View allAll Photos Tagged conserver
Armes d'Amboise.
Des stalles du château de Gaillon sont conservées dans la basilique Saint-Denis près de Paris. Ce château était la résidence de loisir des archevêques de Rouen. Commandées au début du XVIe siècle par Georges d’Amboise, ces stalles ont été construites lorsque cet archevêque, devenu légat du pape et premier conseiller de Louis XII a fait transformer le château médiéval en palais de la Renaissance. Seules stalles en France à présenter de nombreux panneaux de marqueterie et une iconographie inédite, elles forment un mobilier unique, chef-d’œuvre de cette période charnière entre gothique et Renaissance, arborant une grande mixité de styles. Ces stalles sont les chaires qui étaient destinées aux trois chanoines qui officiaient dans la chapelle haute du château de Gaillon, dédiée à saint Georges. Elles étaient ceintes d’une clôture en boiset constituaient ainsi le chœur liturgique de l'édifice.
Les stalles en chêne sont composées de deux rangées disposées côté nord et sud du transept de la basilique de Saint-Denis. La rangée nord présente un ensemble de six stalles, la rangée sud de cinq stalles et une isolée. Seules douze stalles ont été créées au XVIe siècle alors que le programme iconographique en prévoyait quatorze. De 2,83 m de haut, elles composées d’un siège et d’un dorsal, ce dernier comprenant deux registres : un bas-relief surmontant un panneau de marqueterie. Tous les éléments sont sculptés ou marquetés. De manière unique, les dossiers, les dorsaux et les voussures des dais sont galbés. De même les chaires ont des largeurs variées, fixées par celles des bas-reliefs des dorsaux. Pour s’adapter, les largeurs d’autres composants ont été rectifiées. La mixité de style se retrouve dans la globalité, les interdorsaux et deux dais étant gothiques alors que les faibles reliefs sont apparentés aux grotesques de la Renaissance, les bas-reliefs et les marqueteries des dorsaux étant quant à eux à la fois d’inspiration péninsulaire et septentrionale.
Sont illustrées sur les bas-reliefs originaux des dorsaux deux scènes de la vie d’Anne et Joachim, parents de la vierge Marie, cinq scènes de la vie de saint Jean-Baptiste le précurseur et sept scènes de la vie de saint Georges selon les textes d’Évangile ou de la Légende dorée. Nombre d’autres saints sont présentés en pied, sous forme de statuettes sur les interdorsaux ou de bas-reliefs sur les soubassements des jouées, notamment les quatre évangélistes sur ces derniers. Sur les panneaux marquetés des quadrants des parcloses sont figurées les affres des enfers des condamnés selon les sept péchés capitaux, avec les planètes et leurs influences. Les représentations sont inspirées des gravures du Calendrier des bergers imprimé à cette époque.
Les miséricordes figurent des scènes des Métamorphoses d’Ovide ainsi que les arts libéraux selon la Margarita Philosophica de G. Reisch. Les artisans se sont inspirés de gravures d’ouvrages imprimés au début du XVIe siècle, par exemple le soldat romain Caius Mucius Scaevola devant le roi Étrusque Porsenna y étant représenté exposant ainsi des thématiques propres à la culture antique. De manière également tout à fait inédite, les 7 vertus, cardinales et théologales, et 7 sibylles sont figurées et représentées sur les panneaux de marqueterie du premier registre des dorsaux. Les allégories et les prophétesses sont encadrées d’architectures identiques deux à deux qui les mettent en concordance. Les sibylles ont été choisies parmi celles du manuscrit des Heures de Louis de Laval dont les auteurs ont cité les prophéties. Ces dernières proviennent du manuscrit des Institutions divines de Lactance qui était de nouveau traduit et que le cardinal a lui-même fait enluminer. Ce grand rhéteur du IVe siècle ayant quant à lui repris les oracles rédigés dans les Oracles sibyllins.
Georges Ier d’Amboise n’a pas manqué de faire valoir qu’il était le commanditaire des stalles en demandant à ce que ses armes et sa devise y figurent à de nombreuses reprises. Le légat a donné pour modèles aux artisans des stalles des enluminures ou gravures de manuscrits faisant partie de sa splendide bibliothèque, digne d'un grand érudit humaniste. Il fit venir l’Italie en choisissant la marqueterie figurative en sus de la sculpture, seule technique utilisée à l'époque en France. Sans renier la tradition en faisant figurer les saints, il a fait représenter de manière inédite leur cycle de vie, dont il a choisi des événements bien spécifiques. De plus, il a incité les fidèles à s’instruire et à étudier les auteurs antiques en faisant sculpter des allégories des arts libéraux et des personnages mythiques ou héroïques. Enfin, par le dialogue des sibylles et des vertus, il a montré que la rhétorique de Lactance était convaincante. Il a ainsi non seulement introduit en France la mode italienne dans le mobilier, le décor et les ornements du château de Gaillon, mais surtout donné corps à l’esprit humaniste en faisant de ses stalles les messagères qui appellent à une vie vertueuse, dans la foi au Christ annoncé à tous les hommes (cf. wikipédia, merci Glass Angel pour la photo).
Sous le pape Hilaire (Ve siècle) ont été ajoutée les trois chapelles dédiées à Saint-Jean-Baptiste, Sainte-Croix et Saint-Jean l’Évangéliste (au septième siècle, fut ajoutée au sud-est la chapelle de San Venancio, avec des mosaïques à fond doré). Des trois chapelles, seulement celle située à l'est, accessible par des portes en bronze et dédiée à Saint- Jean l'Evangéliste, conserve sa forme originale de croix grecque, avec une voûte en mosaïque datant du règne du pape Sixte III. Sur un fond d'or, l'Agnus Dei est accompagné d'animaux et de plantes, symbolisme évident de l'Eucharistie. Les cinq fresques intérieures reproduisant des épisodes de la vie de Constantin dont celle de la bataille du pont Milvius (312), au plafond, remportée sur Maxence où se fit l'apparition de la Sainte Croix, avec la promesse in hoc signo vinces (Par ce signe tu vaincras), remontent au pape Urbain VIII (première moitié du XVIIe siècle) dont le blason avec les abeilles sur le sol.
La cuve circulaire où les chrétiens étaient baptisés jadis par immersion est au centre, entourée de huit belles colonnes en porphyre rouge aux chapiteaux ioniques et corinthiens, qui soutiennent un entablement de 8 colonnes de marbre blanc (le chiffre huit signifie l’accomplissement des temps dans la vie éternelle). Un déambulatoire entoure le bassin. Sur ces colonnes repose une architrave, avec des vers en latin, attribués au pape Saint Sixte II (432-440) et qui résument admirablement bien la doctrine chrétienne sur le Baptême :
C'est ici que jaillit ce peuple de noble lignée, voué au Ciel
Que l'Esprit engendre en ces eaux fécondées.
C'est dans l'eau que Notre Mère l'Église, dans un accouchement virginal,
met au monde ceux qu'elle a conçus par l'oeuvre de l'Esprit divin.
Vous qui êtes nés à cette source, vivez dans l'espérance du royaume des cieux.
Il faut renaître pour avoir la vie éternelle.
Voici la source de vie qui lave toute la terre,
et prend sa source aux plaies du Christ.
O pécheur, viens te plonger dans ce flot sacré et purificateur
Dont les ondes rajeuniront tout vieil homme qui s'y plonge.
Si, sous le poids du péché hérité ou de ton péché personnel,
tu tiens à l'innocence, lave-toi dans ces eaux.
Plus rien ne sépare ceux qui y sont renés. Ils sont devenus un,
Grâce à une seule source baptismale, à un seul Esprit, à une seule Foi.
Que personne ne craigne le nombre et la gravité de ses péchés :
Celui qui est rené de cette eau vive deviendra saint.
Après une période d'abandon dû à la résidence du pape à Avignon, puis au Vatican, des restaurations commencèrent au XVIe siècle, avec notamment une nouvelle porte d'entrée sur la Piazza San Giovanni réaménagée, se substituant à la chapelle nord (Sainte Croix). Le décor intérieur fut renouvelé au XVIIe siècle.
Avec le mausolée de Santa Costanza et celui du Saint-Sépulcre de Jérusalem, c'est l'un des premiers exemples d'une architecture chrétienne de ce genre, et fut l'archétype des baptistères construits dans la chrétienté au moyen-âge. Pendant les six premiers siècles, seul l’évêque, successeur des apôtres, faisait entrer dans l’église le catéchumène au cours de la liturgie pascale.
Under Pope Hilaire (5th century) were added the three chapels dedicated to Saint-Jean-Baptiste, Saint-Croix and Saint-Jean the Evangelist (in the seventh century, was added to the south-east the chapel of San Venancio, with mosaics with a golden background). Of the three chapels, only that located to the east, accessible by bronze doors and dedicated to St. John the Evangelist, retains its original Greek cross form, with a mosaic vault dating from the reign of Pope Sixtus III. On a gold background, the Agnus Dei is accompanied by animals and plants, an obvious symbolism of the Eucharist. The five interior frescoes reproducing episodes of the life of Constantine, including the battle of the Milvius Bridge (312), on the ceiling, won over Maxentius where appeared the Holy Cross, with the promise in hoc signo vinces (Par this sign you conquer), go back to Pope Urban VIII (first half of the 17th century) whose coat of arms with the bees on the ground.
The circular bowl where Christians were formerly baptized by immersion is in the center, surrounded by eight beautiful red porphyry columns with Ionic and Corinthian capitals, which support an entablature of 8 columns of white marble (the figure eight means the fulfillment of the times in eternal life). An ambulatory surrounds the basin. On these columns rests an architrave, with verses in Latin, attributed to Pope Saint Sixtus II (432-440) and which sum up admirably the Christian doctrine on Baptism:
It is here that springs this people of noble lineage, dedicated to Heaven
That the Spirit begets in these fertilized waters.
It is in the water that Our Mother Church, in a virgin birth,
give birth to those whom she has conceived by the work of the Divine Spirit.
You who are born at this source, live in the hope of the kingdom of heaven.
We must be reborn to have eternal life.
Here is the source of life that is washing the whole earth,
and takes its source in the wounds of Christ.
O sinner, come immerse yourself in this sacred flow and purifier
Whose waves will rejuvenate any old man who dives there.
If, under the weight of inherited sin or your personal sin,
you want innocence, wash in these waters.
Nothing separates those who are reborn. They became one,
Through one baptismal source, one Spirit, one Faith.
Let no one fear the number and the gravity of his sins:
He who is reborn from this living water will become holy.
After a period of abandonment due to the residence of the Pope in Avignon, then in the Vatican, restorations began in the 16th century, including a new gateway to Piazza San Giovanni
Rijks Museum - National Museum of Netherlands
Vision
The Rijksmuseum links individuals with art and history.
Mission
At the Rijksmuseum, art and history take on new meaning for a broad-based, contemporary national and international audience.
As a national institute, the Rijksmuseum offers a representative overview of Dutch art and history from the Middle Ages onwards, and of major aspects of European and Asian art.
The Rijksmuseum keeps, manages, conserves, restores, researches, prepares, collects, publishes, and presents artistic and historical objects, both on its own premises and elsewhere.
From 1800 to 2013
The Rijksmuseum first opened its doors in 1800 under the name ‘Nationale Kunstgalerij’. At the time, it was housed in Huis ten Bosch in The Hague. The collection mainly comprised paintings and historical objects. In 1808, the museum moved to the new capital city of Amsterdam, where it was based in the Royal Palace on Dam Square.
After King Willem I’s accession to the throne, the paintings and national print collection were moved to the Trippenhuis on Kloveniersburgwal, while the other objects were returned to The Hague. The current building was put into use in 1885. The Netherlands Museum for History and Art based in The Hague moved into the same premises, forming what would later become the departments of Dutch History and Sculpture & Applied Art.
The beginning
On 19 November 1798, more than three years after the birth of the Batavian Republic, the government decided to honour a suggestion put forward by Isaac Gogel by following the French example of setting up a national museum. The museum initially housed the remains of the viceregal collections and a variety of objects originating from state institutions. When the Nationale Kunstgalerij first opened its doors on 31 May 1800, it had more than 200 paintings and historical objects on display. In the years that followed, Gogel and the first director, C.S. Roos, made countless acquisitions. Their first purchase, The Swan by Jan Asselijn, cost 100 Dutch guilders and is still one of the Rijksmuseum’s top pieces.
Move to Amsterdam
In 1808, the new King Louis Napoleon ordered the collections to be moved to Amsterdam, which was to be made the capital of the Kingdom of Holland. The works of art and objects were taken to the Royal Palace on Dam Square, the former city hall of Amsterdam, where they were united with the city’s foremost paintings, including the Night Watch by Rembrandt. In 1809, the Koninklijk Museum opened its doors on the top floor of the palace.
A few years after Willem I returned to the Netherlands as the new king in 1813, the ‘Rijks Museum’ and the national print collection from The Hague relocated to the Trippenhuis, a 17th-century town-palace on Kloveniersburgwal, home to what would later become the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Much to the regret of the director, Cornelis Apostool, in 1820 many objects including pieces of great historical interest were assigned to the Kabinet van Zeldzaamheden [Royal Gallery of Rare Objects], which had been founded in The Hague. In 1838, a separate museum for modern 19th-century art was established in Paviljoen Welgelegen in Haarlem. Contrary to the days of Louis Napoleon, very few large acquisitions were made during this period.
Cuypers Cathedral
The Trippenhuis proved unsuitable as a museum. Furthermore, many people thought it time to establish a dedicated national museum building in the Netherlands. Work on a new building did not commence until 1876, after many years of debate. The architect, Pierre Cuypers, had drawn up a historic design for the Rijksmuseum, which combined the Gothic and the Renaissance styles. The design was not generally well-received; people considered it too mediaeval and not Dutch enough. The official opening took place in 1885.
Nearly all the older paintings belonging to the City of Amsterdam were hung in the Rijksmuseum alongside paintings and prints from the Trippenhuis, including paintings such as Rembrandt’s Jewish Bride, which had been bequeathed to the city by the banker A. van der Hoop. The collection of 19th-century art from Haarlem was also added to the museum’s collection. Finally, a significant part of the Kabinet van Zeldzaamheden, which had by then been incorporated into the new Netherlands Museum for History and Art, was returned to Amsterdam.
Renovations
Over the years, collections continued to grow and museum insight continued to expand, and so the Rijksmuseum building underwent many changes. Rooms were added to the south-west side of the building between 1904 and 1916 (now the Philips wing) to house the collection of 19th-century paintings donated to the museum by Mr and Mrs Drucker-Fraser. In the 1950s and 1960s, the two original courtyards were covered and renovated to create more rooms.
In 1927, while Schmidt-Degener was Managing Director, the Netherlands Museum was split to form the departments of Dutch History and Sculpture & Applied Art. These departments were moved to separate parts of the building after 1945. The arrival of a collection donated by the Association of Friends of Asian Art in the 1950s resulted in the creation of the Asian Art department.
The 1970s saw record numbers of visitors of almost one-and-a-half million per year, and the building gradually started to fall short of modern requirements.
‘Verder met Cuypers'
The current renovation reinstates the original Cuypers structure. The building work in the courtyards are removed. Paintings, applied art and history are no longer displayed in separate parts of the building, but form a single chronological circuit that tells the story of Dutch art and history.
The building is thoroughly modernized, while at the same time restoring more of Cuypers original interior designs: the Rijksmuseum has dubbed the venture ‘Verder met Cuypers‘ [Continuing with Cuypers]. The Rijksmuseum will be a dazzling new museum able to satisfy the needs of its 21st-century visitors!
Every year, the Rijksmuseum compiles an annual report for the previous year. Annual reports dating back to 1998 can be found here (in Dutch only). Reports relating to the years before 1998 are available in the reading room of the library.
O Museu Rijks é um dos maiores e mais importantes museus da Europa.
É o maior dos Países Baixos, com acervo voltado quase todo aos artistas holandeses. As obras vão desde exemplares da arte sacra até a era dourada holandesa, além de uma substancial coleção de arte asiática.
Esse é o Rijksmuseum, o Museu Nacional dos Países Baixos. E aproveite, caro leitor, porque o Rijks esteve parcialmente fechado para reforma durante 10 anos – voltou a funcionar só em 2013. Ou seja, quem esteve em Amsterdam na última década não conheceu o Rijks, pelo menos não completamente
.
Mas o quê tem lá? Muita coisa. Destaque para as coleções de arte e História holandesas. Os trabalhos dos pintores Frans Hals e Johannes Vermeer são alguns dos mais concorridos, mas imbatível mesmo é Rembrandt van Rijn, considerado um dos maiores pintores de todos os tempos. Se você não é um fã de museus de arte, mas faz questão de conhecer o trabalho desses grandes artistas, uma dica: assim que chegar ao Rijks, vá direto para a ala onde estão as obras-primas. Assim você vê o mais importante no início da visita, quando ainda está descansado e poderá dedicar o tempo necessário para essas obras.
A mais famosa delas é a “A Ronda Noturna”, de Rembrandt, uma obra que inspirou músicas, pinturas, filmes e até um flash mob. Quando o Rijks foi reaberto, artistas recriam a cena mostrada no quadro dentro de um shopping de Amsterdam. A ação está no vídeo abaixo e eu te garanto que vale a pena dar play.
Read more: www.360meridianos.com/2014/01/museus-de-amsterdam.html#ix...
Read more: www.360meridianos.com/2014/01/museus-de-amsterdam.html#ix...
Rijksmuseum, Museu Nacional
42 Stadhouderskade
Amsterdam
O museu Rijksmuseum de Amsterdã é o Museu Nacional da Holanda, onde você encontrará uma impressionante coleção permanente, formada por 5.000 pinturas e 30.000 obras de arte, além de 17.000 objetos históricos.
Esse museu nacional foi fundado em 1885 e está instalado em um edifício de estilo neogótico. A sua principal atração é a extensa coleção de quadros pintados por artistas holandeses, abrangendo um período que vai do séc. XV aos dias de hoje. A obra de arte mais famosa em exibição é o quadro A Ronda Noturna, de Rembrandt.
O museu Rijksmuseum está dividido em cinco departamentos: pintura, escultura, arte aplicada, arte oriental, história dos Países Baixos e gravuras. O núcleo da coleção é a pintura e suas obras mais representativas são as que pertencem ao Século de Ouro holandês, com quadros de artistas como Rembrandt, Vermeer ou Frans Hals.
Ver fonte: dreamguides.edreams.pt/holanda/amsterda/rijksmuseum
Museu Rijks, Amesterdão
O Museu Rijks (Museu Nacional) é um edifício histórico, sendo o maior museu nos Países Baixos. O Museu é o maior no numero relativamente às suas colecções, na área do edifício em si, no financiamento e no numero de funcionários empregados.
Cada ano, mais de um milhão de pessoas visitam o Museu Rijks. O Museu emprega cerca de 400 pessoas, incluindo 45 conservadores de museu que são especializados em todas as áreas.
O Museu Rijks é internacionalmente reconhecido pelas suas exibições e publicações, mas não só apenas por estes produtos de grande qualidade, mas também pelas áreas no museu em si que são fonte de inspiração e encorajam a criação de novas ideias.
O museu também tem recursos consideráveis para a educação, para a decoração e apresentação de exibições. Importantes designers são regularmente chamados a trabalharem em projectos no Museu Rijks.
O edifício principal do Museu Rijks está a ser renovado. A boa noticia é que a melhor parte da exposição está apresentada na redesenhada ala Philips. O nome desta exposição denomina-se "The Masterpieces'.
O museu abre diariamente das 10 da manhã até ás 5 da tarde.
A entrada é pela Stadhouderskade 42.
Rijksmuseum
Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.
O Rijksmuseum é um museu nacional dos Países Baixos, localizada em Amsterdão na Praça do museu. O Rijksmuseum é dedicado à artes e história. Ele tem uma larga coleção de pinturas da idade de ouro neerlandesa e uma substancial coleção de arte asiática.
O museu foi fundado em 1800 na cidade da Haia para exibir a coleção do primeiro-ministro. Foi inspirado no exemplo francês. Pelos neerlandeses ficou conhecida como Galeria de Arte. Em 1808 o museu mudou-se para Amsterdã pelas ordens do rei Louis Napoleón, irmão de Napoleão Bonaparte. As pinturas daquela cidade, como A Ronda Nocturna de Rembrandt, tornaram-se parte da coleção.
Em 1885 o museu mudou-se para sua localização atual, construído pelo arquiteto neerlandês Pierre Cuypers. Ele combinou elementos góticos e renascentistas. O museu tem um posição proeminente na Praça do Museu, próximo ao Museu van Gogh e ao Museu Stedelijk. A construção é ricamente decorada com referências da história da arte neerlandesa. A Ronda Nocturna de Rembrandt tem seu próprio corredor no museu desde 1906. Desde 2003 o museu sofreu restaurações, mas as obras-primas são constatemente presentes para o público.
A coleção de pinturas inclui trabalhos de artistas como Jacob van Ruysdael, Frans Hals, Johannes Vermeer e Rembrandt e de alunos de Rembrandt.
Em 2005, 95% do museu está fechado para renovação, mas as pinturas da coleção permanente ainda estão em mostra em uma exibição especial chamada As Obras-primas.
Algumas das pinturas do museu:
Rembrandt van Rijn
A Ronda Nocturna
Os síndicos da guilda dos fabricantes de tecidos
A noiva judia
A lição de Anatomia do Dr. Deyman
Pedro negando Cristo
Saskia com um véu
Retrato de Titus em hábito de monge
Auto-retrato como Apóstolo Paulo
Tobias, Ana e o Bode
Johannes Vermeer:
A Leiteira
A Carta de Amor
Mulher de Azul a ler uma carta
A Rua pequena
Frans Hals:
Retrato de um jovem casal
A Companhia Reynier Real
O bebedor alegre
Retrato de Lucas De Clercq
Retrato de Nicolaes Hasselaer
Retrato de um homem
Página oficial do Rijksmuseum
Virtual Collection of Masterpieces (VCM)
O melhor museu de Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum
O Commons possui uma categoria contendo imagens e outros ficheiros sobre Rijksmuseum
Rijksmuseum Amsterdam
1/4
Se você visitar Amsterdam, precisará conhecer o Museu Nacional da Holanda: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. O Museu Nacional fica na Praça do Museu, situada no centro de Amsterdam. O Museu Nacional, ou Rijksmuseum, possui uma maravilhosa coleção de arte e história holandesas. Após uma visita ao Rijksmuseum, você saberá mais sobre história e arte e terá visto alguns dos maiores marcos culturais da Holanda.
Obras-primas do Museu Nacional
Ao todo, a coleção do Rijksmuseum apresenta a história da Holanda em um contexto internacional, desde 1.100 até o presente. Há alguns ícones da história e cultura da Holanda que você não pode perder:
Ronda Noturna (de Nachtwacht) de Rembrandt é uma das mais famosas obras desse mestre holandês e é de tirar o fôlego.
O Rijksmuseum tem uma das melhores coleções de pinturas dos grandes mestres do século XVII, como Frans Hals, Jan Steen, Vermeer e Rembrandt.
Assim como o Museu Histórico de Haia, o Rijksmuseum apresenta lindas casas de bonecas, mobiliadas em detalhes, datando de 1676.
Se você não puder ir ao Delft Real, pode ainda apreciar algumas das melhores cerâmicas de Delft, de conjuntos de chá a vasos, no Museu Nacional.
Museu que é visita obrigatória em Amsterdam
Quer sua estadia em Amsterdam seja breve ou longa, você deve visitar o Rijksmuseum. Chegue cedo para evitar enfrentar filas. Combine a visita ao Rijksmuseum com várias outras atrações próximas, como o Museu Van Gogh, o Museu Stedelijk Amsterdam e a Coster Diamonds
Para obter mais informações sobre Amsterdam, retorne à página sobre Amsterdam ou à página sobre os museus de Amsterdam.
Des stalles du château de Gaillon sont conservées dans la basilique Saint-Denis près de Paris. Ce château était la résidence de loisir des archevêques de Rouen. Commandées au début du XVIe siècle par Georges d’Amboise, ces stalles ont été construites lorsque cet archevêque, devenu légat du pape et premier conseiller de Louis XII a fait transformer le château médiéval en palais de la Renaissance. Seules stalles en France à présenter de nombreux panneaux de marqueterie et une iconographie inédite, elles forment un mobilier unique, chef-d’œuvre de cette période charnière entre gothique et Renaissance, arborant une grande mixité de styles. Ces stalles sont les chaires qui étaient destinées aux trois chanoines qui officiaient dans la chapelle haute du château de Gaillon, dédiée à saint Georges. Elles étaient ceintes d’une clôture en boiset constituaient ainsi le chœur liturgique de l'édifice.
Les stalles en chêne sont composées de deux rangées disposées côté nord et sud du transept de la basilique de Saint-Denis. La rangée nord présente un ensemble de six stalles, la rangée sud de cinq stalles et une isolée. Seules douze stalles ont été créées au XVIe siècle alors que le programme iconographique en prévoyait quatorze. De 2,83 m de haut, elles composées d’un siège et d’un dorsal, ce dernier comprenant deux registres : un bas-relief surmontant un panneau de marqueterie. Tous les éléments sont sculptés ou marquetés. De manière unique, les dossiers, les dorsaux et les voussures des dais sont galbés. De même les chaires ont des largeurs variées, fixées par celles des bas-reliefs des dorsaux. Pour s’adapter, les largeurs d’autres composants ont été rectifiées. La mixité de style se retrouve dans la globalité, les interdorsaux et deux dais étant gothiques alors que les faibles reliefs sont apparentés aux grotesques de la Renaissance, les bas-reliefs et les marqueteries des dorsaux étant quant à eux à la fois d’inspiration péninsulaire et septentrionale.
Sont illustrées sur les bas-reliefs originaux des dorsaux deux scènes de la vie d’Anne et Joachim, parents de la vierge Marie, cinq scènes de la vie de saint Jean-Baptiste le précurseur et sept scènes de la vie de saint Georges selon les textes d’Évangile ou de la Légende dorée. Nombre d’autres saints sont présentés en pied, sous forme de statuettes sur les interdorsaux ou de bas-reliefs sur les soubassements des jouées, notamment les quatre évangélistes sur ces derniers. Sur les panneaux marquetés des quadrants des parcloses sont figurées les affres des enfers des condamnés selon les sept péchés capitaux, avec les planètes et leurs influences. Les représentations sont inspirées des gravures du Calendrier des bergers imprimé à cette époque.
Les miséricordes figurent des scènes des Métamorphoses d’Ovide ainsi que les arts libéraux selon la Margarita Philosophica de G. Reisch. Les artisans se sont inspirés de gravures d’ouvrages imprimés au début du XVIe siècle, par exemple le soldat romain Caius Mucius Scaevola devant le roi Étrusque Porsenna y étant représenté exposant ainsi des thématiques propres à la culture antique. De manière également tout à fait inédite, les 7 vertus, cardinales et théologales, et 7 sibylles sont figurées et représentées sur les panneaux de marqueterie du premier registre des dorsaux. Les allégories et les prophétesses sont encadrées d’architectures identiques deux à deux qui les mettent en concordance. Les sibylles ont été choisies parmi celles du manuscrit des Heures de Louis de Laval dont les auteurs ont cité les prophéties. Ces dernières proviennent du manuscrit des Institutions divines de Lactance qui était de nouveau traduit et que le cardinal a lui-même fait enluminer. Ce grand rhéteur du IVe siècle ayant quant à lui repris les oracles rédigés dans les Oracles sibyllins.
Georges Ier d’Amboise n’a pas manqué de faire valoir qu’il était le commanditaire des stalles en demandant à ce que ses armes et sa devise y figurent à de nombreuses reprises. Le légat a donné pour modèles aux artisans des stalles des enluminures ou gravures de manuscrits faisant partie de sa splendide bibliothèque, digne d'un grand érudit humaniste. Il fit venir l’Italie en choisissant la marqueterie figurative en sus de la sculpture, seule technique utilisée à l'époque en France. Sans renier la tradition en faisant figurer les saints, il a fait représenter de manière inédite leur cycle de vie, dont il a choisi des événements bien spécifiques. De plus, il a incité les fidèles à s’instruire et à étudier les auteurs antiques en faisant sculpter des allégories des arts libéraux et des personnages mythiques ou héroïques. Enfin, par le dialogue des sibylles et des vertus, il a montré que la rhétorique de Lactance était convaincante. Il a ainsi non seulement introduit en France la mode italienne dans le mobilier, le décor et les ornements du château de Gaillon, mais surtout donné corps à l’esprit humaniste en faisant de ses stalles les messagères qui appellent à une vie vertueuse, dans la foi au Christ annoncé à tous les hommes (cf. wikipédia, merci Glass Angel pour la photo).
page from a text book in candle wax
eine Erinnerung aufbewahren. Seite aus dem Musikbuch der 5.Klasse, eingelegt in Wachs
Timgad (tamugadi), les Aurès, Argelia. Una ciudad romana en un extraordinario estado de conservación. En cualquier otra parte sería patrimonio de la humanidad y recibiría cientos de miles de visitantes al año. Si estuviera en Francia generaría dinero por un tubo.Como está en Argelia es raro encontrarse a otra persona durante la visita.
A continuación una introducción sobre Timgad que posteé en su día en www.ciao.fr
Le territoire algérien regorge de vestiges d'époque romaine. Sans doute si ces vestiges se trouvaient ailleurs ils attireraient une floppée de touristes intéressés. Ce n'est point le cas. Entre autres nous y trouvons de grandes villes très bien conservées comme Djemila, Tiddis, Cherchell, Tipaza, Annaba, Tebessa et les deux sur lesquelles je ferai mon avis : Lambèze et Timgad, toutes deux dans l'Est algérien et très proches l'une de l'autre.
L'ALGÉRIE ROMAINE :
Les rapports entre Rome et L'Afrique du Nord débutent avec les guerres contre Carthage. Les romains avaient sollicité, et obtenu, la collaboration des chefs de tribu berbères dont Massinissa qui avait sa capitale à l'emplacement de l'actuelle Constantine. Les troupes de Massinissa étaient intervenues lors de la défaite carthaginoise à Zama. Bien que décédé avant la destruction de Carthage Massinissa s'était rendu aussi maître des comptoirs maritimes carthaginois (Et qui sont à l'origine de la plupart des villes côtières importantes de l'Algérie). A la mort de Massinissa Rome a essayé de semer la zizanie entre ses trois fils qui avaient reçu le royaume en partage. Rome n'a cependant pas su deviner ni prévenir l'ascension du petit fils de Massinissa : Jugurtha, unificateur de toute la Numidie.
Jugurtha ayant passé une bonne part de sa jeunesse à Rome n'en avait pas moins conçu une haine féroce du patriciat romain. Dès qu'il s'est senti assez puissant il a déclaré la guerre à Rome qui prétendait s'emparer définitivement des anciens territoires carthaginois. Cette guerre a duré 5 ans (De 109 à 104 AC) et s'est terminée, comme il se doit, par une trahison payée par l'or romain et l'emprisonnement de Jugurtha, mort à Rome en 104 Ac.
D'un premier abord le territoire de l'actuelle Algérie a été divisé comme suit :
- L'est Algérien faisant partie de la province Africa et gouverné directement par Rome.
- Le reste du territoire entre les mains de chefferies « marionnettes »
Cette situation sévit jusqu'à l'avènement de Claude sous lequel la découpe de l'Afrique du Nord subit une profonde modification. L'actuelle Algérie du Nord se divise entre la province Africa (Avec sa capitale à Carthage) et la Mauritania Cesarea (Avec sa capitale à Cesarea, l'actuelle Cherchell)
Bien que le gros de la population soit composée de berbères autochtones l'Afrique du Nord a vu une immigration importante de la péninsule italique et de vétérans des légions venus de tous les points de l'empire.
L'édit de Caracalla en 212 a permis a de nombreux autochtones d'accéder à la citoyenneté à part entière.
Pendant une bonne part de l'époque impériale donc toute la bande côtière et une bonne partie de l'Atlas ont été gouvernées comme des provinces de l'empire et se sont constitués en source de première importance de denrées comme le blé, le vin et plus tard d'huile d'olive pour la métropole.
La steppe qui précède le désert marquait la limite du pouvoir romain et c'est dans cette zone où l'on trouve les restes de structures défensives comme les limes fortifiées au sud de Biskra, les camps fortifiés près des sources d'eau et les garnisons de frontière comme Lambèze ou Tebessa.
La fin du pouvoir romain dans la région arrive avec l'invasion des vandales qui ont fait la conquête de tout le Maghreb et se sont emparés d'une bonne part des latifundi romains (bien que maintenant par ailleurs les rouages de l'administration, seul moyen de continuer à traire la vache des produits agricoles).
Bien que sous Justinien l'Empire d'Orient ait réussi à reprendre une partie des territoires aux vandales l'influence de l'Empire sur l'Afrique du Nord arrivait à sa fin.
Mais plus de 5 siècles d'emprise romaine avaient laissé sa trace.
Dans ce contexte Lambèze correspond à un campement militaire établi comme point de contrôle et surveillance des monts Aurès (jamais entièrement conquis). Ce campement a été plus tard doublé d'une ville.
Timgad pour sa part a été fondé comme une colonie de peuplement, de gestion et administration de la production agricole dans plaine fertile qui l'entoure.
A.- LAMBEZE/LAMBAESIS
De toutes les villes de l'Est algérien Lambèze fut la plus importante. Cependant on y a peu travaille d'un point de vue archéologique et de ce fait les vestiges visibles ne sont pas aussi voyants que ce que l'on trouve à Timgad.
Appelée Lambaesis à l'époque impériale on lui a attribué le nom de Lambessa et plus tard de Lambèze à l'époque coloniale française.
COMMENT Y ARRIVER :
Placée dans les Hauts Plateaux entre la chaîne littorale et l'Atlas Saharien, a 1200 mts d'altitude Lambèze est de nos jours le siège d'un des pénitenciers les plus importants d'Algérie (Fondé sous la France). Une bonne part de l'activité économique tourne autour des biens et services nécessaires au pénitentiaire sur lequel on raconte sans tarir des horreurs sans nom. Si on ajoute à cela un climat exécrable : chaleur étouffante en été et de nombreux jours de gel en hiver on comprendra que les délinquants et autres trouble fêtes algériens ne désirent en aucun cas purger leurs peines en ce lieu.
On y arrive depuis Batna qui se trouve a 12 Km sur la Nationale 31.
- Je fais ici un aparté sur Batna que mes amis de là bas me pardonneront sûrement : Batna est une des villes les plus laides et désagréables que je connaisse. En plus de son climat éprouvant (je l'ai déjà dit) Batna est la capitale de la tribu algérienne la plus rude et moins portée sur la rigolade qu'il soit : les Chaouias. En juste correspondance les Batnaouis ont toujours été l'un des piliers de l'armée et des gouvernements de la « République Démocratique et Populaire (On aura tout vu…) et constitue l'une des mafias reconnues qui tirent leurs ficelles autour du pouvoir à Alger.
Pour arriver à Batna depuis Alger le plus intéressant est de prendre la route : en sortant d'Alger en direction de Bouira par la N5 jusqu'à Bordj Bou Arreridj (Profitez de l'occasion pour acheter de la viande de mouton, excellente, dans l'une des boucheries qui ont pignon sur rue dans n'importe lequel des villages que l'on traverse).
ATTENTION NE PAS PRENDRE la direction de M'sila. Bien que semblant faisable sur la carte (Prenez la Michelin, c'est la meilleure pour l'Algérie) la route vers M´sila est épouvantable à tout point de vue : circulation, tournants, état et sécurité. Suivre la N% jusqu'à Sétif.
A Sétif prendre la N28 vers Aïn Oulmène, après Magra, Barika et finalement Batna.
Toutes ces routes sont en bon état et la N28, au moins jusqu'à Barika, a l'avantage d'être très droite. On peut donc forcer sur le champignon. (Attention cependant, de plus en plus de gendarmerie routière et de nombreux villages et hameaux. En plus en Algérie des écoles se trouvent placées au bord de la route au milieu du vide et on ne s'y attend pas. Attention aussi aux bestiaux de passage).
Il y a aussi la possibilité de prendre l'avion d'Alger sur Constantine et de louer une caisse. Personnellement je préfère circuler en voiture le plus possible, histoire de faire du tourisme.
LA VILLE ROMAINE :
Lambaesis a été fondée par la 3ème Légion Augusta qui y a déménagé ses quartiers depuis Tebessa à la fin du siècle Ier. Sous Marc Aurèlius une ville est adjointe au camp. Cette ville a été la capitale de la Numidie sous Septime Sévère.
On y trouve les restes de au moins trois camps militaires dont la plus grande partie n'a pas encore été fouillée.
Les vestiges les plus apparents sont ceux du troisième camp, datant de 130 DC et occupant un rectangle de 500 x 420 mts.
On a déblayé ici les deux voies principales sur les axes E-O et N-S du complexe. Les quartiers Est et Nord ont été partiellement mis à nu et on peut y voir les ruines de plusieurs installations.
Au croisement des deux voies principales se dresse le bâtiment le plus important et mieux conservé du site : le Praetorium, siège de l'officier commandant la garnison. Ce Praetorium conserve ses murs sur trois étages et est le seul vestige visible depuis la route et la seule chose que remarquent la plupart des voyageurs passant par là.
D'autres vestiges importants sont :
- Une basilique à trois nefs placée derrière le Praetorium.
- Au S-E les ruines de thermes et plus à l'Est un arc de triomphe bâti sous Comode sur la voie qui mène à Timgad (Il y a un autre petit arc de triomphe à une seule arche, placé sur la même voie.
- Au Sud un amphithéâtre ovale construit sous Marc Aurèle.
- Au S-E en sortant de Tazoult (nom du village moderne) on apprécie un arc triple de Septime Sévère qui marquait l'entrée de la ville de Lambaesis séparée du camp militaire. Près de cet arc se trouvent les thermes ornées de magnifiques mosaïques qui ont été ré ensevelies après avoir été dessinées et photographiées. Grâce à cela nous savons qu'elles sont vastes et de belle qualité mais il y a un manque de moyens pour les extraire et les montrer au public.
- Dans ce qui a été jadis le centre ville on retrouve trois temples en mauvais état de conservation :
• Temple d'Esculape
• Capitole dédié à Jupiter
• Un troisième d'un dieu inconnu, complètement arasé jusque aux fondations (La ville antique a servi de carrière pendant des siècles) et entouré d'un Temenos (cour).
- A 300 mts du Capitole on peut encore voir six arches d'un aqueduc qui ramenait l'eau des Aurès tout proches.
LE MUSEE :
Il existe à Tazoult un petit musée dans lequel on peut voir quelques mosaïques et, dans la cour, un pelle mêle de tambours de colonne, stèles funéraires et de statues dans des degrés de conservation divers.
Il y a aussi de nombreux objets de petite taille comme pièces de monnaie, lampes, projectiles de catapulte, etc…extraits des ruines.
De part sa présentation et ses collections le musée est dénué d'intérêt sauf pour les amateurs chevronnés. Celui de Timgad est autrement intéressant (Voir plus loin).
PRES DE LAMBEZE :
- A la sortie Ouest de Tazoult, et sur le point d'être englouti par le village, un mausolée funéraire.
- A 4 km un autre mausolée, restauré celui-ci et appartenant à Flavius Maximus Préfet de la 3ème légion Augusta au siècle III.
- Sur la route N31, à 5 km on trouve la ville satellite de Verecunda, de nos jours Markouna. Depuis la route est visible un arc de triomphe de Marc Aurèle.
B.- TIMGAD/THAMUGADI
Comment y arriver :
En venant de Batna, comme pour Lambèze, par la RN 31 et après la RW (Route de Wilaya) 20. Timgad se trouve a 37 km de Batna.
Thamugadi (Nom d'origine berbère signifiant « les monts » ou « les sommets »: est fondée sous ce nom (Colonia Martiana Traiana Thamugadi) sous Trajan en 100 DC par des soldats de la 3ème Légion Augusta (Quels types ces légionnaires. soldats et bâtisseurs pour le même prix). La ville a subi deux épisodes de destruction importants : au VIème siècle par des hordes berbères et une deuxième lors de l'invasion arabe après laquelle la ville est définitivement abandonnée. Beaucoup des restes encore visibles correspondent au VIIème siècle.
Timgad a été proclamée Patrimoine de l'Humanité de l'UNESCO en 1982.
Ayant été fondée comme colonie les citoyens de Timgad étaient des citoyens de l'empire à part entière faisant partie de la tribu « Papiria ».
L'emplacement original couvrait 12 ha sous forme rectangulaire avec deux artères principales suivant le plan traditionnel : Decumanus Maximus et Cardo avec une division par des rues secondaires qui forment un damier régulier. Un élargissement de la ville à la fin du IIème siècle abandonne cette régularité qui est caractéristique des nouvelles fondations.
L'entrée au site se fait par la porte Nord avant laquelle on trouve le musée sur la gauche.
LE MUSEE :
Il s'agit d'un bâtiment sans prétentions inspiré de l'architecture latine classique avec trois sections en forme de U autour d'une cour dans laquelle nous pouvons voir quelques statues, des bas reliefs et des stèles. Le plus spectaculaire à mon avis est un vase en pierre de taille (Voir photo) sur lequel est représenté un sacrifice en rapport avec l'histoire de Psyché.
Pour le grand public l'attrait principal du musée seront sans doute les magnifiques mosaïques. En général des siècles II à IV et qui représentent, outre des motifs animaliers, végétaux ou des scènes de la mythologie, des motifs géométriques de belle facture.
Pour les autres la collection importante d'objets d'usage quotidien des salles intérieures sera très intéressante.
Pendant plusieurs années, depuis 2002 au moins, le musée a été fermé du fait de l'insécurité de la région et se trouve aujourd'hui en mauvais état. L'humidité s'est établie sur les murs et de nombreuses mosaïques sont en danger de disparition. Je ne sais pas si on peut le visiter aujourd'hui mais on pouvait l'été 2007. Dans tous les cas je l'ai fait. Mais cela est du peut Être à l'ennui du seul responsable présent qui a insisté a m'accompagner pendant toute la visite avec son insupportable bavardage.
LES RUINES :
Les ruines de Timgad, comme il se doit d'un Patrimoine de l ?humanité, sont spectaculaires. Si elles se trouvaient en Europe ce serait une source de revenu exceptionnelle. En Algérie rare est le jour où l'on y rencontre quelqu'un. Un de mes meilleurs souvenirs de voyage est la visite en Janvier d'une Timgad sous la neige et un ciel de plomb avec un froid mordant les oreilles. On n'entendait rien, o ne voyait personne. Seuls les fantômes des habitants du passé me tenaient compagnie. Inoubliable.
Le nombre, le bon état de conservation et l'étendue du site ont fait l'objet de plusieurs études (On peut consulter sur Gallica, web de la Bibliothèque Nationale de France, « Timgad, une cité africaine sous l'empire romain » Emile Boeswillwald, Albert Ballu, René Cagnat, Paris 1905)
Je me bornerai à décrire sommairement les bâtiments les plus importants dans le sens de la marche depuis l'entrée Nord.
- La Porte Nord depuis laquelle on pénètre dans le site a disparu jusques aux premières assises.
- Le Cardo Nord était une large rue à portiques et munie d'un égout central. Ce Cardo mène directement au Forum au centre ville.
- A gauche on trouve les Petits Thermes du Nord qui ne sont pas très intéressantes, et une maison qui a fait office de chapelle à l'époque chrétienne.
- A gauche également la Bibliothèque qui a du être un bâtiment somptueux entourant sur trois côtés une cour de bonne taille.
- On arrive alors au Forum dont l'entrée principale s'ouvre sur le Cardo moyennant une porte monumentale bien conservée. Ce forum est asses imposant (O peut avoir un bel aperçu des ruines et des éléments que je décris sur Google Earth. Tapez Timgad tout simplement) de 45 x 50 mts. De nos jours l'intérêt principal sont les stèles qui ornent les socles de statues vides et certains bâtiments, ainsi que quelques colonnes encore sur pieds ou remontées. Sur le côté Est on trouve la basilique qui était utilisée comme tribunal et bourse agricole. A l'Ouest un temple pour le culte de l'empereur Trajan divinisé. Ce temple est pratiquement arasé.
- Récréation relative aux empereurs : Saviez vous que de nos jours en France il est toujours interdit par la Loi d'appeler un porc Napoléon ? Fin de la récré.
En suivant le Decumanus Maximus d'Est en Ouest :
- Après la porte de Mascula (Â colonnes, construite en 146) et immédiatement après sur la droite on trouve les Grandes Thermes de l'Est dont la façade s'ouvre sur le Decumanus Maximus. Construites fin du siècle II elles contiennent les installations habituelles de ce genre d'établissement cher aux citoyens désœuvrés l'après midi. On y distingue spécialement bien les latrines et les dispositifs servant à la production d'eau chaude.
- Presque en face, sur la gauche le Marché de l ?est avec ses diverses échoppes séparées par des dalles en pierre. Sur certaines on voit encore à l'œil nu des comptes griffonnés par le boutiquier.
- Après des latrines publiques dont les sièges sont séparés par des appuie mains terminés par des sculptures de dauphins.
- Après les latrines on trouve la « Maison des jardinières » qui doit son nom à des balustrades sculptées de motifs végétaux dans l'Atrium.
- En suivant le Decumanus Maximus après le Forum et placée à la sortie Ouest de la ville, intra-muros, un arc de triomphe dit « de Trajan » (voir photo). Cet Arc de Trajan marque également le début de la voie romaine qui mène à Lambaesis.
- Après l'arc de Trajan et déjà extra-muros de la ville fondation elle, sur la gauche, le Marché de Sertius. Très bien conservé puisque la plupart des échoppes garde encore son comptoir de pierre.
- Face au marché il existe un petit temple de culte de la divinité tutélaires de la colonie.
- En suivant vers l'Ouest et en prenant la première déviation à droite on atteint une église chrétienne de bonne taille (Plus de 40 mts de longueur) où on distingue parfaitement l'abside.
- Si on continue sur la voie principale on arrive face aux Thermes de l'Ouest et la porte de Lambaesis (Marc Aurèle 167) qui marquait la limite extérieure de la cité.
Au Sud du Forum :
- Les bâtiments les plus intéressants dans les quartiers Sud de la ville :
- Le Théâtre : construit au IIème siècle avec une capacité de 3.500 spectateurs (Voir Photo). Abondamment restauré pour le déroulement du Festival culturel qui a lieu fin Juin.( Il s'agit d'un festival de théâtre et folklore populaire). Du fait de la restauration seules les rangées de sièges inférieures sont originales. La partie de l'Orchestre par contre est asses bien conservée dans son état original.
- En sortant de la ville vers le Sud on retrouve pas mal d'habitation dans divers degrés de restauration et :
- Les Grandes Thermes du Sud, siècle II, agrandies en 198. Moins étendues et importantes que les Grandes Thermes du Nord elles constituent cependant l'un des bâtiments les plus intéressants du site. Dans cette partie aussi on trouve habituellement des gamins du village qui offrent des monnaies de bronze, des figurines de terre cuite ou de la vaisselle de Terra Sigilatta (Un type de vaisselle moulée par pression puis cuite au four que l'on retrouve dans tout l'empire romain). Si vous êtes dénués de scrupules vous pouvez acheter en toute confiance : se sont des pièces authentiques (Le made in China n'est pas encore arrivé) et à bon prix (Attention tout de même à la sortie. Les douaniers de l'Aéroport d'Alger sont vigilants et très regardants quand il s'agit du patrimoine national). Une option intéressantes est la visite des souterrains de ces thermes (Prévoir une torche) très bien conservés et où on peut voir les dispositifs de chauffage de l'eau et les magasins de bois de chauffe.
- Directement à l'Ouest on rencontre le Capitole (Siècle II) avec son temple entouré d'un temenos à portiques (Il faudrait avoir l'esprit dérangé pour se promener nue tête en plein soleil dans cette partie du territoire. C'est pour cette raison que hier comme aujourd'hui la plupart des places publiques sont munies de portiques. On accédait au temple par un escalier monumental de 38 marches. Le frontispice s'ornait d'une colonnade à 6 colonnes dont 2 ont été remises sur pieds.
- Un peu plus loin une cathédrale donatiste (Timgad et sa région ont joué un rôle d'importance lors de cette hérésie du christianisme en herbe)
- En suivant la voie dallée sur 200-300 mts nous arrivons à un très imposant fort d'époque byzantine. Construit en 539 sous justinien après la première destruction de la ville. Ce fort servait de quartier général et de refuge à la garnison chargée de la surveillance des monts Aurès. A mon avis c'est le bâtiment le plus impressionnant de Timgad, considérations artistiques ou historiques mises à part.
- Ses 112 x 67 mts et des murs de 2,5 mts d'épaisseur sont un bon indice du genre de danger que l'on devait assumer à l'époque de la part des tribus berbères rebelles. On ne s'attendait pas a l'attaque d'une petite horde de péquenots mais bien á l'attaque organisée d'une armée bien équipée. Dans le fort on peut visiter non seulement les installations d'époque byzantine mais aussi, surtout au Nord et en dessous des nouvelles constructions, des restes d'époque romaine (Siècles II et III) dont 3 temples, deux cours à portiques et une énorme citerne.
C.- AUTES VISITES :
D'autres lieux dont la visite vaut le coup dans la région.
- En sortant de Batna sur la N3 en direction de Biskra, défilé d'El Kantara qui est la voie de pénétration dans le Sahara depuis le Nord. Appelée Calceus Herculis (Le talon d'Hercule) par les romains. On y trouve les restes d'un poste frontière gardant une oasis où l'on cultivait jadis les oliviers (Ruines de plusieurs moulins à huile). La partie la plus étroite du défilé comporte un pont romain restauré et une stèle de l'armée française.
- En sortant de Batna par la W54 et en tournant à Valis direction Arris on traverse l'une des régions les plus arides et dépourvues de l'Algérie moderne. De petits villages qui ne semblent pas loin de l'antiquité et un paysage spectaculaire et très sec. Après Arris on débouche sur les Gorges de Tighanimine sur une longueur de 3 km. Dans ces gorges des ruines de fortifications romaines et une inscription de la Légion VI Ferrata venue de Syrie en souvenir de l'ouverture de cette route en 145.
- Un peu plus loi le « Balcon du Roufi », magnifique mirador sur le défilé avec au fond les ruines d'un ancien hameau. Nous sommes de nouveau aux portes du désert et le fond de l'Oued Abiod (L'oued blanc) on se trouve un chapelet de vergers entourés des falaise de pierre. Une promenade inoubliable.
D.- OU LOGER :
Malheureusement la disponibilité hôtelière décente est rare dans la région. Mis à part les habituels « Hôtels de tourisme » que l'on trouve dans presque toutes les localités algériennes moyennement importantes (Et qui ne sont recommandables que pour les routards qui n'ont pas peur des cafards et qui de préférence emportent leurs propres draps…propres) il n'existe, que je sache, qu'un seul hôtel à Timgad :
- Hôtel Timgad : standing indéfini mais bas. Je conseille plutôt le camping annexe si on a une tente. Impossible de trouver une place pendant le festival de Juin.
A Batna il est possible de rencontrer mieux :
- Hôtel Chelia : 3***, Av. Ben Boulaid. Décent, rien de plus. Une fois ils ont failli m'empoisonner avec des rougets. Faut être demeuré pour demander des rougets à Batna…Les bagarres des saoulards du bar sont légendaires (Dans ces régions reculées de l'Algérie les hôtels sont souvent les seuls lieux de beuverie et de prostitution plus ou moins tolérée). Je n'en ferait pas une recommandation mais il n'y a pas de choix.
- Hôtel Amin : R. Mohamed Khemisti. 2**. On dit que c'est potable. Je n'y ai jamais été.
L'Algérie a beaucoup à offrir au voyageur, même dans des régions qui semblent peu accueillantes au premier abord. Et la visite de ces sites romains, accompagnée d'une bonne vadrouille dans les environs et les Monts Aurès sont une belle expérience.
J'espère que quelqu'un sera intéressé.
Des stalles du château de Gaillon sont conservées dans la basilique Saint-Denis près de Paris. Ce château était la résidence de loisir des archevêques de Rouen. Commandées au début du XVIe siècle par Georges d’Amboise, ces stalles ont été construites lorsque cet archevêque, devenu légat du pape et premier conseiller de Louis XII a fait transformer le château médiéval en palais de la Renaissance. Seules stalles en France à présenter de nombreux panneaux de marqueterie et une iconographie inédite, elles forment un mobilier unique, chef-d’œuvre de cette période charnière entre gothique et Renaissance, arborant une grande mixité de styles. Ces stalles sont les chaires qui étaient destinées aux trois chanoines qui officiaient dans la chapelle haute du château de Gaillon, dédiée à saint Georges. Elles étaient ceintes d’une clôture en boiset constituaient ainsi le chœur liturgique de l'édifice.
Les stalles en chêne sont composées de deux rangées disposées côté nord et sud du transept de la basilique de Saint-Denis. La rangée nord présente un ensemble de six stalles, la rangée sud de cinq stalles et une isolée. Seules douze stalles ont été créées au XVIe siècle alors que le programme iconographique en prévoyait quatorze. De 2,83 m de haut, elles composées d’un siège et d’un dorsal, ce dernier comprenant deux registres : un bas-relief surmontant un panneau de marqueterie. Tous les éléments sont sculptés ou marquetés. De manière unique, les dossiers, les dorsaux et les voussures des dais sont galbés. De même les chaires ont des largeurs variées, fixées par celles des bas-reliefs des dorsaux. Pour s’adapter, les largeurs d’autres composants ont été rectifiées. La mixité de style se retrouve dans la globalité, les interdorsaux et deux dais étant gothiques alors que les faibles reliefs sont apparentés aux grotesques de la Renaissance, les bas-reliefs et les marqueteries des dorsaux étant quant à eux à la fois d’inspiration péninsulaire et septentrionale.
Sont illustrées sur les bas-reliefs originaux des dorsaux deux scènes de la vie d’Anne et Joachim, parents de la vierge Marie, cinq scènes de la vie de saint Jean-Baptiste le précurseur et sept scènes de la vie de saint Georges selon les textes d’Évangile ou de la Légende dorée. Nombre d’autres saints sont présentés en pied, sous forme de statuettes sur les interdorsaux ou de bas-reliefs sur les soubassements des jouées, notamment les quatre évangélistes sur ces derniers. Sur les panneaux marquetés des quadrants des parcloses sont figurées les affres des enfers des condamnés selon les sept péchés capitaux, avec les planètes et leurs influences. Les représentations sont inspirées des gravures du Calendrier des bergers imprimé à cette époque.
Les miséricordes figurent des scènes des Métamorphoses d’Ovide ainsi que les arts libéraux selon la Margarita Philosophica de G. Reisch. Les artisans se sont inspirés de gravures d’ouvrages imprimés au début du XVIe siècle, par exemple le soldat romain Caius Mucius Scaevola devant le roi Étrusque Porsenna y étant représenté exposant ainsi des thématiques propres à la culture antique. De manière également tout à fait inédite, les 7 vertus, cardinales et théologales, et 7 sibylles sont figurées et représentées sur les panneaux de marqueterie du premier registre des dorsaux. Les allégories et les prophétesses sont encadrées d’architectures identiques deux à deux qui les mettent en concordance. Les sibylles ont été choisies parmi celles du manuscrit des Heures de Louis de Laval dont les auteurs ont cité les prophéties. Ces dernières proviennent du manuscrit des Institutions divines de Lactance qui était de nouveau traduit et que le cardinal a lui-même fait enluminer. Ce grand rhéteur du IVe siècle ayant quant à lui repris les oracles rédigés dans les Oracles sibyllins.
Georges Ier d’Amboise n’a pas manqué de faire valoir qu’il était le commanditaire des stalles en demandant à ce que ses armes et sa devise y figurent à de nombreuses reprises. Le légat a donné pour modèles aux artisans des stalles des enluminures ou gravures de manuscrits faisant partie de sa splendide bibliothèque, digne d'un grand érudit humaniste. Il fit venir l’Italie en choisissant la marqueterie figurative en sus de la sculpture, seule technique utilisée à l'époque en France. Sans renier la tradition en faisant figurer les saints, il a fait représenter de manière inédite leur cycle de vie, dont il a choisi des événements bien spécifiques. De plus, il a incité les fidèles à s’instruire et à étudier les auteurs antiques en faisant sculpter des allégories des arts libéraux et des personnages mythiques ou héroïques. Enfin, par le dialogue des sibylles et des vertus, il a montré que la rhétorique de Lactance était convaincante. Il a ainsi non seulement introduit en France la mode italienne dans le mobilier, le décor et les ornements du château de Gaillon, mais surtout donné corps à l’esprit humaniste en faisant de ses stalles les messagères qui appellent à une vie vertueuse, dans la foi au Christ annoncé à tous les hommes (cf. wikipédia, merci Diliff pour la photo).
436PSX[rsz[strtn
Tires MUST be conserved - Protect The Casings
Keep Speed and Pressure where they Belong
Original Caption: Lack of Rain Turned Into a Message on an Outdoor Advertising Sign, Asking People to Conserve Their Energy Output During the Fuel Crisis in Late 1973 in the Pacific Northwest 12/1973
U.S. National Archives’ Local Identifier: 412-DA-12993
Photographer: Falconer, David
Subjects:
Portland (Multnomah county, Oregon, United States) inhabited place
Environmental Protection Agency
Project DOCUMERICA
Persistent URL: arcweb.archives.gov/arc/action/ExternalIdSearch?id=555445
Repository: Still Picture Records Section, Special Media Archives Services Division (NWCS-S), National Archives at College Park, 8601 Adelphi Road, College Park, MD, 20740-6001.
For information about ordering reproductions of photographs held by the Still Picture Unit, visit: www.archives.gov/research/order/still-pictures.html
Reproductions may be ordered via an independent vendor. NARA maintains a list of vendors at www.archives.gov/research/order/vendors-photos-maps-dc.html
Access Restrictions: Unrestricted
Use Restrictions: Unrestricted
The conserved engine house at at Giew Mine forms a prominent landmark alongside the old St. Ives-Penzance road (B3311).
It once housed a 50-inch pumping engine erected on Frank's shaft in 1871 as part of a reworking started in 1869 under the name South Providence. An inscription on the bob wall reads "SP 1871". By that time the shaft was already 142 fathoms (260 metres) below adit, the mine having being previously worked for tin under various names - Durlo Mine, Reeth Consolidated and Billa Consols.
Adjoining the house to the west are the walls of the boiler house, which contained two boilers. the brick collar at the top of the stack is modern and the tall brick structure which would have surmounted the granite base is missing.
Between 1908 and 1923, the mine worked as part of St. Ives Consols. Frank's shaft was sunk to a final depth of 244 fathoms (446 metres) and the engine house was converted for use an an ore bin. During this time my grandfather worked at this mine as a surface worker (when the fishing at St. Ives was poor), so I feel a special affinity for it.
Across the B3311 to the right are the heavily overgrown remains of the extensive milling plant, twin calciners and square calciner stack erected at that time.
To conserve my uploading restrictions for the month, I've combined all 4 relevant photos for this into one (I strongly advise using the larger view, especially if you expect to see the CP).
Top left: CP's for both the flat version and the curved version.
Top right: Flat version backlit.
Bottom right: Flat version not-backlit
Bottom left: Curved version
(Flat version folded from 3" white kami, curved version from 8.5" square printing paper)
This evolved as s 4-sided version of this:
www.flickr.com/photos/8303956@N08/2721650438/
Getting the angles to work out was actually much more confusing than I had anticipated (though this was probably much amplified because this was my first square-based tessellation). Look at the flat-cp to see the use of weirdly oriented right-isosceles triangle twists. Also note the grid of 19ths; it needs an odd number the way I have it set-up.
I used splines to generate guesstimated curves for the 3-D version, but in reality the curves should probably all be elliptical arcs.
..... for her baptism today.
This was made for the baby daughter of one of our daughter's friends. Aurelia's mummy wanted the baby shoes and rattle that I did a few months ago but the rest of the design was left up to me.
The cake travelled safely today from here on the South East coast up to Birmingham with one of the guests.
Madeira cake filled with vanilla buttercream and strawberry conserve and covered with marzipan and fondant icing. Rattle and shoes made of fondant.
This snow leopard, named Enif, lives at Banham Zoo in Norfolk. She arrived in 2006 from Tama Zoo in Japan.
The snow leopard is well adapted to its harsh environment. Its fur camouflages the cat against rocky terrain and protects it from cold temperatures. Their dense fur, 2 in. (50 mm) long on their back and sides and almost 5 in. (122 mm) long on their belly, is grey and dotted with black rosettes but white on the belly. Thick fur also covers the cat's wide paws, this minimizes heat loss. The paws also act as natural snowshoes helping distribute their weight over soft snow.
Snow leopards have short powerful legs and are tremendous jumpers, able to leap as far as 50 ft. (15.25 m), or approximately 6 times their body length. They have a stocky body, and an extremely long, bushy tail which they use for balancing and as blanket, curling it over the face to stay warm. Its short muzzle and small ears also help the animal conserve heat. While other big cats have golden eyes, the snow leopard's eyes are grey or green. Also, unlike other big cats, the snow leopard cannot roar. Male snow leopards are larger than females, but they have a similar appearance. On average, a snow leopard's length is between 30 to 59 in. (75 to 150 cm), plus a tail that's 31 to 41 in. (80 to 105 cm) long. The average snow leopard weighs between 49 to 121 lb. (22 to 55 kg). A large male may reach 165 lb. (75 kg), while a small female may weigh under 55 lb. (25 kg).
Shy and reclusive, and rarely seen in the wild, snow leopards inhabit steep, rugged terrain with rocky outcrops throughout the high mountain ranges of the Himalayas and the southern Siberian mountains in Russia. They can also be found in the Tibetan Plateau and across a range that stretches from China to the mountains of Central Asia. In the summer, the snow leopards live above the tree line from 8,900 to 19,700 ft. (2,700 to 6,000 m), but in the winter they descend to forests between 3,900 to 6,600 (1,220 to 2,000 m). While they are adapted to traverse rocky terrain and snow, snow leopards will follow trails made by people and animals if they are available. They require an enormous amount of space to roam, male leopards need up to 80 square miles, while females have ranges of up to 48 square miles. They can travel over 25 miles in a single night.
Snow leopards' prey upon the blue sheep (bharal) of Tibet and the Himalayas, as well as the mountain ibex found over most of the rest of their range. Though these powerful predators can kill animals three times their weight, they also eat smaller fare, such as marmots, hares, and game birds. Snow leopards do not hunt adult yaks or humans. Usually they are solitary hunters, but pairs have been known to hunt together. One Indian snow leopard, protected and observed in a national park, is reported to have consumed five blue sheep, nine Tibetan woolly hares, 25 marmots, five domestic goats, one domestic sheep, and 15 birds in a single year.
Snow leopards' mate in late winter. The female finds a rocky den, which she lines with fur from her belly. After a 90 to100 day gestation, she gives birth to 1 to 5 black-spotted cubs. Like domestic kittens, snow leopard cubs are blind at birth. Cubs are weaned by 10 weeks of age and remain with their mother for up to 18 to 22 months. At that point, the young cats travel great distances to seek their new home. Scientists believe this trait naturally reduces the chance of inbreeding. In the wild, most cats live between 15 and 18 years, but snow leopards live about 25 years in captivity.
Despite a range of over 772,200 sq. miles (2 million km2), scientist estimate that there may only be between 3,920 and 6,390 snow leopards left in the wild. As an apex predator, adult snow leopards are not hunted by other animals. Cubs may be eaten by birds of prey, but only humans hunt the adult cat for its fur and body parts. It is also killed to protect livestock. Humans also hunt the leopard's prey, forcing the animal to encroach on human settlements to find food.
The snow leopard was on the endangered species list from 1972 until 2017. The IUCN Red List now categorizes the snow leopard as 'Vulnerable'.
I call this one Faded and Desaturated.
Approach:
Conserve screen space and display all information as concisely as possible.
Changes:
The RSS readers and notes were usually hidden behind a window and the text was too small. They weren't as effective as accessing the content directly, so I scrapped them. They weren't exactly concise, either.
The large Arcs Samurize config helped to organize screen elements, but, again, it didn't work with either of my approaches. I replaced it with the small Arcs config, which is purely for aesthetics now.
Rocketdock and Launchy together fill the hole left after removing the Start button.
The 10 Foot HUD and the Samurize Arcs are the only unessential elements; however, the large clock and temp is occasionally useful when I take a quick peek at my monitor when I'm not at my desk.
I took the minimal color/distraction idea from my last layout to its extreme this time. Whatever task I'm working on grabs my attention and keeps me focused. I'm all for having an eye-catching desktop to help me relax, inspire me, or show off some artwork, but all of that doesn't matter when you're trying to be productive. The only color left is on the taskbar, which helps me quickly identify what programs are active.
All desired information is kept out of the way and doesn't stand out. When I want to check the time, monitor my CPU, or sing along, I have quick and easy access to that information.
Comments:
With this latest version of my desktop, I was able to hack together a configuration that is both compatible with my priorities - productivity, focus, on-demand information, habitual need to sing along - and visually appealing. The only thing left to do is add UL and DL meters, similar to the CPU and RAM meters I already have, and I don't see this getting any better after that. Although, I say that every couple of weeks, so... who knows!
Also, I'm working on a Twitter config for Rainmeter. I don't see it fitting in anywhere on my desktop, but let me know if you're interested. I'll clean it up and finish it.
Happy Hacking!
Programs Used:
CD Art Display Skin:
RocketDock Icons:
ecqlipse 2 and various matching sets
Rainmeter Configs:
Samurize Configs:
Arcs Original (also included with Enigma 2.1)
Wallpaper:
Windows Vista x64 Theme:
One of my fave places.
Arundel is a market town and civil parish in a steep vale of the South Downs, West Sussex, England. The much-conserved town has a medieval castle and Roman Catholic cathedral. Wikipedia
SA Police Museum.
This police museum was established in 1977 to conserve and detail some of the work and achievements of South Australian police personnel. The museum has five main galleries with different themes as well as a collection of police uniforms, police cars and motor cycles etc. The history of the South Australian Mounted Police Force began in 1838 making it the third oldest organised police force in the world after England and Ireland! Henry Inman was the first police chief in April 1838. The mounted police and their horses were in a paddock behind the SA Museum which later became their barracks and the state armoury site. They wore blue British style uniforms with a differences between the uniforms of footed and mounted officers. Our forward thinking police department was the first in Australia to introduce bicycles for officers in 1893 and they were not totally replaced by motor cycles until the 1950s. More significant than the introduction of bicycles was the introduction of female police officers 1915 – the second country in the British Empire to do so after NSW which also introduced female officers in 1915. These female officers received the same pay and had the same conditions as the men. The first female officers who were instrumental in having the women’s force established were Kate Cocks and Annie Ross. Kate Cocks had worked in Children’s Welfare before being transferred to the Police Department. The responsibilities of these two women centred on women and violence, prostitution and youth sex offences. SA also followed NSW’s early introduction of finger printing, the earliest form of forensic science in the police force in 1894. But SA provided the new Commonwealth of Australia with a uniform system of finger printing which was adopted across all states in 1904. The Police Museum also has a replica of a Black Maria police van for transporting criminals in a secure horse drawn carriage. The Black Maria’s were introduced in 1874 and used until replaced by motor vehicles in 1928.
Police Barracks.
Law and order in the British colony of South Australia was undertaken by British troops in the first instance from December 1836 until the Police Act was passed in 1839. Then a local force of ten mounted officers and ten foot constables was established with ongoing support from the British troops in the colony. South Australia was the first colony to have a police force but the first three heads were all dismissed in early years: the first for selling sly grog in 1837; the second for dishonesty and the third a few years later in 1856. He was Commissioner Tolmer who was sacked for undermining his subordinates. The force was officially created in April 1838 and soon established itself once Governor Gawler arrived in October 1838. He introduced uniforms for the officers. Apart from keeping the peace the officers were often involved with protecting colonists from bushrangers or escaped convicts and ensuring peaceful relations between Aborigines and some local pastoralists.
Conflict between whites and Aborigines was reported and acted upon quickly but not often to the satisfaction of the Aboriginal people. Aborigines were not allowed to give evidence in court cases although they were to be protected by British law and the Protector of Aborigines. Despite the lack of fair trials one white man was hung in 1846 at Rivoli Bay for murdering an Aboriginal man. Racial tensions between settlers and Aborigines continued in the 1840s but was largely quelled by 1850 even on Eyre Peninsula which had witnessed a number of white murders and retaliative attacks by whites. By the early 1850s Aboriginal or Native constables, who were paid one shilling a day, were also employed with almost 50 on the payroll by then. The first Premier of South Australia Boyle Travers Finniss became Police Commissioner in 1843 succeeding Captain O’Halloran and he was eventually replaced with Inspector Alexander Tolmer in 1853. He established the Escort route from the Victorian goldfields for SA residents returning with gold for the Adelaide Assay Office. Police stations were spread across the colony from Mt Gambier to Port Lincoln and Melrose in the north and Wellington in the east and major towns like Gawler, Strathalbyn, Willunga, Burra and Kapunda totalling about 20 police stations in the colony. In 1853 there were 126 police officers and 16 Native constables in the police force a sudden decrease from a year or so earlier.
In 1851 the first section of police barracks and stables for the mounted police was erected just off North Terrace. They are now behind the South Australian Museum. The main police station was in King William Street. The colonial engineer and early Surveyor General Captain Freeling designed the first barrack buildings of 1851. The limestone pointed stone Gothic style buildings were added to in 1855 to form a quadrangle in case this was needed for defensive circumstances, but primarily to create an enclosed parade ground for the police and the military.
Des stalles du château de Gaillon sont conservées dans la basilique Saint-Denis près de Paris. Ce château était la résidence de loisir des archevêques de Rouen. Commandées au début du XVIe siècle par Georges d’Amboise, ces stalles ont été construites lorsque cet archevêque, devenu légat du pape et premier conseiller de Louis XII a fait transformer le château médiéval en palais de la Renaissance. Seules stalles en France à présenter de nombreux panneaux de marqueterie et une iconographie inédite, elles forment un mobilier unique, chef-d’œuvre de cette période charnière entre gothique et Renaissance, arborant une grande mixité de styles. Ces stalles sont les chaires qui étaient destinées aux trois chanoines qui officiaient dans la chapelle haute du château de Gaillon, dédiée à saint Georges. Elles étaient ceintes d’une clôture en boiset constituaient ainsi le chœur liturgique de l'édifice.
Les stalles en chêne sont composées de deux rangées disposées côté nord et sud du transept de la basilique de Saint-Denis. La rangée nord présente un ensemble de six stalles, la rangée sud de cinq stalles et une isolée. Seules douze stalles ont été créées au XVIe siècle alors que le programme iconographique en prévoyait quatorze. De 2,83 m de haut, elles composées d’un siège et d’un dorsal, ce dernier comprenant deux registres : un bas-relief surmontant un panneau de marqueterie. Tous les éléments sont sculptés ou marquetés. De manière unique, les dossiers, les dorsaux et les voussures des dais sont galbés. De même les chaires ont des largeurs variées, fixées par celles des bas-reliefs des dorsaux. Pour s’adapter, les largeurs d’autres composants ont été rectifiées. La mixité de style se retrouve dans la globalité, les interdorsaux et deux dais étant gothiques alors que les faibles reliefs sont apparentés aux grotesques de la Renaissance, les bas-reliefs et les marqueteries des dorsaux étant quant à eux à la fois d’inspiration péninsulaire et septentrionale.
Sont illustrées sur les bas-reliefs originaux des dorsaux deux scènes de la vie d’Anne et Joachim, parents de la vierge Marie, cinq scènes de la vie de saint Jean-Baptiste le précurseur et sept scènes de la vie de saint Georges selon les textes d’Évangile ou de la Légende dorée. Nombre d’autres saints sont présentés en pied, sous forme de statuettes sur les interdorsaux ou de bas-reliefs sur les soubassements des jouées, notamment les quatre évangélistes sur ces derniers. Sur les panneaux marquetés des quadrants des parcloses sont figurées les affres des enfers des condamnés selon les sept péchés capitaux, avec les planètes et leurs influences. Les représentations sont inspirées des gravures du Calendrier des bergers imprimé à cette époque.
Les miséricordes figurent des scènes des Métamorphoses d’Ovide ainsi que les arts libéraux selon la Margarita Philosophica de G. Reisch. Les artisans se sont inspirés de gravures d’ouvrages imprimés au début du XVIe siècle, par exemple le soldat romain Caius Mucius Scaevola devant le roi Étrusque Porsenna y étant représenté exposant ainsi des thématiques propres à la culture antique. De manière également tout à fait inédite, les 7 vertus, cardinales et théologales, et 7 sibylles sont figurées et représentées sur les panneaux de marqueterie du premier registre des dorsaux. Les allégories et les prophétesses sont encadrées d’architectures identiques deux à deux qui les mettent en concordance. Les sibylles ont été choisies parmi celles du manuscrit des Heures de Louis de Laval dont les auteurs ont cité les prophéties. Ces dernières proviennent du manuscrit des Institutions divines de Lactance qui était de nouveau traduit et que le cardinal a lui-même fait enluminer. Ce grand rhéteur du IVe siècle ayant quant à lui repris les oracles rédigés dans les Oracles sibyllins.
Georges Ier d’Amboise n’a pas manqué de faire valoir qu’il était le commanditaire des stalles en demandant à ce que ses armes et sa devise y figurent à de nombreuses reprises. Le légat a donné pour modèles aux artisans des stalles des enluminures ou gravures de manuscrits faisant partie de sa splendide bibliothèque, digne d'un grand érudit humaniste. Il fit venir l’Italie en choisissant la marqueterie figurative en sus de la sculpture, seule technique utilisée à l'époque en France. Sans renier la tradition en faisant figurer les saints, il a fait représenter de manière inédite leur cycle de vie, dont il a choisi des événements bien spécifiques. De plus, il a incité les fidèles à s’instruire et à étudier les auteurs antiques en faisant sculpter des allégories des arts libéraux et des personnages mythiques ou héroïques. Enfin, par le dialogue des sibylles et des vertus, il a montré que la rhétorique de Lactance était convaincante. Il a ainsi non seulement introduit en France la mode italienne dans le mobilier, le décor et les ornements du château de Gaillon, mais surtout donné corps à l’esprit humaniste en faisant de ses stalles les messagères qui appellent à une vie vertueuse, dans la foi au Christ annoncé à tous les hommes (cf. wikipédia, merci Glass Angel pour la photo).
The GAU-8 itself weighs 620 pounds (280 kg), but the complete weapon, with feed system and drum, weighs 4,029 pounds (1,828 kg) with a maximum ammunition load. It measures 19 ft 5½ in (5.931 m) from the muzzle to the rearmost point of the ammunition system, and the ammunition drum alone is 34.5 inches (88 cm) in diameter and 71.5 inches (1.82 m) long.[5] The magazine can hold 1,174 rounds, although 1,150 is the typical load-out. Muzzle velocity when firing Armor-Piercing Incendiary rounds is 3,250 feet per second (990 m/s), almost the same as the substantially lighter M61 Vulcan's 20 mm round. The standard ammunition mixture for anti-armor use is a four-to-one mix of PGU-14/B Armor Piercing Incendiary, with a projectile weight of about 15.0 oz (425 grams or 6,560 grains) and PGU-13/B High Explosive Incendiary (HEI) rounds, with a projectile weight of about 12.7 oz (360 grams or 5,556.25 grains). The PGU-14/B's projectile incorporates a lightweight aluminum body, cast around a smaller caliber depleted uranium penetrating core.[6] The Avenger is lethal against tanks and all other armored vehicles.
A very important innovation in the design of the GAU-8/A shells is the use of aluminum alloy cases in place of the traditional steel or brass.[7] This alone adds 30% to ammunition capacity for a given weight. The shells also have plastic driving bands to improve barrel life. They are imposing to examine and handle, measuring 11.4 inches (290 mm) in length and weighing 1.53 pounds (0.69 kg) or more.[5][7]
The Avenger's rate of fire was originally selectable, 2,100 rounds per minute (rpm) in the low setting, or 4,200 rpm in the high setting.[8] Later this was changed to a fixed rate of 3,900 rpm.[9] In practice, the cannon is limited to one and two-second bursts to avoid overheating and conserve ammunition; barrel life is also a factor, since the USAF has specified a minimum life of at least 20,000 rounds for each set of barrels.[10] There is no technical limitation on the duration the gun may be continuously fired, and a pilot could potentially expend the entire ammunition load in a single burst with no damage or ill effects to the weapons system itself. However, this constant rate of fire would shorten the barrel life considerably and require added barrel inspections and result in shorter intervals between replacement.
Each barrel is a very simple non-automatic design having its own breech and bolt. Like the original Gatling gun, the entire firing cycle is actuated by cams and powered by the rotation of the barrels.[7] The barrels themselves are driven by the aircraft's dual hydraulic system.[10]
The GAU-8/A ammunition is linkless, reducing weight and avoiding a great deal of potential for jamming. The feed system is double-ended, allowing the spent casings to be recycled back into the ammunition drum,[11] instead of ejected from the aircraft, which would require considerable force to eliminate potential airframe damage. The feed system is based on that developed for later M61 installations, but uses more advanced design techniques and materials throughout, to save weight.[5]
Site préhistorique de Filitosa - Les hommes de pierre
L’histoire de la Corse a commencé bien avant Napoléon ! Il y a plus de 8 000 ans, les hommes vivaient déjà sur l’Île de Beauté, 8000 ans que Filitosa garde jalousement ses statues-menhirs, ses monuments circulaires (les « Torre ») et ses mystères…
Véritable musée à ciel ouvert, Filitosa conserve les traces d’une très longue occupation, s’étalant du VIème millénaire avant notre ère jusqu’à l’occupation romaine.
Des numéros ont été attribués à chacune des statues-menhirs retrouvées afin de les répertorier. Depuis l’entrée du site il faut remonter une allée avant de rencontrer la première « Filitosa V » (la plus belle du site). Avec son visage, ses détails vestimentaires dans le dos, son épée et son poignard, elle accueille les visiteurs.
A 300 mètres environ, on découvre Filitosa VI armée de son épée et coiffée d’un casque hémisphérique arborant un air sévère au réalisme troublant.
A proximité, on arrive devant six statues disposées de part et d’autre d’un mur d’enceinte telle une armée de gardes qui protègent l’entrée du monument.
Filitosa IX est une très belle représentation de la statuaire mégalithique insulaire malgré son état fragmentaire. Le visage est sculpté sur trois niveaux : le méplat du cou, l'ovale du visage et le bloc nez-arcade. La bouche est indiquée par une gravure, au dos sont dessinées les omoplates symétriques et la colonne vertébrale en faux relief.
En contrebas de l'éperon rocheux, après le ruisseau de Barcajolo, on distingue cinq statues menhirs disposées en arc de cercle, entourant l'olivier millénaire classé arbre remarquable de France.
Un gros rocher en forme de dinosaure trône à l’extrémité du site non loin d’un point de vue panoramique.
Filitosa prehistoric site - Stone men
The history of Corsica began long before Napoleon! More than 8,000 years ago, people already lived on the Island of Beauty, 8,000 years that Filitosa jealously guards its statues-menhirs, its circular monuments (the "Torres") and its mysteries ...
A true open-air museum, Filitosa preserves the traces of a very long occupation, stretching from the 6th millennium BC until the Roman occupation.
Numbers have been assigned to each of the statues-menhirs found in order to list them. From the entrance to the site you have to go up an alley before meeting the first "Filitosa V" (the most beautiful on the site). With her face, her clothing details on the back, her sword and her dagger, she welcomes visitors.
About 300 meters away, we discover Filitosa VI armed with his sword and wearing a hemispherical helmet bearing a stern air of disturbing realism.
Nearby, we come to six statues arranged on either side of a perimeter wall like an army of guards protecting the entrance to the monument.
Filitosa IX is a very beautiful representation of island megalithic statuary despite its fragmentary state. The face is sculpted on three levels: the flat part of the neck, the oval of the face and the nose-arch block. The mouth is indicated by an engraving, on the back are drawn the symmetrical shoulder blades and the spine in false relief.
Below the rocky outcrop, after the Barcajolo stream, there are five menhirs statues arranged in an arc, surrounding the thousand-year-old olive tree classified as a remarkable tree of France.
A large boulder in the shape of a dinosaur stands at the far end of the site from a panoramic point of view.
Borgund Stave Church (Norwegian: Borgund stavkyrkje) is a former parish church of the Church of Norway in Lærdal Municipality in Vestland county, Norway. It was built around the year 1200 as the village church of Borgund, and belonged to Lærdal parish (part of the Sogn prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Bjørgvin) until 1868, when its religious functions were transferred to a "new" Borgund Church, which was built nearby. The old church was restored, conserved and turned into a museum. It is funded and run by the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Norwegian Monuments, and is classified as a triple-nave stave church of the Sogn-type. Its grounds contain Norway's sole surviving stave-built free-standing bell tower.
Borgund Stave Church was built sometime between 1180 and 1250 AD with later additions and restorations. Its walls are formed by vertical wooden boards, or staves, hence the name "stave church." The four corner posts are connected to one another by ground sills, resting on a stone foundation. The intervening staves rise from the ground sills; each is tongued and grooved, to interlock with its neighbours and form a sturdy wall. The exterior timber surfaces are darkened by protective layers of tar, distilled from pine.
Borgund is built on a basilica plan, with reduced side aisles, and an added chancel and apse. It has a raised central nave demarcated on four sides by an arcade. An ambulatory runs around this platform and into the chancel and apse, both added in the 14th century. An additional ambulatory, in the form of a porch, runs around the exterior of the building, sheltered under the overhanging shingled roof. The floor plan of this church resembles that of a central plan, double-shelled Greek cross with an apse attached to one end in place of the fourth arm. The entries to the church are in the three shorter arms of the cross.
Structurally, the building has been described as a "cube within a cube", each independent of the other. The inner "cube" is formed by continuous columns that rise from ground level to support the roof. The top of the arcade is formed by arched buttresses, knee jointed to the columns. Above the arcade, the columns are linked by cross-shaped, diagonal trusses, commonly dubbed "Saint Andrew's crosses"; these carry arched supports that offer the visual equivalent of a "second storey". While not a functional gallery, this is reminiscent of contemporary second story galleries of large stone churches elsewhere in Europe. Smaller beams running between these upper supporting columns help clamp everything firmly together. The weight of the roof is thus supported by buttresses and columns, preventing downward and outward movement of the stave walls.
The roof beams are supported by steeply angled scissor trusses that form an "X" shape with a narrow top span and a broader bottom span, tied by a bottom truss to prevent collapse. Additional support is given by a truss that cuts across the "X", below the crossing point but above the bottom truss. The roof is steeply pitched, boarded horizontally and clad with shingles. The original outer roof would have been weatherproofed with boards laid lengthwise, rather than shingles. In later years wooden shingles became more common. Scissor beam roof construction is typical of most stave churches.
Borgund has tiered, overhanging roofs, topped at their intersection by a shingle-roofed tower or steeple. On each of its four gables is a stylised "dragon" head, swooping from the carved roof ridge crests, Hohler remarks their similarity to the carved dragon heads found on the prows of Norse ships. Similar gable heads appear on small bronze church-shaped reliquaries common in Norway and Europe in this period. Borgund's current dragon heads are possible 18th century replacements; similar, original dragon heads remain on older structures, such as Lom Stave Church and nearby Urnes Stave Church. Borgund is one of the only stave churches to have preserved its crested ridge caps. They are carved with openwork vine and entangled plant designs.
The four outer dragon heads are perhaps the most distinctive of all non-Christian symbols adorning Borgund Stave Church. Their function is uncertain, and disputed; if pagan, they are recruited to the Christian cause in the battle between Good and Evil. They may have been intended to keep away evil spirits thought to threaten the church building; to ward off evil, rather than represent it,
On the lower side panel of the steeple are four carved circular cutouts. The carvings are weather-beaten, tarred and difficult to decipher, and there is disagreement about what they symbolize. Some[who?] believe they represent the four evangelists, symbolised by an eagle, an ox, a lion and a man. Hauglid describes the carvings as "dragons that extend their heads over to the neighboring field's dragon and bite into it", and points out their similarity to carvings at Høre Stave Church.
The church's west portal (the nave's main entrance), is surrounded by a larger carving of dragons biting each other in the neck and tail. At the bottom of the half-columns that flank the front entrance, two dragon heads spew vine stalks that wind upwards and are braided into the dragons above. The carving shares similarities with the west portal of Ål Stave Church, which also has kites[clarification needed] in a band braiding pattern, and follows the usual composition[clarification needed] in the Sogn-Valdres portals, a larger group of portals with very clear similarities. Bugge writes that Christian authority may have come to terms with such pagan and "wild scenes" in the church building because the rift could be interpreted as a struggle between good and evil; in Christian medieval art, the dragon was often used as a symbol of the devil himself but Bugge believes that the carvings were protective, like the dragon heads on the church roof.
The church interior is dark, as not much daylight enters the building. Some of the few sources of natural light are narrow circular windows along the roof, examples of daylighting. It was supposed that the narrow apertures would prevent the entry of evil spirits. Three entrances are heavily adorned with foliage and snakes, and are only wide enough for one person to enter, supposedly preventing the entry of evil spirits alongside the churchgoers. The portals were originally painted green, red, black, and white.
Most of the internal fittings have been removed. There is little in the building, apart from the row of benches that are installed along the wall inside the church in the ambulatory outside of the arcade and raised platform, a soapstone font, an altar (with 17th-century altarpiece), a 16th-century lectern, and a 16th-century cupboard for storing altar vessels. After the Reformation, when the church was converted for Protestant worship, pews, a pulpit and other standard church furnishings were included, however these have been removed since the building has come under the protection of the Fortidsminneforeningen (The Society for the Preservation of Norwegian Ancient Monuments).
The interior structure of the church is characterized by the twelve free-standing columns that support the nave's elevated central space. On the long side of the church there is a double interval between the second and third pillars, but with a half pillar resting on the lower bracing beam (the pier) which runs in between. The double interval provides free access from the south portal to the church's central compartment, which would otherwise have been obstructed by the middle bar. The tops of the poles are finished with grotesque, carved human and animal masks. The tie-bars are secured with braces in the form of St. Andrew's crosses with a sun - shaped center and carved leaf shapes along the arms. The crosses reappear in less ornate form as braces along the church walls. On the north and south sides of the nave, a total of eight windows let in small amounts of light, and at the top of the nave's west gable is a window of more recent date - probably from pre-Reformation times. On the south wall of the nave, the inauguration crosses are still on the inside of the wall. The interior choir walls and west portal have engraved figures and runes, some of which date to the Middle Ages. One, among the commonest of runic graffiti, reads "Ave Maria". An inscription by Þórir (Thor), written "in the evening at St. Olav's Mass" blames the pagan Norns for his problems; perhaps a residue of ancient beliefs, as these female beings were thought to rule the personal destinies of all in Norse mythology and the Poetic Edda.
The medieval interior of the stave church is almost untouched, save for its restorations and repairs, though the medieval crucifix was removed after the Reformation. The original wooden floor and the benches that run along the walls of the nave are largely intact, together with a medieval stone altar and a box-shaped baptismal font in soapstone. The pulpit is from the period 1550–1570 and the altarpiece dates from 1654, while the frame around the tablet is dated to 1620. The painting on the altarpiece shows the crucifixion in the centre, flanked by the Virgin Mary on the left and John the Baptist on the right. In the tympanum field, a white dove hovers on a blue background. Below the painting is an inscription with golden letters on a black background. A sacrament from the period 1550–1570 in the same style as the pulpit is also preserved. A restoration of the building was carried out in the early 1870s, led by the architect Christian Christie, who removed benches, a second-floor gallery with seating, a ceiling over the chancel, and various windows including two large windows on the north and south sides. As the goal was to return the church to pre-Reformation condition, all post-Reformation interior paintwork was also removed.
Images from the 1990s show deer antlers hung on the lower, east-facing pillars. A local story claims that this is all that remains of a whole stuffed reindeer, shot when it tried to enter during a Mass. A travelogue from 1668 claims that a reindeer was shot during a sermon "when it marched like a wizard in front of the other animal carcasses"
To the south of the church is a free-standing stave-work bell tower that covers remnants of the mediaeval foundry used to cast the church bell. It was probably built in the mid-13th century. It is Norway's only remaining free-standing stave-work bell tower.It was given a new door around the year 1700 but this was removed and not replaced at some time between the 1920s and 1940s, leaving the foundry pit was exposed. To preserve the interior, new walls were built as cladding on the outside of the stave walls in the 1990s. One of the medieval bells is on display in the new Borgund church.
Management
In 1868 the building was abandoned as a church but was turned into a museum; this saved it from the commonplace demolition of stave churches in that period. A new Borgund Church was built in 1868 a short distance south of the old church. The old church has not been formally used for religious purposes since that year. Borgund Stave Church was bought by the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Norwegian Monuments in 1877. The first guidebook in English for the stave church was published in 1898. From 2001, the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage has funded a program to research, restore, conserve and maintain stave churches.
Legacy
The church served as an example for the reconstruction of the Fantoft Stave Church in Fana, Bergen, in 1883 and for its rebuilding in 1997. The Gustav Adolf Stave Church in Hahnenklee, Germany, built in 1908, is modeled on the Borgund church. Four replicas exist in the United States, one at Chapel in the Hills, Rapid City, South Dakota, another in Lyme, Connecticut, the third on Washington Island, Wisconsin, and the fourth in Minot, North Dakota at the Scandinavian Heritage Park.
Borgund is a former municipality in Sogn og Fjordane county, Norway. It was located in the southeastern part of the traditional district of Sogn. The 635-square-kilometre (245 sq mi) municipality existed from 1864 until its dissolution in 1964. It encompassed an area in the eastern part of the present-day Lærdal Municipality. The administrative center of Borgund was the village of Steinklepp, just northeast of the village of Borgund. Steinklepp was the site of a store, a bank, and a school. The historical Filefjell Kongevegen road passes through the Borgund area.
Location
The former municipality of Borgund was situated near the southeastern end of the Sognefjorden, along the Lærdalselvi river. The lower parts of the municipality were farms such as Sjurhaugen and Nedrehegg. They were at an elevation of about 270 m (890 ft) above sea level. Høgeloft, on the border with the neighboring municipality of Hemsedal, is a mountain in the Filefjell range and it was the highest point in Borgund at 1,920 m (6,300 ft) above sea level. The lakes Eldrevatnet, Juklevatnet, and Øljusjøen were also located near the border with Hemsedal.
History
Borgund was established as a municipality in 1864 when it was separated from the municipality of Lærdal. Initially it had a population of 963. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the municipality of Borgund (population: 492) was merged with the Muggeteigen area (population: 11) of the neighboring Årdal Municipality and all of Lærdal Municipality (population: 1,755) were all merged to form a new, larger municipality of Lærdal
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway , is a Nordic , European country and an independent state in the west of the Scandinavian Peninsula . Geographically speaking, the country is long and narrow, and on the elongated coast towards the North Atlantic are Norway's well-known fjords . The Kingdom of Norway includes the main country (the mainland with adjacent islands within the baseline ), Jan Mayen and Svalbard . With these two Arctic areas, Norway covers a land area of 385,000 km² and has a population of approximately 5.5 million (2023). Mainland Norway borders Sweden in the east , Finland and Russia in the northeast .
Norway is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy , where Harald V has been king and head of state since 1991 , and Jonas Gahr Støre ( Ap ) has been prime minister since 2021 . Norway is a unitary state , with two administrative levels below the state: counties and municipalities . The Sami part of the population has, through the Sami Parliament and the Finnmark Act , to a certain extent self-government and influence over traditionally Sami areas. Although Norway has rejected membership of the European Union through two referendums , through the EEA Agreement Norway has close ties with the Union, and through NATO with the United States . Norway is a significant contributor to the United Nations (UN), and has participated with soldiers in several foreign operations mandated by the UN. Norway is among the states that have participated from the founding of the UN , NATO , the Council of Europe , the OSCE and the Nordic Council , and in addition to these is a member of the EEA , the World Trade Organization , the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and is part of the Schengen area .
Norway is rich in many natural resources such as oil , gas , minerals , timber , seafood , fresh water and hydropower . Since the beginning of the 20th century, these natural conditions have given the country the opportunity for an increase in wealth that few other countries can now enjoy, and Norwegians have the second highest average income in the world, measured in GDP per capita, as of 2022. The petroleum industry accounts for around 14% of Norway's gross domestic product as of 2018. Norway is the world's largest producer of oil and gas per capita outside the Middle East. However, the number of employees linked to this industry fell from approx. 232,000 in 2013 to 207,000 in 2015.
In Norway, these natural resources have been managed for socially beneficial purposes. The country maintains a welfare model in line with the other Nordic countries. Important service areas such as health and higher education are state-funded, and the country has an extensive welfare system for its citizens. Public expenditure in 2018 is approx. 50% of GDP, and the majority of these expenses are related to education, healthcare, social security and welfare. Since 2001 and until 2021, when the country took second place, the UN has ranked Norway as the world's best country to live in . From 2010, Norway is also ranked at the top of the EIU's democracy index . Norway ranks third on the UN's World Happiness Report for the years 2016–2018, behind Finland and Denmark , a report published in March 2019.
The majority of the population is Nordic. In the last couple of years, immigration has accounted for more than half of population growth. The five largest minority groups are Norwegian-Poles , Lithuanians , Norwegian-Swedes , Norwegian-Syrians including Syrian Kurds and Norwegian-Pakistani .
Norway's national day is 17 May, on this day in 1814 the Norwegian Constitution was dated and signed by the presidency of the National Assembly at Eidsvoll . It is stipulated in the law of 26 April 1947 that 17 May are national public holidays. The Sami national day is 6 February. "Yes, we love this country" is Norway's national anthem, the song was written in 1859 by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson (1832–1910).
Norway's history of human settlement goes back at least 10,000 years, to the Late Paleolithic , the first period of the Stone Age . Archaeological finds of settlements along the entire Norwegian coast have so far been dated back to 10,400 before present (BP), the oldest find is today considered to be a settlement at Pauler in Brunlanes , Vestfold .
For a period these settlements were considered to be the remains of settlers from Doggerland , an area which today lies beneath the North Sea , but which was once a land bridge connecting today's British Isles with Danish Jutland . But the archaeologists who study the initial phase of the settlement in what is today Norway reckon that the first people who came here followed the coast along what is today Bohuslân. That they arrived in some form of boat is absolutely certain, and there is much evidence that they could easily move over large distances.
Since the last Ice Age, there has been continuous settlement in Norway. It cannot be ruled out that people lived in Norway during the interglacial period , but no trace of such a population or settlement has been found.
The Stone Age lasted a long time; half of the time that our country has been populated. There are no written accounts of what life was like back then. The knowledge we have has been painstakingly collected through investigations of places where people have stayed and left behind objects that we can understand have been processed by human hands. This field of knowledge is called archaeology . The archaeologists interpret their findings and the history of the surrounding landscape. In our country, the uplift after the Ice Age is fundamental. The history of the settlements at Pauler is no more than fifteen years old.
The Fosna culture settled parts of Norway sometime between 10,000–8,000 BC. (see Stone Age in Norway ). The dating of rock carvings is set to Neolithic times (in Norway between 4000 BC to 1700 BC) and show activities typical of hunters and gatherers .
Agriculture with livestock and arable farming was introduced in the Neolithic. Swad farming where the farmers move when the field does not produce the expected yield.
More permanent and persistent farm settlements developed in the Bronze Age (1700 BC to 500 BC) and the Iron Age . The earliest runes have been found on an arrowhead dated to around 200 BC. Many more inscriptions are dated to around 800, and a number of petty kingdoms developed during these centuries. In prehistoric times, there were no fixed national borders in the Nordic countries and Norway did not exist as a state. The population in Norway probably fell to year 0.
Events in this time period, the centuries before the year 1000, are glimpsed in written sources. Although the sagas were written down in the 13th century, many hundreds of years later, they provide a glimpse into what was already a distant past. The story of the fimbul winter gives us a historical picture of something that happened and which in our time, with the help of dendrochronology , can be interpreted as a natural disaster in the year 536, created by a volcanic eruption in El Salvador .
In the period between 800 and 1066 there was a significant expansion and it is referred to as the Viking Age . During this period, Norwegians, as Swedes and Danes also did, traveled abroad in longships with sails as explorers, traders, settlers and as Vikings (raiders and pirates ). By the middle of the 11th century, the Norwegian kingship had been firmly established, building its right as descendants of Harald Hårfagre and then as heirs of Olav the Holy . The Norwegian kings, and their subjects, now professed Christianity . In the time around Håkon Håkonsson , in the time after the civil war , there was a small renaissance in Norway with extensive literary activity and diplomatic activity with Europe. The black dew came to Norway in 1349 and killed around half of the population. The entire state apparatus and Norway then entered a period of decline.
Between 1396 and 1536, Norway was part of the Kalmar Union , and from 1536 until 1814 Norway had been reduced to a tributary part of Denmark , named as the Personal Union of Denmark-Norway . This staff union entered into an alliance with Napoléon Bonaparte with a war that brought bad times and famine in 1812 . In 1814, Denmark-Norway lost the Anglophone Wars , part of the Napoleonic Wars , and the Danish king was forced to cede Norway to the king of Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel on 14 January of that year. After a Norwegian attempt at independence, Norway was forced into a loose union with Sweden, but where Norway was allowed to create its own constitution, the Constitution of 1814 . In this period, Norwegian, romantic national feeling flourished, and the Norwegians tried to develop and establish their own national self-worth. The union with Sweden was broken in 1905 after it had been threatened with war, and Norway became an independent kingdom with its own monarch, Haakon VII .
Norway remained neutral during the First World War , and at the outbreak of the Second World War, Norway again declared itself neutral, but was invaded by National Socialist Germany on 9 April 1940 .
Norway became a member of the Western defense alliance NATO in 1949 . Two attempts to join the EU were voted down in referendums by small margins in 1972 and 1994 . Norway has been a close ally of the United States in the post-war period. Large discoveries of oil and natural gas in the North Sea at the end of the 1960s led to tremendous economic growth in the country, which is still ongoing. Traditional industries such as fishing are also part of Norway's economy.
Stone Age (before 1700 BC)
When most of the ice disappeared, vegetation spread over the landscape and due to a warm climate around 2000-3000 BC. the forest grew much taller than in modern times. Land uplift after the ice age led to a number of fjords becoming lakes and dry land. The first people probably came from the south along the coast of the Kattegat and overland into Finnmark from the east. The first people probably lived by gathering, hunting and trapping. A good number of Stone Age settlements have been found which show that such hunting and trapping people stayed for a long time in the same place or returned to the same place regularly. Large amounts of gnawed bones show that they lived on, among other things, reindeer, elk, small game and fish.
Flintstone was imported from Denmark and apart from small natural deposits along the southern coast, all flintstone in Norway is transported by people. At Espevær, greenstone was quarried for tools in the Stone Age, and greenstone tools from Espevær have been found over large parts of Western Norway. Around 2000-3000 BC the usual farm animals such as cows and sheep were introduced to Norway. Livestock probably meant a fundamental change in society in that part of the people had to be permanent residents or live a semi-nomadic life. Livestock farming may also have led to conflict with hunters.
The oldest traces of people in what is today Norway have been found at Pauler , a farm in Brunlanes in Larvik municipality in Vestfold . In 2007 and 2008, the farm has given its name to a number of Stone Age settlements that have been excavated and examined by archaeologists from the Cultural History Museum at UiO. The investigations have been carried out in connection with the new route for the E18 motorway west of Farris. The oldest settlement, located more than 127 m above sea level, is dated to be about 10,400 years old (uncalibrated, more than 11,000 years in real calendar years). From here, the ice sheet was perhaps visible when people settled here. This locality has been named Pauler I, and is today considered to be the oldest confirmed human traces in Norway to date. The place is in the mountains above the Pauler tunnel on the E18 between Larvik and Porsgrunn . The pioneer settlement is a term archaeologists have adopted for the oldest settlement. The archaeologists have speculated about where they came from, the first people in what is today Norway. It has been suggested that they could come by boat or perhaps across the ice from Doggerland or the North Sea, but there is now a large consensus that they came north along what is today the Bohuslän coast. The Fosna culture , the Komsa culture and the Nøstvet culture are the traditional terms for hunting cultures from the Stone Age. One thing is certain - getting to the water was something they mastered, the first people in our country. Therefore, within a short time they were able to use our entire long coast.
In the New Stone Age (4000 BC–1700 BC) there is a theory that a new people immigrated to the country, the so-called Stone Ax People . Rock carvings from this period show motifs from hunting and fishing , which were still important industries. From this period, a megalithic tomb has been found in Østfold .
It is uncertain whether there were organized societies or state-like associations in the Stone Age in Norway. Findings from settlements indicate that many lived together and that this was probably more than one family so that it was a slightly larger, organized herd.
Finnmark
In prehistoric times, animal husbandry and agriculture were of little economic importance in Finnmark. Livelihoods in Finnmark were mainly based on fish, gathering, hunting and trapping, and eventually domestic reindeer herding became widespread in the Middle Ages. Archaeological finds from the Stone Age have been referred to as the Komsa culture and comprise around 5,000 years of settlement. Finnmark probably got its first settlement around 8000 BC. It is believed that the coastal areas became ice-free 11,000 years BC and the fjord areas around 9,000 years BC. after which willows, grass, heather, birch and pine came into being. Finnmarksvidda was covered by pine forest around 6000 BC. After the Ice Age, the land rose around 80 meters in the inner fjord areas (Alta, Tana, Varanger). Due to ice melting in the polar region, the sea rose in the period 6400–3800 BC. and in areas with little land elevation, some settlements from the first part of the Stone Age were flooded. On Sørøya, the net sea level rise was 12 to 14 meters and many residential areas were flooded.
According to Bjørnar Olsen , there are many indications of a connection between the oldest settlement in Western Norway (the " Fosnakulturen ") and that in Finnmark, but it is uncertain in which direction the settlement took place. In the earliest part of the Stone Age, settlement in Finnmark was probably concentrated in the coastal areas, and these only reflected a lifestyle with great mobility and no permanent dwellings. The inner regions, such as Pasvik, were probably used seasonally. The archaeologically proven settlements from the Stone Age in inner Finnmark and Troms are linked to lakes and large watercourses. The oldest petroglyphs in Alta are usually dated to 4200 BC, that is, the Neolithic . Bjørnar Olsen believes that the oldest can be up to 2,000 years older than this.
From around 4000 BC a slow deforestation of Finnmark began and around 1800 BC the vegetation distribution was roughly the same as in modern times. The change in vegetation may have increased the distance between the reindeer's summer and winter grazing. The uplift continued slowly from around 4000 BC. at the same time as sea level rise stopped.
According to Gutorm Gjessing, the settlement in Finnmark and large parts of northern Norway in the Neolithic was semi-nomadic with movement between four seasonal settlements (following the pattern of life in Sami siida in historical times): On the outer coast in summer (fishing and seal catching) and inland in winter (hunting for reindeer, elk and bear). Povl Simonsen believed instead that the winter residence was in the inner fjord area in a village-like sod house settlement. Bjørnar Olsen believes that at the end of the Stone Age there was a relatively settled population along the coast, while inland there was less settlement and a more mobile lifestyle.
Bronze Age (1700 BC–500 BC)
Bronze was used for tools in Norway from around 1500 BC. Bronze is a mixture of tin and copper , and these metals were introduced because they were not mined in the country at the time. Bronze is believed to have been a relatively expensive material. The Bronze Age in Norway can be divided into two phases:
Early Bronze Age (1700–1100 BC)
Younger Bronze Age (1100–500 BC)
For the prehistoric (unwritten) era, there is limited knowledge about social conditions and possible state formations. From the Bronze Age, there are large burial mounds of stone piles along the coast of Vestfold and Agder, among others. It is likely that only chieftains or other great men could erect such grave monuments and there was probably some form of organized society linked to these. In the Bronze Age, society was more organized and stratified than in the Stone Age. Then a rich class of chieftains emerged who had close connections with southern Scandinavia. The settlements became more permanent and people adopted horses and ard . They acquired bronze status symbols, lived in longhouses and people were buried in large burial mounds . Petroglyphs from the Bronze Age indicate that humans practiced solar cultivation.
Finnmark
In the last millennium BC the climate became cooler and the pine forest disappears from the coast; pine forests, for example, were only found in the innermost part of the Altafjord, while the outer coast was almost treeless. Around the year 0, the limit for birch forest was south of Kirkenes. Animals with forest habitats (elk, bear and beaver) disappeared and the reindeer probably established their annual migration routes sometime at that time. In the period 1800–900 BC there were significantly more settlements in and utilization of the hinterland was particularly noticeable on Finnmarksvidda. From around 1800 BC until year 0 there was a significant increase in contact between Finnmark and areas in the east including Karelia (where metals were produced including copper) and central and eastern Russia. The youngest petroglyphs in Alta show far more boats than the earlier phases and the boats are reminiscent of types depicted in petroglyphs in southern Scandinavia. It is unclear what influence southern Scandinavian societies had as far north as Alta before the year 0. Many of the cultural features that are considered typical Sami in modern times were created or consolidated in the last millennium BC, this applies, among other things, to the custom of burying in brick chambers in stone urns. The Mortensnes burial ground may have been used for 2000 years until around 1600 AD.
Iron Age (c. 500 BC–c. 1050 AD)
The Einangsteinen is one of the oldest Norwegian runestones; it is from the 4th century
Simultaneous production of Vikings
Around 500 years BC the researchers reckon that the Bronze Age will be replaced by the Iron Age as iron takes over as the most important material for weapons and tools. Bronze, wood and stone were still used. Iron was cheaper than bronze, easier to work than flint , and could be used for many purposes; iron probably became common property. Iron could, among other things, be used to make solid and sharp axes which made it much easier to fell trees. In the Iron Age, gold and silver were also used partly for decoration and partly as means of payment. It is unknown which language was used in Norway before our era. From around the year 0 until around the year 800, everyone in Scandinavia (except the Sami) spoke Old Norse , a North Germanic language. Subsequently, several different languages developed in this area that were only partially mutually intelligible. The Iron Age is divided into several periods:
Early Iron Age
Pre-Roman Iron Age (c. 500 BC–c. 0)
Roman Iron Age (c. 0–c. AD 400)
Migration period (approx. 400–600). In the migration period (approx. 400–600), new peoples came to Norway, and ruins of fortress buildings etc. are interpreted as signs that there has been talk of a violent invasion.
Younger Iron Age
Merovingian period (500–800)
The Viking Age (793–1066)
Norwegian Vikings go on plundering expeditions and trade voyages around the coastal countries of Western Europe . Large groups of Norwegians emigrate to the British Isles , Iceland and Greenland . Harald Hårfagre starts a unification process of Norway late in the 8th century , which was completed by Harald Hardråde in the 1060s . The country was Christianized under the kings Olav Tryggvason , fell in the battle of Svolder ( 1000 ) and Olav Haraldsson (the saint), fell in the battle of Stiklestad in 1030 .
Sources of prehistoric times
Shrinking glaciers in the high mountains, including in Jotunheimen and Breheimen , have from around the year 2000 uncovered objects from the Viking Age and earlier. These are objects of organic material that have been preserved by the ice and that elsewhere in nature are broken down in a few months. The finds are getting older as the melting makes the archaeologists go deeper into the ice. About half of all archaeological discoveries on glaciers in the world are made in Oppland . In 2013, a 3,400-year-old shoe and a robe from the year 300 were found. Finds at Lomseggen in Lom published in 2020 revealed, among other things, well-preserved horseshoes used on a mountain pass. Many hundreds of items include preserved clothing, knives, whisks, mittens, leather shoes, wooden chests and horse equipment. A piece of cloth dated to the year 1000 has preserved its original colour. In 2014, a wooden ski from around the year 700 was found in Reinheimen . The ski is 172 cm long and 14 cm wide, with preserved binding of leather and wicker.
Pytheas from Massalia is the oldest known account of what was probably the coast of Norway, perhaps somewhere on the coast of Møre. Pytheas visited Britannia around 325 BC. and traveled further north to a country by the "Ice Sea". Pytheas described the short summer night and the midnight sun farther north. He wrote, among other things, that people there made a drink from grain and honey. Caesar wrote in his work about the Gallic campaign about the Germanic tribe Haruders. Other Roman sources around the year 0 mention the land of the Cimbri (Jutland) and the Cimbri headlands ( Skagen ) and that the sources stated that Cimbri and Charyds lived in this area. Some of these peoples may have immigrated to Norway and there become known as hordes (as in Hordaland). Sources from the Mediterranean area referred to the islands of Scandia, Scandinavia and Thule ("the outermost of all islands"). The Roman historian Tacitus wrote around the year 100 a work about Germania and mentioned the people of Scandia, the Sviones. Ptolemy wrote around the year 150 that the Kharudes (Hordes) lived further north than all the Cimbri, in the north lived the Finnoi (Finns or Sami) and in the south the Gutai (Goths). The Nordic countries and Norway were outside the Roman Empire , which dominated Europe at the time. The Gothic-born historian Jordanes wrote in the 5th century about 13 tribes or people groups in Norway, including raumaricii (probably Romerike ), ragnaricii ( Ranrike ) and finni or skretefinni (skrid finner or ski finner, i.e. Sami) as well as a number of unclear groups. Prokopios wrote at the same time about Thule north of the land of the Danes and Slavs, Thule was ten times as big as Britannia and the largest of all the islands. In Thule, the sun was up 40 days straight in the summer. After the migration period , southern Europeans' accounts of northern Europe became fuller and more reliable.
Settlement in prehistoric times
Norway has around 50,000 farms with their own names. Farm names have persisted for a long time, over 1000 years, perhaps as much as 2000 years. The name researchers have arranged different types of farm names chronologically, which provides a basis for determining when the place was used by people or received a permanent settlement. Uncompounded landscape names such as Haug, Eid, Vik and Berg are believed to be the oldest. Archaeological traces indicate that some areas have been inhabited earlier than assumed from the farm name. Burial mounds also indicate permanent settlement. For example, the burial ground at Svartelva in Løten was used from around the year 0 to the year 1000 when Christianity took over. The first farmers probably used large areas for inland and outland, and new farms were probably established based on some "mother farms". Names such as By (or Bø) show that it is an old place of residence. From the older Iron Age, names with -heim (a common Germanic word meaning place of residence) and -stad tell of settlement, while -vin and -land tell of the use of the place. Farm names in -heim are often found as -um , -eim or -em as in Lerum and Seim, there are often large farms in the center of the village. New farm names with -city and -country were also established in the Viking Age . The first farmers probably used the best areas. The largest burial grounds, the oldest archaeological finds and the oldest farm names are found where the arable land is richest and most spacious.
It is unclear whether the settlement expansion in Roman times, migrations and the Iron Age is due to immigration or internal development and population growth. Among other things, it is difficult to demonstrate where in Europe the immigrants have come from. The permanent residents had both fields (where grain was grown) and livestock that grazed in the open fields, but it is uncertain which of these was more important. Population growth from around the year 200 led to more utilization of open land, for example in the form of settlements in the mountains. During the migration period, it also seems that in parts of the country it became common to have cluster gardens or a form of village settlement.
Norwegian expansion northwards
From around the year 200, there was a certain migration by sea from Rogaland and Hordaland to Nordland and Sør-Troms. Those who moved settled down as a settled Iron Age population and became dominant over the original population which may have been Sami . The immigrant Norwegians, Bumen , farmed with livestock that were fed inside in the winter as well as some grain cultivation and fishing. The northern border of the Norwegians' settlement was originally at the Toppsundet near Harstad and around the year 500 there was a Norwegian settlement to Malangsgapet. That was as far north as it was possible to grow grain at the time. Malangen was considered the border between Hålogaland and Finnmork until around 1400 . Further into the Viking Age and the Middle Ages, there was immigration and settlement of Norwegian speakers along the coast north of Malangen. Around the year 800, Norwegians lived along the entire outer coast to Vannøy . The Norwegians partly copied Sami livelihoods such as whaling, fur hunting and reindeer husbandry. It was probably this area between Malangen and Vannøy that was Ottar from the Hålogaland area. In the Viking Age, there were also some Norwegian settlements further north and east. East of the North Cape are the scattered archaeological finds of Norwegian settlement in the Viking Age. There are Norwegian names for fjords and islands from the Viking Age, including fjord names with "-anger". Around the year 1050, there were Norwegian settlements on the outer coast of Western Finnmark. Traders and tax collectors traveled even further.
North of Malangen there were Norse farming settlements in the Iron Age. Malangen was considered Finnmark's western border until 1300. There are some archaeological traces of Norse activity around the coast from Tromsø to Kirkenes in the Viking Age. Around Tromsø, the research indicates a Norse/Sami mixed culture on the coast.
From the year 1100 and the next 200–300 years, there are no traces of Norwegian settlement north and east of Tromsø. It is uncertain whether this is due to depopulation, whether it is because the Norwegians further north were not Christianized or because there were no churches north of Lenvik or Tromsø . Norwegian settlement in the far north appears from sources from the 14th century. In the Hanseatic period , the settlement was developed into large areas specialized in commercial fishing, while earlier (in the Viking Age) there had been farms with a combination of fishing and agriculture. In 1307 , a fortress and the first church east of Tromsø were built in Vardø . Vardø became a small Norwegian town, while Vadsø remained Sami. Norwegian settlements and churches appeared along the outermost coast in the Middle Ages. After the Reformation, perhaps as a result of a decline in fish stocks or fish prices, there were Norwegian settlements in the inner fjord areas such as Lebesby in Laksefjord. Some fishing villages at the far end of the coast were abandoned for good. In the interior of Finnmark, there was no national border for a long time and Kautokeino and Karasjok were joint Norwegian-Swedish areas with strong Swedish influence. The border with Finland was established in 1751 and with Russia in 1826.
On a Swedish map from 1626, Norway's border is indicated at Malangen, while Sweden with this map showed a desire to control the Sami area which had been a common area.
The term Northern Norway only came into use at the end of the 19th century and administratively the area was referred to as Tromsø Diocese when Tromsø became a bishopric in 1840. There had been different designations previously: Hålogaland originally included only Helgeland and when Norse settlement spread north in the Viking Age and the Middle Ages, Hålogaland was used for the area north approximately to Malangen , while Finnmark or "Finnmarken", "the land of the Sami", lay outside. The term Northern Norway was coined at a cafe table in Kristiania in 1884 by members of the Nordlændingernes Forening and was first commonly used in the interwar period as it eventually supplanted "Hålogaland".
State formation
The battle in Hafrsfjord in the year 872 has long been regarded as the day when Norway became a kingdom. The year of the battle is uncertain (may have been 10-20 years later). The whole of Norway was not united in that battle: the process had begun earlier and continued a couple of hundred years later. This means that the geographical area became subject to a political authority and became a political unit. The geographical area was perceived as an area as it is known, among other things, from Ottar from Hålogaland's account for King Alfred of Wessex around the year 880. Ottar described "the land of the Norwegians" as very long and narrow, and it was narrowest in the far north. East of the wasteland in the south lay Sveoland and in the north lay Kvenaland in the east. When Ottar sailed south along the land from his home ( Malangen ) to Skiringssal, he always had Norway ("Nordveg") on his port side and the British Isles on his starboard side. The journey took a good month. Ottar perceived "Nordveg" as a geographical unit, but did not imply that it was a political unit. Ottar separated Norwegians from Swedes and Danes. It is unclear why Ottar perceived the population spread over such a large area as a whole. It is unclear whether Norway as a geographical term or Norwegians as the name of a ethnic group is the oldest. The Norwegians had a common language which in the centuries before Ottar did not differ much from the language of Denmark and Sweden.
According to Sverre Steen, it is unlikely that Harald Hårfagre was able to control this entire area as one kingdom. The saga of Harald was written 300 years later and at his death Norway was several smaller kingdoms. Harald probably controlled a larger area than anyone before him and at most Harald's kingdom probably included the coast from Trøndelag to Agder and Vestfold as well as parts of Viken . There were probably several smaller kingdoms of varying extent before Harald and some of these are reflected in traditional landscape names such as Ranrike and Ringerike . Landscape names of "-land" (Rogaland) and "-mark" (Hedmark) as well as names such as Agder and Sogn may have been political units before Harald.
According to Sverre Steen, the national assembly was completed at the earliest at the battle of Stiklestad in 1030 and the introduction of Christianity was probably a significant factor in the establishment of Norway as a state. Håkon I the good Adalsteinsfostre introduced the leasehold system where the "coastal land" (as far as the salmon went up the rivers) was divided into ship raiders who were to provide a longship with soldiers and supplies. The leidange was probably introduced as a defense against the Danes. The border with the Danes was traditionally at the Göta älv and several times before and after Harald Hårfagre the Danes had control over central parts of Norway.
Christianity was known and existed in Norway before Olav Haraldson's time. The spread occurred both from the south (today's Denmark and northern Germany) and from the west (England and Ireland). Ansgar of Bremen , called the "Apostle of the North", worked in Sweden, but he was never in Norway and probably had little influence in the country. Viking expeditions brought the Norwegians of that time into contact with Christian countries and some were baptized in England, Ireland and northern France. Olav Tryggvason and Olav Haraldson were Vikings who returned home. The first Christians in Norway were also linked to pre-Christian local religion, among other things, by mixing Christian symbols with symbols of Odin and other figures from Norse religion.
According to Sverre Steen, the introduction of Christianity in Norway should not be perceived as a nationwide revival. At Mostratinget, Christian law was introduced as law in the country and later incorporated into the laws of the individual jurisdictions. Christianity primarily involved new forms in social life, among other things exposure and images of gods were prohibited, it was forbidden to "put out" unwanted infants (to let them die), and it was forbidden to have multiple wives. The church became a nationwide institution with a special group of officials tasked with protecting the church and consolidating the new religion. According to Sverre Steen, Christianity and the church in the Middle Ages should therefore be considered together, and these became a new unifying factor in the country. The church and Christianity linked Norway to Roman Catholic Europe with Church Latin as the common language, the same time reckoning as the rest of Europe and the church in Norway was arranged much like the churches in Denmark, Sweden and England. Norway received papal approval in 1070 and became its own church province in 1152 with Archbishop Nidaros .
With Christianity, the country got three social powers: the peasants (organized through the things), the king with his officials and the church with the clergy. The things are the oldest institution: At allthings all armed men had the right to attend (in part an obligation to attend) and at lagthings met emissaries from an area (that is, the lagthings were representative assemblies). The Thing both ruled in conflicts and established laws. The laws were memorized by the participants and written down around the year 1000 or later in the Gulationsloven , Frostatingsloven , Eidsivatingsloven and Borgartingsloven . The person who had been successful at the hearing had to see to the implementation of the judgment themselves.
Early Middle Ages (1050s–1184)
The early Middle Ages is considered in Norwegian history to be the period between the end of the Viking Age around 1050 and the coronation of King Sverre in 1184 . The beginning of the period can be dated differently, from around the year 1000 when the Christianization of the country took place and up to 1100 when the Viking Age was over from an archaeological point of view. From 1035 to 1130 it was a time of (relative) internal peace in Norway, even several of the kings attempted campaigns abroad, including in 1066 and 1103 .
During this period, the church's organization was built up. This led to a gradual change in religious customs. Religion went from being a domestic matter to being regulated by common European Christian law and the royal power gained increased power and influence. Slavery (" servitude ") was gradually abolished. The population grew rapidly during this period, as the thousands of farm names ending in -rud show.
The urbanization of Norway is a historical process that has slowly but surely changed Norway from the early Viking Age to today, from a country based on agriculture and sea salvage, to increasingly trade and industry. As early as the ninth century, the country got its first urban community, and in the eleventh century we got the first permanent cities.
In the 1130s, civil war broke out . This was due to a power struggle and that anyone who claimed to be the king's son could claim the right to the throne. The disputes escalated into extensive year-round warfare when Sverre Sigurdsson started a rebellion against the church's and the landmen's candidate for the throne , Magnus Erlingsson .
Emergence of cities
The oldest Norwegian cities probably emerged from the end of the 9th century. Oslo, Bergen and Nidaros became episcopal seats, which stimulated urban development there, and the king built churches in Borg , Konghelle and Tønsberg. Hamar and Stavanger became new episcopal seats and are referred to in the late 12th century as towns together with the trading places Veøy in Romsdal and Kaupanger in Sogn. In the late Middle Ages, Borgund (on Sunnmøre), Veøy (in Romsdalsfjorden) and Vågan (in Lofoten) were referred to as small trading places. Urbanization in Norway occurred in few places compared to the neighboring countries, only 14 places appear as cities before 1350. Stavanger became a bishopric around 1120–1130, but it is unclear whether the place was already a city then. The fertile Jæren and outer Ryfylke were probably relatively densely populated at that time. A particularly large concentration of Irish artefacts from the Viking Age has been found in Stavanger and Nord-Jæren.
It has been difficult to estimate the population in the Norwegian medieval cities, but it is considered certain that the cities grew rapidly in the Middle Ages. Oscar Albert Johnsen estimated the city's population before the Black Death at 20,000, of which 7,000 in Bergen, 3,000 in Nidaros, 2,000 in Oslo and 1,500 in Tunsberg. Based on archaeological research, Lunden estimates that Oslo had around 1,500 inhabitants in 250 households in the year 1300. Bergen was built up more densely and, with the concentration of exports there, became Norway's largest city in a special position for several hundred years. Knut Helle suggests a city population of 20,000 at most in the High Middle Ages, of which almost half in Bergen.
The Bjarkøyretten regulated the conditions in cities (especially Bergen and Nidaros) and in trading places, and for Nidaros had many of the same provisions as the Frostating Act . Magnus Lagabøte's city law replaced the bjarkøretten and from 1276 regulated the settlement in Bergen and with corresponding laws also drawn up for Oslo, Nidaros and Tunsberg. The city law applied within the city's roof area . The City Act determined that the city's public streets consisted of wide commons (perpendicular to the shoreline) and ran parallel to the shoreline, similarly in Nidaros and Oslo. The roads were small streets of up to 3 cubits (1.4 metres) and linked to the individual property. From the Middle Ages, the Norwegian cities were usually surrounded by wooden fences. The urban development largely consisted of low wooden houses which stood in contrast to the relatively numerous and dominant churches and monasteries built in stone.
The City Act and supplementary provisions often determined where in the city different goods could be traded, in Bergen, for example, cattle and sheep could only be traded on the Square, and fish only on the Square or directly from the boats at the quayside. In Nidaros, the blacksmiths were required to stay away from the densely populated areas due to the risk of fire, while the tanners had to stay away from the settlements due to the strong smell. The City Act also attempted to regulate the influx of people into the city (among other things to prevent begging in the streets) and had provisions on fire protection. In Oslo, from the 13th century or earlier, it was common to have apartment buildings consisting of single buildings on a couple of floors around a courtyard with access from the street through a gate room. Oslo's medieval apartment buildings were home to one to four households. In the urban farms, livestock could be kept, including pigs and cows, while pastures and fields were found in the city's rooftops . In the apartment buildings there could be several outbuildings such as warehouses, barns and stables. Archaeological excavations show that much of the buildings in medieval Oslo, Trondheim and Tønsberg resembled the oblong farms that have been preserved at Bryggen in Bergen . The land boundaries in Oslo appear to have persisted for many hundreds of years, in Bergen right from the Middle Ages to modern times.
High Middle Ages (1184–1319)
After civil wars in the 12th century, the country had a relative heyday in the 13th century. Iceland and Greenland came under the royal authority in 1262 , and the Norwegian Empire reached its greatest extent under Håkon IV Håkonsson . The last king of Haraldsätten, Håkon V Magnusson , died sonless in 1319 . Until the 17th century, Norway stretched all the way down to the mouth of Göta älv , which was then Norway's border with Sweden and Denmark.
Just before the Black Death around 1350, there were between 65,000 and 85,000 farms in the country, and there had been a strong growth in the number of farms from 1050, especially in Eastern Norway. In the High Middle Ages, the church or ecclesiastical institutions controlled 40% of the land in Norway, while the aristocracy owned around 20% and the king owned 7%. The church and monasteries received land through gifts from the king and nobles, or through inheritance and gifts from ordinary farmers.
Settlement and demography in the Middle Ages
Before the Black Death, there were more and more farms in Norway due to farm division and clearing. The settlement spread to more marginal agricultural areas higher inland and further north. Eastern Norway had the largest areas to take off and had the most population growth towards the High Middle Ages. Along the coast north of Stad, settlement probably increased in line with the extent of fishing. The Icelandic Rimbegla tells around the year 1200 that the border between Finnmark (the land of the Sami) and resident Norwegians in the interior was at Malangen , while the border all the way out on the coast was at Kvaløya . From the end of the High Middle Ages, there were more Norwegians along the coast of Finnmark and Nord-Troms. In the inner forest and mountain tracts along the current border between Norway and Sweden, the Sami exploited the resources all the way down to Hedmark.
There are no censuses or other records of population and settlement in the Middle Ages. At the time of the Reformation, the population was below 200,000 and only in 1650 was the population at the same level as before the Black Death. When Christianity was introduced after the year 1000, the population was around 200,000. After the Black Death, many farms and settlements were abandoned and deserted, in the most marginal agricultural areas up to 80% of the farms were abandoned. Places such as Skien, Veøy and Borgund (Ålesund) went out of use as trading towns. By the year 1300, the population was somewhere between 300,000 and 560,000 depending on the calculation method. Common methods start from detailed information about farms in each village and compare this with the situation in 1660 when there are good headcounts. From 1300 to 1660, there was a change in the economic base so that the coastal villages received a larger share of the population. The inland areas of Eastern Norway had a relatively larger population in the High Middle Ages than after the Reformation. Kåre Lunden concludes that the population in the year 1300 was close to 500,000, of which 15,000 lived in cities. Lunden believes that the population in 1660 was still slightly lower than the peak before the Black Death and points out that farm settlement in 1660 did not reach the same extent as in the High Middle Ages. In 1660, the population in Troms and Finnmark was 6,000 and 3,000 respectively (2% of the total population), in 1300 these areas had an even smaller share of the country's population and in Finnmark there were hardly any Norwegian-speaking inhabitants. In the High Middle Ages, the climate was more favorable for grain cultivation in the north. Based on the number of farms, the population increased 162% from 1000 to 1300, in Northern and Western Europe as a whole the growth was 200% in the same period.
Late Middle Ages (1319–1537)
Due to repeated plague epidemics, the population was roughly halved and the least productive of the country's farms were laid waste. It took several hundred years before the population again reached the level before 1349 . However, those who survived the epidemics gained more financial resources by sharing. Tax revenues for the state almost collapsed, and a large part of the noble families died out or sank into peasant status due to the fall in national debt . The Hanseatic League took over trade and shipping and dominated fish exports. The Archbishop of Nidaros was the country's most powerful man economically and politically, as the royal dynasty married into the Swedish in 1319 and died out in 1387 . Eventually, Copenhagen became the political center of the kingdom and Bergen the commercial center, while Trondheim remained the religious center.
From Reformation to Autocracy (1537–1660)
In 1537 , the Reformation was carried out in Norway. With that, almost half of the country's property was confiscated by the royal power at the stroke of a pen. The large seizure increased the king's income and was able, among other things, to expand his military power and consolidated his power in the kingdom. From roughly the time of the Reformation and in the following centuries, the state increased its power and importance in people's lives. Until around 1620, the state administration was fairly simple and unspecialised: in Copenhagen, the central administration mainly consisted of a chancellery and an interest chamber ; and sheriffs ruled the civil (including bailiffs and sheriffs) and the military in their district, the sheriffs collected taxes and oversaw business. The accounts were not clear and without summaries. The clergy, which had great power as a separate organization, was appointed by the state church after the Reformation, administered from Copenhagen. In this period, Norway was ruled by (mainly) Danish noble sheriffs, who acted as intermediaries between the peasants and the Oldenborg king in the field of justice, tax and customs collection.
From 1620, the state apparatus went through major changes where specialization of functions was a main issue. The sheriff's tasks were divided between several, more specialized officials - the sheriffs retained the formal authority over these, who in practice were under the national administration in Copenhagen. Among other things, a separate military officer corps was established, a separate customs office was established and separate treasurers for taxes and fees were appointed. The Overbergamtet, the central governing body for overseeing mining operations in Norway, was established in 1654 with an office in Christiania and this agency was to oversee the mining chiefs in the Nordenfjeld and Sønnenfjeld areas (the mines at Kongsberg and Røros were established in the previous decades). The formal transition from county government to official government with fixed-paid county officials took place after 1660, but the real changes had taken place from around 1620. The increased specialization and transition to official government meant that experts, not amateurs, were in charge of each area, and this civil service meant, according to Sverre Steen that the dictatorship was not a personal dictatorship.
From 1570 until 1721, the Oldenborg dynasty was in repeated wars with the Vasa dynasty in Sweden. The financing of these wars led to a severe increase in taxation which caused great distress.
Politically-geographically, the Oldenborg kings had to cede to Sweden the Norwegian provinces of Jemtland , Herjedalen , Idre and Särna , as well as Båhuslen . As part of the financing of the wars, the state apparatus was expanded. Royal power began to assert itself to a greater extent in the administration of justice. Until this period, cases of violence and defamation had been treated as civil cases between citizens. The level of punishment was greatly increased. During this period, at least 307 people were also executed for witchcraft in Norway. Culturally, the country was marked by the fact that the written language became Danish because of the Bible translation and the University of Copenhagen's educational monopoly.
From the 16th century, business became more marked by production for sale and not just own consumption. In the past, it was particularly the fisheries that had produced such a large surplus of goods that it was sold to markets far away, the dried fish trade via Bergen is known from around the year 1100. In the 16th century, the yield from the fisheries multiplied, especially due to the introduction of herring in Western Norway and in Trøndelag and because new tools made fishing for herring and skre more efficient. Line fishing and cod nets that were introduced in the 17th century were controversial because the small fishermen believed it favored citizens in the cities.
Forestry and the timber trade became an important business, particularly because of the boom saw which made it possible to saw all kinds of tables and planks for sale abroad. The demand for timber increased at the same time in Europe, Norway had plenty of forests and in the 17th century timber became the country's most important export product. There were hundreds of sawmills in the country and the largest had the feel of factories . In 1680, the king regulated the timber trade by allowing exports only from privileged sawmills and in a certain quantity.
From the 1520s, some silver was mined in Telemark. When the peasants chased the German miners whereupon the king executed five peasants and demanded compensation from the other rebellious peasants. The background for the harsh treatment was that the king wanted to assert his authority over the extraction of precious metals. The search for metals led to the silver works at Kongsberg after 1624, copper in the mountain villages between Trøndelag and Eastern Norway, and iron, among other things, in Agder and lower Telemark. The financial gain of the quarries at that time is unclear because there are no reliable accounts. Kongsberg ma
Land Rover 2A Station Wagon Restoration, Designed by Border Rovers and Built by Retroworks.
Owned and operated by Border Rovers:
07515899390
Oil on canvas
Atalía Lima
Museo Histórico Nacional
Buenos Aires, Argentina
About the artist:
Argentine painter, born in San Juan, who lived approximately between 1810 and 1880. Friend of Sarmiento, who mentions Lima sometimes in his works. It is believed that he always lived in San Juan. Self taught.
In the Museum of Luján a miniature of Fray Justo Santa María de Oro of 1836 is conserved.
In 1858 he worked as professor of drawing and geography in the National School of Buenos Aires. He attended the Córdoba Exhibition of 1871 with several works, including: The San Juan Beggar, The Encounter of the Gaucho in Love, The Tracker Calíbar, and Portrait of General Mariano Acha.
He was fundamentally a portrait painter, although some still life and works of local customs are known. His work, The Repentance , was exhibited in 1863 at the home of Corti and Francisqueli in 1863. At the San Roque Hospital in San Juan, there was a portrait of Doña Gertrudis Funes. Other portraits: Mrs. Mercedes Merlo de Videla Lima; Lady Sixta Mallea de Cordero (1880); Don Zacarías Antonio Yanzi. His work is in the collection of the National Historical Museum; it is known that San Juan families owned his works, but the whereabouts of many are unknown.
www.museofranklinrawson.org/artistas/lima-ataliva/
========================================================
Fray Justo Santa María de Oro y Albarracín (San Juan, September 3, 1772 - October 19, 1836) was an Argentine cleric and defender of republicanism.
He was the son of Juan Miguel de Oro Bustamante and Cossio and Elena Albarracín Ladrón de Guevara. When he was 17 years old he joined the Order of the Dominicans in Chile, from where he returned to his province in 1814, expelled by General José Miguel Carrera.
His contacts with his Order brothers in Chile allowed General San Martín to send secret mail through them.
In 1816 he was elected deputy to the Congress of Tucumán, along with Francisco Laprida. There he promoted the Declaration of Independence. Liberal historiography places him as a strong defender of the republican form of government by virtue of his phrase "we must consult the peoples."
In the Congress of Tucumán his words were "the sovereignty of the people will win the day," framing the thesis of the constitutional monarchy, or "I the King" appears, against the republic, or "We the people." .
He resigned from Congress when, the following year, he moved to Buenos Aires; He was deported to Chile in 1818, quickly becoming the superior of the Dominicans of that country.
He returned to San Juan in 1828, as apostolic vicar for the diocese of San Juan de Cuyo. He built the Cathedral, improved the religious schools of that city and founded one for women. He was appointed bishop in 1830 but he served as governor of the bishopric, since he never became ordained.
He was forced out of politics for not entering the internal fights between unitarians and federalists, he died on October 19, 1836 and his remains rest in the Cathedral of San Juan.
================================================
Sobre el artista:
Pintor argentino, nacido en San Juan, cuya existencia transcurre aproximadamente entre los años 1810 y 1880. Amigo de Sarmiento, éste lo menciona algunas veces en sus obras. Se cree que vivió siempre en San Juan. Autodidacta. En el Museo de Luján se conserva una miniatura de Fray Justo Santa María de Oro de 1836. En 1858 se desempeñó como profesor de dibujo y geografía en el Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires. Concurrió a la Exposición de Córdoba de 1871 con varias obras, entre ellas: El mendigo sanjuanino, La cita del gaucho enamorado, El rastreador Calíbar, Retrato del General Mariano Acha. Fue fundamentalmente pintor de retratos, aunque se conoce algún bodegón y obras de corte costumbrista. Su obra El arrepentimiento, fue expuesta en 1863 en la casa de Corti y Francisqueli en 1863. En el Hospital San Roque de San Juan, existió el retrato de Doña Gertrudis Funes. Otros retratos: Señora Mercedes Merlo de Videla Lima; Señora Sixta Mallea de Cordero (1880); Don Zacarías Antonio Yanzi. Hay obra suya en el Museo Histórico Nacional; se sabe que familias sanjuaninas poseían obras suyas, pero de muchas de ellas se desconoce el paradero.
www.museofranklinrawson.org/artistas/lima-ataliva/
========================================================
Fray Justo Santa María de Oro y Albarracín (San Juan, 3 de septiembre de 1772 - 19 de octubre de 1836) fue un religioso argentino, defensor del republicanismo.
Era hijo de Juan Miguel de Oro Bustamante y Cossio y Elena Albarracín Ladrón de Guevara. A los 17 años ingresó en la Orden de los Dominicos en Chile, de donde regresó a su provincia en 1814, expulsado por el general José Miguel Carrera.
Sus contactos con sus hermanos de Orden en Chile sirvieron para que el General San Martín pudiera enviar correo secreto a través de ellos.
En 1816 fue elegido diputado al Congreso de Tucumán, junto con Francisco Laprida. Allí impulsó la declaración de la Independencia. La historiografía liberal lo ubica como un férreo defensor de la forma republicana de gobierno por su frase "hay que consultar a los pueblos".
En el Congreso de Tucumán sus palabras fueron "se dará la batalla a favor de la soberanía del pueblo" y por eso aparece la tesis de la monarquía constitucional o "Yo el Rey", enfrentada con la de la república o "Nosotros los pueblos".
Renunció al Congreso cuando, al año siguiente, éste se trasladó a Buenos Aires; fue deportado a Chile en 1818, llegando rápidamente a ser el superior de los Dominicos de ese país.
Regresó a San Juan en 1828, como vicario apostólico para la diócesis de San Juan de Cuyo. Construyó la Catedral, mejoró las escuelas religiosas de esa ciudad y fundó una para mujeres. Fue nombrado obispo en 1830 pero ejerció como gobernador del obispado, ya que nunca llegó a ser ordenado.
Retirado de la Política por no ingresar en las luchas intestinas entre unitarios y federales muere un 19 de octubre de 1836 y sus restos descansan en la Catedral de San Juan.
Source/fuente: es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justo_Santa_Mar%C3%ADa_de_Oro
Des stalles du château de Gaillon sont conservées dans la basilique Saint-Denis près de Paris. Ce château était la résidence de loisir des archevêques de Rouen. Commandées au début du XVIe siècle par Georges d’Amboise, ces stalles ont été construites lorsque cet archevêque, devenu légat du pape et premier conseiller de Louis XII a fait transformer le château médiéval en palais de la Renaissance. Seules stalles en France à présenter de nombreux panneaux de marqueterie et une iconographie inédite, elles forment un mobilier unique, chef-d’œuvre de cette période charnière entre gothique et Renaissance, arborant une grande mixité de styles. Ces stalles sont les chaires qui étaient destinées aux trois chanoines qui officiaient dans la chapelle haute du château de Gaillon, dédiée à saint Georges. Elles étaient ceintes d’une clôture en boiset constituaient ainsi le chœur liturgique de l'édifice.
Les stalles en chêne sont composées de deux rangées disposées côté nord et sud du transept de la basilique de Saint-Denis. La rangée nord présente un ensemble de six stalles, la rangée sud de cinq stalles et une isolée. Seules douze stalles ont été créées au XVIe siècle alors que le programme iconographique en prévoyait quatorze. De 2,83 m de haut, elles composées d’un siège et d’un dorsal, ce dernier comprenant deux registres : un bas-relief surmontant un panneau de marqueterie. Tous les éléments sont sculptés ou marquetés. De manière unique, les dossiers, les dorsaux et les voussures des dais sont galbés. De même les chaires ont des largeurs variées, fixées par celles des bas-reliefs des dorsaux. Pour s’adapter, les largeurs d’autres composants ont été rectifiées. La mixité de style se retrouve dans la globalité, les interdorsaux et deux dais étant gothiques alors que les faibles reliefs sont apparentés aux grotesques de la Renaissance, les bas-reliefs et les marqueteries des dorsaux étant quant à eux à la fois d’inspiration péninsulaire et septentrionale.
Sont illustrées sur les bas-reliefs originaux des dorsaux deux scènes de la vie d’Anne et Joachim, parents de la vierge Marie, cinq scènes de la vie de saint Jean-Baptiste le précurseur et sept scènes de la vie de saint Georges selon les textes d’Évangile ou de la Légende dorée. Nombre d’autres saints sont présentés en pied, sous forme de statuettes sur les interdorsaux ou de bas-reliefs sur les soubassements des jouées, notamment les quatre évangélistes sur ces derniers. Sur les panneaux marquetés des quadrants des parcloses sont figurées les affres des enfers des condamnés selon les sept péchés capitaux, avec les planètes et leurs influences. Les représentations sont inspirées des gravures du Calendrier des bergers imprimé à cette époque.
Les miséricordes figurent des scènes des Métamorphoses d’Ovide ainsi que les arts libéraux selon la Margarita Philosophica de G. Reisch. Les artisans se sont inspirés de gravures d’ouvrages imprimés au début du XVIe siècle, par exemple le soldat romain Caius Mucius Scaevola devant le roi Étrusque Porsenna y étant représenté exposant ainsi des thématiques propres à la culture antique. De manière également tout à fait inédite, les 7 vertus, cardinales et théologales, et 7 sibylles sont figurées et représentées sur les panneaux de marqueterie du premier registre des dorsaux. Les allégories et les prophétesses sont encadrées d’architectures identiques deux à deux qui les mettent en concordance. Les sibylles ont été choisies parmi celles du manuscrit des Heures de Louis de Laval dont les auteurs ont cité les prophéties. Ces dernières proviennent du manuscrit des Institutions divines de Lactance qui était de nouveau traduit et que le cardinal a lui-même fait enluminer. Ce grand rhéteur du IVe siècle ayant quant à lui repris les oracles rédigés dans les Oracles sibyllins.
Georges Ier d’Amboise n’a pas manqué de faire valoir qu’il était le commanditaire des stalles en demandant à ce que ses armes et sa devise y figurent à de nombreuses reprises. Le légat a donné pour modèles aux artisans des stalles des enluminures ou gravures de manuscrits faisant partie de sa splendide bibliothèque, digne d'un grand érudit humaniste. Il fit venir l’Italie en choisissant la marqueterie figurative en sus de la sculpture, seule technique utilisée à l'époque en France. Sans renier la tradition en faisant figurer les saints, il a fait représenter de manière inédite leur cycle de vie, dont il a choisi des événements bien spécifiques. De plus, il a incité les fidèles à s’instruire et à étudier les auteurs antiques en faisant sculpter des allégories des arts libéraux et des personnages mythiques ou héroïques. Enfin, par le dialogue des sibylles et des vertus, il a montré que la rhétorique de Lactance était convaincante. Il a ainsi non seulement introduit en France la mode italienne dans le mobilier, le décor et les ornements du château de Gaillon, mais surtout donné corps à l’esprit humaniste en faisant de ses stalles les messagères qui appellent à une vie vertueuse, dans la foi au Christ annoncé à tous les hommes (cf. wikipédia, merci Glass Angel pour la photo).
Rijks Museum - National Museum of Netherlands
Vision:
The Rijksmuseum links individuals with art and history.
Mission:
At the Rijksmuseum, art and history take on new meaning for a broad-based, contemporary national and international audience.
As a national institute, the Rijksmuseum offers a representative overview of Dutch art and history from the Middle Ages onwards, and of major aspects of European and Asian art.
The Rijksmuseum keeps, manages, conserves, restores, researches, prepares, collects, publishes, and presents artistic and historical objects, both on its own premises and elsewhere.
From 1800 to 2013
The Rijksmuseum first opened its doors in 1800 under the name ‘Nationale Kunstgalerij’. At the time, it was housed in Huis ten Bosch in The Hague. The collection mainly comprised paintings and historical objects. In 1808, the museum moved to the new capital city of Amsterdam, where it was based in the Royal Palace on Dam Square.
After King Willem I’s accession to the throne, the paintings and national print collection were moved to the Trippenhuis on Kloveniersburgwal, while the other objects were returned to The Hague. The current building was put into use in 1885. The Netherlands Museum for History and Art based in The Hague moved into the same premises, forming what would later become the departments of Dutch History and Sculpture & Applied Art.
The beginning
On 19 November 1798, more than three years after the birth of the Batavian Republic, the government decided to honour a suggestion put forward by Isaac Gogel by following the French example of setting up a national museum. The museum initially housed the remains of the viceregal collections and a variety of objects originating from state institutions. When the Nationale Kunstgalerij first opened its doors on 31 May 1800, it had more than 200 paintings and historical objects on display. In the years that followed, Gogel and the first director, C.S. Roos, made countless acquisitions. Their first purchase, The Swan by Jan Asselijn, cost 100 Dutch guilders and is still one of the Rijksmuseum’s top pieces.
Move to Amsterdam
In 1808, the new King Louis Napoleon ordered the collections to be moved to Amsterdam, which was to be made the capital of the Kingdom of Holland. The works of art and objects were taken to the Royal Palace on Dam Square, the former city hall of Amsterdam, where they were united with the city’s foremost paintings, including the Night Watch by Rembrandt. In 1809, the Koninklijk Museum opened its doors on the top floor of the palace.
A few years after Willem I returned to the Netherlands as the new king in 1813, the ‘Rijks Museum’ and the national print collection from The Hague relocated to the Trippenhuis, a 17th-century town-palace on Kloveniersburgwal, home to what would later become the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Much to the regret of the director, Cornelis Apostool, in 1820 many objects including pieces of great historical interest were assigned to the Kabinet van Zeldzaamheden [Royal Gallery of Rare Objects], which had been founded in The Hague. In 1838, a separate museum for modern 19th-century art was established in Paviljoen Welgelegen in Haarlem. Contrary to the days of Louis Napoleon, very few large acquisitions were made during this period.
Cuypers Cathedral
The Trippenhuis proved unsuitable as a museum. Furthermore, many people thought it time to establish a dedicated national museum building in the Netherlands. Work on a new building did not commence until 1876, after many years of debate. The architect, Pierre Cuypers, had drawn up a historic design for the Rijksmuseum, which combined the Gothic and the Renaissance styles. The design was not generally well-received; people considered it too mediaeval and not Dutch enough. The official opening took place in 1885.
Nearly all the older paintings belonging to the City of Amsterdam were hung in the Rijksmuseum alongside paintings and prints from the Trippenhuis, including paintings such as Rembrandt’s Jewish Bride, which had been bequeathed to the city by the banker A. van der Hoop. The collection of 19th-century art from Haarlem was also added to the museum’s collection. Finally, a significant part of the Kabinet van Zeldzaamheden, which had by then been incorporated into the new Netherlands Museum for History and Art, was returned to Amsterdam.
Renovations
Over the years, collections continued to grow and museum insight continued to expand, and so the Rijksmuseum building underwent many changes. Rooms were added to the south-west side of the building between 1904 and 1916 (now the Philips wing) to house the collection of 19th-century paintings donated to the museum by Mr and Mrs Drucker-Fraser. In the 1950s and 1960s, the two original courtyards were covered and renovated to create more rooms.
In 1927, while Schmidt-Degener was Managing Director, the Netherlands Museum was split to form the departments of Dutch History and Sculpture & Applied Art. These departments were moved to separate parts of the building after 1945. The arrival of a collection donated by the Association of Friends of Asian Art in the 1950s resulted in the creation of the Asian Art department.
The 1970s saw record numbers of visitors of almost one-and-a-half million per year, and the building gradually started to fall short of modern requirements.
‘Verder met Cuypers'
The current renovation reinstates the original Cuypers structure. The building work in the courtyards are removed. Paintings, applied art and history are no longer displayed in separate parts of the building, but form a single chronological circuit that tells the story of Dutch art and history.
The building is thoroughly modernized, while at the same time restoring more of Cuypers original interior designs: the Rijksmuseum has dubbed the venture ‘Verder met Cuypers‘ [Continuing with Cuypers]. The Rijksmuseum will be a dazzling new museum able to satisfy the needs of its 21st-century visitors!
Every year, the Rijksmuseum compiles an annual report for the previous year. Annual reports dating back to 1998 can be found here (in Dutch only). Reports relating to the years before 1998 are available in the reading room of the library.
O Museu Rijks é um dos maiores e mais importantes museus da Europa.É o maior dos Países Baixos, com acervo voltado quase todo aos artistas holandeses. As obras vão desde exemplares da arte sacra até a era dourada holandesa, além de uma substancial coleção de arte asiática.
Esse é o Rijksmuseum, o Museu Nacional dos Países Baixos. E aproveite, caro leitor, porque o Rijks esteve parcialmente fechado para reforma durante 10 anos – voltou a funcionar só em 2013. Ou seja, quem esteve em Amsterdam na última década não conheceu o Rijks, pelo menos não completamente.
Mas o quê tem lá? Muita coisa. Destaque para as coleções de arte e História holandesas. Os trabalhos dos pintores Frans Hals e Johannes Vermeer são alguns dos mais concorridos, mas imbatível mesmo é Rembrandt van Rijn, considerado um dos maiores pintores de todos os tempos. Se você não é um fã de museus de arte, mas faz questão de conhecer o trabalho desses grandes artistas, uma dica: assim que chegar ao Rijks, vá direto para a ala onde estão as obras-primas. Assim você vê o mais importante no início da visita, quando ainda está descansado e poderá dedicar o tempo necessário para essas obras.
A mais famosa delas é a “A Ronda Noturna”, de Rembrandt, uma obra que inspirou músicas, pinturas, filmes e até um flash mob. Quando o Rijks foi reaberto, artistas recriam a cena mostrada no quadro dentro de um shopping de Amsterdam. A ação está no vídeo abaixo e eu te garanto que vale a pena dar play.
Read more: www.360meridianos.com/2014/01/museus-de-amsterdam.html#ix...
Read more: www.360meridianos.com/2014/01/museus-de-amsterdam.html#ix...
Rijksmuseum, Museu Nacional
42 Stadhouderskade
Amsterdam
O museu Rijksmuseum de Amsterdã é o Museu Nacional da Holanda, onde você encontrará uma impressionante coleção permanente, formada por 5.000 pinturas e 30.000 obras de arte, além de 17.000 objetos históricos.
Esse museu nacional foi fundado em 1885 e está instalado em um edifício de estilo neogótico. A sua principal atração é a extensa coleção de quadros pintados por artistas holandeses, abrangendo um período que vai do séc. XV aos dias de hoje. A obra de arte mais famosa em exibição é o quadro A Ronda Noturna, de Rembrandt.
O museu Rijksmuseum está dividido em cinco departamentos: pintura, escultura, arte aplicada, arte oriental, história dos Países Baixos e gravuras. O núcleo da coleção é a pintura e suas obras mais representativas são as que pertencem ao Século de Ouro holandês, com quadros de artistas como Rembrandt, Vermeer ou Frans Hals.
Ver fonte: dreamguides.edreams.pt/holanda/amsterda/rijksmuseum
Museu Rijks, Amesterdão
O Museu Rijks (Museu Nacional) é um edifício histórico, sendo o maior museu nos Países Baixos. O Museu é o maior no numero relativamente às suas colecções, na área do edifício em si, no financiamento e no numero de funcionários empregados.
Cada ano, mais de um milhão de pessoas visitam o Museu Rijks. O Museu emprega cerca de 400 pessoas, incluindo 45 conservadores de museu que são especializados em todas as áreas.
O Museu Rijks é internacionalmente reconhecido pelas suas exibições e publicações, mas não só apenas por estes produtos de grande qualidade, mas também pelas áreas no museu em si que são fonte de inspiração e encorajam a criação de novas ideias.
O museu também tem recursos consideráveis para a educação, para a decoração e apresentação de exibições. Importantes designers são regularmente chamados a trabalharem em projectos no Museu Rijks.
O edifício principal do Museu Rijks está a ser renovado. A boa noticia é que a melhor parte da exposição está apresentada na redesenhada ala Philips. O nome desta exposição denomina-se "The Masterpieces'.
O museu abre diariamente das 10 da manhã até ás 5 da tarde.
A entrada é pela Stadhouderskade 42.
Rijksmuseum
Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.
O Rijksmuseum é um museu nacional dos Países Baixos, localizada em Amsterdão na Praça do museu. O Rijksmuseum é dedicado à artes e história. Ele tem uma larga coleção de pinturas da idade de ouro neerlandesa e uma substancial coleção de arte asiática.
O museu foi fundado em 1800 na cidade da Haia para exibir a coleção do primeiro-ministro. Foi inspirado no exemplo francês. Pelos neerlandeses ficou conhecida como Galeria de Arte. Em 1808 o museu mudou-se para Amsterdã pelas ordens do rei Louis Napoleón, irmão de Napoleão Bonaparte. As pinturas daquela cidade, como A Ronda Nocturna de Rembrandt, tornaram-se parte da coleção.
Em 1885 o museu mudou-se para sua localização atual, construído pelo arquiteto neerlandês Pierre Cuypers. Ele combinou elementos góticos e renascentistas. O museu tem um posição proeminente na Praça do Museu, próximo ao Museu van Gogh e ao Museu Stedelijk. A construção é ricamente decorada com referências da história da arte neerlandesa. A Ronda Nocturna de Rembrandt tem seu próprio corredor no museu desde 1906. Desde 2003 o museu sofreu restaurações, mas as obras-primas são constatemente presentes para o público.
A coleção de pinturas inclui trabalhos de artistas como Jacob van Ruysdael, Frans Hals, Johannes Vermeer e Rembrandt e de alunos de Rembrandt.
Em 2005, 95% do museu está fechado para renovação, mas as pinturas da coleção permanente ainda estão em mostra em uma exibição especial chamada As Obras-primas.
Algumas das pinturas do museu:
Rembrandt van Rijn
A Ronda Nocturna
Os síndicos da guilda dos fabricantes de tecidos
A noiva judia
A lição de Anatomia do Dr. Deyman
Pedro negando Cristo
Saskia com um véu
Retrato de Titus em hábito de monge
Auto-retrato como Apóstolo Paulo
Tobias, Ana e o Bode
Johannes Vermeer:
A Leiteira
A Carta de Amor
Mulher de Azul a ler uma carta
A Rua pequena
Frans Hals:
Retrato de um jovem casal
A Companhia Reynier Real
O bebedor alegre
Retrato de Lucas De Clercq
Retrato de Nicolaes Hasselaer
Retrato de um homem
Página oficial do Rijksmuseum
Virtual Collection of Masterpieces (VCM)
O melhor museu de Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum
O Commons possui uma categoria contendo imagens e outros ficheiros sobre Rijksmuseum
Rijksmuseum Amsterdam
1/4
Se você visitar Amsterdam, precisará conhecer o Museu Nacional da Holanda: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. O Museu Nacional fica na Praça do Museu, situada no centro de Amsterdam. O Museu Nacional, ou Rijksmuseum, possui uma maravilhosa coleção de arte e história holandesas. Após uma visita ao Rijksmuseum, você saberá mais sobre história e arte e terá visto alguns dos maiores marcos culturais da Holanda.
Obras-primas do Museu Nacional
Ao todo, a coleção do Rijksmuseum apresenta a história da Holanda em um contexto internacional, desde 1.100 até o presente. Há alguns ícones da história e cultura da Holanda que você não pode perder:
Ronda Noturna (de Nachtwacht) de Rembrandt é uma das mais famosas obras desse mestre holandês e é de tirar o fôlego.
O Rijksmuseum tem uma das melhores coleções de pinturas dos grandes mestres do século XVII, como Frans Hals, Jan Steen, Vermeer e Rembrandt.
Assim como o Museu Histórico de Haia, o Rijksmuseum apresenta lindas casas de bonecas, mobiliadas em detalhes, datando de 1676.
Se você não puder ir ao Delft Real, pode ainda apreciar algumas das melhores cerâmicas de Delft, de conjuntos de chá a vasos, no Museu Nacional.
Museu que é visita obrigatória em Amsterdam
Quer sua estadia em Amsterdam seja breve ou longa, você deve visitar o Rijksmuseum. Chegue cedo para evitar enfrentar filas. Combine a visita ao Rijksmuseum com várias outras atrações próximas, como o Museu Van Gogh, o Museu Stedelijk Amsterdam e a Coster Diamonds
Para obter mais informações sobre Amsterdam, retorne à página sobre Amsterdam ou à página sobre os museus de Amsterdam.
See the delicate flowers of Galanthus elwesii. Scientists from Kew and Turkey have worked to conserve this species in the wild.
Des stalles du château de Gaillon sont conservées dans la basilique Saint-Denis près de Paris. Ce château était la résidence de loisir des archevêques de Rouen. Commandées au début du XVIe siècle par Georges d’Amboise, ces stalles ont été construites lorsque cet archevêque, devenu légat du pape et premier conseiller de Louis XII a fait transformer le château médiéval en palais de la Renaissance. Seules stalles en France à présenter de nombreux panneaux de marqueterie et une iconographie inédite, elles forment un mobilier unique, chef-d’œuvre de cette période charnière entre gothique et Renaissance, arborant une grande mixité de styles. Ces stalles sont les chaires qui étaient destinées aux trois chanoines qui officiaient dans la chapelle haute du château de Gaillon, dédiée à saint Georges. Elles étaient ceintes d’une clôture en boiset constituaient ainsi le chœur liturgique de l'édifice.
Les stalles en chêne sont composées de deux rangées disposées côté nord et sud du transept de la basilique de Saint-Denis. La rangée nord présente un ensemble de six stalles, la rangée sud de cinq stalles et une isolée. Seules douze stalles ont été créées au XVIe siècle alors que le programme iconographique en prévoyait quatorze. De 2,83 m de haut, elles composées d’un siège et d’un dorsal, ce dernier comprenant deux registres : un bas-relief surmontant un panneau de marqueterie. Tous les éléments sont sculptés ou marquetés. De manière unique, les dossiers, les dorsaux et les voussures des dais sont galbés. De même les chaires ont des largeurs variées, fixées par celles des bas-reliefs des dorsaux. Pour s’adapter, les largeurs d’autres composants ont été rectifiées. La mixité de style se retrouve dans la globalité, les interdorsaux et deux dais étant gothiques alors que les faibles reliefs sont apparentés aux grotesques de la Renaissance, les bas-reliefs et les marqueteries des dorsaux étant quant à eux à la fois d’inspiration péninsulaire et septentrionale.
Sont illustrées sur les bas-reliefs originaux des dorsaux deux scènes de la vie d’Anne et Joachim, parents de la vierge Marie, cinq scènes de la vie de saint Jean-Baptiste le précurseur et sept scènes de la vie de saint Georges selon les textes d’Évangile ou de la Légende dorée. Nombre d’autres saints sont présentés en pied, sous forme de statuettes sur les interdorsaux ou de bas-reliefs sur les soubassements des jouées, notamment les quatre évangélistes sur ces derniers. Sur les panneaux marquetés des quadrants des parcloses sont figurées les affres des enfers des condamnés selon les sept péchés capitaux, avec les planètes et leurs influences. Les représentations sont inspirées des gravures du Calendrier des bergers imprimé à cette époque.
Les miséricordes figurent des scènes des Métamorphoses d’Ovide ainsi que les arts libéraux selon la Margarita Philosophica de G. Reisch. Les artisans se sont inspirés de gravures d’ouvrages imprimés au début du XVIe siècle, par exemple le soldat romain Caius Mucius Scaevola devant le roi Étrusque Porsenna y étant représenté exposant ainsi des thématiques propres à la culture antique. De manière également tout à fait inédite, les 7 vertus, cardinales et théologales, et 7 sibylles sont figurées et représentées sur les panneaux de marqueterie du premier registre des dorsaux. Les allégories et les prophétesses sont encadrées d’architectures identiques deux à deux qui les mettent en concordance. Les sibylles ont été choisies parmi celles du manuscrit des Heures de Louis de Laval dont les auteurs ont cité les prophéties. Ces dernières proviennent du manuscrit des Institutions divines de Lactance qui était de nouveau traduit et que le cardinal a lui-même fait enluminer. Ce grand rhéteur du IVe siècle ayant quant à lui repris les oracles rédigés dans les Oracles sibyllins.
Georges Ier d’Amboise n’a pas manqué de faire valoir qu’il était le commanditaire des stalles en demandant à ce que ses armes et sa devise y figurent à de nombreuses reprises. Le légat a donné pour modèles aux artisans des stalles des enluminures ou gravures de manuscrits faisant partie de sa splendide bibliothèque, digne d'un grand érudit humaniste. Il fit venir l’Italie en choisissant la marqueterie figurative en sus de la sculpture, seule technique utilisée à l'époque en France. Sans renier la tradition en faisant figurer les saints, il a fait représenter de manière inédite leur cycle de vie, dont il a choisi des événements bien spécifiques. De plus, il a incité les fidèles à s’instruire et à étudier les auteurs antiques en faisant sculpter des allégories des arts libéraux et des personnages mythiques ou héroïques. Enfin, par le dialogue des sibylles et des vertus, il a montré que la rhétorique de Lactance était convaincante. Il a ainsi non seulement introduit en France la mode italienne dans le mobilier, le décor et les ornements du château de Gaillon, mais surtout donné corps à l’esprit humaniste en faisant de ses stalles les messagères qui appellent à une vie vertueuse, dans la foi au Christ annoncé à tous les hommes (cf. wikipédia, merci Glass Angel pour la photo).
SA Police Museum.
This police museum was established in 1977 to conserve and detail some of the work and achievements of South Australian police personnel. The museum has five main galleries with different themes as well as a collection of police uniforms, police cars and motor cycles etc. The history of the South Australian Mounted Police Force began in 1838 making it the third oldest organised police force in the world after England and Ireland! Henry Inman was the first police chief in April 1838. The mounted police and their horses were in a paddock behind the SA Museum which later became their barracks and the state armoury site. They wore blue British style uniforms with a differences between the uniforms of footed and mounted officers. Our forward thinking police department was the first in Australia to introduce bicycles for officers in 1893 and they were not totally replaced by motor cycles until the 1950s. More significant than the introduction of bicycles was the introduction of female police officers 1915 – the second country in the British Empire to do so after NSW which also introduced female officers in 1915. These female officers received the same pay and had the same conditions as the men. The first female officers who were instrumental in having the women’s force established were Kate Cocks and Annie Ross. Kate Cocks had worked in Children’s Welfare before being transferred to the Police Department. The responsibilities of these two women centred on women and violence, prostitution and youth sex offences. SA also followed NSW’s early introduction of finger printing, the earliest form of forensic science in the police force in 1894. But SA provided the new Commonwealth of Australia with a uniform system of finger printing which was adopted across all states in 1904. The Police Museum also has a replica of a Black Maria police van for transporting criminals in a secure horse drawn carriage. The Black Maria’s were introduced in 1874 and used until replaced by motor vehicles in 1928.
Domaine conservé intact depuis la seconde moitié du 18e siècle, sans aucun ajout, le Château de Canon constitue un parfait témoin du siècle des Lumières en basse-normandie.
Photographie aérienne par cerf-volant.
Domain intact since the second half of the 18th century, without any addition, the Château de Canon is a perfect example of the Age of Enlightenment in Normandy.
Kite Aerial Photography.
© Janvier 2012, François Levalet
Whenever there's a glut of fruit, meat, vegetables or mushrooms we conserve as much as we can. It's very nice having a good food stash when the shops are far away. For me this isn't really living frugally - as far as we're concerned - we're rich !
Coventry Transport Museum opened in 1980, after it became clear that the road transport collection was outgrowing the space it occupied in the Herbert Art Gallery & Museum. The Museum’s current collection of vehicles is acknowledged as being one of the finest in the world, and the largest in public ownership.
The Museum’s collection consists of motor cars, commercial vehicles, cycles and motorcycles. In addition, extensive collections of automobilia, books, photographs and a wealth of other archive material is held and conserved at the Coventry History Centre at the Herbert Art Gallery & Museum.
Ford Truck 1934
According to the UNESCO Website:
Located on the west coast of Greenland, 250 km north of the Arctic Circle, Greenland’s Ilulissat Icefjord is the sea mouth of Sermeq Kujalleq, one of the few glaciers through which the Greenland ice cap reaches the sea. Sermeq Kujalleq is one of the fastest and most active glaciers in the world. It annually calves over 35 km3 of ice, i.e. 10% of the production of all Greenland calf ice and more than any other glacier outside Antarctica. Studied for over 250 years, it has helped to develop our understanding of climate change and icecap glaciology. The combination of a huge ice-sheet and the dramatic sounds of a fast-moving glacial ice-stream calving into a fjord covered by icebergs makes for a dramatic and awe-inspiring natural phenomenon.
Brief synthesis
Located on the west coast of Greenland, 250 km north of the Arctic Circle, Greenland’s Ilulissat Icefjord is a tidal fjord covered with floating brash and massive ice, as it is situated where the Sermeq Kujalleq glacier calves ice into the sea. In winter, the area is frozen solid. One of the few places where ice from the Greenland ice cap enters the sea, Sermeq Kujalleq is also one of the fastest moving (40 m per day) and most active glaciers in the world. Its annual calving of over 46 cubic kilometres of ice, i.e. 10% of all Greenland calf ice, is more than any other glacier outside Antarctica, and it is still actively eroding the fjord bed. The combination of a huge ice-sheet and the dramatic sounds of a fast-moving glacial ice-stream calving into a fjord full of icebergs make for a dramatic and awe-inspiring natural phenomenon.
The Greenland ice cap is the only remnant in the Northern Hemisphere of the continental ice sheets from the Quaternary Ice Age. The oldest ice is estimated to be 250,000 years old, and provides detailed information on past climatic changes and atmospheric conditions from 250,000 to around 11,550 years ago, when climate became more stable. Studies made over the last 250 years demonstrate that during the last ice age, the climate fluctuated between extremely cold and warmer periods, while today the ice cap is being maintained by an annual accumulation of snow that matches the loss through calving and melting at the margins. This phenomenon has helped to develop our understanding of climate change and icecap glaciology.
Criterion (vii): The combination of a huge ice sheet and a fast moving glacial ice-stream calving into a fjord covered by icebergs is a phenomenon only seen in Greenland and Antarctica. Ilulissat offers both scientists and visitors easy access for a close view of the calving glacier front as it cascades down from the ice sheet and into the ice-choked fjord. The wild and highly scenic combination of rock, ice and sea, along with the dramatic sounds produced by the moving ice, combine to present a memorable natural spectacle.
Criterion (viii): The Ilulissat Icefjord is an outstanding example of a stage in the Earth’s history: the last ice age of the Quaternary Period. The ice-stream is one of the fastest (40 m per day) and most active in the world. Its annual calving of over 46 km3 of ice accounts for 10% of the production of all Greenland calf ice, more than any other glacier outside Antarctica. The glacier has been the object of scientific attention for 250 years and, along with its relative ease of accessibility, has significantly added to the understanding of ice-cap glaciology, climate change and related geomorphic processes.
Integrity
The property is of sufficient size to adequately represent the geological process of the ice fjord, i.e. the fast-moving ice-stream, the relevant portion of the inland icecap, the glacial front and the fjord. The boundaries of the property are clearly defined in relation to the logical topographic criteria of the natural watershed, and the settlements of the nearby villages of Ilimanaq and Ilulissat are excluded from the property. Along with climatic limitations and the fact that no roads exist at the site, the area’s physical features retain a high degree of natural integrity.
The property has effective legal protection and a sound planning framework, including the prohibition of any mining in the protected area. However, increased management will be required as pressures from tourism and resource harvesting continue to grow.
Protection and management requirements
The property is protected and conserved by an established framework of government legislation and protective designations and by local planning policies. The main legislative measure is the Greenland Parliament Act No. 29 of 18 December 2003 on nature protection. This act is the foundation framework for the protection of species, ecosystems and protected areas. Ilulissat itself is protected under the Greenland Home Rule Government Order No. 10 of 15 June 2007 on protection of Ilulissat Icefjord. The area bordering the property is further controlled by national regulations on waste disposal, use of snowmobiles, building constructions and landscape protection. Extensive hunting and fishing occurs in a portion of the property, and a special hunting law is enforced and monitored to ensure that the exploitation of biological resources in the area is sustainable. The property itself is managed cooperatively by a Board consisting of representatives from the Ministry of Environment and Nature and the Municipality of Ilulissat.
A comprehensive management plan has been developed and the property will benefit from a monitoring programme. Particular attention was paid to the rapidly increasing tourism in the area, and in particular pressures emanating from cruise ships visiting the site and helicopter traffic. Regulations concerning visits to the property by boat, foot, helicopter and dog sledge; the management of waste and waste disposal; building constructions; exploitation of biological resources in the area, and protection of the cultural heritage sites within the property have been put into place. Signage and visitor infrastructure have been upgraded, and a visitor centre in the town of Ilulissat is planned.
All land in the reserve is state-owned and no permanent settlements are allowed. Nearby construction is also strictly controlled. Visitor access to the area is limited by the wilderness character of the landscape, with no roads or human-made structures. Management issues such as crowding (from cruise tourism) and erosion are limited to a small area close to the town of Ilulissat. The protection of the property will be further enhanced when a planned buffer zone is adopted.
This is the view from above the trail on shore.
This 360° High Dynamic Range panorama was stitched from 78 bracketed photographs with PTGUI Pro, tone-mapped with Photomatix, processed with Color Efex, and touched up in Affinity Photo and Aperture.
Original size: 25000 × 12500 (312.5 MP; 1.29 GB).
Location: Ilulissat, Greenland
Ben is a naturalist with the New Jersey Conserve Wildlife Foundation. He is licensed to band birds, including ospreys. Here Ben selects a band to place on the osprey chicks. The anxious osprey mom circles above.
Below are several chicks, note the newly placed band on the left leg of the standing osprey chick.. The nest platforms were 30 to 40 feet above the ground! Climbing ladders and going up in utility bucket trucks was a thrill for me!
Ancienne chambre d’apparat, elle présente la plus ancienne tapisserie conservée dans les collections du château, tissée à Tournai à la fin du XVème siècle (L’Histoire de Persée et de Pégase). On peut également remarquer le portrait en pied de Catherine de Médicis (copie réalisée au XIXème siècle), une tapisserie de la manufacture des Flandres de la fin du XVIème siècle (L’Histoire de David et Abigail) ainsi qu’un remarquable lit du XIXème siècle, de style Henri II, très richement sculpté de figures, mascarons, cornes d’abondance, guirlandes de lauriers et fruits. La tête du dossier est épaulée de sirènes en demi-relief et surmontée d’une amazone et d’un guerrier constituant les montants du baldaquin. L’agencement de cette salle est également constitué d’une chaire du XVIème siècle présentant sous une arcade un héron avalant une anguille, sous deux licornes affrontées tenant un écu ainsi qu’une armoire située à proximité du lit dont la façade datée du XVème siècle évoque une iconographie caractéristique de cette période : au registre supérieur, les trois vertus théologales -foi, espérance, charité- et les quatre saisons ; au registre inférieur, les cinq sens. Extrait du site du château
------
Propriété de la famille d’Amboise durant 500 ans, c’est Charles II d’Amboise qui inaugure sa métamorphose en château d’agrément dans le style Renaissance. Le décor sculpté prend de l’importance et devient l’élément majeur des façades extérieures.
En 1550, Catherine de Médicis acquiert le domaine, mais ne lance pas de grands chantiers sur le château, dont elle se sépare en 1560, au profit de Diane de Poitiers. L’ancienne favorite du roi met en œuvre les travaux qui lui confèrent sa physionomie actuelle, avec en particulier, l’achèvement des chemins de ronde du châtelet d'entrée et de la tour Saint-Nicolas.
En 1750, Jacques-Donatien Le Ray ordonne la destruction de l’aile Nord et ouvre ainsi un point de vue unique sur la Loire. Il accueille le sculpteur italien Jean-Baptiste Nini. Le Château présente aujourd’hui la plus belle collection au monde de médaillons "pièces uniques" de ce célèbre sculpteur.
En 1875, Marie-Charlotte-Constance Say achète le château et se marie avec le prince Henri-Amédée de Broglie. Elle décore les pièces avec du mobilier Renaissance et supervise de nombreux travaux pour rendre la demeure digne des plus grandes réceptions. C’est l’architecte Paul-Ernest Sanson qui sera en charge de ce chantier. Ce dernier conçoit également les luxueuses écuries. Enfin, l’architecte Marcel Boille procède à l’édification de la ferme modèle du Domaine.
Cédé à l’État en 1938 par la Princesse d'Orléans et Bourbon, le Domaine de Chaumont-sur-Loire est la propriété de la Région Centre-Val de Loire depuis 2007 et Établissement Public de Coopération Culturelle depuis janvier 2008.... Extrait du site officiel
Living in Aldosa, Aldosa, La Massana, Vall nord, Andorra, Pyrenees
Aldosa (La Massana) has a well conserved center with 2-3 hotels, restaurants and a hipica (horse riding). One of the hotels is specialized for moto-bikers, so Aldosa more or less is "riding-capital of Andorra".
More Aldosa & La Massana parroquia images: Follow the group links at right side.
.......
About this image:
* Medium format 4x3 (645) high quality image
* Usage: Large format prints optional
* Motive is suitable as symbol pic
* "Andorra authentic" edition (10 years decade 2008-2018)
* "Andorra camis & rutes" active collection
* Advanced metadata functionality on dynamic websites or apps
* for large metadata-controlled business collections: photo-archives, travel agencies, tourism redactions
We offer 100.000+ photos of Andorra and North of Spain. The biggest professional image catalog of Andorra from the newer history: all regions, all cities and villages, all times, all seasons, all weather(s). HighRes & HighColor GeoCoded stock-photo images including metadata in 4-5 languages. Prepared for an easy systematic organising of large image portfolios with advanced online / print-publishing as "Culture-GIS" (Geographic Info System). The big stockphoto collection from the Pyrenees.
More information about usage, tips, how-to, conditions: www.flickr.com/people/lutzmeyer/. Get quality, data consistency, stable organisation and PR environments: Professional stockphotos for exciting stories - docu, tales, mystic.
Ask for licence! lutz(at)lutz-meyer.com
(c) Lutz Meyer, all rights reserved. Do not use this photo without license.
J'ai conserver ce cliché, car étrangement ce Pouillot à pris une pause pendant quelques seconde et au moment fatidique à tourner la tête et c'est envoler. Il n'aime probablement pas les paparazzis.
**************
I kept this shot, because strangely this Pouillot took a break for a few seconds and at the moment fate to turn the head and fly away. He probably does not like paparazzi.
I personally don't think so. An immense lack of respect for our planet is truly all I see. It's also accompanied by hypocrisy. One flagrant example would be the Îles-de-Boucherville National Park in Boucherville, Québec.
www.trolettiphoto.com/blog/2018/4/can-we-really-say-happy...
Citadel Park Passeig de Picasso Barcelone Catalonia Spain
Citadel Park is a park on the northeastern edge of Ciutat Vella, Barcelona, Catalonia. For decades following its creation in the mid-19th century, this park was the city's only green space. The 70 acres (280,000 m2) grounds include the city zoo (once home to the albino gorilla Snowflake, who died in 2004), the Parliament of Catalonia, a small lake, museums, and a large fountain designed by Josep Fontserè (with possible contributions by the young Antoni Gaudí).
Locations
Citadel
In 1714, during the War of the Spanish Succession, Barcelona was laid siege for 13 months by the army of Philip V of Spain. The city fell, and in order to maintain control over it, and to prevent the Catalans from rebelling as they had in the previous century, Philip V built the citadel of Barcelona, at that time the largest fortress in Europe.
A substantial part of the district it was constructed in (La Ribera) was destroyed to obtain the necessary space, leaving its inhabitants homeless. The fortress was characterized by having five corners, which gave the citadel defensive power, and by a rather wide surrounding margin, serving as location for the army's cannons. It included enough buildings to house 8,000 people.
Hundreds of Catalonians were forced to work on the construction for three years, while the rest of the city provided financial backing for this and for warfare-related expenses as well, with a new tax named el cadestre. Three decades later a quarter was rebuilt around the fortress named Barceloneta, which is located inside the neighborhood Ciutat Vella.
In 1841 the city's authorities decided to destroy the fortress, which was hated by Barcelona's citizens. Yet two years later, in 1843, under the regime of Maria Cristina, the citadel was restored. In 1848, after Maria Cristina's abdication and as the citadel lost its use, General Espartero razed most of the buildings within the fortress as well as its walls by bombarding it from the nearby mountain fortress Montjuic, which helped him gain political popularity. By 1869, as the political climate liberalised enough to permit it, General Prim decided to turn over what was left of the fortress to the city and some buildings were demolished under Catalan orders, for it was viewed as by the citizens as a much-hated symbol of central Spanish government.
The chapel (now the Military Parish Church of Barcelona), the Governor's palace (now Verdaguer Secondary School), and the arsenal (now home to the Catalan Parliament) remain, with the rest of the site being turned into the contemporary park by the architect Josep Fontsére in 1872. Nineteen years later, in 1888, Barcelona held the Exposición Universal de Barcelona extravaganza, inspired by Mayor Rius i Taulet, and the park was redesigned with the addition of sculptures and other complementary works of art. This marked the conclusion of the old provincial and unprogressive Barcelona and the establishment of a modern cosmopolitan city. From that point until 1892, half of the park's layout was enhanced again in order to obtain sufficient space for the zoo. The park's bandstand, Glorieta de la Transsexual Sònia, is dedicated to a transsexual, Sonia Rescalvo Zafra, who was murdered there on 6 October 1991 by right-wing extremists.
Cascada
The lake in the Parc de la Ciutadella
The Cascada (waterfall or cascade in Spanish) is located at the northern corner of the park opposite to the lake. It was first inaugurated in 1881 without sculptures or any meticulous details, and was thereby criticized by the press, after which this triumphal arch was thoroughly amended by the addition of a fountain and some minor attributes, which required six years of construction from 1882 to 1888, and was thenceforth put on display at the Universal Exhibition, and hitherto not been redesigned. It was erected by Josep Fontsére and to a small extent by Antoni Gaudí, who at that time was still an unknown student of architecture. Fontsére aimed to loosely make it bear resemblance to the Trevi Fountain of Rome. Two enormous pincers of gigantic crabs serve as stairs to access a small podium located in the centre of the monument. In front of it a sculpture (designed by Venanci Vallmitjana) of Venus standing on an open clam was placed. The whole cascade is divided in two levels. From the podium on a path leads to the Feminine Sculpture and to the northeastern corner of the park, and upon following the route down the stairs the fountain's pond is rounded and the southern tip of the artifact is reached.
Zoo
The zoo's main entrance
The zoo of Barcelona is located in the park of the ciutadella due to the availability of a few buildings which were left empty after the Universal Exposition of 1888. It was inaugurated in 1892, during the day of the Mercé, the patron saint of the city. The first animals were donated by Lluís Martí i Codolar to the municipality of Barcelona, which gratefully approved of their accommodation in the zoo.
Nowadays, with one of the most substantial collections of animals in Europe, the zoo affirms that their aim is to conserve, investigate, and educate.
From 1966 to 2003 the zoo was home to the famous albino gorilla Snowflake, who attracted many international tourists and locals.
Apart from the usual visits, different types of guided tours or other activities are offered, like for example 20 types of diversionary workshops, excursions and fieldtrips for schoolchildren, or personnel training and educational courses in zoology for adults. More than 50,000 children visit the zoo on an annual basis, which is the reason for the zoo's emphasis on education.
Museum of Natural Science
The facade of the zoology museum of Barcelona
Ceramics on the facade of the zoology museum of Barcelona
The Museum of Natural Science, sited in the park, comprises a museum of zoology and a museum of geology.
The museum of zoology was constructed for the Exposición Universal de Barcelona (1888) by the architect Lluís Doménech i Montaner to serve as an exhibition. Most of the building is constructed of red brick. The most popular displays are the skeleton of a whale and exhibits dedicated for smaller children. The institute's stated aims are to enhance knowledge and conservation of the natural diversity of Catalonia and its surroundings, to promote public education on the natural world, to transmit ethical values of respect for nature, and to stimulate informed debate on the issues and environmental problems that concern society. The museum has permanent exhibitions on the subject of mineralogy, petrology and paleontology; the volcanic region of Olot; minerals' secret colors; the animal kingdom; urban birds; and an apiary.
The museum of geology is a legacy of the scientist Francisco Martorell i Peña (1822–1878), who donated his whole collection of artifacts of cultural and archeological importance, his scientific library, and an amount of 125,000 pesetas to the city for the purpose of creating a new museum. The building, built during the same year and named the Corporación Municipal, was designed by Antoni Rivas i Trias.