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Kara Livingston looks at the contract she signed with the moving company, Vanlines of America. (KOMU photo/Brandon Twichell)
Operational Contract Support Joint Exercise 2016 provides training across the spectrum of OCS readiness from requirements and development of warfighter staff integration and synchronization through contract execution supporting the Joint Force Commander. (U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Jonathan Snyder/Released)
FIND IT @ graphicriver.net/item/modern-proposal-contract-and-invoic...
This is a complete and professional Template of 12 pages for a Business Proposal, Contract and Invoice.
It will definitely help you visualize in a professional way your business and your proposal to clients.
Included are pages for Project Proposal, Project Timeline, Contract, Packages Plan, Invoice...
The files are created in order to be used by everyone, with just a basic knowledge of the softwares.
The preview images are made by using my Brochure Mock-ups Set
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A4 ISO 297×210 mm (11,7x8,26 inches) + bleeds / US Letter (8,5 x 11 inches) + bleeds
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.PDF documentation
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Seen here on a Route 3 working (Harlow - Staple Tye Circular) in Harlow Bus Station is Arriva/TGM/Network Harlow Volvo Olympian/Northern Counties Palatine R614MNU. Normally this bus would only see work on local school contracts, however a shortage of buses in Harlow recently has seen everything out in service 09/05/14
Here's a good way to prevent people from parking, as seen in St. Paul, Minnesota: just put drums full of toxic waste in your spot!
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
Although the performance increases of jet-powered aircraft introduced towards the end of World War II over their piston-powered ancestors were breathtaking, there were those at the time who believed that much more was possible. As far back as 1943, the British Ministry of Aircraft Production had issued a specification designated "E.24/43" for a supersonic experimental jet aircraft that would be able to achieve 1,600 KPH (1,000 MPH).
Beginning in 1946, a design team at English Electric (EE) under W.E.W. "Teddy" Petter began design studies for a supersonic fighter, leading to award of a Ministry of Supply (MoS) contract in 1947 under specification "ER.103" for a design study on an experimental aircraft that could achieve Mach 1.2.
The MoS liked the EE concepts, and in early 1949 awarded the company a contract under specification "F.23/49" for two flying prototypes and one ground-test prototype of the "P.1".
The P.1 was defined as a supersonic research aircraft, though the design had provisions for armament and a radar gunsight. It incorporate advanced and unusual design features, such as twin turbojet engines mounted one above the other to reduce aircraft frontal area; and strongly swept wings, with the wingtip edges at a right angle to the fuselage, giving a wing configuration like that of a delta wing with the rear inner corners cut out. The aircraft featured an elliptical intake in the nose.
The P.1's performance was so outstanding that the decision was quickly made to proceed on an operational version that would be capable of Mach 2. In fact, the second P.1 prototype featured items such as a bulged belly tank and fit of twin Aden Mark 4 30 millimeter revolver-type cannon, bringing it closer to operational specification.
Orders were placed for three "P.1B" prototypes for a production interceptor and the original P.1 was retroactively designated "P.1A". The P.1B featured twin Rolls-Royce Avon afterburning engines and a larger tailfin. An airborne intercept (AI) radar was carried in the air intake shock cone, which was changed from elliptical to circular. The cockpit was raised for a better field of view and the P.1B was armed with two Aden cannon in the upper nose, plus a pack under the cockpit that could either support two De Havilland Blue Jay (later Firestreak) heat-seeking AAMs or 44 Microcell 5 centimeter (2 inch) unguided rockets.
The initial P.1B prototype performed its first flight on 4 April 1957 and the type entered RAF service as EE Lightning F.1. RAF Number 74 Squadron at Coltishall was the first full service unit, with the pilots acquiring familiarization with the type during late 1960 and the squadron declared operational in 1961.
However, while the Lightning was developed further into more and more advanced versions. Its concept was also the basis for another research aircraft that would also be developed into a high performance interceptor: the P.6/1, which later became the “Levin” fighter.
P.6 encompassed a total of four different layouts for a Mach 2+ research aircraft, tendering to ER.134T from 1952. P.6/1 was the most conservative design and it relied heavily on existing (and already proven) P.1 Lightning components, primarily the aerodynamic surfaces. The most obvious difference was a new fuselage of circular diameter, housing a single Rolls Royce RB.106 engine.
The RB.106 was a two-shaft design with two axial flow compressors each driven by its own single stage turbine and reheat. It was of similar size to the Rolls-Royce Avon, but it produced about twice the thrust at 21,750 lbf (96.7 kN) in the initial version. The two-shaft layout was relatively advanced for the era; the single-shaft de Havilland Gyron matched it in power terms, while the two-spool Bristol Olympus was much less powerful at the then-current state of development. Apart from being expected to power other British aircraft such as those competing for Operational Requirement F.155, it was also selected to be the powerplant for the Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow and led to the Orenda Iroquois engine, which even reach 30.000 lbf (130 kN).
The P.6/1 was eventually chosen by the MoS for further development because it was regarded as the least risky and costly alternative. Beyond its test bed role for the RB.106 the P.6/1 was also seen as a potential basis for a supersonic strategic air-to-ground missile (similar to the massive Soviet AS-3 ‘Kangaroo’ cruise missile) and the starting point for an operational interceptor that would be less complex than the Lightning, but with a comparable if not improved performance but a better range.
In 1955 English Electric received a go ahead for two P.6/1 research aircraft prototypes. Despite a superficial similarity to the Lightning, the P.6/1’s internal structure was very different. The air duct, for instance, was bifurcated and led around on both sides of the cockpit tub and the front wheel well instead of below it. Further down, the duct ran below the wing main spar and directly fed the RB.106.
The rear fuselage was area-ruled, the main landing gear retracted, just like the Lightning’s, outwards into the wings, while the front wheel retracted backwards into a well that was placed further aft than on the Lightning. The upper fuselage behind the main wings spar carried fuel tanks, more fuel was carried in wing tanks.
Both research machines were ready in 1958 and immediately started with aerodynamic and material tests for the MoS, reaching top speeds of Mach 2.5 and altitudes of 60.000 ft. and more.
In parallel, work on the fighter version, now called “Levin”, had started. The airframe was basically the same as the P.6/1’s. Biggest visible changes were a wider air intake with a bigger central shock cone (primarily for a radar dish), a shorter afterburner section and an enlarged fin with area increased by 15% that had become necessary in order to compensate instability through the new nose layout and the potential carriage of external ordnance, esp. under the fuselage. This bigger fin was taken over to the Lightning F.3 that also initially suffered from longitudal instability due to the new Red Top missiles.
The Levin carried armament and avionics similar to the Lightning, including the Ferranti-developed AI.23 monopulse radar. The aircraft was to be fully integrated into a new automatic intercept system developed by Ferranti, Elliot, and BAC. It would have turned the fighters into something like a "manned missile" and greatly simplified intercepts.
Anyway, the Levin’s weapon arrangement was slightly different from the Lightning: the Levin’s armament comprised theoretically a mix of up to four 30mm Aden cannons and/or up to four of the new Red Top AAMs, or alternatively the older Firestreak. The guns were mounted in the upper nose flanks (similar to the early Lightning arrangement, but set further back), right under the cockpit hatch, while a pair of AAMs was carried on wing tip launch rails. Two more AAMs could be carried on pylons under the lower front fuselage, similar to the Lightning’s standard configuration, even though there was no interchangeable module. Since this four-missile arrangement would not allow any cannon to be carried anymore and caused excessive drag, the typical payload was limited to two Aden cannons and the single pair of wing-tip missiles.
Despite its proven Lightning ancestry, the development of the Levin went through various troubles. While the RB.106 worked fine in the research P.6/1, it took until 1962 that a fully reliable variant for the interceptor could be cleared for service. Meanwhile the Lightning had already evolved into the F.3 variant and political discussions circled around the end of manned military aircraft. To make matters even worse, the RAF refused to buy the completely automatic intercept system, despite the fact that it had been fully engineered at a cost of 1.4 million pounds and trialed in one of the P.1Bs.
Eventually, the Levin F.1 finally entered service in 1964, together with the Lightning F.3. While the Lightning was rather seen as a point defense interceptor, due to the type’s limited range: If a Lightning F.3 missed its target on its first pass, it almost never had enough fuel to make a second attempt without topping off from a tanker, which would give an intruder plenty of time to get to its target and then depart… The Lightning’s flight endurance was less than 2 hours (in the F.2A, other variants even less), and it was hoped that the Levin had more potential through a longer range. Anyway, in service, the Levin’s range in clean configuration was only about 8% better than the Lightning’s. The Levin F.1’s flight endurance was about 2 ½ hours – an improvement, but not as substantial as expected.
In order to improve the range on both fighters, English Electric developed a new, stiffened wing for the carriage of a pair of jettisonable overwing ferry tanks with a capacity of 1,182 liters (312 US gallons / 260 Imperial gallons, so-called “Overburgers”). The new wing also featured a kinked leading edge, providing better low-speed handling. From mid 1965 onwards, all Levins were directly produced in this F.2 standard, and during regular overhauls the simpler F.1 machines were successively updated. The Lightning introduced the kinked wing with the F.3A variant and it was later introduced with the F.2A and F.6A variants.
Levin production comprised 21 original F.1 airframes, plus 34 F.2 fighters, and production was stopped in 1967. A trainer version was not produced, the Lightning trainers were deemed sufficient for conversion since the Levin and the Lightning shared similar handling characteristics.
The Levin served only with RAF 29 and 65 Squadron, the latter re-instated in 1970 as a dedicated fighter squadron. When in November 1984 the Tornado squadrons began to form, the Levin was gradually phased out and replaced until April 1987 by the Tornado F.3.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length w/o pitot: 51 ft 5 in (15,70 m), 55 ft 8 in (16.99 m) overall
Wingspan incl. wingtip launch rails: 34 ft 9 in (10.54 m)
Height: 19 ft 7 in (5.97 m)
Wing area: 474.5 ft² (44.08 m²)
Empty weight: 8937 kg (lb)
Loaded weight: 13,570 kg (29,915)
Max. takeoff weight: 15,210 kg (33,530 lb)
Powerplant:
1× Rolls-Royce RB.106-10S afterburning turbojet,
rated at 20,000 lbf (89 kN) dry and 26,000 lbf (116 kN) with afterburning
Performance:
Maximum speed:
- 1,150 km/h (620 kn, 715 mph, Mach 0.94) at sea level
- 2,230 km/h (1.202 kn, 1,386 mph, Mach 2.1;), clean with 2× Red Top AAMs at high altitude
- Mach 2.4 absolute top speed in clean configuration at 50.000 ft.
Range: 1,650 km (890 nmi, 1,025 mi) on internal fuel
Combat radius: 500 km (312 mi); clean, with a pair of wing tip Red Top AAMs
Ferry range: 1,270 mi (1.100 NM/ 2.040 km) with overwing tanks
Service ceiling: 16,760 m (55,000 ft)
Rate of climb: 136.7 m/s (27,000 ft/min)
Wing loading: 76 lb/ft² (370 kg/m²)
Thrust/weight: 0.78
Takeoff roll: 950 m (3,120 ft)
Landing roll: 700 m (2,300 ft)
Armament:
2× 30 mm (1.18 in) ADEN cannons with 120 RPG in the upper front fuselage
2× wing tip hardpoints for mounting air-to-air missiles (2 Red Top of Firestreak AAMs)
2× overwing pylon stations for 260 gal ferry tanks
Optional, but rarely used: 2× hardpoints under the front fuselage for mounting air-to-air missiles
(2 Red Top of Firestreak AAMs)
The kit and its assembly:
Another contribution to the Cold War GB at whatifmodelers.com, and the realization of a project I had on the agenda for long. The EE P.6/1 was a real project for a Mach 2+ research aircraft, as described above, but it never went off the drawing board. Its engine, the RB.106, also never saw the light of day, even though its later career as the Canadian Orenda Iroquois for the stillborn CF-105.
Building this aircraft as a model appears simple, because it’s a classic Lightning (actually a F.1 with the un-kinked wing and the small fin), just with a single engine and a rather tubular fuselage. But creating this is not easy at all…
I did not want to replicate the original P.6/1, but rather a service aircraft based on the research aircraft. Therefore I used parts from a Lightning F.6 (a vintage NOVO/Frog kit). For the fuselage I settled for a Su-17, from a MasterCraft kit. The kit’s selling point was its small price tag and the fuselage construction: the VG mechanism is hidden under a separate spine piece, and I wanted to transplant the Lightning’s spine and cockpit frame, so I thought that this would make things easier.
Nope.
Putting the parts from the VERY different kits/aircraft together was a major surgery feat, with several multiple PSR sessions on the fuselage, the air intake section (opened and fitted with both an internal splitter and a bulkhead to the cockpit section), the wings, the stabilizers, the fin… This model deserves the title “kitbash” like no other, because no major sections had ever been intended to be glued together, and in the intended position!
The landing gear was more or less taken OOB, but the main struts had to be elongated by 2mm – somehow the model turned out to be a low-riding tail sitter! The cockpit interior was improvised, too, consisting of a Su-17 cockpit tub, a scratched dashboard and a Martin Baker ejection seat from an Italeri Bae Hawk trainer.
Since most of the fuselage surface consists of various materials (styrene and two kinds of putty), I did not dare to engrave panel lines – after all the PSR work almost any surface detail was gone. I rather went for a graphic solution (see below). Some antennae and air scoops were added, though.
The overwing tanks come OOB from the NOVO kit, as well as the Red Top missiles, which ended up on improvised wing tip launch rails, based on design sketches for Lightning derivatives with this layout.
Colors and markings:
There are several “classic” RAF options, but I settled for a low-viz Eighties livery taken from BAC Lightnings. There’s a surprising variety of styles, and my version is a mix of several real world aircraft.
I settled for Dark Sea Grey upper surfaces (Modelmaster Authentic) with a high waterline, a fuselage completely in Medium Sea Grey (Humbrol 165 – had to be applied twice because the first tin I used was obviously old and the paint ended up in a tone not unlike PRU Blue!) and Light aircraft Grey underwing surfaces (Humbrol 166). The leading edges under the wings are Dark Sea Grey, too.
The cockpit interior was painted in dark grey (Humbrol 32 with some dry-brushing), while the landing gear is Aluminum (Humbrol 56).
Once the basic painting was done I had to deal with the missing panel lines on the fuselage and those raised lines that were sanded away during the building process. I decided to simulate these with a soft pencil, after the whole kit was buffed with a soft cotton cloth and some grinded graphite. This way, the remaining raised panel lines were emphasized, and from these the rest was drawn up. A ruler and masking tape were used as guidance for straight lines, and this worked better than expected, with good results.
As a next step, the newly created panels were highlighted with dry-brushed lighter tones of the basic paints (FS 36492 and WWII Italian Blue Grey from Modelmaster, and Humbrol 126), more for a dramatic than a weathered effect. The gun ports and the exhaust section were painted with Modelmaster Metallizer (Titanium and Magnesium).
The decals come from several Xtradecal aftermarket sheets, including a dedicated Lightning stencils sheet, another Lightning sheet with various squadron markings and a sheet for RAF Tornado ADVs.
The code number “XS970” was earmarked to a TSR.2, AFAIK, but since it was never used on a service aircraft it would be a good option for the Levin.
The kit received a coat of matt acrylic varnish from the rattle can – jn this case the finish was intended to bear a slight shine.
This was a project with LOTS of effort, but you hardly recognize it – it’s a single engine Lightning, so what? But welding the Lightning and Su-17 parts together for something that comes close to the P.6/1 necessitated LOTS of body work and improvisation, carving it from wood would probably have been the next complicated option. Except for the surprisingly long tail I am very happy with the result, despite the model’s shaggy origins, and the low-viz livery suits the sleek aircraft IMHO very well.
For more and various confidentiality contracts visit: www.samplecontracts.org/confidentiality-contracts.html
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🎮 Game : Hitman Codename 47
️ Platform : Computer
🎭 Style : Action/Stealth/Adventure
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✔️ Download VIDEO by L.Guidali : www.dropbox.com/s/7hdtjkqa359dvt8/cinematic-10-mission-12...
Hitman: Codename 47 is a stealth video game developed by IO Interactive and published by Eidos Interactive exclusively for Microsoft Windows. It is the first installment in the Hitman video game series.
The story centers on Agent 47, a genetically enhanced human clone branded with a barcode tattooed on the back of his head, who is rigorously trained in methods of murder. Upon escaping from a test facility, 47 is hired by the Agency, a European contract killing organization. His mission takes him to several locations in Asia and Europe to assassinate wealthy and decadent criminals.
In the basement of a remote sanatorium, a bald man, referred to as "Subject 47", is awakened by an unidentified man over a loudspeaker. Following the man's instructions, the Subject completes an obstacle course, undergoes firearms training, and practices various assassination techniques. He then ambushes and kills a guard, using his uniform to escape. The man watches him through the CCTV surveillance, with a satisfied laugh.
A year later, the Subject resurfaces as a hitman for the International Contract Agency (ICA), under the designation "Agent 47". He is briefed by his handler, Diana Burnwood, who sends him to Hong Kong to kill triad leader Lee Hong. He kills Hong's negotiator during a peace summit with a rival gang, frames him for a retaliatory car bombing, and assassinates the police chief protecting him, stripping Hong of his allies. He then infiltrates Hong's restaurant and assassinates him. For his next assignment, 47 travels to Colombia and kills cocaine trafficker Pablo Belisario Ochoa in a staged drug raid. His third target is Austrian mercenary Franz Fuchs, who has been hired to detonate a dirty bomb at an international conference in Budapest. 47 kills him at a hotel and recovers the bomb. His final contract takes him to Rotterdam, where he finds gunrunner Arkadij "Boris" Jegorov trying to sell weapons, including a nuclear warhead, to an extremist group. After confirming Jegorov's death, 47 finds a letter addressed to him, similar to the other three targets. He learns from Diana that all four were once part of a French Foreign Legion unit serving in Vietnam, and that they've been discussing something involving an "experimental human". The letters also mention a fifth man, Professor Ort-Meyer.
Diana then informs him that all four contracts were ordered by the same man in violation of Agency rules, and that her superiors have authorized an additional mission. 47 is to kill Odon Kovacs, a doctor at a sanatorium in Satu Mare, Romania, which turns out to be the one from which 47 escaped. Ort-Meyer is revealed to be the client, as well as the man who oversaw 47's orientation. Romanian special forces raid the building while 47 kills Kovacs, who he recognizes as Ort-Meyer's assistant.
47 then learns the truth behind his existence. He is the result of a cloning experiment which combined the genetic material of each of his four previous targets, as well as Ort-Meyer, with the goal of creating a flawless human being. Ort-Meyer orchestrated 47's escape from the asylum in order to test his performance in the outside world and ordered his associates' deaths because they wanted to use 47 for their own purposes.
With the help of CIA Agent Carlton Smith, who he rescued earlier during his time in Hong Kong, 47 discovers a sophisticated lab beneath the hospital. In response, Ort-Meyer reveals "Subject 48", a perfect replica of 47 who is both mindless and loyal. A squad of 48's are sent to hunt down 47, who manages to kill them using his superior training and experience.
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This 2010 Gillig BRT for SamTrans/MV Transportation is seen deadheading back to SamTrans territory after running a commute route to the San Francisco Transbay Terminal.
©FranksRails Photography, LLC.
The company is a front runner in offering contract manufacturing services to tablet manufacturers across the globe.
For more details: nueranutra.com/
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Demel
The title of this article is ambiguous. Other uses, see Demel (disambiguation).
K.u.K. Hofzuckerbäcker Ch Demel 's Söhne GmbH
Founded in 1786
Coffee and pastry industry
Products Coffee, tea, cakes
website www.Demel.at
Interior furnishings from Komptoir Demel in Vienna, from Portois Fix
When decorating goods Visitors may watch.
Demel is one of the most famous Viennese pastry at the carbon (cabbage) market (Kohlmarkt) 14 in the first Viennese district Innere Stadt. Demel was a k.u.k. Hofzuckerbäcker and runs this item today in public.
History
1778 came the of Wurttemberg stemming confectioner Ludwig Dehne to Vienna. 1786, he founded his pastry shot at the place of St. Michael. Dehne died in 1799 of tuberculosis. His widow then married the confectioner Gottlieb Wohlfahrt. In 1813 they bought the house in St. Michael's Square 14. Despite numerous innovations such as frozen the company's finances could not be rehabilitated. After the death of Gottlieb Wohlfahrt in 1826 the widow and her son from her first marriage August Dehne succeeded but the economic boom. August Dehne managed to great wealth, he invested in land. As the son of August Dehne struck another career as a lawyer, Dehne sold the confectionery in 1857 to his first mate Christoph Demel.
Demel also had success in the continuation of the company and established it to a Viennese institution. After the death of Christoph Demel in 1867 his sons Joseph and Charles took over the business, which is why it since "Christoph Demel 's Söhne" means. On request Demel received 1874 the Hoflieferantentitel (the titel as purveyor to the court). The proximity to the Imperial Palace directly opposite made business more profitable. The Hofburg borrowed from Demel occasionally staff and tableware for special occasions such as proms and parties. Recent developments in the art of confectionery were brought from Paris. Trained at Demel, professionals quickly found employment.
1888 Old Burgtheater was demolished at Michael's place and transformed the place. Demel had to move out of the house and he moved to the Kohlmarkt 14. The new store inside was equipped inside with high costs by purveyor to the court Portois & Fix. The interior is decorated in the style of Neo-Rococo with mahogany wood and mirrors. Regulars were members of the Viennese court as Empress Elisabeth, and other prominent members of the Vienna society of the time, the actress Katharina Schratt and Princess Pauline von Metternich. A peculiarity of Demel from the time of the monarchy is that the always female attendance, which originally was recruited from monastic students, is dressed in a black costume with a white apron. They are called Demelinerinnen and address the guest traditionally in a special "Demel German", which is a polite form of the third person plural, omitting the personal salutation and with questions such as "elected Have you?" or "want to eat?" was known.
After the death of Joseph and Carl Demel took over Carl's widow Maria in 1891 the management. She also received the k.u.k. Hoflieferantentitel. From 1911 to 1917 led Carl Demel (junior) the business and then his sister Anna Demel (4 March 1872 in Vienna - November 8, 1956 ibid ; born Siding). Under her leadership, the boxes and packaging were developed by the Wiener Werkstätte. Josef Hoffmann established in 1932 because of a contract the connection of the artist Friedrich Ludwig Berzeviczy-Pallavicini to Anna Demel. The design of the shop windows at that time was an important means of expression of the shops and there were discussions to whether they should be called visual or storefront (Seh- or Schaufenster - display window or look window). While under the Sehfenster (shop window) an informative presentation of goods was understood, the goods should be enhanced by staging the showcase. From 1933 until his emigration in 1938 took over Berzeviczy-Pallavicini the window dressing of Demel and married in 1936 Klara Demel, the adopted niece of Anna Demel.
During the Nazi regime in Austria the confectioner Demel got privileges from the district leadership because of its reputation. Baldur von Schirach and his wife took the confectioner under their personal protection, there were special allocations of gastronomic specialties from abroad in order to continue to survive. But while the two sat in the guest room and consumed cakes, provided the Demelinerinnen in a hallway between the kitchen and toilet political persecutws, so-called U-Boats. Those here were also hearing illegal radio stations and they discussed the latest news.
1952 Anna Demel was the first woman after the war to be awarded the title Kommerzialrat. She died in 1956. Klara Demel took over the management of the bakery. Berzeviczy-Pallavicini, who lived in the United States until then returned to Vienna. After Clara's death on 19 April 1965, he carried on the pastry. During his time at Demel he established the tradition to make from showpieces of the sugar and chocolate craft extravagant neo-baroque productions. Baron Berzeviczy sold the business in 1972 for economic reasons to the concealed appearing Udo Proksch, who established in 1973 in the first floor rooms for the Club 45; also Defence Minister Karl Lütgendorf had his own salon. After Proksch was arrested in 1989 in connection with the Lucona scandal, he sold Demel to the non-industry German entrepreneur Günter Wichmann. 1993 it came to insolvency. Raiffeisen Bank Vienna as principal creditor, acquired the property in 1994 from the bankrupt company to initially continue itself the traditional Viennese company through a subsidiary. In the process of the renovation in March 1995 on the fourth floor were mura painting from the 18th century exposed and the baroque courtyard covered by a glass construction which since the re-opening on 18 April 1996 can be used as Schanigarten (pavement café) or conservatory.
In 2002 the catering company Do & Co took over the Demel. The company was awarded with the "Golden Coffee Bean " of Jacobs coffee in 1999. Demel now has additional locations in Salzburg and New York.
Products
Demel chocolate products
One of the most famous specialty of the house is " Demel's Sachertorte" . The world-famous Sachertorte was invented by Franz Sacher, but completed only in its today known form by his son Eduard Sacher while training in Demel. After a 1938 out of court enclosed process occurred after the Second World War a till 1965 during dispute between Demel and the Sacher Hotel: The hotel insisted on its naming rights, Demel, however, could pointing out already since the invention of the "Original Sacher" called pie "having used the denomination". Demel had after the death of Anna Sacher in 1930, under defined conditions, the generation and distribution rights for "Eduard-Sacher-Torte" received. The dispute was settled in favor of the Hotel Sacher and the Demelsche cake is today, "Demel 's Sachertorte" and is still made by hand. While a layer of apricot jam under the chocolate icing and another in the center of the cake can be found in the "Original Sacher-Torte", is in "Demel 's Sachertorte " the layer in the middle omitted.
Besides the Sachertorte helped another specialty the pastry to world fame: the original gingerbread figures whose modeling came from the collection of Count Johann Nepomuk Graf Wilczek on Castle Kreuzenstein. Then there are the Demel cake (almond-orange mass with blackcurrant jam, marzipan and chocolate coating), Anna Torte, Dobos cake, cake trays, Russian Punch Cake, Esterházy cake, apple strudel and other confectionary specialties. Popular with many tourists are the candied violets with which Demel earlier supplied the imperial court and they allegedly have been the Lieblingsnaschereien (favorite candies) of Empress Elisabeth ("Sisi"). Rooms in the upper floors as the Pictures Room, Gold Room and the Silver rooms are rented for events. In addition to the pastry shop Demel operates, as it did at the time of the monarchy, a catering service, after the re-opening in 1996 as well as storage, shipping and packaging was desettled in the 22nd District of Vienna. Demel is also responsible for the catering at Niki Aviation.
Forest Contract Ltd is a leading Contract Furniture Supplier in UK. We manufacture quality furniture for hotel, offices and restaurants for commercial purposes.
Thornton Heaths allocation of Enviro 400 type vehicles as part of the contract renewal in August 2010 sees routes 109/198/250 with a mix of the old DLA & new Enviros.
T125 passes West Croydon station now on the Overground system, which is ideal for getting across London without having to go to the centre of Town.The new station signs however are about as far as they have got in the way of modernisation.
Early juveniles in August when all or most adults dead. Similar form to adults, but periostracum thinner and paler, and spire protrudes less.
Maximum dimension 4.1 mm and 3.3 mm, Portlethen, north-east Scotland, August 1970.
Full SPECIES DESCRIPTION BELOW
Revised PDF available at www.researchgate.net/publication/372768813_Lacuna_pallidu....
Sets of OTHER SPECIES at: www.flickr.com/photos/56388191@N08/collections/
Lacuna pallidula (da Costa, 1778)
Synonyms: Cochlea pallidula da Costa, 1778; Lacuna neritoidea Gould, 1840; Lacuna patula Thorpe, 1844; Lacuna retusa Brown.
Current taxonomy: WoRMS www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=140168
Vernacular: Pallid chink shell; Pale lacuna; Gwichiad agennog gwelw (Welsh); Lacuna pâle (French); Lavspiret grubesnegl (Danish); Bleke scheefhoren (Dutch); Blek lagunsnäcka (Swedish).
Shell description
The largest dimension of female shells is up to about 12 mm fig. 01 flic.kr/p/2kNQ7pc and males grow to 6 mm. The species has an annual life cycle; all or most adults are dead by June. Their small juvenile offspring occur in summer fig. 02 flic.kr/p/2kGH2G9 , growing to full size in winter. The body whorl forms the great majority of the shell, and the very small spire is sunk below the upper margin in most views. Juveniles are similar in form with a slightly lower spire. Sutures between the whorls are distinct. The smooth surface has no sculpture apart from numerous, growth lines.
One face of the hollow columella is missing, exposing a long wide columellar groove (lacuna, chink or canal), leading to a large funnel-like umbilicus fig. 03 flic.kr/p/2kNL1YB . On some specimens the columellar groove is indistinct and the umbilicus reduced fig. 04 flic.kr/p/2kNPCc9 and fig. 05 flic.kr/p/2oQ83ra .
The very large ‘D’ shape aperture is as high as the whole shell, and it occupies about 75% of the area in apertural-view images fig. 01 flic.kr/p/2kNQ7pc . The palatal lip is semi-circular, and it continues along the abapertural side of the columellar groove. The wide, white columellar lip forms the adapertural edge of the groove fig. 03 flic.kr/p/2kNL1YB .
The ‘D’ shape operculum is a rapidly expanding oligogyrous spiral with its off-centre nucleus close to the base of the columellar lip. It is transparent, tinted yellow fig. 04 flic.kr/p/2kNPCc9 & fig. 06 flic.kr/p/2kNL1Ut or nearly colourless fig. 05 flic.kr/p/2oQ83ra . The substantial periostracum is olive-brown with distinct growth lines on large specimens fig. 07 flic.kr/p/2kNQ773, and it usually extends beyond the lip of the aperture fig. 04 flic.kr/p/2kNPCc9 . Under the periostracum, the calcareous shell is white or yellowish white fig. 01 flic.kr/p/2kNQ7pc . Live adults with a thick opaque periostracum are olive-green/brown in water fig. 08 flic.kr/p/2kNPC3g becoming dull brown when dead and dried fig. 01 flic.kr/p/2kNQ7pc . There are no coloured bands or variegation at any stage.
Body description
The flesh is translucent white with varying amounts of yellow or pink tinting fig. 07 flic.kr/p/2kNQ773 and fig. 05 flic.kr/p/2oQ83ra . The snout is ventrally slit fig.06 flic.kr/p/2kNL1Ut and usually rolled into a cylinder fig. 09 flic.kr/p/2oQ92WM . The extended cephalic tentacles are long, smooth, translucent whitish and taper to a blunt tip. When contracted they wrinkle and any yellow tint is intensified fig. 08 flic.kr/p/2kNPC3g . There is a black eye on a slight bulge at the base of each tentacle fig. 07 flic.kr/p/2kNQ773 . The roof of the mantle cavity is whitish translucent showing the colour of the shell except for the mantle edge which is thick and sometimes yellowish fig. 09 flic.kr/p/2oQ92WM . The foot is white with varying amounts of yellow or pink fig. 07 flic.kr/p/2kNQ773 , especially on the opercular disc which supports, and is visible under and through, the transparent operculum fig. 05 flic.kr/p/2oQ83ra and fig. 09 flic.kr/p/2oQ92WM . The two small, flat metapodial tentacles protrude beyond the posterior of the operculum fig. 09 flic.kr/p/2oQ92WM .
Key identification features
Lacuna pallidula
1) Columellar groove (lacuna or chink) leads to umbilicus fig. 01 flic.kr/p/2kNQ7pc but is sometimes sealed over fig. 04 flic.kr/p/2kNPCc9 .
2) Largest dimensions up to 12 mm (female) and 6 mm (male). Hardly any of the spire protrudes beyond the body whorl fig. 01 flic.kr/p/2kNQ7pc
3) Very large ‘D’ shape aperture equals shell height and occupies about 75% of area in apertural view fig. 01 flic.kr/p/2kNQ7pc.
4) Shell olive-brown with no spiral bands fig. 08 flic.kr/p/2kNPC3g .
5) Body white fig. 07 flic.kr/p/2kNQ773 , sometimes yellowish or pinkish; no grey stipple.
6) Found mainly on Fucus serratus and sometimes on Laminaria.
Similar species
Lacuna parva (da Costa, 1778) fig. 10 flic.kr/p/2kNL1A2 .
1) Columellar groove (“lacuna” or “chink) leads to umbilicus. 2) Usual maximum height 4 mm; sometimes 6 mm. Spire 30% to 40% of shell height.
3) Aperture occupies about 50% of area in apertural-view images.
4) Body whorl has three brown spiral bands; basal band 1 easily overlooked if base of shell not examined. Some shells are uniform white or brown with no bands.
5) Body translucent white, usually stippled grey.
6) Found mainly, especially when young, on small red weeds. Sometimes on fucoids.
Littorina fabalis (W. Turton, 1825) and
L. obtusata (Linnaeus, 1758) fig. 11 flic.kr/p/2kNPBJk .
1) No columellar groove or umbilicus.
2) Maximum dimension up to 17 mm. Very large body whorl and small spire.
3) Aperture occupies about 50% of area in apertural-view images.
4) Shell of L. obtusata is sometimes greenish olive.
5) Body varied shades of yellow, brown or black.
6) Found on Fucus serratus (L. fabalis) or Ascophyllum (L. obtusata) and on Fucus vesiculosus (both).
Lacuna vincta (Montagu, 1803) fig. 12 flic.kr/p/2kNQ6PK .
1) Columellar groove (“lacuna” or “chink”) leads to umbilicus. 2) Maximum height about 10 mm. Well developed spire about 50% of adult shell height, and about 30% on juveniles less than 3 mm high.
3) Aperture occupies about 30% of area in apertural-view images of full grown adults.
4) Body whorl has four brown spiral bands.
5) Body whitish with grey, yellow, orange and/or aquamarine parts.
6) Found on Laminaria and, especially juveniles, on small red weeds. Also on Zostera and sometimes on fucoids.
Lacuna crassior (Montagu, 1803) fig. 13 flic.kr/p/2kGH26u
1) Wide white columellar shelf. Usually no groove or umbilicus but sometimes small ones present.
2) Distinct spire about 50% of mature shell height, about 45% when younger.
3) Aperture occupies about 30% of area in apertural view.
4) Shell when live, has translucent, yellowish-brown spire and brownish-white body whorl. Thick periostracum has distinct, raised, transverse (costal) ridges. Dead dry shells are dull yellowish-brown if periostracum retained, yellowish white with faint spiral lines if periostracum worn off.
5) Body translucent whitish.
6) A rare species which often associates with the bryozoan Alcyonidium diaphanum.
Habits and ecology
L. pallidula feeds on the surface of Fucus serratus (Smith, 1973) and Laminaria (Lebour, 1937) near low water on rocky shores and to 70 metres depth. It is usually absent where turbidity or soft substrate prevents growth of F. serratus. It cannot survive desiccation. Some populations live in the Baltic in salinity down to 12‰.
It moves with a bipedal stepping motion, lifting alternately the right and left sides of the foot. It breeds in late winter and spring, sometimes extending into summer and autumn, with a maximum in February to May in Britain, but precise dates vary regionally. The spawn mass is a low gelatinous dome with an almost circular, oval base (not kidney-shape), diameter 3.9 mm to 5.3 mm (Lebour, 1937), laid on fronds of F. serratus or Laminaria. There are up to about 200 ova per spawn mass fig. 14 flic.kr/p/2kNQ71M . In the low salinity Øresund, Denmark, the masses are smaller with as few as 13 ova (Thorson, 1946 in Fretter & Graham, 1962).
Fretter and Graham (1962) reported confusion with the spawn of “Littorina littoralis” (the name mistakenly used formerly by British authors for an aggregate of Littorina obtusata and L. fabalis). The limited material examined for this account suggests the confusion is with L. fabalis which lives on F. serratus at the same shore level and lays similar, almost circular oval spawn masses, while L. obtusata lives higher up the shore, favouring Ascophyllum, and often lays kidney-shaped spawn masses up to 7 mm long. The difference between the spawn masses of L. fabalis and Lacuna pallidula may be that the latter has a distinctly bevelled peripheral rim while the surface of the former slopes to the substrate without a break in slope fig. 14 flic.kr/p/2kNQ71M . But more investigation is required to test these suggestions; the difference might be due to age of spawn mass. Lacuna parva also has similar spawn but it is found on red algae and is smaller, about 2.5 mm diameter with about 50 ova in Britain fig. 14 flic.kr/p/2kNQ71M ; 2.2 mm to 2.5 mm with 6 to16 ova in the brackish Øresund (Ockelmann & Nielsen, 1981 in Wigham & Graham, 2017).
The individual egg capsules of L. pallidula become angular as they swell and become crowded and compressed. There is no planktonic veliger stage; young emerge as tiny crawling snails. Through a microscope, just before hatching, two tentacular extensions of the opercular disc protruding beyond the operculum may be detected on the embryos within the clear capsules (Fretter & Graham, 1962). Males die after mating, and the females about a month later, so all or most adults breeding in the main period are dead by June or July, and few specimens over 5 mm high can be found in August fig. 02 flic.kr/p/2kGH2G9 . Both sexes grow rapidly until October. From October to February males grow slowly, but females at three times their rate so that by breeding time they are over twice as high as males (Thorson, 1946 in Fretter & Graham, 1962). When mating, the small male rides on the female’s shell near the aperture with his penis inserted into her mantle cavity.
Distribution and status
L. pallidula occurs from northern Norway and Iceland to Atlantic Spain and New England (USA). GBIF map www.gbif.org/species/2301181
It is found all around Britain and Ireland, but is scarce or absent in the north-eastern Irish Sea and southern North Sea where lack of hard substrate and/or turbidity hinder the growth of Fucus serratus and Laminaria. UK distribution map NBN species.nbnatlas.org/species/NBNSYS0000175975#tab_mapView
Acknowledgements
For use of an image, I thank Rob Durrant.
References and links
Forbes, E. & Hanley S. 1849-53. A history of the British mollusca and their shells. vol. 3 (1853), London, van Voorst. archive.org/details/historyofbritish03forbe/page/56/mode/2up
Also plate LXX11 at end of vol.4, fig. 1 & 2, also fig. 3 & 4 labelled “L. patula” archive.org/details/historyofbritish04forbe/page/n459/mod...
Fretter, V. and Graham, A. 1962. British prosobranch molluscs. London, Ray Society.
Graham, A. 1988. Molluscs: prosobranch and pyramidellid gastropods. Synopses of the British Fauna (New Series) no.2 (Second edition). Leiden, E.J.Brill/Dr. W. Backhuys. 662 pp.
Jeffreys, J.G. 1862-69. British conchology. vol. 3 (1865). London, van Voorst.
archive.org/details/britishconcholog03jeffr/page/350/mode...
Lebour, M.V. 1937. The eggs and larvae of the British prosobranchs with special reference to those living in the plankton. J. mar. biol. Ass. U.K., 22: 105 – 166. plymsea.ac.uk/953/
Ockelmann, K. W. and Nielsen, C. 1981. On the biology of the prosobranch Lacuna parva in the Øresund. Ophelia 20: 1-16.
Abstract at www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00785236.1981.10426559
Smith, D. A. S. 1973. The population biology of Lacuna pallidula (da Costa) and Lacuna vincta (Montagu) in north-east England. J. mar. biol. Ass. U.K., 53: 493-520.
Thorson, G. 1946. Reproduction and larval development of the Danish marine bottom invertebrates. Meddelelser fra Kommissionen for Danmarks Fiskeri- og Havundersøgelser, Serie Plankton 4: 1-523.
Wigham, G.D. & Graham, A. 2017. Marine gastropods 2: Littorinimorpha and other, unassigned, Caenogastropoda. Synopses of the British Fauna (New Series) no.61. (344 pages). Field Studies Council, Telford, England.
Glossary
‰ = (salinity) parts salt per thousand parts water (brackish <30‰).
abapertural = away from the aperture.
abapical = away from the apex of the shell.
adapertural = towards the aperture
adapical = towards the apex of the shell.
aperture = mouth of gastropod shell; outlet for head and foot.
apical = at or near the apex.
chink = (see columellar groove).
columella = solid or hollow axis around which gastropod shell spirals; concealed except next to aperture where hollow ones may end in an umbilicus, slit or siphonal canal.
columellar = (adj.) of or near central axis of spiral gastropod,
columellar groove = Groove where one face of hollow columella missing, terminates in umbilicus. Also called “lacuna” or “chink.
columellar lip = lower (abapical) part of inner lip of aperture.
cephalic = (adj.) of the head.
costa = (pl. costae) rib crossing a whorl of a gastropod shell at about 90° to direction of coiling and any spiral ribs or lines.
costal = (adj.) of, or arranged like, costae.
ctenidium = comb-like molluscan gill; usually an axis with a row of filaments either side.
height = (of gastropod shells) distance from apex of spire to base of aperture.
lacuna = (see columellar groove).
mantle = sheet of tissue that secretes the shell and forms a cavity for the gill.
oligogyrous = (of a spiral) having few turns.
operculum = plate of horny conchiolin used to close shell aperture.
palatal lip = outer lip of gastropod aperture.
parietal lip = upper (adapical) part of inner lip of gastropod aperture that lies, often as a glaze, on surface of whorl.
periostracum = thin horny layer of conchiolin often coating shells.
plankton = animals and plants that drift in pelagic zone (main body of water).
protoconch = apical whorls produced during embryonic and larval stages of gastropod; often different in form from other whorls.
suture = groove or line where whorls adjoin.
umbilicus = cavity up axis of some gastropods, open as a hole or chink on base of shell, sometimes sealed over.
umbilical groove = narrow slit opening of umbilicus on some gastropods.
veliger = shelled larva of marine gastropod or bivalve mollusc which swims by beating cilia of a velum (bilobed flap).
AFGE signs collective bargaining agreement with Defense Contract Audit Agency officials Thursday, Feb. 6 2014.
MTS' Contract Services division fleet at the South Bay Maintenance Facility in Chula Vista. The bus in front, a 1995 New Flyer C40HF, is one of a large fleet that replaced the other three bus types in this photo, all GMCs.
AFGE signs collective bargaining agreement with Defense Contract Audit Agency officials Thursday, Feb. 6 2014.
Since I'm home sick, I might as well make myself look how horrible I feel. I used alcohol activated paints and different eyeshadows and highlighters to make this makeup look. I will be putting this into photoshop later.
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HDR. AEB +/-3 total of 7 exposures processed with Photomatix. Colors adjusted in PSE.
High-dynamic-range imaging (HDRI) is a high dynamic range (HDR) technique used in imaging and photography to reproduce a greater dynamic range of luminosity than is possible with standard digital imaging or photographic techniques. The aim is to present a similar range of luminance to that experienced through the human visual system. The human eye, through adaptation of the iris and other methods, adjusts constantly to adapt to a broad range of luminance present in the environment. The brain continuously interprets this information so that a viewer can see in a wide range of light conditions.
HDR images can represent a greater range of luminance levels than can be achieved using more 'traditional' methods, such as many real-world scenes containing very bright, direct sunlight to extreme shade, or very faint nebulae. This is often achieved by capturing and then combining several different, narrower range, exposures of the same subject matter. Non-HDR cameras take photographs with a limited exposure range, referred to as LDR, resulting in the loss of detail in highlights or shadows.
The two primary types of HDR images are computer renderings and images resulting from merging multiple low-dynamic-range (LDR) or standard-dynamic-range (SDR) photographs. HDR images can also be acquired using special image sensors, such as an oversampled binary image sensor.
Due to the limitations of printing and display contrast, the extended luminosity range of an HDR image has to be compressed to be made visible. The method of rendering an HDR image to a standard monitor or printing device is called tone mapping. This method reduces the overall contrast of an HDR image to facilitate display on devices or printouts with lower dynamic range, and can be applied to produce images with preserved local contrast (or exaggerated for artistic effect).
In photography, dynamic range is measured in exposure value (EV) differences (known as stops). An increase of one EV, or 'one stop', represents a doubling of the amount of light. Conversely, a decrease of one EV represents a halving of the amount of light. Therefore, revealing detail in the darkest of shadows requires high exposures, while preserving detail in very bright situations requires very low exposures. Most cameras cannot provide this range of exposure values within a single exposure, due to their low dynamic range. High-dynamic-range photographs are generally achieved by capturing multiple standard-exposure images, often using exposure bracketing, and then later merging them into a single HDR image, usually within a photo manipulation program). Digital images are often encoded in a camera's raw image format, because 8-bit JPEG encoding does not offer a wide enough range of values to allow fine transitions (and regarding HDR, later introduces undesirable effects due to lossy compression).
Any camera that allows manual exposure control can make images for HDR work, although one equipped with auto exposure bracketing (AEB) is far better suited. Images from film cameras are less suitable as they often must first be digitized, so that they can later be processed using software HDR methods.
In most imaging devices, the degree of exposure to light applied to the active element (be it film or CCD) can be altered in one of two ways: by either increasing/decreasing the size of the aperture or by increasing/decreasing the time of each exposure. Exposure variation in an HDR set is only done by altering the exposure time and not the aperture size; this is because altering the aperture size also affects the depth of field and so the resultant multiple images would be quite different, preventing their final combination into a single HDR image.
An important limitation for HDR photography is that any movement between successive images will impede or prevent success in combining them afterwards. Also, as one must create several images (often three or five and sometimes more) to obtain the desired luminance range, such a full 'set' of images takes extra time. HDR photographers have developed calculation methods and techniques to partially overcome these problems, but the use of a sturdy tripod is, at least, advised.
Some cameras have an auto exposure bracketing (AEB) feature with a far greater dynamic range than others, from the 3 EV of the Canon EOS 40D, to the 18 EV of the Canon EOS-1D Mark II. As the popularity of this imaging method grows, several camera manufactures are now offering built-in HDR features. For example, the Pentax K-7 DSLR has an HDR mode that captures an HDR image and outputs (only) a tone mapped JPEG file. The Canon PowerShot G12, Canon PowerShot S95 and Canon PowerShot S100 offer similar features in a smaller format.. Nikon's approach is called 'Active D-Lighting' which applies exposure compensation and tone mapping to the image as it comes from the sensor, with the accent being on retaing a realistic effect . Some smartphones provide HDR modes, and most mobile platforms have apps that provide HDR picture taking.
Camera characteristics such as gamma curves, sensor resolution, noise, photometric calibration and color calibration affect resulting high-dynamic-range images.
Color film negatives and slides consist of multiple film layers that respond to light differently. As a consequence, transparent originals (especially positive slides) feature a very high dynamic range
Tone mapping
Tone mapping reduces the dynamic range, or contrast ratio, of an entire image while retaining localized contrast. Although it is a distinct operation, tone mapping is often applied to HDRI files by the same software package.
Several software applications are available on the PC, Mac and Linux platforms for producing HDR files and tone mapped images. Notable titles include
Adobe Photoshop
Aurora HDR
Dynamic Photo HDR
HDR Efex Pro
HDR PhotoStudio
Luminance HDR
MagicRaw
Oloneo PhotoEngine
Photomatix Pro
PTGui
Information stored in high-dynamic-range images typically corresponds to the physical values of luminance or radiance that can be observed in the real world. This is different from traditional digital images, which represent colors as they should appear on a monitor or a paper print. Therefore, HDR image formats are often called scene-referred, in contrast to traditional digital images, which are device-referred or output-referred. Furthermore, traditional images are usually encoded for the human visual system (maximizing the visual information stored in the fixed number of bits), which is usually called gamma encoding or gamma correction. The values stored for HDR images are often gamma compressed (power law) or logarithmically encoded, or floating-point linear values, since fixed-point linear encodings are increasingly inefficient over higher dynamic ranges.
HDR images often don't use fixed ranges per color channel—other than traditional images—to represent many more colors over a much wider dynamic range. For that purpose, they don't use integer values to represent the single color channels (e.g., 0-255 in an 8 bit per pixel interval for red, green and blue) but instead use a floating point representation. Common are 16-bit (half precision) or 32-bit floating point numbers to represent HDR pixels. However, when the appropriate transfer function is used, HDR pixels for some applications can be represented with a color depth that has as few as 10–12 bits for luminance and 8 bits for chrominance without introducing any visible quantization artifacts.
History of HDR photography
The idea of using several exposures to adequately reproduce a too-extreme range of luminance was pioneered as early as the 1850s by Gustave Le Gray to render seascapes showing both the sky and the sea. Such rendering was impossible at the time using standard methods, as the luminosity range was too extreme. Le Gray used one negative for the sky, and another one with a longer exposure for the sea, and combined the two into one picture in positive.
Mid 20th century
Manual tone mapping was accomplished by dodging and burning – selectively increasing or decreasing the exposure of regions of the photograph to yield better tonality reproduction. This was effective because the dynamic range of the negative is significantly higher than would be available on the finished positive paper print when that is exposed via the negative in a uniform manner. An excellent example is the photograph Schweitzer at the Lamp by W. Eugene Smith, from his 1954 photo essay A Man of Mercy on Dr. Albert Schweitzer and his humanitarian work in French Equatorial Africa. The image took 5 days to reproduce the tonal range of the scene, which ranges from a bright lamp (relative to the scene) to a dark shadow.
Ansel Adams elevated dodging and burning to an art form. Many of his famous prints were manipulated in the darkroom with these two methods. Adams wrote a comprehensive book on producing prints called The Print, which prominently features dodging and burning, in the context of his Zone System.
With the advent of color photography, tone mapping in the darkroom was no longer possible due to the specific timing needed during the developing process of color film. Photographers looked to film manufacturers to design new film stocks with improved response, or continued to shoot in black and white to use tone mapping methods.
Color film capable of directly recording high-dynamic-range images was developed by Charles Wyckoff and EG&G "in the course of a contract with the Department of the Air Force". This XR film had three emulsion layers, an upper layer having an ASA speed rating of 400, a middle layer with an intermediate rating, and a lower layer with an ASA rating of 0.004. The film was processed in a manner similar to color films, and each layer produced a different color. The dynamic range of this extended range film has been estimated as 1:108. It has been used to photograph nuclear explosions, for astronomical photography, for spectrographic research, and for medical imaging. Wyckoff's detailed pictures of nuclear explosions appeared on the cover of Life magazine in the mid-1950s.
Late 20th century
Georges Cornuéjols and licensees of his patents (Brdi, Hymatom) introduced the principle of HDR video image, in 1986, by interposing a matricial LCD screen in front of the camera's image sensor, increasing the sensors dynamic by five stops. The concept of neighborhood tone mapping was applied to video cameras by a group from the Technion in Israel led by Dr. Oliver Hilsenrath and Prof. Y.Y.Zeevi who filed for a patent on this concept in 1988.
In February and April 1990, Georges Cornuéjols introduced the first real-time HDR camera that combined two images captured by a sensor3435 or simultaneously3637 by two sensors of the camera. This process is known as bracketing used for a video stream.
In 1991, the first commercial video camera was introduced that performed real-time capturing of multiple images with different exposures, and producing an HDR video image, by Hymatom, licensee of Georges Cornuéjols.
Also in 1991, Georges Cornuéjols introduced the HDR+ image principle by non-linear accumulation of images to increase the sensitivity of the camera: for low-light environments, several successive images are accumulated, thus increasing the signal to noise ratio.
In 1993, another commercial medical camera producing an HDR video image, by the Technion.
Modern HDR imaging uses a completely different approach, based on making a high-dynamic-range luminance or light map using only global image operations (across the entire image), and then tone mapping the result. Global HDR was first introduced in 19931 resulting in a mathematical theory of differently exposed pictures of the same subject matter that was published in 1995 by Steve Mann and Rosalind Picard.
On October 28, 1998, Ben Sarao created one of the first nighttime HDR+G (High Dynamic Range + Graphic image)of STS-95 on the launch pad at NASA's Kennedy Space Center. It consisted of four film images of the shuttle at night that were digitally composited with additional digital graphic elements. The image was first exhibited at NASA Headquarters Great Hall, Washington DC in 1999 and then published in Hasselblad Forum, Issue 3 1993, Volume 35 ISSN 0282-5449.
The advent of consumer digital cameras produced a new demand for HDR imaging to improve the light response of digital camera sensors, which had a much smaller dynamic range than film. Steve Mann developed and patented the global-HDR method for producing digital images having extended dynamic range at the MIT Media Laboratory. Mann's method involved a two-step procedure: (1) generate one floating point image array by global-only image operations (operations that affect all pixels identically, without regard to their local neighborhoods); and then (2) convert this image array, using local neighborhood processing (tone-remapping, etc.), into an HDR image. The image array generated by the first step of Mann's process is called a lightspace image, lightspace picture, or radiance map. Another benefit of global-HDR imaging is that it provides access to the intermediate light or radiance map, which has been used for computer vision, and other image processing operations.
21st century
In 2005, Adobe Systems introduced several new features in Photoshop CS2 including Merge to HDR, 32 bit floating point image support, and HDR tone mapping.
On June 30, 2016, Microsoft added support for the digital compositing of HDR images to Windows 10 using the Universal Windows Platform.
HDR sensors
Modern CMOS image sensors can often capture a high dynamic range from a single exposure. The wide dynamic range of the captured image is non-linearly compressed into a smaller dynamic range electronic representation. However, with proper processing, the information from a single exposure can be used to create an HDR image.
Such HDR imaging is used in extreme dynamic range applications like welding or automotive work. Some other cameras designed for use in security applications can automatically provide two or more images for each frame, with changing exposure. For example, a sensor for 30fps video will give out 60fps with the odd frames at a short exposure time and the even frames at a longer exposure time. Some of the sensor may even combine the two images on-chip so that a wider dynamic range without in-pixel compression is directly available to the user for display or processing.