the 2015 festival’s €6.3-million budget, sales (mainly of tickets and derivative products), 40% and private partnerships, 20%[clarification needed][citation needed].
Executive Committee
Hubert Védrine, president
Hervé Schiavetti, vice-president
Jean-François Dubos, vice-president
Marin Karmitz, treasurer
Françoise Nyssen, secretary
Lucien Clergue, Jean-Maurice Rouquette, Michel Tournier, founding members
The Rencontres d'Arles award winners
2002
Jury: Denis Curti, Alberto Anault, Alice Rose George, Manfred Heiting, Erik Kessels, Claudine Maugendre, Val Williams
Discovery Award: Peter Granser
No Limit award: Jacqueline Hassink
Dialogue of the humanity award: Tom Wood
Photographer of the year award: Roger Ballen
Help to the project: Pascal Aimar, Chris Shaw
Author’s Book Award: Sibusiso Mbhele and His Fish Helicopter by Koto Bolofo (powerHouse Books, 2002)
Help to publishing: Une histoire sans nom by Anne-Lise Broyer
2003
Jury: Giovanna Calvenzi, Hou Hanru, Christine Macel, Anna Lisa Milella, Urs Stahel
Discovery Award: Zijah Gafic
No Limit award: Thomas Demand
Dialogue of the humanity award: Fazal Sheikh
Photographer of the year award: Anders Petersen
Help to the project: Jitka Hanzlova
Author’s Book Award: Hide That Can by Deirdre O’Callaghan (Trolley Books, 2002)
Help to publishing: A Personal Diary of Chinese Avant-Garde in the 1990s, China (1993-1998) by Xing Danwen
2004
Jury: Eikoh Hosoe, Joan Fontcuberta, Tod Papageorge, Elaine Constantine, Antoine d’Agata
Discovery Award: Yasu Suzuka
No Limit award: Jonathan de Villiers
Dialogue of the humanity award: Edward Burtynsky
Help to the project: John Stathatos
Author’s Book Award: Particulars by David Goldblatt (Goodman Gallery, 2003)
2005
Jury: Ute Eskildsen, Jean-Louis Froment, Michel Mallard, Kathy Ryan, Marta Gili
Discovery Award: Miroslav Tichy
No Limit award: Mathieu Bernard-Reymond
Dialogue of the humanity award: Simon Norfolk
Help to the project: Anna Malagrida
Author’s Book Award: Temporary Discomfort (Chapter I-V) by Jules Spinatsch (Lars Müller Publishers, 2005)
2006
Jury: Vincent Lavoie, Abdoulaye Konaté, Yto Barrada, Marc-Olivier Wahler, Alain d’Hooghe
Discovery Award: Alessandra Sanguinetti
No Limit award: Randa Mirza
Dialogue of the humanity award: Wang Qingsong
Help to the project: Walid Raad
Author’s Book Award: Form aus Licht und Schatten by Heinz Hajek-Halke (Steidl, 2005)
2007
[1]
Jury: Bice Curiger, Alain Fleischer, Johan Sjöström, Thomas Weski, Anne Wilkes Tucker
Discovery Award: Laura Henno
Author’s Book Award: Empty Bottles by WassinkLundgren (Thijs groot Wassink and Ruben Lundgren) (Veenman Publishers, 2007)
Historical Book Award: László Moholy-Nagy: Color in Transparency: Photographic Experiments in Color, 1934–1946 by Jeannine Fiedler (Steidl & Bauhaus-Archiv, 2006)
2008
[2]
Jury: Elisabeth Biondi, Luis Venegas, Nathalie Ours, Caroline Issa and Massoud Golsorkhi, Carla Sozzani
Discovery Award: Pieter Hugo
Author’s Book Award: Strange and Singular by Michael Abrams (Loosestrife, 2007)
Historical Book Award: Nein, Onkel: Snapshots from Another Front 1938–1945 by Ed Jones and Timothy Prus (Archive of Modern Conflict, 2007)
2009
[3]
Jury: Lucien Clergue, Bernard Perrine, Alain Desvergnes, Claude Hudelot, Agnès de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, Louis Mesplé, Bernard Millet, Michel Nuridsany, Joan Fontcuberta, Christian Caujolle, Giovanna Calvenzi, Martin Parr, Christian Lacroix, Arnaud Claass, Christian Milovanoff
Discovery Award: Rimaldas Viksraitis
Author’s Book Award: From Back Home by Anders Petersen and JH Engström (Bokförlaget Max Ström, 2009)
Historical Book Award: In History by Susan Meiselas (Steidl and International Center of Photography, 2008)
2010
[4] [5]
Discovery Award: Taryn Simon
LUMA award: Trisha Donnelly
Author’s Book Award: Photography 1965–74 by Yutaka Takanashi (Only Photograph, 2010)
Historical Book Award: Les livres de photographies japonais des années 1960 et 1970 by Ryuichi Kaneko and Ivan Vartanian (Seuil, 2009)
2011
[6] [7]
Discovery Award: Mikhael Subotzky and Patrick Waterhouse[8]
Author’s Book Award: A Living Man Declared Dead and Other Chapters by Taryn Simon (Mack, 2011)[8]
Historical Book Award: Works by Lewis Baltz (Steidl, 2010)[8]
2012
[9] [10] [11]
Discovery Award: Jonathan Torgovnik
Author’s Book Award: Redheaded Peckerwood by Christian Patterson (Mack, 2011)
Historical Book Award: Les livres de photographie d’Amérique latine by Horacio Fernández (Images en Manœuvres Éditions, 2011)
2013
Discovery Award: Yasmine Eid-Sabbagh and Rozenn Quéré
Author’s Book Award: Anticorps by Antoine d’Agata (Xavier Barral & Le Bal[disambiguation needed], 2013)[12]
Historical Book Award: AOI [COD.19.1.1.43] – A27 [S | COD.23 by Rosângela Rennó (Self-published, 2013)
2014
Discovery Award: Zhang Kechun
Author’s Book Award: Hidden Islam by Nicolo Degiorgis (Rorhof, 2014)
Historical Book Award: Paris mortel retouché by Johan van der Keuken (Van Zoetendaal Publishers, 2013)
2015
Discovery Award: Pauline Fargue
Author’s Book Award: H. said he loved us by Tommaso Tanini (Discipula Editions, 2014)
Historical Book Award: Monograph Vitas Luckus. Works & Biography by Margarita Matulytė and Tatjana Luckiene-Aldag (Kaunas Photography Gallery and Lithuanian Art Museum, 2014)
Dummy Book Award: The Jungle Book by Yann Gross
Photo Folio Review: Piero Martinelo (winner); Charlotte Abramow, Martin Essi, Elin Høyland, Laurent Kronenthal (special mentions)
2016
Discovery Award: Sarah Waiswa
Author’s Book Award: Taking Off. Henry My Neighbor by Mariken Wessels (Art Paper Editions, 2015)
Historical Book Award: (in matters of) Karl by Annette Behrens (Fw: Books, 2015)
Photo-Text Award: Negative Publicity: Artefacts of Extraordinary Rendition by Edmund Clark and Crofton Black (Aperture, 2015)
Dummy Book Award: You and Me: A project between Bosnia, Germany and the US by Katja Stuke and Oliver Sieber
Photo Folio Review: David Fathi (winner); Sonja Hamad, Eric Leleu, Karolina Paatos, Maija Tammi (special mentions)
2017
[13]
Discovery Award: Carlos Ayesta and Guillaume Bression
Author's Book Award: Ville de Calais by Henk Wildschut (self-published, 2017)
Special Mention for Author's Book Award: Gaza Works by Kent Klich (Koenig, 2017)
Historical Book Award: Latif Al Ani by Latif Al Ani (Hannibal Publishing, 2017)
Photo-Text Award: The Movement of Clouds around Mount Fuji by Masanao Abe and Helmut Völter (Spector Books, 2016)
Dummy Book Award: Grozny: Nine Cities by Olga Kravets, Maria Morina, and Oksana Yushko
Photo Folio Review: Aurore Valade (winner); Haley Morris Cafiero, Alexandra Lethbridge, Charlotte Abramow, Catherine Leutenegger (special mentions)
Exhibitions
1970
Gjon Mili, Edward Weston, ...
1971
Pedro Luis Raota, Charles Vaucher, Olivier Gagliani, Steve Soltar, Judy Dater, Jack Welpott, Gordon Bennett, John Weir, Linda Connor, Neal White, Jean-Claude Gautrand, Jean Rouet, Pierre Riehl, Roger Doloy, Georges Guilpin, Alain Perceval, Jean-Louis Viel, Jean-Luc Tartarin, Frédéric Barzilay, Jean-Claude Bernath, André Recoules, Etienne-Bertrand Weill, Rodolphe Proverbio, Jean Dieuzaide, Paul Caponigro, Jerry Uelsmann, Heinz Hajek-Halke, Rinaldo Prieri, Jean-Pierre Sudre, Denis Brihat, …
1972
Hiro, Lucien Clergue, Eugène Atget, Bruce Davidson, …
1973
Imogen Cunningham, Linda Connor, Judy Dater, Allan Porter, Paul Strand, Edward S. Curtis, …
1974
Brassaï, Ansel Adams, Georges A. Tice, …
1975
Agence Viva, André Kertész, Yousuf Karsh, Robert Doisneau, Lucien Clergue, Jean Dieuzaide, Ralph Gibson, Charles Harbutt, Tania Kaleya, Eva Rubinstein, Michel Saint Jean, Kishin Shinoyama, Hélène Théret, Georges Tourdjman, …
1976
Ernst Haas, Bill Brandt, Man Ray, Marc Riboud, Agence Magnum, Eikō Hosoe, Judy Dater, Jack Welpott, Doug Stewart, Duane Michals, Leslie Krims, Bob Mazzer, Horner, S. Sykes, David Hurn, Mary Ellen Mark, René Groebli, Guy Le Querrec, …
1977
Will Mac Bride, Paul Caponigro, Neal Slavin, Max Waldman, Dennis Stock, Josef Sudek, Harry Callahan, R. Benvenisti, P. Carroll, William Christenberry, S. Ciccone, W. Eggleston, R. Embrey, B. Evans, R. Gibson, D. Grégory, F. Horvat, W. Krupsan, W. Larson, U. Mark, J. Meyerowitz, S. Shore, N. Slavin, L. Sloan-Théodore, J. Sternfeld, R. Wol, …
1978
Lisette Model, Izis, William Klein, Hervé Gloaguen, Yan Le Goff, Serge Gal, Marc Tulane, Lionel Jullian, Alain Gualina, …
1979
David Burnett, Mary Ellen Mark, Jean-Pierre Laffont, Abbas, Pedro Meyer, Yves Jeanmougin, Manuel Alvarez Bravo, …
1980
Willy Ronis, Arnold Newman, Jay Maisel, Christian Vogt, Ben Fernandez, Julia Pirotte, …
1981
Guy Bourdin, Steve Hiett, Sarah Moon and Dan Weeks, Art Kane, Cheyco Leidman, André Martin, François Kollar, …
1982
Willy Zielke, Henri Cartier-Bresson, Alexey Brodovitch, Robert Frank, William Klein, Max Pam, Bernard Plossu, …
1983
Robert Rauschenberg, Bruce Davidson, …
1984
Jean Dieuzaide, Marilyn Bridges, Mario Giacomelli, Augusto De Luca, Joyce Tenneson, Luigi Ghirri, Albato Guatti, Mario Samarughi, Arman, Raoul Ubac, …
1985
David Hockney, Fritz Gruber, Franco Fontana, Milton Rogovin, Gilles Peress, Jane Evelyn Atwood, Eugene Richards, Sebastião Salgado, Robert Capa, Lucien Hervé, …
1986
Collection Graham Nash, Annie Leibovitz, Sebastião Salgado, Martin Parr, Robert Doisneau, Paulo Nozolino, Ugo Mulas, Bruce Gilden, Georges Rousse, Peter Knapp, Max Pam, Miguel Rio Branco, Michelle Debat, Andy Summers, Baron Wolman. …
1987
Brian Griffin, Dominique Issermann, Nan Goldin, Max Vadukul, Gabriele Basilico, Paul Graham, Thomas Florschuetz, Gianni Berengo Gardin, … Autres invités des Rencontres 88: Hans Namuth, Jean-Marc Tingaud, Mary Ellen Mark, Charles Camberoque, Martine Voyeux, Marie-Paule Nègre, Xavier Lambours, Patrick Zachmann, Jean-Marie Del Moral, Nittin Vadukul, Jean Larivière, Bruce Weber, Germaine Krull, Jean-Paul Goude, Jean-Louis Boissier, Sandra Petrillo, Daniel Schwartz, Laurent Septier, Jean-Marc Zaorski, Bernard Descamps, Marc Garanger, Yan Layma, Michel Delaborde, Michel Semeniako, Françoise Huguier, Paolo Calia, Deborah Turbeville, Gundunla Schulze. Ainsi que Henri Alekan, Arielle Dombasle, Jacques Séguéla, Roland Topor, Serge July, Lucinda Childs, invited to comment on their private screening at parties in Roman Theatre, where Christian Lacroix organised a show.
1988
La danse, la Chine, la pub. Chinese photography is presented for the first time abroad as a major exhibition with 40 Chinese photographers, including Wu Yinxian, Zhang Hai-er, Chen Baosheng, Ling Fei, Xia Yonglie, curated by Karl Kugel, co-director of the film China: Inner views / Chine: vues intérieures, released at the opening of the festival. Most major photographers who have covered this country are also present either in the exhibition of Magnum Photos, curated by François Hébel, either in solo exhibitions, such as Marc Riboud ou de Jeanloup Sieff.
1989
Arles fête ses vingt ans (1969-1989); with Lucien Clergue, Lee Friedlander, Cristina García Rodero, John Demos, Philippe Bazin, George Hashigushi, Eduardo Masférré, Hervé Gloaguen, Elizabeth Sunday, Pierre de Vallombreuse, Robert Frank's The lines of My Hand (commissioned by Charles-Henri Favrod); in honour of Pierre de Fenoÿl; Julio Mitchel, Roland Schneider, Rafael Vargas, John Phillips, Annette Messager, Christian Boltanski, la collection Bonnemaison, Javier Vallhonrat, Thierry Girard, Dennis Hopper. Exhibition Ils annoncent la couleur with Stéphane Sednaoui, Jean-Baptiste Mondino, Max Vadukul, Nick Night, Nigel Shafran, Tony Viramontes, Cindy Palmano; commissioned by Marc Vascoli. Exposition et soirée Deep South with Robert Frank, Bruce Davidson, Duane Michals, Gordon Parks, Alain Desvergnes, Gilles Mora, Paul Kwilecki, William Christenberry, William Eggleston, Marylin Futtermann, Debbie Fleming Caffery, Fern Koch, Jay Leviton, Eudora Welty; commissioned by Gilles Mora.
1990
Volker Hinz, Erasmus Schröter, Stéphane Duroy, Raymond Depardon, Frédéric Brenner, Drtikol, Saudek, …
1991
Tina Modotti, Edward Weston, Graciela Iturbide, Martín Chambi, Sergio Larrain, Sebastião Salgado, Juan Rulfo, Miguel Rio Branco, Eric Poitevin, Alberto Schommer, …
1992
Don McCullin, Dieter Appelt, Béatrix Von Conta, Denise Colomb, José Ortiz-Echagüe, Wout Berger, Thibaut Cuisset, Knut W. Maron, John Statathos, …
1993
Richard Avedon, Larry Fink, Ernest Pignon-Ernest, Cecil Beaton, Raymonde April, Koji Inove, Louis Jammes, Eiichiro Sakata, …
1994
Andres Serrano, Roger Pic, Marc Riboud, Bogdan Konopka, Sarah Moon, Pierre et Gilles, Marie-Paule Nègre, Edward Steichen and Josef Sudek, Robert Doisneau, André Kertész, …
1995
Alain Fleischer, Roger Ballen, Noda, Toyoura, Slocombe, Nam June Paik, France Bourély. …
1996
Ralph Eugene Meatyard, William Wegman, Grete Stern, Paolo Gioli, Nancy Burson, John Stathatos, Sophie Calle, Luigi Ghirri, Pierre Cordier, …
1997
Collection Marion Lambert, Eugene Richards, Mathieu Pernot, Aziz + Cucher, Jochen Gerz, Antoni Muntadas, Ricard Terré, …
1998
David LaChapelle, Herbert Spring, Mike Disfarmer, Francesca Woodman, Federico Patellani, Massimo Vitali, Dieter Appelt, Samuel Fosso, Urs Lu.thi, Pierre Molinier, Yasumasa Morimura, Roman Opalka, Cindy Sherman, Sophie Weibel, …
1999
Lee Friedlander, Walker Evans, …
2000
Tina Modotti, Jakob Tuggener, Peter Sakaer, Masahisa Fukase, Herbert Matter, Robert Heinecken, Jean-Michel Alberola, Tom Drahaos, Willy Ronis, Frederick Sommer, Lucien Clergue, Sophie Calle, …
2001
Luc Delahaye, Patrick Tosani, Stéphane Couturier, David Rosenfeld, James Casebere, Peter Lindbergh, …
2002
Guillaume Herbaut, Baader Meinhof, Astrid Proll, Josef Koudelka, Gabriele Basilico, Rineke Dijkstra, Lise Sarfati, Jochen Gerz, Collection Ordoñez Falcon, Larry Sultan, Alex Mac Lean, Alastair Thain, Raeda Saadeh, Zineb Sedira, Serguei Tchilikov, Jem Southam, Alexey Titarenko, Andreas Magdanz, Sophie Ristelhueber, …
2003
Collection Claude Berri, Lin Tianmiao & Wang Gongxin, Xin Danwen, Gao Bo, Shao Yinong & Mu Chen, Hong Li, Hai Bo, Chen Lingyang, Ma Liuming, Hong Hao, Naoya Hatakeyama, Roman Opalka, Jean-Pierre Sudre, Suzanne Lafont, Corinne Mercadier, Adam Bartos, Marie Le Mounier, Yves Chaudouët, Galerie VU, Harry Gruyaert, Vincenzo Castella, Alain Willaume, François Halard, Donovan Wylie, Jérôme Brézillon & Nicolas Guiraud, Jean-Daniel Berclaz, Monique Deregibus, Youssef Nabil, Tina Barney, …
2004
Dayanita Singh, Les archives du ghetto de Lodz, Stephen Gill, Oleg Kulik, Arsen Savadov, Keith Arnatt, Raphaël Dallaporta, Taiji Matsue, Tony Ray-Jones, Osamu Kanemura, Kawauchi Rinko, Chris Killip, Chris Shaw, Kimura Ihei, Neeta Madahar, Frank Breuer, Hans van der Meer, James Mollison, Chris Killip, Mathieu Pernot, Paul Shambroom, Katy Grannan, Lucien Clergue, AES + F, György Lörinczy, …
2005
Collection William M. Hunt, Miguel Rio Branco, Thomas Dworzak, Alex Majoli, Paolo Pellegrin, Ilkka Uimonen, Barry Frydlender, David Tartakover, Michal Heiman, Denis Rouvre, Denis Darzacq, David Balicki, Joan Fontcuberta, Christer Strömholm, Keld Helmer-Petersen, …
2006
La photographie américaine à travers les collections françaises, Robert Adams, Cornell Capa, Gilles Caron, Don McCullin, Guy Le Querrec, Susan Meiselas, Julien Chapsal, Michael Ackerman, David Burnett, Lise Sarfati, Sophie Ristelhueber, Dominique Issermann, Jean Gaumy, Daniel Angeli, Paul Graham, Claudine Doury, Jean-Christophe Bechet, David Goldblatt, Anders Petersen, Philippe Chancel, Meyer, Olivier Culmann, Gilles Coulon, …
2007
The 60th year of Magnum Photos, Pannonica de Koenigswarter, Le Studio Zuber, Collections d’Albums Indiens de la Collection Alkazi, Alberto Garcia-Alix, Raghu Rai, Dayanita Singh, Nony Singh, Sunil Gupta, Anay Mann, Pablo Bartholomew Bharat Sikka, Jeetin Sharma, Siya Singh, Huang Rui, Gao Brothers, RongRong & inri, Liu Bolin, JR, …
2008
Richard Avedon, Grégoire Alexandre, Joël Bartoloméo, Achinto Bhadra, Jean-Christian Bourcart, Samuel Fosso, Charles Fréger, Pierre Gonnord, Françoise Huguier, Grégoire Korganow, Peter Lindbergh, Guido Mocafico, Henri Roger, Paolo Roversi, Joachim Schmid, Nigel Shafran,[14] Georges Tony Stoll, Patrick Swirc, Tim Walker, Vanessa Winship, …
2009
Robert Delpire, Willy Ronis, Jean-Claude Lemagny, Lucien Clergue, Elger Esser, Roni Horn, Duane Michals, Nan Goldin (invitée d'honneur), Brian Griffin, Naoya Hatakeyama, JH Engström, David Armstrong, Eugene Richards[15] (The Blue Room), Martin Parr, Paolo Nozolino, …[16]
2010
Robert Mapplethorpe[17] Lea Golda Holterman[18]
2011
Chris Marker, photos du New York Times, Robert Capa, Wang Qingsong, Dulce Pinzon, JR, ...
2012
Les 30 ans de l'ENSP, Josef Koudelka, Amos Gitai, Klavdij Sluban & Laurent Tixador, Arnaud Claass,[19] Grégoire Alexandre, Édouard Beau, Jean-Christophe Béchet, Olivier Cablat, Sébastien Calvet, Monique Deregibus & Arno Gisinger, Vincent Fournier, Marina Gadonneix, Valérie Jouve, Sunghee Lee, Isabelle Le Minh, Mireille Loup, Alexandre Maubert, Mehdi Meddaci, Collection Jan Mulder, Alain Desvergnes,[20] Olivier Metzger, Joséphine Michel, Erwan Morère, Tadashi Ono, Bruno Serralongue, Dorothée Smith, Bertrand Stofleth & Geoffroy Mathieu, Pétur Thomsen, Jean-Louis Tornato, Aurore Valade, Christian Milovanoff,[21]
2013
Hiroshi Sugimoto, Sergio Larrain, Guy Bourdin, Alfredo Jaar,[22] John Stezaker,[23] Wolfgang Tillmans,[24] Viviane Sassen,[25] Jean-Michel Fauquet, Arno Rafael Minkkinen, Miguel Angel Rojas, Pieter Hugo,[26] Michel Vanden Eeckhoudt, Xavier Barral,[27] John Davis, Antoine Gonin,[28] Thabiso Sekgala, Philippe Chancel, Raphaël Dallaporta, Alain Willaume, Cedric Nunn, Santu Mofokeng, Harry Gruyaert, Jo Ractliffe, Zanele Muholi, Patrick Tourneboeuf, Thibaut Cuisset, Antoine Cairns, Jean-Louis Courtinat, Christina de Middel, Stéphane Couturier, Frédéric Nauczyciel, Jacques Henri Lartigue, Pierre Jamet, Raynal Pellicer, Studio Fouad, Erik Kessels.
2014
Lucien Clergue, Christian Lacroix, Raymond Depardon, Léon Gimpel, David Bailey, Vik Muniz, Patrick Swirc, Denis Rouvre, Vincent Pérez, Chema Madoz, Élise Mazac, Robert Drowilal, Anouck Durand, Refik Vesei, Pleurat Sulo, Katjusha Kumi,Ilit Azoulay, Katharina Gaenssler, Miguel Mitlag, Victor Robledo, Youngsoo Han, Kechun Zhang, Pieter Ten Hoopen, Will Steacy, Kudzanai Chiurai, Patrick Willocq, Ciril Jazbec, Milou Abel, Sema Bekirovic, Melanie Bonajo, Hans de Vries, Hans Eijkelboom, Erik Fens, Jos Houweling, Hans van der Meer, Maurice van Es, Benoît Aquin, Luc Delahaye, Mitch Epstein, Nadav Kander.
2015
Walker Evans, Stephen Shore, Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown, Toon Michiels, Olivier Cablat, Markus Brunetti, Paul Ronald, Sandro Miller, Eikoh Hosoe, Masahisa Fukase, Daido Moriyama, Masatoshi Naito, Issei Suda, Kou Inose, Sakiko Nomura, Daisuke Yokota, Martin Gusinde, Paolo Woods, Gabriele Galimberti, Natasha Caruana, Alex Majoli, Paolo Pellegrin, Ambroise Tézenas, Thierry Bouët, Anna Orlowska, Vlad Krasnoshchok, Sergiy Lebedynskyy, Vadym Trykoz, Lisa Barnard, Robert Zhao Renhui, Pauline Fargue, Julián Barón, Delphine Chanet, Omar Victor Diop, Paola Pasquaretta, Niccolò Benetton, Simone Santilli, Dorothée Smith, Rebecca Topakian, Denis Darzacq, Swen Renault, Paolo Woods, Elsa Leydier, Alice Wielinga, Cloé Vignaud, Louis Matton, Swen Renault et Pablo Mendez.
References
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www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_213_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_212_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_211_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_211_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_3_VFo...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_3_VFo...
O'Hagan, Sean (11 July 2011). "Tower blocks and tomes dominate the Rencontres d'Arles". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_709_V...
www.rencontres-arles.com/C.aspx?VP3=CMS3&VF=ARL_709_V...
O'Hagan, Sean (9 July 2012). "Torgovnik's powerful portraits from Rwanda take top prize at Arles". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
O'Hagan, Sean (8 July 2013). "Lost and found: Discovery award winners at Recontres d'Arles 2013". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
"2017 Book Awards". Rencontres d'Arles. 4 July 2017. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
"Exhibitions". Rencontres d'Arles. Retrieved 26 August 2016.
"Exhibitions: Eugene Richards: The Blue Room". Rencontres d'Arles. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
"Rencontres d’Arles 2009 Photography", Rencontres d'Arles. Accessed 3 December 2014.
Présentation de Robert Mapplethorpe sur le site rencontres-arles.com
"Lea Golda Holterman, Orthodox Eros". Retrieved 24 August 2016.
Arles 2012: Arnaud Claass sur La Lettre de la Photographie.com
Arles 2012: Alain Desvergnes sur La Lettre de la Photographie.com
Signe des temps: Arles 2012, un festival courageux (Photographie.com)
Fiche d'Alfredo Jaar sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de John Stezaker sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Wolfgang Tillmans sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Viviane Sassen sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Pieter Hugo sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Xavier Barral sur rencontres-arles.com
Fiche de Antoine Gonin sur rencontres-arles.com
Basílica de São Pedro. Saint Peter's Basilic.
Following, a text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
The Basilica of Saint Peter (Latin: Basilica Sancti Petri), officially known in Italian as the Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano and commonly known as St. Peter's Basilica, is located within the Vatican City. St. Peter's has the largest interior of any Christian church in the world, holding 60,000 people. It is regarded as one of the holiest Christian sites and has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world" and as "the greatest of all churches of Christendom". In Catholic Tradition, it is the burial site of its namesake Saint Peter, who was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus and, according to Tradition, was the first Bishop of Antioch, and later first Bishop of Rome and therefore first in the line of the papal succession. While St. Peter's is the most famous of Rome's many churches, it is not the first in rank, an honour held by the Pope's cathedral church, the Basilica of St. John Lateran. (See: Status)
Catholic Tradition holds that Saint Peter's tomb is below the altar of the basilica. For this reason, many Popes, starting with the first ones, have been buried there. There has been a church on this site since the 4th century. Construction on the present basilica, over the old Constantinian basilica, began on April 18, 1506 and was completed on November 18, 1626.
St. Peter's is famous as a place of pilgrimage, for its liturgical functions and for its historical associations. It is associated with the papacy, with the Counter-reformation and with numerous artists, most significantly Michelangelo. As a work of architecture, it is regarded as the greatest building of its age. Contrary to popular misconception, Saint Peter's is not a cathedral, as it is not the seat of a bishop. It is properly termed a basilica. Like all the earliest churches in Rome, it has the entrance to the east and the apse at the west end of the building.
The Basilica of St. Peter is one of four major basilicas of Rome, the others being the Basilica of St. John Lateran, Santa Maria Maggiore and St. Paul outside the Walls. It is the most prominent building inside the Vatican City. Its dome is a dominant feature of the skyline of Rome. Probably the largest church in Christianity,[1] it covers an area of 2.3 hectares (5.7 acres) and has a capacity of over 60,000 people. One of the holiest sites of Christendom in the Catholic Tradition, it is traditionally the burial site of its namesake Saint Peter, who was one of the twelve apostles of Jesus and, according to Roman Catholic Tradition, also the first Bishop of Antioch, and later first Bishop of Rome, the first Pope. Although the New Testament does not mention Peter's presence or martyrdom in Rome, Catholic tradition holds that his tomb is below the baldachin and altar; for this reason, many Popes, starting with the first ones, have been buried there. Construction on the current basilica, over the old Constantinian basilica, began on April 18, 1506. At length on November 18, 1626, Pope Urban VIII solemnly dedicated the church.
Although the Vatican basilica is neither the Pope's official seat or first in rank among the great basilicas, (St. John Lateran) it is most certainly his principal church, as most Papal ceremonies take place at St. Peter's due to its size, proximity to the Papal residence, and location within the Vatican City walls. In the apse of the basilica is Bernini's monument enclosing the "Chair of St. Peter" or cathedra, sometimes presumed to have been used by Saint Peter himself, but which was a gift from Charles the Bald and used by various popes.
After the crucifixion of Jesus in the second quarter of the 1st century AD, it is recorded in the Biblical book of the Acts of the Apostles that one of his twelve disciples, Simon known as Peter, a fisherman from Galilee, took a leadership position among Jesus' followers and was of great importance in the founding of the Christian Church. The name Peter is "Petrus" in Latin and "Petros" in Greek, deriving from "petra" which means "stone" or "rock" in Greek. It is believed by a long tradition that Peter, after a ministry of about thirty years, traveled to Rome and met his martyrdom there.
According to the traditional story, Peter was executed in the year 64A.D. during the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. His execution was one of the many martyrdoms of Christians following the Great Fire of Rome. He was said to have been crucified head downwards, by his own request, near the obelisk in the Circus of Nero. This obelisk now stands in Saint Peter's Square and is revered as a "witness" to Peter's death. It is one of several ancient Obelisks of Rome.
The traditional story goes on to say that Peter's remains were buried just outside the Circus, on the Mons Vaticanus across the Via Cornelia from the Circus, less than 150 meters from his place of death. The Via Cornelia (which may have been known by another name to the ancient Romans) was a road which ran east-to-west along the north wall of the Circus on land now covered by the southern portions of the Basilica and Saint Peter's Square. Peter's grave was initially marked simply by a red rock, symbolic of his name, but meaningless to non-Christians. A shrine was built on this site some years later. Almost three hundred years later, Old Saint Peter's Basilica was constructed over this site. It is possible that the exact location of Peter's grave was known with certainty by Christians throughout all this time and that therefore the traditional location of Saint Peter's tomb is, in fact, its true location.
On December 23, 1950, in his pre-Christmas radio broadcast to the world, Pope Pius XII announced the discovery of Saint Peter's tomb.[9] This was the culmination of 10 years of archaeological research under the crypt of the basilica, an area inaccessible since the 9th century. The burial place appears to have been an underground vault, with a structure above it believed to have been built by Pope Anacletus in the 1st century. Human remains were discovered, but it could not be determined if they were, in fact, the bones of the Apostle Peter. Indeed, the area now covered by the Vatican City had been a cemetery for some years before the Circus of Nero was built. It was a burial ground for the numerous executions in the Circus and for many years after the burial of Saint Peter many Christians chose to be buried near him. It is likely that any excavation anywhere on the Vatican grounds would discover human remains.
Old St. Peter's Basilica was the fourth century church begun by the Emperor Constantine between 326 and 333 AD. It was of typical basilical Latin Cross form with an apsidal end at the chancel, a wide nave and two aisles on either side. It was over 103.6 metres (350 ft) long and the entrance was preceded by a large colonnaded atrium. This church had been built over the small shrine believed to mark the burial place of St. Peter. It contained a very large number of burials and memorials, including those of most of the popes from St. Peter to the 15th century. Since the construction of the current basilica, the name Old St. Peter's Basilica has been used for its predecessor to distinguish the two buildings.
By the end of the 15th century, having been neglected during the period of the Avignon Papacy, the old basilica was in bad repair. It appears that the first pope to consider rebuilding, or at least making radical changes was Pope Nicholas V (1447 – 55). He commissioned work on the old building from Leone Battista Alberti and Bernardo Rossellino and also got Rossellino to design a plan for an entirely new basilica, or an extreme modification of the old. His reign was frustrated by political problems and when he died, little had been achieved. He had, however, had 2,522 cartloads of stone transported from the Roman Colosseum.
In 1505, Pope Julius II, failing to heed warnings that the death of Nicholas V was an omen to those who might interfere with St Peter's, in order to glorify Rome and also undoubtedly for his own self agrandizement, made a decision to demolish the ancient building and replace it with something grander. A competition was held, and a number of the designs have survived at the Uffizi Gallery. A succession of popes and architects followed in the next 120 years, their combined efforts resulting in the present building. The scheme begun by Julius II continued through the reigns of Leo X (1513-1521), Hadrian VI (1522-1523). Clement VII (1523-1534), Paul III (1534-1549), Julius III (1550-1555), Marcellus II (1555), Paul IV (1555-1559), Pius IV (1559-1565), Pius V (saint) (1565-1572), Gregory XIII (1572-1585), Sixtus V (1585-1590), Urban VII (1590), Gregory XIV (1590-1591), Innocent IX (1591), Clement VIII(1592-1605), Leo XI (1605), Paul V (1605-1621), Gregory XV (1621-1623), Urban VIII (1623-1644) and Innocent X (1644-1655).
See more about the Saint Peter's Basilica at the address en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Peter's_Basilica
A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia a Enciclopédia Livre:
A Basílica de São Pedro (em italiano Basilica di San Pietro in Vaticano) é uma grande basílica na Cidade do Vaticano, em Roma. É a segunda maior de todas as igrejas católicas[1], e talvez a mais famosa e mais visitada das igrejas cristãs do mundo.
Cobre área de 23000 m² e pode albergar mais de 60 mil pessoas. É dos lugares mais sagrados do Catolicismo. A construção começou em 1506 e terminou em 1626 sendo parcialmente erguida com dinheiro angariado pela venda de indulgências (ver Papa Leão X).
Recentemente foi comprovado que a Basílica guarda o túmulo de São Pedro embaixo do altar principal. Diversos outros papas também estão ali enterrados.
Fica na Praça de São Pedro, desenhada por Bramante, com contribuições de muitos outros artistas do Renascimento e do maneirismo, como Michelangelo, Rafael e Bernini.
O edifício atual, com estrutura renascentista e barroca, foi erguido sobre outro edifício levantado por ordem do imperador Constantino em 319, sobre o túmulo do apóstolo Pedro, como um memorial. A escolha do sítio e a inclusão do túmulo não só exigiu que o edifício fosse orientado para oeste, mas também que a necrópole antiga fosse aterrada, sendo construídas muralhas de suporte para criar uma enorme base que servisse como alicerce. Na plataforma, construiu-se então a basílica, com nave central e quatro naves laterais, ricamente adornada com afrescos e mosaicos e um grande átrio dianteiro, com colunas. Muitas vezes alterado e restaurado, o edifício de Constantino, conhecido como velha igreja de São Pedro, sobreviveu até o início do século XVI.
Nada sobrou da igreja de Constantino, que pode entretanto ser quase totalmente reconstruída por descobertas arqueológicas, descrições de peregrinos, desenhos antigos. Como em quase todas as igrejas da antiguidade, seguiu-se o modelo da basilica cívica romana: um salão retangular, dividido em nave central e naves laterais, que oferecia espaço bastante para a congregação dos fiéis. As cerimônias no altar eram realizadas na ábside ao final da nave central, bem visíveis a todos. Havia transeptos, uma ábside na extremidade ocidental, um grande átrio.
Um afresco do século XVI na igreja de San Martino ai Monti nos dá uma idéia aproximada da aparência interior, com seu teto em madeira, mas ignoramos tudo sobre estátuas ou pinturas.
Durante o exílio dos papas em Avignon, de 1309 a 1377, ficou muito deteriorada e perdeu-se grande parte de sua magnificência. O desejo de uma igreja de grandiosidade apropriada para servir à cristandade, assim como a transferência da residência papal para o Vaticano, fez nascer planos de uma igreja nova. Sob o papa Nicolau V (pontificado de 1447 a 1455)os trabalhos tiveram início num coro novo e no transepto, mas foram logo abandonados por falta de recursos.
No pontificado de Júlio II (1503 a 1513) decidiu-se afinal derrubar a igreja velha e em 18 de abril de 1506 Bramante recebeu o encargo de desenhar a nova. Seus planos eram de um edifício centralmente planificado, com um domo colocado sobre o centro de uma cruz grega (com braços de idêntico tamanho), forma que correspondia aos ideais da Renascença por copiar a de um mausoléu da antiguidade.
Um século mais tarde o edifício ainda não estava completado. A Bramante sucederam, como arquitetos, Rafael, Fra Giocondo, Giuliano da Sangallo, Baldassare Peruzzi, Antonio da Sangallo. O Papa Paulo III (pontificado de 1534-1549) em 1546 entregou a direção dos trabalhos a Michelangelo. Este, aos 72 anos, deixou-se fascinar pela cúpula, concentrando nela os seus esforços, mas não conseguiu completá-lo antes de sua morte em 1564. O zimbório é visível de toda a cidade de Roma, dominando seus céus. Tem diâmetro de 42 m, ligeiramente menor ao domo do Panteão, mas é mais imponente por ser muito mais alto, com 132,5 m. Graças a seus planos e a um modelo em madeira, por seu sucessor Giacomo della Porta foi capaz de terminá-lo com ligeiras modificações, apenas. O modelo segue o da famosa cúpula que Brunelleschi ergueu na catedral de Florença e cria impressão de grande imponência. A diferença é que, ao contrário do que Michelangelo planejou, não se trata de uma cúpula semicircular mas afunilada, criando um movimento de impulso para cima até culminar na lanterna cujas janelas, inseridas em fendas entre duas colunas, deixam a luz inundar o interior. Terminada em 1590, ainda é uma das maravilhas da arquitetura ocidental.
Vignola, Pirro Ligorio, Giacomo della Porta continuaram os trabalhos na basílica.
Mudanças na liturgia, introduzidas pelo Concílio de Trento, fizeram necessárias outras mudanças sob o pontificado do Papa Paulo V (1605 a 1621), que encarregou Carlo Maderno de aumentar para o leste o edifício, aumentando a nave e criando assim uma cruz latina. Completou também em 1614 a famosa fachada.
O Papa Urbano VIII dedicou a nova igreja em 18 de novembro de 1626, precisamente 1.300 anos depois da data em que a primeira basílica fora dedicada.
Em 1629, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, agora o arquiteto principal, começou a construir as torres sineiras na fachada, que ruiram por deficiências estruturais. Trinta anos mais tarde Bernini redesenharia a Praça de São Pedro, mudando alguns aspectos do domo de Michelangelo e, sobretudo, unificando todos os edifícios em um conjunto harmonioso.
Os trabalhos terminaram quando se acrescentou uma sacristia, sob o pontificado do Papa Pio VI (1775-1799).
Impossível deixar de ver:
* O pórtico, a porta de bronze, século XV. A Porta Santa.
* A estátua em bronze de São Pedro por Arnolfo di Cambio.
* O túmulo do papa Urbano VIII por Bernini.
* O baldaquino e a cadeira de Pedro (Cathedra Petri) por Gian Lorenzo Bernini.
* A Capela do Sacramento,
* O túmulo do papa Inocêncio VIII, de 1498, por Antonio Pollaiuolo.
* A entrada do túmulo de São Pedro.
* A sacristia e a nova sacristia.
* Museu do Tesouro de São Pedro, ou Museo del Tesoro di S. Pietro
* A imagem de São Longuinho por Bernini.
* A Pietà, por Michelangelo.
* A Cúpula de São Pedro, projetada por Miguel Angelo, com 39.000 toneladas, 42 metros de diâmetro, e a mais elevada parte do Vaticano.
* Fonte dos Quatro Rios
++++++ From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ++++++
Carla Bley
Background information
Birth name Lovella May Borg
Born May 11, 1936 (age 81)
Oakland, California, U.S.
Genres Post bop, jazz fusion, free jazz
Occupation(s) Musician, bandleader, composer
Instruments Piano, organ
Years active 1960–present
Labels WATT, ECM, Universal
Associated acts Michael Mantler, Steve Swallow, Paul Bley, Nick Mason, Johnny Griffin, Gary Burton, Jimmy Giuffre, George Russell, Art Farmer, Liberation Music Orchestra, Jack Bruce, Charlie Haden, Jazz Composer's Orchestra, Paul Haines
Website wattxtrawatt.com
Carla Bley (née Lovella May Borg; born May 11, 1936) is an American jazz composer, pianist, organist and bandleader. An important figure in the free jazz movement of the 1960s, she is perhaps best known for her jazz opera Escalator Over The Hill (released as a triple LP set), as well as a book of compositions that have been performed by many other artists, including Gary Burton, Jimmy Giuffre, George Russell, Art Farmer, John Scofield and her ex-husband Paul Bley.
Contents
1 Early life
2 Later life and career
3 Awards
4 Discography
5 References
6 External links
Early life
Carla Bley at Keystone Korner, San Francisco 1979
Bley was born in Oakland, California to Emil Borg (1899-1990), a piano teacher and church choirmaster, who encouraged her to sing and to learn to play the piano, and Arline Anderson (1907-1944), who died when Bley was 8 years old. After giving up the church to immerse herself in roller skating at the age of fourteen,[1] she moved to New York at seventeen and became a cigarette girl at Birdland, where she met jazz pianist Paul Bley. She toured with him under the name Karen Borg, before she changed her name in 1957 to Carla Borg and married Paul Bley the same year adapting the Bley name.[2] He encouraged her to start composing.[3] The couple later divorced but she kept his surname professionally.[4]
Later life and career
A number of musicians began to record Bley's compositions: George Russell recorded "Bent Eagle" on his 1960 release Stratusphunk in 1960; Jimmy Giuffre recorded "Ictus" on his album Thesis; and Paul Bley's Barrage consisted entirely of her compositions. In 1964 she was involved in organising the Jazz Composers Guild which brought together the most innovative musicians in New York at the time.[3] She then had a personal and professional relationship with Michael Mantler, with whom she had a daughter, Karen, now also a musician in her own right. Bley and Mantler were married from 1967-92. With Mantler, she co-led the Jazz Composers' Orchestra and started the JCOA record label which issued a number of historic recordings by Clifford Thornton, Don Cherry and Roswell Rudd, as well as her own magnum opus Escalator Over The Hill and Mantler's The Jazz Composer's Orchestra LPs. Bley and Mantler followed with WATT Records, which has issued their recordings exclusively since the early 1970s. Bley and Mantler were pioneers in the development of independent artist-owned record labels and also started the now defunct New Music Distribution Service which specialized in small, independent labels that issued recordings of "creative improvised music".[citation needed]
Bley has collaborated with a number of other artists, including Jack Bruce, Robert Wyatt and Pink Floyd drummer Nick Mason, whose 1981 solo album Nick Mason's Fictitious Sports was a Carla Bley album in all but name. She arranged and composed music for Charlie Haden's Liberation Music Orchestra, and wrote A Genuine Tong Funeral for Gary Burton. Her arrangement of the score for Federico Fellini's 8½ appeared on Hal Willner's Nino Rota tribute record, Amarcord Nino Rota. She contributed to other Willner projects, including the song "Misterioso" for the tribute to Thelonious Monk entitled That's the Way I Feel Now, which included Johnny Griffin on tenor saxophone, and the Willner-directed tribute to Kurt Weill, entitled Lost in the Stars, where she and her band contributed an arrangement of the title track, with Phil Woods on alto saxophone. In the late 1980s, she also performed with Anton Fier's Golden Palominos and played on their 1985 album, Visions of Excess.[citation needed]
She has continued to record frequently with her own big band, which has included Blood, Sweat and Tears' notable Lew Soloff, and a number of smaller ensembles, notably the Lost Chords. Her current partner, the bassist Steve Swallow,[5] has been her closest and most consistent musical associate in recent years and the two have recorded several duet albums. In 1997, a live version of Escalator over the Hill (re-orchestrated by Jeff Friedman) was performed for the first time in Cologne, Germany; in 1998 Escalator toured Europe, and another live performance took place in May 2006 in Essen, Germany.
In 2005 she arranged the music for and performed on Charlie Haden's latest Liberation Music Orchestra tour and recording, Not in Our Name. She lives in Woodstock, New York.[6]
Awards
Bley was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1972 for music composition. In 2009, she was awarded the German Jazz Trophy "A Life for Jazz".[7][8] Bley received the NEA Jazz Masters Award in 2015.[9]
Plymouth Valiant
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the 1962-81 Chrysler Valiant sold in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, see Chrysler Valiant.
Plymouth Valiant
ManufacturerChrysler Corporation
Production1960–1976
Body and chassis
ClassCompact
LayoutFR layout
PlatformA-body
Chronology
SuccessorPlymouth Volare
The Plymouth Valiant (first appearing in 1960 as simply the Valiant) was an automobile manufactured by Plymouth in the United States from 1960 to 1976. It was created to give the company an entry in the compact car market emerging in the late 1950s. The Valiant was also built and marketed, without the Plymouth name, worldwide in countries including Australia, Canada, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa, Argentina, Brazil, Finland, Sweden, and Switzerland, as well as other countries in South America and Western Europe.
11960–1962
1.1Hyper-Pak
1.2Design and mechanical revisions
1.2.11960
1.2.21961
1.2.31962
21963–1966
2.1V8 engine
31967–1973
41974–1976
4.1Replacement with Plymouth Volaré and Dodge Aspen
4.2A38 police package
5Derivative models
5.1Barracuda
5.2Duster
6International variants
6.1Canada (1960–1966)
6.2Australia (1962–1981)
6.3Mexico (1963–1988)
6.4Argentina (1962–1968)
7Collectibility
8References
9External links
1960–1962
First generation
J66105 Bazou 20130810-162312
Overview
Production1959–1962
AssemblyDodge Main Assembly, Hamtramck, Michigan
Los Angeles Assembly, Maywood, California
Lynch Road Assembly, Detroit, Michigan
Newark Assembly, Newark, Delaware
Saint Louis Assembly, Fenton, Missouri
Body and chassis
Body style4-door 3-seat wagon (1960–61)
4-door 2-seat wagon (1960–62)
4-door sedan (1960–62)
2-door sedan (1961-62)
2-door hardtop (1961–62)
RelatedDodge Lancer
Chrysler Valiant
Powertrain
Engine170 cu in (2.8 L) LG Slant-6 I6
225 cu in (3.7 L) RG Slant-6 I6
Transmission3-speed manual
3-speed Torqueflite automatic
Dimensions
Wheelbase106.5 in (2,710 mm)
Length183.7 in (4,670 mm)
Width70.4 in (1,790 mm)
Height53.3 in (1,350 mm)
Curb weight2,750 lb (1,250 kg)
1961 Plymouth Valiant Wagon.
Plymouth Valiant dealer.
In May 1957, Chrysler president Lester Lum "Tex" Colbert established a committee to develop a competitor for the increasingly popular small imports. Virgil Exner designed a car that was smaller and lighter than a full-size car without sacrificing passenger and luggage space.[2] Originally named the Falcon after Exner's 1955 Chrysler Falcon concept car, the vehicle was renamed the 'Valiant' honoring Henry Ford II's request to use the name for the Ford Falcon.[3] The Valiant debuted at the 44th International Motor Show in London on October 26, 1959.[4] It was introduced as a 1960 model and was officially considered a distinct brand,[5] advertised with the tagline 'Nobody's kid brother, this one stands on its own four tires.' For the 1961 model year, the Valiant was classified as a Plymouth model.[6] The 1961-62 Dodge Lancer was essentially a rebadged Valiant with different trim and styling details. For the 1962 model year, the Valiant returned without Plymouth or Dodge branding but was sold only in Plymouth Chrysler, Chrysler Dodge, or the rare standalone Plymouth dealerships. For model year 1963 and onwards the car was sold in the United States only as a Plymouth Valiant. In Canada (1960–66) the car was marketed as a separate brand, with "Valiant by Chrysler" appearing on the rear trunk lids of cars sold there. The Valiant was also built and sold as a "Valiant" in Argentina (1962–68). The primarily US built Plymouth Valiant was sold in Mexico as a Chrysler Valiant starting with the 1963 model year.
The semi-fastback gave it a sleek, European look
The Valiant was less radical in configuration than General Motors' compact Chevrolet Corvair, which had an air-cooled rear-mounted engine, but was considered more aesthetically daring than the also-new Falcon which had a more conventional look, while the Valiant boasted a radical design that continued Exner's Forward Look styling. With its semi-fastback and lengthy hood line, many automotive publications of the time thought the Valiant's styling was European inspired. While the Valiant was all new, specific design elements tied it to other contemporary Chrysler products. Features such as the canted tail fins tipped with cat's-eye shaped tail lamps and the simulated spare tire pressing on the deck lid were thematically similar to those on the Imperial and the 300F. to one side. The cast-iron block Slant-6 gained a reputation for dependability as it was initially engineered as an aluminum block engine with a robust casing. Over 50,000 die-cast aluminum versions of the 225 cu in (3.7 L) engine were produced between late 1961 and early 1963.
The 1960 Valiant exemplified Chrysler's leadership in aluminum die casting. While the aluminum Slant-6 engine block wouldn't enter production until 1961, the Kokomo, Indiana, foundry produced a number of aluminum parts for the 1960 Valiant, and was instrumental in reducing the total weight of the car. The 1960 model contained as much as 60 lb (27 kg) of aluminum in structural and decorative forms, with the majority of the material used in cast form as chassis parts.[8] These parts included the oil pump, water pump, alternator housing, Hyper-Pak and standard production intake manifolds, Torqueflite A-904 automatic transmission and torque converter housing and extension, and numerous other small parts. If this same assembly had been made of die-cast zinc, as many grilles of the era were, it would have weighed an estimated 13 lb (5.9 kg).[8] An estimated 102 lb (46 kg)—about 4% of a Valiant's total shipping weight—was saved with the 60 lb (27 kg) of aluminum parts.
An all-aluminum Slant-6 engine with reproduction Hyper Pak intake manifold
Plymouth product planning director Jack Charipar gave impetus for a stock car racing version of the Valiant,[9] and while Chrysler engineers developed the Hyper-Pak for the track, the Hyper-Pak dealer tuning kit option was made available in limited quantities on December 1, 1959. Features included 153 lb·ft (207 N·m) of torque, a 10.5:1 compression ratio, dual exhaust pipes on a single muffler, a manual choke and a larger 15 US gal (57 l) fuel tank.[
NASCAR's new Compact Car category debuted at the Daytona International Speedway on January 31, 1960. The first of two races was a road course, which used a 1.5 mi (2.4 km) portion of the high-banked tri-oval together with a twisting infield road for a lap distance of 3.81 mi (6.13 km). The race length was 10 laps, 38.1 mi (61.3 km). Averaging a speed of 88.134 mph (141.838 km/h),[11] Marvin Panch drove his Hyper-Pak into first place; all the Hyper-Paks swept the field taking the first seven places. The second race of the day used only the tri-oval track 20 laps on its full 2.5 mi (4.0 km) length totaling 50 mi (80 km). A multi-car accident on the fourth lap took out the four Valiant leaders including one driven by Richard Petty. Panch was not among them because car trouble delayed his start and he was busy passing slower cars from the rear of the field when the leaders crashed. After a restart, Panch worked to first place and stayed there averaging a speed of 122.282 mph (196.794 km/h).[11] The remaining Valiants placed 1-2-3 and Panch again went into the winner's circle. Maxwell again recalls that "It was a Plymouth runway. We finished first through seventh. Our cars were so fast, NASCAR never did that race again."[12]
Design and mechanical revisions
The first-generation Valiants, though sold in three model years, existed in four distinct configurations: early 1960, late 1960, 1961, and 1962. The base-model V100 cars received relatively minimal ornamentation.
1960[edit]
1960 back showing the spare-tyre stamping on the lid
Early 1960 models, particularly the V200 high-trim cars, featured extensive brightwork and ornamentation. An 8 in (20 cm) chrome spear atop each front fender, an inner reveal ring on the deck lid's spare tire stamping, a "V200" nameplate on the dashboard, and stainless steel windshield and backlight reveal moldings were deleted from production—the latter replaced with less costly flexible mylar-faced plastic locking strips—in approximately January, 1960.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
IndustryCargo and passenger shipping
SuccessorRederi Swedish American Line AB
Founded1915
Defunct1984 (former SAL)
HeadquartersGothenburg, Sweden
Key people
Dan Broström
ParentBroström Group
SubsidiariesSouth Atlantic Lines, Home Lines, Hoverlloyd, Swedish Atlantic Line, Atlantic Container Line
Swedish American Line (Swedish: Svenska Amerika Linien, abbreviated SAL) was a Swedish passenger shipping line. It was founded in December 1914 under the name Rederiaktiebolaget Sverige-Nordamerika, beginning ocean liner service from Gothenburg to New York in 1915.[1][2] In 1925 the company changed its name to Svenska Amerika Linien / Swedish American Line.[2]
The Swedish American Line was amongst the first companies to build liners with provisions for off-season cruising, as well as the world's first company to build a diesel-engined transatlantic liner.[3] Increased operational costs and stronger competition from aeroplanes[4][5] forced the company to abandon passenger traffic in 1975,[1] but cargo operations continued until the 1980s.[6]
History
1915–1924
Rederiaktiebolaget Sverige-Nordamerika (literally, "shipping corporation Sweden-North America") was born from the idea of Wilhelm R. Lundgren, the owner of Rederiaktiebolaget Transatlantic, with the purpose of offering ocean liner service from Sweden to North America. Both Norway and Denmark already operated their own transatlantic liners, and the establishing of a Swedish company for the trade was a matter of national pride.[7][8] Lundgren died in September 1914, but his successor Gunnar Carlsson managed to attract the attention of Dan Broström of the Broström Concern, and on 4 December 1914 the new Rederiaktiebolaget Sverige-Nordamerika was founded in Gothenburg.[2][7][8] The Broström Concern had already operated freighters across the North Atlantic since 1911 under the name of Swedish American Mexico Line (often abbreviated SAML).[9][10] Originally the new company had planned to commission two purpose-built 18000-ton ships, but this plan was never realised. Instead, in September 1915 the company acquired the 1900-built Holland America Line vessel SS Potsdam, which was renamed SS Stockholm.[11][12] On 11 December 1915, in the midst of World War I, the Stockholm left on her first crossing from Gothenburg to New York. En route she was stopped by a British naval vessel and forced to make a stop at Kirkwall, where all mail onboard was confiscated. In the end, the Stockholm's first transatlantic crossing took no less than 15½ days.[2] Initially the new company concentrated on immigrant trade, with substantial provision made for passengers traveling in steerage.[13] Despite the difficulties caused by the war, the Stockholm continued transatlantic services until 1917, when Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare forced her to be laid up in Gothenburg until June 1918, when she resumed service.[11]
In February 1920 RAB Sverige-Nordamerika acquired a second ship, the former Allan Line vessel SS Virginian from Canadian Pacific Steamships. The ship had most recently been used as a troopship by the British Admiralty. She was renamed SS Drottningholm and entered service for her new owners on 30 May 1920. In 1922–1923 the Drottningholm was refurbished, re-engined and her superstructure enlarged.[2][13][14] As a partial replacement, the 1902-built SS Noordam was chartered from Holland America Line as SS Kungsholm from 27 February 1923 until 18 December 1924.[1][2][15] In April 1924 the company acquired SS Borgholm, a small coastal steamer that became the first in a series of feeder ships used to transport passengers from ports around the Baltic Sea to Gothenburg.[2][16][17][18]
In March 1923 RAB Sverige-Nordamerika placed an order for their first newbuilding, the first MS Gripsholm, with Armstrong Whitworth & Co in Newcastle upon Tyne.[2] She was the first diesel-engined liner to be built for the transatlantic service.[1] The Gripsholm was launched and christened on 26 November 1924, and delivered on 7 November 1925. On the same date her owners officially changed their name to Svenska Amerika Linien / Swedish American Line, and on 21 November the Gripsholm set out on her maiden voyage from Gothenburg to New York.[2][19] Encouraged by the success of the Gripsholm, SAL placed an order for a ship of similar but larger design with the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg on 28 October 1926.[2] In 1927 the company decided to enter the cruise market, offering various cruises during the northern hemisphere winter season.[20]
On 17 March 1928 the new MS Kungsholm was launched at Blohm & Voss.[2][21] The Kungsholm's interiors were designed with off-season cruising in mind, with her passenger capacity shrunk from 1344 on liner service to around 600 for cruising. She was also one of the first liners with interior decorations in art deco style, following the lead of the SS Ile de France, built in 1927.[3] The ship was delivered to SAL on 13 October 1928, and left on her maiden voyage on 24 November 1928.[2][21] Coinciding with the delivery of the new ship, the first SS Stockholm was sold to Norwegian interests for conversion to a whale factory ship, SS Solglimt.[11] With the Gripsholm and Kungsholm the SAL gained popularity with West European and American passengers, both in liner and cruise service.[3] In May 1929 the United States and Canada imposed extensive restrictions on immigration.[2] At some point after the delivery of the Kungsholm, SAL decided to abandon the traditional black hull colour and their entire fleet was repainted with white hulls.[1]
The Swedish American Line continued operations with the Drottningholm, Gripsholm and Kungsholm throughout the 1930s. In November 1936 the company placed an order for a new ship, MS Stockholm, with Cantieri Riuniti dell'Adriatico, Monfalcone, Italy.[2] The planned delivery date for the ship was in March 1939, but she was destroyed by a fire during the final stages of construction on 19 December 1938. Construction of a second ship based on the same design, also named MS Stockholm, began soon after the destruction of the original.[2][22][23]
1939–1946
Due to World War II breaking out in Europe, the Kungsholm made her last transatlantic crossing in October 1939, after which she was used for cruising around the West Indies until 1941. Also due to the war the Gripsholm and Drottningholm were taken out of service and are laid up on 24 November 1939 and March 1940, respectively.[2] Meanwhile, the construction work continued on the third Stockholm in Italy, and she was launched on 10 March 1940. In October 1941 the ship was ready for delivery, but due to the war SAL had no service to place her on. As a result, the ship was sold to the Italian government on 3 November 1941 and converted to the troopship MS Sabaudia. The Sabaudia eventually sunk outside Trieste on 6 July 1944.[2][23][24] Had the Stockholm ever entered service for SAL, she would have been the largest ship ever operated by the company.[25]
Stigbergskajen quay in Gothenburg where the steamers of the Swedish American Line moored, and the port terminal "The American Shed". Shown in 1944.
In December 1941 the US Government confiscated the Kungsholm while she was in New York. After negotiations with the Swedish American Line, the company agreed to sell the ship to the War Shipping Administration (WSA) for $6 million which renamed the ship John Ericsson for operation under WSA contract by United States Lines with allocation first to the State Department and then in January 1942 to Army troop transportation until 1945 when she was laid up.[2][21][26][27][28] The Drottningholm meanwhile was chartered by the US government 4 March 1942 for use as a repatriation vessel, to exchange official personnel between the United States and the Axis powers. As Sweden was a neutral country during the war, the Swedish-flagged ship could be used to transport passengers between the warring nations, under the command of Sea Captain John Nordlander. The Drottningsholm made two exchange trips for the US government, after which she was chartered for similar use by the British government. In June 1942 the Gripsholm was also chartered to the US government for the same use as the Drottningholm. For this purpose the Gripsholm was managed by the American Export Lines but kept her original Swedish crew and flag. Unlike the Drottningholm, the Gripsholm was chartered to the US government until 1946. Together the Drottningholm and Gripsholm made a total of 33 repatriation voyages during the war.[29]
In October 1944, before the end of World War II, SAL placed an order with the Götaverken shipyard in Gothenburg for a cargo/passenger liner of 12,165 gross register tons (GRT).[2]
1946–1951
In March 1946 the Swedish American Line re-commenced commercial service, with the Drottningholm setting on her first post-war crossing from Gothenburg on 26 March 1946, while the Gripsholm set out on her corresponding crossing from New York on 31 March 1946. On 9 September 1946 the company's newest ship was launched at the Götaverken shipyard and named MS Stockholm.[2] The new Stockholm was the product of an entirely different thinking from her two predecessors with the same name—instead of offering luxurious surroundings, the new ship was to offer cheap transportation for the masses with austere interiors—despite the protests from the company's chief executive and Stateside offices.[30][31] During the same year the Swedish American Line founded Home Lines together with Cosulich Lines and the Greek businessman Eugen Eugenides.[1] Additionally the operations of Swedish American Mexico Line were merged into those of the Swedish American Line in 1946, bringing five cargo-carrying ships to the fleet of SAL.[6][9] On 18 July 1947 Swedish American Line bought back the USS John Ericsson from the US Navy, and restored her to her original name. The ship sailed to the Ansaldo shipyard in Genoa, where she was rebuilt for service with Home Lines under the name MS Italia.[21]
On 7 February 1948 the new Stockholm was delivered to SAL. She set out on her maiden voyage from Gothenburg to New York on 21 February 1948.[32] When the Stockholm entered service, the Drottningholm was transferred to South Atlantic Lines (a subsidiary of SAL) and renamed SS Brazil for traffic with Home Lines.[14] Between 18 December 1949 and 14 February 1950 the Gripsholm was rebuilt at Howaldtswerke, Kiel with amongst others new funnels, a new bow and modern navigational equipment.[19] In March 1950 the company placed an order for a new combined cruise ship/ocean liner with De Schelde shipyard at Vlissingen, Netherlands. On 18 January 1951 the Swedish American Line re-commenced cruise service for the first time since 1941, when the Stockholm embarked on a cruise to the West Indies.[2]
1952–1962
The new ship under construction at De Schelde was launched on 18 October 1952 and named MS Kungsholm, becoming the third SAL ship to bear the name. The new Kungsholm was delivered on 30 September 1953, and set out on her maiden voyage from Gothenburg on 24 November 1953.[2][33] Following the Kungsholm's delivery the Stockholm was rebuilt with larger passenger accommodations.[31] Coinciding with the completion of the Stockholm's refit, the ageing Gripsholm was sold to the North German Lloyd, becoming their MS Berlin.[19][32] On 14 September 1954 SAL ordered another new ship, essentially an enlarged version of the most recent Kungsholm, from the Ansaldo shipyard. The new ship was named MS Gripsholm (the second ship to bear that name in the SAL fleet) and launched on 8 April 1956.[2]
On 25 July 1956 the Stockholm collided with the SS Andrea Doria outside Nantucket in one of the most famous maritime disasters of the 20th century. 47 people on the Andrea Doria were lost, while five members of the Stockholm's crew were lost in the collision. Several of the Andrea Doria's passengers were rescued by the Stockholm. She was able to return to New York under her own power, and was subsequently repaired at Bethlehem Steel, returning to service on 5 November 1956.[2][31][32] On 14 May 1957 the new Gripsholm started on her maiden voyage from Gothenburg to New York. For the next three years the company operated with three ships.[2] In May 1959 the Stockholm was sold to VEB Deutsche Seereederei, East Germany, with a delivery date on 3 January 1960, becoming their MS Völkerfreundschaft.[32]
1963–1975
On 23 August 1963 the Swedish American Line ordered another new ship, this time from John Brown and Company, Clydebank. The new ship, named MS Kungsholm (the fourth SAL ship with that name), was launched on 14 April 1964. Her design featured several cruise-friendly innovations, including all-outside cabins and large lido decks.[34] In preparation for the delivery of the new Kungsholm, the old (third) Kungsholm was sold to North German Lloyd on 5 October 1965, becoming their third MS Europa. The SAL operated with just one passenger-carrying ship until 24 April 1966, when the fourth (and final) Kungsholm was delivered. She began service with a transatlantic crossing from Gothenburg to New York, after which she was used for cruising around the world.[2][35] In 1966 SAL's ships made only nine transatlantic crossings.[34] In 1965 SAL had founded Hoverlloyd together with Swedish Lloyd to offer a fast hovercraft connection across the English Channel. Hoverlloyd begun operations in 1966 with two hovercraft, Swift and Sure.[36][37] Another joint operation was formed in the mid-60s when SAL, Rederiaktiebolaget Transatlantic and Wallenius Rederiet founded Atlantic Container Line as a joint marketing entity for transatlantic freight operations. Some time later the decision was made to establish a new company, Swedish Atlantic Line (AB Svenska Atlant Linjen), for Swedish American Line's freight operations. In the early 70s another joint company, Atlantic Gulf Services, was founded, this time in collaboration with Finnlines.[10]
In 1970 SAL's passenger ships made only three transatlantic crossings, and from 1971 onwards the only crossings made were repositioning cruises.[34] In June 1972 the Swedish American Line purchased the expedition cruise ship MS Lindblad Explorer via their Panama-based subsidiary United Cruising Co. Unlike other SAL passenger vessels, the Lindblad Explorer was registered in Panama, not Sweden.[38] Increased operational costs of Swedish-flagged ships forced the company to start negotiations with Swedish trade unions for re-flagging the Gripsholm and Kungsholm. The negotiations failed however, and 22 March 1975 the company decided to abandon passenger traffic despite protests from the company's United States offices, according to whom the ships would have continued to be highly profitable even under the Swedish flag.[1][2][25] The Gripsholm and Kungsholm were taken out-of-service and laid up in August 1975. The Kungsholm was sold to Flagship Cruises in October of the same year for only 65 million Swedish krona, a half of what SAL had paid for her nine years earlier. Flagship maintained her under the name Kungsholm for cruising under Liberian flag.[25][35] The Gripsholm found a buyer in November when she was sold to Karageorgis Lines, Greece, becoming their MS Navarino.[39] The Lindblad Explorer however stayed under SAL's ownership.[38] At the end of 1975 SAL withdrew from Atlantic Gulf Services.[10]
1975 onwards
SAL continued freight operations, maintained their share in Hoverlloyd and ownership of the Lindblad Explorer until the early 1980s. The Lindblad Explorer was sold to Lindblad Swire Cruises in 1980,[38] and soon afterwards SAL withdrew from Hoverlloyd.[36] Apparently the last ship owned by the company was sold in 1986.[6] In 1984 the company was bought by competing ship owner Rederi AB Transatlantic, which in turn was bought by transportation company Bilspedition AB in 1988. The last vestiges of SAL disappeared in 1990, when Bilspedition closed down its shipping department.[40]
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Battle of Peleliu
Part of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign of the Pacific Theater (World War II)
Date15 September – 27 November 1944
(2 months, 1 week and 5 days)
Location
Peleliu, Palau Islands
7°00′N 134°15′ECoordinates: 7°00′N 134°15′E
ResultAmerican victory
Belligerents
United States Japan
Commanders and leaders
United States William H. Rupertus
United States Paul J. Mueller
United States Roy S. Geiger
United States Herman H. Hanneken
United States Harold D. Harris
United States Lewis B. PullerEmpire of Japan Kunio Nakagawa †
Empire of Japan Sadae Inoue
Units involved
United States III Amphibious Corps
1st Marine Division
81st Infantry Division
Additional support units
Empire of Japan Peleliu garrison
14th Infantry Division
49th Mixed Brigade
45th Guard Force
46th Base Force
Additional support units
Strength
47,561[1]:3610,900[1]:37
17 tanks[2]
Casualties and losses
10,786
2,336 killed
8,450 wounded[3]10,897
10,695 killed
202 captured (183 foreign laborers, 19 Japanese soldiers)[1]:89[3]
17 tanks lost
Battle of Peleliu is located in Palau
Battle of Peleliu
Mariana and Palau Islands campaign
The Battle of Peleliu, codenamed Operation Stalemate II by the United States military, was fought between the U.S. and Japan during the Mariana and Palau Campaign of World War II, from September to November 1944, on the island of Peleliu.
U.S. Marines of the 1st Marine Division, and later soldiers of the U.S. Army's 81st Infantry Division, fought to capture an airstrip on the small coral island of Peleliu. This battle was part of a larger offensive campaign known as Operation Forager, which ran from June to November 1944, in the Pacific Theater.
Major General William Rupertus, Commander of the 1st Marine Division, predicted the island would be secured within four days.[4] However, after repeated Imperial Army defeats in previous island campaigns, Japan had developed new island-defense tactics and well-crafted fortifications that allowed stiff resistance,[5] extending the battle through more than two months. The heavily outnumbered Japanese defenders put up such stiff resistance, often fighting to the death in the Emperor's name, that the island became known in Japanese as the "Emperor's Island."[6]
In the United States, this was a controversial battle because of the island's negligible strategic value and the high casualty rate, which exceeded that of all other amphibious operations during the Pacific War.[7] The National Museum of the Marine Corps called it "the bitterest battle of the war for the Marines".[8]
Background
By 1944, American victories in the Southwest and Central Pacific had brought the war closer to Japan, with American bombers able to strike at the Japanese main islands from air bases secured during the Mariana Islands campaign (June–August 1944). There was disagreement among the U.S. Joint Chiefs over two proposed strategies to defeat the Japanese Empire. The strategy proposed by General Douglas MacArthur called for the recapture of the Philippines, followed by the capture of Okinawa, then an attack on the Japanese mainland. Admiral Chester Nimitz favored a more direct strategy of bypassing the Philippines, but seizing Okinawa and Taiwan as staging areas to an attack on the Japanese mainland, followed by the future invasion of Japan's southernmost islands. Both strategies included the invasion of Peleliu, but for different reasons.[9]
The 1st Marine Division had already been chosen to make the assault. President Franklin D. Roosevelt traveled to Pearl Harbor to personally meet both commanders and hear their arguments. MacArthur's strategy was chosen. However, before MacArthur could retake the Philippines, the Palau Islands, specifically Peleliu and Angaur, were to be neutralized and an airfield built to protect MacArthur's right flank.
Preparations
Japanese
By 1944, Peleliu Island was occupied by about 11,000 Japanese of the 14th Infantry Division with Korean and Okinawan labourers. Colonel Kunio Nakagawa, commander of the division's 2nd Regiment, led the preparations for the island's defense.
After their losses in the Solomons, Gilberts, Marshalls, and Marianas, the Imperial Army assembled a research team to develop new island-defense tactics. They chose to abandon the old strategy of stopping the enemy at the beach, where they were exposed to naval gunfire. The new tactics would only disrupt the landings at the water's edge and depend on an in-depth defense farther inland. Colonel Nakagawa used the rough terrain to his advantage, by constructing a system of heavily fortified bunkers, caves, and underground positions all interlocked into a "honeycomb" system. The traditional "banzai charge" attack was also discontinued as being both wasteful of men and ineffective. These changes would force the Americans into a war of attrition, requiring increasingly more resources.
Japanese fortifications
Nakagawa's defenses were centred on Peleliu's highest point, Umurbrogol Mountain, a collection of hills and steep ridges located at the center of Peleliu overlooking a large portion of the island, including the crucial airfield. The Umurbrogol contained some 500 limestone caves, interconnected by tunnels. Many of these were former mine shafts that were turned into defensive positions. Engineers added sliding armored steel doors with multiple openings to serve both artillery and machine guns. Cave entrances were opened or altered to be slanted as a defense against grenade and flamethrower attacks. The caves and bunkers were connected to a vast tunnel and trench system throughout central Peleliu, which allowed the Japanese to evacuate or reoccupy positions as needed, and to take advantage of shrinking interior lines.
The Japanese were well armed with 81 mm (3.19 in) and 150 mm (5.9 in) mortars and 20 mm (0.79 in) anti-aircraft cannons, backed by a light tank unit and an anti-aircraft detachment.
The Japanese also used the beach terrain to their advantage. The northern end of the landing beaches faced a 30-foot (9.1 m) coral promontory that overlooked the beaches from a small peninsula, a spot later known to the Marines who assaulted it simply as "The Point". Holes were blasted into the ridge to accommodate a 47 mm (1.85 in) gun, and six 20 mm cannons. The positions were then sealed shut, leaving just a small slit to fire on the beaches. Similar positions were crafted along the 2-mile (3.2 km) stretch of landing beaches.
The beaches were also filled with thousands of obstacles for the landing craft, principally mines and a large number of heavy artillery shells buried with the fuses exposed to explode when they were run over. A battalion was placed along the beach to defend against the landing, but they were meant to merely delay the inevitable American advance inland.
American
Unlike the Japanese, who drastically altered their tactics for the upcoming battle, the American invasion plan was unchanged from that of previous amphibious landings, even after suffering 3,000 casualties and two months of delaying tactics against the entrenched Japanese defenders at the Battle of Biak.[10] On Peleliu, American planners chose to land on the southwest beaches because of their proximity to the airfield on South Peleliu. The 1st Marine Regiment, commanded by Colonel Lewis B. (Chesty) Puller, was to land on the northern end of the beaches. The 5th Marine Regiment, under Colonel Harold D. Harris, would land in the center, and the 7th Marine Regiment, under Col. Herman H. Hanneken, would land at the southern end.
The division's artillery regiment, the 11th Marines under Col. William H. Harrison, would land after the infantry regiments. The plan was for the 1st and 7th Marines to push inland, guarding the 5th Marines left and right flank, and allowing them to capture the airfield located directly to the center of the landing beaches. The 5th Marines were to push to the eastern shore, cutting the island in half. The 1st Marines would push north into the Umurbrogol, while the 7th Marines would clear the southern end of the island. Only one battalion was left behind in reserve, with the U.S. Army's 81st Infantry Division available for support from Angaur, just south of Peleliu.
On September 4, the Marines shipped off from their station on Pavuvu, just north of Guadalcanal, a 2,100-mile (3,400 km) trip across the Pacific to Peleliu. A U.S. Navy's Underwater Demolition Team went in first to clear the beaches of obstacles, while Navy warships began their pre-invasion bombardment of Peleliu on September 12.
The battleships Pennsylvania, Maryland, Mississippi, Tennessee and Idaho, heavy cruisers Indianapolis, Louisville, Minneapolis and Portland, and light cruisers Cleveland, Denver and Honolulu,[1]:29 led by the command ship Mount McKinley, subjected the tiny island, only 6 sq mi (16 km2) in size, to a massive three-day bombardment, pausing only to permit air strikes from the three aircraft carriers, five light aircraft carriers, and eleven escort carriers with the attack force.[11] A total of 519 rounds of 16 in (410 mm) shells, 1,845 rounds of 14 in (360 mm) shells and 1,793 500 lb (230 kg) bombs were dropped on the islands during this period.
The Americans believed the bombardment to be successful, as Rear Admiral Jesse Oldendorf claimed that the Navy had run out of targets.[11] In reality, the majority of the Japanese positions were completely unharmed. Even the battalion left to defend the beaches was virtually unscathed. During the assault, the island's defenders exercised unusual firing discipline to avoid giving away their positions. The bombardment managed only to destroy Japan's aircraft on the island, as well as the buildings surrounding the airfield. The Japanese remained in their fortified positions, ready to attack the American landing troops.
Opposing forces
Naval command structure for Operation Stalemate II
Admiral Chester W. Nimitz
Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr.
Vice Adm. Theo. S. Wilkinson
Expeditionary Troops and III Amphibious Corps commanders
Maj. Gen. Julian C. Smith
Maj. Gen. Roy S. Geiger
Marine ground commanders on Peleliu
Maj. Gen. William H. Rupertus
Oliver P. Smith as a major general
Lewis B. Puller as a major general
American order of battle
United States Pacific Fleet[12]
Admiral Chester W. Nimitz
US Third Fleet
Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr.
Joint Expeditionary Force (Task Force 31)
Vice Admiral Theodore S. Wilkinson
Expeditionary Troops (Task Force 36)
III Amphibious Corps[a]
Major General Julian C. Smith,[b] USMC
Western Landing Force (TG 36.1)
Major General Roy S. Geiger, USMC
1st Marine Division
Division Commander: Maj. Gen. William H. Rupertus,[c] USMC
Asst. Division Commander: Brig. Gen. Oliver P. Smith,[d] USMC
Chief of Staff: Col. John T. Selden, USMC
Beach assignments
Left (White 1 & 2)
1st Marine Regiment (Col. Lewis B. "Chesty" Puller,[e] USMC)
Co. A of the following: 1st Engineer Battalion, 1st Pioneer Battalion, 1st Medical Battalion, 1st Tank Battalion
Center (Orange 1 & 2)
5th Marine Regiment (Col. Harold D. "Bucky" Harris, USMC)
Co. B of the following: 1st Engineer Battalion, 1st Pioneer Battalion, 1st Medical Battalion, 1st Tank Battalion (reduced)
Right (Orange 3)
7th Marine Regiment (Col. Herman H. "Hard-Headed" Hanneken, USMC)
Co. C of the following: 1st Engineer Battalion, 1st Pioneer Battalion, 1st Medical Battalion, 1st Tank Battalion (reduced)
Other units
11th Marine Regiment, Artillery (Col. William H. Harrison, USMC)
12th Antiaircraft Artillery Battalion
1st Amphibian Tractor Battalion
3rd Armored Amphibian Tractor Battalion
4th, 5th, 6th Marine War Dog Platoons
UDT 6 and UDT 7
Japanese order of battle
Lt. Col. Kunio Nakagawa
Marine with captured Japanese 141mm mortar
Palau District Group[15]
Lieutenant General Inoue Sadao[f] (HQ on Koror Island)
Vice Admiral Yoshioka Ito
Maj. Gen. Kenjiro Murai[g]
14th Division (Lt. Gen. Sadao)
Peleliu Sector Unit (Lt. Col. Kunio Nakagawa[h])
2nd Infantry Regiment, Reinforced
2nd Bttn. / 2nd Infantry Regiment
3rd Bttn. / 2nd Infantry Regiment
3rd Bttn. / 15th Infantry Regiment
346th Bttn. / 53rd Independent Mixed Brigade
Battle
Landing
Routes of Allied landings on Peleliu, 15 September 1944
U.S. Marines landed on Peleliu at 08:32, on September 15, the 1st Marines to the north on White Beach 1 and 2 and the 5th and 7th Marines to the center and south on Orange Beach 1, 2, and 3.[1]:42–45 As the other landing craft approached the beaches, the Marines were caught in a crossfire when the Japanese opened the steel doors guarding their positions and fired artillery. The positions on the coral promontories guarding each flank fired on the Marines with 47 mm guns and 20 mm cannons. By 09:30, the Japanese had destroyed 60 LVTs and DUKWs.
5th Marines on Orange Beach
The 1st Marines were quickly bogged down by heavy fire from the extreme left flank and a 30-foot-high coral ridge, "The Point".[1]:49 Colonel Chesty Puller narrowly escaped death when a dud high velocity artillery round struck his LVT. His communications section was destroyed on its way to the beach by a hit from a 47 mm round. The 7th Marines faced a cluttered Orange Beach 3, with natural and man-made obstacles, forcing the Amtracs to approach in column.[1]:52
The 5th Marines made the most progress on the first day, aided by cover provided by coconut groves.[1]:51 They pushed toward the airfield, but were met with Nakagawa's first counterattack. His armored tank company raced across the airfield to push the Marines back, but was soon engaged by tanks, howitzers, naval guns, and dive bombers. Nakagawa's tanks and escorting infantrymen were quickly destroyed.[1]:57
At the end of the first day, the Americans held their 2-mile (3.2 km) stretch of landing beaches, but little else. Their biggest push in the south moved 1 mile (1.6 km) inland, but the 1st Marines to the north made very little progress because of the extremely thick resistance.[1]:42 The Marines had suffered 200 dead and 900 wounded. Rupertus, still unaware of his enemy's change of tactics, believed the Japanese would quickly crumble since their perimeter had been broken.[18]
Airfield/South Peleliu
On the second day, the 5th Marines moved to capture the airfield and push toward the eastern shore.[1]:61 They ran across the airfield, enduring heavy artillery fire from the highlands to the north, suffering heavy casualties in the process. After capturing the airfield, they rapidly advanced to the eastern end of Peleliu, leaving the island's southern defenders to be destroyed by the 7th Marines.[1]:58
This area was hotly contested by the Japanese, who still occupied numerous pillboxes. Heat indices[19] were around[20] 115 °F (46 °C), and the Marines soon suffered high casualties from heat exhaustion. Further complicating the situation, the Marines' water was distributed in empty oil drums, contaminating the water with the oil residue.[21] Still, by the eighth day the 5th and 7th Marines had accomplished their objectives, holding the airfield and the southern portion of the island, although the airfield remained under threat of sustained Japanese fire from the heights of Umurbrogol Mountain until the end of the battle.[11]
American forces put the airfield to use on the third day. L-2 Grasshoppers from VMO-3 began aerial spotting missions for Marine artillery and naval gunfire support. On September 26 (D+11), Marine F4U Corsairs from VMF-114 landed on the airstrip. The Corsairs began dive-bombing missions across Peleliu, firing rockets into open cave entrances for the infantrymen, and dropping napalm; it was only the second time the latter weapon had been used in the Pacific.[citation needed] Napalm proved useful, burning away the vegetation hiding spider holes and usually killing their occupants.
The time from liftoff to the target area for the Corsairs based on Peleliu Airfield was very short, sometimes only 10 to 15 seconds. Consequently, there was almost no time for pilots to raise their aircraft undercarriage; most pilots did not bother and left them down during the air strike. After the air strike was completed and the payload dropped, the Corsair simply turned back into the landing pattern again.
The Point
The fortress at the end of the southern landing beaches (a.k.a. “The Point”) continued to cause heavy Marine casualties due to enfilading fire from Japanese heavy machine guns and anti-tank artillery across the landing beaches. Puller ordered Captain George P. Hunt, commander of K Company, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines, to capture the position. Hunt's company approached The Point short on supplies, having lost most of its machine guns while approaching the beaches. Hunt's second platoon was pinned down for nearly a day in an anti-tank trench between fortifications. The rest of his company was endangered when the Japanese cut a hole in their line, surrounding his company and leaving his right flank cut off.[1]:49
However, a rifle platoon began knocking out the Japanese gun positions one by one. Using smoke grenades for concealment, the platoon swept through each hole, destroying the positions with rifle grenades and close-quarters combat. After knocking out the six machine gun positions, the Marines faced the 47 mm gun cave. A lieutenant blinded the 47 mm gunner's visibility with a smoke grenade, allowing Corporal Henry W. Hahn to launch a grenade through the cave's aperture. The grenade detonated the 47 mm's shells, forcing the cave's occupants out with their bodies alight and their ammunition belts exploding around their waists. A Marine fire team was positioned on the flank of the cave where the emerging occupants were shot down.
K Company had captured The Point, but Nakagawa counterattacked. The next 30 hours saw four major counterattacks against a sole company, critically low on supplies, out of water, and surrounded. The Marines soon had to resort to hand-to-hand combat to fend off the Japanese attackers. By the time reinforcements arrived, the company had successfully repulsed all of the Japanese attacks, but had been reduced to 18 men, suffering 157 casualties during the battle for The Point.[1]:50–51 Hunt and Hahn were both awarded the Navy Cross for their actions.
Ngesebus Island
The 5th Marines—after having secured the airfield—were sent to capture Ngesebus Island, just north of Peleliu. Ngesebus was occupied by many Japanese artillery positions, and was the site of an airfield still under construction. The tiny island was connected to Peleliu by a small causeway, but 5th Marines commander Harris opted instead to make a shore-to-shore amphibious landing, predicting the causeway to be an obvious target for the island's defenders.[1]:77
Harris coordinated a pre-landing bombardment of the island on September 28, carried out by Army 155 mm (6.1 in) guns, naval guns, howitzers from the 11th Marines, strafing runs from VMF-114's Corsairs, and 75 mm (2.95 in) fire from the approaching LVTs.[1]:77 Unlike the Navy's bombardment of Peleliu, Harris' assault on Ngesebus successfully killed most of the Japanese defenders. The Marines still faced opposition in the ridges and caves, but the island fell quickly, with relatively light casualties for the 5th Marines. They had suffered 15 killed and 33 wounded, and inflicted 470 casualties on the Japanese.
Bloody Nose Ridge
After capturing The Point, the 1st Marines moved north into the Umurbrogol pocket,[1]:81 named "Bloody Nose Ridge" by the Marines. Puller led his men in numerous assaults, but each resulted in severe casualties from Japanese fire. The 1st Marines were trapped in the narrow paths between the ridges, with each ridge fortification supporting the other with deadly crossfire.
The Marines took increasingly high casualties as they slowly advanced through the ridges. The Japanese again showed unusual fire discipline, striking only when they could inflict maximum casualties. As casualties mounted, Japanese snipers began to take aim at stretcher bearers, knowing that if stretcher bearers were injured or killed, more would have to return to replace them, and the snipers could steadily pick off more and more Marines. The Japanese also infiltrated the American lines at night to attack the Marines in their fighting holes. The Marines built two-man fighting holes, so one Marine could sleep while the other kept watch for infiltrators.
One particularly bloody battle on Bloody Nose came when the 1st Battalion, 1st Marines—under the command of Major Raymond Davis—attacked Hill 100. Over six days of fighting, the battalion suffered 71% casualties. Captain Everett Pope and his company penetrated deep into the ridges, leading his remaining 90 men to seize what he thought was Hill 100. It took a day's fighting to reach what he thought was the crest of the hill, which was in fact another ridge occupied by more Japanese defenders.
Marine Pfc. Douglas Lightheart (right) cradles his .30 caliber (7.62×63mm) M1919 Browning machine gun in his lap, while he and Pfc. Gerald Thursby Sr. take a cigarette break, during mopping up operations on Peleliu on 15 September 1944.
Trapped at the base of the ridge, Captain Pope set up a small defense perimeter, which was attacked relentlessly by the Japanese throughout the night. The Marines soon ran out of ammunition, and had to fight the attackers with knives and fists, even resorting to throwing coral rock and empty ammunition boxes at the Japanese. Pope and his men managed to hold out until dawn came, which brought on more deadly fire. When they evacuated the position, only nine men remained. Pope later received the Medal of Honor for the action. (Picture of the Peleliu Memorial dedicated on the 50th anniversary of the landing on Peleliu with Captain Pope's name)
The Japanese eventually inflicted 70% casualties on Puller's 1st Marines, or 1,749 men.[1]:66 After six days of fighting in the ridges of Umurbrogol, General Roy Geiger, commander of the III Amphibious Corps, sent elements of U.S. Army's 81st Infantry Division to Peleliu to relieve the regiment.[1]:66 The 321st Regiment Combat Team landed on the western beaches of Peleliu—at the northern end of Umurbrogol mountain—on 23 September. The 321st and the 7th Marines encircled The Pocket by 24 Sept., D+9.[1]:75,81
By 15 October, the 7th Marines had suffered 46% casualties and General Geiger relieved them with the 5th Marines.[1]:83 Col. Harris adopted siege tactics, using bulldozers and flame-thrower tanks, pushing from the north.[1]:83–84 On October 30, the 81st Infantry Division took over command of Peleliu, taking another six weeks, with the same tactics, to reduce The Pocket.[1]:85
On 24 November, Nakagawa proclaimed "Our sword is broken and we have run out of spears". He then burnt his regimental colors and performed ritual suicide.[1]:86 He was posthumously promoted to lieutenant general for his valor displayed on Peleliu. On 27 November, the island was declared secure, ending the 73-day-long battle.[18]
A Japanese lieutenant with twenty-six 2nd Infantry soldiers and eight 45th Guard Force sailors held out in the caves in Peleliu until April 22, 1947, and surrendered after a Japanese admiral convinced them the war was over.[1]:81
Aftermath
The reduction of the Japanese pocket around Umurbrogol mountain has been called the most difficult fight that the U.S. military encountered in the entire war.[21] The 1st Marine Division was severely mauled and it remained out of action until the invasion of Okinawa began on April 1, 1945. In total, the 1st Marine Division suffered over 6,500 casualties during their month on Peleliu, over one third of their entire division. The 81st Infantry Division also suffered heavy losses with 3,300 casualties during their tenure on the island.
Postwar statisticians calculated that it took U.S. forces over 1500 rounds of ammunition to kill each Japanese defender and that, during the course of the battle, the Americans expended 13.32 million rounds of .30-calibre, 1.52 million rounds of .45-calibre, 693,657 rounds of .50-calibre bullets, 118,262 hand grenades, and approximately 150,000 mortar rounds.[11]
The battle was controversial in the United States due to the island's lack of strategic value and the high casualty rate. The defenders lacked the means to interfere with potential US operations in the Philippines[11] and the airfield captured on Peleliu did not play a key role in subsequent operations. Instead, the Ulithi Atoll in the Caroline Islands was used as a staging base for the invasion of Okinawa. The high casualty rate exceeded all other amphibious operations during the Pacific War.[7]
In addition, few news reports were published about the battle because Rupertus' prediction of a "three days" victory motivated only six reporters to report from shore. The battle was also overshadowed by MacArthur's return to the Philippines and the Allies' push towards Germany in Europe.
The battles for Angaur and Peleliu showed Americans the pattern of future Japanese island defense but they made few adjustments for the battles for Iwo Jima and Okinawa.[22] Naval bombardment prior to amphibious assault at Iwo Jima was only slightly more effective than at Peleliu, but at Okinawa the preliminary shelling was much improved.[23] Frogmen performing underwater demolition at Iwo Jima confused the enemy by sweeping both coasts, but later alerted Japanese defenders to the exact assault beaches at Okinawa.[23] American ground forces at Peleliu gained experience in assaulting heavily fortified positions such as they would find again at Okinawa.[24]
On the recommendation of Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr., the planned occupation of Yap Island in the Caroline Islands was canceled. Halsey actually recommended that the landings on Peleliu and Angaur be canceled, too, and their Marines and soldiers be thrown into Leyte Island instead, but was overruled by Nimitz.[25]
In popular culture
In the March of Time's 1951 documentary TV series, Crusade in the Pacific, Episode 17 is "The Fight for Bloody Nose Ridge."
In NBC-TV's 1952-53 documentary TV series Victory at Sea, Episode 18, "Two if by Sea" covers the assaults at Peleliu and Angaur.
The Battle of Peleliu is featured in many World War II themed video games, including Call of Duty: World at War. The player takes the role of a US Marine tasked with taking Peleliu Airfield, repelling counter-attacks, destroying machine-gun and mortar positions and eventually securing Japanese artillery emplacements at the point. In flight-simulation game War Thunder, two teams of players clash to hold the southern and northern airfields. In multi-player shooter Red Orchestra 2: Rising Storm, a team of American troops attack the defensive Japanese team's control points.
The battle including footage and stills are featured in the fifth episode of Ken Burns' The War.
The battle features in episodes 5, 6 and 7 of the TV mini-series The Pacific.
In his book, With the Old Breed, Eugene Bondurant Sledge described his experiences in the battle for Peleliu.
In 2015, the Japanese magazine Young Animal commenced serialization of Peleliu: Rakuen no Guernica by Masao Hiratsuka and artist Kazuyoshi Takeda, telling the story of the battle in manga form.
One of the final scenes in Parer's War, a 2014 Australian television film, shows the Battle of Peleliu recorded by Damien Parer with his camera at the time of his death.
The Peleliu Campaign features as one of the campaigns in the 2019 solitaire tactical wargame “Fields of Fire” Volume 2, designed by Ben Hull, published by GMT Games LLC.
Individual honors
Japan
Posthumous promotions
For heroism:
Colonel Kunio Nakagawa – lieutenant general
Kenjiro Murai – lieutenant general
United States
Pfc. Richard Kraus, USMC (age 18), killed in action
Medal of Honor recipients
Captain Everett P. Pope – 1st Battalion, 1st Marines
First Lieutenant Carlton R. Rouh – 1st Battalion, 5th Marines
Private First Class Arthur J. Jackson – 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines
Corporal Lewis K. Bausell –1st Battalion, 5th Marines (Posthumous)
Private First Class Richard E. Kraus – 8th Amphibian Tractor Battalion, 1st Marine Division (Reinforced) (Posthumous)
Private First Class John D. New – 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines (Posthumous)
Private First Class Wesley Phelps – 3rd Battalion, 7th Marines (Posthumous)
Private First Class Charles H. Roan – 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines (Posthumous)
Unit citations
D-day Peleliu, African Americans of one of the two segregated units that supported the 7th Marines - the 16th Marine Field Depot or the 17th Naval Construction Battalion Special take a break in the 115 degree heat, 09-15-1944 - NARA - 532535
Presidential Unit Citation:
1st Marine Division, September 15 to 29, 1944[26]
1st Amphibian Tractor Battalion, FMF[27]
U. S. Navy Flame Thrower Unit Attached[27]
6th Amphibian Tractor Battalion (Provisional), FMF[27]
3d Armored Amphibian Battalion (Provisional), FMF[27]
Detachment Eighth Amphibian Tractor Battalion, FMF[27]
454th Amphibian Truck Company, U. S. Army[27]
456th Amphibian Truck Company, U. S. Army[27]
4th Joint Assault Signal Company, FMF[27]
5th Separate Wire Platoon, FMF[27]
6th Separate Wire Platoon, FMF[27]
Detachment 33rd Naval Construction Battalion (202 Personnel)[27]
Detachment 73rd Naval Construction Battalion's Shore Party (241 Personnel)[27]
USMC Commendatory Letter:[i]
11th Marine Depot Company (segregated)
7th Marine Ammunition Company (segregated)
17th Special Naval Construction Battalion (segregated)
Ginetta Cars
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Ginetta Cars Limited Ginetta logo.png
Industry Automotive
Founded 1958
Founder Walklett brothers
Headquarters Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
Key people
Lawrence Tomlinson, Chairman
Simon Finnis, Managing Director
Products Sports cars
Parent LNT Group
Website Ginetta.com
Ginetta Cars is a British specialist builder of racing and sports cars based in Garforth, Leeds, West Yorkshire.
Contents
1 History
1.1 20th century
1.2 21st century
1.3 Models
2 Ginetta Racing Championships
2.1 Michelin Ginetta GT4 SuperCup
2.2 Ginetta Junior Championship
2.3 Ginetta Junior Scholarship
2.4 Protyre Motorsport Ginetta GT5 Challenge
2.5 Ginetta Racing Drivers Club
3 See also
4 References
5 Bibliography
6 External links
History
1964-68 Ginetta G4R
1969 Ginetta G15
1974 Ginetta G21
1992 Ginetta G33
1996 Ginetta G27 series 3
2005 Ginetta G20
2006 Ginetta G12 by DARE
20th century
Ginetta was founded in 1958 by the four Walklett brothers (Bob, Ivor, Trevers and Douglas) in Woodbridge, Suffolk. Their first product sold as the Fairlight was a glass fibre body shell priced at £49 for fitting to Ford 8 or 10hp chassis.[1] The first car, not destined for production, which subsequently became known as the Ginetta G1, was based on a pre war Wolseley Hornet six.[2]
From their original base, the company moved to Witham, Essex in 1962, and between 1972 and 1974 operated from larger premises in Ballingdon Street adjacent to the railway bridge Sudbury, Suffolk before returning to Witham where they remained until 1989. Under the Walkletts, Trevers was mainly responsible for styling, Ivor for engineering, Douglas for management, and Bob for sales.
Following the retirement of the Walkletts in 1989 the company was sold but failed, and was then bought by an international group of enthusiasts, based in Sheffield, and run by managing director Martin Phaff producing the G20 and G33
21st century
In late 2005 Ginetta was acquired by LNT Automotive, a company run by experienced racing driver and successful businessman Lawrence Tomlinson. His aims remained in line with the original founders of Ginetta; to continue producing innovative, capable and above all, great value sports cars.
In mid-2007 Ginetta moved to a state-of-the-art factory near Leeds, with a target to sell 200 cars a year. Trained engineer Tomlinson himself penned the base specification for the Ginetta G50, which was produced to celebrate 50 years of Ginetta production, and became a successful GT4 and award winning car.
In March 2010, Ginetta acquired the Somerset-based sports car manufacturer Farbio, and re-badged their car the Ginetta F400. In March 2011, Ginetta launched the G55, running in the Michelin Ginetta GT Supercup and built to the GT3 class regulations. In October 2011 Ginetta launched the G60, a two-door mid-engined sports car developed from the F400 and powered by a Ford-sourced 3.7-litre V6 engine.[3]
Currently, Ginetta have developed a range of award-winning road and race cars, making them a formidable player on the world motorsport scene.
Models
The first car, the G2, was produced as a kit for enthusiasts and consisted of a tubular frame chassis to take Ford components and aluminium body. About 100 were made. The G3 was introduced with glass fibre body in 1959 to be followed by the G4 in 1961.[4]
The G4 used the new Ford 105E engine and had a glass fibre GT style body and the suspension was updated to coil springing at the front with Ford live axle at the rear. Whereas the G2 and G3 had been designed for competition the G4 was usable as an everyday car but still was very competitive in motor sport with numerous successes. Over 500 were made up to 1969 with a variety of Ford engines. In 1963 a coupé was introduced alongside the open car and a BMC axle replaced the Ford one at the rear.[5] On test the car reached 120 mph (190 km/h) with a 1500 cc engine.[6] The series III version of 1966 added the then-popular pop-up headlights. Production stopped in 1968 but was revived in 1981 with the Series IV which was two inches wider and three inches (76 mm) longer than the III.
The G10 and G11 from 1964 were higher-powered versions with 4.7-litre Ford V8 and MGB engines respectively. The G12 was a mid-engined competition car.
In 1967 the G15 was launched utilizing a rear mounted 875cc Sunbeam Imp engine.[7] This two-seater coupé had a glass fibre body bolted to a tube chassis and used Imp rear and Triumph front suspension. Approximately 800 were produced from 1967 to 1974 [7] and the car was fully type approved allowing for the first time complete Ginetta cars to be sold. Eight G15s were engineered for Volkswagen engines and called the "Super S".
In 1970 it was joined by the larger G21, which was initially available with either a 1599 cc Ford Kent engine, or a 3-litre Ford V6 engine.[8] The 1725 cc Sunbeam Rapier engine subsequently became the standard four-cylinder engine for the car. The model was later updated to become the closed G24 or open top G23. The G19 was a Formula 3 single seater but only one was ever made.
Following reorganisation the company moved to Scunthorpe and started making cars in kit form again in the 1980s starting with the G27 and followed by the G26, G28, G30 and G31, with all cars using Ford parts. It was also decided to re-enter the complete car business with the mid-engined G32 with a choice of 1.6- and 1.9-litre 4-cylinder engines available as a coupé or convertible and the G33 convertible with 3.9-litre Rover V8 capable of 145 mph (233 km/h) and a 0-60 mph time of 5 seconds. The G4 was re-introduced in 1981 as the G4 Series IV, with a new chassis.[9] It was produced through to 1984 with approximately 35 examples built.[9] In 1990 the G32 coupé cost £13,700, the convertible £14,600, and the G33 £17,800.
After Ginetta was acquired by Lawrence Tomlinson in 2005, the company began work on the design of the Ginetta G50 - a 3.5 litre V6 engine, producing 300 BHP - to celebrate the company's 50th birthday. In 2007, the car competed in its first race in the European GT4 Cup in Nogaro France, finishing second.
Soon after this success, the machine was officially launched at Autosport International in early 2008 alongside its sister car, the Ginetta G50 GT4. Together, they have become Ginetta’s biggest selling machine, and have raced (and won) in almost every continent, including the Dubai 24 Hour endurance race in 2012 with Optimum Motorsport.
In March 2010, Lawrence acquired the Somerset-based sports car manufacturer Farbio, and in doing so inherited the F400, which was subsequently redesigned, redeveloped and rebranded from the Farbio Marque, into a Ginetta G60; a two-door mid-engined powerhouse which shares the same 3.7 litre V6 engine as its G55 GT3 stablemate and packs a real punch, capable of 0 – 60 mph in 4.9 seconds, with a top speed of 165 mph.
In the same year, Lawrence implemented a newer, safer car into the existing Ginetta Junior series and in doing so, replaced the old Ginetta G20 race car with a G40J. In concordance with his belief in nurturing young racing talent through the motorsport ladder, today’s G40J is designed for young racing drivers, offering an entry-level 1800cc, 100 bhp racing car with such safety features as a full integral FIA approved roll cage and fibre-glass shell.
Following the success of the G40J, Ginetta decided to introduce a Ginetta G40 Challenge car for the adult racers in its Challenge series. With the same engine as its sister car, the G40 Challenge car is capable of 165 bhp and competes against existing G20 models. Today, the car features heavily in the Total Quartz Ginetta GT5 Challenge, one of the most popular competitive racing series in Britain.
With strong demand for a G40 race car, Ginetta unveiled its second road car - the Ginetta G40R - in 2011, designed to mimic the Walklett brothers' original vision of 'a race car for the road'. Capable of 0-60 in 5.8 seconds, the G40R shares a number of characteristics with its racing siblings.
2011 also saw the introduction of the G55 Cup car to the Ginetta GT Supercup, which, until that point, had only featured the G50 Cup car. Offering a 3.7 litre V6 engine with 380 BHP, the car provided Ginetta with the basis for their Ginetta G55 GT3 Car; a larger spec machine which gives GT teams a 4.35L V8 powerplant, complete with an aggressive-looking body which masks an efficient aerodynamic package.
Ginetta Racing Championships
Ginetta Chairman Lawrence Tomlinson’s vision for Ginetta is to provide competitive and affordable motorsport for drivers as young as 14 to be able to progress through the Ginetta championships comprehensive career ladder, before ultimately competing in top level GT or single-seater arenas.
No other British manufacturer runs three championships within the two biggest racing packages in Britain and receives the levels of media exposure gained throughout the season. The Michelin Ginetta GT4 SuperCup and Ginetta Junior Championship can be seen running alongside the British Touring Car Championship, whilst the Protyre Motorsport Ginetta GT5 Challenge is a firm favourite on the British GT package.
Over the past five years, Ginetta have supported over 240 drivers as they took their first steps into the world of motor racing, and have established routes from entry-level racing to the 24 Hours of Le Mans, helped most recently by the introduction of the Ginetta Racing Drivers Club.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Coordinates: 41.851°N 90.198°W
Type For-profit (NYSE: BPI)
Established 1918
Parent institution
Bridgepoint Education
President Craig D. Swenson[1]
Academic staff
3,581[2]
Administrative staff
400[3]
Students 48,895 (online)[4]
Location San Diego (headquarters)[5], California, United States
Colors Purple and Gold
Nickname The Saints
Website www.ashford.edu
Ashford University is an online for-profit university headquartered in San Diego, California.[5] It is the largest educational holding of Bridgepoint Education.[6] The university offers associate's, bachelor's, and master's degrees in more than 50 degree programs online.
The university consists of four colleges: the Forbes School of Business, the College of Education, the College of Health, Human Services, and Science, and the College of Liberal Arts.[7]
Ashford is accredited by the WASC Senior College and University Commission.[8]
History
Roots: 1893–1918
Mount Saint Clare, circa 1920
Ashford University's campus was established in 1893 as the Mount St. Clare Academy, a boarding and day school for girls. The idea for this school formed when Father James A. Murray invited the Sisters of St. Francis to help teach in Clinton, Iowa. The new Mount St. Clare building was erected for this school in 1910 and remains in use through 2016.
Mount St. Clare College: 1918–1979
Seeing a need for higher education in Clinton County and the surrounding area, the sisters founded Mount St. Clare College in 1918.[9] This liberal arts institution was also an approved teacher education college from 1932 to 1954. In 1942, 60% of the rural teachers in Clinton County and 62% of the teachers in the city of Clinton school system had received all their training from Mount St. Clare College.
In 1950, the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools first accredited Mount St. Clare College. The college then began to expand quickly, and acquired a convent building, new library, new gymnasium, the Science Building, and Durham Residence Hall. The college eventually became coeducational in 1967.
Going Four Years: 1979–2003
For the 1979–1980 school year, the college received approval for its first four-year degree, a bachelor's program in business administration. During the same year, Mount St. Clare Academy merged with St. Mary's High School in Clinton, forming Mater Dei High School (now known as Prince of Peace Preparatory). With the space freed by the academy's merger, the school began to offer additional four-year programs. In 1997, the sisters moved off campus into their new mother house, The Canticle. In 1998, the Durgin Educational Center was opened, which included new athletic facilities, including Kehl arena.
Franciscan University of the Prairies: 2003–2005
In 2003, Mount St. Clare College changed its name to The Franciscan University.[10] At the same time, the university received approval to offer its first master's degree online. In September 2004, the school modified its name to The Franciscan University of the Prairies in order to avoid confusion with similarly named schools.[11]
Ashford University: 2005–2016
After a period of financial difficulty, the university was purchased by Bridgepoint Education in March 2005.[12] After the completion of the sale, the institution's name was changed to Ashford University.[12] Sponsorship by the Sisters of St. Francis ended.
Although the university was regionally accredited by The Higher Learning Commission (HLC) of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools, it sought regional accreditation from the Western Association of Schools and Colleges ("WASC") in 2010.[13] In June 2012, WASC denied initial accreditation to Ashford University.[14] Following WASC's denial of accreditation for being "lacking in several areas, including low numbers of full-time faculty, high student dropout rates and questions about academic rigor," HLC demanded additional information from Ashford prior to an October site visit.[15]
In response to accreditation concerns, the school's trustees appointed Richard Pattenaude as president in October 2012. Pattenaude is a former chancellor of the University of Maine System who also served as chairman of the Commission on Institutions of Higher Education for the New England Association of Schools and Colleges, a regional accrediting body.[16] Although its initial application to WASC was denied in 2010, its second application was accepted in 2013.[17] In approving accreditation, the WASC Commission Action Letter stated "The Commission found that the University has responded to Commission concerns and judges that it is now in substantial compliance with Commission standards." The WASC visiting team noted in its final report that "the team found an institution that has been fundamentally transformed and whose culture has been changed in significant ways, including a shift from a market driven approach to an institution committed to student retention and success".[18]
In 2013, Ashford University announced an alliance with business publisher Forbes Media. Under the terms of the alliance, Ashford's College of Business and Professional Studies was renamed the Forbes School of Business at Ashford University.[19]
Online-only: 2016–present
Ashford University closed the Iowa campus at the end of the 2016 school year due to an inability to maintain an adequate enrollment.[20] The school is facing major challenges, including the potential loss of GI Bill funding.[21][22] The university's owner, Bridgeport Education, plans to merge Ashford with the University of the Rockies and convert Ashford to a non-profit university.[23]
In 2018, the University took steps to become a nonprofit institution.[24] According to Nolan Sundrud, a spokesman for Bridgepoint Education, the nonprofit status would allow the University to be "...judged and measured as colleges and universities should be - on their ability to support student success."[25] The switch requires approval from both the Internal Revenue Service and the Department of Education.
Presidents
Leaders of Ashford and its predecessor institutions have included:
Mother Mary Paul Carrico, O.S.F., 1918–1921
Mother Kristen Dunno, O.S.F., 1921–1924
Mother Mary Paul Carrico, O.S.F., 1924-1936[26]
Mother Mary John McKeever, O.S.F., 1936–1948
Mother Mary Regis Cleary, O.S.F., 1948–1958
Sister Mary Cortona Phelan, O.S.F., 1958–1968
Sister Mary Cecile Devereux, O.S.F., 1968–1971
Sister Eileen Smith, O.S.F., 1972–1976
Dan C. Johnson, 1976–1985
The Rev. Charles E. Lang, 1986–1991
James J. Ross, 1991–2000
Brian McNicholas, 2001–2002
Michael E. Kaelke, 2002–2005
James Chitwood, 2005–2007
Jane McAuliffe, 2007–2011
Elizabeth Tice, 2011–2012
Richard Pattenaude, 2012–2016
Craig D. Swenson, 2016–present
Funding
Ashford University gets approximately 95% of its money from the US federal government, including $41 million from military tuition assistance and $26 million from GI Bill funds.[27]
Academics
According to the National Center for Education Statistics, Ashford University employs 272 full-time faculty and 3,185 part-time faculty.[28]
The university consists of five colleges:
Forbes School of Business and Technology
College of Education
College of Health, Human Services, and Science
College of Liberal Arts[7]
Honors College
Campus closing
While a majority of students were enrolled in online courses[6] managed from the university's headquarters in San Diego, California, Ashford's traditional campus was located in Clinton, Iowa.[5] The 24-acre (9.7 ha) campus is about a half mile (800 m) from the Mississippi River and about a mile (1,600 m) north of Highway 30. The most notable building on campus is St. Clare Hall, which has served as the Mount St. Clare Convent, Novitiate, Academy, and College. The lower floors of St. Clare Hall housed administrative and support staff, while the upper floors contained classrooms.[citation needed]
The Durgin Educational Center housed Kehl Arena, the athletics department, and the animation lab. The renovated Ladd Science Building had chemistry, biology, microbiology, research and biochemistry labs. Durham and Regis Halls provide residence to on campus students.
On July 9, 2015, the university announced that the Clinton, Iowa, campus will close after the 2015-2016 academic year, at the end of May 2016. The inability to meet campus enrollment requirements was a key factor in the Ashford University Board of Trustees' decision to call for the campus closure.[29]
Student life
Student organizations
The Ashford University offers many extracurricular clubs and organizations for students. Academic organizations include the Ashford Junior-Senior Honor Society, the Ashford Student Iowa State Education Association, the Golden Key International Honour Society,[30] the Mu Sigma Eta math and science honor society, the Phi Beta Lambda business organization, the Psychology Club, the Scholars Institute honors program, and the Sigma Tau Delta literature and education honor society. Artistic organizations on campus include the Concert Choir, AU Dance, the Fine Arts Club, the Photography Club, and the Wind Ensemble. Other significant student organizations include The Clarion newspaper,[31] the Student Government Association, AU Life, the International Student Organization, the Latin American Student Organization, the Environmental Association, and numerous intramural sports and activities.[32]
Honor societies
Ashford University students who excel academically have the opportunity to join several honor societies.[33] Online students can join the Alpha Sigma Lambda[34] and Phi Theta Kappa[35] honor societies. Campus students are eligible for the Ashford Junior-Senior Honor Society, the Scholars Institute, Mu Sigma Eta math and science honor society,[36] and Sigma Tau Delta[37] literature and education honor society. Both online and campus students are able to join Delta Alpha Pi International Honor Society, Golden Key International Honour Society,[30] and SALUTE Veterans National Honor Society.[38]
Military students
Ashford University provides benefits targeted specifically to military students, including a Military Tuition Grant, a waiver of technology fees, free books and shipping, and specialized advisors who work exclusively with military students.[39] In 2014, the University was included in the directory of military-friendly schools compiled by Military Advanced Education magazine.[40] According to the Department of Defense, 16,636 service members are using their TA benefits for Ashford. An additional 9,831 use their GI Bill benefits for the school.[41]
On November 14, 2017, Ashford University announced that it was suspending enrolling veterans using GI Bill benefits.[42]
Athletics
Ashford University teams were known as the Saints. The university competed in the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) as an Independent member; the Saints formerly competed in the Midwest Collegiate Conference (MCC). Men's sports included baseball, basketball, golf, bowling, tennis, soccer, cross country, and track and field; women's sports include basketball, soccer, softball, golf, bowling, tennis, cross country, track and field and volleyball.
Service
The Ashford Sharing Time and Resources (S.T.A.R.) program connects students to volunteering opportunities in communities across the United States.[43] The Ashford Heroes program brings staff and faculty together for large-scale volunteering events.[44] Previous volunteer events have included cleaning parks and public spaces, painting and refurbishing schools in underprivileged areas and building bikes for disadvantaged youth. Ashford S.T.A.R. and Heroes volunteers have also collected food, toys, and monetary donations to support numerous charities, such as the San Diego Food Bank,[45] the Freezin' for Food campaign in Clinton, Iowa,[46] and Toys for Tots.[47]
Lawsuits and controversies
2006 student complaints to Iowa Department of Education
According to U.S. Senate testimony by Arlie Willems, retired reviewer for the Iowa Department of Education, the Iowa Department of Education denied Ashford University's request in 2006 to offer an online Master of Arts in Teaching (MAT) on the grounds that the program "was more a collection of discrete courses than a cohesive program, was understaffed for appropriate interaction with students and supervision of both courses and clinical experiences, including student teaching. Many faculty members lacked appropriate academic background and/or experiences for their assigned responsibilities. The most serious concern noted by the team was the lack of responsibility on the part of the program in providing quality clinical experiences, the aspect of teacher preparation considered the most important by preparation programs in Iowa."[48]
Willems also testified that Ashford entered into partnership with Rio Salado Community College whereas education courses from the Ashford BA in Social Science with a Concentration in Education could apply to Rio Salado's post-baccalaureate teacher education program. Once students have completed the online Ashford BA and the online Rio Salado teacher education program, they are eligible for an Arizona teaching license. Willem's noted that this partnership could be seen as a creative way to solve a problem in order to continue drawing students, or it could be seen as a way to circumvent the accountability system for quality in order to continue collecting tuition from students. An individual who has attained an Arizona license in this way does not automatically receive an Iowa license because Iowa and Arizona do not have a reciprocity agreement.
According to Willems, complaints from Ashford students concerning this agreement and licensure include:
1) Individuals from Iowa and many other states had completed Ashford's online Bachelor of Arts in Social Science with a Concentration in Education. These individuals had been led to believe that, upon completion of this program, they would be eligible for a license in their home state because Ashford has a state-approved teacher education program (the on-ground undergraduate program).
2) Individuals were students or graduates of the Ashford online baccalaureate program, but were not aware of the need to complete the Rio Salado program as well in order to receive an Arizona license. These individuals were not even aware of the Rio Salado partnership.
3) Ashford students were intending to complete student teaching through Rio Salado College and believed they would then automatically be eligible for an Iowa teaching license.
4) Students were completing an online degree through Ashford in early childhood believed that this degree would lead to an Iowa teaching license. It does not.[48]
2008 U.S. Department of Education audit
In May 2008, the U.S. Department of Education's Office of Inspector General (OIG) audit services division commenced a compliance audit of Ashford University covering the period March 10, 2005, through June 30, 2009. The OIG audit reached the following conclusions:
Audit focus[49] Audit result[50]
Compensation policies and practices relating to enrollment advisers Rewarded recruiters based on their success in securing enrollments
Calculation, timeliness, and disbursement accuracy of Title IV program funds Improperly retained at least $1.1 million during the 2006–7 period
Student authorizations to retain credit balances Kept credit balances without the proper authorization
Maintenance of supporting documentation for a student's leave of absence Took too long to return money awarded to students who withdrew
The stock of Ashford's parent company, Bridgepoint Education, fell the most in almost five months when the misuse of federal student aid was first publicly disclosed in 2009.[49] When the official results were released in 2011, Senator Tom Harkin said this audit "reveals the same troubling pattern of for-profit colleges' taking advantage of students and taxpayers." The Department of Education has not yet responded to the findings.[50]
The audit was the subject of a U.S. Senate committee hearing on March 10, 2011.[51]
2009 expose related to abuse of military personnel
A Bloomberg News report revealed that Ashford was recruiting disabled soldiers at the Wounded Warrior Battalion at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, including a Marine with a traumatic brain injury.[52]
2011 Iowa Attorney General investigation
According to a February 15, 2011, filing with the Securities and Exchange Commission, Ashford University and its parent company, Bridgepoint Education, received a letter from the Iowa Attorney General's office on February 9, 2011, requesting "documents and detailed information" from January 1, 2008, to the present to determine if Ashford's business practices possibly violated the state's Consumer Fraud Act.[53]
2011 U.S. Senate hearings
On March 10, 2011, Senator Tom Harkin (D-Iowa) chaired a hearing of the Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions Committee that examined a case study of Ashford's parent company, which has experienced near-exponential profit growth in the last few years despite low graduation rates. Bridgepoint owns two universities that it purchased when both were near bankruptcy, Ashford University in Iowa and the University of the Rockies in Colorado. When it purchased Ashford University in 2005, it had fewer than 300 students but today it claims to have over 78,000 students, 99% of which are online.[54][55][56]
Senator Harkin took issue with success of the company saying that while Bridgepoint may have had record profits the students were not succeeding. According to information provided by Senator Harkin in the committee hearing, 63% of students who enrolled at Ashford University during the 2008-2009 school year withdrew before completion of their prospective program. Senator Harkin pointed out that Bridgepoint recorded more than $216 million in profits in 2010; of which 86.5 percent of its revenues come from federal funds. In reference to the dependence of Bridgepoint on public funds, Senator Harkin was quoted as saying, "I think this is a scam, an absolute scam."[55]
Kathleen Tighe, who is an inspector general with the U.S. Department of Education, testified at the hearing that in an audit of Ashford, she discovered Ashford was improperly distributing student aid to students. "Seventy-five percent of the improper disbursements to students in our sample were made to students who never became eligible," Tighe said. Bridgepoint hadn't returned the improperly obtained student aid to the federal government, and said on a recent report she'd seen that Bridgepoint was "sitting on $130 million" in these types of funds.[55]
Due to the ongoing Office of Federal Student Aid (FSA) proceedings, and in order to preserve due process, Ashford's parent company, Bridgepoint Education, chose not to send executives to the HELP committee hearing while engaged in negotiations with FSA.[57] Rather, Bridgepoint published a summary of responses called Bridgepoint Education Transparency.
Department of Education audit
Ashford has also been audited for its recruiting and finance practices in a U.S. Department of Education audit. Bridgepoint Education responded in March 2011 with a report asserting that the information used in the Senate hearing was either inaccurate or incomplete.[58]
Robocalling allegations
On December 3, 2014 a suit was filed in Arizona federal court charging that Bridgepoint Education is violating the Telephone Consumer Protection Act by robocalling sales prospects. Similar suits were filed in October in federal court in San Diego and the Northern District of Ohio.[59]
CFPB Investigation
In 2015, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau reported that they were investigating Ashford University related to '"unlawful acts or practices related to the advertising, marketing or origination of private student loans."'[60]
2016 inter-agency investigations
In 2016, Bridgepoint Education received a subpoena from the Securities and Exchange Commission related to the potential joint resolution of investigations by the California Attorney General and the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau.[61]
2016 federal whistleblower lawsuit
In 2016, a former senior vice president at Ashford University alleged that Bridgepoint falsified its financial reports by inaccurately projecting the student retention rate.[62]
2016 CFPB fine
On September 12, 2016, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau fined Bridgepoint Education, the parent company of Ashford University, $31.5 million for deceiving students about the cost of private student loans; $23.5 million is supposed to be for relief and refunds to consumers.[63]
VA benefit eligibility
In 2016, the Iowa Department of Education notified Ashford that it would discontinue approval for GI Bill benefits after June 30.[64] In September 2017 the Department of Veterans Affairs accepted the shift in its state-based eligibility for veterans' benefits from Iowa to Arizona, but also stated in a letter that the VA has independent regulatory authority aside from the Arizona State Approving Agency.[21][65][22] In September 2017, the VA gave Ashford approval to enroll GI Bill students indefinitely.[66]
2017 investigation by The Chronicle of Higher Education
Ashford University and its parent company Bridgepoint Education were the subject of an investigation published in The Chronicle of Higher Education. The article included information about Bridgepoint's political moves with Arizona politicians in order to maintain GI Bill funding. [67]
2017 California Attorney General lawsuit
In November 2017, the California Attorney General brought a lawsuit against Ashford and its parent company Bridgepoint for engaging in "unlawful marketing, sales and debt collection practices".[68]
Nº 25.
Toyota Celica.
Escala 1/60.
"Coches en miniatura" - "El Periódico" (España).
Welly/Nex.
Año 2015.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
Toyota Celica
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"The Toyota Celica /ˈsɛlɨkə/ is a sport compact car which was produced by the Japanese company Toyota from 1970 to 2006. The Celica name was ultimately derived from the Latin word coelica meaning "heavenly" or "celestial". In Japan, the Celica was exclusive to Toyota Japanese dealerships Toyota Corolla Store.
Throughout its life span the Celica has been powered by various four-cylinder engines.
The most significant change occurred in August 1985, when the car's drive layout was changed from rear wheel drive to front wheel drive. During the first three generations, American market Celicas were powered by various versions of Toyota's R series engines. The four-wheel drive turbocharged model called GT-Four worldwide (All-Trac Turbo in the US) was produced from 1986 to 1999.
Variable Valve Timing came in certain Japanese models starting in December 1997, and became standard in all models from 2000-on. Through seven generations, the model has gone through many revisions and design forks, including the Toyota Celica Supra (later known as the Toyota Supra). The Celica was available as notchback and liftback coupes, as well as a convertible."
- First generation / A20 & A35 Series (1970–1977)
- Second generation / A40 & A50 Series (1977–1981)
- Third generation / A60 Series (1981–1985)
- Fourth generation / T160 Series (1985–1989)
- Fifth generation / T180 Series (1989–1993)
- Sixth generation / T200 Series (1993–1999)
- Seventh generation / T230 series (1999–2006)
"In late 1999, Toyota began production and sales of the seventh-generation Celica. It closely resembled the XYR concept with the exception of the front bumper and rear spoiler, while omitting the previously available coupe bodystyle.
The 2000 model year Celica was an element of Toyota Project Genesis, an effort to bring younger buyers to the marque in the United States. Toyota took time to lighten the car and lower cost wherever possible. Power window and door lock controls were placed in the center console so only 1 set was necessary for both doors. Initial sunroofs were made of polymer plastic instead of the traditional glass. This generation was assembled by Kanto Auto Works at its Higashi-Fuji plant in Susono, Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan.
The Celica came in two different models. The ZZT230 was powered by a relatively economical 1.8 L 4-cylinder 140 hp (104 kW) 1ZZ-FE engine and the ZZT231 powered by a higher-performance 1.8 L 4-cylinder 192 hp (143 kW) (in Europe and Japan) 2ZZ-GE version, co-developed with Yamaha, the latter featuring a two-step variable valve lift control in conjunction with its variable valve timing.
In 2004, CNNMoney.com rated the Celica as one of the best cars to purchase for fuel economy.
Exporting of the Celica ceased in July 2005. However until mid-May, customers could still order one, although it was advised they took action before that time ended.
The last Celica was rolled off production line on April 21, 2006. In its last year, the Celica was only officially sold in Japan."
Production
July 1999 – April 2006
Assembly
Susono, Shizuoka, Japan (Higashi-Fuji plant)
Designer
Alan R. Schneider, Yasuhiko Mizuhata, Hiroyuki Metsugi (1997)
(...)
Negril
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the album, see Negril (album).
Negril
Beach Resort
Negril coastline, with its famous beach in the background.
Negril coastline, with its famous beach in the background.
Negril is located in Jamaica NegrilNegril
Coordinates: 18.3110182°N 78.339386°WCoordinates: 18.3110182°N 78.339386°W[1]
CountryJamaica
ParishWestmoreland and Hanover
Time zoneEST (UTC-5)
Negril is a small (pop. 6,900) but widely dispersed beach resort town located across parts of two Jamaican parishes, Westmoreland and Hanover.[2]
Negril is about an hour and fifteen minute drive on the coastal highway from Sir Donald Sangster International Airport, in Montego Bay. Westmoreland is the westernmost parish in Jamaica, located on the south side of the island. Downtown Negril, the West End cliff resorts to the south of downtown, and the southern portion of the so-called "seven mile (11 km) beach" are in Westmoreland. The northernmost resorts on the beach are in Hanover Parish. The nearest large town is Savanna-la-Mar, the capital of Westmoreland Parish.
Contents [hide]
1History
2Geography and ecology
3Negril today
4Notable appearances in media
5Notable people
6See also
6.1Resorts
7Notes
8References
9External links
History[edit]
Negril Jamaica town center
Negril fishing boats
Cliff Jumper at Ricks in Negril, Jamaica
Negril Lighthouse
The name Negril is a shortened version of Negrillo (Spanish: Little black ones), as it was originally named by the Spanish in 1494. The name is thought by some to be a reference to the black cliffs south of the village.[citation needed] Another theory holds that because there was a vast population of black eels along Negril's coast, the Spaniards called the area Anguila Negra which was shortened to Negrillo and then to Negril. Although Negril has a long history, it did not become well known until the second half of the twentieth century.[3]
Negril's development as a resort location began during the late 1950s, though access to the area proved difficult as ferries were required to drop off passengers in Negril Bay, forcing them to wade to shore. Most vacationers would rent rooms inside the homes of Jamaican families, or would pitch tents in their yards. Daniel Connell was the first person to create more traditional vacation lodging for these "flower children" when he set up the first guest house in Negril - Palm Grove. The area's welcoming and hospitable reputation grew over time and the first of many resorts was constructed in the mid to late 1960s. The first hotel in Negril was the Yacht Club by Mary's Bay on the West End.
When the road between Montego Bay and Negril was improved in the early 1970s, it helped to increase Negril's status as a new resort location. It was a two-lane paved road that ran approximately 100 yards (91 m) inland from two white coral sand beaches, at the southern end of which was a small village. The long paved road from the village ran north to Green Island, home to many of the Jamaican workers in Negril, and was straight enough to double as a runway for small airplanes, which was why there were lengths of railroad track standing on end along the side of the road - to discourage drug smugglers from landing on the road to pick up cheap cargos of marijuana[citation needed].
After Negril's infrastructure was expanded—anticipating the growth of resorts and an expanding population, a small airport, the Negril Aerodrome, was built in 1976 near Rutland Point, alongside several small hotels mostly catering to the North American winter tourists. Europeans also came to Negril, and several hotels were built to cater directly to those guests.
Geography and ecology[edit]
The geography of Jamaica is diverse. The western coastline contains the island's finest beaches, stretching for more than 6 km (3.7 mi) along a sandbar at Negril. It is sometimes known among tourists as the "7-Mile Beach" although it is only slightly more than 4 mi (6.4 km) in length, from the Negril River on the south to Rutland Point on the north.
On the inland side of Negril's main road, to the east of the shore, lies a swamp called the Great Morass, through which runs the Negril River. Within the Great Morass is the Royal Palm Reserve, with protected wetlands and forest.
In 1990, the Negril Coral Reef Preservation Society was formed as a non-profit, non-governmental organization to address ongoing degradation of the coral reef ecosystem. The Negril Marine Park was officially declared on March 4, 1998 covering a total area of approximately 160 km2 (62 sq mi) and extending from the Davis Cove River in the Parish of Hanover to St. John’s Point in Westmoreland.
Scuba diving and snorkeling are especially good in the protected reef areas.
The West End Road is also known as Lighthouse Road as there is a Belgian engineered lighthouse protecting seafarers from the dramatic cliffs. There is beautiful scenery on this western tip of Negril, near Negril Lighthouse. You can mingle with locals at beer shacks like Sexy Rexy's and others "out West".
Negril today[edit]
For years, Negril's beach has been rated as one of the top ten beaches in the world by many travel magazines.[citation needed] The beach's length is the stuff of legends—it is actually little more than four miles in length, but tourists and travel writers insist on the "seven-mile" label.[citation needed] The north end of the beach is home to the large, all-inclusive resorts, and to the south are the smaller, family-run hotels. This combination gives the Negril area a large variety of rooms, services and prices.
South of downtown Negril is West End Road, known as the West End, which is lined with resorts that offer more privacy. These areas offer easy access to waters good for snorkelling and diving, with jumping points reaching more than 40 feet (12 m) high.
Many vendors and shops are located around the beach resorts; however, they are predominantly located on the south end of the beach, where there are fewer all inclusive resorts.
That Negril is still fairly underdeveloped remains a significant factor in its charm, but this may not last, as a new highway from Montego Bay and an improved infrastructure may bring more tourists. As a result, more hotels and tour operators continue to develop new attractions and excursions in Negril. Since the 1980s, it has also become a popular location for U.S. college students to visit during spring break or just a regular vacation in Jamaica.
The last few years have seen major development along the beach. The resorts include Couples Swept Away, Couples Negril, Sandals, Beaches, Samsara Hotel, Legends Resort, the Grand Lido, Riu Palace Tropical Bay, Riu Club Hotel and Hedonism II. The Hedonism II resort is one enduring hotel/resort that has been saved from bankruptcy and remains an adult destination. A franchise of Jimmy Buffett's chain restaurant and bar, Jimmy Buffett's Margaritaville, and a duty-free zone have also been added.
In recent years, a large development has been constructed consisting of ocean front villas, 2 or 3 bed townhouse developments and studio apartments. This development is known as Little Bay Country Club and is home to some of the wealthiest Jamaican families.
Currently under construction is the huge new Royalton Negril Resort.
Notable appearances in media[edit]
The early development of Negril as a resort is featured in Ian Fleming's 1965 novel The Man with the Golden Gun. One of the schemes of the novel's antagonist Francisco Scaramanga was to open a hotel called the "Thunderbird" on the beach.
Notable people[edit]
Author and activist B. Denham Jolly was born in Negril.[4]
See also[edit]
List of beaches in Jamaica
Resorts[edit]
Beaches Resorts - Negril[5]
Sandals Negril
Little Bay Country Club (LBCC)
Couples Swept Away
Couples Negril
Royalton Negril (under construction)
Mahane Yehuda Market
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
Mahane Yehuda Market
Shuk Mahane Yehuda
Shuk (26).JPG
Mahane Yehuda Market on a busy Friday
Mahane Yehuda Market is located in JerusalemMahane Yehuda Market
Location within Jerusalem
Alternative namesThe Shuk or Machne
General information
LocationJerusalem, Israel
Coordinates31°47′08″N 35°12′44″E
OpenedLate 19th century
ManagementMachane Yehuda Management
Mahane Yehuda Market (Hebrew: שוק מחנה יהודה, Shuk Mahane Yehuda), often referred to as "The Shuk",[1] is a marketplace (originally open-air, but now partially covered) in Jerusalem, Israel. Popular with locals and tourists alike, the market's more than 250 vendors[2] sell fresh fruits and vegetables; baked goods; fish, meat and cheeses; nuts, seeds, and spices; wines and liquors; clothing and shoes; and housewares, textiles, and Judaica.[3][4]
In and around the market are falafel, shawarma, kibbeh, kebab, shashlik, kanafeh, baklava, halva, zalabiya and jerusalem mixed grill stands, juice bars, cafes, and restaurants.[2] The color and bustle of the marketplace is accentuated by vendors who call out their prices to passersby.[2] On Thursdays and Fridays, the marketplace is filled with shoppers stocking up for Shabbat,[5] until the Friday afternoon sounding of the bugle that signifies the market will close for the Sabbath.[2][6] In recent years, the 'shuk' has emerged as another Jerusalemic nightlife center, with restaurants, bars and live music.[7]
Contents
1Geography
2History
3Tourism
3.1Artwork
4Management
5Clientele
6Hours of operation
7Transportation
8Notable residents and businesses
9Holiday markets
10Terrorist attacks
11See also
12References
13External links
Geography
Jaffa oranges and Judaica at Mahane Yehuda.
Mahane Yehuda market is bounded by Jaffa Road to the north, Agrippas Street to the south, Beit Yaakov Street to the west, and Kiach Street to the east.[8] The market itself has two major streets: Eitz Chaim Street (the covered market) and Mahane Yehuda Street (the open-air market). Bisecting these two streets are smaller streets that all used to be named for fruits and nuts—Afarsek (Peach) Street, Agas (Pear) Street, Egoz (Walnut) Street, Shaked (Almond) Street, Shezif (Plum) Street, Tapuach (Apple) Street, and Tut (Berry) Street[4]—until the municipality changed the name of Agas St. to Yaakov Eliyahu Banai St.[9]
History
In 1887 the neighborhood of Mahane Yehuda was established on the north side of Jaffa Road. It was founded by three business partners—Johannes Frutiger (a German Protestant and owner of the largest bank in Palestine), Shalom Konstrum, and Joseph Navon—and was named after Navon's brother, Yehuda.[4] On the south side of the street to the west stood another neighborhood, Beit Ya'akov, founded in 1885.[10]
At the end of the 19th century, a marketplace was established on an empty lot to the east of Beit Ya'akov and across the road from Mahane Yehuda which was owned by the Sephardi Valero family;[4] this market was known as Shuk Beit Yaakov (Beit Yaakov Market).[10] Here Arab merchants and fellaheen sold their goods to the residents who lived outside the Old City. As the new neighborhoods outside the Old City grew, the Beit Yaakov Market grew apace with more stalls, tents and pavilions.[10]
Under Ottoman rule, the market expanded haphazardly and sanitary conditions worsened. In the late 1920s, the British Mandate authorities cleared out all the merchants and built permanent stalls and roofing.[4] Afterwards the market began to be known as the Mahane Yehuda Market, after the larger neighborhood.[11]
In 1931 a new section was built to the west of the market by 20 traders, who previously had only temporary wooden stalls in the area. It was later named the Iraqi Market, as many traders of Iraqi Jewish descent acquired shops there.[12] Today the Iraqi Market is located off Mahane Yehuda Street.
A halvah seller arranges his wares.
In the 2000s, major renovations were made to the Mahane Yehuda Market, including infrastructure work, repaving roads and covering some open areas.[4] The market's Board of Directors worked to make at least some of these changes in response to a decrease in visitors after terrorist attacks in 1997 and 2002 killed 23 people.[13] Changes driven by the Board included renovations to the streets and alleyways, but also included efforts to draw in cafes and boutiques that would entice more middle-class customers who might become frequent shoppers.[13] According to Eli Mizrachi, chairman of the Mahane Yehuda Merchants Association, whereas shoppers used to come to buy produce, the "new generation" wants a place with entertainment, a place to sit and have a cup of coffee, and a place to shop for gifts.[14]
In the mid-2000s, Ethiopian food sellers began to appear in and around the market.[15][16] In addition, a number of "trendy shops and cafés" began appearing among the market's retail stalls."[17] New "non-Middle Eastern" restaurants include eateries such as "Pasta Basta," specializing in Italian pasta dishes,[18] "Fish and Chips," described by one guide book as "the only fish and chips bar in Jerusalem,"[14][19] and "Ha'Agas 1," a vegetarian restaurant.[20] Other recent additions to the market's stalls include an espresso bar, "hip jewelry" stores, and designer clothing "boutiques".[3][21][22][23] Three new designer clothing stores opened in 2007 alone.[24]
Bread and pita vendor.
Changes in the market have transformed the area into a "night spot," with bars featuring specialty drinks, live music, and singers.[14] The change has been so pronounced that a Jerusalem Post article listed one shuk restaurant as one of the five highest-rated restaurants in the city for romantic dates.[25] The shuk also now hosts special events like the "Balabasta" dance and music festival, launched in 2010, which attracts large crowds that remain until late at night, in areas that used to be deserted.[14] The annual festival includes street performances, artwork, puppet shows, and events linked to the market's foods, such as chili-eating contests and produce-carving workshops.[26][27]
While some supporters of changes to the market claim that the revitalized shuk has actually helped to revitalize the whole city,[14][28] others are less enthusiastic about the changes, noting that real estate prices have quadrupled since the 2000s, forcing out many older shops (like vegetable and fish shops) that were staples of the market.[14] They fear that the arrival of chain stores is "part of a global phenomenon that may erase local culture".[29]
Tourism
A boutique in the marketplace.
Beit Zvul, a storefront synagogue.
The Jerusalem Municipality has invested millions in modernizing the center of Jerusalem and creating many pedestrian malls in order to elevate commerce, tourism, and culture.[30] Nir Barkat, mayor of Jerusalem, said, "We realized if we wanted to increase our market share of tourism and the time people spend in Jerusalem, nightlife is key". In recent years, as part of this strategy, many bars and restaurant have opened in the alleyways of the Mahane Yehuda market to draw young and sophisticated customers.[7][31]
Another sign of change is the fact that in 2012 at least one Mahane Yehuda shop, Eli's, has a page on the social media website Facebook.[32][33] Additionally, the shuk as a whole now has an "interactive website" in Hebrew and another in English that include articles, photos, advertisements, and maps.[13][34][35] Additionally, free Wi-Fi internet access is now available to customers in some of the market's shops.[36][37]
Another innovation, offered through the website, is a ticket for a self-guided tour of the market called "Shuk Bites", where for 99 shekels (as of 2012) a ticket includes both a map with a pre-planned route through the market and "punch-card" vouchers that allow visitors to enjoy tastes of a variety of foods and drinks.[34][38]
In addition to the self-guided tour, more and more tours of Jerusalem include visits to the market, including a special "market cooking tour" offered to residents of the nearby "Abraham Hostel"—where members of the group are first given a tour, and then purchase food that they bring back to the hostel for a "hands on lesson in cooking a traditional vegetarian Middle-East meal."[39] As of 2012, tours listed on the shuk's official website include the classic tour; bakery tour; wine and cheese tour; chef-guided tasting tour; and shuk cooking workshop.[1] These tours are aimed at attracting a "new breed of culinary tourists."[40]
Artwork
In 2011 the city-sponsored project "Tabula Rasa" (Blank Slate) supported urban artwork decorating walls, concrete surfaces, and even the trash bins of the market.[17] Street artist Itamar Paloge, curator for the project, recruited some 30 other artists from schools of art and photography in the city, including Bezalel, Hadassah, and Musrara, in addition to local sculptors, painters, photographers, and various artists, including street artists.[17] Jerusalem mayor Nir Barkat noted that the project is a joint venture between the merchants, the Student Union, and the municipality. Barkat stressed that Mahane Yehuda has become more than a market: it is an important part of the city's public space – and it's a unique part because of the way Jews and Arabs bargain shop side-by-side in its crowded alleyways and streets.[17]
Beginning in January 2015 the metal shutters and doors of the shops became an after-hours attraction as they were spray painted by street artist Solomon Souza.[41][42] Souza's partner in the project, Berel Hahn, arranges permission from the shopkeepers.[41][43] As of July 2016, Souza had spray-painted more than 150 of the 360 shutters in the market.[41][43]
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
United States
Name:USS Bon Homme Richard
Namesake:French equivalent of Goodman Richard/Benjamin Franklin
Builder:New York Naval Shipyard
Laid down:1 February 1943
Launched:29 April 1944
Commissioned:26 November 1944
Decommissioned:9 January 1947
Recommissioned:15 January 1951
Decommissioned:15 May 1953
Recommissioned:6 September 1955
Decommissioned:2 July 1971
Struck:20 September 1989
Nickname(s):"Bonnie Dick"
Honors and
awards:
One battle star for World War II
Five battle stars for the Korean War
Fate:Scrapped in 1992
Badge:Insignia of USS Bon Homme Richard (CVA-31) c1965.png
General characteristics
Class and type:Essex-class aircraft carrier
Displacement:
27,100 long tons (27,500 t) (standard)
36,380 long tons (36,960 t) (full load)
Length:
820 feet (249.9 m) (waterline)
872 feet (265.8 m) (o/a)
Beam:93 ft (28.3 m) (waterline)
Draft:34 ft 2 in (10.41 m) (full load)
Installed power:
8 × Babcock & Wilcox boilers
150,000 shp (110,000 kW)
Propulsion:4 × shafts; 4 × geared steam turbines
Speed:33 knots (61 km/h; 38 mph)
Range:14,100 nmi (26,100 km; 16,200 mi) at 20 knots (37 km/h; 23 mph)
Complement:2,600 officers and enlisted men
Armament:
4 × twin, 4 × single 5 in (127 mm) DP guns
8 × quadruple 40 mm (1.6 in) AA guns
46 × single 20 mm (0.8 in) AA guns
Armor:
Waterline belt: 2.5–4 in (64–102 mm)
Deck: 1.5 in (38 mm)
Hangar deck: 2.5 in (64 mm)
Bulkheads: 4 in (102 mm)
Aircraft carried:91–103 aircraft
USS Bon Homme Richard (CV/CVA-31) was one of 24 Essex-class aircraft carriers completed during or shortly after World War II for the United States Navy. She was the second US Navy ship to bear the name, the first one being named for John Paul Jones's famous Revolutionary War frigate by the same name. Jones had named that ship, usually rendered in more correct French as Bonhomme Richard, to honor Benjamin Franklin, the American Commissioner at Paris, whose Poor Richard's Almanac had been published in France under the title Les Maximes du Bonhomme Richard.
Bon Homme Richard was commissioned in November 1944, and served in the final campaigns of the Pacific Theater of Operations, earning one battle star. Decommissioned shortly after the end of the war, she was recommissioned in 1951 for the Korean War. In her second career she operated exclusively in the Pacific, playing a prominent role in the Korean War, for which she earned five battle stars, and the Vietnam War. She was modernized and recommissioned in 1955. She was decommissioned in 1971, and scrapped in 1992.
Construction and commissioning
Bon Homme Richard (CV-31) was laid down on 1 February 1943 at the New York Navy Yard, being the first Essex-class carrier to be built at the New York Navy Yard.[1][nb 1] She was launched 29 April 1944 by Mrs. John S. McCain, wife of Vice Admiral John S. McCain, Sr.. The ship was commissioned 26 November 1944, with Captain A. O. Rule, Jr. as her first commander.[3]
Service history
World War II
Bon Homme Richard departed Norfolk, Virginia on 19 March 1945 to join the Pacific Fleet and arrived at Pearl Harbor on 5 April 1945. Following additional training in Hawaiian waters, the carrier joined TF 38 off Okinawa on 6 June 1945 with Carrier Air Group 91 (CVG-91) aboard. During 7–10 June she joined in the attacks on Okidaitōjima and then served with the 3rd Fleet during the air strikes against Japan from 2 July to 15 August. She remained off Japan until 16 September 1945 and after a short training period off Guam, proceeded to San Francisco, arriving 20 October. She left San Francisco 29 October and steamed to Pearl Harbor to undergo conversion for troop transport duty. From 8 November 1945 to 16 January 1946 she made trans-Pacific voyages, returning servicemen to the United States. She was thereafter generally inactive until decommissioning on 9 January 1947. She was mothballed at the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Bremerton, Washington.
Korean War
The outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950 called Bon Homme Richard back to active duty. She recommissioned on 15 January 1951 in an unmodernised state and joined TF 77 off Korea on 29 May and launched the first air strikes of CVG-102 on 31 May. Bon Homme Richard continued operations with TF 77 until 20 November 1951. The carrier reached San Diego in mid-December and on 20 May 1952 was off again to the Far East, this time with CVG-7.She joined TF 77 once more on 23 June and took part in the heavy strikes against the Sui-ho Dam on 24–25 June and the amphibious feint at Kojo from 12 to 16 October. She continued operations against North Korean targets until 18 December 1952 and then steamed to San Francisco where she arrived 8 January 1953. Her classification was changed from CV-31 to CVA-31 on 1 October 1952.
Modernization and Cold War
Bon Homme Richard then went out of commission on 15 May 1953 preparatory to modernization at the San Francisco Naval Shipyard. She was one of three Essex-class carriers to receive the SCB-27C and SCB-125 modernizations on one refit. Bon Homme Richard emerged from the shipyard with an angled and strengthened flight deck, enclosed "hurricane" bow, steam catapults, a new island, wider beam and many other improvements. She completed her conversion period 31 October 1955 and commenced sea trials in the Alameda-San Diego area. She was recommissioned on 6 September 1955 and began the first of a long series of 7th Fleet deployments on 16 August 1956 with CVG-21 embarked. CVG-5 reported aboard for the 1957 deployment, before CVG-19 reported aboard for the next six deployments in 1958–1959, 1959–1960, 1961, 1962–1963, 1964, and 1965-66. The 1964 cruise included a voyage into the Indian Ocean. Bon Homme Richard also had been in the Indian Ocean for a goodwill trip to Bombay, India at the direction of President Eisenhower during the 1959-1960 Pacific cruise.
Vietnam War
Admiral George Stephen Morrison, father of The Doors lead singer Jim Morrison, flew his flag on Bon Homme Richard. Popular myth has it that he had some involvement in the Tonkin Gulf Incident, because he was commander of the U.S. naval forces in the Gulf of Tonkin during the Gulf of Tonkin Incident of August 1964.[4][circular reference] The aircraft carrier involved in the incident was the Ticonderoga.[5] The Vietnam War escalation in early 1965 brought Bon Homme Richard into a third armed conflict, and she deployed on five Southeast Asia combat tours over the next six years. Her aircraft battled North Vietnamese MiGs on many occasions, downing several, as well as striking transportation and infrastructure targets. Occasional excursions to other Asian areas provided some variety to her operations. Carrier Air Wing 21 (CVW-21) joined the Bonnie Dick for the 1967 deployment to Vietnam. CVW-5 was aboard again for the last three deployments in 1968, 1969, and 1970. Bon Homme Richard was ordered inactivated at the end of her 1970 deployment. She was decommissioned on 2 July 1971, becoming part of the Reserve Fleet at Bremerton, Washington. Adm. Morrison was the keynote speaker at the Decommissioning Ceremony on 2 July 1971 which was one day before his estranged son, Jim, died in Paris, France.[6]
Following 20 years in mothballs, she was sold for scrap in March 1992. She was scrapped at Southwest Marine's yard in San Pedro, California.
Awards
Bon Homme Richard received one battle star for her World War II service, and five for the Korean War.[7] The Bon Homme Richard received three Navy Unit Citations (NUC): One NUC for actions during the Korean War; one NUC for actions during the Vietnam War in 1967 and a third NUC for actions during the Vietnam War in 1968. In 1972, however, the 1967 NUC was replaced with a Presidential Unit Citation (PUC) from president Richard Nixon. Therefore, the ship received a total of two NUC's and one PUC.
At Italian restaurant, Nagoya, Japan
I found Compton's Encyclopedia at the restaurant I had lunch today. Copilot says this is genuine book published in the 80s.
Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères
A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.
....Shows the Way.
Written by Donald Sobol
Illustrated by Leonard Shortall
Published by Weekly Reader Books (1972)
Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).
Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..
Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
History
United States
Name: Vincennes
Namesake: City of Vincennes, Indiana
Ordered: 16 June 1933
Awarded: 3 August 1933
Builder: Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation's Fore River Shipyard, Quincy, Massachusetts
Cost: $11,720,000 (contract price)
Laid down: 2 January 1934
Launched: 21 May 1936
Sponsored by: Miss Harriet Virginia Kimmell
Commissioned: 24 February 1937
Identification: Hull symbol:CA-44
Honors and
awards: Bronze-service-star-3d.png 2 × battle stars
Fate: Sunk, Battle of Savo Island 9 August 1942
General characteristics (as built)[1]
Class and type: New Orleans-class cruiser
Displacement:
10,136 long tons (10,299 t) (standard)
12,463 long tons (12,663 t) (loaded)
Length:
588 ft (179 m) oa
575 ft (175 m) pp
Beam: 61 ft 10 in (18.85 m)
Draft:
19 ft 6 in (5.94 m) (mean)
23 ft 6 in (7.16 m) (max)
Installed power:
8 × Babcock & Wilcox boilers
107,000 shp (80,000 kW)
Propulsion:
4 × Parsons reduction steam turbines
4 × screws
Speed: 32.7 kn (37.6 mph; 60.6 km/h)
Range: 10,000 nmi (12,000 mi; 19,000 km) at 15 kn (17 mph; 28 km/h)
Capacity: Fuel oil: 1,650 tons
Complement: 103 officers 763 enlisted
Armament:
9 × 8 in (200 mm)/55 caliber guns (3x3)
8 × 5 in (130 mm)/25 caliber anti-aircraft guns
2 × 3-pounder47 mm (1.9 in) saluting guns
8 × caliber 0.50 in (13 mm) machine guns
Armor:
Belt: 3–5 in (76–127 mm)
Deck: 1 1⁄4–2 1⁄4 in (32–57 mm)
Barbettes: 5 in (130 mm)
Turrets: 1 1⁄2–8 in (38–203 mm)
Conning Tower: 5 in (130 mm)
Aircraft carried: 4 × floatplanes
Aviation facilities: 2 × Amidship catapults
General characteristics (1942)[2][3]
Armament:
9 × 8 in (200 mm)/55 caliber guns (3x3)
8 × 5 in (130 mm)/25 caliber anti-aircraft guns
2 × 3-pounder47 mm (1.9 in) saluting guns
12 × single 20 mm (0.79 in) Oerlikon anti-aircraft cannons
4 × quad 1.1 in (28 mm)/75 caliber anti-aircraft guns
USS Vincennes (CA-44) was a United States Navy New Orleans-class cruiser, sunk at the Battle of Savo Island in 1942. She was the second ship to bear the name.
She was laid down on 2 January 1934 at Quincy, Massachusetts, by the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Company's Fore River plant, launched on 21 May 1936, sponsored by Miss Harriet Virginia Kimmell (daughter of Joseph Kimmell, mayor of Vincennes, Indiana), and commissioned on 24 February 1937, Captain Burton H. Green in command.[4]
The New Orleans-class cruisers were the last U.S. cruisers built to the specifications and standards of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. Such ships, with a limit of 10,000 tons standard displacement and 8-inch caliber main guns may be referred to as "treaty cruisers." Originally classified a light cruiser when she was authorized, because of her thin armor, Vincennes was reclassified a heavy cruiser, because of her 8-inch guns. The term "heavy cruiser" was not defined until the London Naval Treaty in 1930. This ship and Quincy were a slightly improved version of the New Orleans-class design.
Inter-war period
The new cruiser departed from Boston on 19 April 1937 for her shakedown cruise which took her to Stockholm, Sweden; Helsinki, Finland; Le Havre, France; and Portsmouth, England.[4]
Early in January 1938, Vincennes was assigned to Cruiser Division 7 (CruDiv 7), Scouting Force, and steamed through the Panama Canal to San Diego, California. In March, the ship participated in Fleet Problem XIX in the Hawaiian area before returning to San Pedro, California for operations off the west coast for the remainder of the year.[4]
Following an overhaul at the Mare Island Navy Yard which lasted through April 1939, the cruiser returned east, transited the Panama Canal on 6 June, in company with Quincy, Tuscaloosa, and San Francisco and anchored in Hampton Roads on the 13th. For the next two months, she operated out of Norfolk in the vicinity of the Chesapeake lightship and the southern drill grounds. On 1 September 1939, the day on which Adolf Hitler's legions marched into Poland and commenced hostilities in Europe, Vincennes lay at anchor off Tompkinsville, New York. She then began conducting Neutrality Patrols off the east coast, ranging into the Caribbean Sea and the Yucatán Channel, and continued these duties through the spring of 1940.[4]
Late in May, as German troops were smashing Allied defenses in France, Vincennes steamed to the Azores and visited Ponta Delgada from 4–6 June 1940 before she proceeded on for French Morocco to load a shipment of gold for transport to the United States. She was delayed in the Azores for three days while her code machine was repaired by Lewis Lee Edwards, an enlisted sailor. For his actions, Edwards was offered a commission as an officer. While at anchor at Casablanca, the ship received word of Italy's declaration of war upon France, the "stab in the back" condemned by President Franklin Roosevelt soon thereafter. Vincennes' commanding officer — Captain John R. Beardall (later to become Naval Aide to the President) — noted subsequently in his official report of the cruise that "it was apparent that the French bitterly resented this [the declaration of war] and despised Italy for her actions." After departing North African waters on 10 June, the cruiser returned to the United States to offload her precious metallic cargo and return to the drudgery of Neutrality Patrols.[4]
Overhauling at Norfolk Navy Yard, Portsmouth, Virginia, into the first week of January 1941, Vincennes departed Hampton Roads on 7 January, in company with Wichita, New York, and Texas, bound for Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. Operating once again in the Caribbean, the heavy cruiser fired battle practice and gunnery exercises in company with Wichita through 18 January, when the two cruisers proceeded for Portland Bight, Jamaica. Conducting Neutrality Patrols from this port, Vincennes patrolled in company with other ships safeguarding neutral waters and America's recently acquired Caribbean bases.[4]
Vincennes joined other Fleet units for landing exercises at Culebra, Puerto Rico on 4 February 1941 and sent her 50 ft (15 m) boats to assist in unloading and troop debarkation drills. She assisted transports McCawley and Wharton in landing men and material before taking station with Fire Support Group II. The cruiser then fired simulated gunfire support operations with her main and secondary batteries in exercises which foreshadowed her future combat role in the South Pacific.[4]
Vought SB2U Vindicator covering Convoy WS-12 en route to Cape Town.
For the remainder of February, the ship continued her landing support operations with Transport Divisions 2 and 7 (TransDivs 2 and 7), anchoring on occasion at Mayagüez or Guayanilla, Puerto Rico. Conducting operations out of Puerto Rican waters, Vincennes called at Pernambuco, Brazil, on 17 March and got underway for Cape Town, South Africa, on the 20th. Arriving to a warm welcome nine days later, the ship took on a large shipment of gold bullion to pay for arms purchased in the United States by the United Kingdom and then headed home on the 30th. En route to New York, she conducted exercises. After a brief post-voyage period of repairs, the heavy cruiser sailed for the Virginia Capes, where she rendezvoused with Ranger and Sampson, proceeded on to Bermuda, and dropped anchor in Grassy Bay on 30 April. She patrolled in the Caribbean and off the Atlantic coast of the United States through June.[4]
After continuing her duties with the Neutrality Patrol into the autumn as American naval forces in the North Atlantic found themselves engaged in a de facto war with Germany, Vincennes undertook another mission to South African waters. She left the east coast late in November with Convoy WS-12, American transports carrying British troops. On 7 December 1941, the cruiser fought its way through heavy seas. Walls of water mercilessly pounded the ships of the convoy, and waves battered Vincennes, smashing a motor whaleboat to pieces and ripping a SOC Seagull floatplane from its "moorings" on the storm-lashed well-deck amidships. The plane was battered against the catapult silos and into the hangar doors before it was swept over the ship's side. By that evening, however, the ship learned that she was not only at war with the elements but with Japan as well. Japanese naval air forces had struck Pearl Harbor and plunged the United States into war.[4]
World War II
After having safely convoyed her charges to Cape Town, where she arrived on 9 December, Vincennes departed South African waters on the 16th, bound, via Trinidad, for Hampton Roads. Following her arrival at Norfolk on 4 January 1942, she shifted to New York four days later to be outfitted for war. Late in the month, she joined Hornet as the carrier conducted her shakedown training off the east coast of the United States.[4]
Vincennes sailed from New York on 4 March, bound for the Pacific. She transited the Panama Canal on 11 March and, proceeded to San Francisco.[4]
Doolittle Raid
The heavy cruiser, now a part of TF 18, built around Hornet, departed San Francisco on 2 April. The carrier bore a strange deck cargo, 16 Army B-25 Mitchell medium bombers slated to strike at Japan's heart. TF 18 rendezvoused with TF 16, built around Enterprise, and with the combined might of the two task forces, struck out westward across the Pacific, headed toward Japanese home waters.[4]
On the morning of 18 April, when the American warships were still some 150 mi (240 km) from the planned launch point, an unexpected hitch developed. Japanese trawlers sighted and reported the task force. Vice Admiral William Halsey decided to fly off the bombers immediately. Accordingly, all 16 of the heavily loaded Mitchells, laden with bombs and extra fuel, rose from Hornet's spray-slicked flight deck and climbed unsteadily into the leaden gray skies. Although the raid inflicted only minimal materiel damage upon the Japanese homeland, it nevertheless packed a powerful morale building "punch". When queried as to the base from whence the bombers had come, President Roosevelt said "from Shangri-La".[4]
The combined Enterprise and Hornet task force retired eastward and made Pearl Harbor on 25 April. Departing again five days later, the ships, still screened by Vincennes, bent on speed toward the Coral Sea. However, they were too late to take part in the Battle of the Coral Sea.[4]
Battle of Midway
Vincennes' task force returned to Pearl Harbor on 26 May but got underway again on the 29th, bound for waters off Midway Island, which, according to American intelligence reports, a Japanese invasion force was approaching. By 4 June, the heavy cruiser had joined TF16 and was steaming north of Midway.[4]
After American air attacks had crippled three of the four Japanese carriers the Vincennes, together with the cruiser Pensacola and destroyers Benham and Balch was sent over to TF17 to reinforce the carrier Yorktown after it had suffered damage in a dive bombing attack.
At 1640, a group of Nakajima B5N "Kate" torpedo bombers from Hiryū approached from the north. TF 17's radar soon picked them up 15 mi (24 km) out, and Yorktown launched planes to intercept as her screen deployed to bring an optimum concentration of anti-aircraft fire to bear upon the approaching enemy. Three minutes after the first plane was spotted, Grumman F4F Wildcats from the carrier hit a "Kate". The Japanese torpedo plane spiraled from the sky trailing a long streamer of smoke before crashing into the sea.[4]
Vincennes opened fire at 1644 with her 5 in (130 mm)/25 cal, 20 mm, and 1.1 in (28 mm) anti-aircraft batteries. Increasing her speed to 25 kn (29 mph; 46 km/h) and slowly turning to starboard, Vincennes kept her port guns trained on the enemy. While combing torpedo tracks, Vincennes hit a "Kate" and it went into the sea 150 yd (140 m) off her port bow.[4]
The sharp, bitter action ended as quickly as it had begun. The Japanese had been driven off, but at a high cost for the Americans. Yorktown, mortally hit and listing to port, slowed to a halt. Vincennes followed Astoria around the carrier, screening from further air attacks. However, on 6 June, I-168 slipped through a screen of six destroyers and torpedoed Yorktown and Hammann, sinking the latter. The carrier went down early on the 7th.[4]
Returning to Pearl Harbor, Vincennes entered the navy yard for repairs and alterations which lasted until early July. She then conducted tactical exercises off the island of Hawaii with other ships of TF 11 before departing Hawaiian waters on 14 July to rendezvous with TFs 16, 18, and 62.[4]
Guadalcanal Campaign
Screening for transport squadron "X-ray", slated to participate in the Guadalcanal landings, Vincennes, in company with San Juan and Quincy, joined TF 62 on 26 July. On the 27th, the cruiser conducted approach exercises for landing practice and simulated bombardment drills off Koro Island in the Fiji group. As flagship for Task Group 62.3 (TG 62.3), Vincennes remained on station in the covering force in the transport area before undertaking further approach and landing exercise support drills.[4]
Following replenishing, the heavy cruiser formed up with the American armada making its way to the Solomon Islands. Vincennes, screening transport division "Yoke", arrived off Guadalcanal on 7 August. At daybreak, beneath overcast skies, the ship catapulted her scout planes and then unlimbered her main and secondary batteries to commence shore bombardment. While the thunder of the supporting ships' gunfire reverberated across the waters, marines disembarked from their landing craft and stormed ashore to meet initially light resistance on the island.[4]
Shortly after 1320, Japanese planes launched a counterstrike. To sunward of the transports, Vincennes found herself in a favorable position to combat the attack and tracked the opposing planes, being among the first ships to open fire on the attackers. Forced to jettison their deadly loads prematurely, the Japanese retired without doing any damage, but not before Vincennes had bagged two of them. After sunset, Vincennes, Quincy, and Astoria, in company with Helm and Jarvis, retired to conduct screening patrols.[4]
Returning to her covering duties at daylight, Vincennes arrived at transport area "X-ray", off Guadalcanal by daybreak. Two minutes before noon, Japanese bombers, intent on avenging their losses of the day before and disrupting the American landing, swooped down from Rabaul. 27 Mitsubishi G4M "Betty" bombers swept in, in a low-level torpedo attack and ran a gauntlet of gunfire from the transports and their escorting cruisers and destroyers. 3,000 yd (2,700 m) from the transports, Vincennes, as in the previous day's action, was again in favorable firing position and opened up with every gun in her battery, from 8 in (200 mm) to 20 mm, that could bear on the attackers.[4]
During the ensuing melee, the cruiser used her 8 in (200 mm) guns effectively, helping to down at least seven "Bettys" which flew at an altitude of only 25 to 50 ft (7.6 to 15.2 m). The shell splashes from the main battery caused Japanese pilots to fly into walls of water or forced them to drastically alter their approaches. Vincennes dodged one torpedo which passed beneath her stern and evaded a bomb which fell off her port quarter. Jarvis, adjacent to the cruiser, took one torpedo hit which ultimately proved fatal to the ship.[4]
Later, during the afternoon hours, aerial reconnaissance reported a Japanese surface force coming down from the base at Rabaul. These flights noted what was thought to be three Japanese cruisers, three destroyers and two gunboats or seaplane tenders steaming south. While Jarvis limped away from Lunga Point, Vincennes and her sisters Quincy and Astoria steamed, as the northern escort force, to a position off Savo Island to screen the vulnerable transports which were still unloading off the invasion beaches. Captain Frederick Lois Riefkohl of Vincennes assumed that the enemy ships reportedly en route from Rabaul were going to launch and support another air attack early the following morning. He accordingly issued orders to be especially vigilant during the midwatch and fully expected an air attack at daybreak.[4]
Loss at the Battle of Savo Island
At about midnight on 8 August, Riefkohl retired to his sea cabin, adjacent to the pilothouse, after having been on the bridge continuously since 0445 that morning. Turning in at 0050 on 9 August, he left his ship in the hands of the executive officer, Commander W. E. A. Mullan.[4]
Nearly an hour later, at about 0145, lookouts spotted flares and star shells to the southward, accompanied by the low rumble of gunfire. The sound of the general quarters alarm soon rang throughout the ship and stirred her to action. Vincennes' lookouts were seeing the elimination of the southern escort group, based around HMAS Canberra and Chicago. Unbeknownst to the men manning the ships to the northward, a powerful enemy force was heading in their direction. Six cruisers and one destroyer under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa had turned north and were steaming directly towards Vincennes and her two sisters.[4]
The first Japanese cruiser searchlight beams illuminated Vincennes's shortly after 0155, and the American cruiser opened fire with her main battery at the troublesome lights. Within a minute, however, Japanese shells bracketed the ship and Vincennes shuddered under the impact of Japanese eight-inch armor-piercing shells. The bridge, carpenter shop, "battle II," and radio antenna trunks all were hit by the first salvo.[4]
Altering course to port, Riefkohl, who had come to the bridge at the alarm, rang down for increased speed. With the ship and internal communications disrupted, it is doubtful that the order was received. Still moving at 19.5 kn (22.4 mph; 36.1 km/h), the heavy cruiser reeled under the impact of another group of direct hits.[4]
Some of the shells in this group set fire to the volatile aircraft in Vincennes' hangar space, and the resultant flames became uncontrollable. A direct hit knocked the aft antiaircraft director overboard. At 0200, Vincennes heeled to starboard in an attempt to evade enemy gunfire, only to be hit by Japanese torpedoes. One or two "Long Lance" torpedoes ripped into the ship's number 4 fireroom and put it out of action.[4] In moments the report came "Both engine rooms are black and dead."[citation needed]
Memorial to USS Vincennes in Vincennes, Indiana
Having lost power and all steering control five minutes later, Vincennes was dead in the water within minutes. The glare of burning fires attracted additional incoming shells which quickly put the ship's own guns out of action. Vincennes shuddered to a halt. Hit at least 85 times by 8 in (200 mm) and 5 in (130 mm) shells, the ship gradually began to list.
At 0210, the Japanese retired, leaving Savo Island and the burning hulks of three American cruisers in their wakes. As Vincennes' list increased to port, Riefkohl issued the order to abandon ship at 0230. Serviceable life jackets and rafts were broken out, and the crew began abandoning ship. At 0240, the captain went down to the main deck and jumped into the tepid waters of what would come to be known as Ironbottom Sound.[4] 332 crewmen did not survive and are officially recorded as killed in action in the loss of the Vincennes.[citation needed]
Riefkohl subsequently wrote: "The magnificent Vincennes, which we were all so proud of, and which I had the honor to command since 23 April 1941, rolled over and then sank at about 0250, 9 August 1942, about 2½ miles east of Savo Island … Solomons Group, in some 500 fathoms [910 m] of water."[4] Naval Historian Samuel Eliot Morison later wrote that Riefkohl, "who had made about as many mistakes as a commanding officer could make," was broken in spirit by the loss of his ship.[5]
Awards
Vincennes earned two battle stars for her World War II service.[4]
Commanding officers
Captain Burton H. Green – February 1937 – January 1938
Captain Lemuel M. Stevens – January 1938 – July 1939
Captain John D. Beardall – July 1939 – April 1941
Captain Frederick Lois Riefkohl – April 1941 – August 1942
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp complex is located in Austria
Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp complex
Location of Mauthausen in Austria
Location in and around Mauthausen and St Georgen/Gusen, Upper Austria
Operated by DEST cartel and the Nazi Schutzstaffel (SS)
Soviet Red Army (after World War II)
Commandant Franz Ziereis
Operational August 1938 – May 1945
Number of inmates mainly Soviet and Polish citizens
Killed between 122,766 and 320,000 (estimated)
Liberated by US Army, May 1945
Appellplatz at the Mauthausen main camp
The Mauthausen–Gusen concentration camp complex consisted of the Mauthausen concentration camp on a hill above the market town of Mauthausen (roughly 20 kilometres (12 mi) east of Linz, Upper Austria) plus a group of nearly 100 further subcamps located throughout Austria and southern Germany.[1][2] The three Gusen concentration camps in and around the village of St Georgen/Gusen, just a few kilometres from Mauthausen, held a significant proportion of prisoners within the camp complex, at times exceeding the number of prisoners at the Mauthausen main camp.
The Mauthausen main camp operated from the time of the Anschluss, when Austria was annexed into the German Third Reich in 8 August 1938, to 5 May 1945, at the end of the Second World War. Starting with the camp at Mauthausen, the number of subcamps expanded over time and by the summer of 1940 Mauthausen and its subcamps had become one of the largest labour camp complexes in the German-controlled part of Europe. As at other Nazi concentration camps, the inmates at Mauthausen and its subcamps were forced to work as slave labour, under conditions that caused many deaths. Mauthausen and its subcamps included quarries, munitions factories, mines, arms factories and plants assembling Me 262 fighter aircraft.[3][4] In January 1945, the camps contained roughly 85,000 inmates.[5] The death toll remains unknown, although most sources place it between 122,766 and 320,000 for the entire complex.
Mauthausen was one of the first massive concentration camp complexes in Nazi Germany, and the last to be liberated by the Allies. The two largest camps, Mauthausen and Gusen I, were classed as "Grade III" (Stufe III) concentration camps, which meant that they were intended to be the toughest camps for the "incorrigible political enemies of the Reich".[6] Mauthausen never lost this Stufe III classification.[6] In the offices of the Reich Main Security Office (Reichssicherheitshauptamt; RSHA) it was referred to by the nickname Knochenmühle – the bone-grinder (literally bone-mill).[6] Unlike many other concentration camps, which were intended for all categories of prisoners, Mauthausen was mostly used for extermination through labour of the intelligentsia – educated people and members of the higher social classes in countries subjugated by the Nazi regime during World War II.[7][8] The Mauthausen main camp is now a museum.
History
KL Mauthausen
On 9 August 1938, prisoners from Dachau concentration camp near Munich were sent to the town of Mauthausen in Austria, to begin the construction of a new slave labour camp.[9] The site was chosen because of the nearby granite quarry, and its proximity to Linz.[5][10] Although the camp was controlled by the German state from the beginning, it was founded by a private company as an economic enterprise.[10] The owner of the Wiener-Graben quarry (the Marbacher-Bruch and Bettelberg quarries) was a DEST Company: an acronym for Deutsche Erd– und Steinwerke GmbH.[11] The company was led by Oswald Pohl, who was a high-ranking official of the Schutzstaffel (SS).[12] It rented the quarries from the City of Vienna in 1938 and started the construction of the Mauthausen camp.[3] A year later, the company ordered the construction of the first camp at Gusen. The granite mined in the quarries had previously been used to pave the streets of Vienna, but the Nazi authorities envisioned a complete reconstruction of major German towns in accordance with plans of Albert Speer and other proponents of Nazi architecture,[13] for which large quantities of granite were needed.[10] The money to fund the construction of the Mauthausen camp was gathered from a variety of sources, including commercial loans from Dresdner Bank and Prague-based Escompte Bank; the so-called Reinhardt's fund (meaning money stolen from the inmates of the concentration camps themselves); and from the German Red Cross.[5][note 1]
Mauthausen initially served as a strictly-run prison camp for common criminals, prostitutes[14] and other categories of "Incorrigible Law Offenders".[note 2] On 8 May 1939 it was converted to a labour camp which was mainly used for the incarceration of political prisoners.[16]
Gusen camps
The Gusen camps were three different concentration camps in the Perg district of Upper Austria:
Gusen I, located at Gusen in the community of Langenstein
Gusen II, located at St Georgen in the community of St Georgen/Gusen
Gusen III, located at Lungitz in the community of Katsdorf
The three Gusen concentration camps held a significant proportion of prisoners within the Mauthausen-Gusen complex, at times exceeding the number of prisoners at the Mauthausen main camp itself.
"(...) In March 1940 I was brought to Mauthausen to build the Gusen camp. The building tempo had to be accelerated, because the "Aktion gegen die polnische Intelligenz" was designated for the month of April. What no one knew in the home country, we knew – the SS-men who were beating us, told us that we build a camp for our rotten brothers from Poland, who today can still spend Easter uneventfully, without an inkling what awaits them. They called the camp under construction Gusen "Vernichtungslager fur die polnische Intelligenz"". — Stefan Józefowicz, bank headmaster, no. 1129 in Mauthausen, 43069 Gusen.[17]
DEST began purchasing land at St Georgen/Gusen in May 1938. During 1938 and 1939, inmates of the nearby Mauthausen makeshift camp marched daily to the granite quarries at St Georgen/Gusen, which were more productive and more important for DEST than the Wienergraben Quarry.[3] After Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, the as-yet unfinished Mauthausen camp was already overcrowded with prisoners. The numbers of inmates rose from 1,080 in late 1938 to over 3,000 a year later.[18][19] At about that time, the construction of a new camp "for the Poles" began in Gusen (48°15′26″N 14°27′48″E), about 4.5 kilometres (2.8 mi) away. The new camp (later named Gusen I) became operational in May 1940. The first inmates were put in the first two huts (No. 7 and 8) on 17 April 1940,[20] while the first transport of prisoners – mostly from the camps in Dachau and Sachsenhausen – arrived just over a month later, on 25 May.[21]
Like nearby Mauthausen, the Gusen camps also rented inmates out to various local businesses as slave labour. In October 1941, several huts were separated from the Gusen subcamp by barbed wire and turned into a separate Prisoner of War Labour Camp (German: Kriegsgefangenenarbeitslager).[22][23] This camp had many prisoners of war, mostly Soviet officers.[24][23] By 1942 the production capacity of Mauthausen and the Gusen camps had reached its peak. The Gusen site was expanded to include the central depot of the SS, where various goods, which had been seized from occupied territories, were sorted and then dispatched to Germany.[25] Local quarries and businesses were in constant need of a new source of labour as more and more Austrians were drafted into the Wehrmacht.[26]
In March 1944, the former SS depot was converted to a new subcamp, named Gusen II, which served as an improvised concentration camp until the end of the war. Gusen II contained about 12,000 to 17,000 inmates, who were deprived of even the most basic facilities.[1] In December 1944, Gusen III was opened in nearby Lungitz. Here, parts of a factory infrastructure were converted into the third Gusen camp.[1] The rise in the number of subcamps could not catch up with the rising number of inmates, which led to overcrowding of the huts in Mauthausen and its subcamps. From late 1940 to 1944, the number of inmates per bed rose from two to four.[1]
Camp system
As the production in Mauthausen and its subcamps was constantly increasing, so were the numbers of detainees and subcamps themselves. Although initially the camps of Gusen and Mauthausen mostly served the local quarries, from 1942 onwards they began to be included in the German war machine. To accommodate the ever-growing number of slave workers, additional subcamps (German: Außenlager) of Mauthausen were built. By the end of the war, the list included 101 camps (including 49 major subcamps)[27] which covered most of modern Austria, from Mittersill south of Salzburg to Schwechat east of Vienna and from Passau on the pre-war Austro-German border to the Loibl Pass on the border with Yugoslavia. The subcamps were divided into several categories, depending on their main function: Produktionslager for factory workers, Baulager for construction, Aufräumlager for cleaning the rubble in Allied-bombed towns, and Kleinlager (small camps) where the inmates were working specifically for the SS.[citation needed]
Business enterprise
The production output of Mauthausen and its subcamps exceeded that of each of the five other large slave labour centres: Auschwitz-Birkenau, Flossenbürg, Gross-Rosen, Marburg and Natzweiler-Struthof, in terms of both production quota and profits.[28] The list of companies using slave labour from Mauthausen and its subcamps was long, and included both national corporations and small, local firms and communities. Some parts of the quarries were converted into a Mauser machine pistol assembly plant. In 1943, an underground factory for the Steyr-Daimler-Puch company was built in Gusen. Altogether, 45 larger companies took part in making Mauthausen and its subcamps one of the most profitable concentration camps of Nazi Germany, with more than 11,000,000 Reichsmark[note 3] in profits in 1944 alone (EUR 144 million in 2018). The companies using slave laborers from Mauthausen included:[28]
DEST cartel (producing bricks and quarrying stone for German state construction projects)
Accumulatoren-Fabrik AFA (the main producer of batteries for German U-boats)
Bayer (the main German producer of medicines and medications)
Deutsche Bergwerks- und Hüttenbau (constructing mines and quarries)
Linz-based Eisenwerke Oberdonau (the largest World War II steel supplier for the German Panzer tanks)[31]
Flugmotorenwerke Ostmark (aeroplane engine manufacturer)
Otto Eberhard Patronenfabrik (munitions works)
Heinkel and Messerschmitt (Heinkel-Sud facilities in Floridsdorf, Vienna-Schwechat and Zwölfaxing, and other aeroplane factories, also a V-2 rocket factory)
Österreichische Sauerwerks (arms producer)
Rax-Werke (machinery and V-2 rockets)
Steyr-Daimler-Puch (arms and vehicles)
Universale Hoch und Tiefbau (construction of tunnels in the Loibl Pass)
Prisoners were also rented out as slave labour to work on local farms, road construction, reinforcing and repairing the banks of the Danube, and the construction of large residential areas in Sankt Georgen[3] as well as being forced to excavate archaeological sites in Spielberg.[citation needed]
When the Allied strategic bombing campaign started to target the German war industry, German planners decided to move production to underground facilities that were impenetrable to enemy aerial bombardment. In Gusen I, the prisoners were ordered to build several large tunnels beneath the hills surrounding the camp (code-named Kellerbau). By the end of World War II the prisoners had dug 29,400 square metres (316,000 sq ft) to house a small-arms factory. In January 1944, similar tunnels were also built beneath the village of Sankt Georgen by the inmates of Gusen II subcamp (code-named Bergkristall).[32] They dug roughly 50,000 square metres (540,000 sq ft) so the Messerschmitt company could build an assembly plant to produce the Messerschmitt Me 262 and V-2 rockets.[33] In addition to planes, some 7,000 square metres (75,000 sq ft) of Gusen II tunnels served as factories for various war materials.[3][34] In late 1944, roughly 11,000 of the Gusen I and II inmates were working in underground facilities.[35] An additional 6,500 worked on expanding the underground network of tunnels and halls. In 1945, the Me 262 works was already finished and the Germans were able to assemble 1,250 planes a month.[3][note 4] This was the second largest plane factory in Germany after the Mittelbau-Dora concentration camp, which was also underground.[35]
Weapons research
In January 2015, a "panel of archaeologists, historians and other experts" ruled out the earlier claims of an Austrian filmmaker that a bunker underneath the camp was connected to the German nuclear weapon project.[37] The panel indicated that stairs uncovered during an excavation prompted by the allegations led to an SS shooting range.[37]
Extermination through labour
The political function of the camp continued in parallel with its economic role. Until at least 1942, it was used for the imprisonment and murder of the Nazi's political and ideological enemies, real and imagined.[2][38] The camp served the needs of the German war machine and also carried out extermination through labour. When inmates became totally exhausted after having worked in the quarries for 12 hours a day, or if they were too ill or too weak to work, they were transferred to the Revier ("Krankenrevier", sick barrack) or other places for extermination. Initially, the camp did not have a gas chamber of its own and the so-called Muselmänner, or prisoners who were too sick to work, after being maltreated, under-nourished or exhausted, were then transferred to other concentration camps for extermination (mostly to the Hartheim Euthanasia Centre,[39] which was 40.7 kilometres or 25.3 miles away), or killed by lethal injection and cremated in the local crematorium. The growing number of prisoners made this system too expensive and from 1940, Mauthausen was one of the few camps in the West to use a gas chamber on a regular basis. In the beginning, an improvised mobile gas chamber – a van with the exhaust pipe connected to the inside – shuttled between Mauthausen and Gusen.[40] It was capable of killing about 120 prisoners at a time when it was completed.[41][42]
Inmates
Until early 1940, the largest group of inmates consisted of German, Austrian and Czechoslovak socialists, communists, homosexuals who were not Party members, anarchists and people of Romani origin. Other groups of people to be persecuted solely on religious grounds were the Sectarians, as they were dubbed by the Nazi regime, meaning Bible Students, or as they are called today, Jehovah's Witnesses. The reason for their imprisonment was their rejection of giving the loyalty oath to Hitler and their refusal to participate in any kind of military service.[16]
Subcamp
inmate counts
Late 1944 – early 1945[5][note 5]
Gusen (I, II and III combined) 26,311
Ebensee 18,437
Gunskirchen 15,000
Melk 10,314
Linz 6,690
Amstetten 2,966
Wiener-Neudorf 2,954
Schwechat 2,568
Steyr-Münichholz 1,971
Schlier-Redl-Zipf 1,488
In early 1940, many Poles were transferred to the Mauthausen–Gusen complex. The first groups were mostly composed of artists, scientists, Boy Scouts, teachers, and university professors,[5][43] who were arrested during Intelligenzaktion and the course of the AB Action.[44] Camp Gusen II was called by Germans Vernichtungslager für die polnische Intelligenz ("Extermination camp for the Polish intelligentsia").[45]
Later in the war, new arrivals were from every category of the "unwanted", but educated people and so-called political prisoners constituted the largest part of all inmates until the end of the war. During World War II, large groups of Spanish Republicans were also transferred to Mauthausen and its subcamps. Most of them were former Republican soldiers or activists who had fled to France after Franco's victory and then were captured by German forces after the defeat of France in 1940 or handed over to the Germans by the Vichy authorities. The largest of these groups arrived at Gusen in January 1941.[46] In early 1941, almost all the Poles and Spaniards, except for a small group of specialists working in the quarry's stone mill, were transferred from Mauthausen to Gusen.[36] Following the outbreak of the Soviet-German War in 1941, the camps started to receive a large number of Soviet POWs. Most of them were kept in huts separated from the rest of the camp. The Soviet prisoners of war were a major part of the first groups to be gassed in the newly built gas chamber in early 1942. In 1944, a large group of Hungarian and Dutch Jews, about 8,000 people altogether, was also transferred to the camp. Much like all the other large groups of prisoners that were transferred to Mauthausen and its subcamps, most of them either died as a result of the hard labour and poor conditions, or were deliberately killed.
After the Nazi invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 and the outbreak of the partisan resistance in summer of the same year, many people suspected of aiding the Yugoslav resistance were sent to the Mauthausen camp, mostly from areas under direct German occupation, namely northern Slovenia and Serbia. An estimated 1,500 Slovenes died in Mauthausen.[47]
Throughout the years of World War II, the Mauthausen and its subcamps received new prisoners in smaller transports daily, mostly from other concentration camps in German-occupied Europe. Most of the prisoners at the subcamps of Mauthausen had been kept in a number of different detention sites before they arrived. The most notable of such centres for Mauthausen and its subcamps were the camps at Dachau and Auschwitz. The first transports from Auschwitz arrived in February 1942. The second transport in June of that year was much larger and numbered some 1,200 prisoners. Similar groups were sent from Auschwitz to Gusen and Mauthausen in April and November 1943, and then in January and February 1944. Finally, after Adolf Eichmann visited Mauthausen in May of that year, Mauthausen received the first group of roughly 8,000 Hungarian Jews from Auschwitz; the first group to be evacuated from that camp before the Soviet advance. Initially, the groups evacuated from Auschwitz consisted of qualified workers for the ever-growing industry of Mauthausen and its subcamps, but as the evacuation proceeded other categories of people were also transported to Mauthausen, Gusen, Vienna or Melk.[citation needed]
Over time, Auschwitz had to almost stop accepting new prisoners and most were directed to Mauthausen instead. The last group – roughly 10,000 prisoners – was evacuated in the last wave in January 1945, only a few weeks before the Soviet liberation of the Auschwitz-Birkenau complex.[48] Among them was a large group of civilians arrested by the Germans after the failure of the Warsaw Uprising,[49][23] but by the liberation not more than 500 of them were still alive.[50] Altogether, during the final months of the war, 23,364 prisoners from other concentration camps arrived at the camp complex.[50] Many more perished from exhaustion during death marches, or in railway wagons, where the prisoners were confined at sub-zero temperatures for several days before their arrival, without adequate food or water. Prisoner transports were considered less important than other important services, and could be kept on sidings for days as other trains passed.[citation needed]
Many of those who survived the journey died before they could be registered, whilst others were given the camp numbers of prisoners who had already been killed.[50] Most were then accommodated in the camps or in the newly established tent camp (German: Zeltlager) just outside the Mauthausen subcamp, where roughly 2,000 people were forced into tents intended for not more than 800 inmates, and then starved to death.[51]
As in all other German concentration camps, not all the prisoners were equal. Their treatment depended largely on the category assigned to each inmate, as well as their nationality and rank within the system. The so-called kapos, or prisoners who had been recruited by their captors to police their fellow prisoners, were given more food and higher pay in the form of concentration camp coupons which could be exchanged for cigarettes in the canteen, as well as a separate room inside most barracks.[52] On Himmler's order of June 1941, a brothel was opened in the Mauthausen and Gusen I camps in 1942.[53][54] The Kapos formed the main part of the so-called Prominents (German: Prominenz), or prisoners who were given a much better treatment than the average inmate.[55]
Women and children in Mauthausen
Although the Mauthausen camp complex was mostly a labour camp for men, a women's camp was opened in Mauthausen, in September 1944, with the first transport of female prisoners from Auschwitz. Eventually, more women and children came to Mauthausen from Ravensbrück, Bergen-Belsen, Gross-Rosen, and Buchenwald. Along with the female prisoners came some female guards; twenty are known to have served in the Mauthausen camp, and sixty in the whole camp complex. Female guards also staffed the Mauthausen subcamps at Hirtenberg, Lenzing (the main women's subcamp in Austria), and Sankt Lambrecht. The Chief Overseers at Mauthausen were firstly Margarete Freinberger, and then Jane Bernigau. Almost all the female Overseers who served in Mauthausen were recruited from Austrian cities and towns between September and November 1944. In early April 1945, at least 2,500 more female prisoners came from the female subcamps at Amstetten, St. Lambrecht, Hirtenberg, and the Flossenbürg subcamp at Freiberg. According to Daniel Patrick Brown, Hildegard Lächert also served at Mauthausen.[56]
The available Mauthausen inmate statistics[57] from the spring of 1943, shows that there were 2,400 prisoners below the age of 20, which was 12.8% of the 18,655 population. By late March 1945, the number of juvenile prisoners in Mauthausen increased to 15,048, which was 19.1% of the 78,547 Mauthausen inmates. The number of imprisoned children increased 6.2 times, whereas the total number of adult prisoners during the same period multiplied by a factor of only four. These numbers reflected the increasing use of Polish, Czech, Russian, and Balkan teenagers as slave labour as the war continued.[58] Statistics showing the composition of juvenile inmates shortly before their liberation reveal the following major child/prisoner sub-groups: 5,809 foreign civilian labourers, 5,055 political prisoners, 3,654 Jews, and 330 Russian POWs. There were also 23 Romani children, 20 so-called "anti-social elements", six Spaniards, and three Jehovah's Witnesses.[57]
Mauthausen was not the only concentration camp where the German authorities implemented their extermination through labour (Vernichtung durch Arbeit) programme, but the regime at Mauthausen was one of the most brutal and severe. The conditions within the camp were considered exceptionally hard to bear, even by concentration camp standards.[59][60][61] The inmates suffered not only from malnutrition, overcrowded huts and constant abuse and beatings by the guards and kapos,[36] but also from exceptionally hard labour.[41] As there were too many prisoners in Mauthausen to have all of them work in its quarry at the same time, many were put to work in workshops, or had to do other manual work, whilst the unfortunate ones who were selected to work in the quarry were only there because of their so-called "crimes" in the camp. The reasons for sending them to work in the "punishment detail" were trivial, and included such "crimes" as not saluting a German passing by.[citation needed]
The work in the quarries – often in unbearable heat or in temperatures as low as −30 °C (−22 °F)[36] – led to exceptionally high mortality rates.[61][note 6] The food rations were limited, and during the 1940–1942 period, an average inmate weighed 40 kilograms (88 lb).[62] It is estimated that the average energy content of food rations dropped from about 1,750 calories (7,300 kJ) a day during the 1940–1942 period, to between 1,150 and 1,460 calories (4,800 and 6,100 kJ) a day during the next period. In 1945 the energy content was even lower and did not exceed 600 to 1,000 calories (2,500 to 4,200 kJ) a day – less than a third of the energy needed by an average worker in heavy industry.[1] The reduced rations led to the starvation of thousands of inmates.[citation needed]
The inmates of Mauthausen, Gusen I, and Gusen II had access to a separate part of the camp for the sick – the so-called Krankenlager. Despite the fact that (roughly) 100 medics from among the inmates were working there,[63] they were not given any medication and could offer only basic first aid.[5][63] Thus the hospital camp – as it was called by the German authorities – was, in fact, the last stop before death for thousands of inmates, and very few had a chance to recover.[citation needed]
The rock quarry in Mauthausen was at the base of the "Stairs of Death". Prisoners were forced to carry roughly-hewn blocks of stone – often weighing as much as 50 kilograms (110 lb) – up the 186 stairs, one prisoner behind the other. As a result, many exhausted prisoners collapsed in front of the other prisoners in the line, and then fell on top of the other prisoners, creating a domino effect; the first prisoner falling onto the next, and so on, all the way down the stairs.[64]
Four men dressed in SS uniforms climb the stone-cut stairs of death, one of them is smoking a cigarette.
SS officers including General Paul Hausser (far right, in overcoat) climbing the "Stairs of Death", April 1941
Such brutality was not accidental. The SS guards would often force prisoners – exhausted from hours of hard labour without sufficient food and water – to race up the stairs carrying blocks of stone. Those who survived the ordeal would often be placed in a line-up at the edge of a cliff known as "The Parachutists Wall" (German: Fallschirmspringerwand).[65] At gun-point each prisoner would have the option of being shot or pushing the prisoner in front of him off the cliff.[27] Other common methods of extermination of prisoners who were either sick, unfit for further labour or as a means of collective responsibility or after escape attempts included beating the prisoners to death by the SS guards and Kapos, starving to death in bunkers, hangings and mass shootings.[66][67] At times the guards or Kapos would either deliberately throw the prisoners on the 380 volt electric barbed wire fence,[67] or force them outside the boundaries of the camp and then shoot them on the pretence that they were attempting to escape.[68] Another method of extermination were icy showers – some 3,000 inmates died of hypothermia after having been forced to take an icy cold shower and then left outside in cold weather.[66] A large number of inmates were drowned in barrels of water at Gusen II.[69][70][note 7]
The Nazis also performed pseudo-scientific experiments on the prisoners. Among the doctors to organise them were Sigbert Ramsauer, Karl Gross, Eduard Krebsbach and Aribert Heim. Heim was dubbed "Doctor Death" by the inmates; he was in Gusen for seven weeks, which was enough to carry out his experiments.[71][72] Ramsauer also declared some 2,000 prisoners who applied to be transferred to a sanatorium mentally sick, and murdered them with injections of phenol in the course of the H-13 action.[66]
After the war one of the survivors, Dr. Antoni Gościński reported 62 ways of murdering people in the camps of Gusen I and Mauthausen.[66] Hans Maršálek estimated that an average life expectancy of newly arrived prisoners in Gusen varied from six months between 1940 and 1942, to less than three months in early 1945.[73] Paradoxically, with the growth of forced labour industry in various subcamps of Mauthausen, the situation of some of the prisoners improved significantly. While the food rations were increasingly limited every month, the heavy industry necessitated skilled specialists rather than unqualified workers and the brutality of the camp's SS and Kapos was limited. While the prisoners were still beaten on a daily basis and the Muselmänner were still exterminated, from early 1943 on some of the factory workers were allowed to receive food parcels from their families (mostly Poles and Frenchmen). This allowed many of them not only to evade the risk of starvation, but also to help other prisoners who had no relatives outside the camps – or who were not allowed to receive parcels.[74] Inmates were also beaten to death, like Viennese Jew Adolf Fruchthändler.
In February 1945, the camp was the site of Nazi war crime Mühlviertler Hasenjagd ("hare hunt") where around 500 escaped prisoners (mostly Soviet officers) were mercilessly hunted down and murdered by SS, local law enforcement and civilians.
Death toll
Estimated death toll, by nationality
The Germans destroyed much of the camp's files and evidence and often gave newly arrived prisoners the camp numbers of those who had already been killed,[41] so the exact death toll of Mauthausen and its subcamps is impossible to calculate. The matter is further complicated due to some of the inmates of Gusen being murdered in Mauthausen, and at least 3,423 were sent to Hartheim Castle, 40.7 km (25.3 mi) away. Also, several thousands were killed in mobile gas chambers, without any mention of the exact number of victims in the remaining files.[75] Before their escape from the camps on 4 May 1945, the SS tried to destroy the evidence, allowing only approximately 40,000 victims to be identified. During the first days after the liberation, the camp's main chancellery was seized by the members of a Polish inmate resistance organization; they secured it against the wishes of other inmates who wanted to burn it.[76] After the war, the archives of the main chancellery was brought by one of the survivors to Poland, then passed to the Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum in Oświęcim.[77][78] Parts of the death register of Gusen I camp were secured by the Polish inmates, who took it to Australia after the war. In 1969 the files were given to the International Red Cross International Tracing Service.[75]
The surviving camp archives include personal files of 37,411 murdered prisoners, including 22,092 Poles, 5,024 Spaniards, 2,843 Soviet prisoners of war and 7,452 inmates of 24 other nationalities.[79] The surviving parts of the death register of KZ Gusen list an additional 30,536 names.[citation needed]
Apart from the surviving camp files of the subcamps of Mauthausen, the main documents used for an estimation of the death toll of the camp complexes are:
A report by Józef Żmij, a survivor who had been working in the Gusen I camp's chancellery. His report is based on personally-made copies of yearly reports from the period between 1940 and 1944, and the camps' commander's daily reports for the period between 1 January 1945 and the day of the liberation.
Original death register for the subcamp of Gusen held by the International Red Cross
Personal notes of Stanisław Nogaj, another inmate who had been working in the chancellery of Gusen
Death register prepared by the SS chief medic of the Mauthausen main chancellery for the subcamps of Gusen (similar records for the Mauthausen subcamp itself were destroyed)
As a result of these factors, the exact death toll of the entire system of Mauthausen and its subcamps varies considerably from source to source. Various scholars place it at between 122,766[note 8] and 320,000,[66] with other numbers also frequently quoted being 200,000[80] and "over 150,000".[81] Various historians place the total death toll in the four main camps of Mauthausen, Gusen I, Gusen II and Gusen III at between 55,000[41] and 60,000.[82][note 9] In addition, during the first month after the liberation additional 1,042 prisoners died in American field hospitals.[83]
Death Toll Statistics Gusen I, II and III[note 10]
Year Józef
Żmij Stanisław
Nogaj KZ
Gusen Hans
Maršálek[16] Stanisław
Dobosiewicz[84]
1940 1,784 1,430 1,389 1,762
1941 5,793 7,214 5,564 5,272 6,300
1942 6,088 7,203 5,005 7,410 9,534
1943 5,225 5,303 5,173 5,248 6,103
1944 5,921 4,790 4,691 4,091 5,488
1945 12,600 197 4,673 15,415
Undated 2,843
Total 37,411 24,707 30,536 33,451 44,602
Out of approximately 320,000 prisoners who were incarcerated in various subcamps of Mauthausen throughout the war, only approximately 80,000 survived,[85] including between 20,487[83] and 21,386[86][note 11] in Gusen I, II and III.
Several Norwegian Waffen SS volunteers worked as guards or as instructors for prisoners from Nordic countries, according to senior researcher Terje Emberland at the Center for Studies of Holocaust and Religious Minorities.[87]
Liberation and post-war heritage
An M8 Greyhound armored car of the US Army's 11th Armored Division entering the Mauthausen concentration camp, with the banner in the background being roughly translated (from Spanish) as "Anti-fascist Spaniards salute the forces of liberation". This photograph was taken on 6 May 1945.[88]
Survivors of Gusen shortly after their liberation
During the final months before liberation, the camp's commander Franz Ziereis prepared for its defence against a possible Soviet offensive. Most of the inmates of German and Austrian nationality "volunteered" for the SS-Freiwillige Häftlingsdivision, an SS unit composed mostly of former concentration camp inmates and headed by Oskar Dirlewanger.[89] The remaining prisoners were rushed to build a line of granite anti-tank obstacles to the east of Mauthausen. The inmates unable to cope with the hard labour and malnutrition were exterminated in large numbers to free space for newly arrived evacuation transports from other camps, including most of the subcamps of Mauthausen located in eastern Austria. In the final months of the war, the main source of dietary energy, that is the parcels of food sent through the International Red Cross, stopped and food rations became catastrophically low. The prisoners transferred to the "Hospital Subcamp" received one piece of bread per 20 inmates and roughly half a litre of weed soup a day.[90] This made some of the prisoners, previously engaged in various types of resistance activity, begin to prepare plans to defend the camp in case of an SS attempt to exterminate all the remaining inmates.[90]
It is not known why the prisoners of Gusen I and II were not exterminated en-masse, despite direct orders from Heinrich Himmler to murder them and prevent the use of their workforce by the Allies.[91] [90] Ziereis' plan assumed rushing all the prisoners into the tunnels of the underground factories of Kellerbau and blowing up the entrances.[92][93] The plan was known to one of the Polish resistance organizations which started an ambitious plan of gathering tools necessary to dig air vents in the entrances.[93]
On 28 April, under cover of a fictional air-raid alarm, some 22,000 prisoners of Gusen were rushed into the tunnels.[94] However, after several hours in the tunnels all of the prisoners were allowed to return to the camp.[94] Stanisław Dobosiewicz, the author of a monumental monograph of Mauthausen and its subcamps, explains that one of the possible causes of the failure of the German plan was that the Polish prisoners managed to cut the fuse wires. Ziereis himself stated in his testimony written on 25 May that it was his wife who convinced him not to follow the order from above.[95] Although the plan was abandoned, the prisoners feared that the SS might want to massacre the prisoners by other means, and the Polish, Soviet and French prisoners prepared a plan for an assault on the barracks of the SS guards in order to seize the arms necessary to put up a fight. A similar plan was also devised by the Spanish inmates.[95]
On 3 May the SS and other guards started to prepare for evacuation of the camp. The following day, the guards of Mauthausen were replaced with unarmed Volkssturm soldiers and an improvised unit formed of elderly police officers and fire fighters evacuated from Vienna. The police officer in charge of the unit accepted the "inmate self-government" as the camp's highest authority and Martin Gerken, until then the highest-ranking kapo prisoner in the Gusen's administration (in the rank of Lagerälteste, or the Camp's Elder), became the new de facto commander. He attempted to create an International Prisoner Committee that would become a provisional governing body of the camp until it was liberated by one of the approaching armies, but he was openly accused of co-operation with the SS and the plan failed. All work in the subcamps of Mauthausen stopped and the inmates focused on preparations for their liberation – or defence of the camps against a possible assault by the SS divisions concentrated in the area.[95] The remnants of several German divisions indeed assaulted the Mauthausen subcamp, but were repelled by the prisoners who took over the camp.[14] Of the main subcamps of Mauthausen, only Gusen III was to be evacuated. On 1 May the inmates were rushed on a death march towards Sankt Georgen, but were ordered to return to the camp after several hours. The operation was repeated the following day, but called off soon afterwards. The following day, the SS guards deserted the camp, leaving the prisoners to their fate.[95]
On 5 May 1945 the camp at Mauthausen was approached by a squad of US Army Soldiers of the 41st Reconnaissance Squadron of the US 11th Armored Division, 3rd US Army. The reconnaissance squad was led by Staff Sergeant Albert J. Kosiek.[96] His troop disarmed the policemen and left the camp. By the time of its liberation, most of the SS-men of Mauthausen had already fled; around 30 who were remained were killed by the prisoners,[97] and a similar number were killed in Gusen II.[97] By 6 May all the remaining subcamps of Mauthausen, with the exception of the two camps in the Loibl Pass, were also liberated by American forces.[citation needed]
Among the inmates liberated from the camp was Lieutenant Jack Taylor, an officer of the Office of Strategic Services.[98][99] He had managed to survive with the help of several prisoners and was later a key witness at the Mauthausen–Gusen camp trials carried out by the Dachau International Military Tribunal.[100] Another of the camp's survivors was Simon Wiesenthal, an engineer who spent the rest of his life hunting Nazi war criminals. Future Medal of Honor recipient Tibor "Ted" Rubin was imprisoned there as a young teenager; a Hungarian Jew, he vowed to join the US Army upon his liberation and later did just that, distinguishing himself in the Korean War as a corporal in the 8th Cavalry Regiment, 1st Cavalry Division.[101]
Following the capitulation of Germany, Mauthausen fell within the Soviet sector of occupation of Austria. Initially, the Soviet authorities used parts of the Mauthausen and Gusen I camps as barracks for the Red Army. At the same time, the underground factories were being dismantled and sent to the USSR as a war booty. After that, between 1946 and 1947, the camps were unguarded and many furnishings and facilities of the camp were dismantled, both by the Red Army and by the local population. In the early summer of 1947, the Soviet forces had blown up the tunnels and were then withdrawn from the area, while the camp was turned over to Austrian civilian authorities.[citation needed]
Memorials
Mauthausen was declared a national memorial site in 1949. Bruno Kreisky, the Chancellor of Austria, officially opened the Mauthausen Museum on 3 May 1975, 30 years after the camp's liberation.[2] A visitor centre was inaugurated in 2003, designed by the architects Herwig Mayer, Christoph Schwarz, and Karl Peyrer-Heimstätt, covering an area of 2,845 square metres (30,620 sq ft).[102]
The Mauthausen site remains largely intact, but much of what constituted the subcamps of Gusen I, II and III is now covered by residential areas built after the war.[103] In 2016, a number of prominent Poles including Shevah Weiss and the Chief Rabbi of Poland Michael Schudrich, sent a letter of protest to Ministry of Internal Affairs of Austria. [104] [105]
Documentaries
Mauthausen–Gusen: La memòria (2009) (in Valencian) by Rosa Brines. An 18-minute documentary about the republican Spaniards deported to Mauthausen and Gusen. It includes testimonies from survivors.
Renault Fuego GTX 2 litres.
Matrícula española.
El número de matrícula corresponde al año 1982.
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Renault Fuego
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"The Renault Fuego ("Fire" in Spanish) is a sport compact car that was produced by French automaker Renault from 1980 to 1992, replacing the Renault 15 and 17 coupés of the 1970s.
It was marketed in the United States by American Motors Corporation (AMC), and was also assembled in several countries in South America.
The Fuego's exterior was designed by Michel Jardin. He was working under Robert Opron (who had previously designed the Citroën SM, Citroën GS, Citroën CX, and he then followed with the Renault 25 in 1984).
The Renault Fuego was heavily based on the Renault 18, sharing its floorpan and drivetrain, but featuring a new front suspension design developed from the larger Renault 20/30. The design kept the familiar double wishbone layout common with the Renault 18 but no parts were interchangeable and the design incorporated negative scrub radius geometry.
The new suspension design would later be introduced in the facelifted Renault 18, and with minor refinements (larger bushings, etc.), it was used in the Renault 25.
In 1984, the Fuego dashboard was added to the facelifted R18.
European production continued into 1986 (to 1985 in France and 1986 in Spain), while Renault Argentina produced the Fuego from 1982 until finally ending production in 1995 with the 2.2 litre "GTA Max" (the final phase III facelift introduced in 1990).
It was the first mass-produced four-seat sports model to be designed in a wind tunnel. The resulting drag coefficient (Cd) factor of 0.32-0.35 depending on model and year.
In October 1982, the Turbo Diesel model was classified as the ten-fastest diesel car in the world with a top speed of 180 km/h.
The Fuego was the first car to have a remote keyless system with central locking that was available from the 1983 model year (from October 1982). The system was invented by Frenchman Paul Lipschutz (hence the name PLIP remote which is still used in Europe), and later introduced on other Renault models.
The Fuego was also the first car to have steering wheel mounted satellite controls for the audio system (European LHD GTX and Turbo from October 1983). This feature became popularised on the new 1984 model Renault 25.
A convertible version trimmed with a fine leather interior was unveiled by the French coachbuilder Heuliez in 1982, but never made it to production. The R11/Alliance convertible taking its place."
(...)
Manufacturer
Renault
Production
1980–1986 (Europe)
1982–1992 (South America)
Assembly
Palencia, Spain (RESA, 1980–1986)
Billancourt, France (RSAS, 1980–1985)
Maubeuge, France (MCA, 1979–1987)
Santa Isabel, Argentina (RASA, 1982–1992; CIADEA, 1992–1993)
Buenos Aires, Argentina (RASA, 1993–1992)
Los Andes, Chile (Automotores Franco Chilena)
Mariara, Venezuela (1983–1988)
Designer
Robert Opron
Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault_Fuego
More info: www.taringa.net/post/autos-motos/2950522/Renault-Fuego-Mo...
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is a family of single-seat, single-engine, all-weather, stealth, fifth-generation, multirole combat aircraft, designed for ground-attack and air-superiority missions. It is built by Lockheed Martin and many subcontractors, including Northrop Grumman, Pratt & Whitney, and BAE Systems.
The F-35 has three main models: the conventional takeoff and landing F-35A (CTOL), the short take-off and vertical-landing F-35B (STOVL), and the catapult-assisted take-off but arrested recovery, carrier-based F-35C (CATOBAR). The F-35 descends from the Lockheed Martin X-35, the design that was awarded the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program over the competing Boeing X-32. The official Lightning II name has proven deeply unpopular and USAF pilots have nicknamed it Panther, instead.
The United States principally funds F-35 development, with additional funding from other NATO members and close U.S. allies, including the United Kingdom, Italy, Australia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and formerly Turkey. These funders generally receive subcontracts to manufacture components for the aircraft; for example, Turkey was the sole supplier of several F-35 parts until its removal from the program in July 2019. Several other countries have ordered, or are considering ordering, the aircraft.
As the largest and most expensive military program ever, the F-35 became the subject of much scrutiny and criticism in the U.S. and in other countries. In 2013 and 2014, critics argued that the plane was "plagued with design flaws", with many blaming the procurement process in which Lockheed was allowed "to design, test, and produce the F-35 all at the same time," instead of identifying and fixing "defects before firing up its production line". By 2014, the program was "$163 billion over budget [and] seven years behind schedule". Critics also contend that the program's high sunk costs and political momentum make it "too big to kill".
The F-35 first flew on 15 December 2006. In July 2015, the United States Marines declared its first squadron of F-35B fighters ready for deployment. However, the DOD-based durability testing indicated the service life of early-production F-35B aircraft is well under the expected 8,000 flight hours, and may be as low as 2,100 flight hours. Lot 9 and later aircraft include design changes but service life testing has yet to occur. The U.S. Air Force declared its first squadron of F-35As ready for deployment in August 2016. The U.S. Navy declared its first F-35Cs ready in February 2019. In 2018, the F-35 made its combat debut with the Israeli Air Force.
The U.S. stated plan is to buy 2,663 F-35s, which will provide the bulk of the crewed tactical airpower of the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps in coming decades. Deliveries of the F-35 for the U.S. military are scheduled until 2037 with a projected service life up to 2070.
Development
F-35 development started in 1992 with the origins of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program and was to culminate in full production by 2018. The X-35 first flew on 24 October 2000 and the F-35A on 15 December 2006.
The F-35 was developed to replace most US fighter jets with the variants of a single design that would be common to all branches of the military. It was developed in co-operation with a number of foreign partners, and, unlike the F-22 Raptor, intended to be available for export. Three variants were designed: the F-35A (CTOL), the F-35B (STOVL), and the F-35C (CATOBAR). Despite being intended to share most of their parts to reduce costs and improve maintenance logistics, by 2017, the effective commonality was only 20%. The program received considerable criticism for cost overruns during development and for the total projected cost of the program over the lifetime of the jets.
By 2017, the program was expected to cost $406.5 billion over its lifetime (i.e. until 2070) for acquisition of the jets, and an additional $1.1 trillion for operations and maintenance. A number of design deficiencies were alleged, such as: carrying a small internal payload; performance inferior to the aircraft being replaced, particularly the F-16; lack of safety in relying on a single engine; and flaws such as the vulnerability of the fuel tank to fire and the propensity for transonic roll-off (wing drop). The possible obsolescence of stealth technology was also criticized.
Design
Overview
Although several experimental designs have been developed since the 1960s, such as the unsuccessful Rockwell XFV-12, the F-35B is to be the first operational supersonic STOVL stealth fighter. The single-engine F-35 resembles the larger twin-engined Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, drawing design elements from it. The exhaust duct design was inspired by the General Dynamics Model 200, proposed for a 1972 supersonic VTOL fighter requirement for the Sea Control Ship.
Lockheed Martin has suggested that the F-35 could replace the USAF's F-15C/D fighters in the air-superiority role and the F-15E Strike Eagle in the ground-attack role. It has also stated the F-35 is intended to have close- and long-range air-to-air capability second only to that of the F-22 Raptor, and that the F-35 has an advantage over the F-22 in basing flexibility and possesses "advanced sensors and information fusion".
Testifying before the House Appropriations Committee on 25 March 2009, acquisition deputy to the assistant secretary of the Air Force, Lt. Gen. Mark D. "Shack" Shackelford, stated that the F-35 is designed to be America's "premier surface-to-air missile killer, and is uniquely equipped for this mission with cutting-edge processing power, synthetic aperture radar integration techniques, and advanced target recognition".
Improvements
Ostensible improvements over past-generation fighter aircraft include:
Durable, low-maintenance stealth technology, using structural fiber mat instead of the high-maintenance coatings of legacy stealth platforms
Integrated avionics and sensor fusion that combine information from off- and on-board sensors to increase the pilot's situational awareness and improve target identification and weapon delivery, and to relay information quickly to other command and control (C2) nodes
High-speed data networking including IEEE 1394b and Fibre Channel (Fibre Channel is also used on Boeing's Super Hornet.
The Autonomic Logistics Global Sustainment, Autonomic Logistics Information System (ALIS), and Computerized maintenance management system to help ensure the aircraft can remain operational with minimal maintenance manpower The Pentagon has moved to open up the competitive bidding by other companies. This was after Lockheed Martin stated that instead of costing 20% less than the F-16 per flight hour, the F-35 would actually cost 12% more. Though the ALGS is intended to reduce maintenance costs, the company disagrees with including the cost of this system in the aircraft ownership calculations. The USMC has implemented a workaround for a cyber vulnerability in the system. The ALIS system currently requires a shipping-container load of servers to run, but Lockheed is working on a more portable version to support the Marines' expeditionary operations.
Electro-hydrostatic actuators run by a power-by-wire flight-control system
A modern and updated flight simulator, which may be used for a greater fraction of pilot training to reduce the costly flight hours of the actual aircraft
Lightweight, powerful lithium-ion batteries to provide power to run the control surfaces in an emergency
Structural composites in the F-35 are 35% of the airframe weight (up from 25% in the F-22). The majority of these are bismaleimide and composite epoxy materials. The F-35 will be the first mass-produced aircraft to include structural nanocomposites, namely carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy. Experience of the F-22's problems with corrosion led to the F-35 using a gap filler that causes less galvanic corrosion to the airframe's skin, designed with fewer gaps requiring filler and implementing better drainage. The relatively short 35-foot wingspan of the A and B variants is set by the F-35B's requirement to fit inside the Navy's current amphibious assault ship parking area and elevators; the F-35C's longer wing is considered to be more fuel efficient.
Costs
A U.S. Navy study found that the F-35 will cost 30 to 40% more to maintain than current jet fighters, not accounting for inflation over the F-35's operational lifetime. A Pentagon study concluded a $1 trillion maintenance cost for the entire fleet over its lifespan, not accounting for inflation. The F-35 program office found that as of January 2014, costs for the F-35 fleet over a 53-year lifecycle was $857 billion. Costs for the fighter have been dropping and accounted for the 22 percent life cycle drop since 2010. Lockheed stated that by 2019, pricing for the fifth-generation aircraft will be less than fourth-generation fighters. An F-35A in 2019 is expected to cost $85 million per unit complete with engines and full mission systems, inflation adjusted from $75 million in December 2013.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Littorio
History
Italy
Name:Littorio
Namesake:The Lictor, a symbol of Italian Fascism[1]
Operator:Regia Marina
Ordered:10 June 1934
Builder:Ansaldo, Genova-Sestri Ponente
Laid down:28 October 1934
Launched:22 August 1937
Sponsored by:Signora Teresa Ballerino Cabella
Commissioned:6 May 1940
Decommissioned:1 June 1948
Renamed:Italia
Stricken:1 June 1948
Fate:Scrapped at La Spezia 1952–54
General characteristics
Class and type:Littorio-class battleship
Displacement:
Standard: 40,723 long tons (41,376 t)
Full load:45,237 long tons (45,963 t)
Length:237.76 m (780.1 ft)
Beam:32.82 m (107.7 ft)
Draft:9.6 m (31 ft)
Installed power:
8 × Yarrow boilers
128,000 shp (95,000 kW)
Propulsion:4 × steam turbines, 4 × shafts
Speed:30 kn (35 mph; 56 km/h)
Range:3,920 mi (6,310 km; 3,410 nmi) at 20 kn (37 km/h; 23 mph)
Complement:1,830 to 1,950
Sensors and
processing systems:EC 3 ter 'Gufo' radar
Armament:
3 × 3 381 mm (15.0 in)/50 cal guns
4 × 3 152 mm (6.0 in)/55 cal guns
4 × 1 120 mm (4.7 in)/40 guns for illumination
12 × 1 90 mm (3.5 in)/50 anti-aircraft guns
20 × 37 mm (1.5 in)/54 guns (8 × 2; 4 × 1)
10 × 2 20 mm (0.79 in)/65 guns
Armor:
Main belt: 350 mm (14 in)
Deck: 162 mm (6.4 in)
Turrets: 350 mm
Conning tower: 260 mm (10 in)
Aircraft carried:3 aircraft (IMAM Ro.43 or Reggiane Re.2000)
Aviation facilities:1 stern catapult
Littorio was the lead ship of her class of battleship; she served in the Italian Regia Marina (Royal Navy) during World War II. She was named after the Lictor ("Littorio" in Italian), in ancient times the bearer of the Roman fasces, which was adopted as the symbol of Italian Fascism. Littorio and her sister Vittorio Veneto were built in response to the French battleships Dunkerque and Strasbourg. They were Italy's first modern battleships, and the first 35,000-ton capital ships of any nation to be laid down under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty. Littorio was laid down in October 1934, launched in August 1937, and completed in May 1940.
Shortly after her commissioning, Littorio was badly damaged during the British air raid on Taranto on 11 November 1940, which put her out of action until the following March. Littorio thereafter took part in several sorties to catch the British Mediterranean Fleet, most of which failed to result in any action, the notable exception being the Second Battle of Sirte in March 1942, where she damaged several British warships. Littorio was renamed Italia in July 1943 after the fall of the Fascist government. On 9 September 1943, the Italian fleet was attacked by German bombers while it was on its way to internment. During this action, which saw the destruction of her sister Roma, Italia herself was hit by a Fritz X radio-controlled bomb, causing significant damage to her bow. As part of the armistice agreement, Italia was interned at Malta, Alexandria, and finally in the Great Bitter Lake in the Suez Canal, where she remained until 1947. Italia was awarded to the United States as a war prize and scrapped at La Spezia in 1952–54.
Littorio and her sister Vittorio Veneto were designed in response to the French Dunkerque-class battleships.[2] Littorio was 237.76 meters (780.1 ft) long overall, had a beam of 32.82 m (107.7 ft) and a draft of 9.6 m (31 ft). She was designed with a standard displacement of 40,724 long tons (41,377 t), a violation of the 35,000-long-ton (36,000 t) restriction of the Washington Naval Treaty; at full combat loading, she displaced 45,236 long tons (45,962 t). The ship was powered by four Belluzo geared steam turbines rated at 128,000 shaft horsepower (95,000 kW). Steam was provided by eight oil-fired Yarrow boilers. The engines provided a top speed of 30 knots (56 km/h; 35 mph) and a range of 3,920 mi (6,310 km; 3,410 nmi) at 20 kn (37 km/h; 23 mph). Littorio had a crew of 1,830 to 1,950 over the course of her career.[3][4]
Littorio's main armament consisted of nine 381-millimeter (15.0 in) 50-caliber Model 1934 guns in three triple turrets; two turrets were placed forward in a superfiring arrangement and the third was located aft. Her secondary anti-surface armament consisted of twelve 152 mm (6.0 in) /55 Model 1934/35 guns in four triple turrets placed at the corners of the superstructure. These were supplemented by four 120 mm (4.7 in) /40 Model 1891/92 guns in single mounts; these guns were old weapons and were primarily intended to fire star shells. Littorio was equipped with an anti-aircraft battery that comprised twelve 90 mm (3.5 in) /50 Model 1938 guns in single mounts, twenty 37 mm (1.5 in)/54 /54 guns in eight twin and four single mounts, and sixteen 20 mm (0.79 in) /65 guns in eight twin mounts.[5] A further twelve 20 mm guns in twin mounts were installed in 1942. She received an EC 3 bis radar set in August 1941, an updated version in April 1942—which proved to be unsuccessful in service—and finally the EC 3 ter model in September 1942.[6]
The ship was protected by a main armored belt that was 280 mm (11 in) thick with a second layer of steel that was 70 mm (2.8 in) thick. The main deck was 162 mm (6.4 in) thick in the central area of the ship and reduced to 45 mm (1.8 in) in less critical areas. The main battery turrets were 350 mm (14 in) thick and the lower turret structure was housed in barbettes that were also 350 mm thick. The secondary turrets had 280 mm thick faces and the conning tower had 260 mm (10 in) thick sides.[4] Littorio was fitted with a catapult on her stern and equipped with three IMAM Ro.43 reconnaissance float planes or Reggiane Re.2000 fighters.[7]
Service history
Littorio was laid down at the Ansaldo shipyards in Genoa on 28 October 1934 to commemorate the Fascist Party's March on Rome in 1922. Her sister Vittorio Veneto was laid down the same day.[8] Changes to the design and a lack of armor plating led to delays in the building schedule, causing a three-month slip in the launch date from the original plan of May 1937. Littorio was launched on 22 August 1937, during a ceremony attended by many Italian dignitaries. She was sponsored by Signora Teresa Ballerino Cabella, the wife on an Ansaldo employee.[9] After her launch, the fitting out period lasted until early 1940. During this time, Littorio's bow was modified to lessen vibration and reduce wetness over the bow. Littorio ran a series of sea trials over a period of two months between 23 October 1939 and 21 December 1939. She was commissioned on 6 May 1940, and after running additional trials that month, she transferred to Taranto where she—along with Vittorio Veneto—joined the 9th Division under the command of Rear Admiral Carlo Bergamini.[10]
On 31 August – 2 September 1940, Littorio sortied as part of an Italian force of five battleships, ten cruisers, and thirty-four destroyers to intercept British naval forces taking part in Operation Hats and Convoy MB.3, but contact was not made with either group due to poor reconnaissance and no action occurred.[6][11] A similar outcome resulted from the movement against British Operation "MB.5" on 29 September - 1 October; Littorio, four other battleships, eleven cruisers, and twenty-three destroyers had attempted to intercept the convoy carrying troops to Malta.[6][12]
On the night of 10–11 November, the British Mediterranean Fleet launched an air raid on the harbor in Taranto. Twenty-one Swordfish torpedo bombers launched from the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious attacked the Italian fleet in two waves.[13] The Italian base was defended by twenty-one 90 mm anti-aircraft guns and dozens of smaller 37 mm and 20 mm guns, along with twenty-seven barrage balloons. The defenders did not possess radar, however, and so were caught by surprise when the Swordfish arrived. Littorio and the other battleships were also not provided with sufficient anti-torpedo nets. The first wave struck at 20:35, followed by the second about an hour later.[14]
Damaged Littorio
The planes scored three hits on Littorio, one hit on Caio Duilio, and one on Conte di Cavour.[13] Of the torpedoes that struck Littorio, two hit in the bow and one struck the stern; the stern hit destroyed the rudder and shock from the explosion damaged the ship's steering gear. The two forward hits caused major flooding and led her to settle by the bows, with her decks awash up to her main battery turrets. She could not be brought into dock until 11 December due to a fourth, unexploded torpedo discovered under her keel; removing the torpedo proved to be a painstaking task, as any shift in the magnetic field around the torpedo might detonate its magnetic detonator.[15] Repairs lasted until 11 March 1941.[16]
Convoy operations
After repairs were completed, Littorio participated in an unsuccessful sortie to intercept British forces on 22–25 August. A month later, she led the attack on the Allied convoy in Operation Halberd on 27 September 1941.[16] The British force escorting the convoy included the battleships Rodney, Nelson, and Prince of Wales; Italian reconnaissance reported the presence of a powerful escort, and the Italian commander, under orders not to engage unless he possessed a strong numerical superiority, broke off the operation and returned to port.[17] On 13 December, she participated in another sweep to catch a convoy to Malta, but the attempt was broken off after Vittorio Veneto was torpedoed by a British submarine. Three days later, she steamed out to escort Operation M42, a supply convoy to Italian and German forces in North Africa.[16] By late 1941, British success at breaking the Enigma code made it increasingly difficult for Axis convoys to reach North Africa. The Italians therefore committed their battle fleet to the convoy effort to better protect the transports.[17] The next day, she took part in the First Battle of Sirte. Littorio, along with the rest of the distant covering force, engaged the escort of a British convoy heading for Malta that happened to run into the M42 convoy late in the day.[16] Littorio opened fire at extreme range, around 35,000 yards (32,000 m), but she scored no hits. Nevertheless, the heavy Italian fire forced the British force to withdraw under cover of a smokescreen and the M42 convoy reached North Africa without damage.[18][19]
On 3 January 1942, Littorio was again tasked with convoy escort, in support of Operation M43; she was back in port by 6 January. On 22 March, she participated in the Second Battle of Sirte, as the flagship for an Italian force attempting to destroy a British convoy bound for Malta.[16] After the fall of darkness, several British destroyers made a close-range attack on Littorio, but heavy fire from her main and secondary guns forced the destroyers to retreat.[20] As the destroyers withdrew, one of them hit Littorio with a single 4.7-inch (120 mm) shell, which caused minor damage to the ship's fantail.[21] During the battle, Littorio hit and seriously damaged the destroyers HMS Havock and Kingston. She also hit the cruiser Euryalus but did not inflict significant damage. Kingston limped to Malta for repairs, where she was later destroyed during an airstrike while in drydock.[22] Muzzle blast from Littorio's rear turret set one of her floatplanes on fire, though no serious damage to the ship resulted.[20] She fired a total of 181 shells from her main battery in the course of the engagement. Though the Italian fleet was unable to directly attack the convoy, it forced the transports to scatter and many were sunk the next day by air attack.[23]
Three months later, on 14 June, Littorio participated in the interception of the Operation Vigorous convoy to Malta from Alexandria. Littorio, Vittorio Veneto, four cruisers and twelve destroyers were sent to attack the convoy.[24] The British quickly located the approaching Italian fleet and launched several night air strikes in an attempt to prevent them from reaching the convoy, though the aircraft scored no hits.[25] While searching for the convoy the next day, Littorio was hit by a bomb dropped by a B-24 Liberator; the bomb hit the roof of turret no. 1 but caused negligible damage to the rangefinder hood and barbette, along with splinter damage to the deck. The turret nevertheless remained serviceable and Littorio remained with the fleet. The threat from Littorio and Vittorio Veneto forced the British convoy to abort the mission.[24][26] At 14:00, the Italians broke off the chase and returned to port; shortly before midnight that evening, Littorio was struck by a torpedo dropped by a British Wellington bomber, causing some 1,500 long tons (1,500 t) of water to flood the ship's bow. Her crew counter-flooded 350 long tons (360 t) of water to correct the list.[27] The ship was able to return to port for repairs, that lasted until 27 August.[27][24][26] She remained in Taranto until 12 December, when the fleet was moved to La Spezia.[26]
Fate
Littorio was inactive for the first six months of 1943 due to severe fuel shortages in the Italian Navy.[28] Only enough fuel was available for Littorio, Vittorio Veneto and their recently commissioned sister Roma, but even then the fuel was only enough for emergencies.[29] On 19 June 1943, an American bombing raid targeted the harbor at La Spezia and hit Littorio with three bombs. She was renamed Italia on 30 July after the government of Benito Mussolini fell from power. On 3 September, Italy signed an armistice with the Allies, ending her active participation in World War II. Six days later, Italia and the rest of the Italian fleet sailed for Malta, where they would be interned for the remainder of the war. While en route, the German Luftwaffe (Air Force) attacked the Italian fleet using Dornier Do 217s armed with Fritz X radio-controlled bombs. One Fritz X hit Italia just forward of turret no. 1; it passed through the ship and exited the hull, exploding in the water beneath and causing serious damage. Roma was meanwhile sunk in the attack.[26][30]
Italia and Vittorio Veneto were then moved, first to Alexandria, Egypt, and then to the Great Bitter Lake in the Suez Canal in Egypt on 14 September; they remained there until the end of the war. On 5 February 1947, Italia was finally permitted to return to Italy. In the Treaty of Peace with Italy, signed five days later on 10 February, Italia was allocated as a war prize to the United States. She was stricken from the naval register on 1 June 1948 and broken up for scrap at La Spezia.[31]
Le Café la Nuit in Arles, Place de Forum
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Arles
Arles is located in France
Arles is located in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
Coordinates: 43°40′36″N 4°37′40″ECoordinates: 43°40′36″N 4°37′40″E
Country France
Region Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
Department Bouches-du-Rhône
Arrondissement Arles
Canton Arles
Intercommunality CA Arles-Crau-Camargue-Montagnette
Government
• Mayor (2014–2020) Hervé Schiavetti (PCF)
Area1 758.93 km2 (293.02 sq mi)
Population (2012)2 52,439
• Density 69/km2 (180/sq mi)
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
• Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)
INSEE/Postal code 13004 /13200
Elevation 0–57 m (0–187 ft)
(avg. 10 m or 33 ft)
1 French Land Register data, which excludes lakes, ponds, glaciers > 1 km² (0.386 sq mi or 247 acres) and river estuaries.
2 Population without double counting: residents of multiple communes (e.g., students and military personnel) only counted once.
Arles (French pronunciation: [aʁl]; Provençal [ˈaʀle] in both classical and Mistralian norms; Arelate in Classical Latin) is a city and commune in the south of France, in the Bouches-du-Rhône department, of which it is a subprefecture, in the former province of Provence.
A large part of the Camargue is located on the territory of the commune, making it the largest commune in Metropolitan France in terms of territory (though Maripasoula, French Guiana, is much larger). The city has a long history, and was of considerable importance in the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis. The Roman and Romanesque Monuments of Arles were listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1981. The Dutch post-Impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh lived in Arles from 1888 to 1889 and produced over 300 paintings and drawings during his time there. An international photography festival has been held in the city since 1970.
Geography
The river Rhône forks into two branches just upstream of Arles, forming the Camargue delta. Because the Camargue is for a large part administratively part of Arles, the commune as a whole is the largest commune in Metropolitan France in terms of territory, although its population is only slightly more than 50,000. Its area is 758.93 km2 (293.02 sq mi), which is more than seven times the area of Paris.
Climate
Arles has a Mediterranean climate with a mean annual temperature of 14.6 °C (1948 - 1999). The summers are warm and moderately dry, with seasonal averages between 22 °C and 24 °C, and mild winters with a mean temperature of about 7 °C. The city is constantly, but especially in the winter months, subject to the influence of the mistral, a cold wind which can cause sudden and severe frosts. Rainfall (636 mm per year) is fairly evenly distributed from September to May, with the summer drought being less marked than in other Mediterranean areas.[1]
Climate data for Arles, 1948–1999
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high °C (°F) 10.4
(50.7) 12.3
(54.1) 15.7
(60.3) 18.5
(65.3) 22.8
(73) 27.1
(80.8) 30.3
(86.5) 29.7
(85.5) 25.5
(77.9) 20.3
(68.5) 14.4
(57.9) 11.0
(51.8) 19.8
(67.6)
Average low °C (°F) 2.1
(35.8) 2.8
(37) 5.3
(41.5) 7.5
(45.5) 11.2
(52.2) 14.5
(58.1) 17.7
(63.9) 17.3
(63.1) 14.4
(57.9) 10.4
(50.7) 5.9
(42.6) 3.1
(37.6) 9.4
(48.9)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 54.7
(2.154) 50.8
(2) 49.3
(1.941) 50.3
(1.98) 48.6
(1.913) 37.3
(1.469) 17.1
(0.673) 39.2
(1.543) 81.7
(3.217) 85.7
(3.374) 66.7
(2.626) 54.7
(2.154) 636.1
(25.043)
Source: Italian Wikipedia article on Arles
History
Arles Amphitheatre, a Roman arena.
Passageway in Roman arena
Church of St. Trophime and its cloister.
Ancient era
The Ligurians were in this area from about 800 BC. Later, Celtic influences have been discovered. The city became an important Phoenician trading port, before being taken by the Romans.
The Romans took the town in 123 BC and expanded it into an important city, with a canal link to the Mediterranean Sea being constructed in 104 BC. However, it struggled to escape the shadow of Massalia (Marseilles) further along the coast.
Its chance came when it sided with Julius Caesar against Pompey, providing military support. Massalia backed Pompey; when Caesar emerged victorious, Massalia was stripped of its possessions, which were transferred to Arelate as a reward. The town was formally established as a colony for veterans of the Roman legion Legio VI Ferrata, which had its base there. Its full title as a colony was Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelatensium Sextanorum, "the ancestral Julian colony of Arles of the soldiers of the Sixth."
Arelate was a city of considerable importance in the province of Gallia Narbonensis. It covered an area of some 40 hectares (99 acres) and possessed a number of monuments, including an amphitheatre, triumphal arch, Roman circus, theatre, and a full circuit of walls. Ancient Arles was closer to the sea than it is now and served as a major port. It also had (and still has) the southernmost bridge on the Rhône. Very unusually, the Roman bridge was not fixed but consisted of a pontoon-style bridge of boats, with towers and drawbridges at each end. The boats were secured in place by anchors and were tethered to twin towers built just upstream of the bridge. This unusual design was a way of coping with the river's frequent violent floods, which would have made short work of a conventional bridge. Nothing remains of the Roman bridge, which has been replaced by a more modern bridge near the same spot.
The city reached a peak of influence during the 4th and 5th centuries, when Roman Emperors frequently used it as their headquarters during military campaigns. In 395, it became the seat of the Praetorian Prefecture of the Gauls, governing the western part of the Western Empire: Gaul proper plus Hispania (Spain) and Armorica (Brittany). At that time, the city was perhaps home to 75,000–100,000 people.[2][3][4][5]
It became a favorite city of Emperor Constantine I, who built baths there, substantial remains of which are still standing. His son, Constantine II, was born in Arles. Usurper Constantine III declared himself emperor in the West (407–411) and made Arles his capital in 408.
Arles became renowned as a cultural and religious centre during the late Roman Empire. It was the birthplace of the sceptical philosopher Favorinus. It was also a key location for Roman Christianity and an important base for the Christianization of Gaul. The city's bishopric was held by a series of outstanding clerics, beginning with Saint Trophimus around 225 and continuing with Saint Honoratus, then Saint Hilarius in the first half of the 5th century. The political tension between the Catholic bishops of Arles and the Visigothic kings is epitomized in the career of the Frankish St. Caesarius, bishop of Arles 503–542, who was suspected by the Arian Visigoth Alaric II of conspiring with the Burgundians to turn over the Arelate to Burgundy, and was exiled for a year to Bordeaux in Aquitaine. Political tensions were evident again in 512, when Arles held out against Theodoric the Great and Caesarius was imprisoned and sent to Ravenna to explain his actions before the Ostrogothic king.[6]
The friction between the Arian Christianity of the Visigoths and the Catholicism of the bishops sent out from Rome established deep roots for religious heterodoxy, even heresy, in Occitan culture. At Treves in 385, Priscillian achieved the distinction of becoming the first Christian executed for heresy (Manichaean in his case, see also Cathars, Camisards). Despite this tension and the city's decline in the face of barbarian invasions, Arles remained a great religious centre and host of church councils (see Council of Arles), the rival of Vienne, for hundreds of years.
Roman aqueduct and mill
Aqueduct of Arles at Barbegal
The Barbegal aqueduct and mill is a Roman watermill complex located on the territory of the commune of Fontvieille, a few kilometres from Arles. The complex has been referred to as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world".[7] The remains of the mill streams and buildings which housed the overshot water wheels are still visible at the site, and it is by far the best-preserved of ancient mills. There are two aqueducts which join just north of the mill complex, and a sluice which enabled the operators to control the water supply to the complex. The mill consisted of 16 waterwheels in two separate rows built into a steep hillside. There are substantial masonry remains of the water channels and foundations of the individual mills, together with a staircase rising up the hill upon which the mills are built. The mills apparently operated from the end of the 1st century until about the end of the 3rd century.[8] The capacity of the mills has been estimated at 4.5 tons of flour per day, sufficient to supply enough bread for 6,000 of the 30-40,000 inhabitants of Arelate at that time.[9] A similar mill complex existed also on the Janiculum in Rome. Examination of the mill leat still just visible on one side of the hill shows a substantial accretion of lime in the channel, tending to confirm its long working life.
It is thought that the wheels were overshot water wheels with the outflow from the top driving the next one down and so on, to the base of the hill. Vertical water mills were well known to the Romans, being described by Vitruvius in his De Architectura of 25 BC, and mentioned by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia of 77 AD. There are also later references to floating water mills from Byzantium and to sawmills on the river Moselle by the poet Ausonius. The use of multiple stacked sequences of reverse overshot water-wheels was widespread in Roman mines.
Middle Ages
Place de la République.
Cafe Terrace at Night by Vincent van Gogh (September 1888), depicts the warmth of a café in Arles
In 735, after raiding the Lower Rhône, Andalusian Saracens led by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri moved into the stronghold summoned by Count Maurontus, who feared Charles Martel's expansionist ambitions, though this may have been an excuse to further Moorish expansion beyond Iberia. The next year, Charles campaigned south to Septimania and Provence, attacking and capturing Arles after destroying Avignon. In 739. Charles definitely drove Maurontus to exile, and brought Provence to heel. In 855, it was made the capital of a Frankish Kingdom of Arles, which included Burgundy and part of Provence, but was frequently terrorised by Saracen and Viking raiders. In 888, Rudolph, Count of Auxerre (now in north-western Burgundy), founded the kingdom of Transjuran Burgundy (literally, beyond the Jura mountains), which included western Switzerland as far as the river Reuss, Valais, Geneva, Chablais and Bugey.
In 933, Hugh of Arles ("Hugues de Provence") gave his kingdom up to Rudolph II, who merged the two kingdoms into a new Kingdom of Arles. In 1032, King Rudolph III died, and the kingdom was inherited by Emperor Conrad II the Salic. Though his successors counted themselves kings of Arles, few went to be crowned in the cathedral. Most of the kingdom's territory was progressively incorporated into France. During these troubled times, the amphitheatre was converted into a fortress, with watchtowers built at each of the four quadrants and a minuscule walled town being constructed within. The population was by now only a fraction of what it had been in Roman times, with much of old Arles lying in ruins.
The town regained political and economic prominence in the 12th century, with the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa traveling there in 1178 for his coronation. In the 12th century, it became a free city governed by an elected podestat (chief magistrate; literally "power"), who appointed the consuls and other magistrates. It retained this status until the French Revolution of 1789.
Arles joined the countship of Provence in 1239, but, once more, its prominence was eclipsed by Marseilles. In 1378, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV ceded the remnants of the Kingdom of Arles to the Dauphin of France (later King Charles VI of France) and the kingdom ceased to exist even on paper.
Modern era
Arles remained economically important for many years as a major port on the Rhône. In the 19th century, the arrival of the railway diminished river trade, leading to the town becoming something of a backwater.
This made it an attractive destination for the painter Vincent van Gogh, who arrived there on 21 February 1888. He was fascinated by the Provençal landscapes, producing over 300 paintings and drawings during his time in Arles. Many of his most famous paintings were completed there, including The Night Cafe, the Yellow Room, Starry Night Over the Rhone, and L'Arlésienne. Paul Gauguin visited van Gogh in Arles. However, van Gogh's mental health deteriorated and he became alarmingly eccentric, culminating in the well-known ear-severing incident in December 1888 which resulted in two stays in the Old Hospital of Arles. The concerned Arlesians circulated a petition the following February demanding that van Gogh be confined. In May 1889, he took the hint and left Arles for the Saint-Paul asylum at nearby Saint-Rémy-de-Provence.
Jewish history
Main article: History of the Jews in Arles
Arles had an important and evident Jewish community between the Roman era and until the end of the 15th century. A local legend describes the first Jews in Arles as exiles from Judaea after Jerusalem fell to the Romans. Nevertheless, the first documented evident of Jews in Arles is not before fifth century, when a distinguished community had already existed in town. Arles was an important Jewish crossroads, as a port city and close to Spain and the rest of Europe alike. It served a major role in the work of the Hachmei Provence group of famous Jewish scholars, translators and philosophers, who were most important to Judaism throughout the Middle Ages. At the eighth century, the jurisdiction of the Jews of Arles were passed to the local Archbishop, making the Jewish taxes to the clergy somewhat of a shield for the community from mob attacks, most frequent during the Crusades. The community lived relatively peacefully until the last decade of the 15th century, when they were expelled out of the city never to return. Several Jews did live in the city in the centuries after, though no community was found ever after. Nowadays, Jewish archaeological findings and texts from Arles can be found in the local museum.[10]
Population
Historical population
Year Pop. ±%
1806 20,151 —
1820 20,150 −0.0%
1831 20,236 +0.4%
1836 20,048 −0.9%
1841 20,460 +2.1%
1846 23,101 +12.9%
1851 23,208 +0.5%
1856 24,816 +6.9%
1861 25,543 +2.9%
1866 26,367 +3.2%
1872 24,695 −6.3%
1876 25,095 +1.6%
1881 23,480 −6.4%
1891 24,288 +3.4%
1896 24,567 +1.1%
1901 28,116 +14.4%
1906 31,010 +10.3%
1911 31,014 +0.0%
1921 29,146 −6.0%
1926 32,485 +11.5%
1946 35,017 +7.8%
1954 37,443 +6.9%
1962 41,932 +12.0%
1968 45,774 +9.2%
1975 50,059 +9.4%
1982 50,500 +0.9%
1990 52,058 +3.1%
1999 50,426 −3.1%
2008 52,729 +4.6%
2010 57,328 +8.7%
Main sights
Gallo-Roman theatre.
The Alyscamps.
Arles has important Roman remnants, most of which have been listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 1981 within the Arles, Roman and Romanesque Monuments group. They include:
The Gallo-Roman theatre
The arena or amphitheatre
The Alyscamps (Roman necropolis)
The Thermae of Constantine
The cryptoporticus
Arles Obelisk
Barbegal aqueduct and mill
The Church of St. Trophime (Saint Trophimus), formerly a cathedral, is a major work of Romanesque architecture, and the representation of the Last Judgment on its portal is considered one of the finest examples of Romanesque sculpture, as are the columns in the adjacent cloister.
The town also has a museum of ancient history, the Musée de l'Arles et de la Provence antiques, with one of the best collections of Roman sarcophagi to be found anywhere outside Rome itself. Other museums include the Musée Réattu and the Museon Arlaten.
The courtyard of the Old Arles hospital, now named "Espace Van Gogh," is a center for Vincent van Gogh's works, several of which are masterpieces.[11] The garden, framed on all four sides by buildings of the complex, is approached through arcades on the first floor. A circulation gallery is located on the first and second floors.[12]
Archaeology
Main article: Arles portrait bust
In September–October 2007, divers led by Luc Long from the French Department of Subaquatic Archaeological Research, headed by Michel L'Hour, discovered a life-sized marble bust of an apparently important Roman person in the Rhône near Arles, together with smaller statues of Marsyas in Hellenistic style and of the god Neptune from the third century AD. The larger bust was tentatively dated to 46 BC. Since the bust displayed several characteristics of an ageing person with wrinkles, deep naso-labial creases and hollows in his face, and since the archaeologists believed that Julius Caesar had founded the colony Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelate Sextanorum in 46 BC, the scientists came to the preliminary conclusion that the bust depicted a life-portrait of the Roman dictator: France's Minister of Culture Christine Albanel reported on May 13, 2008, that the bust would be the oldest representation of Caesar known today.[13] The story was picked up by all larger media outlets.[14][15] The realism of the portrait was said to place it in the tradition of late Republican portrait and genre sculptures. The archaeologists further claimed that a bust of Julius Caesar might have been thrown away or discreetly disposed of, because Caesar's portraits could have been viewed as politically dangerous possessions after the dictator's assassination.
Historians and archaeologists not affiliated with the French administration, among them Paul Zanker, the renowned archaeologist and expert on Caesar and Augustus, were quick to question whether the bust is a portrait of Caesar.[16][17][18] Many noted the lack of resemblances to Caesar's likenesses issued on coins during the last years of the dictator's life, and to the Tusculum bust of Caesar,[19] which depicts Julius Caesar in his lifetime, either as a so-called zeitgesicht or as a direct portrait. After a further stylistic assessment, Zanker dated the Arles-bust to the Augustan period. Elkins argued for the third century AD as the terminus post quem for the deposition of the statues, refuting the claim that the bust was thrown away due to feared repercussions from Caesar's assassination in 44 BC.[20] The main argument by the French archaeologists that Caesar had founded the colony in 46 BC proved to be incorrect, as the colony was founded by Caesar's former quaestor Tiberius Claudius Nero on the dictator's orders in his absence.[21] Mary Beard has accused the persons involved in the find of having willfully invented their claims for publicity reasons. The French ministry of culture has not yet responded to the criticism and negative reviews.
Sport
AC Arles-Avignon is a professional French football team. They currently play in Championnat de France Amateur, the fourth division in French football. They play at the Parc des Sports, which has a capacity of just over 17,000.
Culture
A well known photography festival, Rencontres d'Arles, takes place in Arles every year, and the French national school of photography is located there.
The major French publishing house Actes Sud is also situated in Arles.
Bull fights are conducted in the amphitheatre, including Provençal-style bullfights (courses camarguaises) in which the bull is not killed, but rather a team of athletic men attempt to remove a tassle from the bull's horn without getting injured. Every Easter and on the first weekend of September, during the feria, Arles also holds Spanish-style corridas (in which the bulls are killed) with an encierro (bull-running in the streets) preceding each fight.
The film Ronin was partially filmed in Arles.
European Capital of Culture
Arles played a major role in Marseille-Provence 2013, the year-long series of cultural events held in the region after it was designated the European Capital of Culture for 2013. The city hosted a segment of the opening ceremony with a pyrotechnical performance by Groupe F on the banks of the Rhône. It also unveiled the new wing of the Musée Départemental Arles Antique as part of Marseille-Provence 2013.
Economy
Arles's open-air street market is a major market in the region. It occurs on Saturday and Wednesday mornings.
Transport
The Gare d'Arles railway station offers connections to Avignon, Nîmes, Marseille, Paris, Bordeaux and several regional destinations.
Notable people
Vincent van Gogh, lived here from February 1888 until May 1889.
The Provençal poet Frédéric Mistral (1830–1914) was born near Arles
Jeanne Calment (1875–1997), the oldest human being whose age is documented, was born, lived and died, at the age of 122 years and 164 days, in Arles
Anne-Marie David, singer (Eurovision winner in 1973)
Christian Lacroix, fashion designer
Lucien Clergue, photographer
Djibril Cissé, footballer
Antoine de Seguiran, 18th-century encyclopédiste
Genesius of Arles, a notary martyred under Maximianus in 303 or 308
Blessed Jean Marie du Lau, last Archbishop of Arles, killed by the revolutionary mob in Paris on September 2, 1792
Juan Bautista (real name Jean-Baptiste Jalabert), matador
Maja Hoffmann, art patron
Mehdi Savalli, matador
The medieval writer Antoine de la Sale was probably born in Arles around 1386
Home of the Gipsy Kings, a music group from Arles
Gael Givet, footballer
Lloyd Palun, footballer
Fanny Valette, actress
Luc Hoffmann, ornithologist, conservationist and philanthropist.
Saint Caesarius of Arles, bishop who lived from the late 5th to the mid 6th century, known for prophecy and writings that would later be used by theologians such as St. Thomas Aquinas
Samuel ibn Tibbon, famous Jewish translator and scholar during the Middle Ages.
Kalonymus ben Kalonymus, famous Jewish scholar and philosopher, Arles born, active during the Middle Ages.
Twin towns — sister cities
See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in France
Arles is twinned with:
Pskov, Russia
Jerez de la Frontera, Spain
Fulda, Germany
York, Pennsylvania, United States
Cubelles, Spain
Vercelli, Italy
Sagné, Mauritania
Kalymnos, Greece
Wisbech, United Kingdom
Zhouzhuang, Kunshan, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
Verviers, Belgium
See also
Archbishopric of Arles
Montmajour Abbey
Trinquetaille
Langlois Bridge
Saint-Martin-de-Crau
Communes of the Bouches-du-Rhône department
References
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Archdiocese of Aix". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton.
INSEE
The table contains the temperatures and precipitation of the city of Arles for the period 1948-1999, extracted from the site Sophy.u-3mrs.fr.
www.academia.edu/1166147/_The_Fall_and_Decline_of_the_Rom...
Rick Steves' Provence & the French Riviera, p. 78, at Google Books
Nelson's Dictionary of Christianity: The Authoritative Resource on the Christian World, p. 1173, at Google Books
Provence, p. 81, at Google Books
Wace, Dictionary)
Greene, Kevin (2000). "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered". The Economic History Review. New Series. 53 (1): 29–59 [p. 39]. doi:10.1111/1468-0289.00151.
"Ville d'Histoire et de Patrimoine". Patrimoine.ville-arles.fr. Retrieved 2013-03-25.
"La meunerie de Barbegal". Etab.ac-caen.fr. Retrieved 2013-03-25.
jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1784-arles
Fisher, R, ed (2011). Fodor's France 2011. Toronto and New York: Fodor's Travel, division of Random House. p. 563 ISBN 978-1-4000-0473-7.
"Espace Van Gogh". Visiter, Places of Interest. Arles Office de Tourisme. Retrieved 2011-04-29.
Original communiqué (May 13, 2008); second communiqué (May 20, 2008); report (May 20, 2008)
E.g."Divers find marble bust of Caesar that may date to 46 B.C.". Archived from the original on 2008-06-05. Retrieved 2008-05-14. , CNN-Online et al.
Video (QuickTime) Archived May 28, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. on the archaeological find (France 3)
Paul Zanker, "Der Echte war energischer, distanzierter, ironischer" Archived May 29, 2008, at the Wayback Machine., Sueddeutsche Zeitung, May 25, 2008, on-line
Mary Beard, "The face of Julius Caesar? Come off it!", TLS, May 14, 2008, on-line
Nathan T. Elkins, 'Oldest Bust' of Julius Caesar found in France?, May 14, 2008, on-line
Cp. this image at the AERIA library
A different approach was presented by Mary Beard, in that members of a military Caesarian colony would not have discarded portraits of Caesar, whom they worshipped as god, although statues were in fact destroyed by the Anti-Caesarians in the city of Rome after Caesar's assassination (Appian, BC III.1.9).
Konrat Ziegler & Walther Sontheimer (eds.), "Arelate", in Der Kleine Pauly: Lexikon der Antike, Vol. 1, col. 525, Munich 1979; in 46 BC, Caesar himself was campaigning in Africa, before later returning to Rome.