Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14470628

SNOWDROP

Galanthus nivalis is the best-known and most widespread representative of the genus Galanthus. It is native to a large area of Europe, stretching from the Pyrenees in the west, through France and Germany to Poland in the north, Italy, Northern Greece and European Turkey. It has been introduced and is widely naturalised elsewhere . Although it is often thought of as a British native wild flower, or to have been brought to the British Isles by the Romans, it was probably introduced around the early sixteenth century.

 

Most other Galanthus species are from the eastern Mediterranean, though several are found in South Russia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. Galanthus fosteri comes from Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey and maybe Israel.

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Read more here: www.thebrickfan.com/lego-star-wars-character-encyclopedia...

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

Name: RMS Aquitania

Owner:

 

1914–1934: Cunard Line[1]

1934–1948: Cunard White Star Line

1948–1950: Cunard Line

 

Operator: Cunard Line

Port of registry: United Kingdom Liverpool, United Kingdom

Route:

 

Southampton-New York (1914) (1920–1939) (1945–1948)

Southampton-Halifax (1948–1950)

Ordered: 8 December 1910[1]

Builder: John Brown & Company, Clydebank, Scotland[1]

Yard number: 409[2]

Laid down: December 1910

Launched: 21 April 1913[1]

Christened: 21 April 1913 by the Countess of Derby

Acquired: 24 May 1914

Maiden voyage: 30 May 1914[1]

In service: 30 May 1914

Out of service: 1950

Fate: Scrapped at Faslane, Scotland in 1950.[1]

General characteristics

Type: Ocean liner

Tonnage: 45,647 GRT[3]

Length: 901 ft (274.6 m)[3]

Beam: 97 ft (29.6 m)[3]

Draught: 36 ft (11.0 m)[1]

Decks: 10

Installed power:

 

direct drive Parsons steam turbines;[3]

59,000 shp (44,000 kW)

 

Propulsion: Four shafts[3]

Speed:

 

23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph) (service)

24 knots (44 km/h; 28 mph) (max)[3]

 

Capacity:

 

1914: 3,230[1]

618 1st class passengers

614 2nd class passengers

2,004 3rd class passengers

1926: 2,200[1]

610 1st class passengers

950 2nd class passengers

640 tourist class passengers

 

Crew: 972[1]

 

RMS Aquitania was a Cunard Line ocean liner designed by Leonard Peskett and built by John Brown & Company in Clydebank, Scotland. She was launched on 21 April 1913[4] and sailed on her maiden voyage to New York on 30 May 1914. Aquitania was the third in Cunard Line's "grand trio" of express liners, preceded by RMS Mauretania and RMS Lusitania, and was the last surviving four-funnelled ocean liner.[5] Widely considered one of the most attractive ships of her time, Aquitania earned the nickname "Ship Beautiful".[3]

 

In her 36 years of service, Aquitania survived military duty in both world wars and was returned to passenger service after each. Aquitania's record for the longest service career of any 20th-century express liner stood until 2004 when Queen Elizabeth 2 became the longest serving Cunard vessel.

 

Overview

White Star's Olympic and Titanic, Mauretania and Lusitania's rivals

 

The origins of Aquitania lay in the rivalry between the White Star Line and Cunard Line, Britain's two leading shipping companies. The White Star Line's Olympic, Titanic and the upcoming Britannic were larger than the latest Cunard ships, Mauretania and Lusitania, by 15,000 gross tons. The Cunard duo were significantly faster than the White Star ships, while White Star's ships were seen as more luxurious. Cunard needed another liner for its weekly transatlantic express service, and elected to copy the White Star Line's Olympic-class model with a larger, slower, but more luxurious ship.[3]

Design, construction and launch

 

Aquitania was designed by Cunard naval architect Leonard Peskett.[3] Peskett drew up plans for a larger and wider vessel than Lusitania and Mauretania. With four large funnels the ship would resemble the famous speed duo, but Peskett also designed the superstructure with "glassed in" touches from the smaller Carmania, a ship he also designed. Another design feature from Carmania was the addition of two tall forward deck ventilator cowlings. With Aquitania's keel being laid at the end of 1910, the experienced Peskett took a voyage on Olympic in 1911 so as to experience the feel of a ship reaching nearly 50,000 tonnes as well as to copy pointers for his company's new vessel. Though Aquitania was built solely with Cunard funds however, Peskett designed her to strict British Admiralty specifications. Aquitania was built in the John Brown and Company yards in Clydebank, Scotland,[4] where the majority of the Cunard ships were built. The keel was laid in the same plot where Lusitania had been built, and would later be used to construct Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth, and Queen Elizabeth 2.[6]

 

In the wake of the Titanic sinking, Aquitania was one of the first ships to carry enough lifeboats for all passengers and crew.[3] Eighty lifeboats, including two motorised launches with Marconi wireless equipment, were carried in both swan-neck and newer Welin type davits.[7] As required by the British Admiralty, she was designed to be converted into an armed merchant cruiser, and was reinforced to mount guns for service in that role. The ship displaced approximately 49,430 tons of which the hull accounted for 29,150 tons, machinery 9,000 and bunkers 6,000 tons.[8] Aquitania was launched on 21 April 1913 after being christened by Alice Stanley, the Countess of Derby, and fitted out over the next thirteen months. In May 1914 she was tested in her sea trials and steamed at one full knot over the expected speed.

Engineering

 

Steam was provided by twenty-one, forced draft, double ended Scotch boilers having eight furnaces each that were 22 feet (6.7 m) long with diameter of 17 feet 8 inches (5.4 m) arranged in four boiler rooms.[9] Each boiler room had seven ash expellers with pump capacity of approximately 4,500 tons per hour that could also be used as emergency bilge pumps.[9]

 

Steam drove Parsons turbines in three separate engine rooms in a triple expansion system for four shafts.[9] The port engine room contained the high pressure ahead (240 tons, 40 feet 2 inches (12.2 m) long with four stage expansion) and astern turbine (120 tons, 22 feet 11 inches (7.0 m) long) for the port shaft, the center room contained two low pressure turbines with ahead and astern capability within single casings (54 feet 3 inches (16.5 m) long, nine expansion stages in ahead turbine, four in astern turbine) for the two center shafts and the starboard room contained the intermediate pressure ahead turbine (41 feet 6.5 inches (12.7 m) long) and a high pressure astern turbine (twin of the port high pressure turbine) for the starboard shaft.[9]

 

The electrical plant, located on G deck, consisted of four 400 kW British Westinghouse generator sets generating 225 volt direct current with emergency power provided by a diesel driven 30 kW generator on the promenade deck.[10] Power was provided for about 10,000 lamps and about 180 electric motors.[10]

Interior and design

 

Although Aquitania lacked the lean, yacht-like appearance of running mates Mauretania and Lusitania, the greater length and wider beam allowed for grander and more spacious public rooms. Her public spaces were designed by the British architect Arthur Joseph Davis of the interior decorating firm Mewès and Davis. This firm had overseen the construction and decoration of the Ritz Hotel in London and Davis himself had designed several banks in that city. His partner in the firm, Charles Mewès, had designed the interiors of the Paris Ritz, and had been commissioned by Albert Ballin, head of Germany's Hamburg-Amerika Line (HAPAG), to decorate the interiors of the company's new liner Amerika in 1905.

 

In the years prior to the First World War, Mewès was charged with the decoration of HAPAG's trio of giant new ships, Imperator, Vaterland, and Bismarck, while Davis was awarded the contract for Aquitania. In a curious arrangement between the rival Cunard and Hamburg-Amerika Lines, Mewès and Davis worked apart—in Germany and England respectively and exclusively—with neither partner being able to disclose details of his work to the other. Although this arrangement was almost certainly violated,[citation needed] Aquitania's interiors were largely the work of Davis. The Louis XVI dining saloon owed much to Mewès' work on the HAPAG liners, but it is likely that having worked so closely together for many years the two designers' work had become almost interchangeable. Indeed, Davis must be given credit for the Carolean smoking room and the Palladian lounge; a faithful interpretation of the style of architect John Webb.

Early career and World War I

A famous poster of Aquitania shows a cut-away of the ship, revealing its luxurious interior

HMHS Aquitania in World War I service

Aquitania as a troop ship in dazzle paint scheme

 

Aquitania's maiden voyage was under the command of Captain William Turner on 30 May 1914 with arrival in New York on 5 June.[1][8] Average speed for the voyage, a distance of 3,181 nautical miles (5,891 km; 3,661 mi) measured from Liverpool to the Ambrose Channel lightship, was 23.1 knots (42.8 km/h; 26.6 mph).[8]

 

This event was overshadowed by the sinking of RMS Empress of Ireland in Quebec the previous day with over a thousand drowned. The following month Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated, and the world was plunged into World War I, interrupting Aquitania's civilian career. After only three round trips she was taken over for military use. At first Aquitania was converted into an armed merchant cruiser, for which provision had been made in her design. The Admiralty found that large liners were too profligate in their use of fuel to act as cruisers, so Aquitania did not serve long in that role.[3] After being idle for a time, in the spring of 1915 the Cunarder was converted into a troopship, and made voyages to the Dardanelles, sometimes running alongside Britannic or Mauretania. Aquitania then was converted into a hospital ship, and acted in that role during the Dardanelles campaign.[1] In 1916, the year that White Star's flagship, and one of Aquitania's future main rivals, Britannic, was sunk, Aquitania was returned to the trooping front, and then in 1917 was again laid up.[1] In 1918, the ship was back on the high seas in troopship service, conveying North American troops to Britain. Many of these departures were from the port of Halifax, Nova Scotia where the ship's spectacular dazzle paint scheme was captured by artists and photographers, including Antonio Jacobsen. On one occasion Aquitania transported over 8,000 men.

 

After the end of hostilities, Aquitania collided with the British cargo ship Lord Dufferin at New York in the United States on 28 February 1919. Lord Dufferin sank and Aquitania rescued her crew.[11] Lord Dufferin later was refloated and beached.[12]

 

In June 1919, Aquitania ran a Cunard "austerity service" between Southampton and New York. In December of that year Aquitania was docked at the Armstrong Whitworth yards in Newcastle to be refitted for post-war service. The ship was converted from coal burner to oil-fired, which greatly reduced the number of engine room crew required.[1] The original fittings and art pieces, removed when refitted for military use, were brought out of storage and re-installed. At some point around this time during the ship's history, the wheelhouse was moved up one deck as the officers had complained about the visibility over the ship's bow. The second wheelhouse can be seen in later pictures of the era and the old wheelhouse area below has had the windows plated in.

 

During the 1920s Aquitania became one of the most popular liners on the North Atlantic route and operated in service with the Cunarders Mauretania and Berengaria in a trio known as "The Big Three."[3] As times grew better, Aquitania became one of the most profitable ocean liners ever. The American restriction on immigration in the early 1920s ended the age of mass emigration from Europe, but as ocean travel was the only means of transportation between the continents, the express liners survived and even surpassed old records. Some of the big money now came in from movie stars and royalty, other aristocracy and politicians. Aquitania became their favourite, as the 1920s became one of the most profitable ages in ocean travel history.

 

This ended following the stock market crash of 1929, and many ships were affected by the economic downturn and reduced traffic. Aquitania found herself in a tough position. Only a few could afford expensive passage on her now, so Cunard sent Aquitania on cheap cruises to the Mediterranean. These were successful, especially for Americans who went on "booze cruises," tired of their country's prohibition. Aquitania ran aground in the Solent on 24 January 1934 but was refloated later the same day.[13] On 10 April 1935, she went hard aground near Thorne Knoll on the River Test outside Southampton, England, but with the aid of ten tugboats and the next high tide the ship was freed.[1]

World War II service

 

Aquitania, with a normal troop capacity of 7,400, was among the select group of large, fast former passenger ships capable of sailing independently without escort transporting large numbers of troops that were assigned worldwide as needed.[14] These ships, often termed "Monsters" until London requested the term be dropped, were Aquitania, Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth, Mauretania, Île de France and Nieuw Amsterdam with "lesser monsters" being other large ex liners capable of independent sailing with large troop capacity that accounted for much of the troop capacity and deployment, particularly in the early days of the war.[15][16]

 

Plans to replace Aquitania with the newer Queen Elizabeth in 1940 had been forestalled by outbreak of World War II in 1939.[3] During September 1939 Aquitania, awaiting initial refit as a troop ship, was at pier 90 in New York along with Queen Mary while nearby, at pier 88, were the interned French ships Île de France and Normandie.[1][3]

 

Aquitania's initial troop transport operation was bringing Canadian troops to England during November 1939.[1] Meanwhile, a massive transport of Australian and New Zealand troops to Suez and North Africa, with possible diversion to the United Kingdom if events required, was in planning with the numbered convoys to be designated as "US" with the large Atlantic liners assigned a role.[17] The fast convoy designated as US.3 was composed of Aquitania and the liners Queen Mary, Mauretania, Empress of Britain, Empress of Canada, Empress of Japan and Andes.[18] Aquitania, Empress of Britain and Empress of Japan, after embarking New Zealand troops at Wellington in May, sailed escorted by HMAS Canberra, HMAS Australia, and HMNZS Leander to join the Australian component off Sydney on 5 May 1940.[19] Joined off Sydney by Queen Mary and Mauretania the convoy sailed the same day to be joined the next by Empress of Canada out of Melbourne for a stop at Fremantle 10—12 May before the voyage intended to be for Colombo.[19] About midway to Colombo, on 15 May, the convoy was rerouted due to the rapid German penetrations into France with the ultimate destination of Greenock, Scotland via Cape Town, South Africa and Freetown, Sierra Leone where the escort strengthened by various ships including the aircraft carriers HMS Hermes and HMS Argus and the battlecruiser HMS Hood.[20] The convoy arrived in the Clyde and anchored off Greenock on 16 June 1940.[21]

Aquitania painted grey during World War II

 

In November 1941 Aquitania, now repainted in battleship grey, was in Singapore (then still a British colony), from which she sailed to take part indirectly in the loss of the Australian cruiser HMAS Sydney. Sydney had engaged in battle with the German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran. There has been much unsubstantiated speculation that Kormoran was expecting Aquitania, after spies in Singapore had notified Kormoran's crew of the liner's sailing, and planned to ambush her in the Indian Ocean west of Perth but instead encountered Sydney on 19 November. Both ships were lost after a fierce battle. On the morning of 24 November Aquitania en route to Sydney from Singapore spotted and picked up twenty-six survivors of the German ship but maintained radio silence and did not pass word until in visual range of Wilson's Promontory on 27 November.[22] The captain had gone against orders not to stop for survivors of sinkings.[1] There were no survivors from Sydney.

 

With outbreak of the war in the Pacific redeployment of forces was required in an effort to stem the Japanese advances throughout Southeast Asia and toward Australia.[23] On 28 December, the same date USS Houston and other U.S. ships evacuating from the north reached Darwin and with USS Pensacola and elements of her diverted Philippine convoy some 300 miles (480 km) ahead, Aquitania and two smaller transports departed Sydney with 4,150 Australian troops and 10,000 tons of equipment for Port Moresby, New Guinea with Aquitania back in Sydney on 8 January 1942.[24] The next effort was reinforcement of Singapore and the Netherlands East Indies with Aquitania, transporting Australian troops whose equipment was in Convoy MS.1, as the single ship MS.2 convoy under escort of HMAS Canberra.[25] The ship had been the only suitable transport for such a large movement and originally considered for transport directly to Singapore but danger from aircraft to such a valuable asset and so many troops in one ship caused a change of plans in which the 3,456 personnel that included some Navy, Air Force and civilians would be transshipped to smaller vessels at Ratai Bay on the Sunda Strait.[25] Aquitania departed Sydney on 10 January reaching Ratai Bay on 20 January where troops were transshipped under a covering naval force to seven smaller vessels, six of them Dutch Koninklijke Paketvaart-Maatschappij (KPM) ships, that would continue to Singapore as convoy MS.2A.[25] Aquitania was back in Sydney on 31 January.[25]

Aquatania at Boston Naval Shipyard, September 1942

 

After the entry of the United States into the war Aquitania spent the March and April 1942 transporting troops from the west coast of the United States to Hawaii and in May and June from the United Kingdom to Madagascar.[15][26] The ship, then with a troop capacity of 4,500, had been scheduled for transport duties from the United States to Australia in February but necessary repairs had delayed that and she was assigned to Hawaii because her deep draft was hazardous in Australian and intermediate ports in the Pacific Islands.[27] Aquitania was temporarily transferred from Pacific duties to support movement of troops from the United States to Britain during which she sailed 30 April from New York in a large convoy that transported some 19,000 troops.[28] By September Aquitania would be engaged in a triangular troop deployment of United States-United Kingdom-Indian Ocean voyages.[29]

Aquitania (left) and SS Île de France during Operation Pamphlet

 

As part of the major redeployment of Australian troops from North Africa to the defense of Australia and start of offensive operations in the Southwest Pacific Aquitania, Queen Mary, Île de France, Nieuw Amsterdam, and the armed merchant cruiser HMS Queen of Bermuda transported the Australian 9th Division to Sydney in Operation Pamphlet during January and February 1943.[30]

 

By the buildup for the invasion of Europe in 1944 troop deployments to Britain depended heavily on Aquitania and the other "Monsters" and no allowance could be made for interruption of their service for other transport requirements.[31]

 

Wartime embarkation at New York is described in some detail in the description of the departure of the Special Navy Advance Group 56 (SNAG 56) that was to become Navy Base Hospital Number 12 at the Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley, England to receive casualties from Normandy. The unit was sent by "devious routes" by train to Jersey City where under cover of darkness they boarded a ferry crossing to the covered pier 86 in New York where a band played and the Red Cross served their last coffee and doughnuts as they boarded "N.Y. 40", the New York Port of Embarkation code designation for Aquitania, which got underway the morning of 29 January 1944 with some 1,000 Navy and 7,000 Army personnel for arrival at Greenock, Scotland 5 February.[32]

 

In her eight years of further military work, Aquitania sailed more than 500,000 miles, and carried nearly 400,000 soldiers,[1] to and from places as far afield as New Zealand, Australia, the South Pacific, Greece and the Indian Ocean.

Postwar service and retirement

1946: Aquitania in her final years, sporting her wartime grey with traditional Cunard funnels.

 

After completing troopship service, the vessel was handed back to Cunard in 1946, and was used to transport war brides and their children to Canada under charter from the Canadian government. This final service created a special fondness for Aquitania in Halifax, Nova Scotia, the port of disembarkation for these immigration voyages.

 

On completion of that task in December 1949, Aquitania was taken out of service when the ship's Board of Trade certificate was not renewed as the condition of the ship had reached a point of dilapidation and she was becoming too elderly and too expensive to be brought into line with new safety standards of the day, namely fire code regulations. By 1949, as mentioned in Cunard commodore Harry Grattidge's autobiography Captain of the Queens[citation needed] the ship had deteriorated considerably with age. The decks leaked in foul weather, the bulkheads and funnels were corroded to such a point that one could stick one's finger through them. A piano had fallen through the roof of one of the dining rooms from the deck above during a corporate luncheon held on the ship. This truly signalled the end of Aquitania's operational life.

 

The vessel was retired and scrapped in 1950 at Faslane in Scotland,[1] thus ending an illustrious career which included steaming 3 million miles in 450 voyages. Aquitania carried 1.2 million passengers over a career that spanned nearly 36 years, making her the longest-serving Express Liner of the 20th century. Aquitania was the only major liner to serve in both World Wars, and was the last four-funnelled passenger ship to be scrapped. The ship's wheel and a detailed scale model of Aquitania may be seen in the Cunard exhibit at the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax.

 

Maritime author C. R. Bonsor wrote of Aquitania in 1963: "Cunard had recovered possession of their veteran in 1948 but she was not worth reconditioning. In 35 years of service Aquitania had sailed more than 3 million miles and apart from one or two early Allan Line steamers no other ship served for as long in a single ownership."[citation needed]

Socó (Butorides striatus)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a Enciclopédia livre:

O socozinho (Butorides striatus) é uma espécie de socó com ampla distribuição nas áreas alagadas das Américas e em grande parte do mundo. Tal espécie chega a medir até 36 cm de comprimento, possuindo capuz e topete nucal negros, pescoço acinzentado, peito com estrias ferrugem, dorso estriado de marrom, pernas amarelas e curtas. Também é conhecida pelos nomes de ana-velha, garça-socoí, maria-mole, socó-boi, socó-criminoso, socó-estudante, socoí, socó-mijão, socó-mirim e socó-tripa.

O Socozinho (Butorides striatus), é uma ave aquática muito comum em áreas alagadas, geralmente, nidifica solitário, podendo associar-se a outros indivíduos no período de reprodução, formando colônias de nidificação. Este estudo investigou a nidificação colonial de Butorides striatus, em uma área alagável no município de Porto Esperidião- MT. Foram observados os números de ninhos/ovos, distribuição espacial, período de incubação e biometria dos ovos. Foram realizadas visitas semanais à área de estudo nos meses de dezembro/2003 a março/2004. Os dados foram coletados através da observação visual e de mensurações métricas das dimensões e altura dos ninhos, bem como o status(confecção, postura, incubação e desativado). A atividade colonial reprodutiva da espécie em estudo teve início no mês de dezembro/2003, sendo período de maior atividade reprodutiva registrado no mês de março/2004, com total de 58 ninhos. Foram registrados um total de 119 ovos, sendo a média de 2,0 por ninho. Os ninhos localizaram-se a uma altura média de 2,6m(mín=0,9cm e máx=3,6m). A distância média entre os ninhos foi de 1,4m, sendo a distribuição espacial de cada ninho distinta, não ocorrendo uniformidade no extrato vegetal ocupado. Cada parental apresenta uma tolerância relativa à aproximação de outros indivíduos da espécie, que pode variar de 15 a 30 cm do ninho. O período de incubação durou em média 26,5 dias. Na colônia reprodutiva observam-se diferentes níveis de desenvolvimento, desde ninhos em estágio de confecção até indivíduos jovens prestes a voarem. Os indivíduos imaturos deixaram os ninhos por volta do vigésimo oitavo dia após o nascimento.

 

Following, a text in english, from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia:

 

The Striated Heron, Butorides striata, also known as Mangrove Heron, Little Heron or Green-backed Heron, is a small heron. Striated Herons are mostly non-migratory and noted for some interesting behavioral traits. Their breeding habitat is small wetlands in the Old World tropics from west Africa to Japan and Australia, and in South America. Vagrants have been recorded on oceanic islands, such as Chuuk and Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia, the Marianas and Palau; the bird recorded on Yap on February 25 1991, was from a continental Asian rather than from a Melanesian population, while the origin of the bird seen on Palau on May 3 2005 was not clear.

This bird was long considered to be conspecific with the closely related North American species, the Green Heron, which is now usually separted as B. virescens, as well as the Lava Heron of the Galápagos Islands (now B. sundevalli, but often included in B. striata, e.g. by BirdLife International); collectively they were called "green-backed herons". Like other herons, they are traditionally placed in the order Ciconiiformes together with storks, but all these birds form a close-knit group with pelicans, and it is unresolved whether herons are not actually closer to these than to storks.

Description and ecology:

Adults have a blue-grey back and wings, white underparts, a black cap and short yellow legs. Juveniles are browner above and streaked below.

These birds stand still at the water's edge and wait to ambush prey, but are easier to see than many small heron species. They mainly eat small fish, frogs and aquatic insects. They sometimes use bait, dropping a feather or leaf carefully on the water surface and picking fish that come to investigate.

They nest in a platform of sticks measuring between 20-40 cm long and 0.5-5 mm thick. The entire nest measures some 40-50 cm wide and 8-10 cm high outside, with an inner depression 20 cm wide and 4-5 cm deep. It is usually built in not too high off the ground in shrubs or trees but sometimes in sheltered locations on the ground, and often near water. The clutch is 2-5 eggs, which are pale blue and measure around 36 by 28 mm.[4]

An adult bird was once observed in a peculiar and mysterious behavior: while on the nest, it would grab a stick in its bill and make a rapid back-and-forth motion with the head, like a sewing machine's needle. The significance of this behavior is completely unknown: While such movements occur in many other nesting birds where they seem to compact the nest, move the eggs, or dislodge parasites, neither seems to have been the case in this particular Striated Heron.

Young birds will give a display when they feel threatened, by stretching out their necks and pointing the bill skywards. In how far this would deter predators is not known.

Widespread and generally common, the Striated Heron is classified as a Species of Least Concern by the IUCN; this holds true whether the Lava Heron is included in B. striata or not.

Information from: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Cod

 

Cape Cod

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This article is about the area of Massachusetts. For other uses, see Cape Cod (disambiguation).

For other uses, see Cod (disambiguation).

 

Coordinates: 41°41′20″N 70°17′49″W / 41.68889°N 70.29694°W / 41.68889; -70.29694

Map of Massachusetts, with Cape Cod (Barnstable County) indicated in red

Dunes on Sandy Neck are part of the Cape's barrier beach which helps to prevent erosion

 

Cape Cod, often referred to locally as simply the Cape, is an island and a cape in the easternmost portion of the state of Massachusetts, in the Northeastern United States. It is coextensive with Barnstable County. Several small islands right off Cape Cod, including Monomoy Island, Monomoscoy Island, Popponesset Island, and Seconsett Island, are also in Barnstable County, being part of municipalities with land on the Cape. The Cape's small-town character and large beachfront attract heavy tourism during the summer months.

 

Cape Cod was formed as the terminal moraine of a glacier, resulting in a peninsula in the Atlantic Ocean. In 1914, the Cape Cod Canal was cut through the base or isthmus of the peninsula, forming an island. The Cape Cod Commission refers to the resultant landmass as an island; as does the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in regards to disaster preparedness.[1] It is still identified as a peninsula by geographers, who do not change landform designations based on man-made canal construction.[citation needed]

 

Unofficially, it is one of the biggest barrier islands in the world, shielding much of the Massachusetts coastline from North Atlantic storm waves. This protection helps to erode the Cape shoreline at the expense of cliffs, while protecting towns from Fairhaven to Marshfield.

 

Road vehicles from the mainland cross over the Cape Cod Canal via the Sagamore Bridge and the Bourne Bridge. The two bridges are parallel, with the Bourne Bridge located slightly farther southwest. In addition, the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge carries railway freight as well as tourist passenger services.

Contents

[hide]

 

* 1 Geography and political divisions

o 1.1 "Upper" and "Lower"

* 2 Geology

* 3 Climate

* 4 Native population

* 5 History

* 6 Lighthouses of Cape Cod

* 7 Transportation

o 7.1 Bus

o 7.2 Rail

o 7.3 Taxi

* 8 Tourism

* 9 Sport fishing

* 10 Sports

* 11 Education

* 12 Islands off Cape Cod

* 13 See also

* 14 References

o 14.1 Notes

o 14.2 Sources

o 14.3 Further reading

* 15 External links

 

[edit] Geography and political divisions

Towns of Barnstable County

historical map of 1890

 

The highest elevation on Cape Cod is 306 feet (93 m), at the top of Pine Hill, in the Bourne portion of the Massachusetts Military Reservation. The lowest point is sea level.

 

The body of water located between Cape Cod and the mainland, bordered to the north by Massachusetts Bay, is Cape Cod Bay; west of Cape Cod is Buzzards Bay. The Cape Cod Canal, completed in 1916, connects Buzzards Bay to Cape Cod Bay; it shortened the trade route between New York and Boston by 62 miles.[2] To the south of Cape Cod lie Nantucket Sound; Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, both large islands, and the mostly privately owned Elizabeth Islands.

 

Cape Cod incorporates all of Barnstable County, which comprises 15 towns: Bourne, Sandwich, Falmouth, and Mashpee, Barnstable, Yarmouth, Dennis, Harwich, Brewster, Chatham, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. Two of the county's fifteen towns (Bourne and Sandwich) include land on the mainland side of the Cape Cod Canal. The towns of Plymouth and Wareham, in adjacent Plymouth County, are sometimes considered to be part of Cape Cod but are not located on the island.

 

In the 17th century the designation Cape Cod applied only to the tip of the peninsula, essentially present-day Provincetown. Over the ensuing decades, the name came to mean all the land east of the Manomet and Scussett rivers - essentially the line of the 20th century Cape Cod Canal. Now, the complete towns of Bourne and Sandwich are widely considered to incorporate the full perimeter of Cape Cod, even though small parts of these towns are located on the west side of the canal. The canal divides the largest part of the peninsula from the mainland and the resultant landmass is sometimes referred to as an island.[3][4] Additionally some "Cape Codders" – residents of "The Cape" – refer to all land on the mainland side of the canal as "off-Cape."

 

For most of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, Cape Cod was considered to consist of three sections:

 

* The Upper Cape is the part of Cape Cod closest to the mainland, comprising the towns of Bourne, Sandwich, Falmouth, and Mashpee. Falmouth is the home of the famous Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and several other research organizations, and is also the most-used ferry connection to Martha's Vineyard. Falmouth is composed of several separate villages, including East Falmouth, Falmouth Village, Hatchville, North Falmouth, Teaticket, Waquoit, West Falmouth, and Woods Hole, as well as several smaller hamlets that are incorporated into their larger neighbors (e.g., Davisville, Falmouth Heights, Quissett, Sippewissett, and others).[5]

 

* The Mid-Cape includes the towns of Barnstable, Yarmouth and Dennis. The Mid-Cape area features many beautiful beaches, including warm-water beaches along Nantucket Sound, e.g., Kalmus Beach in Hyannis, which gets its name from one of the inventors of Technicolor, Herbert Kalmus. This popular windsurfing destination was bequeathed to the town of Barnstable by Dr. Kalmus on condition that it not be developed, possibly one of the first instances of open-space preservation in the US. The Mid-Cape is also the commercial and industrial center of the region. There are seven villages in Barnstable, including Barnstable Village, Centerville, Cotuit, Hyannis, Marstons Mills, Osterville, and West Barnstable, as well as several smaller hamlets that are incorporated into their larger neighbors (e.g., Craigville, Cummaquid, Hyannisport, Santuit, Wianno, and others).[6] There are three villages in Yarmouth: South Yarmouth, West Yarmouth and Yarmouthport. There are five villages in Dennis including, Dennis Village(North Dennis), East Dennis, West Dennis, South Dennis and Dennisport.[7]

 

* The Lower Cape traditionally included all of the rest of the Cape,or the towns of Harwich, Brewster, Chatham, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. This area includes the Cape Cod National Seashore, a national park comprising much of the outer Cape, including the entire east-facing coast, and is home to some of the most popular beaches in America, such as Coast Guard Beach and Nauset Light Beach in Eastham. Stephen Leatherman, aka "Dr. Beach", named Coast Guard Beach the 5th best beach in America for 2007.[8]

 

[edit] "Upper" and "Lower"

 

The terms "Upper" and "Lower" as applied to the Cape have nothing to do with north and south. Instead, they derive from maritime convention at the time when the principal means of transportation involved watercraft, and the prevailing westerly winds meant that a boat with sails traveling northeast in Cape Cod Bay would have the wind at its back and thus be going downwind, while a craft sailing southwest would be going against the wind, or upwind.[9] Similarly, on nearby Martha's Vineyard, "Up Island" still is the western section and "Down Island" is to the east, and in Maine, "Down East" is similarly defined by the winds and currents.

 

Over time, the reasons for the traditional nomenclature became unfamiliar and their meaning obscure. Late in the 1900s, new arrivals began calling towns from Eastham to Provincetown the "Outer Cape", yet another geographic descriptor which is still in use, as is the "Inner Cape."

[edit] Geology

Cape Cod and Cape Cod Bay from space.[10]

 

East of America, there stands in the open Atlantic the last fragment of an ancient and vanished land. Worn by the breakers and the rains, and disintegrated by the wind, it still stands bold.

“

”

Henry Beston, The Outermost House

 

Cape Cod forms a continuous archipelagic region with a thin line of islands stretching toward New York, historically known by naturalists as the Outer Lands. This continuity is due to the fact that the islands and Cape are all terminal glacial moraines laid down some 16,000 to 20,000 years ago.

 

Most of Cape Cod's geological history involves the advance and retreat of the Laurentide ice sheet in the late Pleistocene geological era and the subsequent changes in sea level. Using radiocarbon dating techniques, researchers have determined that around 23,000 years ago, the ice sheet reached its maximum southward advance over North America, and then started to retreat. Many "kettle ponds" — clear, cold lakes — were formed and remain on Cape Cod as a result of the receding glacier. By about 18,000 years ago, the ice sheet had retreated past Cape Cod. By roughly 15,000 years ago, it had retreated past southern New England. When so much of Earth's water was locked up in massive ice sheets, the sea level was lower. Truro's bayside beaches used to be a petrified forest, before it became a beach.

 

As the ice began to melt, the sea began to rise. Initially, sea level rose quickly, about 15 meters (50 ft) per 1,000 years, but then the rate declined. On Cape Cod, sea level rose roughly 3 meters (11 ft) per millennium between 6,000 and 2,000 years ago. After that, it continued to rise at about 1 meter (3 ft) per millennium. By 6,000 years ago, the sea level was high enough to start eroding the glacial deposits that the vanished continental ice sheet had left on Cape Cod. The water transported the eroded deposits north and south along the outer Cape's shoreline. Those reworked sediments that moved north went to the tip of Cape Cod.

 

Provincetown Spit, at the northern end of the Cape, consists largely of marine deposits, transported from farther up the shore. Sediments that moved south created the islands and shoals of Monomoy. So while other parts of the Cape have dwindled from the action of the waves, these parts of the Cape have grown.

Cape Cod National Seashore

 

This process continues today. Due to their position jutting out into the Atlantic Ocean, the Cape and islands are subject to massive coastal erosion. Geologists say that, due to erosion, the Cape will be completely submerged by the sea in thousands of years.[11] This erosion causes the washout of beaches and the destruction of the barrier islands; for example, the ocean broke through the barrier island at Chatham during Hurricane Bob in 1991, allowing waves and storm surges to hit the coast with no obstruction. Consequently, the sediment and sand from the beaches is being washed away and deposited elsewhere. While this destroys land in some places, it creates land elsewhere, most noticeably in marshes where sediment is deposited by waters running through them.

[edit] Climate

 

Although Cape Cod's weather[12] is typically more moderate than inland locations, there have been occasions where Cape Cod has dealt with the brunt of extreme weather situations (such as the Blizzard of 1954 and Hurricane of 1938). Because of the influence of the Atlantic Ocean, temperatures are typically a few degrees cooler in the summer and a few degrees warmer in the winter. A common misconception is that the climate is influenced largely by the warm Gulf Stream current, however that current turns eastward off the coast of Virginia and the waters off the Cape are more influenced by the cold Canadian Labrador Current. As a result, the ocean temperature rarely gets above 65 °F (18 °C), except along the shallow west coast of the Upper Cape.

 

The Cape's climate is also notorious for a delayed spring season, being surrounded by an ocean which is still cold from the winter; however, it is also known for an exceptionally mild fall season (Indian summer), thanks to the ocean remaining warm from the summer. The highest temperature ever recorded on Cape Cod was 104 °F (40 °C) in Provincetown[13], and the lowest temperature ever was −12 °F (−24.4 °C) in Barnstable.[14]

 

The water surrounding Cape Cod moderates winter temperatures enough to extend the USDA hardiness zone 7a to its northernmost limit in eastern North America.[15] Even though zone 7a (annual low = 0–5 degrees Fahrenheit) signifies no sub-zero temperatures annually, there have been several instances of temperatures reaching a few degrees below zero across the Cape (although it is rare, usually 1–5 times a year, typically depending on locale, sometimes not at all). Consequently, many plant species typically found in more southerly latitudes grow there, including Camellias, Ilex opaca, Magnolia grandiflora and Albizia julibrissin.

 

Precipitation on Cape Cod and the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket is the lowest in the New England region, averaging slightly less than 40 inches (1,000 mm) a year (most parts of New England average 42–46 inches). This is due to storm systems which move across western areas, building up in mountainous regions, and dissipating before reaching the coast where the land has leveled out. The region does not experience a greater number of sunny days however, as the number of cloudy days is the same as inland locales, in addition to increased fog. Snowfall is annual, but a lot less common than the rest of Massachusetts. On average, 30 inches of snow, which is a foot less than Boston, falls in an average winter. Snow is usually light, and comes in squalls on cold days. Storms that bring blizzard conditions and snow emergencies to the mainland, bring devastating ice storms or just heavy rains more frequently than large snow storms.

[hide]Climate data for Cape Cod

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Average high °C (°F) 2.06

(35.7) 2.5

(36.5) 6.22

(43.2) 11.72

(53.1) 16.94

(62.5) 23.5

(74.3) 26.39

(79.5) 26.67

(80.0) 25.06

(77.1) 18.39

(65.1) 12.56

(54.6) 5.44

(41.8) 26.67

(80.0)

Average low °C (°F) -5.33

(22.4) -5

(23.0) -1.33

(29.6) 2.72

(36.9) 8.72

(47.7) 14.61

(58.3) 19.22

(66.6) 20.28

(68.5) 15.56

(60.0) 9.94

(49.9) 3.94

(39.1) -2.22

(28.0) -5.33

(22.4)

Precipitation mm (inches) 98

(3.86) 75.4

(2.97) 95

(3.74) 92.5

(3.64) 83.6

(3.29) 76.7

(3.02) 62.2

(2.45) 65

(2.56) 74.7

(2.94) 84.8

(3.34) 90.7

(3.57) 92.7

(3.65) 990.9

(39.01)

Source: World Meteorological Organisation (United Nations) [16]

[edit] Native population

 

Cape Cod has been the home of the Wampanoag tribe of Native American people for many centuries. They survived off the sea and were accomplished farmers. They understood the principles of sustainable forest management, and were known to light controlled fires to keep the underbrush in check. They helped the Pilgrims, who arrived in the fall of 1620, survive at their new Plymouth Colony. At the time, the dominant group was the Kakopee, known for their abilities at fishing. They were the first Native Americans to use large casting nets. Early colonial settlers recorded that the Kakopee numbered nearly 7,000.

 

Shortly after the Pilgrims arrived, the chief of the Kakopee, Mogauhok, attempted to make a treaty limiting colonial settlements. The effort failed after he succumbed to smallpox in 1625. Infectious diseases such as smallpox, measles and influenza caused the deaths of many other Kakopee and Wampanoag. They had no natural immunity to Eurasian diseases by then endemic among the English and other Europeans. Today, the only reminder of the Kakopee is a small public recreation area in Barnstable named for them. A historic marker notes the burial site of Mogauhok near Truro, although the location is conjecture.

 

While contractors were digging test wells in the eastern Massachusetts Military Reservation area, they discovered an archeological find.[citation needed] Excavation revealed the remains of a Kakopee village in Forestdale, a location in Sandwich. Researchers found a totem with a painted image of Mogauhok, portrayed in his chief's cape and brooch. The totem was discovered on property on Grand Oak Road. It is the first evidence other than colonial accounts of his role as an important Kakopee leader.

 

The Indians lost their lands through continued purchase and expropriation by the English colonists. The documentary Natives of the Narrowland (1993), narrated by actress Julie Harris, shows the history of the Wampanoag people through Cape Cod archaeological sites.

 

In 1974, the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribal Council was formed to articulate the concerns of those with Native American ancestry. They petitioned the federal government in 1975 and again in 1990 for official recognition of the Mashpee Wampanoag as a tribe. In May 2007, the Wampanoag tribe was finally federally recognized as a tribe.[17]

[edit] History

Cranberry picking in 1906

 

Cape Cod was a landmark for early explorers. It may have been the "Promontory of Vinland" mentioned by the Norse voyagers (985-1025). Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 approached it from the south. He named Martha's Vineyard Claudia, after the mother of the King of France.[18] The next year the explorer Esteban Gómez called it Cape St. James.

 

In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold named it Cape Cod, the surviving term and the ninth oldest English place-name in the U.S.[19] Samuel de Champlain charted its sand-silted harbors in 1606 and Henry Hudson landed there in 1609. Captain John Smith noted it on his map of 1614 and at last the Pilgrims entered the "Cape Harbor" and – contrary to the popular myth of Plymouth Rock – made their first landing near present-day Provincetown on November 11, 1620. Nearby, in what is now Eastham, they had their first encounter with Native Americans.

 

Cape Cod was among the first places settled by the English in North America. Aside from Barnstable (1639), Sandwich (1637) and Yarmouth (1639), the Cape's fifteen towns developed slowly. The final town to be established on the Cape was Bourne in 1884.[20] Provincetown was a group of huts until the 18th century. A channel from Massachusetts Bay to Buzzards Bay is shown on Southack's map of 1717. The present Cape Cod Canal was slowly developed from 1870 to 1914. The Federal government purchased it in 1928.

 

Thanks to early colonial settlement and intensive land use, by the time Henry Thoreau saw Cape Cod during his four visits over 1849 to 1857[21], its vegetation was depauperate and trees were scarce. As the settlers heated by fires, and it took 10 to 20 cords (40 to 80 m³) of wood to heat a home, they cleared most of Cape Cod of timber early on. They planted familiar crops, but these were unsuited to Cape Cod's thin, glacially derived soils. For instance, much of Eastham was planted to wheat. The settlers practiced burning of woodlands to release nutrients into the soil. Improper and intensive farming led to erosion and the loss of topsoil. Farmers grazed their cattle on the grassy dunes of coastal Massachusetts, only to watch "in horror as the denuded sands `walked' over richer lands, burying cultivated fields and fences." Dunes on the outer Cape became more common and many harbors filled in with eroded soils.[22]

 

By 1800, most of Cape Cod's firewood had to be transported by boat from Maine. The paucity of vegetation was worsened by the raising of merino sheep that reached its peak in New England around 1840. The early industrial revolution, which occurred through much of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, mostly bypassed Cape Cod due to a lack of significant water power in the area. As a result, and also because of its geographic position, the Cape developed as a large fishing and whaling center. After 1860 and the opening of the American West, farmers abandoned agriculture on the Cape. By 1950 forests had recovered to an extent not seen since the 18th century.

 

Cape Cod became a summer haven for city dwellers beginning at the end of the 19th century. Improved rail transportation made the towns of the Upper Cape, such as Bourne and Falmouth, accessible to Bostonians. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Northeastern mercantile elite built many large, shingled "cottages" along Buzzards Bay. The relaxed summer environment offered by Cape Cod was highlighted by writers including Joseph C. Lincoln, who published novels and countless short stories about Cape Cod folks in popular magazines such as the Saturday Evening Post and the Delineator.

 

Guglielmo Marconi made the first transatlantic wireless transmission originating in the United States from Cape Cod, at Wellfleet. The beach from which he transmitted has since been called Marconi Beach. In 1914 he opened the maritime wireless station WCC in Chatham. It supported the communications of Amelia Earhart, Howard Hughes, Admiral Byrd, and the Hindenburg. Marconi chose Chatham due to its vantage point on the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded on three sides by water. Walter Cronkite narrated a 17-minute documentary in 2005 about the history of the Chatham Station.

 

Much of the East-facing Atlantic seacoast of Cape Cod consists of wide, sandy beaches. In 1961, a significant portion of this coastline, already slated for housing subdivisions, was made a part of the Cape Cod National Seashore by President John F. Kennedy. It was protected from private development and preserved for public use. Large portions are open to the public, including the Marconi Site in Wellfleet. This is a park encompassing the site of the first two-way transoceanic radio transmission from the United States. (Theodore Roosevelt used Marconi's equipment for this transmission).

 

The Kennedy Compound in Hyannisport was President Kennedy's summer White House during his presidency. The Kennedy family continues to maintain residences on the compound. Other notable residents of Cape Cod have included actress Julie Harris, US Supreme Court justice Louis Brandeis, figure skater Todd Eldredge, and novelists Norman Mailer and Kurt Vonnegut. Influential natives included the patriot James Otis, historian and writer Mercy Otis Warren, jurist Lemuel Shaw, and naval officer John Percival.

[edit] Lighthouses of Cape Cod

Race Point Lighthouse in Provincetown (1876)

 

Lighthouses, from ancient times, have fascinated members of the human race. There is something about a lighted beacon that suggests hope and trust and appeals to the better instincts of mankind.

“

”

Edward Rowe Snow

 

Due to its dangerous constantly moving shoals, Cape Cod's shores have featured beacons which warn ships of the danger since very early in its history. There are numerous working lighthouses on Cape Cod and the Islands, including Highland Light, Nauset Light, Chatham Light, Race Point Light, and Nobska Light, mostly operated by the U.S. Coast Guard. The exception is Nauset Light, which was decommissioned in 1996 and is now maintained by the Nauset Light Preservation Society under the auspices of Cape Cod National Seashore. These lighthouses are frequently photographed symbols of Cape Cod.

 

Others include:

 

Upper Cape: Wings Neck

 

Mid Cape: Sandy Neck, South Hyannis, Lewis Bay, Bishop and Clerks, Bass River

 

Lower Cape: Wood End, Long Point, Monomoy, Stage Harbor, Pamet, Mayo Beach, Billingsgate, Three Sisters, Nauset, Highland

[edit] Transportation

 

Cape Cod is connected to the mainland by a pair of canal-spanning highway bridges from Bourne and Sagamore that were constructed in the 1930s, and a vertical-lift railroad bridge. The limited number of access points to the peninsula can result in large traffic backups during the tourist season.

 

The entire Cape is roughly bisected lengthwise by U.S. Route 6, locally known as the Mid-Cape Highway and officially as the Grand Army of the Republic Highway.

 

Commercial air service to Cape Cod operates out of Barnstable Municipal Airport and Provincetown Municipal Airport. Several bus lines service the Cape. There are ferry connections from Boston to Provincetown, as well as from Hyannis and Woods Hole to the islands.

 

Cape Cod has a public transportation network comprising buses operated by three different companies, a rail line, taxis and paratransit services.

The Bourne Bridge over the Cape Cod Canal, with the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge in the background

[edit] Bus

 

Cape Cod Regional Transit Authority operates a year-round public bus system comprising three long distance routes and a local bus in Hyannis and Barnstable Village. From mid June until October, additional local routes are added in Falmouth and Provincetown. CCRTA also operates Barnstable County's ADA required paratransit (dial-a-ride) service, under the name "B-Bus."

 

Long distance bus service is available through Plymouth and Brockton Street Railway, with regular service to Boston and Logan Airport, as well as less frequent service to Provincetown. Peter Pan Bus Lines also runs long distance service to Providence T.F. Green Airport and New York City.

[edit] Rail

 

Regular passenger rail service through Cape Cod ended in 1959, quite possibly on June 30 of that year. In 1978, the tracks east of South Dennis were abandoned and replaced with the very popular bicycle path, known as the Cape Cod Rail Trail. Another bike path, the Shining Sea Bikeway, was built over tracks between Woods Hole and Falmouth in 1975; construction to extend this path to North Falmouth over 6.3 miles (10.1 km) of inactive rail bed began in April 2008[23] and ended in early 2009. Active freight service remains in the Upper Cape area in Sandwich and in Bourne, largely due to a trash transfer station located at Massachusetts Military Reservation along the Bourne-Falmouth rail line. In 1986, Amtrak ran a seasonal service in the summer from New York City to Hyannis called the Cape Codder. From 1988, Amtrak and the Massachusetts Department of Transportation increased service to a daily frequency.[24] Since its demise in 1996, there have been periodic discussions about reinstating passenger rail service from Boston to reduce car traffic to and from the Cape, with officials in Bourne seeking to re-extend MBTA Commuter Rail service from Middleboro to Buzzards Bay[25], despite a reluctant Beacon Hill legislature.

 

Cape Cod Central Railroad operates passenger train service on Cape Cod. The service is primarily tourist oriented and includes a dinner train. The scenic route between Downtown Hyannis and the Cape Cod Canal is about 2½ hours round trip. Massachusetts Coastal Railroad is also planning to return passenger railroad services eventually to the Bourne-Falmouth rail line in the future. An August 5, 2009 article on the New England Cable News channel, entitled South Coast rail project a priority for Mass. lawmakers, mentions a $1.4-billion railroad reconstruction plan by Governor Deval Patrick, and could mean rebuilding of old rail lines on the Cape. On November 21, 2009, the town of Falmouth saw its first passenger train in 12 years, a set of dinner train cars from Cape Cod Central. And a trip from the Mass Bay Railroad Enthusiasts on May 15, 2010 revealed a second trip along the Falmouth line.

[edit] Taxi

 

Taxicabs are plentiful, with several different companies operating out of different parts of the Cape. Except at the airport and some bus terminals with taxi stands, cabs must be booked ahead of time, with most operators preferring two to three hours notice. Cabs cannot be "hailed" anywhere in Barnstable County, this was outlawed in the early nineties after several robbery attempts on drivers.

 

Most companies utilize a New York City-style taximeter and charge based on distance plus an initial fee of $2 to $3. In Provincetown, cabs charge a flat fare per person anywhere in the town.

[edit] Tourism

Hyannis Harbor on Nantucket Sound

 

Although Cape Cod has a year-round population of about 230,000, it experiences a tourist season each summer, the beginning and end of which can be roughly approximated as Memorial Day and Labor Day, respectively. Many businesses are specifically targeted to summer visitors, and close during the eight to nine months of the "off season" (although the "on season" has been expanding somewhat in recent years due to Indian Summer, reduced lodging rates, and the number of people visiting the Cape after Labor Day who either have no school-age children, and the elderly, reducing the true "off season" to six or seven months). In the late 20th century, tourists and owners of second homes began visiting the Cape more and more in the spring and fall, softening the definition of the high season and expanding it somewhat (see above). Some particularly well-known Cape products and industries include cranberries, shellfish (particularly oysters and clams) and lobstering.

 

Provincetown, at the tip of Cape Cod, also berths several whale watching fleets who patrol the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. Most fleets guarantee a whale sighting (mostly humpback whale, fin whale, minke whale, sei whale, and critically endangered, the North Atlantic Right Whale), and one is the only federally certified operation qualified to rescue whales. Provincetown has also long been known as an art colony, attracting writers and artists. The town is home to the Cape's most attended art museum, the Provincetown Art Association and Museum. Many hotels and resorts are friendly to or cater to gay and lesbian tourists and it is known as a gay mecca in the summer.[26]

 

Cape Cod is a popular destination for beachgoers from all over. With 559.6 miles (900.6 km) of coastline, beaches, both public and private, are easily accessible. The Cape has upwards of sixty public beaches, many of which offer parking for non-residents for a daily fee (in summer). The Cape Cod National Seashore has 40 miles (64 km) of sandy beach and many walking paths.

 

Cape Cod is also popular for its outdoor activities like beach walking, biking, boating, fishing, go-karts, golfing, kayaking, miniature golf, and unique shopping. There are 27 public, daily-fee golf courses and 15 private courses on Cape Cod.[27] Bed and breakfasts or vacation houses are often used for lodging.

 

Each summer the Naukabout Music Festival is held at the Barnstable County Fair Grounds located in East Falmouth,(typically) during the first weekend of August. This Music festival features local, regional and national talent along with food, arts and family friendly activities.

[edit] Sport fishing

 

Cape Cod is known around the world as a spring-to-fall destination for sport anglers. Among the species most widely pursued are striped bass, bluefish, bluefin tuna, false albacore (little tunny), bonito, tautog, flounder and fluke. The Cape Cod Bay side of the Cape, from Sandwich to Provincetown, has several harbors, saltwater creeks, and shoals that hold bait fish and attract the larger game fish, such as striped bass, bluefish and bluefin tuna.

 

The outer edge of the Cape, from Provincetown to Falmouth, faces the open Atlantic from Provincetown to Chatham, and then the more protected water of Nantucket and Vineyard Sounds, from Chatham to Falmouth. The bays, harbors and shoals along this coastline also provide a robust habitat for game species, and during the late summer months warm-water species such as mahi-mahi and marlin will also appear on the southern edge of Cape Cod's waters. Nearly every harbor on Cape Cod hosts sport fishing charter boats, which run from May through October.[28]

[edit] Sports

 

The Cape has nine amateur baseball franchises playing within Barnstable County in the Cape Cod Baseball League. The Wareham Gatemen also play in the Cape Cod Baseball League in nearby Wareham, Massachusetts in Plymouth County. The league originated 1923, although intertown competition traces to 1866. Teams in the league are the Bourne Braves, Brewster Whitecaps, Chatham Anglers (formerly the Chatham Athletics), Cotuit Kettleers, Falmouth Commodores, Harwich Mariners, Hyannis Harbor Hawks (formerly the Hyannis Mets), Orleans Firebirds (formerly the Orleans Cardinals), Wareham Gatemen and the Yarmouth-Dennis Red Sox. Pro ball scouts frequent the games in the summer, looking for stars of the future.

 

Cape Cod is also a national hot bed for baseball and hockey. Along with the Cape Cod Baseball League and the new Junior Hockey League team, the Cape Cod Cubs, many high school players are being seriously recruited as well. Barnstable and Harwich have each sent multiple players to Division 1 colleges for baseball, Harwich has also won three State titles in the past 12 years (1996, 2006, 2007). Bourne and Sandwich, known rivals in hockey have won state championships recently. Bourne in 2004, and Sandwich in 2007. Nauset, Barnstable, and Martha's Vineyard are also state hockey powerhouses. Barnstable and Falmouth also hold the title of having one of the longest Thanksgiving football rivalries in the country. The teams have played each other every year on the Thanksgiving since 1895. The Bourne and Barnstable girl's volleyball teams are two of the best teams in the state and Barnstable in the country. With Bourne winning the State title in 2003 and 2007. In the past 15 years, Barnstable has won 12 Division 1 State titles and has won the state title the past two years.

 

The Cape also is home to the Cape Cod Frenzy, a team in the American Basketball Association.

 

Soccer on Cape Cod is represented by the Cape Cod Crusaders, playing in the USL Premier Development League (PDL) soccer based in Hyannis. In addition, a summer Cape Cod Adult Soccer League (CCASL) is active in several towns on the Cape.

 

Cape Cod is also the home of the Cape Cod Cubs, a new junior league hockey team that is based out of Hyannis at the new communtiy center being built of Bearses Way.

 

The end of each summer is marked with the running of the world famous Falmouth Road Race which is held on the 3rd Saturday in August. It draws about 10,000 runners to the Cape and showcases the finest runners in the world (mainly for the large purse that the race is able to offer). The race is 7.2 miles (11.6 km) long, which is a non-standard distance. The reason for the unusual distance is that the man who thought the race up (Tommy Leonard) was a bartender who wanted a race along the coast from one bar (The Cap'n Kidd in Woods Hole) to another (The Brothers Four in Falmouth Heights). While the bar in Falmouth Heights is no longer there, the race still starts at the front door of the Cap'n Kidd in Woods Hole and now finishes at the beach in Falmouth Heights. Prior to the Falmouth race is an annual 5-mile (8.0 km) race through Brewster called the Brew Run, held early in August.

[edit] Education

 

Each town usually consists of a few elementary schools, one or two middle schools and one large public high school that services the entire town. Exceptions to this include Dennis-Yarmouth Regional High School located in Yarmouth which services both the town of Yarmouth as well as Dennis and Nauset Regional High School located in Eastham which services the town of Brewster, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown (optional). Bourne High School is the public school for students residing in the town of Bourne, which is gathered from villages in Bourne, including Sagamore, Sagamore Beach, and Buzzards Bay. Barnstable High School is the largest high school and is known for its girls' volleyball team which have been state champions a total of 12 times. Barnstable High School also boasts one of the country's best high school drama clubs which were awarded with a contract by Warner Brothers to created a documentary in webisode format based on their production of Wizard of Oz. Sturgis Charter Public School is a public school in Hyannis which was featured in Newsweek's Magazine's "Best High Schools" ranking. It ranked 28th in the country and 1st in the state of Massachusetts in the 2009 edition and ranked 43rd and 55th in the 2008 and 2007 edition, respectively. Sturgis offers the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme in their junior and senior year and is open to students as far as Plymouth. The Cape also contains two vocational high schools. One is the Cape Cod Regional Technical High School in Harwich and the other is Upper Cape Cod Regional Technical High School located in Bourne. Lastly, Mashpee High School is home to the Mashpee Chapter of (SMPTE,) the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. This chapter is the first and only high school chapter in the world to be a part of this organization and has received much recognition within the Los Angeles broadcasting industry as a result. The officers of this group who have made history are listed below:

 

* President: Ryan D. Stanley '11

* Vice-President Kenneth J. Peters '13

* Treasurer Eric N. Bergquist '11

* Secretary Andrew L. Medlar '11

 

In addition to public schools, Cape Cod has a wide range of private schools. The town of Barnstable has Trinity Christian Academy, Cape Cod Academy, St. Francis Xavier Preparatory School, and Pope John Paul II High School. Bourne offers the Waldorf School of Cape Cod, Orleans offers the Lighthouse Charter School for elementary and middle school students, and Falmouth offers Falmouth Academy. Riverview School is located in East Sandwich and is a special co-ed boarding school which services students as old as 22 who have learning disabilities. Another specialized school is the Penikese Island School located on Penikese Island, part of the Elizabeth Islands off southwestern Cape Cod, which services struggling and troubled teenage boys.

 

Cape Cod also contains two institutions of higher education. One is the Cape Cod Community College located in West Barnstable, Barnstable. The other is Massachusetts Maritime Academy in Buzzards Bay, Bourne. Massachusetts Maritime Academy is the oldest continuously operating maritime college in the United States.

[edit] Islands off Cape Cod

 

Like Cape Cod itself, the islands south of the Cape have evolved from whaling and trading areas to resort destinations, attracting wealthy families, celebrities, and other tourists. The islands include Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, as well as Forbes family-owned Naushon Island, which was purchased by John Murray Forbes with profits from opium dealing in the China trade during the Opium War. Naushon is one of the Elizabeth Islands, many of which are privately owned. One of the publicly accessible Elizabeths is the southernmost island in the chain, Cuttyhunk, with a year-round population of 52 people. Several prominent families have established compounds or estates on the larger islands, making these islands some of the wealthiest resorts in the Northeast, yet they retain much of the early merchant trading and whaling culture.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

United States

Name:Wright

Namesake:Wright Brothers

Builder:New York Shipbuilding Corporation

Laid down:21 August 1944

Launched:1 September 1945

Commissioned:9 February 1947

Decommissioned:27 May 1970

Reclassified:AVT-7 (1959), CC-2 (1963)

Stricken:1 December 1977

Honors and

awards:National Defense Service Medal (2)

Fate:Sold for scrap 1980

General characteristics

Class and type:Saipan-class aircraft carrier

Displacement:14,500 tons

Length:684 ft (208 m)

Beam:

 

76.8 ft (23.4 m) (waterline)

115 ft (35 m) (overall)

 

Draft:28 ft (8.5 m)

Speed:33 knots (61 km/h; 38 mph)

Complement:1,787 officers and enlisted

Armament:40 × Bofors 40 mm guns

Aircraft carried:50+ aircraft

 

USS Wright (CVL-49) was a Saipan-class light aircraft carrier of the U.S. Navy, later converted to the command ship CC-2. It is the second ship named "Wright". The first Wright (AV-1) was named for Orville Wright; the second honored both Wright brothers: Orville and Wilbur.[1]

 

Construction

 

Wright was laid down on 21 August 1944, at Camden, New Jersey, by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation, launched on 1 September 1945, sponsored by Mrs. Harold S. Miller, a niece of the Wright brothers, and commissioned at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard on 9 February 1947, with Captain Frank T. Ward in command.

Service history

 

Wright departed Philadelphia on 18 March 1947 and stopped briefly at Norfolk, Virginia, en route to the Naval Air Training Base at Pensacola, Florida. After her arrival there on 31 March, Wright soon commenced a rigorous schedule of air defense drills and gunnery practice while acting as a qualification carrier for hundreds of student pilots at the Naval Air Training Base, relieving Saipan.[2] Wright would embark on 40 operational cruises—each of between one and four days' duration off the Florida coast. In addition, the carrier embarked a total of 1,081 naval reservists and trained them in a series of three two-week duty tours.

 

On 3 September 1947, Wright embarked 48 Midshipmen for temporary training duty and later welcomed 62 Army officers when she stood out to sea on 15 October, in company with Forrest Royal to let her guests observe flight operations in the Pensacola area. The exercises included the catapulting of Grumman F6F Hellcats for rocket-firing operations.

 

That exercise was her last prior to her departure from Pensacola on 24 October, to return north. She arrived at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard soon thereafter and from 1 November to 17 December, underwent post-shakedown repairs and alterations before she returned to Pensacola two days before Christmas, where she resumed her regular schedule of pilot qualification training under the operational control of the Chief of Naval Air Training, Commander Air Atlantic. Wright spent the year 1948 engaged in those pilot carrier qualification operations, before she put into the Norfolk Naval Shipyard on 26 January 1949, to commence a four-month overhaul. She was relieved as training carrier by Cabot.[2]

Wright and Leyte at Quonset Point, c.1950

 

Following refresher training in Cuban waters, Wright returned to Norfolk on 1 August 1949, and four days later shifted to Newport, Rhode Island, for two weeks of antisubmarine warfare (ASW) training in the Narragansett Bay area with submarines and destroyers. She also visited New York City before taking up a steady schedule of carrier qualifications, air defense tactics, and exercises out of Quonset Point, Rhode Island, Key West, and Pensacola. But for 10 days of maneuvers with the 2d Task Fleet from 21 to 31 October 1949, she continued that duty until 7 January 1951, when she embarked the last increment of personnel from Fighter Squadron 14 (VF-14) for temporary duty.

Service with 6th Fleet

 

Wright sailed from Norfolk, on 11 January 1951, with a fast carrier task group and reached Gibraltar on 21 January, for her first tour of duty with the 6th Fleet in the Mediterranean. Wright's first Mediterranean deployment took her from Gibraltar to Oran, Algeria. She proceeded thence to Augusta Bay, Sicily; Suda Bay, Crete; Beirut, Lebanon; and Golfe Juan, France—her replenishment and liberty ports during the never-ending cycle of fleet training and readiness exercises with the 6th Fleet. Departing Golfe Juan on 19 March, Wright made port at Newport on 31 March 1951.

 

The carrier later entered the Norfolk Naval Shipyard and underwent an overhaul there before she took part in Atlantic Fleet maneuvers out of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba; engaged in ASW tactics and carrier operations in Narragansett Bay, received further repairs at the Boston Naval Shipyard, and participated in a convoy exercise that ran from 25 February to 21 March 1952; and ranged from Newport to waters of the Panama Canal Zone and Trinidad in the British West Indies.

 

As flagship for Carrier Division 14, Wright sailed on 9 June 1952, in company with four destroyers forming Task Group (TG) 81.4 for ASW operations along the Atlantic seaboard until 27 June, when the ships arrived at New York City. Returning to Quonset Point on 1 July, Wright trained units of the organized Naval Reserve concurrently with hunter–killer tactics and pilot training in operations out of Narragansett Bay until 26 August. On that day, she set course from Quonset Point and later rendezvoused with Vice Admiral Felix Stump's 2d Task Fleet en route to northern Europe for combined defense exercises and maneuvers with naval units of other North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) navies.

 

En route, Wright, escorted by Forrest Royal, was detached to ferry men and gear of Marine Night Fighter Squadron (VMF(N)) 114 to Port Lyautey, Morocco, an operation she completed on 4 September. Two days later, Wright and her escort rejoined the task force; and they reached the Firth of Clyde, Scotland, on 10 September.

 

Three days later, Wright put to sea with two British destroyers acting as her plane guard for NATO Operation Mainbrace. She conducted air defense maneuvers and tactics evolutions with the British carriers HMS Illustrious and HMS Eagle en route to Rotterdam, Netherlands, where the force arrived on 25 September. On 29 September, Wright departed Rotterdam, bound for the United States, and arrived at Newport on 9 October.

 

That day, she embarked Rear Admiral W. L. Erdman, Commander, Carrier Division 4, and spent the next few months engaged in carrier qualification duties in waters ranging from Newport to the Virginia Capes, before she began her second deployment to the Mediterranean. She reached Golfe Juan on 21 February 1953, and operated with the 6th Fleet until 31 March, when she sailed for home, via the Azores.

 

Wright returned to Newport, and after a rigorous schedule of training in Narragansett Bay, sailed on 5 May, for the Gulf of Mexico. During that training cruise, she visited Houston, Texas, where she hosted some 14,000 visitors on 16 and 17 May. Returning to Quonset Point on 28 May, Wright operated locally for another month before shifting south for a stint of operations out of Mayport, Florida.

Service with 7th Fleet

 

Wright was overhauled at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard from 31 July to 21 November 1953, and then conducted refresher training in Cuban waters from 4 January to 16 February 1954. Next, after departing Quonset Point, Rhode Island, on 5 April, Wright sailed for Norfolk, Virginia where she took on necessary stores and supplies in preparation for her transfer to the Pacific Fleet. On 20 April, Wright set sail for the Western Pacific via the Panama Canal; San Diego, California; and Pearl Harbor—and reached United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka, Japan, on 28 May. The carrier, with Marine Attack Squadron 211 embarked, operated with the 7th Fleet off both coasts of Korea and also off Okinawa before she visited Hong Kong from 24 to 30 September. Departing Yokosuka on 15 October, Wright arrived at San Diego on the last day of October and entered the Long Beach Naval Shipyard, where she remained until 23 February 1955.

 

At that point, Wright was attached to CarDiv 17, Pacific Fleet, and operated locally out of San Diego until 3 May, when she put to sea as part of TG 7.3—formed around the flagship Mount McKinley—for the atomic test, Operation Wigwam, carried out in Pacific waters. Returning to the West Coast on 20 May, Wright subsequently cruised to Pearl Harbor briefly before she entered the Mare Island Naval Shipyard on 14 July to commence preparation for inactivation. After shifting to the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Bremerton, Washington, on 17 October, for the final phase of preservation for inactivation, Wright was decommissioned at Puget Sound on 15 March 1956, and assigned to the Bremerton group of the Pacific Reserve Fleet.

Reclassification

USS Wright as CC-2 off Southern California in September 1963

 

During her time in reserve, Wright was reclassified on 15 May 1959, an auxiliary aircraft transport, AVT-7. However, she never served in that role but remained inactive until 15 March 1962, when she was taken to the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard for conversion to a command ship and reclassified as CC-2. The conversion—which lasted a year—included extensive alterations to enable the ship to function as a fully equipped mobile command post afloat for top-echelon commands and staff for strategic direction of area or worldwide military operations. Facilities were built into the ship for worldwide communications and rapid automatic exchange, processing, storage, and display of command data. A portion of the former hangar deck space was utilized for special command spaces and the extensive electronics equipment required, while a major portion of the flight deck was utilized for specially designed communications antenna arrays. In addition, facilities were provided to enable the ship to operate three helicopters.

 

Recommissioned at Puget Sound on 11 May 1963, Capt. John L. Arrington II, in command, Wright (CC-2) operated locally on trials and training evolutions in the waters off the Pacific Northwest until 3 September, when she departed Seattle and proceeded to San Diego, which she reached three days later. For the next three weeks, the ship trained in nearby waters before she returned to Puget Sound on 30 September to commence her post-shakedown availability.

 

Following those repairs and alterations—which took up all of the month of October and most of November—Wright prepared to shift to her new home port, Norfolk. She departed Seattle on 26 November, stopped briefly at San Diego three days later to embark civilian engineers and personnel who were to conduct surveys of communications and-air conditioning equipment, and was steaming south off the coast of northern Mexico when she picked up a distress message from the Israeli merchantman SS Velos, on 1 December. Wright altered course and rendezvoused with Velos later that same day. The command ship's medical officer was flown across to the Israeli ship and treated a seaman suffering from kidney stones. Upon completion of that mission of mercy, Wright resumed her voyage to Balboa.

 

Transiting the Panama Canal on 7 and 8 December, Wright steamed via St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, and moored at the Hampton Roads Army Terminal on 18 December. After a subsequent brief operational period off the Virginia Capes, Wright entered port on 21 December, and remained there through Christmas and New Year's.

NECPA duties

 

For the next six years, Wright operated out of Norfolk, training to perform her assigned mission as the National Emergency Command Post Afloat. Regular overhauls performed at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard saw the ship receiving the repairs and alterations that continually improved her capabilities to carry out her task. She operated primarily off the Virginia Capes, but ranged as far north as Bar Harbor, Maine, and as far south as Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and Punta del Este, Uruguay. Her other ports of call included Newport, Fort Lauderdale and Port Everglades, Florida; Boston; New York City; Annapolis; Philadelphia; Norfolk; and Guantánamo Bay. As part of NECPA duties, she alternated on alert status with Northampton.[3]

 

There were highlights and breaks from the cycle of periods in port and at sea. From 11 to 14 April 1967, Wright lay at anchor off the coast of Uruguay, providing a worldwide communications capability in support of President Lyndon B. Johnson as he attended the Latin American summit conference at Punta del Este. On 8 May 1968, Wright went to the aid of Guadalcanal after that amphibious assault ship had suffered a machinery failure and had gone dead in the water, 180 miles (290 km) south of Norfolk. Wright towed the helpless assault ship 84 miles (135 km) before other ships arrived on the scene to help out. Later that same year, Wright received the coveted Captain Edward F. Ney Memorial Award in the large mess afloat category. That award is given annually to the ship that maintains the highest food standards. During the Pueblo crisis in February 1969, Wright, while en route to Port Everglades, Florida, was hurriedly recalled to Norfolk and, upon her arrival there, stood by, on alert.

Decommissioning

Ultimately decommissioned on 27 May 1970, Wright was placed in reserve at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard. The ship was stricken from the Navy List on 1 December 1977, and sold by the Defense Reutilization and Marketing Service (DRMS) for scrapping on 1 August 1980.

Photo Copyright 2012, dynamo.photography.

All rights reserved, no use without license

 

daylight version

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Hong kong)

 

Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, is an autonomous territory south to Mainland China and east to Macao in East Asia. With around 7.2 million Hong Kongers of various nationalities[note 2] in a territory of 1,104 km2, Hong Kong is the world's fourth most densely populated country or territory.

 

Hong Kong used to be a British colony with the perpetual cession of Hong Kong Island from the Qing Empire after the First Opium War (1839–42). The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and acquired a 99-year lease of the New Territories from 1898. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during the Second World War until British control resumed in 1945. The Sino-British Joint Declaration signed between the United Kingdom and China in 1984 paved way for the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997, when it became a special administrative region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China with a high degree of autonomy.[15]

 

Under the principle of "one country, two systems",[16][17] Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative and judiciary powers.[18] In addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of "appropriate fields".[19] Hong Kong involves in international organizations, such as the WTO[20] and the APEC [21], actively and independently.

 

Hong Kong is one of the world's most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the world's most competitive and freest economic entity.[22][23] As the world's 8th largest trading entity,[24] its legal tender, the Hong Kong dollar, is the world's 13th most traded currency.[25] As the world's most visited city,[26][27] Hong Kong's tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by competitive simple taxation and supported by its independent judiciary system.[28] Even with one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, it suffers from severe income inequality.[29]

 

Nicknamed "Pearl of the Orient", Hong Kong is renowned for its deep natural harbour, which boasts the world's fifth busiest port with ready access by cargo ships, and its impressive skyline, with the most skyscrapers in the world.[30][31] It has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the world's longest life expectancy.[32][33] Over 90% of the population makes use of well-developed public transportation.[34][35] Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring industrial areas of Mainland China, which adopts loose emissions standards, has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates in winter.[36][37][38]

Contents

 

1 Etymology

2 History

2.1 Prehistory

2.2 Imperial China

2.3 British Crown Colony: 1842–1941

2.4 Japanese occupation: 1941–45

2.5 Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97

2.6 Handover and Special Administrative Region status

3 Governance

3.1 Structure of government

3.2 Electoral and political reforms

3.3 Legal system and judiciary

3.4 Foreign relations

3.5 Human rights

3.6 Regions and districts

3.7 Military

4 Geography and climate

5 Economy

5.1 Financial centre

5.2 International trading

5.3 Tourism and expatriation

5.4 Policy

5.5 Infrastructure

6 Demographics

6.1 Languages

6.2 Religion

6.3 Personal income

6.4 Education

6.5 Health

7 Culture

7.1 Sports

7.2 Architecture

7.3 Cityscape

7.4 Symbols

8 See also

9 Notes

10 References

10.1 Citations

10.2 Sources

11 Further reading

12 External links

 

Etymology

 

Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island.[39]

 

The source of the romanised name "Hong Kong" is not known, but it is generally believed to be an early imprecise phonetic rendering of the pronunciation in spoken Cantonese 香港 (Cantonese Yale: Hēung Góng), which means "Fragrant Harbour" or "Incense Harbour".[13][14][40] Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour (Chinese: 香港仔; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng jái), literally means "Little Hong Kong"—between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.[41]

 

Another theory is that the name would have been taken from Hong Kong's early inhabitants, the Tankas (水上人); it is equally probable that romanisation was done with a faithful execution of their speeches, i.e. hōng, not hēung in Cantonese.[42] Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time.[43]

 

Fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour.[40]

 

The name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926.[44] Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the single-word form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation.

 

As of 1997, its official name is the "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China". This is the official title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law and the Hong Kong Government's website;[45] however, "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region" and "Hong Kong" are widely accepted.

 

Hong Kong has carried many nicknames. The most famous among those is the "Pearl of the Orient", which reflected the impressive nightscape of the city's light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour. The territory is also known as "Asia's World City".

History

Main articles: History of Hong Kong and History of China

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistoric Hong Kong

 

Archaeological studies support human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area (now Hong Kong International Airport) from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago and on Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.[46][47][48]

 

Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the earliest sites of human habitation in Hong Kong during the Paleolithic Period. It is believed that the Three Fathom Cove was a river-valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggested cultural differences from the Longshan culture of northern China and settlement by the Che people, prior to the migration of the Baiyue to Hong Kong.[49][50] Eight petroglyphs, which dated to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC – 1066 BC) in China, were discovered on the surrounding islands.[51]

Imperial China

Main article: History of Hong Kong under Imperial China

 

In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a centralised China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern-day Liangguang region and Vietnam) and incorporated the area of Hong Kong into his imperial China for the first time. Hong Kong proper was assigned to the Nanhai commandery (modern-day Nanhai District), near the commandery's capital city Panyu.[52][53][54]

 

After a brief period of centralisation and collapse of the Qin dynasty, the area of Hong Kong was consolidated under the Kingdom of Nanyue, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC.[55] When Nanyue lost the Han-Nanyue War in 111 BC, Hong Kong came under the Jiaozhi commandery of the Han dynasty. Archaeological evidence indicates an increase of population and flourish of salt production. The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb on the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built as a burial site during the Han dynasty.[56]

 

From the Han dynasty to the early Tang dynasty, Hong Kong was a part of Bao'an County. In the Tang dynasty, modern-day Guangzhou (Canton) flourished as an international trading centre. In 736, the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang established a military stronghold in Tuen Mun to strengthen defence of the coastal area.[57] The nearby Lantau Island was a salt production centre and salt smuggler riots occasionally broke out against the government. In c. 1075, The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 AD in modern-day New Territories by the Northern Song dynasty.[58] During their war against the Mongols, the imperial court of Southern Song was briefly stationed at modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before their ultimate defeat by the Mongols at the Battle of Yamen in 1279.[59] The Mongols then established their dynastic court and governed Hong Kong for 97 years.

 

From the mid-Tang dynasty to the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Hong Kong was a part of Dongguan County. During the Ming dynasty, the area was transferred to Xin'an County. The indigenous inhabitants at that time consisted of several ethnicities such as Punti, Hakka, Tanka and Hoklo.

European discovery

 

The earliest European visitor on record was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer, who arrived in 1513.[60][61] Having established a trading post in a site they called "Tamão" in Hong Kong waters, Portuguese merchants commenced with regular trading in southern China. Subsequent military clashes between China and Portugal, however, led to the expulsion of all Portuguese merchants from southern China.

 

Since the 14th century, the Ming court had enforced the maritime prohibition laws that strictly forbade all private maritime activities in order to prevent contact with foreigners by sea.[62] When the Manchu Qing dynasty took over China, Hong Kong was directly affected by the Great Clearance decree of the Kangxi Emperor, who ordered the evacuation of coastal areas of Guangdong from 1661 to 1669. Over 16,000 inhabitants of Xin'an County including those in Hong Kong were forced to migrate inland; only 1,648 of those who had evacuated subsequently returned.[63][64]

British Crown Colony: 1842–1941

A painter at work. John Thomson. Hong Kong, 1871. The Wellcome Collection, London

Main articles: British Hong Kong and History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)

 

In 1839, threats by the imperial court of Qing to sanction opium imports caused diplomatic friction with the British Empire. Tensions escalated into the First Opium War. The Qing admitted defeat when British forces captured Hong Kong Island on 20 January 1841. The island was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpi as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan. A dispute between high-ranking officials of both countries, however, led to the failure of the treaty's ratification. On 29 August 1842, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Treaty of Nanking.[65] The British officially established a Crown colony and founded the City of Victoria in the following year.[66]

 

The population of Hong Kong Island was 7,450 when the Union Flag raised over Possession Point on 26 January 1841. It mostly consisted of Tanka fishermen and Hakka charcoal burners, whose settlements scattered along several coastal hamlets. In the 1850s, a large number of Chinese immigrants crossed the then-free border to escape from the Taiping Rebellion. Other natural disasters, such as flooding, typhoons and famine in mainland China would play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place for safe shelter.[67][68]

 

Further conflicts over the opium trade between Britain and Qing quickly escalated into the Second Opium War. Following the Anglo-French victory, the Crown Colony was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula (south of Boundary Street) and Stonecutter's Island, both of which were ceded to the British in perpetuity under the Convention of Beijing in 1860.

 

In 1898, Britain obtained a 99-year lease from Qing under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, in which Hong Kong obtained a 99-year lease of Lantau Island, the area north of Boundary Street in Kowloon up to Shenzhen River and over 200 other outlying islands.[69][70][71]

 

Hong Kong soon became a major entrepôt thanks to its free port status, attracting new immigrants to settle from both China and Europe. The society, however, remained racially segregated and polarised under early British colonial policies. Despite the rise of a British-educated Chinese upper-class by the late-19th century, race laws such as the Peak Reservation Ordinance prevented ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong from acquiring houses in reserved areas such as Victoria Peak. At this time, the majority of the Chinese population in Hong Kong had no political representation in the British colonial government. The British governors did rely, however, on a small number of Chinese elites, including Sir Kai Ho and Robert Hotung, who served as ambassadors and mediators between the government and local population.

File:1937 Hong Kong VP8.webmPlay media

Hong Kong filmed in 1937

 

In 1904, the United Kingdom established the world's first border and immigration control; all residents of Hong Kong were given citizenship as Citizens of United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC).

 

Hong Kong continued to experience modest growth during the first half of the 20th century. The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first higher education institute. While there had been an exodus of 60,000 residents for fear of a German attack on the British colony during the First World War, Hong Kong remained unscathed. Its population increased from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925 and reached 1.6 million by 1941.[72]

 

In 1925, Cecil Clementi became the 17th Governor of Hong Kong. Fluent in Cantonese and without a need for translator, Clementi introduced the first ethnic Chinese, Shouson Chow, into the Executive Council as an unofficial member. Under Clementi's tenure, Kai Tak Airport entered operation as RAF Kai Tak and several aviation clubs. In 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out when the Japanese Empire expanded its territories from northeastern China into the mainland proper. To safeguard Hong Kong as a freeport, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared the Crown Colony as a neutral zone.

Japanese occupation: 1941–45

Main article: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

The Cenotaph in Hong Kong commemorates those who died in service in the First World War and the Second World War.[73]

 

As part of its military campaign in Southeast Asia during Second World War, the Japanese army moved south from Guangzhou of mainland China and attacked Hong Kong in on 8 December 1941.[74] Crossing the border at Shenzhen River on 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong lasted for 18 days when British and Canadian forces held onto Hong Kong Island. Unable to defend against intensifying Japanese air and land bombardments, they eventually surrendered control of Hong Kong on 25 December 1941. The Governor of Hong Kong was captured and taken as a prisoner of war. This day is regarded by the locals as "Black Christmas".[75]

 

During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, the Japanese army committed atrocities against civilians and POWs, such as the St. Stephen's College massacre. Local residents also suffered widespread food shortages, limited rationing and hyper-inflation arising from the forced exchange of currency from Hong Kong dollars to Japanese military banknotes. The initial ratio of 2:1 was gradually devalued to 4:1 and ownership of Hong Kong dollars was declared illegal and punishable by harsh torture. Due to starvation and forced deportation for slave labour to mainland China, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when the United Kingdom resumed control of the colony on 2 September 1945.[76]

Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97

Main articles: British Hong Kong, 1950s in Hong Kong, 1960s in Hong Kong, 1970s in Hong Kong, 1980s in Hong Kong, and 1990s in Hong Kong

Flag of British Hong Kong from 1959 to 1997

 

Hong Kong's population recovered quickly after the war, as a wave of skilled migrants from the Republic of China moved in to seek refuge from the Chinese Civil War. When the Communist Party eventually took full control of mainland China in 1949, even more skilled migrants fled across the open border for fear of persecution.[69] Many newcomers, especially those who had been based in the major port cities of Shanghai and Guangzhou, established corporations and small- to medium-sized businesses and shifted their base operations to British Hong Kong.[69] The establishment of a socialist state in China (People's Republic of China) on 1 October 1949 caused the British colonial government to reconsider Hong Kong's open border to mainland China. In 1951, a boundary zone was demarked as a buffer zone against potential military attacks from communist China. Border posts along the north of Hong Kong began operation in 1953 to regulate the movement of people and goods into and out of the territory.

Stamp with portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, 1953

 

In the 1950s, Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies under rapid industrialisation driven by textile exports, manufacturing industries and re-exports of goods to China. As the population grew, with labour costs remaining low, living standards began to rise steadily.[77] The construction of the Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme to provide shelter for the less privileged and to cope with the influx of immigrants.

 

Under Sir Murray MacLehose, 25th Governor of Hong Kong (1971–82), a series of reforms improved the public services, environment, housing, welfare, education and infrastructure of Hong Kong. MacLehose was British Hong Kong's longest-serving governor and, by the end of his tenure, had become one of the most popular and well-known figures in the Crown Colony. MacLehose laid the foundation for Hong Kong to establish itself as a key global city in the 1980s and early 1990s.

A sky view of Hong Kong Island

An aerial view of the northern shore of Hong Kong Island in 1986

 

To resolve traffic congestion and to provide a more reliable means of crossing the Victoria Harbour, a rapid transit railway system (metro), the MTR, was planned from the 1970s onwards. The Island Line (Hong Kong Island), Kwun Tong Line (Kowloon Peninsula and East Kowloon) and Tsuen Wan Line (Kowloon and urban New Territories) opened in the early 1980s.[78]

 

In 1983, the Hong Kong dollar left its 16:1 peg with the Pound sterling and switched to the current US-HK Dollar peg. Hong Kong's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs, as well as new development in southern China under the Open Door Policy introduced in 1978 which opened up China to foreign business. Nevertheless, towards the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre along with London and New York City, a regional hub for logistics and freight, one of the fastest-growing economies in Asia and the world's exemplar of Laissez-faire market policy.[79]

The Hong Kong question

 

In 1971, the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s permanent seat on the United Nations was transferred to the People's Republic of China (PRC), Hong Kong's status as a recognised colony became terminated in 1972 under the request of PRC. Facing the uncertain future of Hong Kong and expiry of land lease of New Territories beyond 1997, Governor MacLehose raised the question in the late 1970s.

 

The British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified Hong Kong into a British Dependent Territory amid the reorganisation of global territories of the British Empire. All residents of Hong Kong became British Dependent Territory Citizens (BDTC). Diplomatic negotiations began with China and eventually concluded with the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration. Both countries agreed to transfer Hong Kong's sovereignty to China on 1 July 1997, when Hong Kong would remain autonomous as a special administrative region and be able to retain its free-market economy, British common law through the Hong Kong Basic Law, independent representation in international organisations (e.g. WTO and WHO), treaty arrangements and policy-making except foreign diplomacy and military defence.

 

It stipulated that Hong Kong would retain its laws and be guaranteed a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer. The Hong Kong Basic Law, based on English law, would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer. It was ratified in 1990.[69] The expiry of the 1898 lease on the New Territories in 1997 created problems for business contracts, property leases and confidence among foreign investors.

Handover and Special Administrative Region status

Main articles: Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong and 2000s in Hong Kong

Transfer of sovereignty

Golden Bauhinia Square

 

On 1 July 1997, the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China took place, officially marking the end of Hong Kong's 156 years under British colonial governance. As the largest remaining colony of the United Kingdom, the loss of Hong Kong effectively represented the end of the British Empire. This transfer of sovereignty made Hong Kong the first special administrative region of China. Tung Chee-Hwa, a pro-Beijing business tycoon, was elected Hong Kong's first Chief Executive by a selected electorate of 800 in a televised programme.

 

Structure of government

 

Hong Kong's current structure of governance inherits from the British model of colonial administration set up in the 1850s. The 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration states that "Hong Kong should enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all areas except defence and foreign affairs" with reference to the underlying principle of one country, two systems.[note 3] This Declaration stipulates that Hong Kong maintains her capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of her people for at least 50 years after the 1997 handover. [note 4] Such guarantees are enshrined in the Hong Kong's Basic Law, the territory's constitutional document, which outlines the system of governance after 1997, albeit subject to interpretation by China's Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC).[95][96]

 

Hong Kong's most senior leader, Chief Executive, is elected by a committee of 1,200 selected members (600 in 1997) and nominally appointed by the Government of China. The primary pillars of government are the Executive Council, Legislative Council, civil service and Judiciary.

 

Policy-making is initially discussed in the Executive Council, presided by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, before passing to the Legislative Council for bill adoption. The Executive Council consists of 30 official/unofficial members appointed by the Chief Executive and one member among them acts as the convenor.[97][98]

 

The Legislative Council, set up in 1843, debates policies and motions before voting to adopt or rejecting bills. It has 70 members (originally 60) and 40 (originally 30) among them are directly elected by universal suffrage; the other 30 members are "functional constituencies" (indirectly) elected by a smaller electorate of corporate bodies or representatives of stipulated economic sectors as defined by the government. The Legislative Council is chaired by a president who acts as the speaker.[99][100]

 

In 1997, seating of the Legislative Council (also public services and election franchises) of Hong Kong modelled on the British system: Urban Council (Hong Kong and Kowloon) and District Council (New Territories and Outlying Islands). In 1999, this system has been reformed into 18 directly elected District Offices across 5 Legislative Council constituencies: Hong Kong Island (East/West), Kowloon and New Territories (East/West); the remaining outlying islands are divided across the aforementioned regions.

 

Hong Kong's Civil Service, created by the British colonial government, is a politically neutral body that implements government policies and provides public services. Senior civil servants are appointed based on meritocracy. The territory's police, firefighting and customs forces, as well as clerical officers across various government departments, make up the civil service.[101][102]

Ginetta Cars

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ginetta Cars Limited Ginetta logo.png

Industry Automotive

Founded 1958

Founder Walklett brothers

Headquarters Leeds, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom

Key people

Lawrence Tomlinson, Chairman

Simon Finnis, Managing Director

Products Sports cars

Parent LNT Group

Website Ginetta.com

 

Ginetta Cars is a British specialist builder of racing and sports cars based in Garforth, Leeds, West Yorkshire.

 

Contents

 

1 History

1.1 20th century

1.2 21st century

1.3 Models

2 Ginetta Racing Championships

2.1 Michelin Ginetta GT4 SuperCup

2.2 Ginetta Junior Championship

2.3 Ginetta Junior Scholarship

2.4 Protyre Motorsport Ginetta GT5 Challenge

2.5 Ginetta Racing Drivers Club

3 See also

4 References

5 Bibliography

6 External links

 

History

1964-68 Ginetta G4R

1969 Ginetta G15

1974 Ginetta G21

1992 Ginetta G33

1996 Ginetta G27 series 3

2005 Ginetta G20

2006 Ginetta G12 by DARE

20th century

 

Ginetta was founded in 1958 by the four Walklett brothers (Bob, Ivor, Trevers and Douglas) in Woodbridge, Suffolk. Their first product sold as the Fairlight was a glass fibre body shell priced at £49 for fitting to Ford 8 or 10hp chassis.[1] The first car, not destined for production, which subsequently became known as the Ginetta G1, was based on a pre war Wolseley Hornet six.[2]

 

From their original base, the company moved to Witham, Essex in 1962, and between 1972 and 1974 operated from larger premises in Ballingdon Street adjacent to the railway bridge Sudbury, Suffolk before returning to Witham where they remained until 1989. Under the Walkletts, Trevers was mainly responsible for styling, Ivor for engineering, Douglas for management, and Bob for sales.

 

Following the retirement of the Walkletts in 1989 the company was sold but failed, and was then bought by an international group of enthusiasts, based in Sheffield, and run by managing director Martin Phaff producing the G20 and G33

21st century

 

In late 2005 Ginetta was acquired by LNT Automotive, a company run by experienced racing driver and successful businessman Lawrence Tomlinson. His aims remained in line with the original founders of Ginetta; to continue producing innovative, capable and above all, great value sports cars.

 

In mid-2007 Ginetta moved to a state-of-the-art factory near Leeds, with a target to sell 200 cars a year. Trained engineer Tomlinson himself penned the base specification for the Ginetta G50, which was produced to celebrate 50 years of Ginetta production, and became a successful GT4 and award winning car.

 

In March 2010, Ginetta acquired the Somerset-based sports car manufacturer Farbio, and re-badged their car the Ginetta F400. In March 2011, Ginetta launched the G55, running in the Michelin Ginetta GT Supercup and built to the GT3 class regulations. In October 2011 Ginetta launched the G60, a two-door mid-engined sports car developed from the F400 and powered by a Ford-sourced 3.7-litre V6 engine.[3]

 

Currently, Ginetta have developed a range of award-winning road and race cars, making them a formidable player on the world motorsport scene.

Models

 

The first car, the G2, was produced as a kit for enthusiasts and consisted of a tubular frame chassis to take Ford components and aluminium body. About 100 were made. The G3 was introduced with glass fibre body in 1959 to be followed by the G4 in 1961.[4]

 

The G4 used the new Ford 105E engine and had a glass fibre GT style body and the suspension was updated to coil springing at the front with Ford live axle at the rear. Whereas the G2 and G3 had been designed for competition the G4 was usable as an everyday car but still was very competitive in motor sport with numerous successes. Over 500 were made up to 1969 with a variety of Ford engines. In 1963 a coupé was introduced alongside the open car and a BMC axle replaced the Ford one at the rear.[5] On test the car reached 120 mph (190 km/h) with a 1500 cc engine.[6] The series III version of 1966 added the then-popular pop-up headlights. Production stopped in 1968 but was revived in 1981 with the Series IV which was two inches wider and three inches (76 mm) longer than the III.

 

The G10 and G11 from 1964 were higher-powered versions with 4.7-litre Ford V8 and MGB engines respectively. The G12 was a mid-engined competition car.

 

In 1967 the G15 was launched utilizing a rear mounted 875cc Sunbeam Imp engine.[7] This two-seater coupé had a glass fibre body bolted to a tube chassis and used Imp rear and Triumph front suspension. Approximately 800 were produced from 1967 to 1974 [7] and the car was fully type approved allowing for the first time complete Ginetta cars to be sold. Eight G15s were engineered for Volkswagen engines and called the "Super S".

 

In 1970 it was joined by the larger G21, which was initially available with either a 1599 cc Ford Kent engine, or a 3-litre Ford V6 engine.[8] The 1725 cc Sunbeam Rapier engine subsequently became the standard four-cylinder engine for the car. The model was later updated to become the closed G24 or open top G23. The G19 was a Formula 3 single seater but only one was ever made.

 

Following reorganisation the company moved to Scunthorpe and started making cars in kit form again in the 1980s starting with the G27 and followed by the G26, G28, G30 and G31, with all cars using Ford parts. It was also decided to re-enter the complete car business with the mid-engined G32 with a choice of 1.6- and 1.9-litre 4-cylinder engines available as a coupé or convertible and the G33 convertible with 3.9-litre Rover V8 capable of 145 mph (233 km/h) and a 0-60 mph time of 5 seconds. The G4 was re-introduced in 1981 as the G4 Series IV, with a new chassis.[9] It was produced through to 1984 with approximately 35 examples built.[9] In 1990 the G32 coupé cost £13,700, the convertible £14,600, and the G33 £17,800.

 

After Ginetta was acquired by Lawrence Tomlinson in 2005, the company began work on the design of the Ginetta G50 - a 3.5 litre V6 engine, producing 300 BHP - to celebrate the company's 50th birthday. In 2007, the car competed in its first race in the European GT4 Cup in Nogaro France, finishing second.

 

Soon after this success, the machine was officially launched at Autosport International in early 2008 alongside its sister car, the Ginetta G50 GT4. Together, they have become Ginetta’s biggest selling machine, and have raced (and won) in almost every continent, including the Dubai 24 Hour endurance race in 2012 with Optimum Motorsport.

 

In March 2010, Lawrence acquired the Somerset-based sports car manufacturer Farbio, and in doing so inherited the F400, which was subsequently redesigned, redeveloped and rebranded from the Farbio Marque, into a Ginetta G60; a two-door mid-engined powerhouse which shares the same 3.7 litre V6 engine as its G55 GT3 stablemate and packs a real punch, capable of 0 – 60 mph in 4.9 seconds, with a top speed of 165 mph.

 

In the same year, Lawrence implemented a newer, safer car into the existing Ginetta Junior series and in doing so, replaced the old Ginetta G20 race car with a G40J. In concordance with his belief in nurturing young racing talent through the motorsport ladder, today’s G40J is designed for young racing drivers, offering an entry-level 1800cc, 100 bhp racing car with such safety features as a full integral FIA approved roll cage and fibre-glass shell.

 

Following the success of the G40J, Ginetta decided to introduce a Ginetta G40 Challenge car for the adult racers in its Challenge series. With the same engine as its sister car, the G40 Challenge car is capable of 165 bhp and competes against existing G20 models. Today, the car features heavily in the Total Quartz Ginetta GT5 Challenge, one of the most popular competitive racing series in Britain.

 

With strong demand for a G40 race car, Ginetta unveiled its second road car - the Ginetta G40R - in 2011, designed to mimic the Walklett brothers' original vision of 'a race car for the road'. Capable of 0-60 in 5.8 seconds, the G40R shares a number of characteristics with its racing siblings.

 

2011 also saw the introduction of the G55 Cup car to the Ginetta GT Supercup, which, until that point, had only featured the G50 Cup car. Offering a 3.7 litre V6 engine with 380 BHP, the car provided Ginetta with the basis for their Ginetta G55 GT3 Car; a larger spec machine which gives GT teams a 4.35L V8 powerplant, complete with an aggressive-looking body which masks an efficient aerodynamic package.

Ginetta Racing Championships

 

Ginetta Chairman Lawrence Tomlinson’s vision for Ginetta is to provide competitive and affordable motorsport for drivers as young as 14 to be able to progress through the Ginetta championships comprehensive career ladder, before ultimately competing in top level GT or single-seater arenas.

 

No other British manufacturer runs three championships within the two biggest racing packages in Britain and receives the levels of media exposure gained throughout the season. The Michelin Ginetta GT4 SuperCup and Ginetta Junior Championship can be seen running alongside the British Touring Car Championship, whilst the Protyre Motorsport Ginetta GT5 Challenge is a firm favourite on the British GT package.

 

Over the past five years, Ginetta have supported over 240 drivers as they took their first steps into the world of motor racing, and have established routes from entry-level racing to the 24 Hours of Le Mans, helped most recently by the introduction of the Ginetta Racing Drivers Club.

My new name for him. His sports knowledge is odd but helpful when i'm playing "What's the Phrase".

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

Name: Köln

Launched: 23 May 1928

Commissioned: January 1930

Fate: Sunk by American aircraft on 3 March 1945

General characteristics [a]

Class and type: Königsberg-class cruiser

Displacement: 7,700 long tons (7,800 t)

Length: 174 m (571 ft)

Beam: 15.3 m (50 ft)

Draft: 6.28 m (20.6 ft)

Propulsion: 3 shafts, two MAN 10-cylinder diesels, four geared turbines

Speed: 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph)

Range: 5,700 nmi (10,600 km; 6,600 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph)

Complement:

 

21 officers

493 enlisted men

 

Armament:

 

9 × 15 cm SK C/25 guns

2 × 8.8 cm SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns

12 × 50 cm torpedoes

120 mines

 

Armor:

 

Belt: 50 mm (2.0 in)

Deck: 40 mm (1.6 in)

Conning tower: 100 mm (3.9 in)

 

Köln was a light cruiser, the third member of the Königsberg class that was operated between 1929 and March 1945, including service in World War II. She was operated by two German navies, the Reichsmarine and the Kriegsmarine. She had two sister ships, Königsberg and Karlsruhe. Köln was built by the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel; she was laid down in August 1926, launched in May 1928, and commissioned into the Reichsmarine in January 1930. She was armed with a main battery of nine 15 cm SK C/25 guns in three triple turrets and had a top speed of 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph).

 

Like her sister ships, Köln served as a training ship for naval cadets in the 1930s, and joined the non-intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War during the latter part of the decade. After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, she conducted several operations in the North Sea, but did not encounter any British warships. She participated in the attack on Bergen during Operation Weserübung in April 1940, and she was the only member of her class to survive the operation. In 1942, she was modified to carry a Flettner Fl 282 helicopter experimentally. Later in 1942, she returned to Norway, but did not see significant action. She remained there until early 1945, when she returned to Germany; in March, she was sunk by American bombers in Wilhelmshaven. She remained on an even keel, with her gun turrets above water; this allowed her to provide gunfire support to defenders of the city until the end of the war in May 1945.

 

Characteristics

Line-drawing of Köln

Main article: Königsberg-class cruiser (1927)

 

Köln was 174 meters (571 ft) long overall and had a beam of 15.2 m (50 ft) and a maximum draft of 6.28 m (20.6 ft). She displaced 7,700 long tons (7,800 t) at full combat load. Her propulsion system consisted of four steam turbines and a pair of 10-cylinder four-stroke diesel engines. Steam for the turbines was provided by six Marine-type double-ended oil-fired boilers. The ship's propulsion system provided a top speed of 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph) and a range of approximately 5,700 nautical miles (10,600 km; 6,600 mi) at 19 knots (35 km/h; 22 mph). Köln had a crew of 21 officers and 493 enlisted men.[1]

 

The ship was armed with nine 15 cm SK C/25 guns mounted in three triple gun turrets. One was located forward, and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft. The rear gun turrets were offset to increase their arc of fire. They were supplied with 1,080 rounds of ammunition, for 120 shells per gun. The ship was also equipped with two 8.8 cm SK L/45 anti-aircraft guns in single mounts; they had 400 rounds of ammunition each. Köln also carried four triple torpedo tube mounts located amidships; they were supplied with twenty-four 50 cm (20 in) torpedoes. She was also capable of carrying 120 naval mines.[2] The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 40 mm (1.6 in) thick amidships and an armored belt that was 50 mm (2.0 in) thick. The conning tower had 100 mm (3.9 in) thick sides.[3]

Service history

 

Köln was ordered as "Cruiser D" under the contract name Ersatz Arcona, as a replacement for the old cruiser Arcona.[3] The keel for Köln was laid on 7 August 1926 at the Kriegsmarinewerft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven. She was launched on 23 May 1928, and commissioned into the Reichsmarine on 15 January 1930, the last member of her class to be completed.[4] She spent the year conducting sea trials and training in the Baltic Sea. In 1931, she was modified with dual 8.8 cm anti-aircraft guns to replace the original single mounts, the rear superstructure was enlarged, and a fire control system was installed aft.[5] Köln departed on a cruise into the Atlantic in early 1932 for more extensive sea trials. After returning to Germany, she took on her first crew of naval cadets for a world cruise, departing Germany in late 1932. The tour lasted a full year; she stopped in ports across the globe, including in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, and the Mediterranean Sea.[6]

 

In 1935, the ship had an aircraft catapult installed, along with cranes to handle float planes. A pole mast was also installed on the rear side of the aft funnel.[5] Köln continued to serve as a training ship until early 1936, when she was transferred to fishery protection duty. Later that year, she joined the non-intervention patrols off Spain during the Spanish Civil War. After the German heavy cruiser Deutschland was attacked by Republican bombers in the so-called "Deutschland incident", Köln transported wounded crew members from Deutschland back to Germany. Köln conducted a further four patrols off Spain before returning to fishery protection in the North Sea in 1938. Late in the year, she went into drydock for a refit in Kiel.[6]

World War II

 

In March 1939, Köln participated in the annexation of Memel which Germany had demanded from Lithuania. Later in the year, she joined the battleship Gneisenau and the heavy cruisers Deutschland, Admiral Scheer, and Admiral Graf Spee for a major series of maneuvers in the Atlantic.[6] In the final days of August, Köln was stationed in the western Baltic to prevent Polish vessels from fleeing after the German invasion of Poland on 1 September; she was unsuccessful in this task. She thereafter joined her sister ships in laying a series of defensive minefields.[7]

 

Köln joined Gneisenau and nine destroyers for a sortie into the North Sea on 7–9 October. The goal was to draw units of the Royal Navy over a U-boat line and into range of the Luftwaffe, though it failed on both counts. The British launched an air attack consisting of 12 Wellington bombers, though it too failed to hit any of the German warships.[8] On 20–22 November, Köln and the cruiser Leipzig escorted the battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst on the first leg of their sortie into the North Atlantic. On the 22nd, Köln and Leipzig were detached to join an unsuccessful patrol for Allied merchant ships in the Skagerrak along with Deutschland and three torpedo boats.[9] The patrol lasted until 25 November, and failed to locate any Allied freighters.[10] On 13 December, Köln, Leipzig, and Nürnberg covered the return of several destroyers that had laid an offensive minefield off Newcastle.[11]

 

Köln took part in Operation Weserübung, the invasion of Norway, in April 1940. She was assigned Group 3, tasked with the assault on Bergen, along with her sister Königsberg.[12] She reached the harbor unscathed, but Königsberg was not so lucky; she was badly damaged by Norwegian coastal guns. Köln nevertheless supported the German infantry ashore with her main guns. After the port was secured, she returned to Germany, along with a pair of destroyers.[7] In late 1940, she went into drydock for further modifications. A degaussing coil was installed, along with a helicopter landing platform on top of turret "Bruno".[6] She thereafter served as a testbed for the Flettner Fl 282 helicopter, a task she performed until 1942.[13]

 

While still conducting experiments with the FI 282 in September 1941, Köln provided gunfire support to ground troops attacking Soviet positions on Dagö in the Gulf of Riga. She also bombarded Soviet positions on Ristna.[13] She joined the battleship Tirpitz, Admiral Scheer, Nürnberg, and several destroyers and torpedo boats formed the Baltic Fleet, which was intended to block any Soviet warships from fleeing the eastern Baltic. No Soviet vessels attempted to do so, however.[14] On 13 July, the Soviet submarine Shch-322 tried to attack Köln, but the cruiser's escorts forced the Soviet submarine to break off the attack.[15]

Köln sunk in Wilhelmshaven at the end of the war

 

Toward the end of 1941, she was transferred to the North Sea, and went into drydock for her last major modification.[13] This consisted of the installation of a FuMO 21 radar set on the forward command center roof.[6] In July 1942, Köln departed Germany to join the growing naval presence in Norway, though she saw no major action there.[13] On 13 September, she and the heavy cruisers Admiral Scheer and Admiral Hipper and two destroyers attempted to attack Convoy PQ 18. While en route from Narvik to Altenfjord, the flotilla was attacked by the British submarine HMS Tigris, but the torpedoes passed behind the German ships.[16] The convoy was instead attacked by U-boats and long-range bombers, which sank thirteen freighters.[17] She returned to Germany in January 1943, where she was decommissioned in Kiel on 17 February. She was sent to drydock in early 1944 for an overhaul to prepare her to return to combat duty; this was completed by 1 July. The cruiser served briefly as a training ship before escorting German merchant vessels in Norway.[13] While en route from Kristiansand on 7 July, the ship laid a defensive minefield in the Skagerrak. She and three destroyers laid another minefield on 14–15 July, before steaming to Trondheim.[18]

 

On the night of 13–14 December,[19] Köln was attacked by British bombers in Oslofjord; several near misses caused damage to her propulsion system that required repair in Germany.[13] She departed Norway on 23 January 1945 in company with Admiral Hipper and a destroyer, and arrived in Kiel on 8 February.[20] She then proceeded to Wilhelmshaven, where she was again attacked by Allied bombers repeatedly.[13] On 30 March, B-24 Liberators from the Eighth Air Force attacked the harbor;[21] Köln was hit and sank on an even keel. Since her guns remained above water, the ship was used as an artillery battery to defend the city from advancing Allied forces. She served in this capacity until the end of the war in May. She was partially dismantled in situ after the end of the war, and finally raised in 1956 for scrapping.[22]

Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères

A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/39522541

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

United Kingdom

Name

 

Ocean Monarch (1951–67)

Varna (1967–77)

Venus (1977)

Riviera (1977–81)

Reina del Mar (1981)

 

Owner

 

Furness Withy (1951–67)

Navigation Maritime Bulgare, Sofia (1967-73)

Sovereign Cruises (1973-78)

Dolphon (Hellas)

Shipping SA, Piraeus (1978-81)

 

Operator

 

Furness Bermuda Line (1951–66)

Balkantourist (1967–73)

Sovereign Cruises (1973)

S P Magliveras, Greece (1978-79)

Trans-Tirreno Express (1979-81)

 

Port of registry

 

United Kingdom (1951–67)

Bulgaria Varna (1967-73)

Greece Piraeus (1973-81)

 

RouteNew York – Nassau – Bermuda (1951–67)

BuilderVickers-Armstrongs, Walker

Cost£2,500,000

Way number119

Launched27 July 1950

CompletedMarch 1951

Maiden voyage3 May 1951

Out of service

 

Laid-up 1966–67

Laid-up 1970–73

Laid-up 1973–78

 

Identification

 

Call sign: unknown

IMO number: 5260447

 

Honors and

awardsAmerican Academy of Designing Gold Medal

FateCaught fire 28 May 1981, sank 1 June 1981

General characteristics

Tonnage

 

13,824 GRT

DWT 4,905

 

Length561 ft 1 in (171.02 m)

Beam72 ft 2 in (22.00 m)

Installed powerTwo steam turbines

Speed18 knots (33 km/h)

Capacity414 1st class passengers

Crewc250

 

Ocean Monarch was a 13,824 GRT cruise ship which was built by Vickers-Armstrongs in 1950. She served with Furness Bermuda Line for fifteen years, then with a Bulgarian company for three years, renamed Varna. She spent much of the 1970s laid up, and was renamed Venus and then Riviera. In the early 1980s, she was renamed Reina del Mar and refitted for further use as a cruise ship, but a fire gutted her; and she was scuttled on 1 June 1981 after another fire broke out.

 

History

 

Ocean Monarch was built by Vickers-Armstrongs Ltd, Walker,[1] at a cost of £2,500,000.[2] She was yard number 119, and was launched on 27 July 1950, with completion in March 1951.[3] She was the first postwar-built ship designed especially for the American cruise market. Accommodations were for 414 first class passengers only. Ocean Monarch was awarded a gold medal by the American Institute for Designing for her "outstanding beauty and unusual design features of a cruise ship".[4]

 

Ocean Monarch was used on the New York - Bermuda route. As well as conveying passengers she was used to supply fresh drinking water to the island. She served with Furness Withy via subsidiary Furness Bermuda Line until 1966. On 22 September she was laid up in the River Fal, Cornwall.[5]

 

In 1967, she was sold to Navigation Maritime Bulgare and renamed Varna.[3] Operated by Balkantourist, Varna,[5] She was used on cruises from Montreal, Quebec, Canada.[1] Varna was laid up in 1970 at Perama, Greece.[5] In 1973, Varna was chartered by Sovereign Cruises, but only made two voyages with them. She was then laid up again.[1] Her name was changed to Venus in 1977,[3] and Riviera in 1978.[1] in 1979, she was refurbished for use by Trans-Tirreno Express.[5]

 

She was chartered by SUR-Seereisen, Germany,[5] who announced a series of Mediterranean cruises to take place in summer 1981. Her name was changed to Reina del Mar. Before these cruises took place the ship was renovated. On 28 May 1981, a fire broke out which completely gutted the passenger accommodation.[1] The ship was towed out of Ambelakia, where the renovation was being carried out.[3] The tow parted and Reina del Mar ran aground on Salamina Island. After being refloated,[5] she was moored near Rasa Sayang, which had also been gutted by fire.[1] On 1 June 1981,[3] a new fire broke out on Reina del Mar, and she was then scuttled off Kynosoura.[5]

Description and propulsion

 

The ship had a crew of c250 and carried up to 414 passengers,[6] all 1st class.[2] She was 561 feet 1 inch (171.02 m) long with a beam of 72 feet 2 inches (22.00 m).[5]

To view more of my images, taken at Hambleden, please click

"here" !

 

I would be most grateful if you would refrain from inserting images and/or group invites; thank you!

 

The village has often been used as a location for films, such as The Captive Heart (1950), Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, The Witches, The Legacy, Dance with a Stranger and the opening scenes of the remake of The Avengers starring Ralph Fiennes and also some scenes in 101 Dalmatians. Hambleden was also used in the HBO mini-series Band of Brothers to depict Easy Company's training in England. Also, the Tim Burton film Sleepy Hollow, starring Johnny Depp and Christina Ricci, included a month-long location shoot at Lime Tree Valley, in Hambleden. There is only one Shop/Post Office in the centre of the village. Other properties have facades that are more in keeping with a traditional country village. In 1979 Hambleden church was the setting for a programme featuring Harry Secombe called "Cross on the Donkey's Back". It was an Easter programme by Thames Television and also featured a group of school children from Hambleden C of E School. The 2010 film Nanny McPhee Returns also used parts of the village in some of their scenes. The church was used in Agatha Christie's Poirot's episode Sad Cypress.

 

Hambleden is a small village and civil parish within Wycombe district in the south of Buckinghamshire, England. It is about four miles west of Marlow, and about three miles north east of Henley-on-Thames in Oxfordshire. The civil parish also includes the villages of Fingest and Frieth, and the hamlets of Colstrope, Mill End, Moor End, Parmoor, Pheasant's Hill and Skirmett. The village name is Anglo Saxon in origin, and means 'crooked or irregularly-shaped hill'. It was recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Hanbledene, though previously in 1015 it was known as Hamelan dene. St Thomas Cantilupe, the Lord Chancellor and Bishop of Hereford, was born in Hambleden in 1218. In 1315 a Royal charter was granted to hold a market in the village, and a fair on St Bartholomew's Day (24 August) every year. The charter was reconfirmed in 1321, though appears to have not lasted much longer than this. The village was a base for USA soldiers during the buildup to D-Day in 1944. The brick and flint cottages in the centre of the village conform to a similar design and have dormer windows topped with red tiles. St Mary's church dates from the 14th century and includes a conspicuous memorial to Cope D'Oyley (who died in 1633) and his family. The tower contains eight bells and the ceiling is quite intricately decorated in parts. The post office in the village serves also as the local shop and cafe. The Elizabethan manor house opposite the church, now the home of Maria Carmela Viscountess Hambleden, was built in 1603 of flint and brick for Emanuel 11th Baron Scrope who became Earl of Sunderland. Charles I stayed there overnight in 1646 while fleeing from Oxford. The Manor House, Hambleden is also the former home of Lord Cardigan who led the ill-fated charge of the Light Brigade. Another notable (Listed Grade II*) building is Kenricks which overlooks the cricket ground and was the previous manor house and the home of Philadelphia Carey Lady Scrope, a cousin and Lady-in-Waiting to Queen Elizabeth I. On her death in 1627 it became The Rectory and was altered in 1724 by the Rector Rev Dr Scawen Kenrick. It ceased to be The Rectory in 1938 and was acquired by the 3rd Viscount Hambleden and renamed Kenricks. Roman remains were unearthed to the south of the village in 1912. A contested theory was put forward in 2010 that a military brothel might have formed part of the Yewden villa site, after archaeologists discovered skeletal remains of what appeared to be 97 newborn babies. Saint Thomas Cantilupe was born in the old Manor House (now Kenricks) in 1218. He became Chancellor of Oxford University, Bishop of Hereford and Lord Chancellor of England. He was canonised by Pope John XXII in 1320 and was the last Englishman to be canonised before the Reformation. The Hambleden Estate was held by the Scrope family from 1365 to 1627. Philadelphia Carey, 10th Lady Scrope was a granddaughter of Mary Boleyn, the sister of Queen Anne who was executed by Henry VIII in 1536. The Estate was acquired in 1925 by Frederick Smith, 2nd Viscount Hambleden who owned the adjoining Greenlands Estate. The Smith family sold the western part of the Estate in 2008 to the Swiss financier Urs Schwarzenbach. Major General Miles Fitzalan-Howard 17th Duke of Norfolk lived in the parish until his death in 2002 and his widow Anne continues to live there. Lord Cardigan, famous for his role in leading the ill-fated Charge of the Light Brigade, was born in the Manor House in 1797. The sea chest that he took to the Crimea can be seen in the church. Roger Marquis, 2nd Earl of Woolton lived at Kenricks in the 1960s. Phil Vickery, Rugby Union London Wasps player and England 2003 World Cup Winner, lived in Hambleden.

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

LEGO Star Wars "Character Encyclopedia (New Edition)"

Darth Maul

Star Wars 2020

Children's Encyclopedia, edited by Arthur Mee, and published in 10 volumes by the Educational Book Company, London. It was published from 1908 to 1964

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14492515

....Shows the Way.

Written by Donald Sobol

Illustrated by Leonard Shortall

Published by Weekly Reader Books (1972)

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

United States

NameUSS Relief (AH-1)

NamesakeRelief: Aid given in time of need

BuilderPhiladelphia Navy Yard

Laid down14 June 1917

Launched23 December 1919

Commissioned28 December 1920

Decommissioned11 June 1946

Stricken19 July 1946

Honours and

awardsFive battle stars for World War II service

FateSold for scrap 23 March 1948

General characteristics

Displacement10,112 Tons

Length483 ft 10 in (147.47 m)

Beam61 ft (19 m)

Draft19 ft 6 in (5.94 m)

Speed16 knots

Complement375

NotesBed capacity of 550

Ship mascot “Doc”

 

The sixth USS Relief (AH-1), the first ship of the United States Navy designed and built from the keel up as a hospital ship, was laid down 14 June 1917 by the Philadelphia Navy Yard; launched 23 December 1919; and commissioned 28 December 1920 at Philadelphia, Commander Richmond C. Holcomb, Medical Corps, USN, in command.

 

With a bed capacity of 550 patients,[1] Relief was one of the world's most modern and best equipped hospital ships. Assigned to the Atlantic Fleet, she departed Philadelphia 26 February 1921 to provide fleet units on Caribbean maneuvers with all the facilities of a modern shore hospital.

Early service

Nurses and patients

Nurses and their patients aboard USS Relief in 1921

Surgery

 

Relief returned north to Philadelphia 28 April 1921 to serve the fleet in waters ranging from the Virginia Capes to the New England coast. During this service Captain Holcomb was relieved of command 5 September 1921 by Captain Thomas L. Johnson, a line officer. Following a proclamation made by Theodore Roosevelt in 1908, it had been customary for hospital ships to be commanded by medical officers. But now, as a result of a review decision of the Judge Advocate General 6 June 1921, the old tradition of line officer command of ships was re-established.

 

As a result of this decision, Navy Regulations were changed, and the controversy ended. (Change No. 2 to 1920 Navy Regulations.)

 

Relief continued to serve the Atlantic Fleet until the conclusion of the winter-spring maneuvers of 1923, which took her to Cuba and Panama Bay. Departing the Panama Canal Zone 31 March 1923 for San Diego, California, she arrived 12 April. There she relieved USS Mercy (AH-4) as hospital ship for the Pacific Fleet and participated in fleet battle problems conducted northward to Alaska and westward to Hawaii. Her usual employment schedule was interrupted 1 July 1925 when she sailed from Pearl Harbor to join the Battle Fleet as it made its good will practice cruise via the Samoan Islands to Australia and New Zealand. She returned to San Pedro, California, 26 September 1925 and continued to serve the Pacific Fleet as the National Emergency preparations swelled the ranks of sailors and marines. This duty ended 3 June 1941 when Relief departed San Diego en route Norfolk, Virginia

World War II

 

Arriving Norfolk 20 June 1941, Relief thereafter served as a base hospital for the Atlantic Fleet in waters from Charleston, South Carolina, to Newfoundland. She was in port at NS Argentia, Newfoundland, when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. The following day she got underway via Boston for Norfolk. Returning north, she arrived Casco Bay, Maine, 28 April and provided for the health needs of men training to man the navy's new fighting ships. She also cared for victims of the war in the Atlantic.

 

Relief departed Casco Bay 8 February 1943 and put into the Boston Navy Yard to prepare for duty in the Pacific. By the 23d she was bound via the Panama Canal to the South Pacific Advanced Fleet Base at Nouméa, New Caledonia. The bitter struggle to drive the Japanese from the Solomon Islands was still in progress when she reached her destination 2 April. Marine, navy, and army patients brought out of the combat zones of the Solomons awaited in the New Hebrides for transport to better hospital facilities at Auckland, New Zealand. This evacuation duty kept Relief occupied until 15 November, when she departed Auckland to evacuate battle casualties of the amphibious assaults on the Gilbert Islands.

1944

 

Relief arrived off Abemama in the Gilberts 24 November, but immediately retired to Funafuti Atoll, Ellice Islands, to serve as a base hospital there until 4 January 1944. She then performed service off Tarawa in the Gilberts for the remainder of the month. She steamed for the Marshalls 31 January to care for battle casualties. On the east side of Carlson Island in Kwajalein Lagoon, she received battle casualties transported by small boat directly from the islands under attack. By the afternoon of 4 February she was bound for Hawaii with 607 patients.

 

By 21 February, Relief returned to the newly-won Marshalls, bringing medical supplies to be used in establishing shore hospitals on Roi Island. After embarking battle casualties from navy transports, she shifted to Majuro Atoll lagoon 4 March. During the following 3 months, she was the only hospital ship at Majuro where she served some 200,000 officers and men of the 5th Fleet. With medical facilities ashore limited to dispensary service, Relief provided hospitalization for fleet casualties. During this period, units of the fleet made constant air and surface attacks on the Japanese at Jaluit, Mili, Maloelap, Wotje, and other outlying Marshall Island atolls. Enemy attacks on Eniwetok were repulsed. These operations, as well as attacks made by the fleet against Truk and Palau, produced a large number of battle casualties. Relief admitted 1,329 patients and discharged 693 from 4 March through 4 June 1944.

 

Relief also served as general medical consultation center for the fleet. From her came recommendations for appropriate action for coping with the problems of sanitation. She also served as medical supply depot for the combatant forces. When the fleet departed the Marshalls 4 June for amphibious operations in the Marianas, Relief evacuated her patients by air or surface transport to shore facilities and prepared to evacuate battle casualties of that campaign.

 

Departing the Marshalls 21 June, Relief anchored off Saipan 3 days later to receive casualties directly from the combat then in progress. She departed that night with 656 patients and debarked them safely at Kwajalein on the 29th. Off Saipan again 15 July, she received 658 patients and again debarked them 5 days later at Kwajalein. The next morning she was steaming for the Marianas to receive 400 casualties from the battle for Tinian Island. Nearly all were very serious cases, so field facilities in the Marshalls were bypassed for the better treatment available in Hawaii. Relief entered Pearl Harbor 15 August. Taking on a maximum load of medical supplies and stores, including one complete field hospital unit, she put to sea 25 August for return to the Marshalls.

 

Relief arrived at Eniwetok 3 September and transferred 175 tons of medical stores to medical stores barge USS Silica for the use of Service Squadron 10. Meanwhile, her pathologist and laboratory technicians worked to control an epidemic of bacillary dysentery that had broken out in the harbor. On the morning of 18 September, she steamed for the Palau Islands, arriving off Peleliu and Angaur to receive 759 casualties. Some were discharged prior to sailing, but 680 patients were evacuated to army and navy hospitals in New Caledonia. Arriving New Caledonia 11 October, Relief was ordered to evacuate patients directly to the United States. Taking on 489 patients, she departed Nouméa 15 October, touching at Pearl Harbor before arriving San Francisco 3 November.

1945

 

Overhaul at General Engineering & Drydock Co., Alameda commenced 6 November 1944 and extended through 10 February 1945. Three days later Relief stood out from San Francisco Bay en route to Ulithi, the Carolines, arriving 5 March. On the night of 11 March, two Japanese suicide planes penetrated the harbor, one crashing the after flight deck of carrier USS Randolph and the other crashing on Sorlen Island. Relief received the casualties from Randolph as well as those from task forces returning from operations against the Japanese home islands. She departed Ulithi 26 March and entered Apra Harbor, Guam the following day, transferring 184 patients ashore in preparation for the Okinawa campaign.

 

Japanese bombers attacked Relief on 2 April. One bomb fell several yards wide of the ship, but the only damage was temporary loss of suction in a lube oil pump. A barrage of antiaircraft fire from destroyer USS Wickes drove off the attackers. Relief anchored off the Okinawa invasion beach by day and stood out to sea each night, illuminated "like a Christmas tree." As massive suicide aerial raids became common at night, the retirement plan was abandoned 9 April and the hospital ships remained in the anchorage area, taking advantage of the cover of smoke screens and turning off their illumination.

 

On the afternoon of 10 April Relief steamed for Saipan with 556 battle casualties. She then made a quick run to the fleet base at Ulithi for stores and diesel oil, thence steamed back to Okinawa, arriving 22 April. After delivering a complete field hospital unit, she departed 26 April with 613 casualties, arriving Tinian Harbor the 30th. In four similar missions of mercy, she evacuated nearly 2,000 wounded fighting men from Okinawa to hospital facilities at Guam and Saipan.

 

Relief departed Saipan 7 July and touched at Guam en route San Pedro Bay, Leyte, the Philippines. She served as a Fleet Base Hospital in the Philippines for the remainder of the war. She departed Subic Bay 28 August, steaming via Okinawa for Dairen, Manchuria. Her mission was the recovery of Allied prisoners of war from the former Japanese military prison camp at Mukden, Manchuria. As she passed through the East China and Yellow Seas, USS McNulty and USS Elmore swept out ahead to destroy any mines that might be sighted.

 

Appearing before Dairen Kou 8 September 1945, Relief gained no sight of either the tugs or the pilots which the Russians had promised. Entering the unfamiliar harbor, she moored unassisted to Pier No. 2. Dairen was under Russian military control, and shore leave was not permitted, although the Russians magnanimously invited the officers ashore on guided tours. The only word of the prisoners was that they were en route by rail from Mukden, some 200 miles (300 km) north of Dairen. The morning of 11 September, a navy doctor and a marine sergeant reported on board from the camp, and they brought word of the approximate number and condition of Relief's prospective passengers. Soon 753 of them arrived - Dutch, British, Australians, and Americans. Many had lived through the infamous death march at Bataan, and most had survived prison camps in the Philippines, Formosa, Honshū, and Manchuria. Outbound to freedom 12 September, they entered Buckner Bay, Okinawa, 3 days later. Before they could be transferred to shore, Relief was ordered to stand out to sea to evade a typhoon. Returning to Buckner Bay 18 September, she debarked her passengers by noon.

 

On 26 September, Relief steamed for Taku, China, arriving on the 30th to provide medical facilities for the troops of the 1st Marine Division assigned to occupation duty in North China. This service continued until 24 October, when Relief was ordered to carry patients to the west coast of the United States.

 

Relief embarked patients at Tsingtao, Okinawa, and Guam, and then steamed for home, arriving San Francisco 30 November. By this time the war service of the hospital ship had included steaming the equivalent of nearly four times around the world and the evacuation of nearly 10,000 fighting men as patients from scenes of combat in nearly every military campaign area of the Pacific Theater. Her last transpacific voyage commenced 15 December 1945 when she stood out of San Francisco Bay for Yokosuka, Japan, arriving 4 January 1946. She embarked navy passengers there before proceeding to Saipan and Guam. When she stood out from Apra Harbor 15 January, she carried 282 patients and 717 returning veterans.

 

She arrived San Francisco 2 February, debarked her passengers, and got underway for the east coast on the 19th, arriving Norfolk, on the 28th. She decommissioned at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard 11 June 1946. Struck from the Navy List 19 July 1946, she was delivered to the War Shipping Administration for disposal 13 January 1947. Relief was sold for scrap 23 March 1948 to the Boston Metals Co.

 

Relief (AH-1) received five battle stars for World War II service.

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14492730

Map of comparative sizes of major rivers and mountains of the World 1868. (see comment below for Numbered Reference to Principal Mountains). Two page engraving.

 

From the National Encyclopedia Atlas 1868.

Published by William Mackenzie London. 19cm x 29cm

Llyn Celyn

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Llyn Celyn

Llyn Celyn dam and tower w.JPG

Location North Wales

Coordinates 52°57′0″N 3°41′38″WCoordinates: 52°57′0″N 3°41′38″W

Type Reservoir

Basin countries United Kingdom

Max. length 2.5 mi (4.0 km)

Max. depth 140 ft (43 m)

Tree stumps exposed by low water level of reservoir

Remember Tryweryn - famous historic graffiti by the A487, overlooking Llanrhystud

 

Llyn Celyn is a large reservoir constructed between 1960 and 1965 in the valley of the River Tryweryn in Gwynedd, North Wales. It measures roughly 2½ miles long by a mile wide, and has a maximum depth of 140 ft (43 m). It has the capacity to hold 71,200 megalitres of water.[1]

 

It was originally to be named Llyn Tryweryn Mawr (meaning "Great Tryweryn Lake"), but in September 1964 Liverpool Corporation agreed to the name change following a letter by the Tryweryn Defence Committee.[2]

 

Contents

 

1 Construction and opposition

2 Operation of reservoir

3 Diversions and closures of transport links

4 See also

5 References

6 External links

 

Construction and opposition

 

Construction of the reservoir involved flooding the village of Capel Celyn and adjacent farmland, a deeply controversial move. Much of the opposition was brought about because the village was a stronghold of Welsh culture and the Welsh language, whilst the reservoir was being built to supply Liverpool and parts of the Wirral peninsula with water, rather than Wales.

 

Liverpool Corporation's Tryweryn Reservoir Bill was presented in parliament as a private member's bill in January 1957; by obtaining authority through an Act of Parliament, Liverpool City Council avoided having to gain consent from the Welsh planning authorities.[3] The legislation enabling the development was ultimately passed despite the opposition of 35 out of 36 Welsh Members of Parliament, with the 36th (David Llywelyn, Tory MP for Cardiff North) abstaining. This led to an increase in support for the Welsh nationalist party, Plaid Cymru, in the late 1950s and gave fresh impetus to Welsh devolution.

 

Although many doubted the need of having an official opening, this took place on 21 October 1965. Representatives came from Liverpool council, and invitations were sent to all those with family links to the valley. In view of the anticipated protest, there was a strong police presence. The ceremony in fact lasted less than 3 minutes, for protesters had cut the microphone wires, and the chants of the hundreds of protesters made the speeches inaudible.

 

In October 2005, Liverpool City Council passed a public apology for the incident.[4]

 

The full statement reads -

“

 

The Council acknowledges its debt to the many thousands of Welsh people who have made their homes in the City. They have, in so many ways, enriched the life of the City.

 

We know that Liverpool, especially in the fields of medicine and education, has been of real service to the people of Wales.

 

We realise the hurt of forty years ago when the Tryweryn Valley was transformed into a reservoir to help meet the water needs of Liverpool.

 

For any insensitivity by our predecessor Council at that time, we apologise and hope that the historic and sound relationship between Liverpool and Wales can be completely restored.

”

Operation of reservoir

Tryweryn memorial chapel at Llyn Celyn

 

The reservoir was constructed in order to help maintain the flow in the River Dee, so that drinking water could be abstracted further downstream as part of the regulation Scheme. These abstractions include one at Huntington water treatment works Chester operated by United Utilities, which supplies water to Liverpool and Wirral.

 

The reservoir is contained behind a rock gravity dam and, at its upper end, it runs between Arenig Fawr and Arenig Fach, two of the mountains of south Snowdonia.

 

Water is released from the reservoir into the River Tryweryn which flows into the River Dee. Most of the water passes through a small hydro-electricity plant to supply green electricity to the National Grid. The released water first flows into a stilling basin and then down the narrow and rocky valley of the River Tryweryn. This section of the river provides facilities for international level white-water canoeing, and rafting at the Canolfan Tryweryn National White-water Centre. Some water in the reservoir is held in reserve to make special release down the river for specific white-water events. Because the reservoir's principal purpose is to support low river flows in the main River Dee, the best conditions for white-water occur during long dry spells in summer when maximum releases are made. Usually the dam will release between 9 and 11 m³/s although releases as low as 2 m³/s and as high as 16 m³/s have been known. During wet weather the releases are usually throttled back to a minimal maintenance flow unless a planned release for recreational activities has been agreed.

 

Its four turbines are owned and run by Dwr Cymru and generate 4.38MW[5]

Diversions and closures of transport links

The building of the reservoir also contributed to the final closure of the GWR branch line from Bala to Blaenau Ffestiniog.[6] Passenger trains had ceased running in 1960, and the last freight train ran in 1961. The line was subsequently flooded by the lake, and the base of the dam also crosses it. Liverpool Council had in fact planned a railway diversion, but this was never built as the British Transport Commission had decided to close the line. As a result of this, Liverpool Council decided to contribute towards the cost of the new main road (the A4212, which was built across the pass from Bala to Trawsfynydd around the north side of the lake), and also towards the cost of a line linking the two stations in Blaenau Ffestiniog.

Spincobra (スピンコブラ)

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14470883

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14470799

Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).

Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..

Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.

Wiki: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangolin

At Italian restaurant, Nagoya, Japan

I found Compton's Encyclopedia at the restaurant I had lunch today. Copilot says this is genuine book published in the 80s.

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/10453153

Interior da Catedral de Milão

A text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Milan Cathedral

Milan Cathedral (Italian: Duomo di Milano; Milanese: Domm de Milan) is the cathedral church of Milan in Lombardy, northern Italy. It is the seat of the Archbishop of Milan, currently Cardinal Dionigi Tettamanzi.

History:

Milan's layout, with streets either radiating from the Duomo or circling it, reveals that the Duomo occupies the most central site in Roman Mediolanum, that of the public basilica facing the forum. Saint Ambrose's 'New Basilica' was built on this site at the beginning of the 5th century, with an adjoining basilica added in 836. When a fire damaged both buildings in 1075, they were rebuilt as the Duomo.

Um texto, em português, do Site "Fatos e fotos de viagens", que pode ser visto no endereço interata.squarespace.com/jornal-de-viagem/2006/11/27/duom...

In 1386 archbishop Antonio da Saluzzo began construction in a rayonnant Late Gothic style more typically French than Italian. Construction coincided with the accession to power in Milan of the archbishop's cousin Gian Galeazzo Visconti, and was meant as a reward to the noble and working classes which had been suppressed by his tyrannical Visconti predecessor Barnabò. Before actual work began, three main buildings were demolished: the palace of the Archbishop, the Ordinari Palace and the Baptistry of 'St. Stephen at the Spring', while the old church of Sta. Maria Maggiore was exploited as a stone quarry. Enthusiasm for the immense new building soon spread among the population, and the shrewd Gian Galeazzo, together with his cousin the archbishop, collected large donations for the work-in-progress. The construction program was strictly regulated under the "Fabbrica del Duomo", which had 300 employees led by first chief engineer Simone da Orsenigo. Galeazzo gave the Fabbrica exclusive use of the marble from the Candoglia quarry and exempted it from taxes.

In 1389 a French chief engineer, Nicolas de Bonaventure, was appointed, adding to the church its strong Gothic imprint. Ten years later another French architect, Jean Mignot, was called from Paris to judge and improve upon the work done, as the masons needed new technical aid to lift stones to an unprecedented height. Mignot declared all the work done up till then as in pericolo di ruina ("peril of ruin"), as it had been done sine scienzia ("without science"). In the following years Mignot's forecasts proved untrue, but anyway they spurred Galeazzo's engineers to improve their instruments and techniques. Work proceeded quickly, and at the death of Gian Galeazzo in 1402, almost half the cathedral was complete. Construction, however, stalled almost totally until 1480, due to lack of money and ideas: the most notable works of this period were the tombs of Marco Carelli and Pope Martin V (1424) and the windows of the apse (1470s), of which those extant portray St. John the Evangelist, by Cristoforo de' Mottis, and Saint Eligius and San John of Damascus, both by Niccolò da Varallo. In 1452, under Francesco Sforza, the nave and the aisles were completed up to the sixth bay.

In 1500-1510, under Ludovico Sforza, the octagonal cupola was completed, and decorated in the interior with four series of fifteen statues each, portraying saints, prophets, sibyls and other characters of the Bible. The exterior long remained without any decoration, except for the Guglietto dell'Amadeo ("Amadeo's Little Spire"), constructed 1507-1510. This is a Renaissance masterwork which nevertheless harmonized well with the general Gothic appearance of the church.

The famous "Madunina" atop the main spire of the cathedral, a baroque gilded bronze artwork.

During the subsequent Spanish domination, the new church proved usable, even though the interior remained largely unfinished, and some bays of the nave and the transepts were still missing. In 1552 Giacomo Antegnati was commissioned to build a large organ for the north side of the choir, and Giuseppe Meda provided four of the sixteen pales which were to decorate the altar area (the program was completed by Federico Borromeo). In 1562 Marco d' Lopez's St. Bartholomew and the famous Trivulzio candelabrum (12th century) were added.

After the accession of the ambitious Carlo Borromeo to the archbishop's throne, all lay monuments were removed from the Duomo. These included the tombs of Giovanni, Barnabò and Filippo Maria Visconti, Francesco and his wife Bianca, Galeazzo Maria and Lodovico Sforza, which were brought to unknown destinations. However, Borromeo's main intervention was the appointment, in 1571, of Pellegrino Pellegrini as chief engineer— a contentious move, since to appoint Pellegrino, who was not a lay brother of the duomo, required a revision of the Fabbrica's statutes.

Borromeo and Pellegrino strove for a new, Renaissance appearance for the cathedral, that would emphasise its Roman / Italian nature, and subdue the Gothic style, which was now seen as foreign. As the façade still was largely incomplete, Pellegrini designed a "Roman" style one, with columns, obelisks and a large tympanum. When Pellegrini's design was revealed, a competition for the design of the facade was announced, and this elicited nearly a dozen entries, including by Antonio Barca [1].

This design was never carried out, but the interior decoration continued: in 1575-1585 the presbytery was rebuilt, while new altars and the baptistry were added in the nave.

Wooden choirstalls were constructed by 1614 for the main altar by Francesco Brambilla.

In 1577 Borromeo finally consecrated the whole edifice as a new church, distinct from the old Santa Maria Maggiore and Santa Tecla (which had been unified in 1549 after heavy disputes).

At the beginning of the 17th century Federico Borromeo had the foundations of the new façade laid by Francesco Maria Richini and Fabio Mangone. Work continued until 1638 with the construction of five portals and two middle windows. In 1649, however, the new chief architect Carlo Buzzi introduced a striking revolution: the façade was to revert to original Gothic style, including the already finished details within big Gothic pilasters and two giant belfries. Other designs were provided by, among others, Filippo Juvarra (1733) and Luigi Vanvitelli (1745), but all remained unapplied. In 1682 the façade of Santa Maria Maggiore was demolished and the cathedral's roof covering completed.

The ultimate facade with its striking rosy marble revetment

In 1762 one of the main features of the cathedral, the Madonnina's spire, was erected at the dizzying height of 108.5 m. The spire was designed by Francesco Croce and sports at the top a famous polychrome Madonnina statue, designed by Giuseppe Perego that befits the original stature of the cathedral.[2] Given Milan's notoriously damp and foggy climate, the Milanese consider it a fair-weather day when the Madonnina is visible from a distance, as it is so often covered by mist.

On May 20, 1805, Napoleon Bonaparte, about to be crowned King of Italy, ordered the façade to be finished. In his enthusiasm, he assured that all expenses would fall to the French treasurer, who would reimburse the Fabbrica for the real estate it had to sell. Even though this reimbursement was never paid, it still meant that finally, within only seven years, the Cathedral had its façade completed. The new architect, Francesco Soave, largely followed Buzzi's project, adding some neo-Gothic details to the upper windows. As a form of thanksgiving, a statue of Napoleon was placed at the top of one of the spires.

In the following years, most of the missing arches and spires were constructed. The statues on the southern wall were also finished, while in 1829-1858, new stained glass windows replaced the old ones, though with less aesthetically significant results. The last details of the cathedral were finished only in the 20th century: the last gate was inaugurated on January 6, 1965. This date is considered the very end of a process which had proceeded for generations, although even now, some uncarved blocks remain to be completed as statues. The Duomo's main facade is under renovation as of 2007; canvas-covered scaffolding obscures most of the facade.

he cathedral of Milano is often described as one of the greatest churches in the world. The ground plan is of a nave with 5 aisles, crossed by a transept and then followed by choir and apsis. The height of the nave is about 45 meters, the highest Gothic vaults of a complete church (less than the 48 meters of Beauvais Cathedral that was never completed).

The roof is open to tourists (for a fee), which allows many a close-up view of some spectacular sculpture that would otherwise be unappreciated. The roof of the cathedral is renowned for the forest of openwork pinnacles and spires, sitting upon delicate flying buttresses.

The cathedral's five wide naves, divided by forty pillars, are reflected in the hierarchic openings of the facade. Even the transepts have aisles. The nave columns are 24.5 metres (80 ft) high, and the apsidal windows are 20.7 x 8.5 metres (68 x 28 feet). The huge building is of brick construction, faced with marble from the quarries which Gian Galeazzo Visconti donated in perpetuity to the cathedral chapter. Its maintenance and repairs are very complicated.

The interior of the cathedral includes a huge number of monuments and artworks. These include:

* The Archbishop Alberto da Intimiano's sarcophagus, which is overlooked by a Crucifix in copper laminae (a replica).

* The sarcophagi of the archbishops Ottone Visconti and Giovanni Visconti, created by a Campionese master in the 14th century.

* The sarcophagus of Marco Carelli, who donated 35,000 ducati to accelerate the construction of the cathedral.

* The three magnificent altars by Pellegrino Pellegrini, which include the notable Federico Zuccari's Visit of St. Peter to St. Agatha jailed.

* In the right transept, the monument to Gian Giacomo Medici di Marignano, called "Medeghino", by Leone Leoni, and the adjacent Renaissance marble altar, decorated with gilt bronze statues.

* In front of the former mausoleum is the most renowned work of art of the cathedral, the St. Bartholomew statue by Marco D'Agrate.

* The presbytery is a late Renaissance masterpiece composing a choir, a Temple by Pellegrini, two pulpits with giant telamones covered in copper and bronze, and two large organs. Around the choir the two sacristies' portals, some frescoes and a fifteenth-century statue of Martin V by Jacopino da Tradate) can be seen.

* The transepts house the Trivulzio Candelabrum, which is in two pieces. The base (attributed to Nicolas of Verdun, 12th century), characterized by a fantastic ensemble of vines, vegetables and imaginary animals; and the stem, of the mid-16th century.

* In the left aisle, the Arcimboldi monument by Alessi and Romanesque figures depicting the Apostles in red marble and the neo-Classic baptistry by Pellegrini.

* A small red light bulb in the dome above the apse marks the spot where one of the nails from the Crucifixion of Christ has been placed.

* In November-December, in the days surrounding the birthdate of the San Carlo Borromeo, a series of large canvases, the Quadroni are exhibited along the nave.

 

DUOMO - A Catedral de Milão

O Duomo é apenas mais um dos fabulosos exemplos de arquitetura e monumentalidade dirigida ao culto ao divino entre tantas outras catedrais construídas na Europa durante a Idade Média, entre os séculos 9 e 12.

Dizem que o Duomo foi projetado pelo pintor, escultor, arquiteto, engenheiro, cientista e inventor italiano Leonardo da Vinci, nascido em Vinci e falecido em Amboise, na França.

Igrejas como as de Chartres , Amiens e Notre Dame de Paris (França), Sevilha e Santiago de Compostela (Espanha), Colônia (Alemanha) e o Duomo de Milão (Itália) são o exemplo máximo do estilo gótico — caracterizado pelo uso das ogivas (cruzamento de arcos), que possibilitavam a construção de altas estruturas. No apogeu do fervor católico, elas foram projetadas usando medidas que reproduziam as proporções do corpo humano.

Situado no centro da cidade , o Duomo é o marco zero geográfico da cidade e ponto de partida para se conhecer a cidade. Muitas de suas atrações estão nas proximidades ou vizinhanças.

Pode-se visitar internamente a igreja e seu telhado. Todos os dias, de 7 às19h de junho a setembro, e de 9 às 16h, de outubro a maio. Para ingressar na igreja nada se paga, mas para subir ao seu telhado paga-se o preço de 4 Euros, por elevador.

Duomo é uma gigantesca igreja catedral, uma das maiores em estilo gótico em todo o mundo, em dimensões, pois tem cerca de 160 m de comprimento por 92 de largura. Suas dimensões representam aquilo que mais impressiona e provoca admiração a quem a visita, num primeiro olhar.

igreja começou a ser construída no Século 14 mas só foi concluída 500 (!!) anos depois.

Uma das coisas mais interessantes a ser fazer em toda Milão é visitar o telhado do Duomo, todo em placas de mármore, da mesma pedra de sua fachada, suas esculturas (santos, gárgulas e agulhas) e de onde se tem uma bela vista de toda a cidade.

A fachada do Duomo não tem apenas um estilo arquitetônico: eles vão do gótico ao renascentista, com alguns elementos neoclássicos.

Ainda no exterior, antes de entrar na igreja, não deixe de observar o rendilhado que envolve as janelas-vitrais e também as belíssimas e enormes portas de bronze, nas quais estão esculturas em baixos e altos-relevos que mostram cenas da história da cidade.

O que mais impressiona no interior é a altura dos enormes pilares góticos que suportam o telhado de toda a igreja e que delimitam suas naves laterais, secundárias e principal, além do altar-mór. Elas enquadram os vitrais igualmente gigantescos e belíssimos.

O interior não impressiona tanto quanto o exterior, ainda que seja solene, grandioso e tenha cinco naves e 52 gigantescas colunas de pedra.

Também o maravilhoso piso de mármore de três ou quatro tonalidades, que formam belos desenhos, dão, na nave central, a verdadeira impressão das dimensões desta fabulosa igreja. Observe o piso (de preferência ajoelhado nele) posisionando-se de costas para o altar-mór e olhando para o portão principal.

Em Milão quase tudo gira ao redor do Duomo, a Catedral de Milão, a terceira maior igreja da cristandade depois da Basílica de São Pedro, em Roma, e da Catedral de Sevilha.

No telhado as centenas de agulhas altíssimas, de arcos e gárgulas, estátuas e cariátides esculpidos em mármore impressionam tanto quanto sua fachada, vista do nível da rua. A mais magestosa das imagens é a estatua dourada da Madonnina do Perego, situada no topo da agulha maior, onde foi colocada em 1744.

Uma visita ao seu telhado dá-nos a dimensão exata da grandiosidade do trabalho de construção desta monumental escultura e nos leva a imaginar o quão difícil deve ter sido, compreendendo-se porque ela iniciou-se em 1386 e terminou em 1887!

O Duomo di Milano é um monumento símbolo do patrimônio Lombardo, dedicado à Santa Maria Nascente e situado na praça central da cidade de Milão, Itália. É uma das mais célebres e complexas construções em estilo Gótico do mundo.

Leia mais sobre a catedral de Milão no endereço www.maconaria.net/portal/index.php?view=article&catid...

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

The SS Nieuw Amsterdam

S.S. Nieuw Amsterdam

 

Career (Netherlands)

 

Flag of the Netherlands.svg

 

Name: Nieuw Amsterdam

Namesake: New Amsterdam (New York)

Operator: Holland America Line

Builder: N.V. Rotterdam Drydock Company, Rotterdam, Netherlands

Laid down: January 5, 1936

Launched: April 10, 1937

Christened: April 10, 1937

Maiden voyage: May 10, 1938

Fate: Scrapped in 1974

 

General characteristics

 

Tonnage: 36,287 gross tons (36,667 tons after 1947 refit)

Length: 758 feet (231.5 m)

Beam: 88 feet (26.9 m)

Installed power: Single reduction geared turbines; 34,000 shp

Propulsion: Twin screws

Speed: 20.5 knots (38.0 km/h)

Capacity: 1,220: 556 First Class, 455 Second Class, 209 Third Class

 

The Nieuw Amsterdam was a Dutch ocean liner built in Rotterdam for the Holland America Line. This Nieuw Amsterdam, the second of four Holland America ships with that name, is considered by many to have been Holland America's finest ship.

 

Originally she was to be named Prinsendam, however during construction, Holland America Line decided to name their new flagship Nieuw Amsterdam, in honor of the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam, modern day New York.

 

Construction on the new liner was carried out at the N.V. Rotterdam Drydock Company. Christened by Queen Wilhelmina in April 1937, Nieuw Amsterdam was, at 36,982 tonnes, the largest liner ever constructed in the Netherlands up to that time. Proudly she was dubbed the Dutch "Ship of peace" since there were no provisions for possible war use incorporated in her design.

 

Interior[edit]

 

The Nieuw Amsterdam was the Netherlands' "ship of state", just as the Normandie was France's, the Queen Mary was Britain's and United States was the United States', and numerous Dutch artists vied for the honor of creating some part of the ship.

     

The first-class dining room aboard the Nieuw Amsterdam

Their creation emerged in the spring of 1938, a light-colored and very spacious ship throughout, and although she had spacious public rooms, the colour scheme used gave her an even larger feel. Modern in every way, her owners proclaimed her "the ship of tomorrow". She followed the Art Deco trend of the day in both interior decorations and exterior design. The interiors were distinguished by fluorescent lighting, aluminum motifs, and gentle pastels throughout the ship that created an understated elegance that would make the liner a favorite among seasoned transatlantic passengers.[1]

 

One of the ship’s centerpieces was the first class restaurant, having a Moroccan leather ceiling which was adorned by numerous Murano glass light fixtures, and columns covered in gold leaf. Tinted mirrors, ivory walls and satinwood furniture all contributed to create the luxurious atmosphere. The restaurant had no portholes or windows facing the open sea, making it depend solely on artificial illumination. This might sound a bit odd, but it was just the same in the first class restaurant on board the fabulous Normandie of 1935.[2] There also were two swimming pools on board, one outdoor and the other indoors on E-deck. It featured expensive Delft tiling which was an impressive sight.

 

Passengers must have found it difficult to believe they were at sea when in the air-conditioned First Class Theater. The deeply cushioned seats commanded an unobstructed view of the stage, and the egg-shaped contour of the auditorium took advantage of the latest in scientific sound-proofing materials and amplifying equipment to ensure perfect acoustics for concerts, dramatic performances and pre-release motion pictures. Found at the front end of the Theatre was a striking mural in red, black and gold by Reyer Stolk. The Nieuw Amsterdam was the second ship in the world after the Normandie to boast a theater, a feature the larger and faster Queen Mary did not have.

 

A favorite rendezvous of many Nieuw Amsterdam passengers was the handsome First Class Smoking Room with its rich Circassian walnut paneling and deep, luxurious armchairs and settees. Flanked by two enclosed sun verandas extending to the sides of the ship, the Smoking Room had its own modern bar stocked with a connoisseur choice of fine liquors.

 

First Class staterooms on the Nieuw Amsterdam were unusually attractive, ranging in size from cozy single person cabins to elaborate cabins-de-luxe. The handsome and modern decorative scheme made the cabins comfortable spots for daytime and evening relaxation. All First Class cabins on Nieuw Amsterdam had a private bathroom, a unique feature which no previous liner could boast.

 

Early career[edit]

 

On April 23, 1938, the Nieuw Amsterdam set out on her sea trials, which were to take place on the North Sea. Testing her speed and manoeuvring capability, the new vessel turned out to be all that she was supposed to be. Upon her return from the sea trials, the Nieuw Amsterdam was transferred to Holland America ownership and officially registered in the Dutch merchant fleet.

 

The sleek new liner's maiden voyage was set for May 10, 1938, and upon her arrival in New York she immediately won adulation and acclaim.

 

Although she was neither as large or fast as many of her contemporaries, she was to be a popular liner for the Dutch and was showered with superlatives. Her sleek outline and two slim funnels provided a striking profile and she soon garnered a loyal following amid stiff competition from great liners such as Cunard's Queen Mary and the superb Normandie of the French Line. Despite the fierce competition, Nieuw Amsterdam proved to be one of the few money-making vessels of the day.[3]

 

Wartime service[edit]

 

The Netherlands’ “ship of peace” was not to enjoy the praise lavished on her for long. After only seventeen voyages, Nieuw Amsterdam was laid up at Hoboken, New Jersey in 1939 after the German invasion of Poland. She would be idle for only a year, however, and was requisitioned by the British Ministry of Transport after Holland fell to Hitler’s armies. She would spend the remainder of the war years as a troop transport, despite the fact she had been constructed without the consideration of ever being used in a military capacity. During the course of the conflict she would transport over 350,000 troops and steam some 530,452 nautical miles (982,397 km) before being returned to the Holland America Line in 1946.

 

Refitting the Nieuw Amsterdam[edit]

 

The Nieuw Amsterdam triumphantly returned to her home port of Rotterdam on April 10, 1946. Fifteen weeks were required to remove the troop fittings: the special kitchens, alarm systems, hammocks, and 36 guns.

 

Then 2,000 tons of furniture and decorations were shipped to the Netherlands from wartime storage in San Francisco. The furnishings were for the most part in very poor condition, a result of six years of neglect. About 3,000 chairs and 500 tables were sent back to their original builders for reupholstering and refinishing. One quarter of the furnishings had to be replaced entirely.

 

Factories and warehouses in Europe combed their supplies for materials and fabrics, much of which had been concealed from the Nazis during the occupation. Many smaller parts, such as hinges and clamps, had to be made by hand, since the machinery that once made them had been stolen or destroyed by the enemy.

     

The first-class main hall aboard the Nieuw Amsterdam

The entire rubber flooring was renewed, as was nearly all of the carpeting. All of the steel work was scaled and preserved and all piping cleaned. All ceilings and floors were removed; all of the liners 374 bathrooms were rebuilt. In the passenger spaces the wood paneling, which had been scratched and mutilated, was sanded down to half its thickness and relacquered. All the cabin's closets and fixtures were replaced. The entire electrical wiring system was renewed.

 

Having been painted over for blackouts and cracked in tropical climates, 12,000 square feet (1,100 m2) of glass was refurbished. Even the hand rails had to be repolished to eradicate thousands of carved initials. The project was monumental, because of the material shortages and the decline of the number of skilled craftsmen.

 

On October 29, 1947, after 18 months at the shipyard, the Nieuw Amsterdam reentered transatlantic service. Over 100 liners were restored with similar efforts.

  

Post war career and demise[edit]

     

The Nieuw Amsterdam as a cruise ship

The refit took eighteen months and cost more than her original construction, but on October 29, 1947, the Nieuw Amsterdam was finally back on the transatlantic run. Her passenger accommodations had been slightly altered, and the ship emerged with a gross tonnage some 400 tons larger than before, ending up at 36,667.[4]

 

For the next twenty years Nieuw Amsterdam would enjoy a loyal following and financial success. Even when joined by a more contemporary fleet mate in 1959, the SS Rotterdam, the Nieuw Amsterdam still commanded a loyal following and remained one of the most popular ships on the north Atlantic. Her several refits in the 1950s ensured she remained in top condition and continued service despite her being near thirty years of age. In 1967 severe boiler problems seemed to indicate an end to the venerable liner’s career, however new US Navy surplus boilers were installed during a sixteen week shipyard period at Wilton-Fijenoord in Schiedam and her career continued.

     

Painting of the Nieuw Amsterdam

In the same decade jet travel had made continued Atlantic passenger runs impractical, so Nieuw Amsterdam was shifted to cruising in the Caribbean. Soon escalating operating cost and competition from newer cruise vessels meant an end to the grand liner’s service career. Nieuw Amsterdam had been an enduring icon on the North Atlantic for the better part of three decades—certainly her refined interiors and impeccable service added much to her appeal.

 

The ship sailed to the breakers in 1974

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

Nürburgring

 

Location

 

Nürburg, Germany

Coordinates: 50°20′08″N 6°56′51″E

Time zone GMT +1 (DST: +2)

FIA Grade 1

Major events FIA Formula One

German Grand Prix

European Grand Prix

Luxembourg Grand Prix

Superbike World Championship, DTM, 24 Hours Nürburgring, 1000km Nürburgring, VLN

GP-Strecke (2002–present)

Surface Asphalt

Length 5.148 km (3.199 mi)

Turns 16

Lap record 1:29.468 (Germany Michael Schumacher, Ferrari F2004, 2004, Formula One)

GP-Strecke (1984–2001)

Surface Asphalt

Length 4.556 km (2.831 mi)

Turns 12

Lap record 1:18.354 (Colombia Juan Pablo Montoya, Williams FW23, 2001, Formula One)

Nordschleife (1983–present)

Surface Asphalt/concrete

Length 20.81 km (12.93 mi)

Turns 154

Lap record 6:11.13 (West Germany Stefan Bellof, Porsche 956, 1983, WEC)

Combined circuit (1984–present)

Surface Asphalt/concrete

Length 25.947 km (16.123 mi)

Turns 170

Lap record 8:10.921 (France Kévin Estre, McLaren MP4-12C GT3, 2014 24 Hours Nürburgring, FIA GT3)

Nordschleife (1927–1982)

Surface Asphalt/Concrete

Length 22.8 km (14.2 mi)

Turns 160

Lap record 7:06.4 (Switzerland Clay Regazzoni, Ferrari 312T, 1975, Formula One)

Südschleife (1927–1973)

Surface Asphalt

Length 7.747 km (4.814 mi)

Turns 27

Lap record 2:44.0 (Belgium Jacky Ickx, Ferrari Dino 166, 1968, Formula Two)

Gesamtstrecke (1927–1982)

Surface Asphalt

Length 28.265 km (17.563 mi)

Turns 187

Lap record 15:06.1 (Monaco Louis Chiron, Bugatti Type 35C, 1929, Grand Prix)

Website www.nuerburgring.de

Tower of the Nürburg castle

 

Nürburgring is a 150,000-capacity motorsports complex located in the town of Nürburg, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It features a Grand Prix race track built in 1984, and a much longer old "North loop" track which was built in the 1920s around the village and medieval castle of Nürburg in the Eifel mountains. The north loop is 20.8 km (12.9 mi) long and has more than 300 metres (1,000 feet) of elevation change from its lowest to highest points. Jackie Stewart nicknamed the old track "The Green Hell".

 

Originally, the track featured four configurations: the 28.265 km (17.563 mi)-long Gesamtstrecke ("Whole Course"), which in turn consisted of the 22.810 km (14.173 mi) Nordschleife ("North Loop"), and the 7.747 km (4.814 mi) Südschleife ("South Loop"). There also was a 2.281 km (1.417 mi) warm-up loop called Zielschleife ("Finish Loop") or Betonschleife ("Concrete Loop"), around the pit area.[1]

 

Between 1982 and 1983 the start/finish area was demolished to create a new GP-Strecke, and this is used for all major and international racing events. However, the shortened Nordschleife is still in use for racing, testing and public access.

 

History

1925–1939: The beginning of the "Nürburg-Ring"

 

In the early 1920s, ADAC Eifelrennen races were held on public roads in the Eifel mountains. This was soon recognised as impractical and dangerous. The construction of a dedicated race track was proposed, following the examples of Italy's Monza and Targa Florio courses, and Berlin's AVUS, yet with a different character. The layout of the circuit in the mountains was similar to the Targa Florio event, one of the most important motor races at that time. The original Nürburgring was to be a showcase for German automotive engineering and racing talent. Construction of the track, designed by the Eichler Architekturbüro from Ravensburg (led by architect Gustav Eichler), began in September 1925.

 

The track was completed in spring of 1927, and the ADAC Eifelrennen races were continued there. The first races to take place on 18 June 1927 showed motorcycles and sidecars. The first motorcycle race was won by Toni Ulmen on an English 350 cc Velocette. The cars followed a day later, and Rudolf Caracciola was the winner of the over 5000 cc class in a Mercedes Compressor. In addition, the track was opened to the public in the evenings and on weekends, as a one-way toll road.[citation needed] The whole track consisted of 174 bends (prior to 1971 changes), and averaged 8 to 9 metres (26 to 30 ft) in width. The fastest time ever around the full Gesamtstrecke was by Louis Chiron, at an average speed of 112.31 km/h (72 mph) in his Bugatti.

 

In 1929 the full Nürburgring was used for the last time in major racing events, as future Grands Prix would be held only on the Nordschleife. Motorcycles and minor races primarily used the shorter and safer Südschleife. Memorable pre-war races at the circuit featured the talents of early Ringmeister (Ringmasters) such as Rudolf Caracciola, Tazio Nuvolari and Bernd Rosemeyer.

1947–1970: The Green Hell

Nürburgring circuit map, taken at the 1964 German Grand Prix; the legend advises "No driving in the Eifel (mountains) without a lap on the Nürburgring".

The Nordschleife from 1927–1967, with small changes also until 1982

 

After World War II, racing resumed in 1947 and in 1951, the Nordschleife of the Nürburgring again became the main venue for the German Grand Prix as part of the Formula One World Championship (with the exception of 1959, when it was held on the AVUS in Berlin). A new group of Ringmeister arose to dominate the race – Alberto Ascari, Juan Manuel Fangio, Stirling Moss, Jim Clark, John Surtees, Jackie Stewart and Jacky Ickx.

 

On 5 August 1961, during practice for the 1961 German Grand Prix, Phil Hill became the first person to complete a lap of the Nordschleife in under 9 minutes, with a lap of 8 minutes 55.2 seconds (153.4 km/h or 95.3 mph) in the Ferrari 156 "Sharknose" Formula One car. Over half a century later, the highest-performing road cars have difficulty breaking 8 minutes without a professional race driver or one very familiar with the track. Also, several rounds of the German motorcycle Grand Prix were held, mostly on the 7.7 km (4.8 mi) Südschleife, but the Hockenheimring and the Solitudering were the main sites for Grand Prix motorcycle racing.

 

In 1953, the ADAC 1000 km Nürburgring race was introduced, an Endurance race and Sports car racing event that counted towards the World Sportscar Championship for decades. The 24 Hours Nürburgring for touring car racing was added in 1970.

 

By the late 1960s, the Nordschleife and many other tracks were becoming increasingly dangerous for the latest generation of F1 cars. In 1967, a chicane was added before the start/finish straight, called Hohenrain, in order to reduce speeds at the pit lane entry. This made the track 25 m (82 ft) longer. Even this change, however, was not enough to keep Stewart from nicknaming it "The Green Hell" following his victory in the 1968 German Grand Prix amid a driving rainstorm and thick fog. In 1970, after the fatal crash of Piers Courage at Zandvoort, the F1 drivers decided at the French Grand Prix to boycott the Nürburgring unless major changes were made, as they did at Spa the year before. The changes were not possible on short notice, and the German GP was moved to the Hockenheimring, which had already been modified.

1971–1983: Changes

Relative location of the Nürburgring. (around Nürburg, not to scale).

 

In accordance with the demands of the F1 drivers the Nordschleife was reconstructed by taking out some bumps, smoothing out some sudden jumps (particularly at Brünnchen), and installing Armco safety barriers. The track was made straighter, following the race line, which reduced the number of corners. The German GP could be hosted at the Nürburgring again, and was for another six years from 1971 to 1976.

 

In 1973 the entrance into the dangerous and bumpy Kallenhard corner was made slower by adding another left-hand corner after the fast Metzgesfeld sweeping corner. Safety was improved again later on, e.g. by removing the jumps on the long main straight and widening it, and taking away the bushes right next to the track at the main straight, which made that section of the Nürburgring dangerously narrow. A second series of three more F1 races was held until 1976. However, primarily due to its length of over 22 kilometres (14 mi), and the lack of space due to its situation on the sides of the mountains, increasing demands by the F1 drivers and the FIA's CSI commission were too expensive or impossible to meet. For instance, by the 1970s the German Grand Prix required five times the marshals and medical staff as a typical F1 race, something the German organizers were unwilling to provide. Additionally, even with the 1971 modifications it was still possible for cars to become airborne off the track. The Nürburgring was also unsuitable for the burgeoning television market; its vast expanse made it almost impossible to effectively cover a race there. As a result, early in the season it was decided that the 1976 race would be the last to be held on the old circuit.

 

Niki Lauda, the reigning world champion and only person ever to lap the full 22,835-metre (14.189 mi) Nordschleife in under 7 minutes (6:58.6, 1975), proposed to the other drivers that they boycott the circuit in 1976. Lauda was not only concerned about the safety arrangements and the lack of marshals around the circuit, but did not like the prospect of running the race in another rainstorm. Usually when that happened, some parts of the circuit were wet and other parts were dry, which is what the conditions of the circuit were for that race. The other drivers voted against the idea and the race went ahead. Lauda crashed in his Ferrari coming out of the left-hand kink before Bergwerk, for causes that were never established. He was badly burned as his car was still loaded with fuel in lap 2. Lauda was saved by the combined actions of fellow drivers Arturo Merzario, Guy Edwards, Brett Lunger, and Harald Ertl, rather than by the ill-equipped track marshals.

 

The crash also showed that the track's distances were too long for regular fire engines and ambulances, even though the "ONS-Staffel" was equipped with a Porsche 911 rescue car, marked (R). The old Nürburgring never hosted another F1 race again, as the German Grand Prix was moved to the Hockenheimring for 1977. The German motorcycle Grand Prix was held for the last time on the old Nürburgring in 1980, also permanently moving to Hockenheim.

 

By its very nature, the Nordschleife was impossible to make safe in its old configuration. It soon became apparent that it would have to be completely overhauled if there was any prospect of Formula One returning there. With this in mind, in 1981 work began on a 4.5 km (2.8 mi)-long new circuit, which was built on and around the old pit area.

 

At the same time, a bypass shortened the Nordschleife to 20,832 m (12.944 mi), and with an additional small pit lane, this version was used for races in 1983, e.g. the 1000km Nürburgring endurance race, while construction work was going on nearby. In training for that race, the late Stefan Bellof set the all-time lap record for the 20.8 km (12.9 mi) Nordschleife in his Porsche 956, which is still unbeaten at 6:11.13, or over 200 km/h (120 mph) on average (partially because no major racing has taken place there since 1984).

 

Meanwhile, more run-off areas were added at corners like Aremberg and Brünnchen, where originally there were just embankments protected by Armco barriers. The track surface was made safer in some spots where there had been nasty bumps and jumps. Racing line markers were added to the corners all around the track as well. Also, bushes and hedges at the edges of corners were taken out and replaced with Armco and grass.

 

The former Südschleife had not been modified in 1970/71 and was abandoned a few years later in favour of the improved Nordschleife. It is now mostly gone (in part due to the construction of the new circuit) or converted to a normal public road, but since 2005 a vintage car event has been hosted on the old track layout, including part of the parking area.[2]

1984: The new Grand Prix track

Complete distance of 2002 in comparison with the track of 1927.

Aerial photograph of GP-Strecke

 

The new track was completed in 1984 and named GP-Strecke (German: Großer Preis-Strecke: literally, "Grand Prix Course"). It was built to meet the highest safety standards. However, it was considered in character a mere shadow of its older sibling. Some fans, who had to sit much farther away from the track, called it Eifelring, Ersatzring, Grünering or similar nicknames, believing it did not deserve to be called Nürburgring. Like many circuits of the time, it offered few overtaking opportunities.

 

Prior to the 2013 German Grand Prix both Mark Webber and Lewis Hamilton said they like the track. Webber described the layout as "an old school track" before adding, "It’s a beautiful little circuit for us to still drive on so I think all the guys enjoy driving here." While Hamilton said "It’s a fantastic circuit, one of the classics and it hasn’t lost that feel of an old classic circuit."[3]

 

To celebrate its opening, an exhibition race was held, on 12 May, featuring an array of notable drivers. Driving identical Mercedes 190E 2.3–16's, the line-up was Elio de Angelis, Jack Brabham (Formula 1 World Champion 1959, 1960, 1966), Phil Hill (1961), Denis Hulme (1967), James Hunt (1976), Alan Jones (1980), Jacques Laffite, Niki Lauda (1975, 1977)*, Stirling Moss, Alain Prost*, Carlos Reutemann, Keke Rosberg (1982), Jody Scheckter (1979), Ayrton Senna*, John Surtees (1964) and John Watson. Senna won ahead of Lauda, Reutemann, Rosberg, Watson, Hulme and Jody Scheckter, being the only one to resist Lauda's overwhelming performance who – having missed the qualifying – had to start from the last row and overtook all the others except Senna.[4][5]

 

The asterisk ( * ) in the previous paragraph indicate that titles which were not yet won at the time of the race are not mentioned here, so there were nine former and two future Formula 1 World Champions competing, in a field of 20 cars with 16 Formula 1 drivers; the other four were local drivers: Klaus Ludwig, Manfred Schurti, Udo Schütz and Hans Herrmann.

 

Besides other major international events, the Nürburgring has seen the brief return of Formula One racing, as the 1984 European Grand Prix was held at the track, followed by the 1985 German Grand Prix. As F1 did not stay, other events were the highlights at the new Nürburgring, including the 1000km Nürburgring, DTM, motorcycles, and newer types of events, like truck racing, vintage car racing at the AvD "Oldtimer Grand Prix", and even the "Rock am Ring" concerts.

 

Following the success and first world championship of Michael Schumacher, a second German F1 race was held at the Nürburgring between 1995 and 2006, called the European Grand Prix, or in 1997 and 1998, the Luxembourg Grand Prix.

 

For 2002, the track was changed, by replacing the former "Castrol-chicane" at the end of the start/finish straight with a sharp right-hander (nicknamed "Haug-Hook"), in order to create an overtaking opportunity. Also, a slow Omega-shaped section was inserted, on the site of the former kart track. This extended the GP track from 4,500 to 5,200 m (2.80 to 3.23 mi), while at the same time, the Hockenheimring was shortened from 6,800 to 4,500 m (4.23 to 2.80 mi).

 

Both the Nürburgring and the Hockenheimring events have been losing money due to high and rising Formula One license fees charged by Bernie Ecclestone and low attendance due to high ticket prices[citation needed]; starting with the 2007 Formula One season, Hockenheim and Nürburgring will alternate for hosting of the German GP.

Rain clouds gather over the Ring during the 2011 German Grand Prix.

 

In Formula One, Ralf Schumacher collided with his teammate Giancarlo Fisichella and his brother at the start of the 1997 race which was won by Jacques Villeneuve. In 1999, in changing conditions, Johnny Herbert managed to score the only win for the team of former Ringmeister Jackie Stewart. One of the highlights of the 2005 season was Kimi Räikkönen's spectacular exit while in the last lap of the race, when his suspension gave way after being rattled lap after lap by a flat-spotted tire that was not changed due to the short-lived 'one set of tires' rule.

 

Prior to the 2007 European Grand Prix, the Audi S (turns 8 and 9) was renamed Michael Schumacher S after Michael Schumacher. Schumacher had retired from Formula One the year before, but returned in 2010, and in 2011 became the second Formula One driver to drive through a turn named after them (after Ayrton Senna driving his "S for Senna" at Autódromo José Carlos Pace).

Alternation with Hockenheim

See also: Hockenheimring

 

In 2007, the FIA announced that Hockenheimring and Nürburgring would alternate with the German Grand Prix with Nürburgring hosting in 2007. Due to name-licensing problems, it was held as the European Grand Prix that year. However, in 2008 the European Grand Prix was held at Valencia Street Circuit, Eastern Spain.

Panorama main entrance of Nürburgring

Fatal accidents

Main article: List of Nürburgring fatal accidents

 

While it is unusual for deaths to occur during sanctioned races, there are many accidents and several deaths each year during public sessions. It is common for the track to be closed several times a day for cleanup, repair, and medical intervention. While track management does not publish any official figures, several regular visitors to the track have used police reports to estimate the number of fatalities at somewhere between 3 and 12 in a full year.[6] Jeremy Clarkson noted in Top Gear in 2004 that "over the years this track has claimed over 200 lives".[7]

Nordschleife racing today

 

Several touring car series still compete on the Nordschleife, using either only the simple 20.8 km (12.9 mi) version with its separate small pit lane, or a combined 24.4 km (15.2 mi)-long track that uses a part of the original modern F1 track (without the Mercedes Arena section, which is often used for support pits) plus its huge pit facilities. Entry-level competition requires a regularity test (GLP) for street-legal cars. Two racing series (RCN/CHC and VLN) compete on 15 Saturdays each year, for several hours.

 

The annual highlight is the 24 Hours Nürburgring weekend, held usually in mid-May, featuring 220 cars – from small 100 hp (75 kW) cars to 700 hp (520 kW) Turbo Porsches or 500 hp (370 kW) factory race cars built by BMW, Opel, Audi, Mercedes-Benz, over 700 drivers (amateurs and professionals), and up to 290,000 spectators.

Mercedes-Benz SLS AMG GT3 racing at the Nürburgring Nordschleife VLN Race 8, 2010

 

In 2015 the World Touring Car Championship is scheduled to host the FIA WTCC Race of Germany at the Nordschleife as a support category to the 24h.

 

Automotive media outlets and manufacturers use the Nordschleife as a standard to publish their lap times achieved with production vehicles.

 

BMW Sauber’s Nick Heidfeld made history on 28 April 2007 as the first driver in over 30 years to tackle the Nürburgring Nordschleife track in a contemporary Formula One car.[8] Heidfeld’s three demonstration laps round the German circuit in an F1.06 were the highlight of festivities celebrating BMW’s contribution to motorsport. About 45,000 spectators showed up for the main event, the third four-hour VLN race of the season, and the subsequent show by Heidfeld. Conceived largely as a photo opportunity, the lap times were not as fast as the car was capable of, BMW instead choosing to run the chassis at a particularly high ride height to allow for the Nordschleife's abrupt gradient changes and to limit maximum speeds accordingly. Former F1 driver Hans-Joachim Stuck was injured during the race when he crashed his BMW Z4.

 

As part of the festivities before the 2013 Nürburgring 24 Hour race, Michael Schumacher and other Mercedes-Benz drivers took part in a promotional event which saw Schumacher complete a demonstration lap of the Nordschleife at the wheel of a 2011 Mercedes W02.[9] As with Heidfeld's lap, and also partly due to F1's strict in-season testing bans, the lap left many motorsport fans underwhelmed.[10]

Nordschleife public access

 

Since its opening in 1927, the track has been used by the public for the so-called "Touristenfahrten," i.e. anyone with a road-legal car or motorcycle, as well as tour buses, motor homes, or cars with trailers. It is opened mainly on Sundays, but also many Saturdays and weekday evenings. The track may be closed for weeks during the winter months, depending on weather conditions and maintenance work. Passing on the right is prohibited, and some sections have speed limits.

Nordschleife is often open to the public. Three Caterhams are entering Brünnchen, a spectator vantage point.

Porsche GT3 RS approaching Adenauer Forst, a blind chicane on the Nordschleife.

Crashed BMW Z3 M coupé on the recovery truck

 

This Nürburgring is a popular attraction for many driving enthusiasts and riders from all over the world, partly because of its history and the challenge it provides. The lack of oncoming traffic and intersections sets it apart from regular roads, and the absence of a blanket speed limit is a further attraction.

 

Normal ticket buyers on these tourist days cannot quite complete a full lap of the 20.8 km (12.9 mi) Nordschleife, which bypasses the modern GP-Strecke, as they are required to slow down and pass through a 200-metre (220 yd) "pit lane" section where the toll gates are installed. On busier days, a mobile ticket barrier is installed on the main straight in order to reduce the length of queues at the fixed barriers. This is open to all ticket holders. On rare occasions, it is possible to drive both the Nordschleife and the Grand Prix circuit combined.

 

Drivers interested in lap times often time themselves from the first bridge after the barriers to the last gantry (aka Bridge-to-Gantry or BTG time) before the exit.[11] However, the track's general conditions state that any form of racing, including speed record attempts, is forbidden.[12] The driver's insurance coverage may consequently be voided, leaving the driver fully liable for damage. Normal, non-racing, non-timed driving accidents might be covered by driver's insurance, but it is increasingly common for UK insurers especially to insert exclusion clauses that mean drivers and riders on the Nürburgring only have third-party coverage[13] or are not covered at all.[14]

 

Drivers who have crashed into the barriers, suffered mechanical failure or been otherwise required to be towed off track during Touristenfahrten sessions are referred to as having joined the 'Bongard Club'. This nickname is derived from the name of the company which operates the large yellow recovery flatbed trucks which ferry those unfortunate drivers and their vehicles to the nearest exit.[15] Due to the high volume of traffic, there is an emphasis on quickly clearing and repairing any compromised safety measures so the track can be immediately re-opened for use.

 

Additionally, those found responsible for damage to the track and safety barriers on track are required to pay for those repairs, along with the time and cost associated with personnel and equipment to address those damages, making any accident or breakdown a potentially expensive incident. Because it is technically operated as a public toll road, failing to report an accident or instance where track surfaces are affected is considered unlawfully leaving the scene of an accident.[16] This is all part of the rules and regulations which aim to ensure a safe experience for all visitors to the track.

Commercial aspects

 

One of the original purposes of the Nordschleife was as a test track for auto manufacturers, and its demanding layout had been traditionally used as a proving ground. Weekdays are often booked for so-called Industriefahrten for auto makers and the media. With the advent of the Internet, awareness of the Nordschleife has risen in Germany and abroad, in addition to publicity in print media. In 1999, Porsche reported that their new 996 GT3 had lapped the Nürburgring in under eight minutes, and in subsequent years, manufacturers from overseas also showed up to test cars. Some high-performance models are promoted with videotaped laps published on the web, and the claimed lap times are generating discussion. Few of these supercars are actually entered in racing where the claims could be backed up.

 

The TV Series Top Gear has also used the Nordschleife for its challenges, often involving Sabine Schmitz. In addition, during series 17 (summer 2011) of Top Gear, James May was very critical of the ride quality of cars whose development processes included testing on the Nordschleife, saying that cars which were tested at Nordschleife got ruined.

 

Other pastimes are hosted at the Nürburgring, such as the Rock am Ring, Germany's biggest rock festival, attracting close to 100,000 rock fans each year since 1985. Since 1978, the Nordschleife is also the venue of a major running event (Nürburgring-Lauf/Run am Ring). In 2003, a major cycling event (Rad am Ring) was added and it became the multi-sports event Rad & Run am Ring.

 

In 2009, new commercial areas opened, including a hotel and shopping mall. In the summer of 2009, ETF Ride Systems opened a new interactive dark ride application called "Motor Mania" at the racetrack, in collaboration with Lagotronics B.V.[17] The roller coaster "ring°racer" was scheduled to open in 2011 but never started its operations due to technical failures.

 

In 2012, the track was preparing to file for bankruptcy as a result of nearly $500 million in debts and the inability to secure financing.[18] On 1 August 2012, the government of Rheinland-Pfalz guaranteed $312 million to allow the track to meet its debt obligations.[19]

 

In 2013, the Nürburgring was for sale for US$165 million (€127.3 million).[20] The sale process was by sealed-bid auction with an expected completion date of "Late Summer". This meant there was to be a new owner in 2013, unencumbered by the debts of the previous operation, with the circuit expected to return to profitability.[21]

 

On March 11, 2014 it was reported that the Nürburgring was sold for 77 million euros ($106.8 million). Düsseldorf-based Capricorn Development was the buyer. The company was to take full ownership of the Nürburgring on January 1, 2015.[22] But in October 2014, Russian billionaire, the chairman of Moscow-based Pharmstandard, Viktor Kharitonin, bought a majority stake in the Nürburgring.[23]

 

In May 2015, the Nürburgring was set to hold the first Grüne Hölle Rock festival as a replacement for the Rock am Ring festival,[24] but it fell through. Grüne Hölle Rock has changed their name to Rock im Revier and will be held in the Schalke area.[25]

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

United States

Name: USS California

Namesake: State of California

Ordered: 28 December 1915

Builder: Mare Island Naval Shipyard

Laid down: 25 October 1916

Launched: 20 November 1919

Sponsored by: Barbara Stephens Zane

Commissioned: 10 August 1921

Decommissioned: 14 February 1947

Struck: 1 March 1959

Nickname(s): "The Prune Barge"

Honors and

awards: 7 Battle Stars

Fate: Sold for scrap, 10 July 1959

General characteristics [1]

Class & type: Tennessee-class battleship

Displacement: 32,300 tons (40,950 after refit)

Length: 624.5 ft (190.3 m)

Beam:

 

97.3 ft (29.7 m) (original)

114 ft (35 m) (rebuilt)

 

Draft: 30.3 ft (9.2 m)

Speed: 21 kn (24 mph; 39 km/h)

Complement: 57 officers, 1,026 men

Sensors and

processing systems: CXAM radar from 1940[2]

Armament:

 

As built:

12 × 14 in (360 mm)/50 cal guns (4x3)

14 × 5 in (130 mm)/51 cal guns

4 × 3 in (76 mm)/50 guns

2 × 21 in (530 mm) torpedo tubes

After reconstruction:

12 × 14 in (360 mm)/50 cal guns

16 × 5 in (130 mm)/38 cal guns (8x2)

56 × Bofors 40 mms (11x4, 5x2)

31 × Oerlikon 20 mm cannons

 

Armor:

 

Belt: 8–13.5 in (203–343 mm)

Barbettes: 13 in (330 mm)

Turret face: 18 in (457 mm)

Turret sides: 9–10 in (229–254 mm)

Turret top: 5 in (127 mm)

Turret rear 9 in (229 mm)

Conning tower: 11.5 in (292 mm)

Decks: 3.5 in (89 mm)

 

USS California (BB-44), one of two Tennessee-class battleships completed shortly after World War I, was the fifth ship of the United States Navy named in honor of the 31st state.[3] She was the last American battleship built on the West Coast, and the only one to be a dreadnought type.[4] She served in the Pacific her entire career, and for twenty years was the flagship of the Pacific Fleet. She was sunk in the attack on Pearl Harbor at her moorings in Battleship Row, but was salvaged and reconstructed. She served again for the remainder of World War II before being decommissioned in 1947. She was sold for scrap in 1959.

 

Construction and early service years

 

Her keel was laid down on 25 October 1916 by the Mare Island Naval Shipyard at Vallejo, California. She was launched 20 November 1919 sponsored by Mrs. R.T. (Barbara Stephens) Zane, daughter of California governor William D. Stephens; and commissioned on 10 August 1921, Captain Henry Joseph Ziegemeier, USN, in command.[5] She immediately reported to the Pacific Fleet as flagship.

 

For 20 years, from 1921 to 1941, California served first as flagship of the Pacific Fleet, then as flagship of the Battle Fleet (Battle Force), US Fleet. Her annual activities included joint Army-Navy exercises, tactical and organizational development problems, and fleet concentrations for various purposes. Intensive training and superior performance won her the Battle Efficiency Pennant for 1921 and 1922, and the Gunnery "E" for 1925 and 1926.

At high speed, 1921

 

In the summer of 1925, California led the Battle Fleet and a division of cruisers from the Scouting Fleet on a good-will cruise to Australia and New Zealand. She took part in the Presidential reviews of 1927, 1930, and 1934. She was modernized in late 1929 and early 1930 and equipped with an improved anti-aircraft battery of eight 5 in (130 mm)/25 cal guns replacing the earlier 3 in (76 mm) guns.[6] Also, the elevation of the ship's 14-inch guns was increased for improved range.[7]

 

In the mid-to-late-1930s, California and the 14 battleships of the United States Fleet were stationed in San Pedro, California. During that time, they participated in numerous fleet exercises taking them up and down the West Coast, to Hawaii, and in 1939 through the Panama Canal, to Cuba, to New York City for the 1939 World's Fair.

Firing a broadside

 

California was also active in sports competitions. Along with other Pacific Fleet battleships, her crew competed for the Navy Department General Excellency Trophy for Capital Ships of the Pacific Fleet – which because of its design quickly became known as the "Iron Man Trophy". Since 1919, the capital ships competed for this coveted award, which was awarded by COMSERVPAC on a system of points figured on the basis of participation and standings of athletic teams of ships of the Fleet. California was first awarded the "Iron Man" in 1924 and held it for three years.[8] In 1939, California won the "Iron Man" for the last time with a total score of .733 to beat out New Mexico. During those years the competition for the "Iron Man" was fierce among the capital ships of the Pacific Fleet, until most of them were reassigned to Hawaii in May 1940 after Fleet Problem XXI due to the growing concerns with relations with Japan. Competition for the trophy was suspended during the war, and was not revived until 1948, after California was out of commission.

 

California was one of six ships to receive the new RCA CXAM radar in 1940.[2]

World War II

California after rebuilding

California's aft triple 14-inch (356 mm) 50-caliber gun turrets in August 1945.

 

On 7 December 1941, California was moored at the southernmost berth of Battleship Row and was with other dreadnoughts of the Battle Force when the Japanese launched their aerial attack. Watertight integrity had been impaired by preparations for a material inspection; and the ship suffered extensive flooding damage when hit.[9] One torpedo detonated below the armor belt between Frames 46 and 60, and a second detonated below the armor belt between Frames 95 and 100.[10] At 0845, a 551 lb (250 kg) bomb entered the starboard upper deck level at Frame 60, passed through the main deck, and exploded on the armored second deck, setting off an anti-aircraft ammunition magazine and killing about 50 men.[11] A second near miss bomb ruptured her bow plates.[9] Smoke from fires started by the bomb hit caused evacuation of the forward engine-room at 1000 and ended pumping efforts to keep California afloat.[9] After three days of progressive flooding, California settled into the mud with only her superstructure remaining above the surface.[9] When the action ended, 100 of her crew were lost and 62 wounded. Machinist's Mate 1st Class Robert R. Scott was one of the sailors who lost his life on 7 December, refusing to leave his battle station, even as it flooded, "as long as the guns keep firing". Also killed was Chief Radioman Thomas Reeves who organized hand delivery of anti-aircraft ammunition when the equipment to lift it to the guns was knocked out. He was overcome by smoke and fire below decks while leading this effort. Both men were awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously for their heroism and destroyer escorts USS Reeves (DE-156) and USS Scott (DE-214) were named in their honor.

 

On 25 March 1942, California was refloated and dry-docked at Pearl Harbor for repairs. On 7 June, she departed under her own power for Puget Sound Navy Yard where a major reconstruction job was accomplished, including improved protection, watertight compartmenting, stability, antiaircraft battery, and fire control system. Her original twin funnels were combined into a single funnel faired into the superstructure tower as with the newer South Dakota class. The original 5 in (130 mm)/51 cal guns of the secondary battery and the 5 in (130 mm)/25 cal guns of the anti-aircraft battery were replaced by 16 5 in (130 mm)/38 cal guns in new twin mountings.[6] Her appearance was nearly identical to that of Tennessee and West Virginia, which were rebuilt after the Pearl Harbor attack to resemble South Dakota-class battleships. Like her sisters, she was a virtually new ship built on the bones of the old.[12]

 

As part of the two ocean navy policy, U.S. battleships had been designed within a beam constraint of 108 feet (33 m) in order to transit the Panama Canal; after their similar rebuilds, Tennessee, California and West Virginia were widened to 114 feet (35 m) feet, in effect limiting deployment to the Pacific theater.

 

Under the command of Captain Henry Poynter Burnett, USN, California departed Bremerton, Washington on 31 January 1944 for shakedown at San Pedro, California, and sailed from San Francisco, California, on 5 May for the invasion of the Marianas. Off Saipan in June, she conducted effective shore bombardment and call fire missions. On 14 June, she was hit by a shell from an enemy shore battery which killed one man and wounded nine. Countless more lives would have been lost had it not been for the skills of Ensign William D. Kent. Following Saipan, her heavy guns helped blast the way for the assault force in the Guam and Tinian operations from 18 July to 9 August. On 24 August she arrived at Espiritu Santo for repairs to her port bow damaged in a collision with her sister ship Tennessee (which was also present during the Pearl Harbor attack).

 

On 17 September, California sailed to Manus to ready for the invasion of the Philippines. From 17 October to 20 November, she played a key role in the Leyte operation, including the destruction of the Japanese fleet in the Battle of Surigao Strait on 25 October. In November there was a change of command with Captain Samuel B. Brewer, USN, relieving Captain Burnett. On 1 January 1945, she departed the Palaus for the Luzon landings. Her powerful batteries were an important factor in the success of these dangerous operations driven home into the heart of enemy-held territory under heavy air attack. On 6 January, while providing shore bombardment at Lingayen Gulf, she was hit by a kamikaze; 44 of her crew were killed and 155 were wounded. Undeterred she made temporary repairs on the spot and remained carrying out her critical mission of shore bombardment until the job was done. She departed on 23 January for Puget Sound Navy Yard, arriving on 15 February for permanent repairs.

A bell from California on display at the California State Capitol Museum.

 

California returned to action at Okinawa on 15 June, and remained in that embattled area until 21 July. Two days later, she joined Task Force 95 (TF 95) to cover the East China Sea mine-sweeping operations. After a short voyage to San Pedro Bay (Philippines) in August, the ship departed Okinawa on 20 September to cover the landing of the Sixth Army occupation force at Wakanoura Wan, Honshū. She remained supporting the occupation until 15 October, then sailed via Singapore, Colombo, Ceylon, and Cape Town, South Africa, to Philadelphia, arriving on 7 December. She was placed in commission in reserve there on 7 August 1946, out of commission in reserve on 14 February 1947, stricken on 1 March 1959, and sold for scrapping on 10 July 1959 to Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Sparrows Point, Maryland.

"editor-in-chief" James H.Marsh.

 

Edmonton, Hurtig Publishers Limited, [january] 1985. ISBN o-8883o-269-X.

 

3 volumes in 9-1/8 12-1/16 x 5 ivory linen-covered brown board slipbox, both sides printed gold foil letterpress:

 

1. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME I A - For..

ISBN o-8883o-27o-3.

8-7/16 x 1o-7/8, 176 sheets white Rolland 5o Lb S.T. Encyclopedia Opaque folded to 22 signatures of 8 sheets each, sewn pearl white in 11 stitches & glued into white heavy bond endpapers & 8-13/16 x 11-5/16 navy linen-covered boards with approx.1-7/16" yellow & blue cloth applique head~ & tailbands, spine only printed gold foil letterpress, interiors all except 5 pp (versos of free endleaves & 3rd, 4th & 19th leaves) printed black offset with 3-colour process additions to 257 pp (436 black only); paginated i-xxxvii/1-666;

 

2. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME II For - Pat.

ISBN o-8883o-271-1.

as volume 1 but sewn pearl cream in double-stitches, 3-colour process additions to 339 pp (365 black only); paginated 669-137o;

 

3. THE CANADIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA VOLUME III Pat - Z.

ISBN o-8883o-272-X.

as volume 1 but 18o sheets in 23 signatures (the 18th of 4 sheets), with 3-colour process additions to 284 pp (431 black only); paginated 1373-2o89.

 

all volumes with uniform endpaper graphic by Tom McNeely.

 

2676 contributors ID'd (note: 376 asterisked names contribute to all 3 volumes; questioned names appear in the index without their contribution(s) having been located):

Caroline Louise Abbott*, Irving Abella*, Thomas S.Abler*, Baha R.Abu-Laban, Donald F.Acton, W.Peter Adams, Peter A.Adie, Catherine Ahearn, David E.Aiken*, Jim Albert, Frederick A.Aldrich, Peter Aliknak, Gratien Allaire, Jacques Allard, A.Richard Allen, Karyn Elizabeth Allen, Max Allen, Robert S.Allen*, Willard F.Allen, Marlene Michele Alt*, John Amatt, Laurent Amiot, Pierre Anctil, Bob Anderson, Donald W.Anderson*, Doris H.Anderson*, Duncan M.Anderson, Frank W.Anderson, Grace Merle Anderson, Peter S.Anderson*, Christopher A.Andreae, Bernard Andres*, Sheila Andrew, Florence K.Andrews, Donald F.P.Andrus, Paul Anicef, Thomas H.Anstey*, Louis Applebaum, Christon I.Archer*, David J.W.Archer, Clinton Archibald, Mary Archibald, Eugene Arima, Allan Arlett, Leslie Armour, G.M.H.Armstrong(?), Pat Armstrong, W.Armstrong, John T.Arnason, Georges Arsenault, Celine Arseneault*, Eric R.Arthur, Alan F.J.Artibise*, Michael I.Asch, Kenojuak Ashevak, Kiugak Ashoona, Athanasios Asimakopulos, Alain Asselin, Barbara Astman, John Atchison, Margaret Atwood, Irene E.Aubrey, Alasi Audla, Karl Aun, Peter J.Austin-Smith, Helgi H.Austman, Donald H.Avery, William A.Ayer, Hugh D.Ayers, G.Burton Ayles, John Ayre, Maureen Aytenfisu, Douglas R.Babcock, Robert H.Babcock, Robert E.Babe, Morrell P.Bachynski, George Back, Harry Baglole, David H.Bai, Margaret J.Baigent, Karen E.Bailey, David M.Baird, Patricia A.Baird, Allan J.Baker, G.Blaine Baker, Melvin Baker*, Douglas O.Baldwin, John R.Baldwin, Gordon Bale, Robert J.Bandoni, Paul A.Banfield, Marilyn J.Barber, Douglas F.Barbour*, Clifford A.V.Barker, Jon C.Barlow, Jean Barman, David T.Barnard, John Barnes, Reg Barnes, Elinor Barr, John J.Barr, Robert F.Barratt*, [--?--] Barrett, Tony Barrett, Wayne R.Barrett, H.J.Barrie, Ted Barris*, George S.Barry, Donald R.Bartlett, William Henry Bartlett, James F.Basinger, Peter A.Baskerville, Marilyn J.Baszczynski, Alan H.Batten*, Jean-Louis Baudouin(?), Carol Baum, Jules Bazin, Gladys Bean, William R.Beard, Belinda A.Beaton*, Henri Beau, Gerald-A.Beaudoin*, Rejean Beaudoin, Jacqueline Beaudoin-Ross, Louise Beaudry, France Beauregard, Brian P.N.Beaven, J.Murray Beck*, Margaret Beckman, John Beckwith, Roger Bedard, Michael Bedford, Don R.Beer, Michael D.Behiels*, Madeleine Beland, Mario Beland, Guy Belanger, Real Belanger, Rene Belanger, Jean Belisle, Norman W.Bell, Ruben C.Bellan, Andre Belleau, Jacques-Nicolas Bellin, Rene J.Belzile*, J.W.Bengough, Gerry Bennett, John Bennett*, Edward Horton Bensley, Douglas Bentham, D.M.R.Bentley, W.D.Bentley, David J.Bercuson, William Von Moll Berczy, John J.Bergen, Jeniva Berger, Thomas R.Berger, Claude Bergeron, A.T.Bergerud, Norbert Berkowitz, Andre Bernard, Frank R.Bernard*, Jean-Paul Bernard, Jean-Thomas Bernard, Jacques Bernier*, Marc Bernier, Silvie Bernier, Elliott Bernshaw, Nicole Bernshaw, Jonathan Berry, Michael J.Berry, Ralph Berry, Pierre Berton*, Neil Besner*, Diane E.Bessa, Carl Betke, Roger Betz, John Michael Bewers, Onnig Beylerian, M.Vincent Bezeau, Reginald W.Bibby, Gilles Bibeau, Ivan B.Bickell, Julius Bigauskas, Petro B.T.Bilaniuk, B.C.Binning, Carolyn J.Bird(?), Michael S.Bird, Richard M.Bird, Andrew Birrell, Carol Anne Bishop, Charles A.Bishop, Mary F.Bishop, Alastair Bissett-Johnson, Conrad M.Black, Joseph Laurence Black, Meredith Jean Black, Naomi Black, Robert G.Blackadar, Robert H.Blackburn, John D.Blackwell, Alex M.Blair, Robert Blair, Andre Blais, Phyllis R.Blakeley, Elsie Blaschke, J.Sherman Bleakney, Bertram C.Blevis, Lawrence C.Bliss, Michael Bliss, E.D.Blodgett, Jean Blodgett, Hans Blohn, Ronald Bloor, Arthur W.Blue, Robin W.Boadway, David A.Boag, Douglas H.Bocking*, Jack Boddington, Trevor Boddy, John M.Bodner, George J.Boer, James P.Bogart, Jean Sutherland Boggs, Tibor Bognar, Gilles Boileau, Aurelien Boivin, Bernard Boivin*, Jean Boivin, Andre Bolduc, Yves Bolduc, Glen W.Boles*, Francis W.P.Bolger, Kenneth E.Bollinger, George Bonavia, Flint Bondurant, Joseph Bonenfant, Gayle Bonish, Roy Bonisteel, Rudy Boonstra*, Paul-Emil Borduas, Robert Bothwell*, Robert D.Bott, Randy Bouchard*, Michel A.Boucher, Gilles Boulet, Roger H.Boulet, Doug Boult, Andre G.Bourassa*, Nicole Bourbonnais, Pierre L.Bourgault, Patricia E.Bovey, Wilbur Fee Bowker, Roy T.Bowles, Hartwell Bowsfield, Christine Boyanoski, Farrell M.Boyce, John Boyd, Oliver A.Bradt, William J.Brady, Chris Braiden, F.Gerald Brander, Guy R.Brassard, Ted J.Brasser, Bernard Brault, R.Matthew Bray*, David H.Breen*, Francois Bregha, Willard Brehaut*, J.William Brennan*, Paul W.Brennan, Fred Breummer, John E.C.Brierley*, Jean L.Briggs, David R.Brillinger, Jack Brink, Ralph O.Brinkhurst, Andre Brochu, Irwin M.Brodo, Somer Brodribb, Alan A.Brookes, Ian A.Brookes*, Bill Brooks*, David B.Brooks, Robert S.Broughton, David Brown, Desmond H.Brown*, E.Brown, Jennifer S.H.Brown*, R.G.B.Brown*, Robert Craig Brown, Roy I.Brown, Thomas E.Brown*, Lorne D.Bruce, John H.Brumley, Alan G.Brunger, Reinhart A.Brust, Rorke Bardon Bryan, Giles Bradley Bryant, Thomas A.Brzustowki, [--?--] Buache, Norman Buchignani, Ruth Matheson Buck, Phillip A.Buckner*, Geoff Budden, Susan Buggey, Lise Buisson, J.M.Bumsted*, James Burant, Joan Burke, Robert D.Burke, Jean Burnet, David Burnett*, Marilyn Schiff Burnett*, Dorothy K.Burnham, Eedson Louis Millard Burns, Robert J.Burns, Robin Burns, Ian Burton, Jack Bush, Paul Buteux*, Frank Taylor Butler, K.Jack Butler, William Butterfield, Edward Butts, Robert E.Butts, Marcel Cadotte, John C.Callaghan, John W.Callahan, Lorraine Camerlain, Bill Cameron, Christina Cameron, Duncan Cameron, Elspeth Cameron, Wendy Cameron*, A.Barrie Campbell, Beverly Campbell, Douglas F.Campbell, Gordon Campbell, Ian A.Campbell*, J.Milton Campbell, Neil John Campbell, Percy I.Campbell(?), Sandra Campbell, Richard Campion, William T.Cannon, Pierre Cantin, Usher Caplan, Emily F.Carasco, Clifton F.Carbin, Douglas Cardinal, Patrick Robert Thomas Cardy, Thomas H.Carefoot, J.M.S.Careless*, Jock Alan Carlisle, Derek Caron, Laurent G.Caron, Carole H.Carpenter, Ken Carpenter, Emily Carr, Gaston Carriere, Carman V.Carroll, Brian G.Carter, George E.Carter, Margaret Carter, Richard J.Cashin, Ian Casselman, George Catlin, Paul B.Cavers*, Richard Chabot, Roland Chagnon, Edward J.Chambers, Francis J.Chambers, James Chambers, Robert D.Chambers, Michel Champagne*, James K.Chapman, John D.Chapman, Louis Charbonneau, Murray Norman Charlton, L.Margaret Chartrand, Luc chatrand, Rene Chartrand, Brian D.E.Chatterton, Michael Vincent Cheff, Walter I.Childers, Peter D.Chimbos, Alexander J.Chisholm, Robert Choquette, Catherine D.Chorniawy, Timothy J.Christian, William E.Christian, Carl A.Christie, G.L.Christie, Innis Christie, B.Bert Chubey, Charles Stephen Churcher*, Janet Chute, S.Donald C.Chutter, Jacques Cinq-Mars, V.Claerhout*, John J.Clague, Michael Thomas Clandinin, A.McFadyen Clark, Howard C.Clark, Lovell C.Clark*, Paraskeva Clark, Robert H.Clark, T.Alan Clark, Thomas H.Clark, R.Allyn Clarke*, Stephen Clarkson, Wallace Clement, Nathalie Clerk*, Norman Clermont, Yves W.Clermont, Howard Clifford, Richard T.Clippingdae*, W.J.Clouston, Nicole Cloutier, Gigi Clowes, Brian W.Coad, John P.Coakley, Donna Coates, Bente Roed Cochran, J.P.Cockburn, James Cockburn, William James Cody*, Dale R.Cogswell, Fred Cogswell, Stanley A.Cohen, Susan G.Cole, Patricia H.Coleman, Elizabeth Collard, Malcolm M.C.Collins, John Robert Colombo*, Alex Colville, Charles Comfort, Odette Condemine, M.Patricia Connelly, James T.H.Connor, Leonard W.Conolly, Robert J.Conover*, Margaret Conrad, A.Brandon Conron, Brian E.Conway, F.Graham Cooch, Eung-Do Cook, Francis R.Cook, Owen Cook, Kenyon Cooke, O.A.Cooke*, David Cooper, Gordon William Cope, Pierre Corbeil, Frank Corcoran, J.Clement Cormier, Peter McCaul Cornell, Vincenzo Coronelli, Frank Cosentino*, Ronald L.Cosper, Jacques Cotnam, Robert T.Coupland, Thomas J.Courchene, John J.Courtney, John J.Cove, Jeff G.Cowan, Harold G.Coward, Bruce Cox, Diane Wilson Cox, Michael F.Crabb*, Laurence Harold Cragg, Mary M.Craig*, Terrence L.Craig, Ian K.Crain, Brian A.Crane, David Crane, John L.Cranmer-Byng, Donald A.Cranstone, David L.Craven, Roy D.Crawford, Tim Creery, Philippe Crine, Harold Crookell, John Crosby*, Michael S.Cross, Diane Crossley, E.J.Crossman, Omer Croteau, A.David Crowe, Keith Jeffray Crowe, David M.Cruden, David A.Cruickshank, Paul E.Crunican, Rudolf P.Cujes, Maurice Cullen, Carman W.Cumming, Leslie Merrill Cumming, Philip J.Currie, Raymond F.Currie, Walter A.Curtin*, Christopher G.Curtis*, James E.Curtis, Leonard J.Cusack, Maurice Cutler, Jerome S.Cybulski, Joachim B.Czypionka, Anne Innis Dagg, Lorraine G.D'Agincourt*, Edward H.Dahl, Hallvard Dahlie, Moshie E.Dahms, Hugh Monro Dale, Ralph Dale, John H.Dales, Micheline D'Allaire, F.Dally, D.Daly, Eric W.Daly, Pierre Dansereau, Ruth Danys, Regna Darnell, Hugh A.Daubeny, Paul Davenport, Gilbert David, Helene David, Peter P.David, William A.B.Davidson, Adriana A.Davies, Gwendolyn Davies, Jim Davies, John A.Davies, R.K.S.Davies, Thomas Davies, Ann Davis, Chuck Davis, Richard C.Davis, Michael J.Dawe, John M.Day, Lawrence Day, Barbara K.Deans, P.Dearden, Chris DeBresson, Theod De Bry, Malcolm Graeme Decarie, Samuel De Champlain*, Bart F.Deeg*, Ronald K.Deeprose, James DeFelice, C.G.Van Zyll De Jong, Nicolas J.De Jong*, J.De Lavoye, Vincent M.Del Buono, Guillaume Delisle, L.Denis Delorme, Hugh A.Dempsey*, L.James Dempsey, A.A.Den Otter, Dora De Pedery-Hunt, Honor De Pencier, D.De Richeterre, Jacques F.Derome, Duncan R.Derry, Ramsay Derry, Peter Desbarats, Pierre Desceliers, Donald Deschenes, Jean-Luc DesGranges, Andree Desilets*, Yvon Desloges, Gerald L.De Sorcy, Marquis De Tracy, John DeVisser*, Lyle Dick, Lloyd Merlin Dickie, John A.Dickinson, W.Trevor Dickinson, Nigel Dickson, Larry Dillon, Milan V.Dimic, Gerard Dion, Rene Dion, Gerald E.Dirks, Patricia G.Dirks, Richard J.Diubaldo, Murray Dobbin, Mike Dobel, A.Rodney Dobell, Diane Dodd, Donald Andrew Dodman, Audrey D.Doerr, Allen Doiron, Claude Ernest Dolman, Louise Dompierre, Mairi Donaldson, Sue Ann Donaldson, Mark A.Donelan(?), Margaret Mary Donnelly, John Donner, Andre Donneur, Penelope B.R.Doob*, Peter K.Doody, Joyce Doolittle, Anthony H.J.Dorsey, Gilles Dorian, Lydia Dotto, Roger A.Doucet, Leonard A.Doucette, Charles Dougall, Jane L.Dougan, Charles Douglas, W.A.B.Douglas*, William F.Dowbiggin, R.Keith Downey, Arthur T.Doyle*, Denzil J.Doyle, Richard J.Doyle, Pierre Doyon, Sharon Drache, Derek C.Drager, Wilhelmina M.Drake, D.W.Draper, James A.Draper, Nandor Fred Dreisziger, Kenneth F.Drinkwater, Bernadette Driscoll, Jean-Pierre Drolet, Glenn Drover, Ian M.Drummond*, R.Norman Drummond, Jean E.Dryden, Patrick D.Drysdale, Jean-Marie M.Dubois*, James R.Dubro, Leo Ducharme, Raymond Duchesne*, Francois Duchesneau, Jean-Marcel Duciaume, Madeleine Ducroq-Poirier, J.Dennis Duffy*, M.R.Dufresne, Walter W.Duley, Gaston Dulong, Micheline Dumont, Max J.Dunbar, Graham W.Duncan, Leonard Duncan, Neil J.Duncan, Marilyn E.Dunlop, A.Davidson Dunton, Jean R.Duperreault, Jean-Claude Dupont, Rene Durocher, Gabriel Dussault, Noel Dyck, Charles C.Dyer, James G.Dykes, John A.Eagle*, Peter R.Eakins, Ross Eaman, Harry C.Eastman, Dorothy Harley Eber, William John Eccles*, Christine Eddie, E.V.Eddie, Charles Edenshaw, Morris Edwards, Oliver Edward Edwards, Peggy Edwards, Roger B.Ehrhardt, Margrit Eichler, Neil Einarson, Wilfred L.Eisnor, R.Bruce Elder, Jean Elford, Peter Douglas Elias, C.W.J.Eliot, David R.Elliott, James A.Elliott, Kosso Eloul, John A.Elson, George Emery, Donald W.Emmerson, Douglas B.Emmons, Maurice Emond, William F.Empey, John R.English*, Murray W.Enkin, Philip C.Enros, Frank H.Epp, Robert Bruce Erb, Arthur Erickson, Anthony J.Erskine, Sorel Etrog, Brian L.Evans*, David Evans*, James Evans, John Evans, Ivan Kenneth Eyre, Joe Fafard, Curtis Fahey, Valerie J.Fall, A.Murray Fallis, Peter V.Fankboner, D.M.L.Farr*, Dorothy M.Farr, Fred Farrell*, Alison Feder, Sergey Fedoroff, Margery Fee, Kevin O'Brien Fehr, William Feindel, Seth R.Feldman, Donald Fenna, William O.Fennell, M.Brock Fenton, Terry L.Fenton, Bob L.Ferguson*, Howard L.Ferguson, Mary W.Ferguson*, Jean Ferron, Doug Fetherling*, George Field, John L.Field, Richard Henning Field, Leonard M.Findlay, Howard R.Fink, Maxwell Finklestein, Douglas A.Finlayson*, Gerard Finn, Douglas J.Fisher, Richard S.Fisher, Robin Fisher, Stan C.Fisher, John Walter Fitsell, Lionel LeMoine FitzGerald, Patrick J.Fitzgerald, Tim Fitzharris*, David J.Flaherty, Thomas Flanagan, R.B.Fleming, Sandford Fleming, Marilyn G.Flitton, Halle Flygare*, David G.Fong*, Maxwell L.Foran, Ernest R.Forbes*, R.E.Forbes, William B.Forbes, Richard G.Forbis, Dennis P.Forcese, Anne Rochon Ford, Clifford Ford, Derek C.Ford, Gillian Ford, Susan Ford, Bertrand Forest, Ronald W.Forrester, Warren D.Forrester, Eugene Alfred Forsey*, Frank R.Forsyth, Peter A.Forsyth, Claire-Andree Fortin, Gerald Fortin, Charles N.Forward, William F.Forward, Brian F.Foss, Franklin L.Foster, J.Bristol Foster, John E.Foster*, Michael K.Foster, Glenn B.Foulds, Nancy Brown Foulds, Edith M.Fowke, Marian Fowler, Charlie Fox, Paul W.Fox, Richard C.Fox, Daniel Francis*, Diane Francis, David Frank*, Julius F.Frank*, Colin Athel Franklin, C.E.S.Franks*, David Fransen, Robert T.Franson, Arman Frappier(?), Jorge Frascara, John A.Fraser, Kathleen D.J.Fraser, Robert Lochiel Fraser*, Pierre Frechette, Howard Townley Fredeen, Benjamin Freedman, Gordon Russel Freeman, Mac Freeman, Milton M.R.Freeman, Minnie Aodla Freeman, Roger D.Freeman, Walter H.P.Freitag, Carey French, Hugh M.French, James S.Frideres, Gerald Friesen, James D.Friesen, Stanley Brice Frost, Adam G.Fuerstenberg, Robert Fulford, Anthony M.Fuller, George R.Fuller, Thomas Fuller, William A.Fuller, Douglas H.Fullerton, Ian F.Furniss, Richard W.Fyfe*, William S.Fyfe, Rene Robert Gadacz*, Chad Gaffield, David P.Gagan, Michel Gagne, Francois-Marc Gagnon*, Victor Gaizauskas, Claude Galarneau, Peggy Gale, Gerald L.Gall*, Daniel T.Gallacher, Paul Gallagher, Strome Galloway, Natarajan Ganapathy, Herman Ganzevoort, David E.Gardner*, Eve Gardner, Norman Gardner, Ron Gardner, Christopher J.R.Garrett, John F.Garrett, Jane Gaskell, Lise Gauvin, M.J.Gauvin, Hugh J.Gayler, Douglas A.Geekie, John Grigsby Geiger*, Valerius Geist*, John Gellner, Paul Gendreau, Ghislain Gendron, M.V.George, Joseph F.Gerrath(?), Julia Gersovitz, Trisha Gessler, Ian A.L.Getty, Elmer N.Ghostkeeper(?), Jacques R.Giard, Sandra Gibb, Kenneth M.Gibbons, Graeme Gibson, Lee Gibson, William C.Gibson, Perry James Giffen, Elizabeth Hollingsworth Gignac, Richard Giguere, C.W.Gilchrist, J.N.Giles, John Patrick Gillese, Beryl C.Gillespie, Bill Gillespie, John M.Gillett, Margaret Gillett, Geraldine Gilliss, Alan M.Gillmor, Cedric Gillot, J.C.Gilson, Yves Gingras*, Andre Girouard, J.Gleadah, Burton Glendenning, Michael Gnarowski, David J.Goa, Barbara Godard, Ensley A.Godby, W.Earl Godfrey*, William G.Godfrey, R.Bruce Godwin(?), Cy Gonick, Cecilia A.Gonzales, Bryan N.S.Gooch, S.James Gooding, Jerry Goodis, John T.Goodman, R.G.Goold, Arthur S.Goos, Paul A.Goranson, Anne Gordon, Donald C.Gordon, Walter L.Gordon, Deborah Gorham, Harriet R.Gorham, Stanley W.Gorham, Calvin Carl Gotlieb, Daniel H.Gottesman, Barry Morton Gough, Joseph B.Gough, Judy Gouin*, Allan M.Gould*, Henri Goulet, Benoit-Beaudry Gourd*, James Iain Gow, Alan Gowans, J.Wesley Graham, Jane E.Graham, John F.Graham, Katherine A.Graham, Roger Graham, E.H.Grainger, J.L.Granatstein*, Alix Granger, Luc Granger, John A.G.Grant, John Webster Grant, Peter Grant*, Ted Grant, Carolyn Elizabeth Gray, David Robert Gray, Earle Gray*, G.Ronald Gray, James T.Gray, D'Arcy M.Greaves, Harold V.Green, J.Paul Green, Janet Green, Leslie C.Green*, Melvyn Green, Richard Green*, Reesa Greenberg, John P.Greene, Thomas B.Greenfield(?), Brereton Greenhous*, Cyril Greenland, John Edward Ross Greenshields, Allan Greer, Patrick T.Gregory, Robert W.Gregory, Julius H.Grey, Norman T.Gridgeman*, Foster J.K.Griezic, Herbert L.Griffin, John D.M.Griffin, Anthony J.F.Griffiths, Barry Griffiths, Graham C.D.Griffiths, Naomi E.S.Griffiths, Sergio Grinstein, Jack W.Grove, Patrick D.Gruber, Hans E.Gruen, Dennis Guest*, Hal J.Guest*, Arman Guilmette, Bernadette Guilmette, H.Pearson Gundy, Kristjana Gunnars, S.W.Gunner, Harry Emmet Gunning, Allan Guy, Julian Gwyn, Richard J.Gwyn, Peter P.Haanappel, Erich Haber, Carlotta Hacker, Jim Hackler, Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Keith D.Hage, H.Haig, G.Brenton Haliburton, David J.Hall*, Frederick A.Hall*, Jim Hall, John W.Hall, Roger Hall, Mary E.Hallett, Hugh A.Halliday, Ian Halliday, Mary Halloran, Gerald Hallowell, Beryl M.Hallworth*, Francess G.Halpenny, Marjorie M.Halpin, V.Carl Hamacher, Louis-Edmond Hamelin, Donald G.Hamilton, Sally A.Hamilton, William B.Hamilton, Brent M.Hamre, Geoffrey Hancock, Lyn Hancock*, Piers Handling*, James Hanrahan, Asbjorn T.Hansen, John D.Harbron, Peter Harcourt, David F.Hardwick, Jean-Pierre Hardy, Rene Hardy, F.Kenneth Hare, Clara Hargittay, J.Anthony Hargreaves, Alex M.Harper, J.Russell Harper*, Richard Harrington*, Cole Harris, G.J.Harris, Lawren Harris, Peter Harris, R.Cole Harris, Robert Harris, Stephen Harris*, Stuart A.Harris, Lionel G.Harrison, Peter J.Harte, Al Harvey, David J.Harvey, Fred J.Hatch, Wilbert O.Haufe, Jo Hauser, Ronald G.Haycock*, Michael Hayden, Florence C.Hayes, David M.Hayne*, Robert H.Haynes, Carol Hayter, Henry F.Heald, Trevor D.Heaver, Richard J.Hebda, Gerard Hebert, C.D.Heidenreich, Conrad E.Heidenreich, Frederick M.Helleiner, Rudolph A.Helling, June Helm, Bruce S.Heming, Odile Henault, William B.Henderson, Tom Hendry, E.Henn, Ralph L.Hennessy, Jacques Henripin, Michael M.Henry, Yude M.Henteleff, Frank Alec Herbert, George Heriot, Alex W.Herman, Craig Heron*, Don J.Herperger, Stephen M.Herrero, Ingo Hessel, Phillip Hewett, Irving Hexham, Benedykt Heydenkorn, Edward S.Hickcox, Michael Hickman, Donald Higgins, David Higgs, Walter Hildebrandt, Charles Christie Hill, Harry M.Hill, Stanley Hill, Tom Hill, James K.Hiller*, Anne Trowell Hillmer*, Norman Hillmer*, W.G.R.Hind, Ole Hindsgaul, Sherman Hines, Akira Hirose, Carolyn Hlus, Helen Hobbs, R.Gerald Hobbs, James Hockings, John Edwin Hodgetts*, Bruce W.Hodgins, J.W.Hodgins, Judith F.M.Hoeniger, J.J.Hogan*, Helen Sawyer Hogg, Gerald Holdsworth, H.T.Holman, C.Janet Holmes, Jeffrey Holmes, John W.Holmes, Eric J.Holmgren*, Alvin George Hong, Frances Ann Hopkins, Robin Hopper, Peter Hopwood, Michiel Horn, Alan S.Hourston, C.Stuat Houston*, James Houston, Ross K.Howard, Victor M.Howard, Colin D.Howell, Julie O.Hrapko, Raymond Hudon, Douglas R.Hudson, Raymond J.A.Huel, Fred Huffman, Richard David Hughes, Elizabeth Hulse, William Humber*, Stephen Hume, Monte Hummel, Jack Humphrey, Charles W.Humphries, Edward William Humphrys, [--?--] Hunsberger, Geoffrey Hunt, John R.Hunter, Tony Hunt, Kenneth E.Hunter, Mel Hurtig, Mervyn J.Huston, Linda Hutcheon, Gerald M.Hutchinson, Roger C.Hutchinson, Richard J.Huyda, A.M.J.Hyatt, Doreen Marie Indra, Elizabeth Ingolfsrud, Avrom Isaacs, Colin F.W.Isaacs, Bill Ivy, David Jackel, Susan Jackel*, Sydney W.Jackman, A.Y.Jackson, Bernard S.Jackson, Graham Jackson, Harold Jackson, John D.Jackson, John James Jackson, John N.Jackson, Lionel E.Jackson, Robert J.Jackson, Roger C.Jackson, Stephen O.Jackson, Peter Jacob, Ronny Jacques, Cornelius J.Jaenen*, Donna James, Ellen S.James, Ross D.James*, Sheilagh S.Jameson, Stuart M.Jamieson, Hudson N.Janisch, Christian T.L.Janssen, Lorraine L.Janus, Richard A.Jarrell, Marguerite Jean, Alan H.Jeeves, T.Jefferys, Robert Jekyll, Michael Jenkin, Phyllis Marie Jensen, Vickie D.Jensen, Jane Jenson, L.Martin Jerry, Alan M.Jessop, Dean Jobb, Louis Jobin, Jan C.Jofriet(?), Peter Johansen, Timothy Johns, Walter H.Johns, J.K.Johnson, Peter Wade Johnson, Alfred G.Johnston, C.Fred Johnston, Charles M.Johnston, Frances E.M.Johnston, Frank Johnston, Hugh Johnston, Patricia C.Johnston, Richard Johnston, W.Stafford Johnston, William Johnston, Brian Jones, David Phillip Jones, Elwood Hugh Jones, Gaynor G.Jones, Laura Jones, Richard A.Jones*, Alan V.Jopling*, Colin Jose, Neal R.Jotham, Walter Jungkind, Richard Kadulski, Joseph Kage, A.A.Kahil, Patricia Kaiser, Warren E.Kalbach, Henry Kalen, Stephan Felix Kaliski, Helmut Kallman*, Karen Dazelle Kallweit*, Harold D.Kalman*, Paul Kane*, George Kapelos, Martha Kaplan, William Edward Kaplan, Isabel Kaprielian, Urjo Kareda, Malak Karsh, Yousuf Karsh, Peter Karsten, Elinor Mary Kartzmark, Naim Kattan, Martin L.Kaufmann, Leslie S.Kawamura, Gregory S.Kealey*, David R.Keane, King S.Kearns, Michael J.Keen, David L.Keenlyside, Elaine Keillor, W.J.Keith, William Stirling Keizer*, Frances C.Kelley, Louis Gerard Kelly, David D.Kemp, Walter H.Kemp, Kay Kendall, John Edward Kendle, Dorothy Kennedy*, J.E.Kennedy, John L.Kennedy*, Elizabeth H.Kennell, John A.C.Kentfield, John P.B.Kenyon, Walter A.Kenyon, Kenneth Kernaghan, Lois Kathleen Kernaghan*, Adam J.Kerr, Gordon R.Kerr, Robert B.Kerr, Stephen R.Kerr, Paula Kestelman, Jean-Pierre Kesteman, Wilfred H.Kesterton, Keith S.Ketchen, Douglas Keith McEwan Kevan*, Peter G.Kevan(?), J.E.Michael Kew, John Keyes, Bruce Kidd, Thomas W.Kierans, Gerald Killan, M.G.Kingshott, Ray A.Kingsmith, Stanislav J.Kirschbaum, John James Kirton, Walter Klaassen, Murray S.Klamkin, Lewis N.Klar, Stanley Klenganberg, Harold R.Klinck, Robert B.Klymasz, Richard W.Knapton*, Judith Knelman, Alan R.Knight, David B.Knight, Robert Hugh Knowles, Brian M.Knudsen, Franz M.Koennecke, Wray E.Koepke, Lilly Koltun, Paul M.Koroscil, J.Anthony Koslow, Myrna Anne Kostash, Tony Kot, Vladimir J.Krajina, Kate Kranck, Stephen J.Kraseman, Cheryl Krasnick(?), Peter V.Krats, J.A.Kraulis*, Charles J.Krebs, F.Henry Krenz, Cornelius Krieghoff, Andrea Kristof, Jerg Kroener, Martin Krossel, Larry L.Kulisek, Walter O.Kupsch, William Kurelek, Eva M.Kushner, Ernie Kuyt*, David Kwavnick, C.Ian Kyar, Micheline Labelle, Danielle Laberge, Michele Lacombe*, [--?--] La Cosa, Estelle Lacoursiere*, Laurier Lacroix, Michel Laferriere, Guy Lafrance, William G.Laidlaw, Mabel H.Laine*, Dennis Laing, Gertrude M.Laing, Claude Lajeunesse, G.-Raymond Laliberte, Andre N.Lalonde, W.Kaye Lamb*, Geoffrey Lambert, James H.Lambert*, George E.Lammers, Yvan Lamonde, Peter Lancaster, R.Brian Land, Pierre Landreville, E.David Lane*, Robert B.Lane, Robert P.Langlands, Wayne Lankinen*, Robert Lansdale, Karlis O.Lapin, Pierre-Louis Lapointe, Eleanor R.Laquian, Peter Anthony Larkin, Jean B.D.Larmour, Emma D.LaRocque, Andre Larose, Serge Larose, Jeanette Larouche, Edward N.Larter, Pierre LaSalle, Daniel Latouche*, Viviane F.Launay, Gerard Laurence, Karen Laurence, Marc Laurendeau, Michael Lauzon, Omer Lavallee, Kathleen Laverty*, Kenneth R.Lavery, Marie Lavigne, Patricia Johnston Lavigueur(?), Leslie M.Lavkulich, Michel Lavoie*, Paul Lavoie, Pierre Lavoie, Charles Law, Don G.Law-West, Jim Laxer, Arleigh H.Laycock, David H.Laycock, Richard E.C.Layne, Marvin Lazerson, Fred Lebensold, Hugues LeBlanc, Charles P.Leblond, Paul H.LeBlond, Sylvio LeBlond, Antonio Lechasseur*, Donald J.Lecraw, Johanne Ledoux, Fernand Leduc, Laurence LeDuc, Rene Leduc-Park, David Lee, John Alan Lee, Robin Leech, John G.Leefe, Joseph Legare, Camille Legendre, Russel D.Legge, Robert F.Legget*, Doug Leighton, Jean M.Leiper, Michel Lemaire, Jean-Paul Lemay, Pierre H.Lemieux, Raymond U.Lemieux, Vincent Lemieux, Guy Lemire, Maurice Lemire, Robert Lemire, Robert E.Lemon(?), Dorothy A.Lenarsic, Jos L.Lennards, Frank Lennon, Yvan G.Lepage, Donald J.Le Roy, Rodney L.LeRoy, Peter M.Leslie, M.Claude Lessard, Carol Anne Letheren, Trevor H.Levere, Malcolm Levin, Allan E.Levine, Gilbert Levine, Joseph Levitt, Brian S.Lewis, John B.Lewis, Joyce C.Lewis, Laurie Lewis, Elliott H.Leyton, James W.Lightbody, Norman R.Lightfoot, Jack N.Lightstone, Gary M.Lindberg, Ernest Lindner, Evert E.Lindquist*, Peter L.Lindsay, Joseph D.Lindsey, Paul-Andre Linteau, Mary Jane Lipkin, Arthur Lismer, Marilyn Lister, Rota Herzberg Lister*, John W.Y.Lit, Moe M.Litman, Donna Livingstone, Douglas G.Lochhead, Carl J.Lochnan*, Anthony R.Lock, Jack L.Locke, Gulbrand Loken, D.Edwards Loney, Kathleen Lord, James Lorimer, Frances Loring, Marcel Lortie, Arthur Loughton, Laurence Dale Lovick, Raymond Nicholson Lowes, Peter J.M.Lown, W.Mark Lowry, Edward P.Lozowski*, Frere Luc, D.Paul Lumsden, Harry G.Lumsden, Ian Gordon Lumsden, John Lund, Gar Lunney, Mandy R.Lupul, Real Lussier, John M.Lyle, John Goodwin Lyman, Gerald Lynch, Deborah Maryth Lyon*, G.F.Lyon, William I.Macadam, J.Malcolm Macartney, Terence Macartney-Filgate, Hugh MacCallum, Cathy Macdonald, G.Edward MacDonald, Heather MacDonald*, J.E.H.MacDonald, Les MacDonald, Martha MacDonald, R.H.Macdonald, Roderick A.Macdonald, Stewart D.MacDonald, Valerie Isabel Macdonald, April J.MacDougall, Heather MacDougall, Laurel Sefton MacDowell*, Thomas F.Mace, Grant MacEwan, Royce MacGillivray, James G.MacGregor, Joseph B.MacInnis, Tessa macIntosh, David Clark MacKenzie, Heather M.Mackenzie, Robert C.MacKenzie, Ross G.MacKenzie, William C.MacKenzie, George O.Mackie, C.S.Mackinnon, Frank MacKinnon, William R.MacKinnon, Bruce B.MacLachlan, Roy MacLaren, Raymond A.MacLean, Kenneth Ogilvie MacLeod, Malcolm MacLeod, Pegi Nicol MacLeod, Roderick C.Macleod, Carrie H.MacMillan, Keith MacMillan, Andrew H.Macpherson, Duncan Macpherson, Ian MacPherson*, Kay Macpherson, Roger W.Macqueen, Donald A.MacRae, Anthony A.Magnin, Warren Magnuson, Gilles-D.Mailhiot, Laurent Mailhot*, Pierre Mailhot*, J.S.Maini, Lise Maisonneuve, Jean-Louis Major(?), Robert Major, Peter Malkin, David Malloch, Cedric R.Mann, Kenneth H.Mann, Martha Mann, J.R.Marchand, Anthony Mardiros, Michel Marengere, Leo Margolis, Salomon Marion, Philip De Lacey Markham, William E.Markham, James H.Marsh*, John S.Marsh*, J.Stewart Marshall, Victor W.Marshall, J.Douglas Martin, Jean-Claude Martin, John E.H.Martin, Sandra Martin, Andre Martineau(?), May Maskow, Allan M.Maslove, Donald C.Masters, Perry Mastrovito, John Ross Matheson, William A.Matheson, R.D.Mathews, Robin Mathews, William G.Mathewson, Thomas Mathien*, John R.Mathieson, Jacques Mathieu*, Keith Matthews, John S.Matthiasson, David Mattison, Mary McDougall Maude*, Jean Mauger, Christopher J.Maule, Alfred R.Maurer, Jean Mauvide, Valerie J.May, Valerie L.May, John Maybank*, Paul F.Maycock, Jack Maze, R.Ann McAfee, Don E.McAllister, William J.McAndrew, D.S.McBean, W.A.E.McBryde, Christina McCall, Douglas McCalla, Margaret Elizabeth McCallum, Lawrence D.McCann*, S.B.McCann, Bennett McCardle*, Peter J.McCart, Michael J.McCarthy, Catharine McClellan, P.McCloskey, W.H.McConnell, A.Ross McCormack, Jane McCracken, Harvey A.McCue, James A.W.McCulloch, A.B.McCullough, Michael McDonald, Allan K.McDougall, Anne McDougall*, John N.McDougall, Robert L.McDougall, Duncan McDowall, Alec C.McEwen, Freeman L.McEwen, K.D.McFadden, Jean McFall, Pat McFarlane(?), Tom McFeat, Elizabeth W.McGahan, Harold Franklin McGee Jr., Timothy J.McGee, Robert McGhee*, William B.McGill(?), Donald G.McGillivray, Roderick Alan McGinn, Janice Dickin McGinnis*, Pauline McGregor, Eric McGuinness, Dave McIntosh, W.John McIntyre, Alexander G.McKay, Gordon A.McKay, J.Alex McKeague, John McKee, Ruth McKendry, Barbara A.McKenna, Brian McKenna, Ruth McKenzie, Rita McKeough, A.Brian McKillop*, J.McLachlan, Angus McLaren, Ian A.McLaren, K.M.McLaughlin, Kenneth McLaughlin, Catherine M.McLay, A.Anne McLellan, Cam McLeod(?), Elizabeth McLuhan, Gerald R.McMaster, Barclay McMillan*, Donald Burley McMillan, Michael McMordie*, Lorraine McMullen*, Stanley E.McMullin, William C.McMurray, Debra A.McNabb*, Anne McNamara, Kenneth McNaught, Tom McNeely*, Martin K.McNicholl*, Jean McNulty, Hugo A.McPherson, Sandra F.McRae, King G.McShane*, Ian McTaggart-Cowan*, Peter B.E.McVetty, Ian R.McWhinney, Stanley R.Mealing*, Sheva Medjuck, John Medley, Harry Medovy, Sharon P.Meen, Benoit Melancon, William H.Melody*, James R.Melvin, Philip E.Merilees, Jim Merrithew*, Ann Messenger, George Metcalf, David R.Metcalfe, Janis John Mezaks, T.H.Glynn Michael, Jacques Michon, F.W.Micklethwaite, Tom Middlebro', Ivan Mihaychuk, James Francis Verchere Millar, A.J.Miller, Carman Miller*, Elizabeth Russell Miller, J.R.Miller, John A.Miller, Judith N.Miller, Mark Miller*, Mary Jane Miller, Orlo Miller, Leslie Millin, Peter B.Millman, Thomas R.Millman, Charles A.Mills, Dave Mills, David Mills*, Eric L.Mills, Isabel Margaret Mills, Trevor Mills, Brian Milne, David Milne, David A.Milne*, William J.Milne, Marc Milner, David G.Milton, Janice Milton, Gordon Minnes, Dale Miquelon*, Edward D.Mitchell*, Ken R.Mitchell, Lillian Mitchell, Wendy L.Mitchinson, Johann W.Mohr, John S.Moir*, George Dempster Molnar, Patrick M.Moncrieff, Jacques Monet*, Ian Montagnes, D.Wayne Moodie, Susanna Moodie, Barry M.Moody, Peter N.Moogk*, Kathleen A.Mooney, Christopher Moore, James G.G.Moore, Keith L.Moore, Teresa Moore, Andrew J.Moriarty, E.Alan Morinis, Pierre Morisset, Yves-Marie Morissette, Raymond Moriyama, Richard E.Morlan, J.Terence Morley*, Patricia A.Morley, T.J.Morley, J.W.Morrice, Cerise Morris, Peter Morris*, David A.Morrison, Jack W.Morrison, Jean Morrison*, Kenneth L.Morrison*, Rod Morrison, W.Douglas Morrison, William R.Morrison*, Norval Morrisseau, Don Morrow, Pat Morrow*, Desmond Morton*, John K.Morton, Allan Moscovitch, John Moss, Mary Jane Mossman, Roger Motut, Farley Mowat, Susanne Mowat, David S.Moyer, R.Gordon Moyles, Maria Muehlen, R.D.Muir, Del A.Muise, Francis C.Muldoon, Robert M.Mummery, Mohiudden Munawar, R.E.Munn, J.Ian Munro, Sean Murphy, Joan Murray*, Robert G.E.Murray, Brian T.P.Mutimer, Luba Mycio, John Myles, Robert Nadeau, Vincent Nadeau, Josephine C.Naidoo, George Nakash, Agnes Nanogak, A.Nantel, Roald Nasgaard, Roger P.Nason, Susan M.Nattrass, Francis P.D.Navin, Margaret Neal, Peter Neary, H.Blair Neatby, Leslie H.Neatby*, Edwin H.Neave, A.W.H.Needler, George T.Needler, James M.Neelin, Robert F.Neill, H.Vivian Nelles, Joseph S.Nelson, Pierre Nepveu*, David N.Nettleship*, Edward Peter Neufeld, Ronald W.Newfeldt, Shirley Neuman, William H.New, Michael J.Newark*, Dianne Newell, David L.Newlands, Peter C.Newman, Roy Nicholls, Norman L.Nicholson*, John S.Nicks, Murray William Nicolson, N.Ole Nielsen, Jorge E.Niosi*, Thomas Nisbet, Lawrence C.Nkendirim, William C.Noble, Ib L.Nonnecke, Kenneth H.Norrie, William Notman*, Barbara Novak*, J.Ralph Nursall, V.Walter Nuttall*, Allan O'Brien, John O'Brien, Lucius O'Brien, Serge Occhietti*, Shane O'Dea, Daphne Odjig, Ronald K.O'Dor, [--?--] Odesse, Jillian M.Officer*, Will Ogilvie, James A.Ogilvy*, Jean O'Grady, Timothy R.Oke, Kim Patrick O'Leary, R.V.Oleson, W.J.Oliver, Patrick B.O'Neill, Mario Onyszchuk, Robert R.Orford, Mark M.Orkin, Lionel Orlikow, Margaret A.Ormsby, Brian Stuart Osborne, Fernand Ouellet, Henri Ouellet, Real Ouellet, John N.Owens*, Doug R.Owram, Charles Pachter, John G.Packer(?), Donald M.Page, Garnet T.Page, James E.Page, Malcolm Page, Lee Paikin*, Sandra Paikowsky*, Howard Pain, Michael F.Painter, Jean Palardy, Murray S.Palay, Bryan D.Palmer, Howard Palmer, Tamara Jeppson Palmer, Khayyam Zev Paltiel, Leo Panitch, Frits Pannekoek*, Gerald Ernest Panting, Jean-Marc Paradis, Jean Pariseau*, Seth Park, George L.Parker, Graham E.Parker, Tom W.Parkin*, Timothy R.Parkins, [Joy?] Parr, Keith Parry, John Parsons, Ralph T.Pastore, Thomas H.Patching, Donald G.Paterson, Peter Paterson, W.Stan B.Paterson, Mariko Patrie*, E.P.Patterson, Freeman Patterson, G.James Patterson, Diane Paulette Payment, John G.Peacey*, Gordon B.Peacock, Frank A.Peake, Jane H.Pease, William H.Pease, Diana Pedersen, Susan Pedwell, Bruce Peel, Frank W.Peers, Alfred Pellan, Gerard Pelletier, Jacques Pelletier, Rejean Pelletier, W.Richard Peltier, Terence Penelhum, Norman Penner, M.James Penton*, Michael B.Percy, William T.Perks*, R.I.Perla, Trivedi V.N.Persaud, Erik J.Peters*, Robert Henry Peters, Jean Peterson, Jeannie Peterson, R.L.Peterson, Thomas E.Peterson, Jaroslav Petryshyn, Louis-Philippe Phaneuf, P.P.Phelan(?), Edward Phelps, Carol A.Phillips, David W.Phillips, Paul Phillips*, Roy A.Phillips*, Ruth Bliss Phillips, Truman P.Phillips, Ronald J.C.Phillipson*, Fred Phipps, Ellen I.Picard, Victor Piche, George L.Pickard, Richard A.Pierce, Claudine Pierre-Deschenes*, Ruth Roach Pierson, Juri Pill, Mike Pinder, K.A.Pirozynski, David G.Pitt, Janet E.M.Pitt*, Robert D.Pitt*, Joseph Pivato, Antoine Plamondon, Rejean Plamondon, Richard L.Plant, Jozinus Ploeg, Helene Plouffe*, T.J.Plunkett, Thomas K.Poiker, Mario Polese, H.Pollard, Frank Polnaszek, J.Rick Ponting, Annelies M.Pool*, Kananginak Pootoogook, Carol Ann Pope, Hugh A.Porteous, Arthur Porter, John R.Porter, Marion Porter, Michael Posluns, Bernard Pothier, Gilles Potvin, Gabrielle Poulin, Deborah J.Powell, James V.Powell, Margaret E.Prang, Christopher Pratt, Larry R.Pratt, Mary Pratt, Norman E.P.Pressman, E.Carter Preston, Richard A.Preston*, Richard J.Preston, Hugh Preston-Thomas, John A.Price, Alexander D.Pringle*, Gordon Pritchard*, John Pritchard, John T.A.Proctor, Michel Proulx, Pudlo Pudlat, Garth Charles Pugh, Nancy Pukingrnak, Terrence M.Punch, Eric D.Putt, Zenon W.Pylyshyn(?), Terence H.Qualter, Harvey A.Quamme, D.B.Quayle, Karl-Heinz Raach*, H.Keith Ralston, Victor J.Ramraj, Donald A.Ramsay, Peter G.Ramsden, P.Keith Raney, Toby Rankin, Egon Rapp, John Rasmussen, Mark A.Rasmussen*, Anthony W.Rasporich, Beverly J.Rasporich, George A.Rawlyk, Arthur J.Ray, Alan Rayburn, Gordon Rayner, Ed Rea, J.E.Rea*, John H.Read, Walter Redinger, Gerald Redmond*, Austin Reed, F.Leslie C.Reed, John Reeves, Randall R.Reeves*, Ellen M.Regan, T.D.Regehr*, Alison M.Reid, Bill Reid, David C.Reid, George Agnew Reid, Ian A.Reid, John G.Reid*, M.H.Lefty Reid, Richard Reid, Robert G.B.Reid, J.Nolan Reilly, Sharon Reilly, Henry M.Reiswig, Gil Remillard, A.Jim Rennie, Donald Andrews Rennie, Viljo Revell, Francois Ricard, Pierre Richard, John Richards, William D.Richards, Eric Harvey Richardson, Keith W.Richardson, W.George Richardson, Alex Richman, Roger R.Rickwood, Laurie Ricou, W.Craig Riddell, Peter E.Rider*, Robin Ridington, Walter E.Riedel, Paul W.Riegert*, Bert Riggs, Peter Rindisbacher, J.C.Ritchie, S.Andrew Robb, Jean-Claude Robert*, Lucie Robert, Eugene Roberto, Goodridge Roberts, John S.Roberts(?), William Roberts, Ian Ross Robertson*, J.A.L.Robertson, Raleigh John Robertson, Rejean Robidoux, Denise Robillard, Bart T.Robinson, J.Lewis Robinson*, Sinclair Robinson, Tom W.Robson, Yves Roby, Douglas Roche, Guy Rocher, William Rodney , Russell G.A.Rodrigo, Juan Rodriguez, Robert C.Roeder, Jacob Rogers*, Robert J.Rogerson*, Charles G.Roland, Eugene W.Romaniuk, Joseph R.Romanow(?), Barbara Romanowski, David Rome, George Romney, Keith Ronald, William Ronald, Donna Yavorsky Ronish, Edward Roper, Albert Rose, Phyllis Rose, Earl Rosen(?), Ann C.Rosenberg, Alexander M.Ross, Catherine Sheldrick Ross, David J.Ross, David P.Ross, Henry U.Ross, Gordon Rostoker, Gordon Oliver Rothney, George A.Rothrock, Samuel Rothstein, Abraham Rotstein, Leonard R.Roueche, Jacques Rouillard*, Guildo Rousseau, Henri-Paul Rousseau, Adolphe-Basile Routhier, Marie Routledge, Donald Cameron Rowat, R.Geoffrey Rowberry, Frederick W.Rowe, John Stanley Rowe, Kenneth Rowe, Percy A.Rowe, Gordon G.Rowland, Diana Rowley, Harry C.Rowsell, David J.Roy, Fernande Roy, Patricia E.Roy, Reginald H.Roy*, Kenneth Roy Rozee, Lorne Rubenstein*, Ken Rubin, Leon J.Rubin, Gerald J.Rubio, Mary H.Rubio, David-Thierry Ruddel, Norman J.Ruff, Wilson Ruiz, Norman A.Rukavina, Oliver John Clyve Runnalls, Robert John Rupert, Karl M.Ruppenthal, Roger Rushdy, Dale A.Russell, Hilary Russell, Loris S.Russell*, Peter A.Russell, Victor L.Russell*, Paul Frederick William Rutherford, R.W.Rutherford, Nathaniel W.Rutter, Douglas E.Ryan, James T.Ryan, John Ryan, Shannon Ryan, June M.Ryder, Stanley-Brehaut Ryerson(?), Oiva W.Saarinen, Ann P.Sabina, Nickolay Sabolotny, Moshe Safdie, Eric W.Sager, Marc Saint Hilaire*, Bernard Saint-Jacques, Gaston J.Saint Laurent, B.Saladin-D'Anglure, Arnaud Sales, Jeff Sallot, Liora Salter, Douglas D.Sameoto, G.M.Sanders, Marie E.Sanderson, Margaret J.Sandison, Joan Sangster, [N.B?] Sanson, Joy L.Santink*, Allen Sapp, A.Margaret Sarjeant, William A.S.Sarjeant, Roger Sarty*, David J.Sauchyn, John S.Saul, Pierre Sauriol, Harry Savage, Pierre Savard, D.B.O.Savile, Joel S.Savishinsky, Ronald Savitt, Rodney J.Sawatsky, Ronald G.Sawatsky, Lorne William Sawula, Deborah C.Sawyer*, John T.Saywell, Christopher M.Scarfe, M.H.Scargill, Otto Schaefer, Barbara Ann Schau, Sidney S.Schipper, Peter Schledermann, Benjamin Schlesinger, Wilhelm Schmidt, Nancy Schmitz*, Norbert Schoenauer*, Barbara Schrodt*, A.Karstad Schueler, George A.Schultz, Joan M.Schwartz*, Elizabeth J.Schweizer, Karl W.Schweizer, Charles Schwier, Stephen Scobie*, David S.Scott, Peter J.Scott, Stephen A.Scott, W.Beverly Scott*, Geoffrey G.E.Scudder, Allen Seager*, D.Bruce Sealey, Gary Sealey(?), Spencer G.Sealey, Louis M.Sebert, Harold N.Segall, Martin Segger, Norman Seguin, Alec H.Sehon, H.John Selwoood, Neil A.Semple*, Yoshio Senda, Elinor Senior, Hereward Senior, Robert Allan Serne, John Sewell, Christopher M.Seymour, Patrick D.Seymour, Aqjangajuk Shaa, Doris Shadbolt, Douglas Shadbolt, Ed Shaffer, Fouad E.Shaker, Elizabeth E.Shannon, Bernard J.Shapiro, Frances M.Shaver, Gordon C.Shaw, Joseph W.Shaw, L.Shaw, Murray C.Shaw*, Steve Shaw, Clifford D.Shearing, Carol Sheehan*, Nancy M.Sheehan*, Harry Sheffer, Edward Ottawa Sheffield, Rose Sheinen, Ben-Z.Shek, Jaroslaw W.Shelest, Roy J.Shephard, R.Ronald Sheppard, Robert Sheppard, Ellen Shifrin, Chang-Tai Shih, Rosemary Shipton, Thomas K.Shoyama, William L.H.Shuter, Nicholas Sidor, Arthur Siegel, David P.Silcox, Lennard Sillanpaa, Elaine Leslau Silver man, C.Ross Silversides, Richard Simeon*, Tom Sinclair-Faulkner*, Antoine Sirois, Rebecca Sisler, O.F.G.Sitwell, Alan Edward Skeoch, Grace Skogstad, Peter Slater, Yar Slavutych, H.Olav Slaymaker, William A.Sloan*, D.Scott Slocombe, Charles E.Slonecker, Peter Gerent Sly, Patricia Smart, Andre Smith, Barry L.Smith, Bill Smith, David B.Smith*, David E.Smith, Denis Smith*, Derek G.Smith, Donald A.Smith, Donald B.Smith*, Douglas A.Smith, Frances K.Smith, James G.E.Smith, James N.M.Smith, Kenneth V.Smith, Maurice V.Smith*, Peter C.Smith*, Peter J.Smith, Shirlee Anne Smith, T.Bradbrooke Smith, William Young Smith(?), Joseph Smucker, D.Laureen Snider, Dean R.Snow, Michael Snow, James D.Snowdon, Thomas P.Socknat, Omond M.Solandt, Margaret A.Somerville, Karl Sommerer, James Herbert Soper, John R.Sorfleet, Mary E.Southcott, Jack G.Souther, David A.E.Spalding, Roman Spalek, Stephen A.Speisman, Andrew N.Spencer, Deirdre Spencer, Don Spencer, John F.T.Spencer, John H.Spencer, Douglas O.Spettigue, Godfrey L.Spragge, D.N.Sprague*, William A.Spray, R.A.Sproule, Irene M.Spry, C.P.Stacey, C.R.Stacey, Robert Stacey*, Shirley Stacey, John K.Stager, Ronald J.Stagg, Elvira Stahl, Denis Stairs, Douglas G.Stairs, Robert M.Stamp*, W.T.Stanbury, David M.Stanley, Della M.M.Stanley*, George F.G.Stanley, Laurie C.C.Stanley, Charles R.Stanton, Gail Starr(?), Michael Staveley, Margaret M.Stayner, Gordon W.Stead, James Steele, Taylor A.Steeves, Baldur R.Stefansson, Con Stefurak, Janet R.Stein, Michael B.Stein, Gilbert A.Stelter, Philip C.Stenning, Philip H.R.Stepney*, Howard A.Steppler*, Theodor D.Sterling, H.H.Stern, Peter Stevens, Charlotte Stevenson, Garth Stevenson*, John T.Stevenson, F.Stewart, J.Douglas Stewart, John B.Stewart*, John R.Stewart*, Kenneth W.Stewart, Lillian D.Stewart*, Michael E.Stiles, John R.Stocking, Jennifer Stoddart, Boris Peter Stoicheff, Kay F.Stone, Donald H.Stonehouse, Anna K.Storgaard, Gerald J.Stortz, George Morley Story*, Jon C.Stott, Grant Strate*, Otto P.Strausz, Elwood W.Stringham, Charles Strong*, Veronica Strong-Boag, J.R.Tim Struthers, James Struthers, Richard Stuart, Ross Stuart, Konrad W.Studnicki-Gizbert, Franc Sturino, Peter Stursberg, Richard Stursberg, Brian E.Sullivan, William F.Summers, Ann G.Sunahara, Shan-Ching Sung, Maxwell Sutherland, Neil Sutherland, Sharon L.Sutherland, Stuart R.J.Sutherland*, Maia-Mari Sutnik, David Takayoshi Suzuki, Donald Swainson, Neil A.Swainson, Robert Sward, Alastair Sweeny, George Swinton, William Elgin Swinton, Frances A.Swyripa, T.Sykes, Philippe Sylvain*, Guy Sylvestre, Rodney Symington, E.Leigh Syms, Emoke J.E.Szathmary, Gerald Tailfeathers, James J.Talman, Adrian Tanner, Louis-Paul Tardif(?), Walter Surma Tarnopolsky, Leslie K.Tarr, Sylvie Taschereau, Jeremy B.Tatum, Thomas E.Tausky, C.J.Taylor*, Charles Taylor, Christopher Edward Taylor, J.Garth Taylor, J.Mary Taylor, Jeff Taylor, John H.Taylor, John Leonard Taylor, M.Brook Taylor*, Philip S.Taylor, Roy Lewis Taylor, Sylvia Taylor, William Clyne Taylor, William E.Taylor, Ghassem Tehrani, Robert G.Telewiak, R.John Templin, Brian D.Tennyson, Lorne Tepperman, Joan Terasmae, Yves Tessier, Pierre Theberge, Sharon Thesen*, George J.Thiessen, Stuart A.Thiesson, Marise Thivierge, Nicole Thivierge, Ann W.Thomas, Clara Thomas, Eileen Mitchell Thomas, Gregory Thomas, Morley K.Thomas*, Paul G.Thomas, Andrew Royden Thompson, Dixon A.R.Thompson, John R.Thompson, Teresa Thompson, William Paul Thompson*, Alex J.Thomson, J.Thomson, Malcolm [H?] Thomson, Malcolm M.Thomson, Reginald George Thomson, Stanley Thomson, Tom Thomson, Hugh G.Thorburn, Frederick J.Thorpe*, Catherine M.V.Thuro, John L.Tiedje, Herman Tiessen, Louis C.Tiffany, Seha M.Tinic, Ewen C.D.Todd, James M.Toguri, George S.Tomkins, Vladislav A.Tomovic, Peter M.Toner, Pierre Tousignant, Harold B.Town*, Joan B.Townsend, Richard G.Townsend, Charlotte Townsend-Gault, Anthony A.Travill*, Claire Tremblay*, Gaetan Tremblay, Jean-Yves Tremblay, Marc-Adelard Tremblay*, Pierre Trepanier, Stanley G.Triggs, Susan Mann Trofimenkoff, Harold Troper, Elizabeth A.Trott*, Barry D.Truax, Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Marc J.Trudel, Marcel Trudel, Mark E.H.Trueman, James A.Tuck*, Albert V.Tucker, Jaap J.Tuinman, Verena J.Tunnicliffe, Archie L.W.Tuomi, Allan Tupper, Gael Turnbull, H.E.Turner, Nancy J.Turner*, William J.Turnock, Katherine Tweedie, Christopher D.Tyler, Edward W.Tyrchniewicz, M.C.Urquhart, Auguste Vachon, G.Oliver Vagt, Gail C.Valaskakis, Frank G.Vallee, Marc Vallieres, Andre Vanasse, Rosamond M.Vendenburgh, Robert O.Van Everdingen, Blanche Lemco Van Ginkel, Walter Van Nus, Francoise Van Roey-Roux, Charles E.Van Wagner, Alice Van Wart, Christine Van Zwamen, Christopher Varley*, Frederick Horsman Varley, Joan M.Vastokas, Frederick Vaughan, Edmund W.Vaz, Bill Vazan, Richard Veatch, Michele M.Veeman, Terrence S.Veeman, Arjen Verkaik, Andre Vermeirre, F.A.Verner, Pierre Veronneau*, Claude Vezina, Raymond Vezina, Roger Vick*, Bernard L.Vigod*, Aubrey R.Vincent, Thomas B.Vincent, Kati Vita, Vadim D.Vladykov, Douglas Voice, Nive Voisine*, George M.Volkoff, Michael Vollmer, C.Haehling Von Lanzenauer, Roger D.Voyer, Richard Vroom*, Pamela S.Wachna, Stephen M.Waddams, Susan Wagg, Anton Wagner*, W.A.Waiser, P.B.Waite*, Michael John Wakroft, David B.Walden, Deward E.Walker Jr, James W.St.G.Walker, John P.Walker, Susan Walker, Thomas Walkom, Birgitta Linderoth Wallace, Carl M.Wallace*, Hugh N.Wallace, P.R.Wallace, Jean-Pierre Wallot*, J.A.Walper, Susan Walsh, J.Grant Wanzel*, Norman Ward*, Philip R.Ward, W.Peter Ward, Tracy Ware, John Warkentin, John Anson Warner, A.M.C.Waterman, Janice Waters, Elizabeth Waterston*, Mel Watkins, Homer Watson, Lorne Watson, Robert D.Watt, Ron Watts* Douglas Waugh, Earle H.Waugh, Morris Wayman, Christopher Weait, John C.Weaver, James L.Webb, Anna Weber, Roland Weber, D.B.Webster*, Douglas R.Webster, Gloria Cranmer Webster, Helen R.Webster, William G.Wegenast, Peter H.Weinrich, Robert Stanley Weir, Thomas R.Weir, Merrily Weisbord, G.Vernon Wellburn, John Wells, Harry L.Welsh, Carl J.Wenaas, Leo H.Werner, Douglas Wertheimer, D.V.Chip Weseloh, Benjamin West, J.Thomas West*, Roxroy West, Marla L.Weston, Robert Reginald Whale, Linda D.Whalen, C.F.J.Whebell, John O.Wheeler, Reginald Whitaker, Clinton Oliver White, John White, M.Lillian White, Alan Whitehorn, Leon Whiteson, James R.Whiteway, Gordon Francis Whitmore, Donald R.Whyte, Edgar B.Wickberg, Joyce Wieland, Thomas Wien, Clifford Wiens, Ernest J.Wiggins, Darlene Wight, Betty Wilcox, Frank Shorty Wilcox, Norman J.Wilimovsky, Karen Wilkin*, Bruce William Wilkinson, J.A.Wilkinson*, Robert C.Willey, Al Williams, David Ricardo Williams, Glyndwr Williams, Patricia Lynn Williams*, Richard M.Williams, S.Ridgeley Williams, Sydney B.Williams, M.W.Williams, Mary F.Williamson, Moncrieff Williamson, Christopher J.Willis, Norman M.Willis, Rod Willmot, Frank Wills, Bruce G.Wilson, H.E.Wilson, Ian E.Wilson, J.Donald Wilson, J.Tuzo Wilson, Jean Wilson*, Helmut K.Wimmer, Brent Windwick, Robin W.Winks, Gregory Wirick, Ronald G.Wirick, S.F.Wise, William J.Withrow, Henry Wittenberg, Leonhard S.Wolfe, William C.Wonders, Bernard Wood, George Woodcock*, John Woodruff, M.Emerson Woodruff, Robert James Woods, Glenn T.Wright, Harold E.Wright, J.F.C.Wright, J.V.Wright, Janet Wright*, Kenneth O.Wright, Roy A.Wright*, Paul Wyczynski, Jan Wyers, Max Wyman, Graeme Wynn, Leo Yaffe, Maxwell F.Yalden, Dong Yee, Derek York, A.J.Sandy Young, C.Maureen Young, David A.Young, Gayle Young, H.Brig Young, Jane Young, Jeffery Young, John H.Young, Roland S.Young, Walter D.Young, Manuel Zack, Jas Zagan, Suzanne E.Zeller*, Jarold K.Zeman, Joyce Zemans*, Norman W.Zepp, Jacob S.Ziegel, Bruce Ziff, Frank D.Zingrone, Stephen C.Zoltai*, Louise Zuk.

 

includes:

i) Governor General's Literary Awards, by [anonymous] (pp.758-761; in 2 parts, bpNichol listed for poetry, 197o, in part (chart) 2, Governor General's Award Winners)

ii) Humorous Writing in English, by Stephen Scobie (pp.847-848; prose, with a halfparagraph on Nichol's the martyrology)

iii) Literature in English, by W.H.New (pp1o17-1o2o; prose in 4 parts, passing reference to Nichol in part 4, History, itself in 6 parts, Nichol reference in part 6, 1959-80s)

iv) Nichol, Barrie Phillip, by Douglas Barbour (p.1259; prose)

v) Ondaatje, Michael, by Sharon Thesen (p.1318; prose, passing reference to Nichol/sons of captain poetry)

vi) Oral Literature in English, by Barbara Godard (pp.1331-1332; prose, passing reference to Nichol/Four Horsemen)

vii) Poetry in English, 1960-1980s, by Douglas Barbour (pp.1433-1434; prose, multiple references to Nichol)

viii) Short Fiction in English, by J.R.Tim Struthers (pp.1692-1693; prose in 9 parts, Nichol & Craft Dinner referenced in part 6, Experimental Writing)

ix) INDEX, by Eve Gardner & Ron Gardner (pp.1993-2o89; secondary references only includes Four Horsemen but with no way to access Nichol references other than (iv) above)

___________________________

 

- 2nd edition, 1988

Chambers’s Encyclopaedia - a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. (1868).

Illustrated with Maps and numerous Wood Engravings..

Published by W. And R. Chambers, London. Half leather bound, 10 Vols total 8400 pages, 18cm x 26cm.

Read more here: www.thebrickfan.com/lego-star-wars-character-encyclopedia...

Encyclopaedia londinensis, or, Universal dictionary of arts, sciences, and literature

London :Printed for the proprietor, by J. Adlard ..., sold at the Encyclopaedia Office ... by J. White ... and Champante and Whitrow ...,1810-1829.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15915199

"The Golden Pathway to a Treasury of Knowledge" by the International University Society of England, Canada and Australia. Printed in Great Britain. Undated. This is Volume IV. Our Wonderful World.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

United States

Name: USS Attu

Builder: Kaiser Shipyards

Laid down: 16 March 1944

Launched: 27 May 1944

Commissioned: 30 June 1944

Decommissioned: 8 June 1946

Struck: 3 July 1946

Fate: Sold for scrap 3 January 1947

General characteristics

Class and type: Casablanca-class escort carrier

Displacement: 7,800 tons

Length: 512 ft (156 m) overall

Beam: 65.2 ft (19.9 m)

Draft: 20 ft (6.1 m)

Speed: 19.3 knots (35.7 km/h)

Complement: 860 officers and ratings

Armament:

 

1 × 5 in (127 mm)/38 cal gun

16 × Bofors 40 mm guns,

20 × Oerlikon 20 mm cannons

 

Aircraft carried: 28

 

USS Attu (CVE-102) was a Casablanca-class escort carrier of the United States Navy, named after Attu in the Aleutian Islands.

 

Originally Elbour Bay, CVE-102 was renamed Attu 6 November 1943. She was laid down on 16 March 1944 at Vancouver, Washington, by the Kaiser Shipbuilding Company under a Maritime Commission contract (MC hull 1139), launched on 27 May 1944, sponsored by Mrs. George W. Steele, and commissioned on 30 June 1944, Captain H. F. MacComsey in command.

 

Service history

World War II

 

Following shakedown along the West Coast, Attu got underway from San Diego on 7 August with numerous aircraft and personnel for transportation to Pearl Harbor. After a two-day stop in Hawaii, Attu continued on to Guadalcanal and Espiritu Santo to deliver replacement aircraft and personnel. The escort carrier then got underway on 31 August to return to the United States.

 

She reached San Diego on 13 September and, shortly thereafter, began post-shakedown availability at Terminal Island, California. This work was completed on 28 September, and Attu sailed for Alameda, California to load fuel, provisions and aircraft.

 

The escort carrier departed the west coast on 1 October and reached Finschhafen, New Guinea, on 18 October. She later made a stop in Seeadler Harbor at Manus Island before reversing her course and heading back, via Pearl Harbor, to Alameda. Following a two-week availability period, Attu sailed for Pearl Harbor on 23 November. She shuttled supplies and troops between Guam and Pearl Harbor before returning to San Diego on 4 January 1945.

 

The next day, Attu began an availability and was ready to sail once again on the 20th. The ship reached Pearl Harbor on the 27th and began gunnery exercises and flight operations off Oahu. On 1 February, the vessel sailed for Eniwetok. After pausing there briefly on the 10th, she moved on to Ulithi. The ship departed the atoll on 16 February to rendezvous with ships of Task Force 50 (TF 50). Attu was assigned the role of supplying replacement aircraft and pilots to the fast carrier task forces operating in the forward area. After discharging her cargo to the carriers, Attu sailed to Guam for replenishment. The escort carrier continued her logistics support role for the carrier forces through early July.

 

At that time, Attu returned to San Diego for repairs. On 24 July, the ship sailed back to the Pacific theater of operations. Attu was steaming in a fueling area south of the Japanese home islands when word of Japan’s capitulation arrived.

Post-War

 

The carrier sailed back to the west coast on 11 November and, on 25 November, began her participation in Operation Magic Carpet. In this capacity, Attu made voyages to numerous points in the Pacific. She steamed over 38,000 miles and returned over 4,000 service men to the United States.

 

In May 1946, Attu was slated for disposal. The escort carrier sailed to Norfolk, Virginia, via the Panama Canal and Jacksonville, Florida. Attu decommissioned at Norfolk on 8 June 1946, and her name was struck from the Navy list on 3 July 1946. She was sold on 3 January 1947.

 

After Attu was decommissioned, she was acquired by representatives of the Jewish Agency in New York. The Jewish Agency was the representative of the Jewish population living in British Mandate Palestine, The representatives, lead by Yehuda Arazi, acquired the ship because it could convey over 10,000 displaced person to what would become Israel as well as carry a large quantity of armaments for the Haganah what would become the Israeli Defense Forces in 1948. Money was transferred, ~$10,000, and a refit was scheduled to prepare the ship. The US Department of State got wind of the plan and cancelled the deal; allowing Attu to be scrapped.[1]

Awards

Attu earned two battle stars for her World War II service.

Following, a text, in english, from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia:

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro_Colón

Teatro Colón

 

The Teatro Colón (Spanish) (Columbus Theatre) is the main opera house in Buenos Aires, Argentina, acoustically considered to be amongst the five best concert venues in the world.[1]

The present Colón replaced an original theatre which opened in 1857. Towards the end of the century it became clear that a new theatre was needed and, after a 20-year process, the present theatre opened on May 25, 1908, with Giuseppe Verdi's Aïda.

The Teatro Colón was visited by the foremost singers and opera companies of the time, who would sometimes go on to other cities including Montevideo, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.

After this period of huge international success, the theatre's decline became clear and plans were made for massive renovations. After an initial start of works to restore the landmark in 2005, the theatre was closed for refurbishment from October 2006 to May 2010. It re-opened on May 24, 2010, with a program for the 2010 season.[2]

 

The first Teatro Colón:

By the mid-1850s, with the flourishing of opera performed by touring companies, the need for a new theatre became obvious. In 1854 alone, 53 different operas were performed in the city. The first Teatro Colón building, overlooking Plaza de Mayo, was started in 1856 and opened on April 27, 1857, with Verdi's La traviata, just four years after its Italian premiere. The production starred Sofia Vera Lorini as Violetta and Enrico Tamberlik as Alfredo. The theatre was designed by Charles Pellegrini, and proved to be a successful venue for over 30 years, with 2,500 seats and the inclusion of a separate gallery reserved only for women.

Before the construction of the current Teatro Colón, opera performances were given in several theatres, of which the first Teatro Colón and the Teatro Opera were the most important. The principal company that performed at the Teatro Opera moved to the Teatro Colón in 1908. However, important companies also performed at the Teatro Politeama and the Teatro Coliseo which opened in 1907.

 

The present Teatro Colón:

Characteristics:

The theatre is bounded by the wide 9 de Julio Avenue (technically Cerrito Street), Libertad Street (the main entrance), Arturo Toscanini Street, and Tucumán Street.[3] It is in the heart of the city on a site once occupied by Ferrocarril Oeste's Plaza Parque station.

The auditorium is horseshoe-shaped, has 2,487 seats (slightly more than the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, London), standing room for 1,000 and a stage which is 20 m wide, 15 m high and 20 m deep.[4] The Colon's acoustics are considered to be so good as to place it in the top five performance venues in the world.[1] Luciano Pavarotti held a similar opinion[5]

Opening and subsequent history:

The present theatre, the second with that name, opened on May 25, 1908, after twenty years under construction,[6] and was inaugurated with Aida by the Italian company directed by Luigi Mancinelli and tenor Amadeo Bassi, soprano Lucia Crestani (as Aida). The second performance was Thomas' Hamlet with the baritone Titta Ruffo[7] During the inaugural season seventeen operas were performed with famous stars such as Ruffo, Feodor Chaliapin in Boito's Mefistofele, Antonio Paoli in Verdi's Otello, and the world

The cornerstone of the present Teatro Colón was laid in 1889 under the direction of architect Francesco Tamburini and his pupil, Vittorio Meano, who designed a theater in the Italian style on a scale and with amenities which matched those in Europe. However, delays followed due to financial difficulties, arguments regarding the location, the death of Tamburini in 1891, the murder of Meano in 1904 and the death of Angelo Ferrari, an Italian businessman who was the financing the new theatre. The building was finally completed in 1908 under the direction of the Belgian architect Julio Dormal who made some changes in the structure and left his mark in the French style of the decoration. The bas-reliefs and busts on the facade are the work of sculptor Luigi Trinchero.

The theatre's opening on May 25, the Día de la Patria in Argentina, featured a performance of Verdi's Aida and it quickly became a world-famous operatic venue rivaling La Scala and the Metropolitan Opera in attracting most of the world's best opera singers and conductors.

Ballet stars performed at the Colón alongside Argentine dancers and classical instrumentalists. The tragic 1971 aviation death of two of the best known of these, Norma Fontenla and José Neglia, was commemorated with a monument in neighboring Lavalle Square.

With excellent acoustics and modern stage areas, the theatre's interior design features a rich scarlet and gold decor. The cupola contains frescoes painted in 1966 by the 20th-century artist Raúl Soldi during renovation work.

Refurbishment, 2005 - 2010:

In recent years, given the political and economic circumstances of Argentina, the Colón Theatre has suffered considerably, but a period of slow recovery began. The theatre underwent massive phased remodeling of both interior and exterior, initially while the house was still open, but production activities ceased at the end of October 2006 to allow full refurbishment.

Initially, "what had been planned as an 18-month, $25-million renovation with 500 workers, scheduled for a May 2008 reopening with Aida, became a three-year $100-million extravaganza with 1,500 workers including 130 professional architects and engineers."[8] In addition, an exterior open-air stage was planned for an opening in 2011.[8] In all, 60,000 square metres (645,835 sq ft) underwent updating, both inside and out.

Some of the last performances immediately before closure of the theatre's building were Swan Lake on 30 September with the Ballet Estable del Teatro Colón and the Buenos Aires Philharmonic (Orquesta Filarmónica de Buenos Aires).[9] and, on 28 October, the opera Boris Godunov was given featuring Orquesta Estable del Teatro Colón and the house chorus.[10]

The theatre's final performance before its closure for refurbishment works in 2005 was a concert on November 1 starring folklore singer Mercedes Sosa in performance with the Argentine National Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Pedro Ignacio Calderón.

While it was originally planned to reopen in time for the centenary on 25 May 2008, delays prevented this, and the house was finally reopened with a gala concert and 3D animations on 24 May 2010, the eve of its own 102nd birthday and the Argentina Bicentennial. Tchaikovsky's Swan Lake and Act 2 of Puccini's La bohème were performed. A private concert to test the acoustics attended by employees, architects, and others involved in the renovation occurred on 6 May 2010.[11]

 

References

 

Notes

^ a b Long, Marshall, "What is So Special About Shoebox Halls? Envelopment, Envelopment, Envelopment", Acoustics Today, April 2009, pp.21-25. The other venues are Berlin's Konzerthaus, Vienna's Musikverein, the Concertgebouw in Amsterdam, and Boston's Symphony Hall.

^ Robert Turnbull, "An Operatic Drama Performed Mostly Offstage", New York Times, 16 June 2010 Retrieved 10 Nov 2010

^ History of the Colón Theatre (in English)

^ Official website

^ Luciano Pavarotti's reaction to the acoustics in Lynn, p.30: The theatre's "acoustics (have) the greatest defect: its acoustics are perfect! Imagine what this signifies for the singer: if one sings something bad, one notices immediately"

^ History of the Teatre Colon from haciendoelcolon.buenosaires.gob.ar (in Spanish) Retrieved 9 Nov 2010

^ Teatro Colon website (in Spanish)

^ a b Lynn, p. 29

^ Official Schedule for September 2006

^ Official Schedule for October 2006

^ Daniel Fernández Quinti (May 7, 2010). "Probaron que la acústica del Teatro Colón está intacta". Clarín (Buenos Aires). Retrieved 5 July 2010 (in Spanish).

Sources

Caamaño, Roberto. Historia del Teatro Colón, Vol I-III, Cinetea, Buenos Aires, 1969.

Ferro, Valenti. Las voces del Teatro Colón, Buenos Aires, 1982

Garland, Marguerite. Mas allá del gran telón. Buenos Aires, 1990

Hoos, Monica, El Teatro Colón, 2003, ISBN 978-9879479032

Lynn, Karyl Charna, "Restoration Drama", Opera Now, (London) Sept/Oct 2010, pp. 28–30

Matera, J. H., Teatro Colón Años de gloria 1908-1958, Buenos Aires, 1958. ML1717.8.B9 T4

Moyano, Julia. Teatro Colon A telon abierto. ISBN 987-97920-0-9

Pollini, Margarita. Palco, cazuela y paraíso. Las historias más insólitas del Teatro Colón. 2002

Sessa, Aldo, Manuel Mujica Láinez, Vida y gloria del Teatro Colón. 1983. ISBN 9789509140011

Sessa, Aldo. El mágico mundo del Teatro Colón. 1995. ISBN 9509140228

Sessa, Aldo. ALMAS, ANGELES Y DUENDES DEL TEATRO COLON, ISBN 978-950-9140-50-9

    

A seguir, um texto, em português, sobre o Teatro Colón, da Wikipédia, a Enciclopédia Livre:

 

Teatro Colón

pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro_Colón

 

O Teatro Colón (em português Teatro Colombo) é a mais importante sala de espetáculos de Buenos Aires, Argentina. Inaugurado em 25 de maio de 1908, é um dos teatros de ópera mais famosos do mundo, desenhado por Francesco Tamburini e Víctor Meano.

Com capacidade para 3000 pessoas e em um entorno de estilo eclético, mescla do neo-renascentismo italiano e do barroco francês, o desenho do teatro apresenta uma rica decoração em dourado e escarlate. A cúpula mostra figuras pintadas pelo reconhecido artista contemporâneo Raúl Soldi.

Ao longo de sua história o Teatro Colón tem abrigado grandes personagens como Arturo Toscanini, Jane Bathori, Enrico Caruso, Maria Callas, Plácido Domingo, Luciano Pavarotti e Astor Piazzolla.

Também é um habitual cenário de espectáculos de balé e, ocasionalmente, de atos oficiais e privados e de música popular. Seu status artístico está arraigado de tal forma no imaginário coletivo argentino que se saúda ao grito de ¡Al Colón! aos triunfadores das mais diversas expressões culturais.

Desde novembro de 1989 o teatro é um dos monumentos históricos nacionais.[1]

Dada a precária situação econômica argentina, nos últimos anos o Teatro tem vivido momentos de dificuldade, sendo atacado por alguns setores que tem posto em questão o financiamento estatal de seu elevado custo. Atualmente, em 2006, está passando por uma remodelação integral da sala, pelo qual sua atividade será limitada e fechará suas portas até 25 de maio de 2008 quando reabrirá para o Centenário de sua inauguração.

Atualmente (2011), após vários anos das obras de restauração, o Teatro Colon encontra-se em pleno vigor de sua monumental arquitetura. O cuidado trabalho de restauro pode ser apreciado nas visitas guiadas, que reabriram há poucos meses. O suntuoso foyer se abre para uma das salas de espetáculos mais imponentes do mundo. Além da qualidade e nobreza dos acabamentos o próprio tamanho impressiona. Perto dele o Operá de Paris parece pequeno.

Dizem os portenhos que também sua acústica é das melhores do mundo.

Referências

 

↑ Decreto do Poder Executivo Nacional 1259/89

   

Veja mais no site oficial do Teatro Colón, no endereço a seguir:

www.teatrocolon.org.ar/es/

French postcard. 9 C. Ivan Moskvin as Yepikhodov in Anton Chekhov's play The Cherry Orchard, Moscow Art Theatre.

 

Ivan Moskvin, in full Ivan Mikhailovich Moskvin, (born 1874, Moscow, Russia—died February 16, 1946, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.), Russian actor of stage and screen whose career is closely identified with the Moscow Art Theatre, of which he became director in 1943.

 

Moskvin studied in the drama department of the Moscow Philharmonic Society from 1893 to 1896. He then performed in the Yaroslavl company and in the Korsh company in Moscow. In 1898 he was invited by Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko to join the newly formed Moscow Art Theatre, and he appeared opposite Olga Knipper in the title role of the theatre’s first production, Czar Fyodor Ioannovich (1898), by Aleksey Tolstoy. He went on to create the role of Luka in Maxim Gorky’s The Lower Depths (1902) and Epikhodoff in Anton Chekhov’s The Cherry Orchard (1904). The international acclaim Moskvin won when touring Europe and the United States (1919–24) was reinforced in later years by his work in Soviet motion pictures that were distributed worldwide.

 

Among Moskvin’s film roles were e.g. the Russian serf in the Tolstoy adaptation Polikushka (Alexander Sanin, 1922), the government clerk in the Chekhov adaptation Chiny i lyudi/ Ranks and People (Mikhail Doller, Yakov Protazanov, 1929), and the title role in the Pushkin adaptation Kollezhskiy registrator/ The Station Master (Ivan Moskvin himself with Yuri Zhelyabuzhsky, 1925), also with Vera Malinovskaya. Moskvin was a much-respected teacher with three generations of Moscow Art Theatre actors, and he continued to appear in the theatre’s productions through 1942 when he played a principal role in N.F. Pogodin’s Kremlin Chimes. He was awarded a Stalin Prize in 1943 and was a member of the Supreme Soviet at the time of his death.

 

Source: mainly Encyclopedia Brittanica, also IMDB and English Wikipedia.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  

The Nuremberg Rally (officially About this sound Reichsparteitag (help·info), meaning National Party Convention) was the annual rally of the Nazi Party in Germany, held from 1923 to 1938.[1] They were large Nazi propaganda events, especially after Hitler's rise to power in 1933. These events were held at the Nazi party rally grounds in Nuremberg from 1933 to 1938 and are usually referred to in English as the "Nuremberg Rallies". Many films were made to commemorate them, the most famous of which is Leni Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will.

 

History and purpose

 

The first Nazi Party rallies took place in 1923 in Munich and in 1926 in Weimar. From 1927 on, they took place exclusively in Nuremberg. The Party selected Nuremberg for pragmatic reasons: it was in the center of the German Reich and the local Luitpoldhain was well suited as a venue. In addition, the Nazis could rely on the well-organized local branch of the party in Franconia, then led by Gauleiter Julius Streicher. The Nuremberg police were sympathetic to the event.

 

Later, the location was justified by the Nazi Party by putting it into the tradition of the Imperial Diet (German Reichstag) of the Holy Roman Empire, considered as the First Reich. After 1933, the rallies took place near the time of the Autumn equinox, under the title of "The German people's National Party days" (Reichsparteitage des deutschen Volkes), which was intended to symbolize the solidarity between the German people and the Nazi Party. This point was further emphasized by the yearly growing number of participants, which finally reached over half a million from all sections of the party, the army and the state.

The Nuremberg Rallies

 

Each rally was given a programmatic title, which related to recent national events:

 

1923 – The First Party Congress took place in Munich on January 27, 1923.

1923 – The "German day rally" was held in Nuremberg on September 1, 1923.

1926 – The 2nd Party Congress ("Refounding Congress") was held in Weimar on July 4, 1926.

1927 – The 3rd Party Congress ("Day of Awakening") was held on August 20, 1927. The propaganda film Eine Symphonie des Kampfwillens was made at this rally.

1929 – The 4th Party Congress, known as the "Day of Composure", was held on August 2, 1929. The propaganda film Der Nürnberger Parteitag der NSDAP was made at this rally.

1933 – The 5th Party Congress was held in Nuremberg, August 30 – September 3, 1933. It was called the "Rally of Victory" (Reichsparteitag des Sieges). The term "victory" relates to the Nazi seizure of power and the victory over the Weimar Republic. The Leni Riefenstahl film Der Sieg des Glaubens was made at this rally. Hitler announced that from now on all Rallies would take place in Nuremberg.[2]

1934 – The 6th Party Congress was held in Nuremberg, September 5–10, 1934, which was attended by about 700,000 Nazi Party supporters. Initially it did not have a theme. Later it was labeled the "Rally of Unity and Strength" (Reichsparteitag der Einheit und Stärke), "Rally of Power" (Reichsparteitag der Macht), or "Rally of Will" (Reichsparteitag des Willens). The Leni Riefenstahl film Triumph des Willens was made at this rally.[3] This rally was particularly notable due to Albert Speer's Cathedral of light: 152 searchlights that cast vertical beams into the sky around the Zeppelin Field to symbolise the walls of a building[4]

1935 – The 7th Party Congress was held in Nuremberg, September 10–16, 1935. It was called the "Rally of Freedom" (Reichsparteitag der Freiheit). "Freedom" referred to the reintroduction of compulsory military service and thus the German "liberation" from the Treaty of Versailles. Leni Riefenstahl made the film Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht at this rally, and the Nazis introduced the Nuremberg Laws.

1936 – The 8th Party Congress was known as the "Rally of Honour" (Reichsparteitag der Ehre). The remilitarization of the demilitarized Rhineland in March 1936 constituted the restoration of German honour in the eyes of many Germans. The film Festliches Nürnberg incorporated footage shot at this rally, as well as the rally of 1937.

1937 – The 9th Party Congress was called the "Rally of Labour" (Reichsparteitag der Arbeit, September 6–13). It celebrated the reduction of unemployment in Germany since the Nazi rise to power.

1938 – The 10th Party Congress was named the "Rally of Greater Germany" (Reichsparteitag Großdeutschland, September 5–12).[5] This was due to the annexation of Austria to Germany that had taken place earlier in the year.

1939 – The 11th Party Congress was given the name "Rally of Peace" (Reichsparteitag des Friedens). It was meant to reiterate the German desire for peace, both to the German population and to other countries. It was cancelled at short notice, as one day before the planned date, on September 1, Germany began its offensive against Poland (which along with Soviet Union's invasion of Poland ignited World War II).

 

Propaganda films

Poster for Triumph of the Will by Leni Riefenstahl in 1934

 

Official films for the rallies began in 1927, with the establishment of the NSDAP (Nazi Party) film office. The most famous films were made by Leni Riefenstahl for the rallies between 1933 and 1935. Relating to the theme of the rally, she called her first movie Victory of Faith (Der Sieg des Glaubens). This movie was taken out of circulation after the Night of the Long Knives, although a copy survived in Britain and has recently been made available on the Internet Archive for public viewing. The rally of 1934 became the setting for the award-winning Triumph of the Will (Triumph des Willens). Several generals in the Wehrmacht protested over the minimal army presence in the film: Hitler apparently proposed modifying the film to placate the generals, but Riefenstahl refused his suggestion. She did agree to return to the 1935 rally and make a film exclusively about the Wehrmacht, which became Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht.

 

The rallies for 1936 and 1937 were covered in Festliches Nürnberg, which was shorter than the others, only 21 minutes.

Books

 

There were two sets of official or semi-official books covering the rallies. The "red books" were officially published by the NSDAP and contained the proceedings of the "congress" as well as full texts of every speech given in chronological order.

 

The "blue books" were published initially by Julius Streicher, the Gauleiter of Nuremberg, later by Hanns Kerrl, not by the party press. These were larger scale books that included the text of speeches and proceedings, as well as larger photographs.

 

In addition to these, collections of Heinrich Hoffman's photographs were published to commemorate each Party congress, as well as pamphlets of Hitler's speeches. Both series of books are much sought after collectors items.[6]

Mammalogie, ou, Description des espèces de mammifères

A Paris :Chez Mme. Veuve Agasse, imprimeur-libraire,1820-1822.

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/39522461

A text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:

The Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia) (ex-Athene cunicularia) is a small, long-legged owl found throughout open landscapes of North and South America. Burrowing owls can be found in grasslands, rangelands, agricultural areas, deserts, or any other dry, open area with low vegetation (Lewis 2005). They nest and roost in burrows, such as those abandoned by prairie dogs. Unlike most owls, burrowing owls are often active during the day. However, most hunting is done at dusk or at night.

Burrowing owls are able to live for at least 9 years in the wild and over 10 years in captivity.[citation needed] They are often killed by vehicles when crossing roads, and have many natural enemies, including badgers, coyotes, and snakes. They are also killed by both feral and domestic cats and dogs.

Burrowing owls have bright yellow eyes. The bill can be yellow or greenish depending on the subspecies. The legs are incompletely feathered, and the toes are grayish in color. They lack ear tufts and have a flattened facial disc. The owls have prominent white eyebrows and a white "chin" patch which they expand and display during certain behaviors.

Adult owls have brown upperparts with white spotting. The breast and belly are white with variable brown spotting or barring. Juvenile owls are similar in appearance, but they lack most of the white spotting above and brown barring below. Also, the young owls have a buff bar across the upper wing and their breast may be buffy rather than white.

Males and females are similar in size and appearance. However, adult males sometimes appear lighter in color because they spend more time outside the burrow during daylight, and their feathers become sun-bleached. The average adult is slightly larger than an American Robin, at 25 cm (10 inches) length, 53 cm (21 inches) wingspan, and 170g (6 oz) weight (Lewis 2005).

The typical "who who" call of a burrowing owl is associated with territory defense and breeding, often given by adult males to attract a female to a promising burrow. They also make other sounds, which are described as chucks, chattering, and screams. These sounds are usually accompanied by an up and down bobbing of the head. When alarmed, young birds will give a hissing call - a case of acoustic Batesian mimicry - that sounds like a rattlesnake (Haug et al. 1993).

Before European colonization, burrowing owls probably inhabited every suitable area of the New World, but they have experienced some restrictions in distribution since. They range from the southern portions of the western Canadian provinces through southern Mexico and western Central America. They are also found in Florida and many Caribbean islands. In South America, they are patchy in the northwest and through the Andes, but widely distributed from southern Brazil to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.

Burrowing owls are year-round residents in most of their range. Birds that breed in Canada and northern USA usually migrate south to Mexico and southern USA during winter months.

The burrowing owl is endangered in Canada[1], threatened in Mexico, and a species of special concern in Florida and most of the western USA. It is common and widespread in open regions of many Neotropical countries, where they sometimes even inhabit fields and parks in cities. In regions bordering the Amazon Rainforest they are spreading with deforestation. It is therefore listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.

The major reasons for declining populations in North America are control programs for prairie dogs and loss of habitat, although burrowing owls readily inhabit some anthropogenic landscapes, such as airport grasslands or golf courses (Korfanta et al. 2005).

Burrowing owls are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. They are also included in CITES Appendix II.

Genetic analysis of the two North American subspecies indicates that inbreeding is not a problem within those populations (Korfanta et al. 2005).

The nesting season begins in late March or April in North America. Burrowing owls are usually monogamous, but occasionally a male will have two mates (Lewis 2005). Pairs of owls will sometimes nest in loose colonies. Their typical breeding habitat is open grassland or prairie, but they can occasionally adapt to other open areas like airports, golf courses, and agricultural fields. Burrowing owls are slightly tolerant of human presence, often nesting near roads, farms, homes, and regularly maintained irrigation canals.

The owls nest in an underground burrow, hence the name Burrowing Owl. They use burrows created by other burrowing animals such as prairie dogs, ground squirrels, or badgers (Holt et al. 1999). If burrows are unavailable and the soil is not hard or rocky, the owls may excavate their own. Burrowing owls will also nest in shallow, underground, man-made structures that have easy access to the surface.

The female will lay as many as 8-12 eggs over a two week period. She will then incubate the eggs for three to four weeks while the male brings her food. After the eggs hatch both parents will feed the chicks. Four weeks after hatching, the chicks are able to make short flights and begin leaving the nest burrow. The parents will still help feed the chicks for 1 to 3 months. While most of the eggs will hatch, only four to five chicks usually survive to leave the nest.

During the nesting season, burrowing owls will line the burrow with mammal dung, usually from cattle. The dung helps to control the microclimate inside the burrow and to attract insects, which the owls may eat (Levey et al. 2004).

Site fidelity rates appear to vary among populations. In some locations, owls will frequently reuse a nest several years in a row. Owls in migratory northern populations are less likely to return to the same burrow every year. Also, as with many other birds, the female owls are more likely to disperse to a different site than are male owls (Lutz & Plumpton 1999).

The highly variable diet includes small mammals, small birds, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, and scorpions. But the owls mainly eat large insects and small rodents. Although burrowing owls often live in close proximity to ground squirrels, they rarely prey upon them. Unlike other owls, they also eat fruits and seeds, especially the fruit of tasajillo (Cylindropuntia leptocaulis) and other prickly pear and cholla cacti. When hunting they wait on a perch until they spot prey. Then they swoop down on prey or fly up to catch insects in flight. Sometimes they chase prey on foot across the ground.

The burrowing owl is sometimes separated in the monotypic genus Speotyto. This is based on an overall different morphology and karyotype. On the other hand, osteology and DNA sequence data suggests that the Burrowing Owl is just a terrestrial version of the Athene little owls, and it is today placed in that genus by most authorities.

A considerable number of subspecies have been described, but they differ little in appearance and the taxonomy of several needs to be validated (Holt et al. 1999). Most subspecies are found in the Andes and the Antilles. Only A. c. hypugaea and A. c. floridana are found in North America. Although distinct from each other, the relationship of the Floridan subspecies to (and its distinctness from) the Caribbean birds is not quite clear (Korfanta et al. 2005).

Um texto em português:

Coruja-buraqueira (Speotyto cunicularia).

Veja um vídeo clicando no endereço a seguir:

br.youtube.com/watch?v=BhCP0YqJDnY

Ficha Técnica

Nome comum: coruja-buraqueira, coruja-martelo, coruja-do-campo, caburé-de-cupim, caburé-do-campo, coruja-barata, coruja-buraqueira, coruja-do-campo, coruja-mineira, corujinha-buraqueira, corujinha-do-buraco, corujinha-do-campo, guedé, urucuera, urucuréia e urucuriá.

Nome científico: Speotyto cunicularia

Reino: Animal

Filo: Vertebrado

Classe: Aves

Ordem: Strigiformes

Família: Strigidae

Ave muito interessante e com características peculiares é tida pelo povo grego como a ave da sabedoria. Outros povos porém, acham que causa azar e arrepios seu canto quando rasga o silêncio noturno. Dizem ainda que é sinal de mal agouro e que o seu canto está pressagiando alguma tragédia, o que é pura crendice popular, pois o que se sabe é que as corujas são muito úteis ao homem predando pragas nas lavouras e controlando a população de ratos ao redor das cidades e no campo.

Pode girar seu pecoço em 270º

Características:

A coruja-buraqueira é muito comum pelos campos do Brasil.

Mede em torno de 20-30 cm com envergadura de 50-61cm e pesando em média 170g.

Com peito branco e plumagem amarelada o macho é ligeiramente maior que a fêmea, possuem cabeça arredondada e são aves muito tímidas.

Com olhos grandes e amarelos, a coruja-buraqueira tem a visão 100 vezes mais aguçada que a do homem e seus olhos estão dispostos frontalmente, como os do ser humano.

Quando necessita olhar algum objeto ao seu redor gira o pescoço em um ângulo de até 270 graus, aumentando assim o seu campo visual.

Essa disposição frontal, proporciona à coruja uma visão binocular (enxerga um objeto com ambos os olhos e ao mesmo tempo), isso significa que a coruja pode ver objetos em três dimensões, ou seja, altura, largura e profundidade.

Pode julgar distâncias similares ao ser humano e seu campo visual é de 110 graus, sendo 70 graus de visão binocular.

Os olhos da coruja-buraqueira são bem grandes, em algumas espécies de corujas até maiores que o próprio cérebro, a fim de melhorar sua eficiência em condições de baixa luminosidade, captando e processando melhor a luz disponível.

Além de sua privilegiada visão, a coruja-buraqueira é dona de uma audição potentíssima, conseguindo localizar e abater sua presa com apenas este sentido.

Abate preferencialmente pequenos roedores, insetos, anfíbios e pássaros. A coruja é uma ave de rapina, portanto mata para se alimentar. A tradução da palavra rapina é "roubo", o que caracteriza o fato de tais aves retirarem a vida de suas presas.

Rapineira e atenta à tudo

A coruja como a grande maioria dos animais possue território de caça. São ""equipadas "" com adaptações especiais que as tornam predadoras eficientes, sendo uma delas o vôo.

Sempre muito silenciosa e sorrateira, isso devido às penas especiais de sua asa, muito macias e em grande quantidade, conseguem cortar o ar e planar por muito tempo sendo muito discretas e imperceptíveis às suas presas.

A observação das presas se dá no alto de árvores ou em mourões de cercas nos pastos e até durante o vôo silencioso, quando fazem uma varredura na área de caça. Quando um alvo é avistado a coruja voa silenciosamente até ele, mantendo sua cabeça em linha reta ao alvo, quando então a joga para trás e empurra suas garras para frente a fim de prender seguramente sua presa. A força do impacto é violenta e certeira não dando chances à presa. Posteriormente a vítima é morta pela pressão do bico, num processo de abatimento de presas no solo.

O período reprodutivo da coruja-buraqueira começa nos meses de março e abril, os ninhos são feitos no solo, aproveitando antigas tocas de tatus ou simplesmente promovem a abertura de novos ninhos, num trabalho revezado entre o casal.

Os ninhos são escavados com os pés e bicos, formando uma galeria horizontal de até 3 m de profundidade por 30cm-60cm de largura.

Em média botam de 6 a 12 ovos, que são incubados por 28 dias pela fêmea; fica por conta do macho proteger o ninho e procurar alimento para toda a prole.

Com 14 dias os filhotes já ficam empoleirados na saída da cova, aos 44 dias saem do ninho e com 60 dias estão caçando pequenos insetos.

Informações do site: www.cuestajardins.com.br/?id=149&codigo=426&PHPSE...

Encyclopédie d'histoire naturelle

Paris :Maresq[1851-1860].

biodiversitylibrary.org/page/10453168

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

History

United States

Builder: New York Shipbuilding Corporation

Laid down: 1 May 1941

Launched: 22 August 1942

Commissioned: 14 January 1943

Decommissioned: 28 August 1946

Fate: Target in nuclear weapons testing, 1946; scuttled 1951

General characteristics

Class and type: Independence-class aircraft carrier

Displacement:

 

10,662 tons standard,

14,751 tons loaded

 

Length: 623 ft (190 m)

Beam:

 

71.5 ft (21.8 m) (waterline)

109.2 ft (33.3 m) (extreme)

 

Draught: 24.3 ft (7.4 m)

Draft: 26 ft (7.9 m)

Propulsion: General Electric turbines, 4 shafts, 4 boilers; 100,000 shp

Speed: 31 knots (57 km/h)

Range: 13,000 nautical miles (24,000 km) at 15 knots (28 km/h)

Complement: 1,569 officers and men (inc. air group)

Armament: 26 × Bofors 40 mm guns

Aircraft carried:

 

original plan was 30;

9 dive bombers

9 torpedo-bombers

12 fighters; for most of war operated 33–34, 24–26 fighters and 8–9 torpedo bombers.

 

The fourth USS Independence (CVL-22) (also CV-22) was a United States Navy light aircraft carrier, lead ship of her class and served during the Second World War.

 

Converted from the hull of a cruiser, she was built by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation and commissioned in January 1943. She took part in the attacks on Rabaul and Tarawa before being torpedoed by Japanese planes, having to be repaired and refitted in San Francisco from January to July 1944.

 

After repairs, she launched many strikes against targets in Luzon and Okinawa. Independence was part of the carrier group that sank the remnants of the Japanese Mobile Fleet in the Battle of Leyte Gulf and several other Japanese ships in the Surigao Strait. Until the surrender of Japan, she was assigned to strike duties against targets in the Philippines and Japan. She would finish her operational duty off the coast of Japan supporting occupation forces until being assigned to return American veterans back to the United States as part of Operation Magic Carpet.

 

Independence was later used for testing during Operation Crossroads. After being transported back to Pearl Harbor and San Francisco for study, she was later sunk near the Farallon Islands.

 

Construction and deployment

 

Begun as light cruiser Amsterdam, CL-59, she was launched as CV-22 on 22 August 1942 by New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Camden, New Jersey, sponsored by Mrs. Dorothy Warner, wife of Rawleigh Warner, Sr, Chairman of Pure Oil Co., and commissioned 14 January 1943, Captain G. R. Fairlamb, Jr., in command.

 

The first of a new class of carriers converted from cruiser hulls, Independence conducted shakedown training in the Caribbean. She then steamed through the Panama Canal to join the Pacific Fleet, arriving San Francisco 3 July 1943. Independence got underway for Pearl Harbor 14 July, and after 2 weeks of training exercises sailed with carriers Essex and Yorktown for a raid on Marcus Island.[1][2] Planes from the carrier force struck on 1 September and destroyed over 70 percent of the installations on the island. The carrier began her next operation, a similar strike against Wake Island 5 to 6 October as CVL-22, having been redesignated 15 July 1943.[1][2]

Rabaul and Gilbert Islands strikes

 

Independence sailed from Pearl Harbor for Espiritu Santo 21 October, and, during an ensuing carrier attack on Rabaul[2] 11 November, the ship's gunners scored their first success – six Japanese planes shot down. After this operation, the carrier refueled at Espiritu Santo and headed for the Gilberts and conducted prelanding strikes on Tarawa 18 to 20 November 1943. During a Japanese counterattack 20 November, Independence was attacked by a group of planes low on the water. Six were shot down, but the planes managed to launch at least five torpedoes one of which scored a hit on the carrier's starboard quarter. Seriously damaged, the ship steamed to Funafuti 23 November for repairs. With the Gilberts operation, first step on the mid-Pacific road to Japan, underway, Independence returned to San Francisco 2 January 1944 for more permanent repairs.

Refitting and training for night operations

 

The now-veteran carrier returned to Pearl Harbor 3 July 1944. During her repair period, the ship had been fitted with an additional catapult, and upon her arrival in Hawaiian waters, Independence began training for night carrier operations. She continued this pioneering work 24 to 29 August out of Eniwetok. The ship sailed with a large task group 29 August to take part in the Palau operation and the Battle of Peleliu, aimed at securing bases for the final assault on the Philippines in October. Independence provided night reconnaissance and night combat air patrol for Task Force 38 during this operation.

Philippines

 

In September the fast carrier task force regularly pounded the Philippines in preparation for the invasion. When no Japanese counterattacks developed in this period, Independence shifted to regular daytime operations, striking targets on Luzon. After replenishment at Ulithi in early October, the great force sortied 6 October for Okinawa. In the days that followed the carriers struck Okinawa, Formosa, and the Philippines. Japanese air counterattacks were repulsed, with Independence providing day strike groups in addition to night fighters and reconnaissance aircraft for defensive protection.

 

As the carrier groups steamed east of the Philippines 23 October, it became apparent, as Admiral Carney later recalled, that "something on a grand scale was underfoot." And indeed it was, as the Japanese fleet moved in a three-pronged effort to turn back the American beachhead on Leyte Gulf. Planes from Independence's Task Group 38.2, under Rear Admiral Bogan, spotted Kurita's striking force in the Sibuyan Sea 24 October and the carriers launched a series of attacks. Planes from Independence and other ships sank the battleship Musashi and disabled a cruiser.

 

That evening Admiral Halsey made the decision to turn Task Force 38 northward in search of Admiral Ozawa's carrier group. Independence's night search planes made contact and shadowed the Japanese ships until dawn 26 October, when the carriers launched an attack. In this second part of the great Battle for Leyte Gulf, all four Japanese carriers were sunk. Meanwhile, American heavy ships had won a victory in Surigao Strait; and a light carrier force had outfought the remainder of Kurita's ships in the Battle off Samar; Independence also assisted TF38 in the destruction of Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa's diversion fleet off Cape Engaño. After the battle, which virtually spelled the end of the Japanese Navy as a major threat, Independence continued to provide search planes and night fighter protection for TF 38 in strikes on the Philippines.

 

Independence returned to Ulithi for long-delayed rest and replenishment 9 to 14 November, but soon got underway to operate off the Philippines on night attacks and defensive operations. This phase continued until 30 December 1944, when the task force sortied from Ulithi once more and moved northward. From 3 to 9 January 1945 the carriers supported the Lingayen landings on Luzon, after which Halsey took his fleet on a foray into the South China Sea. In the days that followed the aircraft struck at air bases on Formosa and on the coasts of Indo-China and China. These operations in support of the Philippines campaign marked the end of the carrier's night operations, and she sailed 30 January 1945 for repairs at Pearl Harbor.

Okinawa

 

Independence returned to Ulithi 13 March 1945 and got underway next day for operations against Okinawa. She carried out pre-invasion strikes 30 to 31 March, and after the assault 1 April remained off the island supplying CAP and strike aircraft. Her planes shot down numerous enemy planes during the desperate Japanese attacks on the invasion force. Independence remained off Okinawa until 10 June when she sailed for Leyte.

 

During July and August the carrier took part in the final carrier strikes against Japan itself. After the end of the war 15 August, Independence aircraft continued surveillance flights over the mainland locating prisoner of war camps and covered the landings of Allied occupation troops. The ship departed Tokyo 22 September 1945, arriving at San Francisco via Saipan and Guam 31 October.

Operation Crossroads and fate

USS Independence Able test damage aft port quarter (note two sailors on the aft deck)

USS Independence is on fire aft following the Operation Crossroads shot Able atomic bomb test, 1 July 1946

 

Independence joined the Operation Magic Carpet fleet beginning 15 November 1945, transporting veterans back to the United States until arriving at San Francisco once more 28 January 1946. Assigned as a target vessel for the Operation Crossroads atomic bomb tests, she was placed within one-half-mile of ground zero for the 1 July explosion. The veteran ship did not sink, however (though her funnels and island were crumpled by the blast), and after taking part in another explosion on 25 July, was taken to Kwajalein and decommissioned 28 August 1946. The highly radioactive hull was later taken to Pearl Harbor and San Francisco for further tests and was finally scuttled near the Farallon Islands off the coast of California on 29 January 1951. Controversy has subsequently arisen about the sinking of Independence, as it is claimed that she was loaded with barrels of radioactive waste at the time of her sinking, and that the waste has subsequently contaminated the wildlife refuge and commercial fisheries associated with the Farallon Islands.[3] However, in 2015, it was considered that 'any public health risk was small', as might be expected after this period of time.[4]

Wreck

 

In 2009 the position of the wreck of Independence in 2,600 feet (790 m) of water in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary off the Farallon Islands at approximately 37°30′00″N 123°05′00″W was confirmed. In March 2015, scientists and technicians of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) embarked aboard the sanctuary vessel R/V Fulmar used the autonomous underwater vehicle Echo Ranger to make a survey of the wreck, employing the Echoscope three-dimensional imaging sonar to make a series of images of it. The wreck is resting upright with a slight list to starboard and most of the flight deck intact, although there are gaping holes in the flight deck leading to the hangar deck below it. What appears to be an airplane on the hangar deck is visible through the forward aircraft elevator hatch. No signs of radioactive contamination were detected, and a NOAA spokesman described the wreck as "amazingly intact."[5][6]

Honors and awards

 

Independence received eight battle stars for World War II service.