One of my fave places.

Arundel is a market town and civil parish in a steep vale of the South Downs, West Sussex, England. The much-conserved town has a medieval castle and Roman Catholic cathedral. Wikipedia

SA Police Museum.

This police museum was established in 1977 to conserve and detail some of the work and achievements of South Australian police personnel. The museum has five main galleries with different themes as well as a collection of police uniforms, police cars and motor cycles etc. The history of the South Australian Mounted Police Force began in 1838 making it the third oldest organised police force in the world after England and Ireland! Henry Inman was the first police chief in April 1838. The mounted police and their horses were in a paddock behind the SA Museum which later became their barracks and the state armoury site. They wore blue British style uniforms with a differences between the uniforms of footed and mounted officers. Our forward thinking police department was the first in Australia to introduce bicycles for officers in 1893 and they were not totally replaced by motor cycles until the 1950s. More significant than the introduction of bicycles was the introduction of female police officers 1915 – the second country in the British Empire to do so after NSW which also introduced female officers in 1915. These female officers received the same pay and had the same conditions as the men. The first female officers who were instrumental in having the women’s force established were Kate Cocks and Annie Ross. Kate Cocks had worked in Children’s Welfare before being transferred to the Police Department. The responsibilities of these two women centred on women and violence, prostitution and youth sex offences. SA also followed NSW’s early introduction of finger printing, the earliest form of forensic science in the police force in 1894. But SA provided the new Commonwealth of Australia with a uniform system of finger printing which was adopted across all states in 1904. The Police Museum also has a replica of a Black Maria police van for transporting criminals in a secure horse drawn carriage. The Black Maria’s were introduced in 1874 and used until replaced by motor vehicles in 1928.

  

Police Barracks.

Law and order in the British colony of South Australia was undertaken by British troops in the first instance from December 1836 until the Police Act was passed in 1839. Then a local force of ten mounted officers and ten foot constables was established with ongoing support from the British troops in the colony. South Australia was the first colony to have a police force but the first three heads were all dismissed in early years: the first for selling sly grog in 1837; the second for dishonesty and the third a few years later in 1856. He was Commissioner Tolmer who was sacked for undermining his subordinates. The force was officially created in April 1838 and soon established itself once Governor Gawler arrived in October 1838. He introduced uniforms for the officers. Apart from keeping the peace the officers were often involved with protecting colonists from bushrangers or escaped convicts and ensuring peaceful relations between Aborigines and some local pastoralists.

 

Conflict between whites and Aborigines was reported and acted upon quickly but not often to the satisfaction of the Aboriginal people. Aborigines were not allowed to give evidence in court cases although they were to be protected by British law and the Protector of Aborigines. Despite the lack of fair trials one white man was hung in 1846 at Rivoli Bay for murdering an Aboriginal man. Racial tensions between settlers and Aborigines continued in the 1840s but was largely quelled by 1850 even on Eyre Peninsula which had witnessed a number of white murders and retaliative attacks by whites. By the early 1850s Aboriginal or Native constables, who were paid one shilling a day, were also employed with almost 50 on the payroll by then. The first Premier of South Australia Boyle Travers Finniss became Police Commissioner in 1843 succeeding Captain O’Halloran and he was eventually replaced with Inspector Alexander Tolmer in 1853. He established the Escort route from the Victorian goldfields for SA residents returning with gold for the Adelaide Assay Office. Police stations were spread across the colony from Mt Gambier to Port Lincoln and Melrose in the north and Wellington in the east and major towns like Gawler, Strathalbyn, Willunga, Burra and Kapunda totalling about 20 police stations in the colony. In 1853 there were 126 police officers and 16 Native constables in the police force a sudden decrease from a year or so earlier.

 

In 1851 the first section of police barracks and stables for the mounted police was erected just off North Terrace. They are now behind the South Australian Museum. The main police station was in King William Street. The colonial engineer and early Surveyor General Captain Freeling designed the first barrack buildings of 1851. The limestone pointed stone Gothic style buildings were added to in 1855 to form a quadrangle in case this was needed for defensive circumstances, but primarily to create an enclosed parade ground for the police and the military.

Des stalles du château de Gaillon sont conservées dans la basilique Saint-Denis près de Paris. Ce château était la résidence de loisir des archevêques de Rouen. Commandées au début du XVIe siècle par Georges d’Amboise, ces stalles ont été construites lorsque cet archevêque, devenu légat du pape et premier conseiller de Louis XII a fait transformer le château médiéval en palais de la Renaissance. Seules stalles en France à présenter de nombreux panneaux de marqueterie et une iconographie inédite, elles forment un mobilier unique, chef-d’œuvre de cette période charnière entre gothique et Renaissance, arborant une grande mixité de styles. Ces stalles sont les chaires qui étaient destinées aux trois chanoines qui officiaient dans la chapelle haute du château de Gaillon, dédiée à saint Georges. Elles étaient ceintes d’une clôture en boiset constituaient ainsi le chœur liturgique de l'édifice.

 

Les stalles en chêne sont composées de deux rangées disposées côté nord et sud du transept de la basilique de Saint-Denis. La rangée nord présente un ensemble de six stalles, la rangée sud de cinq stalles et une isolée. Seules douze stalles ont été créées au XVIe siècle alors que le programme iconographique en prévoyait quatorze. De 2,83 m de haut, elles composées d’un siège et d’un dorsal, ce dernier comprenant deux registres : un bas-relief surmontant un panneau de marqueterie. Tous les éléments sont sculptés ou marquetés. De manière unique, les dossiers, les dorsaux et les voussures des dais sont galbés. De même les chaires ont des largeurs variées, fixées par celles des bas-reliefs des dorsaux. Pour s’adapter, les largeurs d’autres composants ont été rectifiées. La mixité de style se retrouve dans la globalité, les interdorsaux et deux dais étant gothiques alors que les faibles reliefs sont apparentés aux grotesques de la Renaissance, les bas-reliefs et les marqueteries des dorsaux étant quant à eux à la fois d’inspiration péninsulaire et septentrionale.

 

Sont illustrées sur les bas-reliefs originaux des dorsaux deux scènes de la vie d’Anne et Joachim, parents de la vierge Marie, cinq scènes de la vie de saint Jean-Baptiste le précurseur et sept scènes de la vie de saint Georges selon les textes d’Évangile ou de la Légende dorée. Nombre d’autres saints sont présentés en pied, sous forme de statuettes sur les interdorsaux ou de bas-reliefs sur les soubassements des jouées, notamment les quatre évangélistes sur ces derniers. Sur les panneaux marquetés des quadrants des parcloses sont figurées les affres des enfers des condamnés selon les sept péchés capitaux, avec les planètes et leurs influences. Les représentations sont inspirées des gravures du Calendrier des bergers imprimé à cette époque.

 

Les miséricordes figurent des scènes des Métamorphoses d’Ovide ainsi que les arts libéraux selon la Margarita Philosophica de G. Reisch. Les artisans se sont inspirés de gravures d’ouvrages imprimés au début du XVIe siècle, par exemple le soldat romain Caius Mucius Scaevola devant le roi Étrusque Porsenna y étant représenté exposant ainsi des thématiques propres à la culture antique. De manière également tout à fait inédite, les 7 vertus, cardinales et théologales, et 7 sibylles sont figurées et représentées sur les panneaux de marqueterie du premier registre des dorsaux. Les allégories et les prophétesses sont encadrées d’architectures identiques deux à deux qui les mettent en concordance. Les sibylles ont été choisies parmi celles du manuscrit des Heures de Louis de Laval dont les auteurs ont cité les prophéties. Ces dernières proviennent du manuscrit des Institutions divines de Lactance qui était de nouveau traduit et que le cardinal a lui-même fait enluminer. Ce grand rhéteur du IVe siècle ayant quant à lui repris les oracles rédigés dans les Oracles sibyllins.

 

Georges Ier d’Amboise n’a pas manqué de faire valoir qu’il était le commanditaire des stalles en demandant à ce que ses armes et sa devise y figurent à de nombreuses reprises. Le légat a donné pour modèles aux artisans des stalles des enluminures ou gravures de manuscrits faisant partie de sa splendide bibliothèque, digne d'un grand érudit humaniste. Il fit venir l’Italie en choisissant la marqueterie figurative en sus de la sculpture, seule technique utilisée à l'époque en France. Sans renier la tradition en faisant figurer les saints, il a fait représenter de manière inédite leur cycle de vie, dont il a choisi des événements bien spécifiques. De plus, il a incité les fidèles à s’instruire et à étudier les auteurs antiques en faisant sculpter des allégories des arts libéraux et des personnages mythiques ou héroïques. Enfin, par le dialogue des sibylles et des vertus, il a montré que la rhétorique de Lactance était convaincante. Il a ainsi non seulement introduit en France la mode italienne dans le mobilier, le décor et les ornements du château de Gaillon, mais surtout donné corps à l’esprit humaniste en faisant de ses stalles les messagères qui appellent à une vie vertueuse, dans la foi au Christ annoncé à tous les hommes (cf. wikipédia, merci Glass Angel pour la photo).

Mara River

Crossing the river by boat.

La ville de Trinidad se trouve dans la région centrale de Cuba, donnant sur la mer des Caraïbes, dans les versants du massif montagneux de Guamuahaya, appartenant à la province de Sancti Spíritus. C’est l’une des villes coloniales les mieux conservées d’Amérique, classée Patrimoine Mondial de l’Humanité par l’Unesco. rencontre avec ces enfants qui jouaient dans une rue de Trinidad avec une poule et le petit garçon avait du mal à se séparer de sa poule!!

As members of The Conservation Alliance and being Climate Neutral Certified, we appreciate every opportunity that arises where we can shed light on conservation efforts, so today we are honoring World Ocean Day, which is celebrated internationally on June 8th.

 

Flickr members are passionate about capturing the natural world through photography and we want to share some of those with you today, in our . recent Flickr blog feature

 

Image courtesy of the NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research, Windows to the Deep 2018.

Borgund Stave Church (Norwegian: Borgund stavkyrkje) is a former parish church of the Church of Norway in Lærdal Municipality in Vestland county, Norway. It was built around the year 1200 as the village church of Borgund, and belonged to Lærdal parish (part of the Sogn prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Bjørgvin) until 1868, when its religious functions were transferred to a "new" Borgund Church, which was built nearby. The old church was restored, conserved and turned into a museum. It is funded and run by the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Norwegian Monuments, and is classified as a triple-nave stave church of the Sogn-type. Its grounds contain Norway's sole surviving stave-built free-standing bell tower.

 

Borgund Stave Church was built sometime between 1180 and 1250 AD with later additions and restorations. Its walls are formed by vertical wooden boards, or staves, hence the name "stave church." The four corner posts are connected to one another by ground sills, resting on a stone foundation. The intervening staves rise from the ground sills; each is tongued and grooved, to interlock with its neighbours and form a sturdy wall. The exterior timber surfaces are darkened by protective layers of tar, distilled from pine.

 

Borgund is built on a basilica plan, with reduced side aisles, and an added chancel and apse. It has a raised central nave demarcated on four sides by an arcade. An ambulatory runs around this platform and into the chancel and apse, both added in the 14th century. An additional ambulatory, in the form of a porch, runs around the exterior of the building, sheltered under the overhanging shingled roof. The floor plan of this church resembles that of a central plan, double-shelled Greek cross with an apse attached to one end in place of the fourth arm. The entries to the church are in the three shorter arms of the cross.

 

Structurally, the building has been described as a "cube within a cube", each independent of the other. The inner "cube" is formed by continuous columns that rise from ground level to support the roof. The top of the arcade is formed by arched buttresses, knee jointed to the columns. Above the arcade, the columns are linked by cross-shaped, diagonal trusses, commonly dubbed "Saint Andrew's crosses"; these carry arched supports that offer the visual equivalent of a "second storey". While not a functional gallery, this is reminiscent of contemporary second story galleries of large stone churches elsewhere in Europe. Smaller beams running between these upper supporting columns help clamp everything firmly together. The weight of the roof is thus supported by buttresses and columns, preventing downward and outward movement of the stave walls.

 

The roof beams are supported by steeply angled scissor trusses that form an "X" shape with a narrow top span and a broader bottom span, tied by a bottom truss to prevent collapse. Additional support is given by a truss that cuts across the "X", below the crossing point but above the bottom truss. The roof is steeply pitched, boarded horizontally and clad with shingles. The original outer roof would have been weatherproofed with boards laid lengthwise, rather than shingles. In later years wooden shingles became more common. Scissor beam roof construction is typical of most stave churches.

 

Borgund has tiered, overhanging roofs, topped at their intersection by a shingle-roofed tower or steeple. On each of its four gables is a stylised "dragon" head, swooping from the carved roof ridge crests, Hohler remarks their similarity to the carved dragon heads found on the prows of Norse ships. Similar gable heads appear on small bronze church-shaped reliquaries common in Norway and Europe in this period. Borgund's current dragon heads are possible 18th century replacements; similar, original dragon heads remain on older structures, such as Lom Stave Church and nearby Urnes Stave Church. Borgund is one of the only stave churches to have preserved its crested ridge caps. They are carved with openwork vine and entangled plant designs.

 

The four outer dragon heads are perhaps the most distinctive of all non-Christian symbols adorning Borgund Stave Church. Their function is uncertain, and disputed; if pagan, they are recruited to the Christian cause in the battle between Good and Evil. They may have been intended to keep away evil spirits thought to threaten the church building; to ward off evil, rather than represent it,

 

On the lower side panel of the steeple are four carved circular cutouts. The carvings are weather-beaten, tarred and difficult to decipher, and there is disagreement about what they symbolize. Some[who?] believe they represent the four evangelists, symbolised by an eagle, an ox, a lion and a man. Hauglid describes the carvings as "dragons that extend their heads over to the neighboring field's dragon and bite into it", and points out their similarity to carvings at Høre Stave Church.

 

The church's west portal (the nave's main entrance), is surrounded by a larger carving of dragons biting each other in the neck and tail. At the bottom of the half-columns that flank the front entrance, two dragon heads spew vine stalks that wind upwards and are braided into the dragons above. The carving shares similarities with the west portal of Ål Stave Church, which also has kites[clarification needed] in a band braiding pattern, and follows the usual composition[clarification needed] in the Sogn-Valdres portals, a larger group of portals with very clear similarities. Bugge writes that Christian authority may have come to terms with such pagan and "wild scenes" in the church building because the rift could be interpreted as a struggle between good and evil; in Christian medieval art, the dragon was often used as a symbol of the devil himself but Bugge believes that the carvings were protective, like the dragon heads on the church roof.

 

The church interior is dark, as not much daylight enters the building. Some of the few sources of natural light are narrow circular windows along the roof, examples of daylighting. It was supposed that the narrow apertures would prevent the entry of evil spirits. Three entrances are heavily adorned with foliage and snakes, and are only wide enough for one person to enter, supposedly preventing the entry of evil spirits alongside the churchgoers. The portals were originally painted green, red, black, and white.

 

Most of the internal fittings have been removed. There is little in the building, apart from the row of benches that are installed along the wall inside the church in the ambulatory outside of the arcade and raised platform, a soapstone font, an altar (with 17th-century altarpiece), a 16th-century lectern, and a 16th-century cupboard for storing altar vessels. After the Reformation, when the church was converted for Protestant worship, pews, a pulpit and other standard church furnishings were included, however these have been removed since the building has come under the protection of the Fortidsminneforeningen (The Society for the Preservation of Norwegian Ancient Monuments).

 

The interior structure of the church is characterized by the twelve free-standing columns that support the nave's elevated central space. On the long side of the church there is a double interval between the second and third pillars, but with a half pillar resting on the lower bracing beam (the pier) which runs in between. The double interval provides free access from the south portal to the church's central compartment, which would otherwise have been obstructed by the middle bar. The tops of the poles are finished with grotesque, carved human and animal masks. The tie-bars are secured with braces in the form of St. Andrew's crosses with a sun - shaped center and carved leaf shapes along the arms. The crosses reappear in less ornate form as braces along the church walls. On the north and south sides of the nave, a total of eight windows let in small amounts of light, and at the top of the nave's west gable is a window of more recent date - probably from pre-Reformation times. On the south wall of the nave, the inauguration crosses are still on the inside of the wall. The interior choir walls and west portal have engraved figures and runes, some of which date to the Middle Ages. One, among the commonest of runic graffiti, reads "Ave Maria". An inscription by Þórir (Thor), written "in the evening at St. Olav's Mass" blames the pagan Norns for his problems; perhaps a residue of ancient beliefs, as these female beings were thought to rule the personal destinies of all in Norse mythology and the Poetic Edda.

 

The medieval interior of the stave church is almost untouched, save for its restorations and repairs, though the medieval crucifix was removed after the Reformation. The original wooden floor and the benches that run along the walls of the nave are largely intact, together with a medieval stone altar and a box-shaped baptismal font in soapstone. The pulpit is from the period 1550–1570 and the altarpiece dates from 1654, while the frame around the tablet is dated to 1620. The painting on the altarpiece shows the crucifixion in the centre, flanked by the Virgin Mary on the left and John the Baptist on the right. In the tympanum field, a white dove hovers on a blue background. Below the painting is an inscription with golden letters on a black background. A sacrament from the period 1550–1570 in the same style as the pulpit is also preserved. A restoration of the building was carried out in the early 1870s, led by the architect Christian Christie, who removed benches, a second-floor gallery with seating, a ceiling over the chancel, and various windows including two large windows on the north and south sides. As the goal was to return the church to pre-Reformation condition, all post-Reformation interior paintwork was also removed.

 

Images from the 1990s show deer antlers hung on the lower, east-facing pillars. A local story claims that this is all that remains of a whole stuffed reindeer, shot when it tried to enter during a Mass. A travelogue from 1668 claims that a reindeer was shot during a sermon "when it marched like a wizard in front of the other animal carcasses"

 

To the south of the church is a free-standing stave-work bell tower that covers remnants of the mediaeval foundry used to cast the church bell. It was probably built in the mid-13th century. It is Norway's only remaining free-standing stave-work bell tower.It was given a new door around the year 1700 but this was removed and not replaced at some time between the 1920s and 1940s, leaving the foundry pit was exposed. To preserve the interior, new walls were built as cladding on the outside of the stave walls in the 1990s. One of the medieval bells is on display in the new Borgund church.

 

Management

In 1868 the building was abandoned as a church but was turned into a museum; this saved it from the commonplace demolition of stave churches in that period. A new Borgund Church was built in 1868 a short distance south of the old church. The old church has not been formally used for religious purposes since that year. Borgund Stave Church was bought by the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Norwegian Monuments in 1877. The first guidebook in English for the stave church was published in 1898. From 2001, the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage has funded a program to research, restore, conserve and maintain stave churches.

 

Legacy

The church served as an example for the reconstruction of the Fantoft Stave Church in Fana, Bergen, in 1883 and for its rebuilding in 1997. The Gustav Adolf Stave Church in Hahnenklee, Germany, built in 1908, is modeled on the Borgund church. Four replicas exist in the United States, one at Chapel in the Hills, Rapid City, South Dakota, another in Lyme, Connecticut, the third on Washington Island, Wisconsin, and the fourth in Minot, North Dakota at the Scandinavian Heritage Park.

 

Borgund is a former municipality in Sogn og Fjordane county, Norway. It was located in the southeastern part of the traditional district of Sogn. The 635-square-kilometre (245 sq mi) municipality existed from 1864 until its dissolution in 1964. It encompassed an area in the eastern part of the present-day Lærdal Municipality. The administrative center of Borgund was the village of Steinklepp, just northeast of the village of Borgund. Steinklepp was the site of a store, a bank, and a school. The historical Filefjell Kongevegen road passes through the Borgund area.

 

Location

The former municipality of Borgund was situated near the southeastern end of the Sognefjorden, along the Lærdalselvi river. The lower parts of the municipality were farms such as Sjurhaugen and Nedrehegg. They were at an elevation of about 270 m (890 ft) above sea level. Høgeloft, on the border with the neighboring municipality of Hemsedal, is a mountain in the Filefjell range and it was the highest point in Borgund at 1,920 m (6,300 ft) above sea level. The lakes Eldrevatnet, Juklevatnet, and Øljusjøen were also located near the border with Hemsedal.

 

History

Borgund was established as a municipality in 1864 when it was separated from the municipality of Lærdal. Initially it had a population of 963. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the municipality of Borgund (population: 492) was merged with the Muggeteigen area (population: 11) of the neighboring Årdal Municipality and all of Lærdal Municipality (population: 1,755) were all merged to form a new, larger municipality of Lærdal

 

Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway , is a Nordic , European country and an independent state in the west of the Scandinavian Peninsula . Geographically speaking, the country is long and narrow, and on the elongated coast towards the North Atlantic are Norway's well-known fjords . The Kingdom of Norway includes the main country (the mainland with adjacent islands within the baseline ), Jan Mayen and Svalbard . With these two Arctic areas, Norway covers a land area of ​​385,000 km² and has a population of approximately 5.5 million (2023). Mainland Norway borders Sweden in the east , Finland and Russia in the northeast .

 

Norway is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy , where Harald V has been king and head of state since 1991 , and Jonas Gahr Støre ( Ap ) has been prime minister since 2021 . Norway is a unitary state , with two administrative levels below the state: counties and municipalities . The Sami part of the population has, through the Sami Parliament and the Finnmark Act , to a certain extent self-government and influence over traditionally Sami areas. Although Norway has rejected membership of the European Union through two referendums , through the EEA Agreement Norway has close ties with the Union, and through NATO with the United States . Norway is a significant contributor to the United Nations (UN), and has participated with soldiers in several foreign operations mandated by the UN. Norway is among the states that have participated from the founding of the UN , NATO , the Council of Europe , the OSCE and the Nordic Council , and in addition to these is a member of the EEA , the World Trade Organization , the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and is part of the Schengen area .

 

Norway is rich in many natural resources such as oil , gas , minerals , timber , seafood , fresh water and hydropower . Since the beginning of the 20th century, these natural conditions have given the country the opportunity for an increase in wealth that few other countries can now enjoy, and Norwegians have the second highest average income in the world, measured in GDP per capita, as of 2022. The petroleum industry accounts for around 14% of Norway's gross domestic product as of 2018. Norway is the world's largest producer of oil and gas per capita outside the Middle East. However, the number of employees linked to this industry fell from approx. 232,000 in 2013 to 207,000 in 2015.

 

In Norway, these natural resources have been managed for socially beneficial purposes. The country maintains a welfare model in line with the other Nordic countries. Important service areas such as health and higher education are state-funded, and the country has an extensive welfare system for its citizens. Public expenditure in 2018 is approx. 50% of GDP, and the majority of these expenses are related to education, healthcare, social security and welfare. Since 2001 and until 2021, when the country took second place, the UN has ranked Norway as the world's best country to live in . From 2010, Norway is also ranked at the top of the EIU's democracy index . Norway ranks third on the UN's World Happiness Report for the years 2016–2018, behind Finland and Denmark , a report published in March 2019.

 

The majority of the population is Nordic. In the last couple of years, immigration has accounted for more than half of population growth. The five largest minority groups are Norwegian-Poles , Lithuanians , Norwegian-Swedes , Norwegian-Syrians including Syrian Kurds and Norwegian-Pakistani .

 

Norway's national day is 17 May, on this day in 1814 the Norwegian Constitution was dated and signed by the presidency of the National Assembly at Eidsvoll . It is stipulated in the law of 26 April 1947 that 17 May are national public holidays. The Sami national day is 6 February. "Yes, we love this country" is Norway's national anthem, the song was written in 1859 by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson (1832–1910).

 

Norway's history of human settlement goes back at least 10,000 years, to the Late Paleolithic , the first period of the Stone Age . Archaeological finds of settlements along the entire Norwegian coast have so far been dated back to 10,400 before present (BP), the oldest find is today considered to be a settlement at Pauler in Brunlanes , Vestfold .

For a period these settlements were considered to be the remains of settlers from Doggerland , an area which today lies beneath the North Sea , but which was once a land bridge connecting today's British Isles with Danish Jutland . But the archaeologists who study the initial phase of the settlement in what is today Norway reckon that the first people who came here followed the coast along what is today Bohuslân. That they arrived in some form of boat is absolutely certain, and there is much evidence that they could easily move over large distances.

 

Since the last Ice Age, there has been continuous settlement in Norway. It cannot be ruled out that people lived in Norway during the interglacial period , but no trace of such a population or settlement has been found.

 

The Stone Age lasted a long time; half of the time that our country has been populated. There are no written accounts of what life was like back then. The knowledge we have has been painstakingly collected through investigations of places where people have stayed and left behind objects that we can understand have been processed by human hands. This field of knowledge is called archaeology . The archaeologists interpret their findings and the history of the surrounding landscape. In our country, the uplift after the Ice Age is fundamental. The history of the settlements at Pauler is no more than fifteen years old.

 

The Fosna culture settled parts of Norway sometime between 10,000–8,000 BC. (see Stone Age in Norway ). The dating of rock carvings is set to Neolithic times (in Norway between 4000 BC to 1700 BC) and show activities typical of hunters and gatherers .

 

Agriculture with livestock and arable farming was introduced in the Neolithic. Swad farming where the farmers move when the field does not produce the expected yield.

 

More permanent and persistent farm settlements developed in the Bronze Age (1700 BC to 500 BC) and the Iron Age . The earliest runes have been found on an arrowhead dated to around 200 BC. Many more inscriptions are dated to around 800, and a number of petty kingdoms developed during these centuries. In prehistoric times, there were no fixed national borders in the Nordic countries and Norway did not exist as a state. The population in Norway probably fell to year 0.

 

Events in this time period, the centuries before the year 1000, are glimpsed in written sources. Although the sagas were written down in the 13th century, many hundreds of years later, they provide a glimpse into what was already a distant past. The story of the fimbul winter gives us a historical picture of something that happened and which in our time, with the help of dendrochronology , can be interpreted as a natural disaster in the year 536, created by a volcanic eruption in El Salvador .

 

In the period between 800 and 1066 there was a significant expansion and it is referred to as the Viking Age . During this period, Norwegians, as Swedes and Danes also did, traveled abroad in longships with sails as explorers, traders, settlers and as Vikings (raiders and pirates ). By the middle of the 11th century, the Norwegian kingship had been firmly established, building its right as descendants of Harald Hårfagre and then as heirs of Olav the Holy . The Norwegian kings, and their subjects, now professed Christianity . In the time around Håkon Håkonsson , in the time after the civil war , there was a small renaissance in Norway with extensive literary activity and diplomatic activity with Europe. The black dew came to Norway in 1349 and killed around half of the population. The entire state apparatus and Norway then entered a period of decline.

 

Between 1396 and 1536, Norway was part of the Kalmar Union , and from 1536 until 1814 Norway had been reduced to a tributary part of Denmark , named as the Personal Union of Denmark-Norway . This staff union entered into an alliance with Napoléon Bonaparte with a war that brought bad times and famine in 1812 . In 1814, Denmark-Norway lost the Anglophone Wars , part of the Napoleonic Wars , and the Danish king was forced to cede Norway to the king of Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel on 14 January of that year. After a Norwegian attempt at independence, Norway was forced into a loose union with Sweden, but where Norway was allowed to create its own constitution, the Constitution of 1814 . In this period, Norwegian, romantic national feeling flourished, and the Norwegians tried to develop and establish their own national self-worth. The union with Sweden was broken in 1905 after it had been threatened with war, and Norway became an independent kingdom with its own monarch, Haakon VII .

 

Norway remained neutral during the First World War , and at the outbreak of the Second World War, Norway again declared itself neutral, but was invaded by National Socialist Germany on 9 April 1940 .

 

Norway became a member of the Western defense alliance NATO in 1949 . Two attempts to join the EU were voted down in referendums by small margins in 1972 and 1994 . Norway has been a close ally of the United States in the post-war period. Large discoveries of oil and natural gas in the North Sea at the end of the 1960s led to tremendous economic growth in the country, which is still ongoing. Traditional industries such as fishing are also part of Norway's economy.

 

Stone Age (before 1700 BC)

When most of the ice disappeared, vegetation spread over the landscape and due to a warm climate around 2000-3000 BC. the forest grew much taller than in modern times. Land uplift after the ice age led to a number of fjords becoming lakes and dry land. The first people probably came from the south along the coast of the Kattegat and overland into Finnmark from the east. The first people probably lived by gathering, hunting and trapping. A good number of Stone Age settlements have been found which show that such hunting and trapping people stayed for a long time in the same place or returned to the same place regularly. Large amounts of gnawed bones show that they lived on, among other things, reindeer, elk, small game and fish.

 

Flintstone was imported from Denmark and apart from small natural deposits along the southern coast, all flintstone in Norway is transported by people. At Espevær, greenstone was quarried for tools in the Stone Age, and greenstone tools from Espevær have been found over large parts of Western Norway. Around 2000-3000 BC the usual farm animals such as cows and sheep were introduced to Norway. Livestock probably meant a fundamental change in society in that part of the people had to be permanent residents or live a semi-nomadic life. Livestock farming may also have led to conflict with hunters.

 

The oldest traces of people in what is today Norway have been found at Pauler , a farm in Brunlanes in Larvik municipality in Vestfold . In 2007 and 2008, the farm has given its name to a number of Stone Age settlements that have been excavated and examined by archaeologists from the Cultural History Museum at UiO. The investigations have been carried out in connection with the new route for the E18 motorway west of Farris. The oldest settlement, located more than 127 m above sea level, is dated to be about 10,400 years old (uncalibrated, more than 11,000 years in real calendar years). From here, the ice sheet was perhaps visible when people settled here. This locality has been named Pauler I, and is today considered to be the oldest confirmed human traces in Norway to date. The place is in the mountains above the Pauler tunnel on the E18 between Larvik and Porsgrunn . The pioneer settlement is a term archaeologists have adopted for the oldest settlement. The archaeologists have speculated about where they came from, the first people in what is today Norway. It has been suggested that they could come by boat or perhaps across the ice from Doggerland or the North Sea, but there is now a large consensus that they came north along what is today the Bohuslän coast. The Fosna culture , the Komsa culture and the Nøstvet culture are the traditional terms for hunting cultures from the Stone Age. One thing is certain - getting to the water was something they mastered, the first people in our country. Therefore, within a short time they were able to use our entire long coast.

 

In the New Stone Age (4000 BC–1700 BC) there is a theory that a new people immigrated to the country, the so-called Stone Ax People . Rock carvings from this period show motifs from hunting and fishing , which were still important industries. From this period, a megalithic tomb has been found in Østfold .

It is uncertain whether there were organized societies or state-like associations in the Stone Age in Norway. Findings from settlements indicate that many lived together and that this was probably more than one family so that it was a slightly larger, organized herd.

 

Finnmark

In prehistoric times, animal husbandry and agriculture were of little economic importance in Finnmark. Livelihoods in Finnmark were mainly based on fish, gathering, hunting and trapping, and eventually domestic reindeer herding became widespread in the Middle Ages. Archaeological finds from the Stone Age have been referred to as the Komsa culture and comprise around 5,000 years of settlement. Finnmark probably got its first settlement around 8000 BC. It is believed that the coastal areas became ice-free 11,000 years BC and the fjord areas around 9,000 years BC. after which willows, grass, heather, birch and pine came into being. Finnmarksvidda was covered by pine forest around 6000 BC. After the Ice Age, the land rose around 80 meters in the inner fjord areas (Alta, Tana, Varanger). Due to ice melting in the polar region, the sea rose in the period 6400–3800 BC. and in areas with little land elevation, some settlements from the first part of the Stone Age were flooded. On Sørøya, the net sea level rise was 12 to 14 meters and many residential areas were flooded.

 

According to Bjørnar Olsen , there are many indications of a connection between the oldest settlement in Western Norway (the " Fosnakulturen ") and that in Finnmark, but it is uncertain in which direction the settlement took place. In the earliest part of the Stone Age, settlement in Finnmark was probably concentrated in the coastal areas, and these only reflected a lifestyle with great mobility and no permanent dwellings. The inner regions, such as Pasvik, were probably used seasonally. The archaeologically proven settlements from the Stone Age in inner Finnmark and Troms are linked to lakes and large watercourses. The oldest petroglyphs in Alta are usually dated to 4200 BC, that is, the Neolithic . Bjørnar Olsen believes that the oldest can be up to 2,000 years older than this.

 

From around 4000 BC a slow deforestation of Finnmark began and around 1800 BC the vegetation distribution was roughly the same as in modern times. The change in vegetation may have increased the distance between the reindeer's summer and winter grazing. The uplift continued slowly from around 4000 BC. at the same time as sea level rise stopped.

 

According to Gutorm Gjessing, the settlement in Finnmark and large parts of northern Norway in the Neolithic was semi-nomadic with movement between four seasonal settlements (following the pattern of life in Sami siida in historical times): On the outer coast in summer (fishing and seal catching) and inland in winter (hunting for reindeer, elk and bear). Povl Simonsen believed instead that the winter residence was in the inner fjord area in a village-like sod house settlement. Bjørnar Olsen believes that at the end of the Stone Age there was a relatively settled population along the coast, while inland there was less settlement and a more mobile lifestyle.

 

Bronze Age (1700 BC–500 BC)

Bronze was used for tools in Norway from around 1500 BC. Bronze is a mixture of tin and copper , and these metals were introduced because they were not mined in the country at the time. Bronze is believed to have been a relatively expensive material. The Bronze Age in Norway can be divided into two phases:

 

Early Bronze Age (1700–1100 BC)

Younger Bronze Age (1100–500 BC)

For the prehistoric (unwritten) era, there is limited knowledge about social conditions and possible state formations. From the Bronze Age, there are large burial mounds of stone piles along the coast of Vestfold and Agder, among others. It is likely that only chieftains or other great men could erect such grave monuments and there was probably some form of organized society linked to these. In the Bronze Age, society was more organized and stratified than in the Stone Age. Then a rich class of chieftains emerged who had close connections with southern Scandinavia. The settlements became more permanent and people adopted horses and ard . They acquired bronze status symbols, lived in longhouses and people were buried in large burial mounds . Petroglyphs from the Bronze Age indicate that humans practiced solar cultivation.

 

Finnmark

In the last millennium BC the climate became cooler and the pine forest disappears from the coast; pine forests, for example, were only found in the innermost part of the Altafjord, while the outer coast was almost treeless. Around the year 0, the limit for birch forest was south of Kirkenes. Animals with forest habitats (elk, bear and beaver) disappeared and the reindeer probably established their annual migration routes sometime at that time. In the period 1800–900 BC there were significantly more settlements in and utilization of the hinterland was particularly noticeable on Finnmarksvidda. From around 1800 BC until year 0 there was a significant increase in contact between Finnmark and areas in the east including Karelia (where metals were produced including copper) and central and eastern Russia. The youngest petroglyphs in Alta show far more boats than the earlier phases and the boats are reminiscent of types depicted in petroglyphs in southern Scandinavia. It is unclear what influence southern Scandinavian societies had as far north as Alta before the year 0. Many of the cultural features that are considered typical Sami in modern times were created or consolidated in the last millennium BC, this applies, among other things, to the custom of burying in brick chambers in stone urns. The Mortensnes burial ground may have been used for 2000 years until around 1600 AD.

 

Iron Age (c. 500 BC–c. 1050 AD)

 

The Einangsteinen is one of the oldest Norwegian runestones; it is from the 4th century

 

Simultaneous production of Vikings

Around 500 years BC the researchers reckon that the Bronze Age will be replaced by the Iron Age as iron takes over as the most important material for weapons and tools. Bronze, wood and stone were still used. Iron was cheaper than bronze, easier to work than flint , and could be used for many purposes; iron probably became common property. Iron could, among other things, be used to make solid and sharp axes which made it much easier to fell trees. In the Iron Age, gold and silver were also used partly for decoration and partly as means of payment. It is unknown which language was used in Norway before our era. From around the year 0 until around the year 800, everyone in Scandinavia (except the Sami) spoke Old Norse , a North Germanic language. Subsequently, several different languages ​​developed in this area that were only partially mutually intelligible. The Iron Age is divided into several periods:

 

Early Iron Age

Pre-Roman Iron Age (c. 500 BC–c. 0)

Roman Iron Age (c. 0–c. AD 400)

Migration period (approx. 400–600). In the migration period (approx. 400–600), new peoples came to Norway, and ruins of fortress buildings etc. are interpreted as signs that there has been talk of a violent invasion.

Younger Iron Age

Merovingian period (500–800)

 

The Viking Age (793–1066)

Norwegian Vikings go on plundering expeditions and trade voyages around the coastal countries of Western Europe . Large groups of Norwegians emigrate to the British Isles , Iceland and Greenland . Harald Hårfagre starts a unification process of Norway late in the 8th century , which was completed by Harald Hardråde in the 1060s . The country was Christianized under the kings Olav Tryggvason , fell in the battle of Svolder ( 1000 ) and Olav Haraldsson (the saint), fell in the battle of Stiklestad in 1030 .

 

Sources of prehistoric times

Shrinking glaciers in the high mountains, including in Jotunheimen and Breheimen , have from around the year 2000 uncovered objects from the Viking Age and earlier. These are objects of organic material that have been preserved by the ice and that elsewhere in nature are broken down in a few months. The finds are getting older as the melting makes the archaeologists go deeper into the ice. About half of all archaeological discoveries on glaciers in the world are made in Oppland . In 2013, a 3,400-year-old shoe and a robe from the year 300 were found. Finds at Lomseggen in Lom published in 2020 revealed, among other things, well-preserved horseshoes used on a mountain pass. Many hundreds of items include preserved clothing, knives, whisks, mittens, leather shoes, wooden chests and horse equipment. A piece of cloth dated to the year 1000 has preserved its original colour. In 2014, a wooden ski from around the year 700 was found in Reinheimen . The ski is 172 cm long and 14 cm wide, with preserved binding of leather and wicker.

 

Pytheas from Massalia is the oldest known account of what was probably the coast of Norway, perhaps somewhere on the coast of Møre. Pytheas visited Britannia around 325 BC. and traveled further north to a country by the "Ice Sea". Pytheas described the short summer night and the midnight sun farther north. He wrote, among other things, that people there made a drink from grain and honey. Caesar wrote in his work about the Gallic campaign about the Germanic tribe Haruders. Other Roman sources around the year 0 mention the land of the Cimbri (Jutland) and the Cimbri headlands ( Skagen ) and that the sources stated that Cimbri and Charyds lived in this area. Some of these peoples may have immigrated to Norway and there become known as hordes (as in Hordaland). Sources from the Mediterranean area referred to the islands of Scandia, Scandinavia and Thule ("the outermost of all islands"). The Roman historian Tacitus wrote around the year 100 a work about Germania and mentioned the people of Scandia, the Sviones. Ptolemy wrote around the year 150 that the Kharudes (Hordes) lived further north than all the Cimbri, in the north lived the Finnoi (Finns or Sami) and in the south the Gutai (Goths). The Nordic countries and Norway were outside the Roman Empire , which dominated Europe at the time. The Gothic-born historian Jordanes wrote in the 5th century about 13 tribes or people groups in Norway, including raumaricii (probably Romerike ), ragnaricii ( Ranrike ) and finni or skretefinni (skrid finner or ski finner, i.e. Sami) as well as a number of unclear groups. Prokopios wrote at the same time about Thule north of the land of the Danes and Slavs, Thule was ten times as big as Britannia and the largest of all the islands. In Thule, the sun was up 40 days straight in the summer. After the migration period , southern Europeans' accounts of northern Europe became fuller and more reliable.

 

Settlement in prehistoric times

Norway has around 50,000 farms with their own names. Farm names have persisted for a long time, over 1000 years, perhaps as much as 2000 years. The name researchers have arranged different types of farm names chronologically, which provides a basis for determining when the place was used by people or received a permanent settlement. Uncompounded landscape names such as Haug, Eid, Vik and Berg are believed to be the oldest. Archaeological traces indicate that some areas have been inhabited earlier than assumed from the farm name. Burial mounds also indicate permanent settlement. For example, the burial ground at Svartelva in Løten was used from around the year 0 to the year 1000 when Christianity took over. The first farmers probably used large areas for inland and outland, and new farms were probably established based on some "mother farms". Names such as By (or Bø) show that it is an old place of residence. From the older Iron Age, names with -heim (a common Germanic word meaning place of residence) and -stad tell of settlement, while -vin and -land tell of the use of the place. Farm names in -heim are often found as -um , -eim or -em as in Lerum and Seim, there are often large farms in the center of the village. New farm names with -city and -country were also established in the Viking Age . The first farmers probably used the best areas. The largest burial grounds, the oldest archaeological finds and the oldest farm names are found where the arable land is richest and most spacious.

 

It is unclear whether the settlement expansion in Roman times, migrations and the Iron Age is due to immigration or internal development and population growth. Among other things, it is difficult to demonstrate where in Europe the immigrants have come from. The permanent residents had both fields (where grain was grown) and livestock that grazed in the open fields, but it is uncertain which of these was more important. Population growth from around the year 200 led to more utilization of open land, for example in the form of settlements in the mountains. During the migration period, it also seems that in parts of the country it became common to have cluster gardens or a form of village settlement.

 

Norwegian expansion northwards

From around the year 200, there was a certain migration by sea from Rogaland and Hordaland to Nordland and Sør-Troms. Those who moved settled down as a settled Iron Age population and became dominant over the original population which may have been Sami . The immigrant Norwegians, Bumen , farmed with livestock that were fed inside in the winter as well as some grain cultivation and fishing. The northern border of the Norwegians' settlement was originally at the Toppsundet near Harstad and around the year 500 there was a Norwegian settlement to Malangsgapet. That was as far north as it was possible to grow grain at the time. Malangen was considered the border between Hålogaland and Finnmork until around 1400 . Further into the Viking Age and the Middle Ages, there was immigration and settlement of Norwegian speakers along the coast north of Malangen. Around the year 800, Norwegians lived along the entire outer coast to Vannøy . The Norwegians partly copied Sami livelihoods such as whaling, fur hunting and reindeer husbandry. It was probably this area between Malangen and Vannøy that was Ottar from the Hålogaland area. In the Viking Age, there were also some Norwegian settlements further north and east. East of the North Cape are the scattered archaeological finds of Norwegian settlement in the Viking Age. There are Norwegian names for fjords and islands from the Viking Age, including fjord names with "-anger". Around the year 1050, there were Norwegian settlements on the outer coast of Western Finnmark. Traders and tax collectors traveled even further.

 

North of Malangen there were Norse farming settlements in the Iron Age. Malangen was considered Finnmark's western border until 1300. There are some archaeological traces of Norse activity around the coast from Tromsø to Kirkenes in the Viking Age. Around Tromsø, the research indicates a Norse/Sami mixed culture on the coast.

 

From the year 1100 and the next 200–300 years, there are no traces of Norwegian settlement north and east of Tromsø. It is uncertain whether this is due to depopulation, whether it is because the Norwegians further north were not Christianized or because there were no churches north of Lenvik or Tromsø . Norwegian settlement in the far north appears from sources from the 14th century. In the Hanseatic period , the settlement was developed into large areas specialized in commercial fishing, while earlier (in the Viking Age) there had been farms with a combination of fishing and agriculture. In 1307 , a fortress and the first church east of Tromsø were built in Vardø . Vardø became a small Norwegian town, while Vadsø remained Sami. Norwegian settlements and churches appeared along the outermost coast in the Middle Ages. After the Reformation, perhaps as a result of a decline in fish stocks or fish prices, there were Norwegian settlements in the inner fjord areas such as Lebesby in Laksefjord. Some fishing villages at the far end of the coast were abandoned for good. In the interior of Finnmark, there was no national border for a long time and Kautokeino and Karasjok were joint Norwegian-Swedish areas with strong Swedish influence. The border with Finland was established in 1751 and with Russia in 1826.

 

On a Swedish map from 1626, Norway's border is indicated at Malangen, while Sweden with this map showed a desire to control the Sami area which had been a common area.

 

The term Northern Norway only came into use at the end of the 19th century and administratively the area was referred to as Tromsø Diocese when Tromsø became a bishopric in 1840. There had been different designations previously: Hålogaland originally included only Helgeland and when Norse settlement spread north in the Viking Age and the Middle Ages, Hålogaland was used for the area north approximately to Malangen , while Finnmark or "Finnmarken", "the land of the Sami", lay outside. The term Northern Norway was coined at a cafe table in Kristiania in 1884 by members of the Nordlændingernes Forening and was first commonly used in the interwar period as it eventually supplanted "Hålogaland".

 

State formation

The battle in Hafrsfjord in the year 872 has long been regarded as the day when Norway became a kingdom. The year of the battle is uncertain (may have been 10-20 years later). The whole of Norway was not united in that battle: the process had begun earlier and continued a couple of hundred years later. This means that the geographical area became subject to a political authority and became a political unit. The geographical area was perceived as an area as it is known, among other things, from Ottar from Hålogaland's account for King Alfred of Wessex around the year 880. Ottar described "the land of the Norwegians" as very long and narrow, and it was narrowest in the far north. East of the wasteland in the south lay Sveoland and in the north lay Kvenaland in the east. When Ottar sailed south along the land from his home ( Malangen ) to Skiringssal, he always had Norway ("Nordveg") on his port side and the British Isles on his starboard side. The journey took a good month. Ottar perceived "Nordveg" as a geographical unit, but did not imply that it was a political unit. Ottar separated Norwegians from Swedes and Danes. It is unclear why Ottar perceived the population spread over such a large area as a whole. It is unclear whether Norway as a geographical term or Norwegians as the name of a ethnic group is the oldest. The Norwegians had a common language which in the centuries before Ottar did not differ much from the language of Denmark and Sweden.

 

According to Sverre Steen, it is unlikely that Harald Hårfagre was able to control this entire area as one kingdom. The saga of Harald was written 300 years later and at his death Norway was several smaller kingdoms. Harald probably controlled a larger area than anyone before him and at most Harald's kingdom probably included the coast from Trøndelag to Agder and Vestfold as well as parts of Viken . There were probably several smaller kingdoms of varying extent before Harald and some of these are reflected in traditional landscape names such as Ranrike and Ringerike . Landscape names of "-land" (Rogaland) and "-mark" (Hedmark) as well as names such as Agder and Sogn may have been political units before Harald.

 

According to Sverre Steen, the national assembly was completed at the earliest at the battle of Stiklestad in 1030 and the introduction of Christianity was probably a significant factor in the establishment of Norway as a state. Håkon I the good Adalsteinsfostre introduced the leasehold system where the "coastal land" (as far as the salmon went up the rivers) was divided into ship raiders who were to provide a longship with soldiers and supplies. The leidange was probably introduced as a defense against the Danes. The border with the Danes was traditionally at the Göta älv and several times before and after Harald Hårfagre the Danes had control over central parts of Norway.

 

Christianity was known and existed in Norway before Olav Haraldson's time. The spread occurred both from the south (today's Denmark and northern Germany) and from the west (England and Ireland). Ansgar of Bremen , called the "Apostle of the North", worked in Sweden, but he was never in Norway and probably had little influence in the country. Viking expeditions brought the Norwegians of that time into contact with Christian countries and some were baptized in England, Ireland and northern France. Olav Tryggvason and Olav Haraldson were Vikings who returned home. The first Christians in Norway were also linked to pre-Christian local religion, among other things, by mixing Christian symbols with symbols of Odin and other figures from Norse religion.

 

According to Sverre Steen, the introduction of Christianity in Norway should not be perceived as a nationwide revival. At Mostratinget, Christian law was introduced as law in the country and later incorporated into the laws of the individual jurisdictions. Christianity primarily involved new forms in social life, among other things exposure and images of gods were prohibited, it was forbidden to "put out" unwanted infants (to let them die), and it was forbidden to have multiple wives. The church became a nationwide institution with a special group of officials tasked with protecting the church and consolidating the new religion. According to Sverre Steen, Christianity and the church in the Middle Ages should therefore be considered together, and these became a new unifying factor in the country. The church and Christianity linked Norway to Roman Catholic Europe with Church Latin as the common language, the same time reckoning as the rest of Europe and the church in Norway was arranged much like the churches in Denmark, Sweden and England. Norway received papal approval in 1070 and became its own church province in 1152 with Archbishop Nidaros .

 

With Christianity, the country got three social powers: the peasants (organized through the things), the king with his officials and the church with the clergy. The things are the oldest institution: At allthings all armed men had the right to attend (in part an obligation to attend) and at lagthings met emissaries from an area (that is, the lagthings were representative assemblies). The Thing both ruled in conflicts and established laws. The laws were memorized by the participants and written down around the year 1000 or later in the Gulationsloven , Frostatingsloven , Eidsivatingsloven and Borgartingsloven . The person who had been successful at the hearing had to see to the implementation of the judgment themselves.

 

Early Middle Ages (1050s–1184)

The early Middle Ages is considered in Norwegian history to be the period between the end of the Viking Age around 1050 and the coronation of King Sverre in 1184 . The beginning of the period can be dated differently, from around the year 1000 when the Christianization of the country took place and up to 1100 when the Viking Age was over from an archaeological point of view. From 1035 to 1130 it was a time of (relative) internal peace in Norway, even several of the kings attempted campaigns abroad, including in 1066 and 1103 .

 

During this period, the church's organization was built up. This led to a gradual change in religious customs. Religion went from being a domestic matter to being regulated by common European Christian law and the royal power gained increased power and influence. Slavery (" servitude ") was gradually abolished. The population grew rapidly during this period, as the thousands of farm names ending in -rud show.

 

The urbanization of Norway is a historical process that has slowly but surely changed Norway from the early Viking Age to today, from a country based on agriculture and sea salvage, to increasingly trade and industry. As early as the ninth century, the country got its first urban community, and in the eleventh century we got the first permanent cities.

 

In the 1130s, civil war broke out . This was due to a power struggle and that anyone who claimed to be the king's son could claim the right to the throne. The disputes escalated into extensive year-round warfare when Sverre Sigurdsson started a rebellion against the church's and the landmen's candidate for the throne , Magnus Erlingsson .

 

Emergence of cities

The oldest Norwegian cities probably emerged from the end of the 9th century. Oslo, Bergen and Nidaros became episcopal seats, which stimulated urban development there, and the king built churches in Borg , Konghelle and Tønsberg. Hamar and Stavanger became new episcopal seats and are referred to in the late 12th century as towns together with the trading places Veøy in Romsdal and Kaupanger in Sogn. In the late Middle Ages, Borgund (on Sunnmøre), Veøy (in Romsdalsfjorden) and Vågan (in Lofoten) were referred to as small trading places. Urbanization in Norway occurred in few places compared to the neighboring countries, only 14 places appear as cities before 1350. Stavanger became a bishopric around 1120–1130, but it is unclear whether the place was already a city then. The fertile Jæren and outer Ryfylke were probably relatively densely populated at that time. A particularly large concentration of Irish artefacts from the Viking Age has been found in Stavanger and Nord-Jæren.

 

It has been difficult to estimate the population in the Norwegian medieval cities, but it is considered certain that the cities grew rapidly in the Middle Ages. Oscar Albert Johnsen estimated the city's population before the Black Death at 20,000, of which 7,000 in Bergen, 3,000 in Nidaros, 2,000 in Oslo and 1,500 in Tunsberg. Based on archaeological research, Lunden estimates that Oslo had around 1,500 inhabitants in 250 households in the year 1300. Bergen was built up more densely and, with the concentration of exports there, became Norway's largest city in a special position for several hundred years. Knut Helle suggests a city population of 20,000 at most in the High Middle Ages, of which almost half in Bergen.

 

The Bjarkøyretten regulated the conditions in cities (especially Bergen and Nidaros) and in trading places, and for Nidaros had many of the same provisions as the Frostating Act . Magnus Lagabøte's city law replaced the bjarkøretten and from 1276 regulated the settlement in Bergen and with corresponding laws also drawn up for Oslo, Nidaros and Tunsberg. The city law applied within the city's roof area . The City Act determined that the city's public streets consisted of wide commons (perpendicular to the shoreline) and ran parallel to the shoreline, similarly in Nidaros and Oslo. The roads were small streets of up to 3 cubits (1.4 metres) and linked to the individual property. From the Middle Ages, the Norwegian cities were usually surrounded by wooden fences. The urban development largely consisted of low wooden houses which stood in contrast to the relatively numerous and dominant churches and monasteries built in stone.

 

The City Act and supplementary provisions often determined where in the city different goods could be traded, in Bergen, for example, cattle and sheep could only be traded on the Square, and fish only on the Square or directly from the boats at the quayside. In Nidaros, the blacksmiths were required to stay away from the densely populated areas due to the risk of fire, while the tanners had to stay away from the settlements due to the strong smell. The City Act also attempted to regulate the influx of people into the city (among other things to prevent begging in the streets) and had provisions on fire protection. In Oslo, from the 13th century or earlier, it was common to have apartment buildings consisting of single buildings on a couple of floors around a courtyard with access from the street through a gate room. Oslo's medieval apartment buildings were home to one to four households. In the urban farms, livestock could be kept, including pigs and cows, while pastures and fields were found in the city's rooftops . In the apartment buildings there could be several outbuildings such as warehouses, barns and stables. Archaeological excavations show that much of the buildings in medieval Oslo, Trondheim and Tønsberg resembled the oblong farms that have been preserved at Bryggen in Bergen . The land boundaries in Oslo appear to have persisted for many hundreds of years, in Bergen right from the Middle Ages to modern times.

 

High Middle Ages (1184–1319)

After civil wars in the 12th century, the country had a relative heyday in the 13th century. Iceland and Greenland came under the royal authority in 1262 , and the Norwegian Empire reached its greatest extent under Håkon IV Håkonsson . The last king of Haraldsätten, Håkon V Magnusson , died sonless in 1319 . Until the 17th century, Norway stretched all the way down to the mouth of Göta älv , which was then Norway's border with Sweden and Denmark.

 

Just before the Black Death around 1350, there were between 65,000 and 85,000 farms in the country, and there had been a strong growth in the number of farms from 1050, especially in Eastern Norway. In the High Middle Ages, the church or ecclesiastical institutions controlled 40% of the land in Norway, while the aristocracy owned around 20% and the king owned 7%. The church and monasteries received land through gifts from the king and nobles, or through inheritance and gifts from ordinary farmers.

 

Settlement and demography in the Middle Ages

Before the Black Death, there were more and more farms in Norway due to farm division and clearing. The settlement spread to more marginal agricultural areas higher inland and further north. Eastern Norway had the largest areas to take off and had the most population growth towards the High Middle Ages. Along the coast north of Stad, settlement probably increased in line with the extent of fishing. The Icelandic Rimbegla tells around the year 1200 that the border between Finnmark (the land of the Sami) and resident Norwegians in the interior was at Malangen , while the border all the way out on the coast was at Kvaløya . From the end of the High Middle Ages, there were more Norwegians along the coast of Finnmark and Nord-Troms. In the inner forest and mountain tracts along the current border between Norway and Sweden, the Sami exploited the resources all the way down to Hedmark.

 

There are no censuses or other records of population and settlement in the Middle Ages. At the time of the Reformation, the population was below 200,000 and only in 1650 was the population at the same level as before the Black Death. When Christianity was introduced after the year 1000, the population was around 200,000. After the Black Death, many farms and settlements were abandoned and deserted, in the most marginal agricultural areas up to 80% of the farms were abandoned. Places such as Skien, Veøy and Borgund (Ålesund) went out of use as trading towns. By the year 1300, the population was somewhere between 300,000 and 560,000 depending on the calculation method. Common methods start from detailed information about farms in each village and compare this with the situation in 1660 when there are good headcounts. From 1300 to 1660, there was a change in the economic base so that the coastal villages received a larger share of the population. The inland areas of Eastern Norway had a relatively larger population in the High Middle Ages than after the Reformation. Kåre Lunden concludes that the population in the year 1300 was close to 500,000, of which 15,000 lived in cities. Lunden believes that the population in 1660 was still slightly lower than the peak before the Black Death and points out that farm settlement in 1660 did not reach the same extent as in the High Middle Ages. In 1660, the population in Troms and Finnmark was 6,000 and 3,000 respectively (2% of the total population), in 1300 these areas had an even smaller share of the country's population and in Finnmark there were hardly any Norwegian-speaking inhabitants. In the High Middle Ages, the climate was more favorable for grain cultivation in the north. Based on the number of farms, the population increased 162% from 1000 to 1300, in Northern and Western Europe as a whole the growth was 200% in the same period.

 

Late Middle Ages (1319–1537)

Due to repeated plague epidemics, the population was roughly halved and the least productive of the country's farms were laid waste. It took several hundred years before the population again reached the level before 1349 . However, those who survived the epidemics gained more financial resources by sharing. Tax revenues for the state almost collapsed, and a large part of the noble families died out or sank into peasant status due to the fall in national debt . The Hanseatic League took over trade and shipping and dominated fish exports. The Archbishop of Nidaros was the country's most powerful man economically and politically, as the royal dynasty married into the Swedish in 1319 and died out in 1387 . Eventually, Copenhagen became the political center of the kingdom and Bergen the commercial center, while Trondheim remained the religious center.

 

From Reformation to Autocracy (1537–1660)

In 1537 , the Reformation was carried out in Norway. With that, almost half of the country's property was confiscated by the royal power at the stroke of a pen. The large seizure increased the king's income and was able, among other things, to expand his military power and consolidated his power in the kingdom. From roughly the time of the Reformation and in the following centuries, the state increased its power and importance in people's lives. Until around 1620, the state administration was fairly simple and unspecialised: in Copenhagen, the central administration mainly consisted of a chancellery and an interest chamber ; and sheriffs ruled the civil (including bailiffs and sheriffs) and the military in their district, the sheriffs collected taxes and oversaw business. The accounts were not clear and without summaries. The clergy, which had great power as a separate organization, was appointed by the state church after the Reformation, administered from Copenhagen. In this period, Norway was ruled by (mainly) Danish noble sheriffs, who acted as intermediaries between the peasants and the Oldenborg king in the field of justice, tax and customs collection.

 

From 1620, the state apparatus went through major changes where specialization of functions was a main issue. The sheriff's tasks were divided between several, more specialized officials - the sheriffs retained the formal authority over these, who in practice were under the national administration in Copenhagen. Among other things, a separate military officer corps was established, a separate customs office was established and separate treasurers for taxes and fees were appointed. The Overbergamtet, the central governing body for overseeing mining operations in Norway, was established in 1654 with an office in Christiania and this agency was to oversee the mining chiefs in the Nordenfjeld and Sønnenfjeld areas (the mines at Kongsberg and Røros were established in the previous decades). The formal transition from county government to official government with fixed-paid county officials took place after 1660, but the real changes had taken place from around 1620. The increased specialization and transition to official government meant that experts, not amateurs, were in charge of each area, and this civil service meant, according to Sverre Steen that the dictatorship was not a personal dictatorship.

 

From 1570 until 1721, the Oldenborg dynasty was in repeated wars with the Vasa dynasty in Sweden. The financing of these wars led to a severe increase in taxation which caused great distress.

 

Politically-geographically, the Oldenborg kings had to cede to Sweden the Norwegian provinces of Jemtland , Herjedalen , Idre and Särna , as well as Båhuslen . As part of the financing of the wars, the state apparatus was expanded. Royal power began to assert itself to a greater extent in the administration of justice. Until this period, cases of violence and defamation had been treated as civil cases between citizens. The level of punishment was greatly increased. During this period, at least 307 people were also executed for witchcraft in Norway. Culturally, the country was marked by the fact that the written language became Danish because of the Bible translation and the University of Copenhagen's educational monopoly.

 

From the 16th century, business became more marked by production for sale and not just own consumption. In the past, it was particularly the fisheries that had produced such a large surplus of goods that it was sold to markets far away, the dried fish trade via Bergen is known from around the year 1100. In the 16th century, the yield from the fisheries multiplied, especially due to the introduction of herring in Western Norway and in Trøndelag and because new tools made fishing for herring and skre more efficient. Line fishing and cod nets that were introduced in the 17th century were controversial because the small fishermen believed it favored citizens in the cities.

 

Forestry and the timber trade became an important business, particularly because of the boom saw which made it possible to saw all kinds of tables and planks for sale abroad. The demand for timber increased at the same time in Europe, Norway had plenty of forests and in the 17th century timber became the country's most important export product. There were hundreds of sawmills in the country and the largest had the feel of factories . In 1680, the king regulated the timber trade by allowing exports only from privileged sawmills and in a certain quantity.

 

From the 1520s, some silver was mined in Telemark. When the peasants chased the German miners whereupon the king executed five peasants and demanded compensation from the other rebellious peasants. The background for the harsh treatment was that the king wanted to assert his authority over the extraction of precious metals. The search for metals led to the silver works at Kongsberg after 1624, copper in the mountain villages between Trøndelag and Eastern Norway, and iron, among other things, in Agder and lower Telemark. The financial gain of the quarries at that time is unclear because there are no reliable accounts. Kongsberg ma

Land Rover 2A Station Wagon Restoration, Designed by Border Rovers and Built by Retroworks.

 

Owned and operated by Border Rovers:

 

07515899390

Oil on canvas

Atalía Lima

 

Museo Histórico Nacional

Buenos Aires, Argentina

 

About the artist:

 

Argentine painter, born in San Juan, who lived approximately between 1810 and 1880. Friend of Sarmiento, who mentions Lima sometimes in his works. It is believed that he always lived in San Juan. Self taught.

 

In the Museum of Luján a miniature of Fray Justo Santa María de Oro of 1836 is conserved.

 

In 1858 he worked as professor of drawing and geography in the National School of Buenos Aires. He attended the Córdoba Exhibition of 1871 with several works, including: The San Juan Beggar, The Encounter of the Gaucho in Love, The Tracker Calíbar, and Portrait of General Mariano Acha.

 

He was fundamentally a portrait painter, although some still life and works of local customs are known. His work, The Repentance , was exhibited in 1863 at the home of Corti and Francisqueli in 1863. At the San Roque Hospital in San Juan, there was a portrait of Doña Gertrudis Funes. Other portraits: Mrs. Mercedes Merlo de Videla Lima; Lady Sixta Mallea de Cordero (1880); Don Zacarías Antonio Yanzi. His work is in the collection of the National Historical Museum; it is known that San Juan families owned his works, but the whereabouts of many are unknown.

 

www.museofranklinrawson.org/artistas/lima-ataliva/

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Fray Justo Santa María de Oro y Albarracín (San Juan, September 3, 1772 - October 19, 1836) was an Argentine cleric and defender of republicanism.

 

He was the son of Juan Miguel de Oro Bustamante and Cossio and Elena Albarracín Ladrón de Guevara. When he was 17 years old he joined the Order of the Dominicans in Chile, from where he returned to his province in 1814, expelled by General José Miguel Carrera.

 

His contacts with his Order brothers in Chile allowed General San Martín to send secret mail through them.

 

In 1816 he was elected deputy to the Congress of Tucumán, along with Francisco Laprida. There he promoted the Declaration of Independence. Liberal historiography places him as a strong defender of the republican form of government by virtue of his phrase "we must consult the peoples."

 

In the Congress of Tucumán his words were "the sovereignty of the people will win the day," framing the thesis of the constitutional monarchy, or "I the King" appears, against the republic, or "We the people." .

He resigned from Congress when, the following year, he moved to Buenos Aires; He was deported to Chile in 1818, quickly becoming the superior of the Dominicans of that country.

 

He returned to San Juan in 1828, as apostolic vicar for the diocese of San Juan de Cuyo. He built the Cathedral, improved the religious schools of that city and founded one for women. He was appointed bishop in 1830 but he served as governor of the bishopric, since he never became ordained.

 

He was forced out of politics for not entering the internal fights between unitarians and federalists, he died on October 19, 1836 and his remains rest in the Cathedral of San Juan.

================================================

 

Sobre el artista:

 

Pintor argentino, nacido en San Juan, cuya existencia transcurre aproximadamente entre los años 1810 y 1880. Amigo de Sarmiento, éste lo menciona algunas veces en sus obras. Se cree que vivió siempre en San Juan. Autodidacta. En el Museo de Luján se conserva una miniatura de Fray Justo Santa María de Oro de 1836. En 1858 se desempeñó como profesor de dibujo y geografía en el Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires. Concurrió a la Exposición de Córdoba de 1871 con varias obras, entre ellas: El mendigo sanjuanino, La cita del gaucho enamorado, El rastreador Calíbar, Retrato del General Mariano Acha. Fue fundamentalmente pintor de retratos, aunque se conoce algún bodegón y obras de corte costumbrista. Su obra El arrepentimiento, fue expuesta en 1863 en la casa de Corti y Francisqueli en 1863. En el Hospital San Roque de San Juan, existió el retrato de Doña Gertrudis Funes. Otros retratos: Señora Mercedes Merlo de Videla Lima; Señora Sixta Mallea de Cordero (1880); Don Zacarías Antonio Yanzi. Hay obra suya en el Museo Histórico Nacional; se sabe que familias sanjuaninas poseían obras suyas, pero de muchas de ellas se desconoce el paradero.

 

www.museofranklinrawson.org/artistas/lima-ataliva/

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Fray Justo Santa María de Oro y Albarracín (San Juan, 3 de septiembre de 1772 - 19 de octubre de 1836) fue un religioso argentino, defensor del republicanismo.

 

Era hijo de Juan Miguel de Oro Bustamante y Cossio y Elena Albarracín Ladrón de Guevara. A los 17 años ingresó en la Orden de los Dominicos en Chile, de donde regresó a su provincia en 1814, expulsado por el general José Miguel Carrera.

 

Sus contactos con sus hermanos de Orden en Chile sirvieron para que el General San Martín pudiera enviar correo secreto a través de ellos.

 

En 1816 fue elegido diputado al Congreso de Tucumán, junto con Francisco Laprida. Allí impulsó la declaración de la Independencia. La historiografía liberal lo ubica como un férreo defensor de la forma republicana de gobierno por su frase "hay que consultar a los pueblos".

 

En el Congreso de Tucumán sus palabras fueron "se dará la batalla a favor de la soberanía del pueblo" y por eso aparece la tesis de la monarquía constitucional o "Yo el Rey", enfrentada con la de la república o "Nosotros los pueblos".

 

Renunció al Congreso cuando, al año siguiente, éste se trasladó a Buenos Aires; fue deportado a Chile en 1818, llegando rápidamente a ser el superior de los Dominicos de ese país.

 

Regresó a San Juan en 1828, como vicario apostólico para la diócesis de San Juan de Cuyo. Construyó la Catedral, mejoró las escuelas religiosas de esa ciudad y fundó una para mujeres. Fue nombrado obispo en 1830 pero ejerció como gobernador del obispado, ya que nunca llegó a ser ordenado.

 

Retirado de la Política por no ingresar en las luchas intestinas entre unitarios y federales muere un 19 de octubre de 1836 y sus restos descansan en la Catedral de San Juan.

 

Source/fuente: es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justo_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_de_Oro

 

>> it looks more beautifuller on black :)

 

This is my another capture from the KBR park photo-walk. This was the only bird we (I) could spot in the whole park, but the sad part was that there was no bird, instead we found just its feathers all around. Where did the bird go leaving all its feather here???????............

 

..................save them or we will loose all the beautiful colors very quickly

 

people along with us were suspecting this to be a poaching incident.

  

>>We stand today poised on a pinnacle of wealth and power, yet we live in a land of vanishing beauty, of increasing ugliness, of shrinking open space and of an overall environment that is diminished daily by pollution and noise and blight. This, in brief, is the quiet conservation crisis.

- Stewart L. Udall

 

>>Nature provides a free lunch, but only if we control our appetites

- William Ruckelshaus

 

Shot At: KBR Park, Hyderabad, AP, India.

 

Explore highest : 75 :) thanku guys

Rijks Museum - National Museum of Netherlands

 

Vision:

 

The Rijksmuseum links individuals with art and history.

 

Mission:

 

At the Rijksmuseum, art and history take on new meaning for a broad-based, contemporary national and international audience.

 

As a national institute, the Rijksmuseum offers a representative overview of Dutch art and history from the Middle Ages onwards, and of major aspects of European and Asian art.

 

The Rijksmuseum keeps, manages, conserves, restores, researches, prepares, collects, publishes, and presents artistic and historical objects, both on its own premises and elsewhere.

 

From 1800 to 2013

 

The Rijksmuseum first opened its doors in 1800 under the name ‘Nationale Kunstgalerij’. At the time, it was housed in Huis ten Bosch in The Hague. The collection mainly comprised paintings and historical objects. In 1808, the museum moved to the new capital city of Amsterdam, where it was based in the Royal Palace on Dam Square.

 

After King Willem I’s accession to the throne, the paintings and national print collection were moved to the Trippenhuis on Kloveniersburgwal, while the other objects were returned to The Hague. The current building was put into use in 1885. The Netherlands Museum for History and Art based in The Hague moved into the same premises, forming what would later become the departments of Dutch History and Sculpture & Applied Art.

The beginning

 

On 19 November 1798, more than three years after the birth of the Batavian Republic, the government decided to honour a suggestion put forward by Isaac Gogel by following the French example of setting up a national museum. The museum initially housed the remains of the viceregal collections and a variety of objects originating from state institutions. When the Nationale Kunstgalerij first opened its doors on 31 May 1800, it had more than 200 paintings and historical objects on display. In the years that followed, Gogel and the first director, C.S. Roos, made countless acquisitions. Their first purchase, The Swan by Jan Asselijn, cost 100 Dutch guilders and is still one of the Rijksmuseum’s top pieces.

Move to Amsterdam

 

In 1808, the new King Louis Napoleon ordered the collections to be moved to Amsterdam, which was to be made the capital of the Kingdom of Holland. The works of art and objects were taken to the Royal Palace on Dam Square, the former city hall of Amsterdam, where they were united with the city’s foremost paintings, including the Night Watch by Rembrandt. In 1809, the Koninklijk Museum opened its doors on the top floor of the palace.

 

A few years after Willem I returned to the Netherlands as the new king in 1813, the ‘Rijks Museum’ and the national print collection from The Hague relocated to the Trippenhuis, a 17th-century town-palace on Kloveniersburgwal, home to what would later become the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Much to the regret of the director, Cornelis Apostool, in 1820 many objects including pieces of great historical interest were assigned to the Kabinet van Zeldzaamheden [Royal Gallery of Rare Objects], which had been founded in The Hague. In 1838, a separate museum for modern 19th-century art was established in Paviljoen Welgelegen in Haarlem. Contrary to the days of Louis Napoleon, very few large acquisitions were made during this period.

 

Cuypers Cathedral

 

The Trippenhuis proved unsuitable as a museum. Furthermore, many people thought it time to establish a dedicated national museum building in the Netherlands. Work on a new building did not commence until 1876, after many years of debate. The architect, Pierre Cuypers, had drawn up a historic design for the Rijksmuseum, which combined the Gothic and the Renaissance styles. The design was not generally well-received; people considered it too mediaeval and not Dutch enough. The official opening took place in 1885.

 

Nearly all the older paintings belonging to the City of Amsterdam were hung in the Rijksmuseum alongside paintings and prints from the Trippenhuis, including paintings such as Rembrandt’s Jewish Bride, which had been bequeathed to the city by the banker A. van der Hoop. The collection of 19th-century art from Haarlem was also added to the museum’s collection. Finally, a significant part of the Kabinet van Zeldzaamheden, which had by then been incorporated into the new Netherlands Museum for History and Art, was returned to Amsterdam.

 

Renovations

 

Over the years, collections continued to grow and museum insight continued to expand, and so the Rijksmuseum building underwent many changes. Rooms were added to the south-west side of the building between 1904 and 1916 (now the Philips wing) to house the collection of 19th-century paintings donated to the museum by Mr and Mrs Drucker-Fraser. In the 1950s and 1960s, the two original courtyards were covered and renovated to create more rooms.

 

In 1927, while Schmidt-Degener was Managing Director, the Netherlands Museum was split to form the departments of Dutch History and Sculpture & Applied Art. These departments were moved to separate parts of the building after 1945. The arrival of a collection donated by the Association of Friends of Asian Art in the 1950s resulted in the creation of the Asian Art department.

 

The 1970s saw record numbers of visitors of almost one-and-a-half million per year, and the building gradually started to fall short of modern requirements.

‘Verder met Cuypers'

 

The current renovation reinstates the original Cuypers structure. The building work in the courtyards are removed. Paintings, applied art and history are no longer displayed in separate parts of the building, but form a single chronological circuit that tells the story of Dutch art and history.

 

The building is thoroughly modernized, while at the same time restoring more of Cuypers original interior designs: the Rijksmuseum has dubbed the venture ‘Verder met Cuypers‘ [Continuing with Cuypers]. The Rijksmuseum will be a dazzling new museum able to satisfy the needs of its 21st-century visitors!

 

Every year, the Rijksmuseum compiles an annual report for the previous year. Annual reports dating back to 1998 can be found here (in Dutch only). Reports relating to the years before 1998 are available in the reading room of the library.

 

O Museu Rijks é um dos maiores e mais importantes museus da Europa.É o maior dos Países Baixos, com acervo voltado quase todo aos artistas holandeses. As obras vão desde exemplares da arte sacra até a era dourada holandesa, além de uma substancial coleção de arte asiática.

Esse é o Rijksmuseum, o Museu Nacional dos Países Baixos. E aproveite, caro leitor, porque o Rijks esteve parcialmente fechado para reforma durante 10 anos – voltou a funcionar só em 2013. Ou seja, quem esteve em Amsterdam na última década não conheceu o Rijks, pelo menos não completamente.

 

Mas o quê tem lá? Muita coisa. Destaque para as coleções de arte e História holandesas. Os trabalhos dos pintores Frans Hals e Johannes Vermeer são alguns dos mais concorridos, mas imbatível mesmo é Rembrandt van Rijn, considerado um dos maiores pintores de todos os tempos. Se você não é um fã de museus de arte, mas faz questão de conhecer o trabalho desses grandes artistas, uma dica: assim que chegar ao Rijks, vá direto para a ala onde estão as obras-primas. Assim você vê o mais importante no início da visita, quando ainda está descansado e poderá dedicar o tempo necessário para essas obras.

A mais famosa delas é a “A Ronda Noturna”, de Rembrandt, uma obra que inspirou músicas, pinturas, filmes e até um flash mob. Quando o Rijks foi reaberto, artistas recriam a cena mostrada no quadro dentro de um shopping de Amsterdam. A ação está no vídeo abaixo e eu te garanto que vale a pena dar play.

 

Read more: www.360meridianos.com/2014/01/museus-de-amsterdam.html#ix...

Read more: www.360meridianos.com/2014/01/museus-de-amsterdam.html#ix...

Rijksmuseum, Museu Nacional

42 Stadhouderskade

Amsterdam

 

O museu Rijksmuseum de Amsterdã é o Museu Nacional da Holanda, onde você encontrará uma impressionante coleção permanente, formada por 5.000 pinturas e 30.000 obras de arte, além de 17.000 objetos históricos.

 

Esse museu nacional foi fundado em 1885 e está instalado em um edifício de estilo neogótico. A sua principal atração é a extensa coleção de quadros pintados por artistas holandeses, abrangendo um período que vai do séc. XV aos dias de hoje. A obra de arte mais famosa em exibição é o quadro A Ronda Noturna, de Rembrandt.

O museu Rijksmuseum está dividido em cinco departamentos: pintura, escultura, arte aplicada, arte oriental, história dos Países Baixos e gravuras. O núcleo da coleção é a pintura e suas obras mais representativas são as que pertencem ao Século de Ouro holandês, com quadros de artistas como Rembrandt, Vermeer ou Frans Hals.

Ver fonte: dreamguides.edreams.pt/holanda/amsterda/rijksmuseum

 

Museu Rijks, Amesterdão

O Museu Rijks (Museu Nacional) é um edifício histórico, sendo o maior museu nos Países Baixos. O Museu é o maior no numero relativamente às suas colecções, na área do edifício em si, no financiamento e no numero de funcionários empregados.

Cada ano, mais de um milhão de pessoas visitam o Museu Rijks. O Museu emprega cerca de 400 pessoas, incluindo 45 conservadores de museu que são especializados em todas as áreas.

O Museu Rijks é internacionalmente reconhecido pelas suas exibições e publicações, mas não só apenas por estes produtos de grande qualidade, mas também pelas áreas no museu em si que são fonte de inspiração e encorajam a criação de novas ideias.

O museu também tem recursos consideráveis para a educação, para a decoração e apresentação de exibições. Importantes designers são regularmente chamados a trabalharem em projectos no Museu Rijks.

O edifício principal do Museu Rijks está a ser renovado. A boa noticia é que a melhor parte da exposição está apresentada na redesenhada ala Philips. O nome desta exposição denomina-se "The Masterpieces'.

O museu abre diariamente das 10 da manhã até ás 5 da tarde.

A entrada é pela Stadhouderskade 42.

www.rijksmuseum.nl

 

Rijksmuseum

Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.

O Rijksmuseum é um museu nacional dos Países Baixos, localizada em Amsterdão na Praça do museu. O Rijksmuseum é dedicado à artes e história. Ele tem uma larga coleção de pinturas da idade de ouro neerlandesa e uma substancial coleção de arte asiática.

O museu foi fundado em 1800 na cidade da Haia para exibir a coleção do primeiro-ministro. Foi inspirado no exemplo francês. Pelos neerlandeses ficou conhecida como Galeria de Arte. Em 1808 o museu mudou-se para Amsterdã pelas ordens do rei Louis Napoleón, irmão de Napoleão Bonaparte. As pinturas daquela cidade, como A Ronda Nocturna de Rembrandt, tornaram-se parte da coleção.

Em 1885 o museu mudou-se para sua localização atual, construído pelo arquiteto neerlandês Pierre Cuypers. Ele combinou elementos góticos e renascentistas. O museu tem um posição proeminente na Praça do Museu, próximo ao Museu van Gogh e ao Museu Stedelijk. A construção é ricamente decorada com referências da história da arte neerlandesa. A Ronda Nocturna de Rembrandt tem seu próprio corredor no museu desde 1906. Desde 2003 o museu sofreu restaurações, mas as obras-primas são constatemente presentes para o público.

A coleção de pinturas inclui trabalhos de artistas como Jacob van Ruysdael, Frans Hals, Johannes Vermeer e Rembrandt e de alunos de Rembrandt.

Em 2005, 95% do museu está fechado para renovação, mas as pinturas da coleção permanente ainda estão em mostra em uma exibição especial chamada As Obras-primas.

Algumas das pinturas do museu:

Rembrandt van Rijn

A Ronda Nocturna

Os síndicos da guilda dos fabricantes de tecidos

A noiva judia

A lição de Anatomia do Dr. Deyman

Pedro negando Cristo

Saskia com um véu

Retrato de Titus em hábito de monge

Auto-retrato como Apóstolo Paulo

Tobias, Ana e o Bode

Johannes Vermeer:

A Leiteira

A Carta de Amor

Mulher de Azul a ler uma carta

A Rua pequena

Frans Hals:

Retrato de um jovem casal

A Companhia Reynier Real

O bebedor alegre

Retrato de Lucas De Clercq

Retrato de Nicolaes Hasselaer

Retrato de um homem

Página oficial do Rijksmuseum

Virtual Collection of Masterpieces (VCM)

O melhor museu de Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum

O Commons possui uma categoria contendo imagens e outros ficheiros sobre Rijksmuseum

 

Rijksmuseum Amsterdam

  

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Se você visitar Amsterdam, precisará conhecer o Museu Nacional da Holanda: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. O Museu Nacional fica na Praça do Museu, situada no centro de Amsterdam. O Museu Nacional, ou Rijksmuseum, possui uma maravilhosa coleção de arte e história holandesas. Após uma visita ao Rijksmuseum, você saberá mais sobre história e arte e terá visto alguns dos maiores marcos culturais da Holanda.

 

Obras-primas do Museu Nacional

Ao todo, a coleção do Rijksmuseum apresenta a história da Holanda em um contexto internacional, desde 1.100 até o presente. Há alguns ícones da história e cultura da Holanda que você não pode perder:

 

Ronda Noturna (de Nachtwacht) de Rembrandt é uma das mais famosas obras desse mestre holandês e é de tirar o fôlego.

 

O Rijksmuseum tem uma das melhores coleções de pinturas dos grandes mestres do século XVII, como Frans Hals, Jan Steen, Vermeer e Rembrandt.

 

Assim como o Museu Histórico de Haia, o Rijksmuseum apresenta lindas casas de bonecas, mobiliadas em detalhes, datando de 1676.

 

Se você não puder ir ao Delft Real, pode ainda apreciar algumas das melhores cerâmicas de Delft, de conjuntos de chá a vasos, no Museu Nacional.

 

Museu que é visita obrigatória em Amsterdam

Quer sua estadia em Amsterdam seja breve ou longa, você deve visitar o Rijksmuseum. Chegue cedo para evitar enfrentar filas. Combine a visita ao Rijksmuseum com várias outras atrações próximas, como o Museu Van Gogh, o Museu Stedelijk Amsterdam e a Coster Diamonds

 

Para obter mais informações sobre Amsterdam, retorne à página sobre Amsterdam ou à página sobre os museus de Amsterdam.

   

Des stalles du château de Gaillon sont conservées dans la basilique Saint-Denis près de Paris. Ce château était la résidence de loisir des archevêques de Rouen. Commandées au début du XVIe siècle par Georges d’Amboise, ces stalles ont été construites lorsque cet archevêque, devenu légat du pape et premier conseiller de Louis XII a fait transformer le château médiéval en palais de la Renaissance. Seules stalles en France à présenter de nombreux panneaux de marqueterie et une iconographie inédite, elles forment un mobilier unique, chef-d’œuvre de cette période charnière entre gothique et Renaissance, arborant une grande mixité de styles. Ces stalles sont les chaires qui étaient destinées aux trois chanoines qui officiaient dans la chapelle haute du château de Gaillon, dédiée à saint Georges. Elles étaient ceintes d’une clôture en boiset constituaient ainsi le chœur liturgique de l'édifice.

 

Les stalles en chêne sont composées de deux rangées disposées côté nord et sud du transept de la basilique de Saint-Denis. La rangée nord présente un ensemble de six stalles, la rangée sud de cinq stalles et une isolée. Seules douze stalles ont été créées au XVIe siècle alors que le programme iconographique en prévoyait quatorze. De 2,83 m de haut, elles composées d’un siège et d’un dorsal, ce dernier comprenant deux registres : un bas-relief surmontant un panneau de marqueterie. Tous les éléments sont sculptés ou marquetés. De manière unique, les dossiers, les dorsaux et les voussures des dais sont galbés. De même les chaires ont des largeurs variées, fixées par celles des bas-reliefs des dorsaux. Pour s’adapter, les largeurs d’autres composants ont été rectifiées. La mixité de style se retrouve dans la globalité, les interdorsaux et deux dais étant gothiques alors que les faibles reliefs sont apparentés aux grotesques de la Renaissance, les bas-reliefs et les marqueteries des dorsaux étant quant à eux à la fois d’inspiration péninsulaire et septentrionale.

 

Sont illustrées sur les bas-reliefs originaux des dorsaux deux scènes de la vie d’Anne et Joachim, parents de la vierge Marie, cinq scènes de la vie de saint Jean-Baptiste le précurseur et sept scènes de la vie de saint Georges selon les textes d’Évangile ou de la Légende dorée. Nombre d’autres saints sont présentés en pied, sous forme de statuettes sur les interdorsaux ou de bas-reliefs sur les soubassements des jouées, notamment les quatre évangélistes sur ces derniers. Sur les panneaux marquetés des quadrants des parcloses sont figurées les affres des enfers des condamnés selon les sept péchés capitaux, avec les planètes et leurs influences. Les représentations sont inspirées des gravures du Calendrier des bergers imprimé à cette époque.

 

Les miséricordes figurent des scènes des Métamorphoses d’Ovide ainsi que les arts libéraux selon la Margarita Philosophica de G. Reisch. Les artisans se sont inspirés de gravures d’ouvrages imprimés au début du XVIe siècle, par exemple le soldat romain Caius Mucius Scaevola devant le roi Étrusque Porsenna y étant représenté exposant ainsi des thématiques propres à la culture antique. De manière également tout à fait inédite, les 7 vertus, cardinales et théologales, et 7 sibylles sont figurées et représentées sur les panneaux de marqueterie du premier registre des dorsaux. Les allégories et les prophétesses sont encadrées d’architectures identiques deux à deux qui les mettent en concordance. Les sibylles ont été choisies parmi celles du manuscrit des Heures de Louis de Laval dont les auteurs ont cité les prophéties. Ces dernières proviennent du manuscrit des Institutions divines de Lactance qui était de nouveau traduit et que le cardinal a lui-même fait enluminer. Ce grand rhéteur du IVe siècle ayant quant à lui repris les oracles rédigés dans les Oracles sibyllins.

 

Georges Ier d’Amboise n’a pas manqué de faire valoir qu’il était le commanditaire des stalles en demandant à ce que ses armes et sa devise y figurent à de nombreuses reprises. Le légat a donné pour modèles aux artisans des stalles des enluminures ou gravures de manuscrits faisant partie de sa splendide bibliothèque, digne d'un grand érudit humaniste. Il fit venir l’Italie en choisissant la marqueterie figurative en sus de la sculpture, seule technique utilisée à l'époque en France. Sans renier la tradition en faisant figurer les saints, il a fait représenter de manière inédite leur cycle de vie, dont il a choisi des événements bien spécifiques. De plus, il a incité les fidèles à s’instruire et à étudier les auteurs antiques en faisant sculpter des allégories des arts libéraux et des personnages mythiques ou héroïques. Enfin, par le dialogue des sibylles et des vertus, il a montré que la rhétorique de Lactance était convaincante. Il a ainsi non seulement introduit en France la mode italienne dans le mobilier, le décor et les ornements du château de Gaillon, mais surtout donné corps à l’esprit humaniste en faisant de ses stalles les messagères qui appellent à une vie vertueuse, dans la foi au Christ annoncé à tous les hommes (cf. wikipédia, merci Glass Angel pour la photo).

SA Police Museum.

This police museum was established in 1977 to conserve and detail some of the work and achievements of South Australian police personnel. The museum has five main galleries with different themes as well as a collection of police uniforms, police cars and motor cycles etc. The history of the South Australian Mounted Police Force began in 1838 making it the third oldest organised police force in the world after England and Ireland! Henry Inman was the first police chief in April 1838. The mounted police and their horses were in a paddock behind the SA Museum which later became their barracks and the state armoury site. They wore blue British style uniforms with a differences between the uniforms of footed and mounted officers. Our forward thinking police department was the first in Australia to introduce bicycles for officers in 1893 and they were not totally replaced by motor cycles until the 1950s. More significant than the introduction of bicycles was the introduction of female police officers 1915 – the second country in the British Empire to do so after NSW which also introduced female officers in 1915. These female officers received the same pay and had the same conditions as the men. The first female officers who were instrumental in having the women’s force established were Kate Cocks and Annie Ross. Kate Cocks had worked in Children’s Welfare before being transferred to the Police Department. The responsibilities of these two women centred on women and violence, prostitution and youth sex offences. SA also followed NSW’s early introduction of finger printing, the earliest form of forensic science in the police force in 1894. But SA provided the new Commonwealth of Australia with a uniform system of finger printing which was adopted across all states in 1904. The Police Museum also has a replica of a Black Maria police van for transporting criminals in a secure horse drawn carriage. The Black Maria’s were introduced in 1874 and used until replaced by motor vehicles in 1928.

 

Domaine conservé intact depuis la seconde moitié du 18e siècle, sans aucun ajout, le Château de Canon constitue un parfait témoin du siècle des Lumières en basse-normandie.

Photographie aérienne par cerf-volant.

 

Domain intact since the second half of the 18th century, without any addition, the Château de Canon is a perfect example of the Age of Enlightenment in Normandy.

Kite Aerial Photography.

  

© Janvier 2012, François Levalet

"World Meet 'Hero' Our First Confirmed Newborn Eaglet"

 

NEW JERSEY’S BALD EAGLE POPULATION CONTINUES TO SOAR

January 14th, 2016

 

CONSERVE WILDLIFE FOUNDATION OF NEW JERSEY RELEASES RESULTS OF 2015 STATE BALD EAGLE REPORT

 

by Lindsay McNamara, Communications Manager

 

Conserve Wildlife Foundation of New Jersey today released the 2015 Bald Eagle Report, highlighting the number of nesting pairs, active nests and nest productivity for the raptors throughout New Jersey with data collected by New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection Division of Fish and Wildlife biologists, CWF biologists and committed volunteers.

 

“With 161 pairs of bald eagles this past year — up from just a single nest in the early 1980’s — the dramatic ongoing recovery of bald eagles across the northeast continues to inspire so many of us,” said David Wheeler, Conserve Wildlife Foundation Executive Director. “The thrill of seeing a bald eagle fly across the sky is unparalleled. This report captures how these eagles are continuing their All-American return.”

 

The report notes that thirteen new eagle pairs were found this season, nine in the south, two in Central Jersey and two in Northern New Jersey.

 

For more info: www.conservewildlifenj.org/blog/2016/01/14/new-jerseys-ba...

Whenever there's a glut of fruit, meat, vegetables or mushrooms we conserve as much as we can. It's very nice having a good food stash when the shops are far away. For me this isn't really living frugally - as far as we're concerned - we're rich !

Coventry Transport Museum opened in 1980, after it became clear that the road transport collection was outgrowing the space it occupied in the Herbert Art Gallery & Museum. The Museum’s current collection of vehicles is acknowledged as being one of the finest in the world, and the largest in public ownership.

The Museum’s collection consists of motor cars, commercial vehicles, cycles and motorcycles. In addition, extensive collections of automobilia, books, photographs and a wealth of other archive material is held and conserved at the Coventry History Centre at the Herbert Art Gallery & Museum.

Ford Truck 1934

A Windmill on a Polder Waterway, Known as ‘In the Month of July’, Paul Joseph Constantin Gabriël, c. 1889

 

olieverf op doek, h 102cm × w 66cm × d 14cm. More details

 

‘Our country is saturated with colour. ...I repeat, our country is not grey, not even in grey weather, nor are the dunes grey,’ wrote Constant Gabriël in a letter. Unlike many Hague School painters, he actually enjoyed depicting a beautiful summer day. There are even two of them in this painting: the image of the grass, sky and mill, and their reflection in the water.

  

Rijks Museum - National Museum of Netherlands

 

Vision:

 

The Rijksmuseum links individuals with art and history.

 

Mission:

 

At the Rijksmuseum, art and history take on new meaning for a broad-based, contemporary national and international audience.

 

As a national institute, the Rijksmuseum offers a representative overview of Dutch art and history from the Middle Ages onwards, and of major aspects of European and Asian art.

 

The Rijksmuseum keeps, manages, conserves, restores, researches, prepares, collects, publishes, and presents artistic and historical objects, both on its own premises and elsewhere.

 

From 1800 to 2013

 

The Rijksmuseum first opened its doors in 1800 under the name ‘Nationale Kunstgalerij’. At the time, it was housed in Huis ten Bosch in The Hague. The collection mainly comprised paintings and historical objects. In 1808, the museum moved to the new capital city of Amsterdam, where it was based in the Royal Palace on Dam Square.

 

After King Willem I’s accession to the throne, the paintings and national print collection were moved to the Trippenhuis on Kloveniersburgwal, while the other objects were returned to The Hague. The current building was put into use in 1885. The Netherlands Museum for History and Art based in The Hague moved into the same premises, forming what would later become the departments of Dutch History and Sculpture & Applied Art.

The beginning

 

On 19 November 1798, more than three years after the birth of the Batavian Republic, the government decided to honour a suggestion put forward by Isaac Gogel by following the French example of setting up a national museum. The museum initially housed the remains of the viceregal collections and a variety of objects originating from state institutions. When the Nationale Kunstgalerij first opened its doors on 31 May 1800, it had more than 200 paintings and historical objects on display. In the years that followed, Gogel and the first director, C.S. Roos, made countless acquisitions. Their first purchase, The Swan by Jan Asselijn, cost 100 Dutch guilders and is still one of the Rijksmuseum’s top pieces.

Move to Amsterdam

 

In 1808, the new King Louis Napoleon ordered the collections to be moved to Amsterdam, which was to be made the capital of the Kingdom of Holland. The works of art and objects were taken to the Royal Palace on Dam Square, the former city hall of Amsterdam, where they were united with the city’s foremost paintings, including the Night Watch by Rembrandt. In 1809, the Koninklijk Museum opened its doors on the top floor of the palace.

 

A few years after Willem I returned to the Netherlands as the new king in 1813, the ‘Rijks Museum’ and the national print collection from The Hague relocated to the Trippenhuis, a 17th-century town-palace on Kloveniersburgwal, home to what would later become the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Much to the regret of the director, Cornelis Apostool, in 1820 many objects including pieces of great historical interest were assigned to the Kabinet van Zeldzaamheden [Royal Gallery of Rare Objects], which had been founded in The Hague. In 1838, a separate museum for modern 19th-century art was established in Paviljoen Welgelegen in Haarlem. Contrary to the days of Louis Napoleon, very few large acquisitions were made during this period.

 

Cuypers Cathedral

 

The Trippenhuis proved unsuitable as a museum. Furthermore, many people thought it time to establish a dedicated national museum building in the Netherlands. Work on a new building did not commence until 1876, after many years of debate. The architect, Pierre Cuypers, had drawn up a historic design for the Rijksmuseum, which combined the Gothic and the Renaissance styles. The design was not generally well-received; people considered it too mediaeval and not Dutch enough. The official opening took place in 1885.

 

Nearly all the older paintings belonging to the City of Amsterdam were hung in the Rijksmuseum alongside paintings and prints from the Trippenhuis, including paintings such as Rembrandt’s Jewish Bride, which had been bequeathed to the city by the banker A. van der Hoop. The collection of 19th-century art from Haarlem was also added to the museum’s collection. Finally, a significant part of the Kabinet van Zeldzaamheden, which had by then been incorporated into the new Netherlands Museum for History and Art, was returned to Amsterdam.

 

Renovations

 

Over the years, collections continued to grow and museum insight continued to expand, and so the Rijksmuseum building underwent many changes. Rooms were added to the south-west side of the building between 1904 and 1916 (now the Philips wing) to house the collection of 19th-century paintings donated to the museum by Mr and Mrs Drucker-Fraser. In the 1950s and 1960s, the two original courtyards were covered and renovated to create more rooms.

 

In 1927, while Schmidt-Degener was Managing Director, the Netherlands Museum was split to form the departments of Dutch History and Sculpture & Applied Art. These departments were moved to separate parts of the building after 1945. The arrival of a collection donated by the Association of Friends of Asian Art in the 1950s resulted in the creation of the Asian Art department.

 

The 1970s saw record numbers of visitors of almost one-and-a-half million per year, and the building gradually started to fall short of modern requirements.

‘Verder met Cuypers'

 

The current renovation reinstates the original Cuypers structure. The building work in the courtyards are removed. Paintings, applied art and history are no longer displayed in separate parts of the building, but form a single chronological circuit that tells the story of Dutch art and history.

 

The building is thoroughly modernized, while at the same time restoring more of Cuypers original interior designs: the Rijksmuseum has dubbed the venture ‘Verder met Cuypers‘ [Continuing with Cuypers]. The Rijksmuseum will be a dazzling new museum able to satisfy the needs of its 21st-century visitors!

 

Every year, the Rijksmuseum compiles an annual report for the previous year. Annual reports dating back to 1998 can be found here (in Dutch only). Reports relating to the years before 1998 are available in the reading room of the library.

 

O Museu Rijks é um dos maiores e mais importantes museus da Europa.É o maior dos Países Baixos, com acervo voltado quase todo aos artistas holandeses. As obras vão desde exemplares da arte sacra até a era dourada holandesa, além de uma substancial coleção de arte asiática.

Esse é o Rijksmuseum, o Museu Nacional dos Países Baixos. E aproveite, caro leitor, porque o Rijks esteve parcialmente fechado para reforma durante 10 anos – voltou a funcionar só em 2013. Ou seja, quem esteve em Amsterdam na última década não conheceu o Rijks, pelo menos não completamente.

 

Mas o quê tem lá? Muita coisa. Destaque para as coleções de arte e História holandesas. Os trabalhos dos pintores Frans Hals e Johannes Vermeer são alguns dos mais concorridos, mas imbatível mesmo é Rembrandt van Rijn, considerado um dos maiores pintores de todos os tempos. Se você não é um fã de museus de arte, mas faz questão de conhecer o trabalho desses grandes artistas, uma dica: assim que chegar ao Rijks, vá direto para a ala onde estão as obras-primas. Assim você vê o mais importante no início da visita, quando ainda está descansado e poderá dedicar o tempo necessário para essas obras.

A mais famosa delas é a “A Ronda Noturna”, de Rembrandt, uma obra que inspirou músicas, pinturas, filmes e até um flash mob. Quando o Rijks foi reaberto, artistas recriam a cena mostrada no quadro dentro de um shopping de Amsterdam. A ação está no vídeo abaixo e eu te garanto que vale a pena dar play.

 

Read more: www.360meridianos.com/2014/01/museus-de-amsterdam.html#ix...

Read more: www.360meridianos.com/2014/01/museus-de-amsterdam.html#ix...

Rijksmuseum, Museu Nacional

42 Stadhouderskade

Amsterdam

 

O museu Rijksmuseum de Amsterdã é o Museu Nacional da Holanda, onde você encontrará uma impressionante coleção permanente, formada por 5.000 pinturas e 30.000 obras de arte, além de 17.000 objetos históricos.

 

Esse museu nacional foi fundado em 1885 e está instalado em um edifício de estilo neogótico. A sua principal atração é a extensa coleção de quadros pintados por artistas holandeses, abrangendo um período que vai do séc. XV aos dias de hoje. A obra de arte mais famosa em exibição é o quadro A Ronda Noturna, de Rembrandt.

O museu Rijksmuseum está dividido em cinco departamentos: pintura, escultura, arte aplicada, arte oriental, história dos Países Baixos e gravuras. O núcleo da coleção é a pintura e suas obras mais representativas são as que pertencem ao Século de Ouro holandês, com quadros de artistas como Rembrandt, Vermeer ou Frans Hals.

Ver fonte: dreamguides.edreams.pt/holanda/amsterda/rijksmuseum

 

Museu Rijks, Amesterdão

O Museu Rijks (Museu Nacional) é um edifício histórico, sendo o maior museu nos Países Baixos. O Museu é o maior no numero relativamente às suas colecções, na área do edifício em si, no financiamento e no numero de funcionários empregados.

Cada ano, mais de um milhão de pessoas visitam o Museu Rijks. O Museu emprega cerca de 400 pessoas, incluindo 45 conservadores de museu que são especializados em todas as áreas.

O Museu Rijks é internacionalmente reconhecido pelas suas exibições e publicações, mas não só apenas por estes produtos de grande qualidade, mas também pelas áreas no museu em si que são fonte de inspiração e encorajam a criação de novas ideias.

O museu também tem recursos consideráveis para a educação, para a decoração e apresentação de exibições. Importantes designers são regularmente chamados a trabalharem em projectos no Museu Rijks.

O edifício principal do Museu Rijks está a ser renovado. A boa noticia é que a melhor parte da exposição está apresentada na redesenhada ala Philips. O nome desta exposição denomina-se "The Masterpieces'.

O museu abre diariamente das 10 da manhã até ás 5 da tarde.

A entrada é pela Stadhouderskade 42.

www.rijksmuseum.nl

 

Rijksmuseum

Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.

O Rijksmuseum é um museu nacional dos Países Baixos, localizada em Amsterdão na Praça do museu. O Rijksmuseum é dedicado à artes e história. Ele tem uma larga coleção de pinturas da idade de ouro neerlandesa e uma substancial coleção de arte asiática.

O museu foi fundado em 1800 na cidade da Haia para exibir a coleção do primeiro-ministro. Foi inspirado no exemplo francês. Pelos neerlandeses ficou conhecida como Galeria de Arte. Em 1808 o museu mudou-se para Amsterdã pelas ordens do rei Louis Napoleón, irmão de Napoleão Bonaparte. As pinturas daquela cidade, como A Ronda Nocturna de Rembrandt, tornaram-se parte da coleção.

Em 1885 o museu mudou-se para sua localização atual, construído pelo arquiteto neerlandês Pierre Cuypers. Ele combinou elementos góticos e renascentistas. O museu tem um posição proeminente na Praça do Museu, próximo ao Museu van Gogh e ao Museu Stedelijk. A construção é ricamente decorada com referências da história da arte neerlandesa. A Ronda Nocturna de Rembrandt tem seu próprio corredor no museu desde 1906. Desde 2003 o museu sofreu restaurações, mas as obras-primas são constatemente presentes para o público.

A coleção de pinturas inclui trabalhos de artistas como Jacob van Ruysdael, Frans Hals, Johannes Vermeer e Rembrandt e de alunos de Rembrandt.

Em 2005, 95% do museu está fechado para renovação, mas as pinturas da coleção permanente ainda estão em mostra em uma exibição especial chamada As Obras-primas.

Algumas das pinturas do museu:

Rembrandt van Rijn

A Ronda Nocturna

Os síndicos da guilda dos fabricantes de tecidos

A noiva judia

A lição de Anatomia do Dr. Deyman

Pedro negando Cristo

Saskia com um véu

Retrato de Titus em hábito de monge

Auto-retrato como Apóstolo Paulo

Tobias, Ana e o Bode

Johannes Vermeer:

A Leiteira

A Carta de Amor

Mulher de Azul a ler uma carta

A Rua pequena

Frans Hals:

Retrato de um jovem casal

A Companhia Reynier Real

O bebedor alegre

Retrato de Lucas De Clercq

Retrato de Nicolaes Hasselaer

Retrato de um homem

Página oficial do Rijksmuseum

Virtual Collection of Masterpieces (VCM)

O melhor museu de Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum

O Commons possui uma categoria contendo imagens e outros ficheiros sobre Rijksmuseum

 

Rijksmuseum Amsterdam

  

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Se você visitar Amsterdam, precisará conhecer o Museu Nacional da Holanda: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. O Museu Nacional fica na Praça do Museu, situada no centro de Amsterdam. O Museu Nacional, ou Rijksmuseum, possui uma maravilhosa coleção de arte e história holandesas. Após uma visita ao Rijksmuseum, você saberá mais sobre história e arte e terá visto alguns dos maiores marcos culturais da Holanda.

 

Obras-primas do Museu Nacional

Ao todo, a coleção do Rijksmuseum apresenta a história da Holanda em um contexto internacional, desde 1.100 até o presente. Há alguns ícones da história e cultura da Holanda que você não pode perder:

 

Ronda Noturna (de Nachtwacht) de Rembrandt é uma das mais famosas obras desse mestre holandês e é de tirar o fôlego.

 

O Rijksmuseum tem uma das melhores coleções de pinturas dos grandes mestres do século XVII, como Frans Hals, Jan Steen, Vermeer e Rembrandt.

 

Assim como o Museu Histórico de Haia, o Rijksmuseum apresenta lindas casas de bonecas, mobiliadas em detalhes, datando de 1676.

 

Se você não puder ir ao Delft Real, pode ainda apreciar algumas das melhores cerâmicas de Delft, de conjuntos de chá a vasos, no Museu Nacional.

 

Museu que é visita obrigatória em Amsterdam

Quer sua estadia em Amsterdam seja breve ou longa, você deve visitar o Rijksmuseum. Chegue cedo para evitar enfrentar filas. Combine a visita ao Rijksmuseum com várias outras atrações próximas, como o Museu Van Gogh, o Museu Stedelijk Amsterdam e a Coster Diamonds

 

Para obter mais informações sobre Amsterdam, retorne à página sobre Amsterdam ou à página sobre os museus de Amsterdam.

   

Safari in Kenya

Nahla Sukkari has worked in the making of Fekha carpets for 35 years. “Ever since I started this work, it has provided for my children and me,” she said. “It meant we did not have to rely on anyone. Each piece motivates me to keep improving.”

The wool Nahla uses comes from the Hima community. Hima is an ancient practice used by rural communities in Lebanon to ensure economic cooperation, sustainability and equitable resource management. Rural women have traditionally played key leadership and decision-making roles in the Hima community model.

 

Today, one conservation-minded organisation – the Society for the Protection of Nature in Lebanon (SPNL) – is reviving the ancient Hima approach to help rural women reassert their traditional leadership roles in community life.

 

With support from UN Women’s Fund for Gender Equality, SPNL is supporting rural Lebanese women and local municipalities to become partners and champions of the environment by promoting local ownership of sustainable resource management.

 

See more: youtu.be/vxDWsv6FZks

 

Photo: UN Women/Joe Saade

 

Sous le pape Hilaire (Ve siècle) ont été ajoutée les trois chapelles dédiées à Saint-Jean-Baptiste, Sainte-Croix et Saint-Jean l’Évangéliste (au septième siècle, fut ajoutée au sud-est la chapelle de San Venancio, avec des mosaïques à fond doré). Des trois chapelles, seulement celle située à l'est, accessible par des portes en bronze et dédiée à Saint- Jean l'Evangéliste, conserve sa forme originale de croix grecque, avec une voûte en mosaïque datant du règne du pape Sixte III. Sur un fond d'or, l'Agnus Dei est accompagné d'animaux et de plantes, symbolisme évident de l'Eucharistie. Les cinq fresques intérieures reproduisant des épisodes de la vie de Constantin dont celle de la bataille du pont Milvius (312), au plafond, remportée sur Maxence où se fit l'apparition de la Sainte Croix, avec la promesse in hoc signo vinces (Par ce signe tu vaincras), remontent au pape Urbain VIII (première moitié du XVIIe siècle) dont le blason avec les abeilles sur le sol.

La cuve circulaire où les chrétiens étaient baptisés jadis par immersion est au centre, entourée de huit belles colonnes en porphyre rouge aux chapiteaux ioniques et corinthiens, qui soutiennent un entablement de 8 colonnes de marbre blanc (le chiffre huit signifie l’accomplissement des temps dans la vie éternelle). Un déambulatoire entoure le bassin. Sur ces colonnes repose une architrave, avec des vers en latin, attribués au pape Saint Sixte II (432-440) et qui résument admirablement bien la doctrine chrétienne sur le Baptême :

C'est ici que jaillit ce peuple de noble lignée, voué au Ciel

Que l'Esprit engendre en ces eaux fécondées.

C'est dans l'eau que Notre Mère l'Église, dans un accouchement virginal,

met au monde ceux qu'elle a conçus par l'oeuvre de l'Esprit divin.

Vous qui êtes nés à cette source, vivez dans l'espérance du royaume des cieux.

Il faut renaître pour avoir la vie éternelle.

Voici la source de vie qui lave toute la terre,

et prend sa source aux plaies du Christ.

O pécheur, viens te plonger dans ce flot sacré et purificateur

Dont les ondes rajeuniront tout vieil homme qui s'y plonge.

Si, sous le poids du péché hérité ou de ton péché personnel,

tu tiens à l'innocence, lave-toi dans ces eaux.

Plus rien ne sépare ceux qui y sont renés. Ils sont devenus un,

Grâce à une seule source baptismale, à un seul Esprit, à une seule Foi.

Que personne ne craigne le nombre et la gravité de ses péchés :

Celui qui est rené de cette eau vive deviendra saint.

Après une période d'abandon dû à la résidence du pape à Avignon, puis au Vatican, des restaurations commencèrent au XVIe siècle, avec notamment une nouvelle porte d'entrée sur la Piazza San Giovanni réaménagée, se substituant à la chapelle nord (Sainte Croix). Le décor intérieur fut renouvelé au XVIIe siècle.

 

Avec le mausolée de Santa Costanza et celui du Saint-Sépulcre de Jérusalem, c'est l'un des premiers exemples d'une architecture chrétienne de ce genre, et fut l'archétype des baptistères construits dans la chrétienté au moyen-âge. Pendant les six premiers siècles, seul l’évêque, successeur des apôtres, faisait entrer dans l’église le catéchumène au cours de la liturgie pascale.

 

Under Pope Hilaire (5th century) were added the three chapels dedicated to Saint-Jean-Baptiste, Saint-Croix and Saint-Jean the Evangelist (in the seventh century, was added to the south-east the chapel of San Venancio, with mosaics with a golden background). Of the three chapels, only that located to the east, accessible by bronze doors and dedicated to St. John the Evangelist, retains its original Greek cross form, with a mosaic vault dating from the reign of Pope Sixtus III. On a gold background, the Agnus Dei is accompanied by animals and plants, an obvious symbolism of the Eucharist. The five interior frescoes reproducing episodes of the life of Constantine, including the battle of the Milvius Bridge (312), on the ceiling, won over Maxentius where appeared the Holy Cross, with the promise in hoc signo vinces (Par this sign you conquer), go back to Pope Urban VIII (first half of the 17th century) whose coat of arms with the bees on the ground.

The circular bowl where Christians were formerly baptized by immersion is in the center, surrounded by eight beautiful red porphyry columns with Ionic and Corinthian capitals, which support an entablature of 8 columns of white marble (the figure eight means the fulfillment of the times in eternal life). An ambulatory surrounds the basin. On these columns rests an architrave, with verses in Latin, attributed to Pope Saint Sixtus II (432-440) and which sum up admirably the Christian doctrine on Baptism:

It is here that springs this people of noble lineage, dedicated to Heaven

That the Spirit begets in these fertilized waters.

It is in the water that Our Mother Church, in a virgin birth,

give birth to those whom she has conceived by the work of the Divine Spirit.

You who are born at this source, live in the hope of the kingdom of heaven.

We must be reborn to have eternal life.

Here is the source of life that is washing the whole earth,

and takes its source in the wounds of Christ.

O sinner, come immerse yourself in this sacred flow and purifier

Whose waves will rejuvenate any old man who dives there.

If, under the weight of inherited sin or your personal sin,

you want innocence, wash in these waters.

Nothing separates those who are reborn. They became one,

Through one baptismal source, one Spirit, one Faith.

Let no one fear the number and the gravity of his sins:

He who is reborn from this living water will become holy.

After a period of abandonment due to the residence of the Pope in Avignon, then in the Vatican, restorations began in the 16th century, including a new gateway to Piazza San Giovanni

   

NEW JERSEY’S BALD EAGLE POPULATION CONTINUES TO SOAR

January 14th, 2016

 

CONSERVE WILDLIFE FOUNDATION OF NEW JERSEY RELEASES RESULTS OF 2015 STATE BALD EAGLE REPORT

 

by Lindsay McNamara, Communications Manager

 

Conserve Wildlife Foundation of New Jersey today released the 2015 Bald Eagle Report, highlighting the number of nesting pairs, active nests and nest productivity for the raptors throughout New Jersey with data collected by New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection Division of Fish and Wildlife biologists, CWF biologists and committed volunteers.

 

“With 161 pairs of bald eagles this past year — up from just a single nest in the early 1980’s — the dramatic ongoing recovery of bald eagles across the northeast continues to inspire so many of us,” said David Wheeler, Conserve Wildlife Foundation Executive Director. “The thrill of seeing a bald eagle fly across the sky is unparalleled. This report captures how these eagles are continuing their All-American return.”

 

The report notes that thirteen new eagle pairs were found this season, nine in the south, two in Central Jersey and two in Northern New Jersey.

 

For more info: www.conservewildlifenj.org/blog/2016/01/14/new-jerseys-ba...

This sorry looking group of migrating Tree Swallows were seen sunning themselves in freezing temperatures, while huddled in some dense bush beside the Yukon River near Whitehorse, having just survived a freak 24 hour snowstorm in mid-May. Essentially tropical birds, they were employing a number of survival strategies to conserve valuable energy and body heat in coping with the extreme cold: feather-fluffing (known as piloerection), huddling together, tucking their heads under their wings, slowed metabolism, sunning themselves and staying out the wind in the bushes.

 

Though I sometimes get approached by publications, institutions and businesses wanting to use my images after having seen them on Flickr, the 'surreal swallows in a snowstorm' series www.flickr.com/photos/keithmwilliams/5727282051/in/photos... garnered international media attention. A news agency contacted me some time ago about doing a story on these swallows and we worked together on the story and photos. I never heard anything about that again until today, when a local reporter from the Yukon News contacted me to inquire about some swallow photos and a story he had picked up in a news feed about a Yukon photographer in some major UK newspapers today. Now even the Yukon News is doing a story www.yukon-news.com/arts/26057/ in the vein of 'local photographer makes the big times', too funny, but I'll take the free publicity:) If interested in the UK stories, see these links to the Telegraph and the Daily Mail:

www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2066253/Room-little-Four...

www.telegraph.co.uk/news/picturegalleries/picturesoftheda...

R1-1995 was the last tram to operate on the former Sydney tramway system being the last car in the convoy that proceeded from Hunter Street to La Perouse and return to Randwick Depot on 25 February 1961.

 

It has a special place in my heart for, as a 15 year old schoolboy, I was a passenger that day.

 

Tram car R1 1995 is now located near the entrance to Tramsheds, the converted Rozelle Tram Depot (which is described as a fine dining destination) at the original track level, on a former track alignment to provide an understanding of how the tram shed operated.

 

Externally the body is painted in green and yellow, with a tan roof, based on the original colour scheme for the R1 Trams. Internally the tram car has been fitted with café style seating with original type seats at both ends.

 

A plaque at the entrance reads reads:

 

"Sydney R1 Tramcar 1995 was in service from the Rozelle Tram Depot from November 1951 until the depot’s closure in 1958. It was the last of four trams to operate in procession from La Perouse to Randwick Workshops on Saturday 25th February 1961 and as such was the last tram to operate on Sydney Streets. The Tram was conserved by the Bendigo Tramway Museum in 2014"

 

Today 1995 slumbers near Sydney's Inner West Light Rail line (the L1) - disembark at Jubilee Park.

Ben is a naturalist with the New Jersey Conserve Wildlife Foundation. He is licensed to band birds, including ospreys. Here Ben selects a band to place on the osprey chicks. The anxious osprey mom circles above.

Below are several chicks, note the newly placed band on the left leg of the standing osprey chick.. The nest platforms were 30 to 40 feet above the ground! Climbing ladders and going up in utility bucket trucks was a thrill for me!

J'ai conserver ce cliché, car étrangement ce Pouillot à pris une pause pendant quelques seconde et au moment fatidique à tourner la tête et c'est envoler. Il n'aime probablement pas les paparazzis.

**************

I kept this shot, because strangely this Pouillot took a break for a few seconds and at the moment fate to turn the head and fly away. He probably does not like paparazzi.

♫ ♫ ♫ Emozioni - Lucio Battisti

www.goear.com/listen/eb2e76f/emozioni-lucio-battisti

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House of the Black Room

 

On the other side of decumanus maximus, between shops and workshops, including a workshop of metal industry of the lead, one enters a home, home to black room (Casa del Salone Nero) that still bears a wooden wings door. It owes its name to a large room decorated with pillars and chandeliers painted in red on a black background and opens onto the porch.

 

His lararium, well preserved in the shape of miniature temple, with columns topped with small marble capitals.

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La maison au salon noir

 

De l'autre côté du decumanus maximus, entre des boutiques et des ateliers, dont un atelier de métallurgie du plomb, on pénètre dans une demeure, la maison au salon noir (Casa del Salone Nero) qui conserve encore un des battants en bois de sa porte. Elle doit son nom à une grande pièce décorée de pilastres et de candélabres peints en rouge sur fond noir et qui s'ouvre sur le péristyle.

 

Son laraire, bien conservé, est en forme de temple miniature, avec des colonnettes surmontées de petits chapiteaux en marbre.

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La casa del Salón Negro

 

En el otro lado del Decumanus Maximus, entre tiendas y talleres, incluyendo taller de metalurgia del plomo, se entra en una casa, casa a la habitación de negro (Casa del Salone Nero) que todavía lleva una alas de puerta en madera .

Debe su nombre a una gran sala decorada con columnas y candelabros pintados de rojo sobre un fondo negro y se abre hacia el porche.

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Ercolano - Napoli - Italia

the original 2-Dog-Farm pups,

Mika and Nanook

A powerful burst of energy is released when your silent. A prayer in the passing, helps you conserve it.

 

Shot at Pataleshawar Temple, JM Road, Pune, India.

time to think twice about our wasteful habits

I personally don't think so. An immense lack of respect for our planet is truly all I see. It's also accompanied by hypocrisy. One flagrant example would be the Îles-de-Boucherville National Park in Boucherville, Québec.

 

www.trolettiphoto.com/blog/2018/4/can-we-really-say-happy...

 

SA Police Museum.

This police museum was established in 1977 to conserve and detail some of the work and achievements of South Australian police personnel. The museum has five main galleries with different themes as well as a collection of police uniforms, police cars and motor cycles etc. The history of the South Australian Mounted Police Force began in 1838 making it the third oldest organised police force in the world after England and Ireland! Henry Inman was the first police chief in April 1838. The mounted police and their horses were in a paddock behind the SA Museum which later became their barracks and the state armoury site. They wore blue British style uniforms with a differences between the uniforms of footed and mounted officers. Our forward thinking police department was the first in Australia to introduce bicycles for officers in 1893 and they were not totally replaced by motor cycles until the 1950s. More significant than the introduction of bicycles was the introduction of female police officers 1915 – the second country in the British Empire to do so after NSW which also introduced female officers in 1915. These female officers received the same pay and had the same conditions as the men. The first female officers who were instrumental in having the women’s force established were Kate Cocks and Annie Ross. Kate Cocks had worked in Children’s Welfare before being transferred to the Police Department. The responsibilities of these two women centred on women and violence, prostitution and youth sex offences. SA also followed NSW’s early introduction of finger printing, the earliest form of forensic science in the police force in 1894. But SA provided the new Commonwealth of Australia with a uniform system of finger printing which was adopted across all states in 1904. The Police Museum also has a replica of a Black Maria police van for transporting criminals in a secure horse drawn carriage. The Black Maria’s were introduced in 1874 and used until replaced by motor vehicles in 1928.

 

Image :- St4c 029

History

The house, set high on the South Downs, was built for Ford Grey (1655—1701), the first Earl of Tankerville, circa 1690, the architect is believed to have been William Talman. The estate was sold in 1747 to Sir Matthew Fetherstonhaugh and his wife Sarah. Matthew and Sarah redecorated the house extensively from 1750 to 1760 and introduced most of the existing collection of household items displayed today, much of it collected on their Grand Tour of 1749 to 1751. Their only son, Sir Harry Fetherstonhaugh, added to the collection and commissioned Humphry Repton to add a new pillared portico, dairy and landscaped garden. In the 19th century stables and kitchens were added as separate buildings, connected to the main building by tunnels.[2]

 

Influence on H. G. Wells

The 20 year-old H.G. Wells spent the winter of 1887/88 convalescing at Uppark, where his mother, Sarah, was housekeeper between 1880 and 1893.[3] She had previously been employed there between 1850 and 1855, as housemaid to Lady Fetherstonhaugh's sister, and Wells had paid many visits to her during his boyhood. Wells' father Joseph, a gardener, was employed at Uppark in 1851 and he and Sarah married in 1853.[4]

 

Fire

On 30 August 1989 the building was devastated by a fire caused by a workman's blowtorch whilst repairing lead flashing on the roof, just two days before the work was due to be completed.[5] The fire broke out during opening hours. Many works of art and pieces of furniture were carried out of the burning building by members of the Meade-Fetherstonehaugh family, National Trust staff and members of the public. Although the garret and first floors collapsed onto the lower floors and the garret and first floor contents were lost completely, the floors largely fell clear of the ground floor walls and much of the panelling and decoration survived. Much of the contents of the ground floor was crushed but not burned; metalwork was able to be straightened and cleaned, crystal chandeliers were able to be reassembled, and even the elaborate tassels on the chandelier ropes were able to be conserved. The decision to restore the house came after it was determined that restoration would be a cheaper insurance settlement than complete payout for a total loss.

 

Most of the pictures and furniture in the house were saved. The building has since been completely restored with many lost crafts relearned in the restoration process, and it re-opened its doors in 1995. wikipedia

88 " Land Rover 2A Station Wagon Restoration, Designed by Border Rovers and Built by Retroworks.

 

Owned and operated by Border Rovers:

 

07515899390

... with a hint of cinnamon.

 

story & recipe at:

www.cookinghow.com/2010/09/homemade-strawberry-conserve-w...

R1-1995 was the last tram to operate on the former Sydney tramway system being the last car in the convoy that proceeded from Hunter Street to La Perouse and return to Randwick Depot on 25 February 1961.

 

It has a special place in my heart for, as a 15 year old schoolboy, I was a passenger that day.

 

Tram car R1 1995 is now located near the entrance to Tramsheds, the converted Rozelle Tram Depot (which is described as a fine dining destination) at the original track level, on a former track alignment to provide an understanding of how the tram shed operated.

 

Externally the body is painted in green and yellow, with a tan roof, based on the original colour scheme for the R1 Trams. Internally the tram car has been fitted with café style seating with original type seats at both ends.

 

A plaque at the entrance reads reads:

 

"Sydney R1 Tramcar 1995 was in service from the Rozelle Tram Depot from November 1951 until the depot’s closure in 1958. It was the last of four trams to operate in procession from La Perouse to Randwick Workshops on Saturday 25th February 1961 and as such was the last tram to operate on Sydney Streets. The Tram was conserved by the Bendigo Tramway Museum in 2014"

 

Today 1995 slumbers near Sydney's Inner West Light Rail line (the L1) - disembark at Jubilee Park.

Designer unknown (佚名)

Ca. 1980

Promote technological change to conserve resources

Tuijin jieneng jishu gaizao (推进节能技术改造)

Call nr.: BG E37/863 (Landsberger collection)

 

More? See chineseposters.net

 

2021_10_25

Je conserve ces petits livres abimés, en souvenir de la personne qui a joué le rôle de grand-père de coeur pour moi. Il m'a appris à raisonner logiquement, "sainement" en se posant toujours les questions "Pourquoi ?" et "Comment?".

"Ave Caesar" ... tu te reconnaîtras !!!!

 

I keep these small damaged books, in memory of the person who played the role of grandfather of heart for me. He taught me to reason logically and in a sensible way by always asking the questions "Why?" and "How?".

"Ave Caesar" ... you will know it's you !!!!

 

Conservo questi piccoli libri rovinati, in ricordo della persona che ha svolto per me il ruolo di nonno di cuore. Mi ha insegnato a ragionare in modo logico, in un modo saggio usando le domande "Perché?" e "Come?".

"Ave Caesar"... sai che parlo di te !

SA Police Museum.

This police museum was established in 1977 to conserve and detail some of the work and achievements of South Australian police personnel. The museum has five main galleries with different themes as well as a collection of police uniforms, police cars and motor cycles etc. The history of the South Australian Mounted Police Force began in 1838 making it the third oldest organised police force in the world after England and Ireland! Henry Inman was the first police chief in April 1838. The mounted police and their horses were in a paddock behind the SA Museum which later became their barracks and the state armoury site. They wore blue British style uniforms with a differences between the uniforms of footed and mounted officers. Our forward thinking police department was the first in Australia to introduce bicycles for officers in 1893 and they were not totally replaced by motor cycles until the 1950s. More significant than the introduction of bicycles was the introduction of female police officers 1915 – the second country in the British Empire to do so after NSW which also introduced female officers in 1915. These female officers received the same pay and had the same conditions as the men. The first female officers who were instrumental in having the women’s force established were Kate Cocks and Annie Ross. Kate Cocks had worked in Children’s Welfare before being transferred to the Police Department. The responsibilities of these two women centred on women and violence, prostitution and youth sex offences. SA also followed NSW’s early introduction of finger printing, the earliest form of forensic science in the police force in 1894. But SA provided the new Commonwealth of Australia with a uniform system of finger printing which was adopted across all states in 1904. The Police Museum also has a replica of a Black Maria police van for transporting criminals in a secure horse drawn carriage. The Black Maria’s were introduced in 1874 and used until replaced by motor vehicles in 1928.

  

Police Barracks.

Law and order in the British colony of South Australia was undertaken by British troops in the first instance from December 1836 until the Police Act was passed in 1839. Then a local force of ten mounted officers and ten foot constables was established with ongoing support from the British troops in the colony. South Australia was the first colony to have a police force but the first three heads were all dismissed in early years: the first for selling sly grog in 1837; the second for dishonesty and the third a few years later in 1856. He was Commissioner Tolmer who was sacked for undermining his subordinates. The force was officially created in April 1838 and soon established itself once Governor Gawler arrived in October 1838. He introduced uniforms for the officers. Apart from keeping the peace the officers were often involved with protecting colonists from bushrangers or escaped convicts and ensuring peaceful relations between Aborigines and some local pastoralists.

 

Conflict between whites and Aborigines was reported and acted upon quickly but not often to the satisfaction of the Aboriginal people. Aborigines were not allowed to give evidence in court cases although they were to be protected by British law and the Protector of Aborigines. Despite the lack of fair trials one white man was hung in 1846 at Rivoli Bay for murdering an Aboriginal man. Racial tensions between settlers and Aborigines continued in the 1840s but was largely quelled by 1850 even on Eyre Peninsula which had witnessed a number of white murders and retaliative attacks by whites. By the early 1850s Aboriginal or Native constables, who were paid one shilling a day, were also employed with almost 50 on the payroll by then. The first Premier of South Australia Boyle Travers Finniss became Police Commissioner in 1843 succeeding Captain O’Halloran and he was eventually replaced with Inspector Alexander Tolmer in 1853. He established the Escort route from the Victorian goldfields for SA residents returning with gold for the Adelaide Assay Office. Police stations were spread across the colony from Mt Gambier to Port Lincoln and Melrose in the north and Wellington in the east and major towns like Gawler, Strathalbyn, Willunga, Burra and Kapunda totalling about 20 police stations in the colony. In 1853 there were 126 police officers and 16 Native constables in the police force a sudden decrease from a year or so earlier.

 

In 1851 the first section of police barracks and stables for the mounted police was erected just off North Terrace. They are now behind the South Australian Museum. The main police station was in King William Street. The colonial engineer and early Surveyor General Captain Freeling designed the first barrack buildings of 1851. The limestone pointed stone Gothic style buildings were added to in 1855 to form a quadrangle in case this was needed for defensive circumstances, but primarily to create an enclosed parade ground for the police and the military.

Photo conservée par Etienne Menjoulet de son Tour de France.

Je pensais au départ qu'il s'agissait des compagnons du devoir qui siégeaient à Vaise, à Lyon (puisque Etienne était rattaché à Vaise). Après expertise (auprès du musée du compagnonnage de Tours notamment - www.museecompagnonnage.fr/) il s'est avéré qu'Etienne Menjoulet était, de façon pratiquement certaine, un « Renard Joyeux Libre et Indépendant sur le Tour de France ». Cette société de « Renards » était concurrente de celle des compagnons, mais elle n’arborait pas de signes distinctifs tels que des rubans au chapeau ou à la boutonnière (les « couleurs ») et en principe les Renards ne portaient pas de cannes. Celles des 2 personnages au centre sont probablement des « prises de guerre » dérobées aux compagnons, ou des cannes faites pour reprendre les coutumes des compagnons. Comme les compagnons, les Renards avaient des « Mères » (elle est au centre), pratiquaient le tour de France, fabriquaient des maquettes. Mais il n’y avait pas chez eux toutes ces coutumes particulières, de réception, d’arrivée, de départ, etc. propres aux compagnons, avec lesquels ils ne s’entendaient pas.

Ils se donnaient des surnoms comme les compagnons mais sur le mode satirique, pour se moquer de leurs rivaux.

 

----

Concernant la vie de mon grand-père Etienne, j'ai écrit la petite biographie qui suit à partir de différents récits de mémoire familiale :

Etienne Menjoulet

Charpentier, né en 1899. Il grandit à Barbaste (sud-ouest de la France).

Son prénom d’Etat civil était Gustave, mais il n’aimait pas ce prénom et se fit toujours appeler Etienne.

Bon élève à l'école, il passa son certificat d'étude et le Brevet et commença à travailler, comme tous ses aïeux, en tant qu'apprenti charpentier (période de son premier séjour au Maroc en 1913-1914).

 

Charpentiers depuis la nuit des temps

Etienne Menjoulet fut le dernier charpentier d'une très très longue lignée de charpentiers. Mes recherches sur mes ancêtres Menjoulet et sur les charpentiers du sud-ouest de la France m’ont conduite à me pencher sur l’histoire des « cagots », dont je suis quasiment certaine que les Menjoulet de Barbaste/Nérac en étaient des descendants directs (même s’il n’y a pas de mémoire familiale de cette origine « cagote », oubli sans doute souhaité dès le 18e siècle). Jusqu’au 18ème siècle, tous les charpentiers du sud-ouest étaient des « cagots » de génération en génération. Dans chaque village du sud-ouest, la ou les maisons de charpentiers étaient tenues à l’écart, les cagots étaient considérés par les paysans de ces régions comme des « mauvais chrétiens » atteints d’une « lèpre intérieure », c’était une caste d’intouchables.

 

Le siècle suivant cette longue période, au 19ème siècle, le grand-père d’Etienne, Jean Menjoulet, maître charpentier, franc-maçon, épousa une jeune-fille de la région, Anne Boustens. et eu 3 fils qu’il nomma Edward, Edgard et Ancel. La consonance des 3 prénoms avait été choisie pour faire "chier" le curé. Les prénoms anglo-saxons s'inspiraient par ailleurs de la loge maçonnique londonienne de leur père, Jean Menjoulet. Ce dernier partit ensuite (pour des raisons sans doute de nécessité financière) exercer son métier au Mozambique (alors colonie portugaise), laissant sa femme et ses fils Edward, Ancel et Edgard à Barbaste en France. Jean Menjoulet, qui vivait en dernier lieu dans le district de Manica, au Mozambique, fut tué à 45 ans à Beira (ville portuaire du Mozambique) en 1891.

 

Son fils Edgard, né en 1872, futur père d’Etienne, devint charpentier, il épousa en 1898 Marie Menjoulet/Lescouzère, une jeune fille de la région, de famille paysanne. Etienne naquit l’année suivante, en 1899. Ses parents émigrèrent en Argentine vers 1907, avec leurs deux plus jeunes fils (André, dit Lou Peliou, né en 1905 et Claude, bébé) et leur fille, Paule, laissant leur fils aîné Etienne, 7 ans, seul en France chez une tante, « bouchonnière » de métier (fabrication de bouchons de liège).

Etienne connut une enfance très pauvre (on peut penser que sa petite taille était liée à une alimentation très frugale dans son enfance, et comme d'autres enfants de sa génération, son cadeau de noël chaque année de son enfance consistait en une orange).

 

Apprenti-charpentier au Maroc, Etienne Menjoulet avait 15 ans en août 1914. Le temps d’atteindre l’âge du service, il fut appelé sous les drapeaux alors que la guerre avait déjà bien commencé. Lors de la visite médicale vers 1917, le médecin dit en le voyant arriver "mais voilà un petit chasseur" (il était petit mais musclé), mais il fut affecté en fin de compte chez les sapeurs-mineurs (comme beaucoup d'artisans). Le temps qu'il finisse sa préparation militaire, l'armistice arriva vite, ce qui lui permit de réchapper à l'hécatombe et de ne guère mettre en pratique sa formation à la guerre, notamment l'entraînement de combat à la baïonnette qui lui avait paru extrêmement barbare (mais il n'aurait pas reculé si la guerre ne s'était pas terminée). Sans doute cet entraînement intensif aux combats à la baïonnette était prévu pour des combats dans les galeries de mines où étaient envoyés les sapeurs-mineurs. Son service militaire se prolongea bien après 1918.

 

La formation professionnelle d’Etienne Menjoulet se poursuivra après la Grande Guerre, dans une société de type compagnonnique en tant que « Renard Joyeux Libre et Indépendant sur le Tour de France ». Athée et Indifférent aux religions, comme ses aïeux, il ne prolongea pas la tradition familiale de franc-maçonnerie (dans une loge anglaise, dans laquelle un de ses aïeux avait d’ailleurs été un dirigeant). Il refusa l’initiation maçonnique pour ne pas promettre sans savoir de quoi il en était, puisqu'il n'était pas informé avant d'être introduit. Dans ce sens, son choix d'une association alternative aux « compagnons du devoir » et aux « compagnons du devoir de liberté », s'inscrivait sans doute dans le même esprit : refus des mythologies. Pas de rites religieux, pas de rites maçonniques et pas de rites compagnonniques. Les « Renards Joyeux Libres et Indépendants sur le Tour de France » s'étaient en effet créés par opposition aux compagnons Soubises (compagnons du Devoir) et Indiens (compagnons du Devoir de Liberté) dans un esprit qui rejetait les rites quels qu’ils soient.

 

La langue natale d’Etienne Menjoulet était le patois gascon et le Français. Il parlait couramment les deux langues, le gascon comme le français (il continuait à parler en patois avec sa seconde femme dans les années 1950). Son père Edgard et ses oncles Ancel et Edward avaient été battus par leur instituteur lorsqu'ils parlaient patois, y compris en récréation, mais la langue continuait d'être parlée, dans l'entre-soi, une génération après.

Plus tard, au Maroc Etienne chantait souvent des chansons en patois en conduisant, jusque dans les années 1950, pour ne pas s’endormir au volant, lors de longues heures sur les routes en camionnette. Quand il ne chantait pas en patois, Etienne demandait à l'ouvrier marocain qui l'accompagnait de lui raconter des histoires pour le tenir éveillé. Et l’ouvrier se défendait souvent en disant « mais qu’est-ce que tu veux que je te raconte ?! ».

 

Etienne fit donc son tour de France (autour de 1923) en tant que "Renard libre joyeux et indépendant" (rattaché à Lyon-Vaise, où siégeaient d’ailleurs également les compagnons du devoir) . Les "Renards" étaient en rivalité avec les sociétés compagnonniques. Au début des années 1920, cette rivalité ne donnait pas lieu à des bagarres, mais lorsqu'un Renard (comme Etienne Menjoulet) passait par des ateliers où avaient travaillé des compagnons de sociétés rivales, il commençait par nettoyer tous les instruments, établis, etc. et à tout bien tout essuyer pour ne pas avoir à toucher ce qui avait été manipulé par les membres des deux sociétés rivales.

 

Au cours de son tour de France, Etienne eut des liaisons avec des femmes, mais sa rencontre sérieuse fut avec Marie-Louise Bongard, une jeune fille de la Nièvre, fille d’agriculteurs (père lorrain), de religion catholique. Marie-Louise était fille unique, et comme beaucoup de filles d’agriculteurs de la « belle-époque », elle avait été « placée » à Paris comme bonne. Elle rencontra Etienne à Paris, sans doute au cours d’un bal, et ce placement ne dura donc pas. Marie-Louise épousa Etienne à la mairie. Pour l’église, Etienne resta à l'extérieur de l'église même pour son mariage, et il négocia avec sa femme l’accord suivant : leurs enfants seraient seulement baptisés, ils n'auraient aucune éducation religieuse.

 

Après quelques mois en Normandie (fin de tour de France du ccompagnon Etienne, sans doute), n'en pouvant plus de la pluie incessante de cette région (d'autant plus gênante avec son métier), il alla s'installer avec sa femme au Maroc, à Casablanca, en tant que charpentier.

 

Son ancien patron d'apprentissage, Estève, devint son associé. Il retrouva, à Casablanca, son oncle Ancel (ferronnier, qui habita pendant un temps à Casablanca avec sa femme) puis son frère André et son père Edgard (tous deux avaient d'abord émigré en Argentine, mais Edgard s'était séparé de sa femme. Marie Menjoulet/Lescouzere (mère d'Etienne, couturière) était restée en Argentine, avec leur fille Paule (et soeur d'Etienne) et leur fils Claude pendant que le père et l'autre fils, André, rejoignaient le Maroc. Etienne en voulait beaucoup à sa mère, considérant qu'elle l'avait abandonné dans son enfance. Mais sachant que le père d'Etienne, Edgard, avait le défaut d'être très "coureur" (il est mort de la Syphilis en 1945), on peut penser que la mère d'Etienne, Marie, avait des raisons de vouloir se séparer d'Edgard. Ma bisaïeule Marie Menjoulet/Lescouzère est morte en Argentine dans les années 1940. Edgard , quant à lui, vivait au Maroc en concubinage avec une femme de Casablanca (dont je n’ai pas le nom, je sais simplement qu’elle était juive).

Leur fille Paule, soeur d'Etienne, établie en Argentine, se maria avec un Argentin d'origine française, Pierre Sendon, et son frère (et frère d'Etienne), Claude, émigra de l’Argentine aux Etats-Unis. Paule rendit visite à ses frères au Maroc, Etienne et André, au moins une fois.

 

Au Maroc, Etienne et Marie-Louise eurent d’abord deux garçons (André né en 1925, et Georges, né en 1929).

Lors du déclenchement de la seconde guerre mondiale, Etienne (bien établi à Casablanca), est à nouveau appelé sous les drapeaux, à 40 ans. Il passe une année militaire à Mazagan (El Jadida), grade de caporal. Son dernier fils, Jean, naît le 13 mai 1940.

 

Son fils aîné, André, sera très grièvement blessé en 1944 lors d'un accident à la fin de sa formation d'aviateur, quelques jours avant qu'il passe d'aspirant à pilote de guerre. André avait 19 ans, il sera hospitalisé durant deux ans et demi à l'hôpital militaire de Rabat où il subit plus de 20 opérations.

Etienne Menjoulet aimait son métier de charpentier, il passait beaucoup de temps dans son bureau au Maroc, à sa table de dessin. Et n'hésitait pas à montrer aux architectes, calculs à l'appui, les erreurs qu'ils commettaient et qui compromettaient la stabilité des constructions si les plans n'étaient pas modifiés.

 

Etienne avait appris à parler très bien l'arabe. Leurs amis marocains du bled (avec qui ils faisaient notamment beaucoup de parties de chasse, lui et son frère André) ne parlaient pas français. Par ailleurs, dans son travail, avec sa dizaine d'ouvriers, il était nécessaire de savoir parler la langue du pays. Ses fils nés au Maroc parlaient couramment arabe (André et Georges, les deux aînés), ou avaient un niveau plus moyen pour le plus jeune (Jean).

 

Etienne avait par ailleurs refusé, au lendemain de la guerre, suite à l'arrivée des Américains au Maroc de signer des contrats avec eux, jugeant que ces constructions auraient dénaturé son métier : les américains apportaient des techniques de construction industrielles, clef en main, où la compétence du métier ne comptait plus. Etienne fit donc un choix, il renonça à la fortune que lui auraient apportée ces contrats en or avec les Américains, en disant aux américains d'aller voir ailleurs. Mais il garda ce qui était sa valeur réelle, le métier en lui-même.

Etienne pouvait aussi être teigneux ou coléreux, que ce soit, anecdotiquement, vis à vis de rats qui pouvaient s'introduire dans son bureau (qu'il tuait alors à coups de pieds) ou de gens, s'il y avait conflit.

 

Au niveau de son métier de charpentier, l'œuvre d'Etienne Menjoulet est très diversifiée : clochers d'Eglise, charpentes de maisons, charpente d’usines, charpentes de grands entrepôts.... (liste à faire). Il procédait aussi à des rénovations d’ailleurs.

 

Au niveau loisirs, les photos de cette collection attestent qu'Etienne aimait beaucoup la chasse, jusqu'à la fin de sa vie. Et que ce goût était partagé par son frère André qui était aussi un grand chasseur. Ces chasses se faisaient au cours de longues marches au Maroc, dans le bled, par une chaleur écrasante. Le gibier, lièvres, perdreaux, cailles, pigeons ramiers (palombes) était ensuite partagé. La compagne d’Edgard, le père d’Etienne et André, fut une fois amenée à partager la chasse ramenée par André à leur père. Elle garda pour eux les meilleurs morceaux et transmis à André les moins bons morceaux pour Etienne, en lui disant « c’est pour Etienne, il aime les têtes ! ». Ce qui ne la rendit pas du tout sympathique à Etienne, qui par ailleurs, anticlérical, n’avait pas d’atomes crochus avec les croyances juives de la compagne de son père.

 

En France, dans les années 1910, puis dans les années 1960, Etienne pratiquait aussi la chasse au filet (ortolans) répandue dans le sud-ouest.

 

Etienne aimait par ailleurs les chiens. Il y en avait toujours plusieurs à la maison, et qui n’étaient pas que des chiens de chasse, mais aussi de compagnie. Au Maroc, Etienne et son frère André pouvaient être un peu durs avec leurs chiens, ils leur tiraient par exemple du petits plombs dans l’arrière train (sans trop les blesser apparemment), si les chiens n’obéissaient pas durant la chasse. Mais Etienne portait aussi secours à ses chiens si nécessaire. Son fils Jean se rappelle de l’un d’eux , un petit épagneul breton nommé Kiss, qui se fit un jour éventrer de bas en haut du corps par un molosse du voisinage (en un coup de croc). Alors que les boyaux du chien lui sortaient du ventre, Etienne demanda du gros fil et une grosse aiguille. Il remit à pleine main les boyaux dans le ventre de Kiss sous le regard horrifié de son fils Jean, et recousit le ventre du malheureux épagneul. Et le chien guérit et vécut normalement ensuite.

 

Au Maroc, les parties de chasse d’André et Etienne étaient pratiquées avec des amis français ou marocains. Les noms de ces amis qui sont restés en mémoire sont ceux de deux frères (des marocains de Casablanca), les Djilali (dont l’un, le plus proche d’eux, est mort brutalement en 1941 d'une crise cardiaque).

Peu de temps avant le déclenchement de la guerre en 1940, ces parties de chasse donnèrent lieu à un grave accident dont fut victime le frère d'Etienne, André, lors d'une partie de chasse commune. André s'était sans doute avancé brusquement dans la zone de tir d'Etienne sans être vu par ce dernier qui le blessa à la tête dans un tir le rendant presque aveugle pendant de nombreuses années. Les deux frères restèrent proches en dépit de cet accident. André ne se fit opérer que lorsqu’il fut vieux, l’opération risquant de le rendre complètement aveugle, alors qu’il voyait encore des ombres. L’opération réussit.

 

Etienne déménagea en 1946 avec sa famille, ils quittèrent le centre (européen) de Casablanca pour rejoindre un quartier de la périphérie/banlieue de Casablanca (à un kilomètre de la gare), quartier mixte, un peu industriel mais aussi résidentiel, avec certaines maisons élégantes. Cela permit à Etienne d'avoir un hangar de bonne taille pour son travail.

Etienne Menjoulet avait de nombreuses relations amicales françaises et marocaines. Son fils Jean, qui dormait dans le salon, se rappelle qu'il y avait très souvent du monde le soir chez eux, dans les années 1950, mais que cela ne l'empêchait pas de dormir, dans la même pièce.

 

Marie-Louise, la première femme d'Etienne Menjoulet, mourut en 1949 des suites d'une longue maladie qui dura des années et la paralysa progressivement jusqu'à l'étouffement. Le mal s'était déclenché à la suite d'une blessure avec un objet métallique, une pédale de vélo. Son fils Jean se souvient encore, près de 70 ans après, des longs moments qu’il passait dans la chambre de sa mère alitée, alors qu’il avait 7 ou 8 ans. Pour distraire sa mère immobilisée, il lui passait, en 78 tours, les disques qu’elle aimait, les valses viennoises, Berthe Sylva (les roses blanches…), Tino Rossi, et bien d’autres. A sa mort, bien qu'anticlérical, Etienne fit venir dans leur maison un curé pour l'extrême-onction de sa femme qui était catholique (il était bien-sûr hors de question pour Etienne d'aller à une messe). Lorsque le curé demanda de "l'eau bénite", Etienne lui dit de prendre l'eau du robinet. Marie-Louise fut enterrée à Casablanca. Son petit garçon, Jean, demanda à son père Etienne ce qu’il était advenu de sa mère qui avait disparu, Etienne lui répondit « Ta mère, elle pourrit sous terre ! » (réponse qui a de quoi traumatiser un enfant, mais des paroles sans doute plus dues à la tristesse qu’à la méchanceté).

Après le départ de la famille Menjoulet en 1962, la tombe de Marie-Louise fut préservée (son fils Jean avait donné de l’argent à un Marocain pour qu’il garde un œil dessus...). La tombe était encore en place dans les années 1980.

 

A propos de l'eau, pour la vie quotidienne, dans les années 1940-1950, l'eau courante était froide, la baignoire était chauffée au bois, cette charge de chauffer la baignoire pour des bains une fois par semaine était assignée au plus jeune fils, Jean. Ce bois que se procurait facilement Etienne, par son travail, était aussi utilisé en hiver pour l'unique cheminée qui se situait dans le salon/salle à manger).

 

Les Menjoulet étaient aussi équipés d’un téléphone, dès les années 1940. Téléphone nécessaire au travail d’Etienne, téléphone dont son fils Jean se rappelle encore le numéro, 70 ans après.

 

Suite au - long - décès de Marie-Louise, le petit Jean, âgé de 9 ans, alla vivre un an chez ses oncle/tante André et Julienne Menjoulet, à Casablanca (qui avaient deux enfants, Andrée 15 ans, et Jean-Louis 5 ans).

 

C’est au cours de cette période que Jean se rappelle d’une visite du boxeur Marcel Cerdan chez son oncle André (qui était président du club de football de Casablanca, un club de foot mixte, composé de Marocains et d’Européens). Jean ne se rappelle plus des détails du repas, simplement que sa cousine l’a appelé alors qu’il jouait dehors, en lui disant que Marcel Cerdan était chez eux. Cette visite de Marcel Cerdan aux Menjoulet eu d’ailleurs lieu peu de temps avant la mort du boxeur dans son accident d’avion.

 

Etienne Menjoulet quant à lui se remaria au Maroc avec Jeanne Sansot, une femme originaire de la même région du Lot-et-Garonne que lui, qu'il connaissait depuis l'enfance (même école à Barbaste) et qui avait déjà vécu en Algérie. Elle était veuve après que son mari et son fils se soient suicidés (pour une même femme). Elle laissa alors à sa fille Linette le café-restaurant dont elle était la patronne, en France dans la région de Nérac pour venir vivre au Maroc. Elle embarqua avec elle sa « marraine » (une grand-mère de sa famille, qui vécut donc ensuite plus de 10 ans chez Etienne et Jeanne). Sa fille Linette (avec son mari Gérard) hébergeât quant à elle son autre grand-mère, pendant plus de 10 ans également. Au Maroc, Jeanne s'occupa aussi, et très bien, comme si elle était sa mère, du dernier fils d'Etienne, Jean, qui la considérait comme sa (seconde) mère et l’appelait « Tante Jeanne ».

 

En France, le café de Jeanne fut donc repris par sa fille, Linette, qui avait vécu quant à elle auparavant en Tunisie. Linette abandonna l’activité de restauration pour se consacrer avec ce café à l’organisation de bals qui connurent un grand succès qui dura. Les gens de toute la région y venaient, et des chanteurs de variétés y furent invités pour des concerts alors qu’ils étaient inconnus et à leurs débuts (Francis Cabrel par exemple).

 

Au Maroc, les affaires professionnelles d'Etienne Menjoulet, à Casablanca, furent impactées par la situation du pays. Les années précédant la fin du protectorat s'étant traduites, au niveau contrats de construction par une chute des commandes. En revanche, pour la vie quotidienne, les marocains de son entourage (ses ouvriers…) lui avaient assuré qu'il ne courait aucun risque, qu'il pouvait garer sa camionnette dans la médina, que l'on reconnaîtrait sa plaque d'immatriculation et que l'on ne ferait pas sauter son véhicule.

 

Les deux fils aînés d’Etienne s’étaient mariés : André, se maria deux fois, d’abord avec Claudette, puis avec Lore, une Autrichienne de Salzbourg qui travaillait dans le tourisme, il se sépara d’ailleurs ensuite à nouveau, mais beaucoup plus tard. Georges quant à lui se maria avec Lydia, ce qui le brouilla avec son frère André, Lydia étant précédemment en couple avec André. Les deux frères ne se reparlèrent plus.

 

Jean, le plus jeune fils d’Etienne se rappelle d’une réception donnée par l’entreprise pour laquelle travaillait sa belle-sœur […laquelle ?]. Il s’agissait d’une entreprise (française) qui soutenait l’indépendance. Le futur roi du Maroc (Hassan II alors prince héritier), était invité à cette réception. Jean fut frappé par l’élégance (élégance vestimentaire et verbale) de Moulay Hassan qu’il vit à quelques mètres de lui.

 

Etienne Menjoulet n'était pas engagé politiquement, ce qui ne l'empêchait pas d'avoir des jugements critiques, que ce soit vis à vis "des gros" (comme on disait à l'époque pour décrire les gros capitalistes), ou inversement vis à vis des partis de gauche ou des syndicalistes (surtout du fait que, à ses yeux, ces derniers n'avaient pas de légitimité, ils ne travaillaient pas).

 

Etienne Menjoulet a quitté le Maroc en 1962 pour s'installer dans le sud-ouest de la France (Barbaste/Durance/Nerac), avec sa seconde femme, Jeanne qui est morte 4 ans plus tard, en 1966, d'un cancer foudroyant.

 

Entre 1958 et 1962, les 3 fils d'Etienne ont aussi quitté le Maroc.

Le plus jeune, Jean, sera d'abord hébergé chez son frère aîné Georges, et sa femme Lydia, à Lyon où ils s'étaient installés dans un petit appartement, Georges et sa femme décidèrent ensuite d'émigrer en Australie, un pays de cocagne à cette époque. Leur installation et vie se passa très bien là-bas, mais malheureusement ils moururent assez jeunes, quand ils eurent la cinquantaine, au début des années 1980, suite à des accidents cardio-vasculaires.

André (l’aîné des 3 fils d'Etienne et Marie-Louis) ira quant à lui d'abord travailler à Lyon en France comme cadre dans une brasserie avant de tout plaquer pour se consacrer à sa passion, la voile (avec peu d'argent de côté, mais il touchait aussi une petite pension militaire parce que grièvement blessé en 1944). André fera le tour du monde en solitaire à 58 ans, il vivra le reste du temps dans le sud de la France avec ses compagnes successives, et mourra en 1996 en regrettant de ne pas atteindre l’an 2000.

Le frère d'Etienne, André et sa femme Julienne, sont également allés vivre en France, ainsi que leur fils Jean-Louis, à Nîmes. Seule leur fille Andrée (et Tony son mari espagnol, un franc-maçon communiste) est restée vivre au Maroc où elle a pu négocier, en tant qu'institutrice, de travailler pour l'éducation marocaine (et d'être payée par eux) et non plus l'éducation nationale française. Elle devint ensuite inspectrice d'écoles et resta au Maroc au moins jusqu’à la retraite.

 

Hostile à l'influence toujours envahissante des croyances catholiques dans la société, Etienne Menjoulet fit bon accueil (ainsi que son épouse Jeanne) à Nellie Granade, future épouse de son fils Jean lorsqu'elle vint passer des vacances chez eux. De culture protestante, Nellie partageait avec Etienne certains points de vue sur le catholicisme (d'autant que Nellie n'a jamais été étouffée par les croyances religieuses, Protestantisme signifiant pour elle surtout liberté de penser, appartenance à une minorité et Résistance). Alors qu'Etienne refusait d'assister à toute cérémonie religieuse dans une église catholique, il assista au mariage religieux protestant de son fils Jean qui fut célébré au Temple du change, à Lyon le 31 octobre 1963.

La maison d'Etienne à Barbaste en France était assez sobre. Les toilettes étaient dans le jardin, et il n'y avait par exemple pas de douche, ce qui occasionnait une sortie aux bains-douches de Barbaste une fois par semaine.

 

Etienne s'est suicidé en 1971, en se tirant une balle de pistolet dans la bouche. Il supportait mal de vivre seul, après avoir enterré ses deux femmes. Après la mort de Jeanne en 1966, Il avait essayé de vivre avec une autre femme avec qui cela n'avait pas fonctionné. Il n'avait par ailleurs pas pu rentrer en contact avec une femme marocaine (une ancienne « Fatma » de leur maison de Casablanca) avec qui il avait eu une liaison, cette dernière avait émigré en France. La femme d'Etienne (Jeanne) avait pu intercepter son adresse et avait fait jurer, sur son lit de mort, à son fils Jean, qu'il ne donnerait pas à son père l'adresse en France de cette femme marocaine. Un an après la mort de Jeanne, Nellie, la femme de Jean, qui était enceinte de leur premier enfant, proposa à Jean d’appeler leur bébé Jeanne, si c’était une fille, en mémoire de cette (seconde) mère, dont la mort avait causé beaucoup de peine à Jean.

Redevenu veuf, Etienne n’était pas vraiment seul à Barbaste, outre les visites épisodiques de son fils Jean, il voyait du monde (notamment le jeune Guy, le petit neveux de sa femme Jeanne défunte, qu’il emmenait chasser).

Par ailleurs (et peut-être surtout) Etienne endurait des problèmes de santé (la goutte) qui lui donnaient envie d'en finir avec "cette chienne de vie" (comme il qualifiait la vie dans ses lettres) surtout après une opération de la hanche qui s'était très mal passée. Peut-être que le fait d'avoir dû quitter le pays où il avait vécu pendant 40 ans, le Maroc, a aussi joué sur cette volonté d'en finir, à cela s’ajoutait le point de vue financier, puisqu'il avait très peu d'argent, alors qu'il avait travaillé toute sa vie.

Pour son suicide, Etienne n’eut pas de chance, la balle de pistolet, passa, par un hasard incroyable, juste entre les deux lobes du cerveau. Et Etienne vécu encore 6 mois, principalement à l’hôpital de Nérac, avant que son cerveau ne « s’effondre » brutalement, suite à son tir de pistolet.

 

RICETTA/RECIPE: www.conunpocodizucchero.it/2018/09/tomino-speziato-sottol...

1 Chome, Nagatachō, Chiyoda-ku, Tōkyō-to, Japan - 東京都千代田区永田町１丁目

www.ropelatophotography.net

 

One of my favorite parts about being human is the constant curiosity and drive to see what's just beyond the next curve, or just over the next hill.

 

It's the drive to go a little farther, to see a little more, and be constantly hopeful that whatever you're looking for is just around the next bend.

 

It keeps me going, keeps me moving, keeps me shooting, and keeps me driving to get that next shot, that will no doubt be just a little better than the last.

 

Cheers.

  

-jared ropelato

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Coventry Transport Museum opened in 1980, after it became clear that the road transport collection was outgrowing the space it occupied in the Herbert Art Gallery & Museum. The Museum’s current collection of vehicles is acknowledged as being one of the finest in the world, and the largest in public ownership.

The Museum’s collection consists of motor cars, commercial vehicles, cycles and motorcycles. In addition, extensive collections of automobilia, books, photographs and a wealth of other archive material is held and conserved at the Coventry History Centre at the Herbert Art Gallery & Museum.

 

This is what's left of the Conservatory at Witley Court. Part of a palatial house set near the stunning ruins of Witley Court, ravaged by fire in 1937 and now under the care of English Heritage, who tend to the grounds and ruins amazingly. It sits above and to the left of Worcester, near the Malvern Hills and en route to Ludlow. Before the fire the house played host to parties, Royals and the aristocracy.

Many species of birds including these sandpipers conserve their body heat by standing on one leg. They use that energy later running up and down the beach pecking their beaks below the sand to hunt for snails, insects and other snacks from the salty sea. The are fun to watch as they scurry about. This group of marine birds was on my favorite beach in San Diego, California.

Land Rover 2A Station Wagon Restoration, Designed by Border Rovers and Built by Retroworks.

 

Extensively tested and used for 6 months. Bumper still bears the scars from The Beast From The East.

 

Owned and operated by Border Rovers:

 

07515899390