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Nymph's bath
Nymphenbad
The Zwinger (German: Dresdner Zwinger, IPA: [ˈdʁeːzdnɐ ˈt͡svɪŋɐ]) is a palace in the German city of Dresden, built in Baroque style and designed by court architect Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann. It served as the orangery, exhibition gallery and festival arena of the Dresden Court.
The location was formerly part of the Dresden fortress of which the outer wall is conserved. The name derives from the German word Zwinger (an enclosed killing ground in front of a castle or city gate); it was for the cannons that were placed between the outer wall and the major wall. The Zwinger was not enclosed until the Neoclassical building by Gottfried Semper called the Semper Gallery was built on its northern side.
Today, the Zwinger is a museum complex that contains the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister (Old Masters Picture Gallery), the Dresden Porcelain Collection (Dresdener Porzellansammlung) and the Mathematisch-Physikalischer Salon (Royal Cabinet of Mathematical and Physical Instruments).
The Zwinger covers an area on the northwestern edge of the Innere Altstadt ("inner old town") that is part of the historic heart of Dresden. It is located in the immediate vicinity of other famous sights, including Dresden Castle and the Semperoper. The Zwinger is bounded by Sophienstraße in the southeast, Postplatz in the south, Ostra-Allee in the southwest, the Am Zwingerteich road in the northwest and Theatre Square (Theaterplatz) in the east. Nearby buildings include the Dresden State Theatre to the southwest, the Haus am Zwinger to the south, the Taschenbergpalais hotel to the southeast, the west wing of the palace with its Green Vault to the east, the Altstädtische Hauptwache to the northeast, the Semper Opera to the north and the former royal stables to the northwest. Within view lie the Catholic Court Church and the Italian Village in Theatre Square, the Wilsdruffer Kubus on Postplatz and the Duchess Garden with the remnants of the former orangery building in the west. The terraced banks of the Elbe river are located 200 metres northeast of the Zwinger.
The name Zwinger goes back to the common medieval German term for that part of a fortification between the outer and inner defensive walls, or "outer ward". Archaeological evidence indicates that the construction of the first city wall took place in the last quarter of the 12th century. A documentary entry as civitas in 1216 points to the existence of an enclosed Dresden Fortification at that time. In 1427, during the Hussite Wars, work began on strengthening the city's defences and they were enhanced by a second – outer – wall. These improvements began near the Wildruffer Tor gate. Step by step the old moat had to be filled in and moved. The area between the two walls was generally referred to as the Zwinger and, in the vicinity of the castle, was utilised by the royal court at Dresden for garden purposes. The location of the so-called Zwingergarten from that period is only imprecisely known to be between the fortifications on the western side of the city. Its extent varied in places as a result of subsequent improvements to the fortifications and is depicted differently on the various maps.
This royal Zwingergarten, a garden used to supply the court, still fulfilled one of its functions, as indicated by the name, as a narrow defensive area between the outer and inner defensive walls. This was no longer the case when work on the present-day Zwinger palace began in the early 18th century, nevertheless the name was transferred to the new building. Admittedly the southwestern parts of the building of the baroque Dresden Zwinger including the Kronentor gate stand on parts of the outer curtain wall that are still visible today; but there is no longer any trace of the inner wall.
Until well into the 16th century, the area of the present-day Zwinger complex was still outside the city fortifications. Close by ran an old stretch of the Weißeritz river that no longer exists, which emptied into the Elbe by the Old Castle. In 1569, major work began on redevelopment and new buildings by the fortifications west of the castle based on plans by master builder, Rochus Quirin, Count of Lynar, who came from Florence. The embankments needed in the area of the river confluence proved to be a major challenge. In spring 1570 the Weißeritz caused severe flood damage at an embankment, which hampered the building project for a short time. Then, in 1572, the rebuilding work by the fortifications came to a temporary halt.
Augustus the Strong, King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, returned from a grand tour through France and Italy in 1687–89, just at the moment that Louis XIV moved his court to Versailles. On his return to Dresden, having arranged his election as King of Poland (1697), he wanted something similarly spectacular for himself. The fortifications were no longer needed and provided readily available space for his plans. The original plans, as developed by his court architect Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann before 1711, covered the space of the present complex of palace and garden, and also included as gardens the space down to the Elbe river, upon which the Semperoper and its square were built in the nineteenth century.
The Zwinger was designed by Pöppelmann and constructed in stages from 1710 to 1728. Sculpture was provided by Balthasar Permoser. The Zwinger was formally inaugurated in 1719, on the occasion of the electoral prince Frederick August’s marriage to the daughter of the Habsburg emperor, the Archduchess Maria Josepha. At the time, the outer shells of the buildings had already been erected and, with their pavilions and arcaded galleries, formed a striking backdrop to the event. It was not until the completion of their interiors in 1728, however, that they could serve their intended functions as exhibition galleries and library halls.
The death of Augustus in 1733 put a halt to the construction because the funds were needed elsewhere. The palace area was left open towards the Semperoper square (Theatre Square) and the river. Later the plans were changed to a smaller scale, and in 1847–1855 the area was closed by the construction of the gallery wing now separating the Zwinger from the Theatre Square. The architect of this building, later named Semper Gallery, was Gottfried Semper, who also designed the opera house.
The building was mostly destroyed by the carpet bombing raids of 13–15 February 1945. The art collection had been previously evacuated, however. Reconstruction, supported by the Soviet military administration, began in 1945; parts of the restored complex were opened to the public in 1951. By 1963 the Zwinger had largely been restored to its pre-war state.
(Wikipedia)
Der Zwinger ist ein Gebäudekomplex mit Gartenanlagen in Dresden. Das unter der Leitung des Architekten Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann und des Bildhauers Balthasar Permoser errichtete Gesamtkunstwerk aus Architektur, Plastik und Malerei gehört zu den bedeutenden Bauwerken des Barocks und ist neben der Frauenkirche das bekannteste Baudenkmal Dresdens. Sein Name Zwinger geht auf die im Mittelalter übliche Bezeichnung für einen Festungsteil zwischen der äußeren und inneren Festungsmauer zurück, obschon der Zwinger bereits bei Baubeginn keine dem Namen entsprechende Funktion mehr erfüllte.
Der Zwinger entstand ab 1709 als Orangerie und Garten sowie als repräsentatives Festareal. Seine reich verzierten Pavillons und die von Balustraden, Figuren und Vasen gesäumten Galerien zeugen von der Prachtentfaltung während der Regentschaft des Kurfürsten Friedrich August I. (auch „August der Starke“ genannt) und seines dadurch ausgedrückten Machtanspruchs. In der ursprünglichen Konzeption des Kurfürsten war der Zwinger als Vorhof eines neuen Schlosses vorgesehen, das den Platz bis zur Elbe einnehmen sollte; daher blieb der Zwinger zur Elbseite hin zunächst unbebaut (provisorisch mit einer Mauer abgeschlossen). Die Planungen zu einem Schlossneubau wurden nach dem Tod August des Starken aufgegeben, und mit der Abkehr vom Barock verlor der Zwinger zunächst an Bedeutung. Erst über ein Jahrhundert später schloss ihn der Architekt Gottfried Semper mit der Sempergalerie zur Elbe hin ab.
Die 1855 eröffnete Sempergalerie war eines der wichtigsten deutschen Museumsprojekte des 19. Jahrhunderts und ermöglichte die Ausweitung der seit dem 18. Jahrhundert unter den jeweiligen Zeiteinflüssen gewachsenen Nutzung des Zwingers als Museumskomplex. Die Luftangriffe auf Dresden am 13. und 14. Februar 1945 trafen den Zwinger schwer und führten zu umfangreichen Zerstörungen. Seit dem Wiederaufbau in den 1950er und 1960er Jahren beherbergt der Zwinger die Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, den Mathematisch-Physikalischen Salon und die Porzellansammlung. Die ursprüngliche Zweckbestimmung als Orangerie, Garten sowie als repräsentatives Festareal ist dabei zwar in den Hintergrund getreten; letztere wird mit der Aufführung von Musik- und Theaterveranstaltungen jedoch weiterhin gepflegt.
Der Zwinger liegt unweit der Elbe und nimmt ein Areal am nordwestlichen Rand der Inneren Altstadt ein, das zum historischen Stadtkern Dresdens gehört. Er befindet sich in unmittelbarer Nachbarschaft weiterer bekannter Sehenswürdigkeiten, darunter das Residenzschloss und die Semperoper. Der Theaterplatz im Nordosten, die Sophienstraße im Südosten, der Postplatz im Süden, die Ostra-Allee im Südwesten sowie die Straße Am Zwingerteich im Nordwesten umgeben das Areal des Zwingers. Benachbarte Gebäude sind das Haus der Dresdner Kaufmannschaft im Westen, das Schauspielhaus im Südwesten, das Haus am Zwinger im Süden, das Taschenbergpalais im Südosten, der Westflügel des Schlosses mit dem Grünen Gewölbe im Osten, die Altstädtische Hauptwache im Nordosten, die Semperoper im Norden und der ehemalige Marstall im Nordwesten.
Das Nymphenbad gehört zu den schönsten barocken Brunnenanlagen. Von Französischem Pavillon, Bogengalerie, Festungswall sowie einem Anbau der Sempergalerie umsäumt, bildet es einen nach oben offenen, hoch ummauerten Raum mit quadratischer Grundfläche. Das Nymphenbad ist kein Bad im eigentlichen Sinne, eher ein Wassertheater oder Grottensaal. Darüber hinaus erinnert die Gestaltung der Seitenwände mit ihrem plastischen Schmuck an ein antikes Nymphäum. Das heutige Nymphenbad ist eine vergleichsweise zurückhaltend kleine Ausführung der ursprünglich beabsichtigten Wasserspiele. In den Planungen zum Zwinger war eine große Ringkaskade vorgesehen.
Das Wasser läuft aus einem Brunnen, der sich oben auf dem Wall befindet, über einen gestuften, künstlichen Wasserfall in das Nymphenbad herunter und wird dort in einem großen halbrunden Becken aufgefangen. Zwei Johann Christian Kirchner zugeschriebene Figurenpaare, links Triton und Nereide, rechts Neptun und Amphitrite, flankieren die Wasserkaskade oben auf dem Wall. Sie zeigen, dass „dem Temperament Kirchners […] keine Zügel angelegt waren“. Auf halber Höhe stehen blasende Tritonen beidseits der Kaskade, die dort von einem schrägen in einen gestuften Verlauf übergeht. Sie sind ein Werk Johann Benjamin Thomaes. Die beschädigten Originale befinden sich heute im Albertinum. Zu beiden Seiten hin schließen je ein Brunnen mit Wasser speiendem Delphinkopf dieses Wasserkunstwerk ab und leitet zu Treppen über, die durch einen Torbogen im Halbrund vom Nymphenbad auf den Wall führen. Ebenfalls noch an der Stirnwand des Nymphenbads befinden sich ganz links und ganz rechts je eine Nische mit auf dekorativen Sockeln stehenden Nymphen. Diese Nischen mit Nymphen setzten sich auf den beiden Längsseiten insgesamt sieben Mal fort. Die der Wasserkaskade gegenüberliegende Seite bildet der Französische Pavillon, durch dessen Portal ebenfalls Zugang zum Nymphenbad besteht. In der Mitte des Nymphenbads befindet sich ein Wasserbecken mit profilierter Einfassung.
Sechs der Nymphenfiguren auf der Südwestseite und die Wasser speienden Delphine gehen noch auf Balthasar Permoser und seine Schüler zurück. Nymphen für die Nischen schufen Kirchner, Thomae und Egell; so stammt die Nymphe mit dem Blumenstrauß von Kirchner. Von Egell stammt die Figur der spielenden Nymphe, die schon den Stil für die folgende Mannheimer Epoche aufweist. Thomae schuf die Nymphe, die ihr Gewand über die Schulter hebt. Diese Skulpturen aus dem Barockzeitalter sind in der Gegenwart durch originalgetreue Kopien ersetzt.
Alle übrigen Skulpturen des Nymphenbades stammen aus der Zeit der Restaurierung des Zwingers in den 1920er und 1930er Jahren unter Georg Wrba. Es sind „freie, am Naturalismus der 1920er Jahre orientierte Arbeiten“. Eine Nymphe (Südecke) ist eine Nachschöpfung im Stil Permosers aus der Zeit nach 1945.
Der Betrieb des Nymphenbades erforderte einen beachtlichen technischen Aufwand, da es zu jener Zeit keine elektrischen Pumpen gab. Das Hauptproblem bestand darin, ausreichende Wassermengen auf das Niveau des oberen Wallbereichs zu heben. Dafür war eine aufwändige Installation klassischer Wasserkunst nötig. Zu diesem Zweck baute der Modellmeister Andreas Gärtner in den unweit gelegenen Turm des Wilsdruffer Tores einen kupfernen Wasserbehälter ein, der mit Wasser aus dem Gorbitzer Brunnen durch ein Schöpfwerk gefüllt wurde. Über eine Röhrfahrt gelangte das Wasser vom Turm in die Wasserspiele des Zwingers.
Dazu gehörten das noch heute erhaltene Nymphenbad, ferner Kaskaden an den Langgalerien beidseits des Kronentors, weitere Brunnen, Springbrunnen und einige Vexierwasserspiele, etwa im Grottensaal des Mathematisch-Physikalischen Salons und an der unteren Treppe des Wallpavillons angelegt. Auch auf den beiden ins Nymphenbad herabführenden Treppen wurden Benutzer ursprünglich nassgespritzt.
Die Wasserspiele verursachten ständige und nicht unerhebliche Unterhaltungskosten. Ein angestellter Grottierer hatte den laufenden Betrieb zu überwachen und für die Instandhaltung der technischen Anlagen zu sorgen.
(Wikipedia)
Le château de La Rochefoucauld situé à La Rochefoucauld en Charente, est un château renaissance construit en grande partie vers 1520 à l'emplacement d'une forteresse féodale du XIe siècle dont ont été conservées les tours1.
Le château et son parc ont été classés monument historique en 19551. Depuis plus de mille ans, il est la résidence des Ducs de La Rochefoucauld.
Le premier château fortifié de La Rochefoucauld a été construit vers 1026 sur un rocher surplombant la Tardoire1.
En 1019 Foucauld, seigneur de La Roche, apparaît dans un acte du cartulaire d'Uzerche : il assiste avec ses fils, sa fille Ava et son gendre, Aimery Ostafranc, à une donation du vicomte de Limoges de l'église de Nieuil à l'abbaye d'Uzerche2.
Dans un document de l'abbaye de Saint-Cybard d'Angoulême daté de 1026 , Foucauld est qualifié de seigneur très noble : « vir nobilissimus Fulcaudus de castrum qui vocatur Rocha »3 : c'est la première mention du château.
C'est sans doute ce seigneur qui fait construire, à cette époque , les premiers 16 m du donjon de 11,78 × 12,06 m de côté et les murs ont une épaisseur comprise entre 2,30 à 2,50 m munis de contreforts plats de 80 cm de largeur au milieu des côtés et dans les angles. Le joint de reprise entre les deux états du donjon est encore visible côté intérieur du château. Ce donjon a une structure proche de ceux construits à la même époque par le comte d'Anjou, Foulques Nerra : Langeais en 994, Loches vers 1030.
Le donjon, dans son état initial, comprend deux niveaux :
un premier niveau aveugle d'environ 10 m de hauteur dont le seul accès est une trappe dans la voûte;
un second niveau, de 5,40 m de hauteur, servant d'habitation avec une fenêtre côté est et une porte côté nord, sans cheminée au moment de la construction.
Un texte de 1109 signale un bâtiment d'habitation contre le donjon, probablement en bois, dans laquelle vit le seigneur et sa familia (famille et familiers).
Vers 1050, les biens de la vicomté de Limoges sont répartis. Probablement à cette époque, les descendants de Foucauld deviennent seigneurs du château de La Roche. Cependant le fief vicomtal reste au vicomte de Limoges avant d'être pris par les comtes d'Angoulême.
En 1059, les fils de Foucauld, Gui et Adémar, décident de faire venir neuf moines de l'abbaye Saint-Florent de Saumur pour créer un prieuré sur des terres qu'ils possèdent face au château, dans le souhait qu'autour de ce prieuré une ville se développe.
Quand les seigneurs de La Roche encouragés par le comte du Poitou, veulent en plus du château de Verteuil contrôler les châteaux de Loubert, Chabanais et Confolens, ils subissent l'attaque du comte Angoulême Bougrain II qui démantèle Verteuil en 1137, puis de son fils Guillaume IV Taillefer, qui pille le château de La Rochefoucauld en 1148.
Emma de La Rochefoucauld (qui vit en 1140), dernière descendante de la famille de la Roche (fille et héritière d'Aymar de La Roche, seigneur de La Rochefoucauld et de Mathilde de Chabanais), épouse Robert de Marthon, seigneur de Marthon et apporte La Rochefoucauld dans la famille de Marthon.
Guy de Marthon, leur fils, prend le nom de sa mère et devient seigneur de La Rochefoucauld, Verteuil, Marthon, Blanzac etc. Il est l'auteur de la famille actuelle de La Rochefoucauld5.
En 1299, le roi Philippe le Bel érige la seigneurie de La Rochefoucauld en baronnie.
En 1308, le comte d'Angoulême, Gui Ier de Lusignan, meurt sans descendant direct. Il fait un testament en faveur du roi d'Angleterre. Cela amène le roi Philippe le Bel à confisquer le comté d'Angoulême. Il laisse à l'évêque d'Angoulême le choix de la solution pour le fief vicomtal dont il est le suzerain. L'évêque, Foulques de La Rochefoucauld, oncle de Gui VII de La Rochefoucauld, choisit donc de lui vendre le fief vicomtal pour 1400 livres, en 1310.
En 1350, Aimeri III de La Rochefoucauld fait construire les deux tours d'entrée.
En 1453, Jean de La Rochefoucauld édifie les trois tours d'angle et surélève le donjon. Le 17 juillet, le roi Charles VII se trouve au château de La Rochefoucauld, chez son conseiller et chambellan, lorsqu'il apprend à dix heures du soir[réf. nécessaire] la victoire de ses troupes sur celles du connétable John Talbot, commandant les troupes anglaises, à la bataille de Castillon, victoire qui met fin à la guerre de Cent Ans.
En 1494, François I de la Rochefoucauld est le parrain du fils du comte d'Angoulême et de Louise de Savoie (le futur roi François Ier et son prénom fut attribué à l'enfant. En 1515 François Ier érigea en sa faveur la baronnie de La Rochefoucauld en comté en y incorporant la baronnie de Marthon.
François II de La Rochefoucauld (1494-1533), marié à Anne de Polignac, fait construire la plus grande partie du château : deux corps de logis, des galeries superposées, la chapelle et un grand escalier en colimaçon du même dessin que celui du château de Bonnivet en Poitou, détruit au début du XIXe siècle.
Cas unique en France, les galeries sont superposées sur trois étages selon un modèle italien (palais Farnèse).
Le château Renaissance conserve les éléments du château précédent (en particulier le donjon et les tours) : l'agencement est étudié pour que le donjon reste bien visible tant de l'extérieur du château que de l'intérieur de la cour.
Au XVIe siècle, François II de La Rochefoucauld ordonne en 1533 à sa future veuve de se retirer dans le château de Verteuil et le château de La Rochefoucauld inhabité n'est plus utilisé que pour les grandes réceptions officielles.
En 1760 l'aile XVIIe siècle, qui a brûlé, est reconstruite.
Les archives du château sont détruites à la Révolution.
L'accès au château se fait du côté du plateau, à travers un pavillon datant du début du 17e siècle1. L'édifice est précédé d'un vaste parterre sur lequel se développe la façade du corps de logis datant du 16e siècle1.
À la fin du XIXe siècle, l'aquafortiste vendéen Octave de Rochebrune (1824-1900) représente au moins deux aspects du château : sa façade dominant la Tardoire et le bourg et celles à triples galeries Renaissance de la cour intérieure.
En 1909, à la suite de la disparition prématurée de François XVII de La Rochefoucauld, son tombeau de style Renaissance, qui comporte son buste en marbre blanc ceint d'un tondo en céramique polychrome, est placé dans la chapelle - un portrait peint en pied, un temps transféré du grand salon, y a été depuis replacé - dont l'intérieur a été modifié : nouveaux vitraux, pose d'une tribune, chœur recarrelé en céramique vernissée portant inscrite, sur une banderole, la devise familiale : « C'est mon plaisir », et les initiales de l'enfant disparu. Y sont ensuite inhumés son père, François XVI (1853-1925), 11e duc, et sa mère Matti-Elizabeth Mitchell (1866-1933).
Des cartes postales de la collection Braun montrent la chapelle et certaines pièces meublées, mais la succession obérée de la duchesse, qui n'y aurait vécu que deux ans entraîna la vente de son mobilier, dont certains éléments présumés provenir du comte puis prince Orlov (1787-1862) sont acquis par Alphonse et Raymond Réthoré pour leur projet de château à la Mercerie près de Villebois-Lavalette mené de 1939 à 1970, et dont le mobilier est lui-même vendu aux enchères en 1987.
Le château, vidé, reste inhabité pendant de longues années. Pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, il sert de dépôt d'archives, puis, livré aux troupes d'Occupation, il en sort dans un état de délabrement avancé, qui ne fait que s'aggraver 40 ans plus tard.
Le 28 janvier 1960, la partie ouest du donjon s'effondre pour deux raisons : selon une inspection du château, toute la partie sud « glissait » sur le rocher, et ce très ancien bâtiment n'est plus guère entretenu. La crue de 1962 montre l'importance de la circulation de l'eau souterraine ; des explorations spéléologiques permettent de repérer d'importantes cavités karstiques qui risquent de mettre en danger la solidité du bâtiment.
Profitant du passage de Charles de Gaulle, président de la République, à La Rochefoucauld le 12 juin 1963, la municipalité et les représentants du Département sollicitent son intervention afin de consolider les fondations du château. Le président demande effectivement à André Malraux, ministre des Affaires culturelles, d'engager des études, notamment sur l'état du sous-sol portant les fondations, élément qui conditionnerait l'éventuelle intervention financière de l'État.
Plusieurs années de travaux sont nécessaires pour permettre de stabiliser les karsts situés sous le château. Ils continuent avec les parties en élévation, mais la restauration du donjon n'a malheureusement pu être engagée à ce jour. Ce fut l'opportunité pour les propriétaires de demander à l'architecte Ieoh Ming Pei « un projet d'inspiration très contemporaine ».
À la suite de la vente en 1993 par le 14e duc de La Rochefoucauld (mort à La Rochefoucauld en 2011) du château de Montmirail, les meubles, les nombreux tableaux (essentiellement des portraits de famille), livres et divers souvenirs familiaux qui s'y trouvaient sont installés à La Rochefoucauld,
Y sont également transférés ces dernières années du château de Liancourt, autre propriété familiale, une riche bibliothèque (fin du XVIIIe siècle) de plus de 20 000 volumes installés dans plusieurs salles aménagées à cet effet, sur des rayonnages offerts par la Caisse d'épargne, ainsi qu'un chartrier composé d'environ 10 000 pièces d'archives - dont nombre de copies d'actes anciens, faites au XVIIIe siècle - et 300 cartes et estampes.
Le château fait l'objet depuis 1990 d'une restauration d'envergure sous l'impulsion de Sonia Marie Matossian, veuve et seconde épouse du 14e duc de La Rochefoucauld.
En 2013, après plus de mille ans d'occupation, le château appartient toujours à la famille de La Rochefoucauld en la personne de François 15e duc de La Rochefoucauld qui hérita du château en 1972 de son grand-père.
Légende
Selon une légende, le château serait hanté par l'esprit de la fée Mélusine, qui se serait jetée du haut du donjon, ou par les âmes des fondateurs de la famille.
La grande vasque (4 m de diamètre) sur pied placée sur l'esplanade sud du château est l'élément constitutif de la fontaine monumentale en marbre de Carrare sculpté envoyée d'Italie en 1509 pour la cour d'honneur du château de Gaillon (Eure), propriété depuis 1262 des archevêques de Rouen, dont le cardinal Georges d'Amboise fit de 1506 à 1509 un "palais italien" et le premier château français de style Renaissance. La fontaine, en mauvais état d'entretien, fut démontée sur l'ordre du cardinal de Saulx-Tavannes (promu le 18 décembre 1733). Le dernier archevêque et primat de Normandie (25 avril 1759) résidant étant le cardinal de La Rochefoucauld, le bassin et son socle furent transportés au château de Liancourt (détruit), appartenant à cette famille, puis finalement placée ici.
Hahoe is the village where the members of Ryu family which originated from Hahoe Village have lived together for 600 years. It is a representative village for one family where tile-roofed houses and thatched roofed ones have been quite well conserved for a long time.
The village is especially well known as the birth place of Ryu Unryong and Ryu Seongryong. They were brothers: the one was a great Confucian scholar of the Joseon Dynasty: the other was Prime Minister during the period of the Japanese Invasion(from1592 to 1598) called Imjinwaeran.
The reason for the village name Hahoe(Ha means a river and Hoe means turning around) was that the Nakdong River flows around the village in an S shape. Hahoe Village looks like two connected spirals called Taeguek, a lotus flower floating on the water, and a boat gliding on the river. This configuration topologically makes the village a very good residence, so it has been known as a good place to live in since the time of the Joseon Dynasty. Mountain Hwa which originates from the Taebaek Mountains and is 271 meters high is located in the eastern part of the village.
Low hills of the mountain are stretched to the western part of the village. The location on which a great zelkova tree 600 years old stands is the highest in the village. The tree is called Samsindang in which a goddess called Samsin resides. The houses are faced to the river with the great tree at the center, so they are located facing various direction. Considering that many other houses in Korean are faced to the south or the south-east, the configuration of the houses in Hahoe Village is greatly contrasted. It is another characteristic thatched thatched roofed houses are placed in a circula form around tile-roofed houses.
Hahoe Village has conserved Hahoe Byeolsingut Mask Dance Play performed by the public in general, and Seonyujulbul Nori-a boat ride and fire paly enjoyed by the nobility called Yangban. The village conserves many cultural heritages which show Korean traditional living cultures and ancient architectual styles.
Source from
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Another photograph of a CFL light bulb from yesterday's photoshoot. Why not conserve my energy, too?
Fuel oil conservation. Logs snapping in the fireplace mean fuel conservation as well as cozy evenings at home. On crisp days when an open fire can keep the house warm, turn off the heating system and burn wood. This is one of the best ways to conserve fuel
1942 Sept.
1 negative : nitrate ; 4 x 5 inches or smaller.
Notes:
Actual size of negative is D (approximately 3 1/4 x 4 1/4 inches).
Title and other information from caption card.
Transfer; United States. Office of War Information. Overseas Picture Division. Washington Division; 1944.
Subjects:
United States.
Format: Nitrate negatives.
Repository: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA, hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print
Part Of: Farm Security Administration - Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress) (DLC) 2002708960
More information about the FSA/OWI Collection is available at hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.fsaowi
Higher resolution image is available (Persistent URL): hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/fsa.8b07446
Call Number: LC-USE6- D-006216
Bukit Timah Railway Station was a railway station (now a conserved recreational building) and crossing loop in Singapore, owned by Keretapi Tanah Melayu (KTM), the main railway operator in Malaysia.
It opened on the dismantled Tank Road mainline in 1903, was rebuilt on the current Singapore–Johor Bahru KTM Intercity mainline in 1932, until the Jurong Line shut down and it was a crossing loop station in the late 1940s until closure.
The station was a freight interchange for the now defunct Jurong Line from 1965 to the early 1990s.
On 1 July 2011 the line closed following a historic land-swap agreement between the Singapore and Malaysia governments which saw rail service between Woodlands and Tanjong Pagar cease.
like breakfast in the field
Visit this location at Matoluta Sanctuary -Conserve Freedom- in Second Life
It is the oldest conserved city of this state considering the date of foundation of the Fort Coimbra of 13 of September of 1775. The creation of the city of Santiago de Xerez of 1593 and of the installations of Jesuit settlements of the Spanish occupation even before the fort were destroyed by bandeirantes Luso-paulistas. And disputes over territory between Portuguese and Spanish are the origin of the city whose first village arose in 1778, with the name of Villa of Our Lady of the Conception of Albuquerque, founded by the sergeant-master Marcelino Rois Peasants, to the control of the Governor of the Captaincy of Mato Grosso, Captain-General Luís de Albuquerque de Melo Pereira and Cáceres. The city has always been very strategic regionally for the entry of European goods and its location, after the Albuquerque mountain range (which ends the Pantanal to the south), in the last easily navigable stretch of the Paraguay River for larger vessels and the Pantanal border, Which ensured a rapid and rich growth between the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, when the rubber of the Amazon also began to be exported there. It was also an important river warehouse in Cuiabá and Cáceres, both important river centers of the region at a time when Corumbá was only reached by the river, which made the state parliament temporarily there (at that time Corumbá was not state's capital).
#colors #bridge #sunset #lights
Montagnes boisées bien conservées sur le piémont de la cordillère andine orientale dans le département de Boyaca en Colombie. Lors d'un voyage pour préparer de futurs tours nature avec l'agence de voyage Nature Experience. www.nature-experience-group.com/
Motañas boscosas bien conservadas en el pie de monte de la cordillera oriental andina en el departamento de Boyaca, Colombia. Durante un viaje para preparar nuevos tours de naturaleza con la agencia de viaje Nature Experience. www.nature-experience-group.com/es/
History
Shipyard: Chantiers Jouët, in Sartrouville
Commissioning: 1949
Status: conserved
Technical characteristics
Length: 11.5 m
Midship: 3.23 m
Draught: 0.93 m
Air draft: 7.00 m
displacement: 10.4 tonnes
Propulsion: 2 Baudouin DB2M engines (1949)
Power: 2 × 28 hp
Speed: 7.9 knots
Career
shipper: Aimée-Hilda Association
Flag: France
Homeport: Ploumanac'h
indicative: PL334386
Protection: Heritage Interest Boat (2015)
History
In august 1944, the German army destroys the shelter and its lifeboat in the Cove of Pors Kamor . In August 1948 a strong emotion in the absence of any means of help in front of the sinking of the Petite Annie provokes a burst of generosity to put a lifeboat back into service. Thanks to the donations of Madame Aimée Fournier and Miss Hilda Gelis Didot, the construction of this new canoe was carried out at the Jouët shipyard in Sartrouville in 1949 1 . They become the godmother and their first names are used to baptize Aimée-Hilda .
Pors Kamor's hold will be repaired and a new shelter is rebuilt with its cart and an electric winch.
Service
The lifeboat will be used from 1950 to 1975 at the rescue station of the Central Rescue Society (SCS) of Ploumanac'h, which became the National Sea Rescue Society (SNSM) in 1967 1 .
Put out of rescue service in 1975, she continued to serve as a service vessel in the floating port of Perros-Guirec .
In 1995, the association for the conservation, safeguard, management and operation of the Ploumanac'h Aimée-Hilda lifeboat was created 1 . After two years of restoration, it was relaunched in 1997 and is armed for navigation 5 th class.
The only lifeboat of this model still afloat, it participated in numerous maritime events. He was present at the Tonnerres de Brest in 2012 .
Made from 14 multirow Fujifilm X-S10 shots with Hugin, this time using the Brenizer method.
HDR from RAW files and postprocessing done in Luminar Neo. Denoising done with Topaz DenoiseAI.
Check out the original file (12134 x 11830 px = 143 MPx) here: pan.musicaloris.de/DenoiseAI-DSCF0853-14x35mm-pan-standar...
- Même habillé de blanc il conserve ses dessous roses.
- Even dressed in white he keeps her pink underwear.
Merci pour vos commentaires _ thanks for your comments and favs _ gracias por sus comentarios y favoritos
Seule partie conservée de l'ancienne abbatiale construite entre 1001 et 1018 par l'abbé Guillaume de Volpiano pour abriter le tombeau de Saint-Bénigne, la crypte de l'église - érigée en cathédrale en 1792- est l’étage inférieur d'une rotonde du bâtiment initial. À l'origine, elle n'était pas souterraine. Comblée à la Révolution, elle fut dégagée et restaurée au milieu du 19ème siècle.
La crypte fait l'objet d'un classement au titre des monuments histo-riques depuis 1846
88 " Land Rover 2A Station Wagon Restoration, Designed by Border Rovers and Built by Retroworks.
Owned and operated by Border Rovers:
07515899390
View from the road in Manu National Park, going down towards the amazon region. Dramatic landscapes, deep and impressive canyons, tall waterfalls, well conserved forests. A kind of pristine paradise surviving on Earth ! Cusco department, Southeastern Peru.
Vista desde la carretera en el Parque Nacional del Manual bajar hacía la región amazonica. Paisajes espectaculares, cañones profundos impreionantes, bosques bien conservados. Un tipo de paraiso pristino sobreviviendo en la Tierra ! Departamento del Cusco, sudeste del Peru.
This wonderful old bench, seen on the acreage belonging to the Dover family on 25 September 2015, has been taken over by various lichens. The Dovers preserve and conserve, and their forest and gardens hold some neat treasures. Being interested in nature and botany, we thought this bench was quite interesting to see.
In the morning of 25 September 2015, six of us were lucky enough to explore a tiny part of the land belonging to Frances and David Dover. For two of us (myself and our leader), this was our second visit - for the rest, it was a first time there.
I will copy and paste the description I posted on Flickr from our first visit to the Dover's acreage, on 7 August 2015:
"Yesterday, 7 August 2015, four of us were extremely fortunate to have the chance to visit the home and highly varied topographic 62-acre property belonging to Frances and David Dover. We felt honoured and privileged to meet and spend time with Frances and David, and also their daughter Carolyn and her husband Clair. A delightful family who welcomed us so warmly into their home and land.
This acreage of grassland, forest, rolling hills - and special gardens - is not far from Millarville, SW of Calgary. In fact, it's in an area that I often drive through when I only have time for, or only feel like doing, a short drive. Amazing what little gems exist out there.
This is not just a beautiful property, but is very special for various reasons. For one thing, read any history of Alberta and you will find the Dover family, including David's mother, Mary Dover. Second, among the trees and open "lawns", there are Peony flower beds, containing 100-150 heritage Peonies, each one different, that have now multiplied to more than 300 plants. Unfortunately, they bloomed a couple of weeks early this year, and all the flowers had gone to seed. Another open area had a different kind of ground cover - Thyme, which smelled wonderful. If I remember correctly, this was the open space where the Calgary Philharmonic Orchestra performed on one occasion!
There are two large ponds on the property and another smaller area of water that they hope to turn into a Japanese Garden. It was while walking around the latter that a large brown 'shape' could be seen through the dense trees - a handsome Moose buck. I will look properly at the four or so photos I just managed to get and will slip one of them into my photostream sometime soon, just for the record, definitely not for the photo quality : ) This was also where a Great Horned Owl was seen flying through the trees by some of us (not me, ha!).
There are grassy paths winding through the acreage, up and down hill, that take David seven hours to mow. They are not pristine, velvety paths, but instead, they seem to take nothing away from the wildness of the whole area. One of the animals that have passed through is the Cougar. In fact, several years ago, I saw a video taken on a nearby (or adjacent?) property, where a 'kill' and night-time camera had been set up and a total of six different Cougar individuals were seen!
Even the Dover's home is unique and beautiful. It is completely built of concrete - floors, walls, ceilings, roof, deck, and so on. A Hummingbird feeder and regular bird feeders, set up on the patio, attract a variety of birds. We sat on the patio after our walk to eat our packed lunches - and to enjoy a delicious Orange Pound Cake that Frances had made for us, along with refreshing Iced Tea - thank you so much for this, Frances! Yesterday, while I was waiting for one of three tiny Calliope Hummingbirds to come back, I was lucky enough to see a little Mountain Chickadee, along with many Pine Siskins. We could also hear a Red-tailed Hawk in the area.
There is just so much I could write about this visit and family. Instead, or for now, I will add several links to more information on the Internet. This was a memorable day for us. Thank you so much, Frances and David, Carolyn and Clair, for being so kind and welcoming us into your home and gardens.
books.google.ca/books?id=Tr36Tq_gadcC&pg=PA290&lp...
www.westernwheel.com/article/20110727/WHE06/307279983/-1/...
David's mother, Mary Dover (her father was A. E. Cross), was "a dynamic and distinguished Calgarian, particularly known for her work with the military during World War II." As well as being an army officer, and an alderman, she was also a preservationist. See the following link.
www.albertachampions.org/champions-mary_dover.htm#.VcY1KP...
ww2.glenbow.org/search/archivesMainResults.aspx?XC=/searc...
glencoe.org/documents/10184/637479/The-History-of-Elbow-P... page 44-45 ."
After our visit to the Dover's on 25 September 2015, I decided to drive eastwards along a road that I'd never driven before, until I reached the main road going south. From there, it was a fairly short drive to the Saskatoon Farm. As usual, I wandered round the grounds with my camera and then, when I was ready to leave, I ordered a pizza to take home with me. The inside of the gift shop has recently been renovated and they now have a pizza oven and area.
He conserves it well while he's home alone, sometimes for up to 10 hours (no, he's never crated) - he knows he will be well rewarded as when we're done with whatever we're doing during most of the days and then it's OUZO TIME :) It's a time we all enjoy and cherrish.
You can read more about this pair of American Bald Eagles at Conserve Wildlife Foundation of New Jersey www.conservewildlifenj.org/blog/2017/11/20/w34-a-ny-bande...
SPOTLIGHT ON THE BALD EAGLE’S ALL-AMERICAN COMEBACK IN NEW JERSEY
by Lindsay McNamara, Communications Manager
June 20th 2016
In 1985 — just 31 years ago — a single bald eagle nest remained in the state of New Jersey. In 2015, CWF and partners monitored 161 nests throughout the Garden State. Just this year (as of June 20, 2016), over 50 young eagles have already fledged from their nests! What sparked this All-American comeback of the United States’ National Bird?
DDT use was banned in the United States in 1972. That ban combined with restoration efforts by biologists within the NJ Division of Fish and Wildlife’s Endangered and Nongame Species Program (ENSP) resulted in 25 bald eagle pairs by 2000.
In 2017 the number of New Jersey active bald eagle pairs was 170.
For more info: www.conservewildlifenj.org/blog/tag/new-jersey-bald-eagle...
New Jersey Bald Eagle Project Report | 2016
New Jersey Bald Eagle Project Report | 2016 may be downloaded here: docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYX...
For more info: www.conservewildlifenj.org/blog/tag/new-jersey-bald-eagle...
Commentary.
This conserved wharf was the home of the Wey Navigation barges
that traded heavy goods between Weybridge, Godalming, Guildford
and the Port of London in the early 1800’s.
The convoluted meanders of the River Wey prevented lengthy barges from travelling along the river.
The Wey and Godalming Navigation or canal was completed in 1653 with 12 locks.
Not until 1764 were the final four locks completed along the 20-mile stretch.
Such an improvement allowed vigorous trade of heavy goods including: - timber, corn, flour, wood, coal and gunpowder from the Chilworth mills.
Dapdune Wharf was Guildford’s centre for the construction and dry-docking of barges for essential maintenance.
In recent years the National Trust has maintained this historic site.
Boat trips on the Dapdune Belle carry up to 12 visitors, plus the skipper, on most days of the week.
The site also has parking space and a café for visitors to
this fascinating historical venue that has a charm now,
that belies the hard work it witnessed in our industrial past.
Original Caption: To Conserve Electricity All Portland High Schools Had Their Football Games Rescheduled for Daylight Hours at Multnomah Stadium. Normally They Were Played at Night. A Few Fans Are Shown Camped Under Rain Gear Watching a Game 10/1973
U.S. National Archives’ Local Identifier: 412-DA-12957
Photographer: Falconer, David
Subjects:
Portland (Multnomah county, Oregon, United States) inhabited place
Environmental Protection Agency
Project DOCUMERICA
Persistent URL: arcweb.archives.gov/arc/action/ExternalIdSearch?id=555409
Repository: Still Picture Records Section, Special Media Archives Services Division (NWCS-S), National Archives at College Park, 8601 Adelphi Road, College Park, MD, 20740-6001.
For information about ordering reproductions of photographs held by the Still Picture Unit, visit: www.archives.gov/research/order/still-pictures.html
Reproductions may be ordered via an independent vendor. NARA maintains a list of vendors at www.archives.gov/research/order/vendors-photos-maps-dc.html
Access Restrictions: Unrestricted
Use Restrictions: Unrestricted
History
Shipyard: Chantiers Jouët, in Sartrouville
Commissioning: 1949
Status: conserved
Technical characteristics
Length: 11.5 m
Midship: 3.23 m
Draught: 0.93 m
Air draft: 7.00 m
displacement: 10.4 tonnes
Propulsion: 2 Baudouin DB2M engines (1949)
Power: 2 × 28 hp
Speed: 7.9 knots
Career
shipper: Aimée-Hilda Association
Flag: France
Homeport: Ploumanac'h
indicative: PL334386
Protection: Heritage Interest Boat (2015)
History
In august 1944, the German army destroys the shelter and its lifeboat in the Cove of Pors Kamor . In August 1948 a strong emotion in the absence of any means of help in front of the sinking of the Petite Annie provokes a burst of generosity to put a lifeboat back into service. Thanks to the donations of Madame Aimée Fournier and Miss Hilda Gelis Didot, the construction of this new canoe was carried out at the Jouët shipyard in Sartrouville in 1949 1 . They become the godmother and their first names are used to baptize Aimée-Hilda .
Pors Kamor's hold will be repaired and a new shelter is rebuilt with its cart and an electric winch.
Service
The lifeboat will be used from 1950 to 1975 at the rescue station of the Central Rescue Society (SCS) of Ploumanac'h, which became the National Sea Rescue Society (SNSM) in 1967 1 .
Put out of rescue service in 1975, she continued to serve as a service vessel in the floating port of Perros-Guirec .
In 1995, the association for the conservation, safeguard, management and operation of the Ploumanac'h Aimée-Hilda lifeboat was created 1 . After two years of restoration, it was relaunched in 1997 and is armed for navigation 5 th class.
The only lifeboat of this model still afloat, it participated in numerous maritime events. He was present at the Tonnerres de Brest in 2012 .
2018 NJ BALD EAGLE PROJECT REPORT
by: Larissa Smith, CWF Wildlife Biologist
The Conserve Wildlife Foundation of NJ in partnership with the NJ Division of Fish and Wildlife, Endangered and Nongame Species Program, has released the 2018 NJ Bald Eagle Project Report.
“Two hundred-four nest sites were monitored during the nesting season, of which 185 were documented to be active (with eggs) and 19 were territorial or housekeeping pairs. Thirty new eagle pairs were found this season, 20 in the south, nine in central and one in the north. One hundred-twenty-one nests (66%) of the 182 known-outcome nests produced 172 young, for a productivity rate of 0.94 young per active/known-outcome nest. The failure rate was well above average with 61 nests (33%) failing to produce. The Delaware Bay region remained the state’s eagle stronghold, with roughly half of nests located in Cumberland and Salem counties and the bayside of Cape May County.”
The number of active nests has increased while the number of young eagles fledged has decreased since a high of 216 young fledged in 2016. During the 2018 eagle nesting season there was an abundance of cold, wet, windy and snowy weather which was the cause for a portion of the nest failures. As the eagle population increases, there are more eagles competing for territories. This can also be a contributing factor in nest failures. NJ is still in the range of 0.9 to 1.1 young per nest which is needed for population maintenance with a productivity rate of 0.94 young per known-outcome/active nest in 2018. The 2018 NJ Eagle Project Report has all the details on the project including telemetry, re-sightings and recoveries.
The success of the eagle project is due to the tremendous dedication of the NJ Eagle Project Volunteers. They monitor the nests in all types of conditions and education people about the eagles with enthusiasm.
Link to the 2018 NJ Bald Eagle Project Report: www.conservewildlifenj.org/downloads/cwnj_852.pdf
Rijks Museum - National Museum of Netherlands
Vision
The Rijksmuseum links individuals with art and history.
Mission
At the Rijksmuseum, art and history take on new meaning for a broad-based, contemporary national and international audience.
As a national institute, the Rijksmuseum offers a representative overview of Dutch art and history from the Middle Ages onwards, and of major aspects of European and Asian art.
The Rijksmuseum keeps, manages, conserves, restores, researches, prepares, collects, publishes, and presents artistic and historical objects, both on its own premises and elsewhere.
From 1800 to 2013
The Rijksmuseum first opened its doors in 1800 under the name ‘Nationale Kunstgalerij’. At the time, it was housed in Huis ten Bosch in The Hague. The collection mainly comprised paintings and historical objects. In 1808, the museum moved to the new capital city of Amsterdam, where it was based in the Royal Palace on Dam Square.
After King Willem I’s accession to the throne, the paintings and national print collection were moved to the Trippenhuis on Kloveniersburgwal, while the other objects were returned to The Hague. The current building was put into use in 1885. The Netherlands Museum for History and Art based in The Hague moved into the same premises, forming what would later become the departments of Dutch History and Sculpture & Applied Art.
The beginning
On 19 November 1798, more than three years after the birth of the Batavian Republic, the government decided to honour a suggestion put forward by Isaac Gogel by following the French example of setting up a national museum. The museum initially housed the remains of the viceregal collections and a variety of objects originating from state institutions. When the Nationale Kunstgalerij first opened its doors on 31 May 1800, it had more than 200 paintings and historical objects on display. In the years that followed, Gogel and the first director, C.S. Roos, made countless acquisitions. Their first purchase, The Swan by Jan Asselijn, cost 100 Dutch guilders and is still one of the Rijksmuseum’s top pieces.
Move to Amsterdam
In 1808, the new King Louis Napoleon ordered the collections to be moved to Amsterdam, which was to be made the capital of the Kingdom of Holland. The works of art and objects were taken to the Royal Palace on Dam Square, the former city hall of Amsterdam, where they were united with the city’s foremost paintings, including the Night Watch by Rembrandt. In 1809, the Koninklijk Museum opened its doors on the top floor of the palace.
A few years after Willem I returned to the Netherlands as the new king in 1813, the ‘Rijks Museum’ and the national print collection from The Hague relocated to the Trippenhuis, a 17th-century town-palace on Kloveniersburgwal, home to what would later become the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Much to the regret of the director, Cornelis Apostool, in 1820 many objects including pieces of great historical interest were assigned to the Kabinet van Zeldzaamheden [Royal Gallery of Rare Objects], which had been founded in The Hague. In 1838, a separate museum for modern 19th-century art was established in Paviljoen Welgelegen in Haarlem. Contrary to the days of Louis Napoleon, very few large acquisitions were made during this period.
Cuypers Cathedral
The Trippenhuis proved unsuitable as a museum. Furthermore, many people thought it time to establish a dedicated national museum building in the Netherlands. Work on a new building did not commence until 1876, after many years of debate. The architect, Pierre Cuypers, had drawn up a historic design for the Rijksmuseum, which combined the Gothic and the Renaissance styles. The design was not generally well-received; people considered it too mediaeval and not Dutch enough. The official opening took place in 1885.
Nearly all the older paintings belonging to the City of Amsterdam were hung in the Rijksmuseum alongside paintings and prints from the Trippenhuis, including paintings such as Rembrandt’s Jewish Bride, which had been bequeathed to the city by the banker A. van der Hoop. The collection of 19th-century art from Haarlem was also added to the museum’s collection. Finally, a significant part of the Kabinet van Zeldzaamheden, which had by then been incorporated into the new Netherlands Museum for History and Art, was returned to Amsterdam.
Renovations
Over the years, collections continued to grow and museum insight continued to expand, and so the Rijksmuseum building underwent many changes. Rooms were added to the south-west side of the building between 1904 and 1916 (now the Philips wing) to house the collection of 19th-century paintings donated to the museum by Mr and Mrs Drucker-Fraser. In the 1950s and 1960s, the two original courtyards were covered and renovated to create more rooms.
In 1927, while Schmidt-Degener was Managing Director, the Netherlands Museum was split to form the departments of Dutch History and Sculpture & Applied Art. These departments were moved to separate parts of the building after 1945. The arrival of a collection donated by the Association of Friends of Asian Art in the 1950s resulted in the creation of the Asian Art department.
The 1970s saw record numbers of visitors of almost one-and-a-half million per year, and the building gradually started to fall short of modern requirements.
‘Verder met Cuypers'
The current renovation reinstates the original Cuypers structure. The building work in the courtyards are removed. Paintings, applied art and history are no longer displayed in separate parts of the building, but form a single chronological circuit that tells the story of Dutch art and history.
The building is thoroughly modernized, while at the same time restoring more of Cuypers original interior designs: the Rijksmuseum has dubbed the venture ‘Verder met Cuypers‘ [Continuing with Cuypers]. The Rijksmuseum will be a dazzling new museum able to satisfy the needs of its 21st-century visitors!
Every year, the Rijksmuseum compiles an annual report for the previous year. Annual reports dating back to 1998 can be found here (in Dutch only). Reports relating to the years before 1998 are available in the reading room of the library.
O grupo de Laocoonte (Ver a foto da Escultura no Museu do Vaticano): www.flickr.com/photos/59863704@N00/3350602156/in/photolis...
Agesandro, Atenodoro e Polidoro: Grupo de Laocoonte, Museu Pio-Clementino
Um texto, em português, da Wapedia, que pode ser visto no endereço wapedia.mobi/pt/Grupo_de_Laocoonte
O grupo de Laocoonte é uma escultura em mármore, também conhecida como Laocoonte e seus filhos, hoje em dia exposta no Museu do Vaticano, em Roma. A estátua representa Laocoonte e seus dois filhos, Antiphantes e Thymbraeus, sendo estrangulados por duas serpentes marinhas, um episódio dramático da Guerra de Tróia relatado na Ilíada de Homero e na Eneida de Virgílio. Laocoonte, um sacerdote de Apolo, foi o único que pressentiu o perigo que o cavalo de Tróia representava para a cidade e que protestou contra a ideia de o levar para dentro das muralhas. Segundo a lenda, Poseidon, um deus que favorecia os gregos, enviou então duas serpentes para calar a voz da oposição. O cavalo acabou por ser levado para Tróia, com as consequências trágicas que se conhece.
O grupo de Laocoonte é descrito por Plínio o velho, no volume 36 da sua Naturalis Historia, como uma obra de arte superior a qualquer pintura ou bronze conhecido do autor. A escultura encontrava-se então no palácio do Imperador Tito. A autoria da obra é atribuída por Plínio a Agesandro, Atenodoro e Polidoro, três escultores da ilha de Rodes. Através do cruzamento desta informação com o período de vida dos escultores, a estátua fica datada na segunda metade do século I a.C., mais provavelmente entre 42 e 20 a.C. A escultura foi provavelmente encomendada por um cidadão romano rico, mas não se sabe exactamente como foi parar às mãos imperiais. Após esta menção de Plínio, o grupo de Laocoon desaparece nos 1400 anos seguintes.
No dia 14 de Janeiro de 1506, o romano Felice de Fredi descobriu uma estátua durante trabalhos de manutenção da sua vinha, localizada na zona das antigas termas de Tito. A escultura desconhecida estava desfeita em cinco pedaços, mas todos os habitantes da Roma renascentista sabiam reconhecer uma obra clássica quando a viam e de Fredi passou a palavra a Giuliano de Sangallo, arquitecto do papa Júlio II. Sangallo acorreu ao local da descoberta de imediato trazendo consigo Michelangelo Buonarroti, que por coincidência almoçava na sua casa nesse dia. De imediato, os dois reconheceram a estátua desfeita como o grupo de Laocoon descrito por Plínio e enviaram a notícia da descoberta a Júlio II, que comprou a estátua na hora por 4140 ducados.
A redescoberta do grupo de Laocoonte causou sensação em Roma e a sua apresentação à cidade como parte da colecção dos jardins do Vaticano foi um acontecimento social. Felice de Fredi foi recompensado com uma pensão vitalícia de 600 ducados por ano e quando morreu, o seu papel na descoberta da estátua ficou mencionada no seu túmulo.
Apesar de ser considerada já então uma obra impressionante, o grupo de Laocoonte era uma estátua incompleta pois faltava o braço direito da figura do próprio Laocoonte. A omissão provocou o debate da comunidade artística romana, polarizado entre duas opiniões: Michelangelo sugeriu que o braço estivesse dobrado sobre o ombro do personagem, enquanto que a maioria defendia que estivesse, pelo contrário, distendido numa posição mais heróica. Júlio II organizou então uma competição informal onde os escultores pudessem propôr a sua solução para o problema. Rafael, como júri do concurso, acabou por escolher uma proposta que representava o braço esticado, e a estátua foi completada desta forma. Em 1957, o verdadeiro braço perdido de Laocoon foi descoberto num antiquário italiano e, como Michelangelo previra, estava de facto dobrado sobre o ombro.
O grupo de Laocoonte depressa se transformou numa celebridade na Europa e num motivo de cobiça. No âmbito dos tratados assinados com França, o papa Leão X prometeu oferecer a estátua ao rei Francisco I de França. Mas como este papa era um amante de arte clássica, e não pretendia separar-se da obra prima, encomendou uma cópia ao escultor Baccio Bandinelli, que acabou por ser o modelo de muitas outras versões menores em bronze. O tratado com os franceses acabou por não ser cumprido e esta cópia encontra-se hoje exposta na galeria Uffizi em Florença.
Em 1799, Napoleão Bonaparte conquistou a Itália e levou o grupo de Laocoonte para o Museu do Louvre, em Paris, como espólio de guerra. A estátua acabou por ser devolvida ao Vaticano por iniciativa britânica, depois da queda de Bonaparte em 1816.
O Wikimedia Commons possui uma categoria contendo imagens e outros ficheiros sobre Grupo de Laocoonte (Ver outra foto no Museu do Vaticano) www.flickr.com/photos/59863704@N00/3350602156/in/photolis... )
O grupo de Laocoonte foi uma das influências principais nos trabalhos de Michelangelo posteriores à sua descoberta. O escultor italiano ficou bastante impressionado com a monumentalidade da escultura e a estética helenística das personagens, em particular a figura de Laocoonte.
A estátua foi ainda objecto de comentários da autoria de Winckelmann e Goethe, e de profundas observações em "Laocoonte", um ensaio de Gotthold Lessing escrito em 1766, que se tornou um clássico da teoria estética.
O Rijksmuseum é um dos maiores e mais importantes museus da Europa.
É o maior dos Países Baixos, com acervo voltado quase todo aos artistas holandeses. As obras vão desde exemplares da arte sacra até a era dourada holandesa, além de uma substancial coleção de arte asiática.
Esse é o Rijksmuseum, o Museu Nacional dos Países Baixos. E aproveite, caro leitor, porque o Rijks esteve parcialmente fechado para reforma durante 10 anos – voltou a funcionar só em 2013. Ou seja, quem esteve em Amsterdam na última década não conheceu o Rijks, pelo menos não completamente
.
Mas o quê tem lá? Muita coisa. Destaque para as coleções de arte e História holandesas. Os trabalhos dos pintores Frans Hals e Johannes Vermeer são alguns dos mais concorridos, mas imbatível mesmo é Rembrandt van Rijn, considerado um dos maiores pintores de todos os tempos. Se você não é um fã de museus de arte, mas faz questão de conhecer o trabalho desses grandes artistas, uma dica: assim que chegar ao Rijks, vá direto para a ala onde estão as obras-primas. Assim você vê o mais importante no início da visita, quando ainda está descansado e poderá dedicar o tempo necessário para essas obras.
A mais famosa delas é a “A Ronda Noturna”, de Rembrandt, uma obra que inspirou músicas, pinturas, filmes e até um flash mob. Quando o Rijks foi reaberto, artistas recriam a cena mostrada no quadro dentro de um shopping de Amsterdam. A ação está no vídeo abaixo e eu te garanto que vale a pena dar play.
Read more: www.360meridianos.com/2014/01/museus-de-amsterdam.html#ix...
Read more: www.360meridianos.com/2014/01/museus-de-amsterdam.html#ix...
Rijksmuseum, Museu Nacional
42 Stadhouderskade
Amsterdam
O museu Rijksmuseum de Amsterdã é o Museu Nacional da Holanda, onde você encontrará uma impressionante coleção permanente, formada por 5.000 pinturas e 30.000 obras de arte, além de 17.000 objetos históricos.
Esse museu nacional foi fundado em 1885 e está instalado em um edifício de estilo neogótico. A sua principal atração é a extensa coleção de quadros pintados por artistas holandeses, abrangendo um período que vai do séc. XV aos dias de hoje. A obra de arte mais famosa em exibição é o quadro A Ronda Noturna, de Rembrandt.
O museu Rijksmuseum está dividido em cinco departamentos: pintura, escultura, arte aplicada, arte oriental, história dos Países Baixos e gravuras. O núcleo da coleção é a pintura e suas obras mais representativas são as que pertencem ao Século de Ouro holandês, com quadros de artistas como Rembrandt, Vermeer ou Frans Hals.
Ver fonte: dreamguides.edreams.pt/holanda/amsterda/rijksmuseum
Museu Rijks, Amesterdão
O Museu Rijks (Museu Nacional) é um edifício histórico, sendo o maior museu nos Países Baixos. O Museu é o maior no numero relativamente às suas colecções, na área do edifício em si, no financiamento e no numero de funcionários empregados.
Cada ano, mais de um milhão de pessoas visitam o Museu Rijks. O Museu emprega cerca de 400 pessoas, incluindo 45 conservadores de museu que são especializados em todas as áreas.
O Museu Rijks é internacionalmente reconhecido pelas suas exibições e publicações, mas não só apenas por estes produtos de grande qualidade, mas também pelas áreas no museu em si que são fonte de inspiração e encorajam a criação de novas ideias.
O museu também tem recursos consideráveis para a educação, para a decoração e apresentação de exibições. Importantes designers são regularmente chamados a trabalharem em projectos no Museu Rijks.
O edifício principal do Museu Rijks está a ser renovado. A boa noticia é que a melhor parte da exposição está apresentada na redesenhada ala Philips. O nome desta exposição denomina-se "The Masterpieces'.
O museu abre diariamente das 10 da manhã até ás 5 da tarde.
A entrada é pela Stadhouderskade 42.
Rijksmuseum
Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.
O Rijksmuseum é um museu nacional dos Países Baixos, localizada em Amsterdão na Praça do museu. O Rijksmuseum é dedicado à artes e história. Ele tem uma larga coleção de pinturas da idade de ouro neerlandesa e uma substancial coleção de arte asiática.
O museu foi fundado em 1800 na cidade da Haia para exibir a coleção do primeiro-ministro. Foi inspirado no exemplo francês. Pelos neerlandeses ficou conhecida como Galeria de Arte. Em 1808 o museu mudou-se para Amsterdã pelas ordens do rei Louis Napoleón, irmão de Napoleão Bonaparte. As pinturas daquela cidade, como A Ronda Nocturna de Rembrandt, tornaram-se parte da coleção.
Em 1885 o museu mudou-se para sua localização atual, construído pelo arquiteto neerlandês Pierre Cuypers. Ele combinou elementos góticos e renascentistas. O museu tem um posição proeminente na Praça do Museu, próximo ao Museu van Gogh e ao Museu Stedelijk. A construção é ricamente decorada com referências da história da arte neerlandesa. A Ronda Nocturna de Rembrandt tem seu próprio corredor no museu desde 1906. Desde 2003 o museu sofreu restaurações, mas as obras-primas são constatemente presentes para o público.
A coleção de pinturas inclui trabalhos de artistas como Jacob van Ruysdael, Frans Hals, Johannes Vermeer e Rembrandt e de alunos de Rembrandt.
Em 2005, 95% do museu está fechado para renovação, mas as pinturas da coleção permanente ainda estão em mostra em uma exibição especial chamada As Obras-primas.
Algumas das pinturas do museu:
Rembrandt van Rijn
A Ronda Nocturna
Os síndicos da guilda dos fabricantes de tecidos
A noiva judia
A lição de Anatomia do Dr. Deyman
Pedro negando Cristo
Saskia com um véu
Retrato de Titus em hábito de monge
Auto-retrato como Apóstolo Paulo
Tobias, Ana e o Bode
Johannes Vermeer:
A Leiteira
A Carta de Amor
Mulher de Azul a ler uma carta
A Rua pequena
Frans Hals:
Retrato de um jovem casal
A Companhia Reynier Real
O bebedor alegre
Retrato de Lucas De Clercq
Retrato de Nicolaes Hasselaer
Retrato de um homem
Página oficial do Rijksmuseum
Virtual Collection of Masterpieces (VCM)
O melhor museu de Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum
O Commons possui uma categoria contendo imagens e outros ficheiros sobre Rijksmuseum
Rijksmuseum Amsterdam
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Se você visitar Amsterdam, precisará conhecer o Museu Nacional da Holanda: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. O Museu Nacional fica na Praça do Museu, situada no centro de Amsterdam. O Museu Nacional, ou Rijksmuseum, possui uma maravilhosa coleção de arte e história holandesas. Após uma visita ao Rijksmuseum, você saberá mais sobre história e arte e terá visto alguns dos maiores marcos culturais da Holanda.
Obras-primas do Museu Nacional
Ao todo, a coleção do Rijksmuseum apresenta a história da Holanda em um contexto internacional, desde 1.100 até o presente. Há alguns ícones da história e cultura da Holanda que você não pode perder:
Ronda Noturna (de Nachtwacht) de Rembrandt é uma das mais famosas obras desse mestre holandês e é de tirar o fôlego.
O Rijksmuseum tem uma das melhores coleções de pinturas dos grandes mestres do século XVII, como Frans Hals, Jan Steen, Vermeer e Rembrandt.
Assim como o Museu Histórico de Haia, o Rijksmuseum apresenta lindas casas de bonecas, mobiliadas em detalhes, datando de 1676.
Se você não puder ir ao Delft Real, pode ainda apreciar algumas das melhores cerâmicas de Delft, de conjuntos de chá a vasos, no Museu Nacional.
Museu que é visita obrigatória em Amsterdam
Quer sua estadia em Amsterdam seja breve ou longa, você deve visitar o Rijksmuseum. Chegue cedo para evitar enfrentar filas. Combine a visita ao Rijksmuseum com várias outras atrações próximas, como o Museu Van Gogh, o Museu Stedelijk Amsterdam e a Coster Diamonds
Para obter mais informações sobre Amsterdam, retorne à página sobre Amsterdam ou à página sobre os museus de Amsterdam.
Original Caption: Both Oregon and Washington States Led the Nation in Reducing Driving Speeds to Conserve Gasoline before Federal Limits Were Passed. A Speed Limit Sign and a Reminder Are Shown Along Interstate #5 11/1973
U.S. National Archives’ Local Identifier: 412-DA-12975
Photographer: Falconer, David
Subjects:
Environmental Protection Agency
Project DOCUMERICA
Persistent URL: arcweb.archives.gov/arc/action/ExternalIdSearch?id=555427
Repository: Still Picture Records Section, Special Media Archives Services Division (NWCS-S), National Archives at College Park, 8601 Adelphi Road, College Park, MD, 20740-6001.
For information about ordering reproductions of photographs held by the Still Picture Unit, visit: www.archives.gov/research/order/still-pictures.html
Reproductions may be ordered via an independent vendor. NARA maintains a list of vendors at www.archives.gov/research/order/vendors-photos-maps-dc.html
Access Restrictions: Unrestricted
Use Restrictions: Unrestricted
Borgund Stave Church (Norwegian: Borgund stavkyrkje) is a former parish church of the Church of Norway in Lærdal Municipality in Vestland county, Norway. It was built around the year 1200 as the village church of Borgund, and belonged to Lærdal parish (part of the Sogn prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Bjørgvin) until 1868, when its religious functions were transferred to a "new" Borgund Church, which was built nearby. The old church was restored, conserved and turned into a museum. It is funded and run by the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Norwegian Monuments, and is classified as a triple-nave stave church of the Sogn-type. Its grounds contain Norway's sole surviving stave-built free-standing bell tower.
Borgund Stave Church was built sometime between 1180 and 1250 AD with later additions and restorations. Its walls are formed by vertical wooden boards, or staves, hence the name "stave church." The four corner posts are connected to one another by ground sills, resting on a stone foundation. The intervening staves rise from the ground sills; each is tongued and grooved, to interlock with its neighbours and form a sturdy wall. The exterior timber surfaces are darkened by protective layers of tar, distilled from pine.
Borgund is built on a basilica plan, with reduced side aisles, and an added chancel and apse. It has a raised central nave demarcated on four sides by an arcade. An ambulatory runs around this platform and into the chancel and apse, both added in the 14th century. An additional ambulatory, in the form of a porch, runs around the exterior of the building, sheltered under the overhanging shingled roof. The floor plan of this church resembles that of a central plan, double-shelled Greek cross with an apse attached to one end in place of the fourth arm. The entries to the church are in the three shorter arms of the cross.
Structurally, the building has been described as a "cube within a cube", each independent of the other. The inner "cube" is formed by continuous columns that rise from ground level to support the roof. The top of the arcade is formed by arched buttresses, knee jointed to the columns. Above the arcade, the columns are linked by cross-shaped, diagonal trusses, commonly dubbed "Saint Andrew's crosses"; these carry arched supports that offer the visual equivalent of a "second storey". While not a functional gallery, this is reminiscent of contemporary second story galleries of large stone churches elsewhere in Europe. Smaller beams running between these upper supporting columns help clamp everything firmly together. The weight of the roof is thus supported by buttresses and columns, preventing downward and outward movement of the stave walls.
The roof beams are supported by steeply angled scissor trusses that form an "X" shape with a narrow top span and a broader bottom span, tied by a bottom truss to prevent collapse. Additional support is given by a truss that cuts across the "X", below the crossing point but above the bottom truss. The roof is steeply pitched, boarded horizontally and clad with shingles. The original outer roof would have been weatherproofed with boards laid lengthwise, rather than shingles. In later years wooden shingles became more common. Scissor beam roof construction is typical of most stave churches.
Borgund has tiered, overhanging roofs, topped at their intersection by a shingle-roofed tower or steeple. On each of its four gables is a stylised "dragon" head, swooping from the carved roof ridge crests, Hohler remarks their similarity to the carved dragon heads found on the prows of Norse ships. Similar gable heads appear on small bronze church-shaped reliquaries common in Norway and Europe in this period. Borgund's current dragon heads are possible 18th century replacements; similar, original dragon heads remain on older structures, such as Lom Stave Church and nearby Urnes Stave Church. Borgund is one of the only stave churches to have preserved its crested ridge caps. They are carved with openwork vine and entangled plant designs.
The four outer dragon heads are perhaps the most distinctive of all non-Christian symbols adorning Borgund Stave Church. Their function is uncertain, and disputed; if pagan, they are recruited to the Christian cause in the battle between Good and Evil. They may have been intended to keep away evil spirits thought to threaten the church building; to ward off evil, rather than represent it,
On the lower side panel of the steeple are four carved circular cutouts. The carvings are weather-beaten, tarred and difficult to decipher, and there is disagreement about what they symbolize. Some[who?] believe they represent the four evangelists, symbolised by an eagle, an ox, a lion and a man. Hauglid describes the carvings as "dragons that extend their heads over to the neighboring field's dragon and bite into it", and points out their similarity to carvings at Høre Stave Church.
The church's west portal (the nave's main entrance), is surrounded by a larger carving of dragons biting each other in the neck and tail. At the bottom of the half-columns that flank the front entrance, two dragon heads spew vine stalks that wind upwards and are braided into the dragons above. The carving shares similarities with the west portal of Ål Stave Church, which also has kites[clarification needed] in a band braiding pattern, and follows the usual composition[clarification needed] in the Sogn-Valdres portals, a larger group of portals with very clear similarities. Bugge writes that Christian authority may have come to terms with such pagan and "wild scenes" in the church building because the rift could be interpreted as a struggle between good and evil; in Christian medieval art, the dragon was often used as a symbol of the devil himself but Bugge believes that the carvings were protective, like the dragon heads on the church roof.
The church interior is dark, as not much daylight enters the building. Some of the few sources of natural light are narrow circular windows along the roof, examples of daylighting. It was supposed that the narrow apertures would prevent the entry of evil spirits. Three entrances are heavily adorned with foliage and snakes, and are only wide enough for one person to enter, supposedly preventing the entry of evil spirits alongside the churchgoers. The portals were originally painted green, red, black, and white.
Most of the internal fittings have been removed. There is little in the building, apart from the row of benches that are installed along the wall inside the church in the ambulatory outside of the arcade and raised platform, a soapstone font, an altar (with 17th-century altarpiece), a 16th-century lectern, and a 16th-century cupboard for storing altar vessels. After the Reformation, when the church was converted for Protestant worship, pews, a pulpit and other standard church furnishings were included, however these have been removed since the building has come under the protection of the Fortidsminneforeningen (The Society for the Preservation of Norwegian Ancient Monuments).
The interior structure of the church is characterized by the twelve free-standing columns that support the nave's elevated central space. On the long side of the church there is a double interval between the second and third pillars, but with a half pillar resting on the lower bracing beam (the pier) which runs in between. The double interval provides free access from the south portal to the church's central compartment, which would otherwise have been obstructed by the middle bar. The tops of the poles are finished with grotesque, carved human and animal masks. The tie-bars are secured with braces in the form of St. Andrew's crosses with a sun - shaped center and carved leaf shapes along the arms. The crosses reappear in less ornate form as braces along the church walls. On the north and south sides of the nave, a total of eight windows let in small amounts of light, and at the top of the nave's west gable is a window of more recent date - probably from pre-Reformation times. On the south wall of the nave, the inauguration crosses are still on the inside of the wall. The interior choir walls and west portal have engraved figures and runes, some of which date to the Middle Ages. One, among the commonest of runic graffiti, reads "Ave Maria". An inscription by Þórir (Thor), written "in the evening at St. Olav's Mass" blames the pagan Norns for his problems; perhaps a residue of ancient beliefs, as these female beings were thought to rule the personal destinies of all in Norse mythology and the Poetic Edda.
The medieval interior of the stave church is almost untouched, save for its restorations and repairs, though the medieval crucifix was removed after the Reformation. The original wooden floor and the benches that run along the walls of the nave are largely intact, together with a medieval stone altar and a box-shaped baptismal font in soapstone. The pulpit is from the period 1550–1570 and the altarpiece dates from 1654, while the frame around the tablet is dated to 1620. The painting on the altarpiece shows the crucifixion in the centre, flanked by the Virgin Mary on the left and John the Baptist on the right. In the tympanum field, a white dove hovers on a blue background. Below the painting is an inscription with golden letters on a black background. A sacrament from the period 1550–1570 in the same style as the pulpit is also preserved. A restoration of the building was carried out in the early 1870s, led by the architect Christian Christie, who removed benches, a second-floor gallery with seating, a ceiling over the chancel, and various windows including two large windows on the north and south sides. As the goal was to return the church to pre-Reformation condition, all post-Reformation interior paintwork was also removed.
Images from the 1990s show deer antlers hung on the lower, east-facing pillars. A local story claims that this is all that remains of a whole stuffed reindeer, shot when it tried to enter during a Mass. A travelogue from 1668 claims that a reindeer was shot during a sermon "when it marched like a wizard in front of the other animal carcasses"
To the south of the church is a free-standing stave-work bell tower that covers remnants of the mediaeval foundry used to cast the church bell. It was probably built in the mid-13th century. It is Norway's only remaining free-standing stave-work bell tower.It was given a new door around the year 1700 but this was removed and not replaced at some time between the 1920s and 1940s, leaving the foundry pit was exposed. To preserve the interior, new walls were built as cladding on the outside of the stave walls in the 1990s. One of the medieval bells is on display in the new Borgund church.
Management
In 1868 the building was abandoned as a church but was turned into a museum; this saved it from the commonplace demolition of stave churches in that period. A new Borgund Church was built in 1868 a short distance south of the old church. The old church has not been formally used for religious purposes since that year. Borgund Stave Church was bought by the Society for the Preservation of Ancient Norwegian Monuments in 1877. The first guidebook in English for the stave church was published in 1898. From 2001, the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage has funded a program to research, restore, conserve and maintain stave churches.
Legacy
The church served as an example for the reconstruction of the Fantoft Stave Church in Fana, Bergen, in 1883 and for its rebuilding in 1997. The Gustav Adolf Stave Church in Hahnenklee, Germany, built in 1908, is modeled on the Borgund church. Four replicas exist in the United States, one at Chapel in the Hills, Rapid City, South Dakota, another in Lyme, Connecticut, the third on Washington Island, Wisconsin, and the fourth in Minot, North Dakota at the Scandinavian Heritage Park.
Borgund is a former municipality in Sogn og Fjordane county, Norway. It was located in the southeastern part of the traditional district of Sogn. The 635-square-kilometre (245 sq mi) municipality existed from 1864 until its dissolution in 1964. It encompassed an area in the eastern part of the present-day Lærdal Municipality. The administrative center of Borgund was the village of Steinklepp, just northeast of the village of Borgund. Steinklepp was the site of a store, a bank, and a school. The historical Filefjell Kongevegen road passes through the Borgund area.
Location
The former municipality of Borgund was situated near the southeastern end of the Sognefjorden, along the Lærdalselvi river. The lower parts of the municipality were farms such as Sjurhaugen and Nedrehegg. They were at an elevation of about 270 m (890 ft) above sea level. Høgeloft, on the border with the neighboring municipality of Hemsedal, is a mountain in the Filefjell range and it was the highest point in Borgund at 1,920 m (6,300 ft) above sea level. The lakes Eldrevatnet, Juklevatnet, and Øljusjøen were also located near the border with Hemsedal.
History
Borgund was established as a municipality in 1864 when it was separated from the municipality of Lærdal. Initially it had a population of 963. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the municipality of Borgund (population: 492) was merged with the Muggeteigen area (population: 11) of the neighboring Årdal Municipality and all of Lærdal Municipality (population: 1,755) were all merged to form a new, larger municipality of Lærdal
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway , is a Nordic , European country and an independent state in the west of the Scandinavian Peninsula . Geographically speaking, the country is long and narrow, and on the elongated coast towards the North Atlantic are Norway's well-known fjords . The Kingdom of Norway includes the main country (the mainland with adjacent islands within the baseline ), Jan Mayen and Svalbard . With these two Arctic areas, Norway covers a land area of 385,000 km² and has a population of approximately 5.5 million (2023). Mainland Norway borders Sweden in the east , Finland and Russia in the northeast .
Norway is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy , where Harald V has been king and head of state since 1991 , and Jonas Gahr Støre ( Ap ) has been prime minister since 2021 . Norway is a unitary state , with two administrative levels below the state: counties and municipalities . The Sami part of the population has, through the Sami Parliament and the Finnmark Act , to a certain extent self-government and influence over traditionally Sami areas. Although Norway has rejected membership of the European Union through two referendums , through the EEA Agreement Norway has close ties with the Union, and through NATO with the United States . Norway is a significant contributor to the United Nations (UN), and has participated with soldiers in several foreign operations mandated by the UN. Norway is among the states that have participated from the founding of the UN , NATO , the Council of Europe , the OSCE and the Nordic Council , and in addition to these is a member of the EEA , the World Trade Organization , the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development and is part of the Schengen area .
Norway is rich in many natural resources such as oil , gas , minerals , timber , seafood , fresh water and hydropower . Since the beginning of the 20th century, these natural conditions have given the country the opportunity for an increase in wealth that few other countries can now enjoy, and Norwegians have the second highest average income in the world, measured in GDP per capita, as of 2022. The petroleum industry accounts for around 14% of Norway's gross domestic product as of 2018. Norway is the world's largest producer of oil and gas per capita outside the Middle East. However, the number of employees linked to this industry fell from approx. 232,000 in 2013 to 207,000 in 2015.
In Norway, these natural resources have been managed for socially beneficial purposes. The country maintains a welfare model in line with the other Nordic countries. Important service areas such as health and higher education are state-funded, and the country has an extensive welfare system for its citizens. Public expenditure in 2018 is approx. 50% of GDP, and the majority of these expenses are related to education, healthcare, social security and welfare. Since 2001 and until 2021, when the country took second place, the UN has ranked Norway as the world's best country to live in . From 2010, Norway is also ranked at the top of the EIU's democracy index . Norway ranks third on the UN's World Happiness Report for the years 2016–2018, behind Finland and Denmark , a report published in March 2019.
The majority of the population is Nordic. In the last couple of years, immigration has accounted for more than half of population growth. The five largest minority groups are Norwegian-Poles , Lithuanians , Norwegian-Swedes , Norwegian-Syrians including Syrian Kurds and Norwegian-Pakistani .
Norway's national day is 17 May, on this day in 1814 the Norwegian Constitution was dated and signed by the presidency of the National Assembly at Eidsvoll . It is stipulated in the law of 26 April 1947 that 17 May are national public holidays. The Sami national day is 6 February. "Yes, we love this country" is Norway's national anthem, the song was written in 1859 by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson (1832–1910).
Norway's history of human settlement goes back at least 10,000 years, to the Late Paleolithic , the first period of the Stone Age . Archaeological finds of settlements along the entire Norwegian coast have so far been dated back to 10,400 before present (BP), the oldest find is today considered to be a settlement at Pauler in Brunlanes , Vestfold .
For a period these settlements were considered to be the remains of settlers from Doggerland , an area which today lies beneath the North Sea , but which was once a land bridge connecting today's British Isles with Danish Jutland . But the archaeologists who study the initial phase of the settlement in what is today Norway reckon that the first people who came here followed the coast along what is today Bohuslân. That they arrived in some form of boat is absolutely certain, and there is much evidence that they could easily move over large distances.
Since the last Ice Age, there has been continuous settlement in Norway. It cannot be ruled out that people lived in Norway during the interglacial period , but no trace of such a population or settlement has been found.
The Stone Age lasted a long time; half of the time that our country has been populated. There are no written accounts of what life was like back then. The knowledge we have has been painstakingly collected through investigations of places where people have stayed and left behind objects that we can understand have been processed by human hands. This field of knowledge is called archaeology . The archaeologists interpret their findings and the history of the surrounding landscape. In our country, the uplift after the Ice Age is fundamental. The history of the settlements at Pauler is no more than fifteen years old.
The Fosna culture settled parts of Norway sometime between 10,000–8,000 BC. (see Stone Age in Norway ). The dating of rock carvings is set to Neolithic times (in Norway between 4000 BC to 1700 BC) and show activities typical of hunters and gatherers .
Agriculture with livestock and arable farming was introduced in the Neolithic. Swad farming where the farmers move when the field does not produce the expected yield.
More permanent and persistent farm settlements developed in the Bronze Age (1700 BC to 500 BC) and the Iron Age . The earliest runes have been found on an arrowhead dated to around 200 BC. Many more inscriptions are dated to around 800, and a number of petty kingdoms developed during these centuries. In prehistoric times, there were no fixed national borders in the Nordic countries and Norway did not exist as a state. The population in Norway probably fell to year 0.
Events in this time period, the centuries before the year 1000, are glimpsed in written sources. Although the sagas were written down in the 13th century, many hundreds of years later, they provide a glimpse into what was already a distant past. The story of the fimbul winter gives us a historical picture of something that happened and which in our time, with the help of dendrochronology , can be interpreted as a natural disaster in the year 536, created by a volcanic eruption in El Salvador .
In the period between 800 and 1066 there was a significant expansion and it is referred to as the Viking Age . During this period, Norwegians, as Swedes and Danes also did, traveled abroad in longships with sails as explorers, traders, settlers and as Vikings (raiders and pirates ). By the middle of the 11th century, the Norwegian kingship had been firmly established, building its right as descendants of Harald Hårfagre and then as heirs of Olav the Holy . The Norwegian kings, and their subjects, now professed Christianity . In the time around Håkon Håkonsson , in the time after the civil war , there was a small renaissance in Norway with extensive literary activity and diplomatic activity with Europe. The black dew came to Norway in 1349 and killed around half of the population. The entire state apparatus and Norway then entered a period of decline.
Between 1396 and 1536, Norway was part of the Kalmar Union , and from 1536 until 1814 Norway had been reduced to a tributary part of Denmark , named as the Personal Union of Denmark-Norway . This staff union entered into an alliance with Napoléon Bonaparte with a war that brought bad times and famine in 1812 . In 1814, Denmark-Norway lost the Anglophone Wars , part of the Napoleonic Wars , and the Danish king was forced to cede Norway to the king of Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel on 14 January of that year. After a Norwegian attempt at independence, Norway was forced into a loose union with Sweden, but where Norway was allowed to create its own constitution, the Constitution of 1814 . In this period, Norwegian, romantic national feeling flourished, and the Norwegians tried to develop and establish their own national self-worth. The union with Sweden was broken in 1905 after it had been threatened with war, and Norway became an independent kingdom with its own monarch, Haakon VII .
Norway remained neutral during the First World War , and at the outbreak of the Second World War, Norway again declared itself neutral, but was invaded by National Socialist Germany on 9 April 1940 .
Norway became a member of the Western defense alliance NATO in 1949 . Two attempts to join the EU were voted down in referendums by small margins in 1972 and 1994 . Norway has been a close ally of the United States in the post-war period. Large discoveries of oil and natural gas in the North Sea at the end of the 1960s led to tremendous economic growth in the country, which is still ongoing. Traditional industries such as fishing are also part of Norway's economy.
Stone Age (before 1700 BC)
When most of the ice disappeared, vegetation spread over the landscape and due to a warm climate around 2000-3000 BC. the forest grew much taller than in modern times. Land uplift after the ice age led to a number of fjords becoming lakes and dry land. The first people probably came from the south along the coast of the Kattegat and overland into Finnmark from the east. The first people probably lived by gathering, hunting and trapping. A good number of Stone Age settlements have been found which show that such hunting and trapping people stayed for a long time in the same place or returned to the same place regularly. Large amounts of gnawed bones show that they lived on, among other things, reindeer, elk, small game and fish.
Flintstone was imported from Denmark and apart from small natural deposits along the southern coast, all flintstone in Norway is transported by people. At Espevær, greenstone was quarried for tools in the Stone Age, and greenstone tools from Espevær have been found over large parts of Western Norway. Around 2000-3000 BC the usual farm animals such as cows and sheep were introduced to Norway. Livestock probably meant a fundamental change in society in that part of the people had to be permanent residents or live a semi-nomadic life. Livestock farming may also have led to conflict with hunters.
The oldest traces of people in what is today Norway have been found at Pauler , a farm in Brunlanes in Larvik municipality in Vestfold . In 2007 and 2008, the farm has given its name to a number of Stone Age settlements that have been excavated and examined by archaeologists from the Cultural History Museum at UiO. The investigations have been carried out in connection with the new route for the E18 motorway west of Farris. The oldest settlement, located more than 127 m above sea level, is dated to be about 10,400 years old (uncalibrated, more than 11,000 years in real calendar years). From here, the ice sheet was perhaps visible when people settled here. This locality has been named Pauler I, and is today considered to be the oldest confirmed human traces in Norway to date. The place is in the mountains above the Pauler tunnel on the E18 between Larvik and Porsgrunn . The pioneer settlement is a term archaeologists have adopted for the oldest settlement. The archaeologists have speculated about where they came from, the first people in what is today Norway. It has been suggested that they could come by boat or perhaps across the ice from Doggerland or the North Sea, but there is now a large consensus that they came north along what is today the Bohuslän coast. The Fosna culture , the Komsa culture and the Nøstvet culture are the traditional terms for hunting cultures from the Stone Age. One thing is certain - getting to the water was something they mastered, the first people in our country. Therefore, within a short time they were able to use our entire long coast.
In the New Stone Age (4000 BC–1700 BC) there is a theory that a new people immigrated to the country, the so-called Stone Ax People . Rock carvings from this period show motifs from hunting and fishing , which were still important industries. From this period, a megalithic tomb has been found in Østfold .
It is uncertain whether there were organized societies or state-like associations in the Stone Age in Norway. Findings from settlements indicate that many lived together and that this was probably more than one family so that it was a slightly larger, organized herd.
Finnmark
In prehistoric times, animal husbandry and agriculture were of little economic importance in Finnmark. Livelihoods in Finnmark were mainly based on fish, gathering, hunting and trapping, and eventually domestic reindeer herding became widespread in the Middle Ages. Archaeological finds from the Stone Age have been referred to as the Komsa culture and comprise around 5,000 years of settlement. Finnmark probably got its first settlement around 8000 BC. It is believed that the coastal areas became ice-free 11,000 years BC and the fjord areas around 9,000 years BC. after which willows, grass, heather, birch and pine came into being. Finnmarksvidda was covered by pine forest around 6000 BC. After the Ice Age, the land rose around 80 meters in the inner fjord areas (Alta, Tana, Varanger). Due to ice melting in the polar region, the sea rose in the period 6400–3800 BC. and in areas with little land elevation, some settlements from the first part of the Stone Age were flooded. On Sørøya, the net sea level rise was 12 to 14 meters and many residential areas were flooded.
According to Bjørnar Olsen , there are many indications of a connection between the oldest settlement in Western Norway (the " Fosnakulturen ") and that in Finnmark, but it is uncertain in which direction the settlement took place. In the earliest part of the Stone Age, settlement in Finnmark was probably concentrated in the coastal areas, and these only reflected a lifestyle with great mobility and no permanent dwellings. The inner regions, such as Pasvik, were probably used seasonally. The archaeologically proven settlements from the Stone Age in inner Finnmark and Troms are linked to lakes and large watercourses. The oldest petroglyphs in Alta are usually dated to 4200 BC, that is, the Neolithic . Bjørnar Olsen believes that the oldest can be up to 2,000 years older than this.
From around 4000 BC a slow deforestation of Finnmark began and around 1800 BC the vegetation distribution was roughly the same as in modern times. The change in vegetation may have increased the distance between the reindeer's summer and winter grazing. The uplift continued slowly from around 4000 BC. at the same time as sea level rise stopped.
According to Gutorm Gjessing, the settlement in Finnmark and large parts of northern Norway in the Neolithic was semi-nomadic with movement between four seasonal settlements (following the pattern of life in Sami siida in historical times): On the outer coast in summer (fishing and seal catching) and inland in winter (hunting for reindeer, elk and bear). Povl Simonsen believed instead that the winter residence was in the inner fjord area in a village-like sod house settlement. Bjørnar Olsen believes that at the end of the Stone Age there was a relatively settled population along the coast, while inland there was less settlement and a more mobile lifestyle.
Bronze Age (1700 BC–500 BC)
Bronze was used for tools in Norway from around 1500 BC. Bronze is a mixture of tin and copper , and these metals were introduced because they were not mined in the country at the time. Bronze is believed to have been a relatively expensive material. The Bronze Age in Norway can be divided into two phases:
Early Bronze Age (1700–1100 BC)
Younger Bronze Age (1100–500 BC)
For the prehistoric (unwritten) era, there is limited knowledge about social conditions and possible state formations. From the Bronze Age, there are large burial mounds of stone piles along the coast of Vestfold and Agder, among others. It is likely that only chieftains or other great men could erect such grave monuments and there was probably some form of organized society linked to these. In the Bronze Age, society was more organized and stratified than in the Stone Age. Then a rich class of chieftains emerged who had close connections with southern Scandinavia. The settlements became more permanent and people adopted horses and ard . They acquired bronze status symbols, lived in longhouses and people were buried in large burial mounds . Petroglyphs from the Bronze Age indicate that humans practiced solar cultivation.
Finnmark
In the last millennium BC the climate became cooler and the pine forest disappears from the coast; pine forests, for example, were only found in the innermost part of the Altafjord, while the outer coast was almost treeless. Around the year 0, the limit for birch forest was south of Kirkenes. Animals with forest habitats (elk, bear and beaver) disappeared and the reindeer probably established their annual migration routes sometime at that time. In the period 1800–900 BC there were significantly more settlements in and utilization of the hinterland was particularly noticeable on Finnmarksvidda. From around 1800 BC until year 0 there was a significant increase in contact between Finnmark and areas in the east including Karelia (where metals were produced including copper) and central and eastern Russia. The youngest petroglyphs in Alta show far more boats than the earlier phases and the boats are reminiscent of types depicted in petroglyphs in southern Scandinavia. It is unclear what influence southern Scandinavian societies had as far north as Alta before the year 0. Many of the cultural features that are considered typical Sami in modern times were created or consolidated in the last millennium BC, this applies, among other things, to the custom of burying in brick chambers in stone urns. The Mortensnes burial ground may have been used for 2000 years until around 1600 AD.
Iron Age (c. 500 BC–c. 1050 AD)
The Einangsteinen is one of the oldest Norwegian runestones; it is from the 4th century
Simultaneous production of Vikings
Around 500 years BC the researchers reckon that the Bronze Age will be replaced by the Iron Age as iron takes over as the most important material for weapons and tools. Bronze, wood and stone were still used. Iron was cheaper than bronze, easier to work than flint , and could be used for many purposes; iron probably became common property. Iron could, among other things, be used to make solid and sharp axes which made it much easier to fell trees. In the Iron Age, gold and silver were also used partly for decoration and partly as means of payment. It is unknown which language was used in Norway before our era. From around the year 0 until around the year 800, everyone in Scandinavia (except the Sami) spoke Old Norse , a North Germanic language. Subsequently, several different languages developed in this area that were only partially mutually intelligible. The Iron Age is divided into several periods:
Early Iron Age
Pre-Roman Iron Age (c. 500 BC–c. 0)
Roman Iron Age (c. 0–c. AD 400)
Migration period (approx. 400–600). In the migration period (approx. 400–600), new peoples came to Norway, and ruins of fortress buildings etc. are interpreted as signs that there has been talk of a violent invasion.
Younger Iron Age
Merovingian period (500–800)
The Viking Age (793–1066)
Norwegian Vikings go on plundering expeditions and trade voyages around the coastal countries of Western Europe . Large groups of Norwegians emigrate to the British Isles , Iceland and Greenland . Harald Hårfagre starts a unification process of Norway late in the 8th century , which was completed by Harald Hardråde in the 1060s . The country was Christianized under the kings Olav Tryggvason , fell in the battle of Svolder ( 1000 ) and Olav Haraldsson (the saint), fell in the battle of Stiklestad in 1030 .
Sources of prehistoric times
Shrinking glaciers in the high mountains, including in Jotunheimen and Breheimen , have from around the year 2000 uncovered objects from the Viking Age and earlier. These are objects of organic material that have been preserved by the ice and that elsewhere in nature are broken down in a few months. The finds are getting older as the melting makes the archaeologists go deeper into the ice. About half of all archaeological discoveries on glaciers in the world are made in Oppland . In 2013, a 3,400-year-old shoe and a robe from the year 300 were found. Finds at Lomseggen in Lom published in 2020 revealed, among other things, well-preserved horseshoes used on a mountain pass. Many hundreds of items include preserved clothing, knives, whisks, mittens, leather shoes, wooden chests and horse equipment. A piece of cloth dated to the year 1000 has preserved its original colour. In 2014, a wooden ski from around the year 700 was found in Reinheimen . The ski is 172 cm long and 14 cm wide, with preserved binding of leather and wicker.
Pytheas from Massalia is the oldest known account of what was probably the coast of Norway, perhaps somewhere on the coast of Møre. Pytheas visited Britannia around 325 BC. and traveled further north to a country by the "Ice Sea". Pytheas described the short summer night and the midnight sun farther north. He wrote, among other things, that people there made a drink from grain and honey. Caesar wrote in his work about the Gallic campaign about the Germanic tribe Haruders. Other Roman sources around the year 0 mention the land of the Cimbri (Jutland) and the Cimbri headlands ( Skagen ) and that the sources stated that Cimbri and Charyds lived in this area. Some of these peoples may have immigrated to Norway and there become known as hordes (as in Hordaland). Sources from the Mediterranean area referred to the islands of Scandia, Scandinavia and Thule ("the outermost of all islands"). The Roman historian Tacitus wrote around the year 100 a work about Germania and mentioned the people of Scandia, the Sviones. Ptolemy wrote around the year 150 that the Kharudes (Hordes) lived further north than all the Cimbri, in the north lived the Finnoi (Finns or Sami) and in the south the Gutai (Goths). The Nordic countries and Norway were outside the Roman Empire , which dominated Europe at the time. The Gothic-born historian Jordanes wrote in the 5th century about 13 tribes or people groups in Norway, including raumaricii (probably Romerike ), ragnaricii ( Ranrike ) and finni or skretefinni (skrid finner or ski finner, i.e. Sami) as well as a number of unclear groups. Prokopios wrote at the same time about Thule north of the land of the Danes and Slavs, Thule was ten times as big as Britannia and the largest of all the islands. In Thule, the sun was up 40 days straight in the summer. After the migration period , southern Europeans' accounts of northern Europe became fuller and more reliable.
Settlement in prehistoric times
Norway has around 50,000 farms with their own names. Farm names have persisted for a long time, over 1000 years, perhaps as much as 2000 years. The name researchers have arranged different types of farm names chronologically, which provides a basis for determining when the place was used by people or received a permanent settlement. Uncompounded landscape names such as Haug, Eid, Vik and Berg are believed to be the oldest. Archaeological traces indicate that some areas have been inhabited earlier than assumed from the farm name. Burial mounds also indicate permanent settlement. For example, the burial ground at Svartelva in Løten was used from around the year 0 to the year 1000 when Christianity took over. The first farmers probably used large areas for inland and outland, and new farms were probably established based on some "mother farms". Names such as By (or Bø) show that it is an old place of residence. From the older Iron Age, names with -heim (a common Germanic word meaning place of residence) and -stad tell of settlement, while -vin and -land tell of the use of the place. Farm names in -heim are often found as -um , -eim or -em as in Lerum and Seim, there are often large farms in the center of the village. New farm names with -city and -country were also established in the Viking Age . The first farmers probably used the best areas. The largest burial grounds, the oldest archaeological finds and the oldest farm names are found where the arable land is richest and most spacious.
It is unclear whether the settlement expansion in Roman times, migrations and the Iron Age is due to immigration or internal development and population growth. Among other things, it is difficult to demonstrate where in Europe the immigrants have come from. The permanent residents had both fields (where grain was grown) and livestock that grazed in the open fields, but it is uncertain which of these was more important. Population growth from around the year 200 led to more utilization of open land, for example in the form of settlements in the mountains. During the migration period, it also seems that in parts of the country it became common to have cluster gardens or a form of village settlement.
Norwegian expansion northwards
From around the year 200, there was a certain migration by sea from Rogaland and Hordaland to Nordland and Sør-Troms. Those who moved settled down as a settled Iron Age population and became dominant over the original population which may have been Sami . The immigrant Norwegians, Bumen , farmed with livestock that were fed inside in the winter as well as some grain cultivation and fishing. The northern border of the Norwegians' settlement was originally at the Toppsundet near Harstad and around the year 500 there was a Norwegian settlement to Malangsgapet. That was as far north as it was possible to grow grain at the time. Malangen was considered the border between Hålogaland and Finnmork until around 1400 . Further into the Viking Age and the Middle Ages, there was immigration and settlement of Norwegian speakers along the coast north of Malangen. Around the year 800, Norwegians lived along the entire outer coast to Vannøy . The Norwegians partly copied Sami livelihoods such as whaling, fur hunting and reindeer husbandry. It was probably this area between Malangen and Vannøy that was Ottar from the Hålogaland area. In the Viking Age, there were also some Norwegian settlements further north and east. East of the North Cape are the scattered archaeological finds of Norwegian settlement in the Viking Age. There are Norwegian names for fjords and islands from the Viking Age, including fjord names with "-anger". Around the year 1050, there were Norwegian settlements on the outer coast of Western Finnmark. Traders and tax collectors traveled even further.
North of Malangen there were Norse farming settlements in the Iron Age. Malangen was considered Finnmark's western border until 1300. There are some archaeological traces of Norse activity around the coast from Tromsø to Kirkenes in the Viking Age. Around Tromsø, the research indicates a Norse/Sami mixed culture on the coast.
From the year 1100 and the next 200–300 years, there are no traces of Norwegian settlement north and east of Tromsø. It is uncertain whether this is due to depopulation, whether it is because the Norwegians further north were not Christianized or because there were no churches north of Lenvik or Tromsø . Norwegian settlement in the far north appears from sources from the 14th century. In the Hanseatic period , the settlement was developed into large areas specialized in commercial fishing, while earlier (in the Viking Age) there had been farms with a combination of fishing and agriculture. In 1307 , a fortress and the first church east of Tromsø were built in Vardø . Vardø became a small Norwegian town, while Vadsø remained Sami. Norwegian settlements and churches appeared along the outermost coast in the Middle Ages. After the Reformation, perhaps as a result of a decline in fish stocks or fish prices, there were Norwegian settlements in the inner fjord areas such as Lebesby in Laksefjord. Some fishing villages at the far end of the coast were abandoned for good. In the interior of Finnmark, there was no national border for a long time and Kautokeino and Karasjok were joint Norwegian-Swedish areas with strong Swedish influence. The border with Finland was established in 1751 and with Russia in 1826.
On a Swedish map from 1626, Norway's border is indicated at Malangen, while Sweden with this map showed a desire to control the Sami area which had been a common area.
The term Northern Norway only came into use at the end of the 19th century and administratively the area was referred to as Tromsø Diocese when Tromsø became a bishopric in 1840. There had been different designations previously: Hålogaland originally included only Helgeland and when Norse settlement spread north in the Viking Age and the Middle Ages, Hålogaland was used for the area north approximately to Malangen , while Finnmark or "Finnmarken", "the land of the Sami", lay outside. The term Northern Norway was coined at a cafe table in Kristiania in 1884 by members of the Nordlændingernes Forening and was first commonly used in the interwar period as it eventually supplanted "Hålogaland".
State formation
The battle in Hafrsfjord in the year 872 has long been regarded as the day when Norway became a kingdom. The year of the battle is uncertain (may have been 10-20 years later). The whole of Norway was not united in that battle: the process had begun earlier and continued a couple of hundred years later. This means that the geographical area became subject to a political authority and became a political unit. The geographical area was perceived as an area as it is known, among other things, from Ottar from Hålogaland's account for King Alfred of Wessex around the year 880. Ottar described "the land of the Norwegians" as very long and narrow, and it was narrowest in the far north. East of the wasteland in the south lay Sveoland and in the north lay Kvenaland in the east. When Ottar sailed south along the land from his home ( Malangen ) to Skiringssal, he always had Norway ("Nordveg") on his port side and the British Isles on his starboard side. The journey took a good month. Ottar perceived "Nordveg" as a geographical unit, but did not imply that it was a political unit. Ottar separated Norwegians from Swedes and Danes. It is unclear why Ottar perceived the population spread over such a large area as a whole. It is unclear whether Norway as a geographical term or Norwegians as the name of a ethnic group is the oldest. The Norwegians had a common language which in the centuries before Ottar did not differ much from the language of Denmark and Sweden.
According to Sverre Steen, it is unlikely that Harald Hårfagre was able to control this entire area as one kingdom. The saga of Harald was written 300 years later and at his death Norway was several smaller kingdoms. Harald probably controlled a larger area than anyone before him and at most Harald's kingdom probably included the coast from Trøndelag to Agder and Vestfold as well as parts of Viken . There were probably several smaller kingdoms of varying extent before Harald and some of these are reflected in traditional landscape names such as Ranrike and Ringerike . Landscape names of "-land" (Rogaland) and "-mark" (Hedmark) as well as names such as Agder and Sogn may have been political units before Harald.
According to Sverre Steen, the national assembly was completed at the earliest at the battle of Stiklestad in 1030 and the introduction of Christianity was probably a significant factor in the establishment of Norway as a state. Håkon I the good Adalsteinsfostre introduced the leasehold system where the "coastal land" (as far as the salmon went up the rivers) was divided into ship raiders who were to provide a longship with soldiers and supplies. The leidange was probably introduced as a defense against the Danes. The border with the Danes was traditionally at the Göta älv and several times before and after Harald Hårfagre the Danes had control over central parts of Norway.
Christianity was known and existed in Norway before Olav Haraldson's time. The spread occurred both from the south (today's Denmark and northern Germany) and from the west (England and Ireland). Ansgar of Bremen , called the "Apostle of the North", worked in Sweden, but he was never in Norway and probably had little influence in the country. Viking expeditions brought the Norwegians of that time into contact with Christian countries and some were baptized in England, Ireland and northern France. Olav Tryggvason and Olav Haraldson were Vikings who returned home. The first Christians in Norway were also linked to pre-Christian local religion, among other things, by mixing Christian symbols with symbols of Odin and other figures from Norse religion.
According to Sverre Steen, the introduction of Christianity in Norway should not be perceived as a nationwide revival. At Mostratinget, Christian law was introduced as law in the country and later incorporated into the laws of the individual jurisdictions. Christianity primarily involved new forms in social life, among other things exposure and images of gods were prohibited, it was forbidden to "put out" unwanted infants (to let them die), and it was forbidden to have multiple wives. The church became a nationwide institution with a special group of officials tasked with protecting the church and consolidating the new religion. According to Sverre Steen, Christianity and the church in the Middle Ages should therefore be considered together, and these became a new unifying factor in the country. The church and Christianity linked Norway to Roman Catholic Europe with Church Latin as the common language, the same time reckoning as the rest of Europe and the church in Norway was arranged much like the churches in Denmark, Sweden and England. Norway received papal approval in 1070 and became its own church province in 1152 with Archbishop Nidaros .
With Christianity, the country got three social powers: the peasants (organized through the things), the king with his officials and the church with the clergy. The things are the oldest institution: At allthings all armed men had the right to attend (in part an obligation to attend) and at lagthings met emissaries from an area (that is, the lagthings were representative assemblies). The Thing both ruled in conflicts and established laws. The laws were memorized by the participants and written down around the year 1000 or later in the Gulationsloven , Frostatingsloven , Eidsivatingsloven and Borgartingsloven . The person who had been successful at the hearing had to see to the implementation of the judgment themselves.
Early Middle Ages (1050s–1184)
The early Middle Ages is considered in Norwegian history to be the period between the end of the Viking Age around 1050 and the coronation of King Sverre in 1184 . The beginning of the period can be dated differently, from around the year 1000 when the Christianization of the country took place and up to 1100 when the Viking Age was over from an archaeological point of view. From 1035 to 1130 it was a time of (relative) internal peace in Norway, even several of the kings attempted campaigns abroad, including in 1066 and 1103 .
During this period, the church's organization was built up. This led to a gradual change in religious customs. Religion went from being a domestic matter to being regulated by common European Christian law and the royal power gained increased power and influence. Slavery (" servitude ") was gradually abolished. The population grew rapidly during this period, as the thousands of farm names ending in -rud show.
The urbanization of Norway is a historical process that has slowly but surely changed Norway from the early Viking Age to today, from a country based on agriculture and sea salvage, to increasingly trade and industry. As early as the ninth century, the country got its first urban community, and in the eleventh century we got the first permanent cities.
In the 1130s, civil war broke out . This was due to a power struggle and that anyone who claimed to be the king's son could claim the right to the throne. The disputes escalated into extensive year-round warfare when Sverre Sigurdsson started a rebellion against the church's and the landmen's candidate for the throne , Magnus Erlingsson .
Emergence of cities
The oldest Norwegian cities probably emerged from the end of the 9th century. Oslo, Bergen and Nidaros became episcopal seats, which stimulated urban development there, and the king built churches in Borg , Konghelle and Tønsberg. Hamar and Stavanger became new episcopal seats and are referred to in the late 12th century as towns together with the trading places Veøy in Romsdal and Kaupanger in Sogn. In the late Middle Ages, Borgund (on Sunnmøre), Veøy (in Romsdalsfjorden) and Vågan (in Lofoten) were referred to as small trading places. Urbanization in Norway occurred in few places compared to the neighboring countries, only 14 places appear as cities before 1350. Stavanger became a bishopric around 1120–1130, but it is unclear whether the place was already a city then. The fertile Jæren and outer Ryfylke were probably relatively densely populated at that time. A particularly large concentration of Irish artefacts from the Viking Age has been found in Stavanger and Nord-Jæren.
It has been difficult to estimate the population in the Norwegian medieval cities, but it is considered certain that the cities grew rapidly in the Middle Ages. Oscar Albert Johnsen estimated the city's population before the Black Death at 20,000, of which 7,000 in Bergen, 3,000 in Nidaros, 2,000 in Oslo and 1,500 in Tunsberg. Based on archaeological research, Lunden estimates that Oslo had around 1,500 inhabitants in 250 households in the year 1300. Bergen was built up more densely and, with the concentration of exports there, became Norway's largest city in a special position for several hundred years. Knut Helle suggests a city population of 20,000 at most in the High Middle Ages, of which almost half in Bergen.
The Bjarkøyretten regulated the conditions in cities (especially Bergen and Nidaros) and in trading places, and for Nidaros had many of the same provisions as the Frostating Act . Magnus Lagabøte's city law replaced the bjarkøretten and from 1276 regulated the settlement in Bergen and with corresponding laws also drawn up for Oslo, Nidaros and Tunsberg. The city law applied within the city's roof area . The City Act determined that the city's public streets consisted of wide commons (perpendicular to the shoreline) and ran parallel to the shoreline, similarly in Nidaros and Oslo. The roads were small streets of up to 3 cubits (1.4 metres) and linked to the individual property. From the Middle Ages, the Norwegian cities were usually surrounded by wooden fences. The urban development largely consisted of low wooden houses which stood in contrast to the relatively numerous and dominant churches and monasteries built in stone.
The City Act and supplementary provisions often determined where in the city different goods could be traded, in Bergen, for example, cattle and sheep could only be traded on the Square, and fish only on the Square or directly from the boats at the quayside. In Nidaros, the blacksmiths were required to stay away from the densely populated areas due to the risk of fire, while the tanners had to stay away from the settlements due to the strong smell. The City Act also attempted to regulate the influx of people into the city (among other things to prevent begging in the streets) and had provisions on fire protection. In Oslo, from the 13th century or earlier, it was common to have apartment buildings consisting of single buildings on a couple of floors around a courtyard with access from the street through a gate room. Oslo's medieval apartment buildings were home to one to four households. In the urban farms, livestock could be kept, including pigs and cows, while pastures and fields were found in the city's rooftops . In the apartment buildings there could be several outbuildings such as warehouses, barns and stables. Archaeological excavations show that much of the buildings in medieval Oslo, Trondheim and Tønsberg resembled the oblong farms that have been preserved at Bryggen in Bergen . The land boundaries in Oslo appear to have persisted for many hundreds of years, in Bergen right from the Middle Ages to modern times.
High Middle Ages (1184–1319)
After civil wars in the 12th century, the country had a relative heyday in the 13th century. Iceland and Greenland came under the royal authority in 1262 , and the Norwegian Empire reached its greatest extent under Håkon IV Håkonsson . The last king of Haraldsätten, Håkon V Magnusson , died sonless in 1319 . Until the 17th century, Norway stretched all the way down to the mouth of Göta älv , which was then Norway's border with Sweden and Denmark.
Just before the Black Death around 1350, there were between 65,000 and 85,000 farms in the country, and there had been a strong growth in the number of farms from 1050, especially in Eastern Norway. In the High Middle Ages, the church or ecclesiastical institutions controlled 40% of the land in Norway, while the aristocracy owned around 20% and the king owned 7%. The church and monasteries received land through gifts from the king and nobles, or through inheritance and gifts from ordinary farmers.
Settlement and demography in the Middle Ages
Before the Black Death, there were more and more farms in Norway due to farm division and clearing. The settlement spread to more marginal agricultural areas higher inland and further north. Eastern Norway had the largest areas to take off and had the most population growth towards the High Middle Ages. Along the coast north of Stad, settlement probably increased in line with the extent of fishing. The Icelandic Rimbegla tells around the year 1200 that the border between Finnmark (the land of the Sami) and resident Norwegians in the interior was at Malangen , while the border all the way out on the coast was at Kvaløya . From the end of the High Middle Ages, there were more Norwegians along the coast of Finnmark and Nord-Troms. In the inner forest and mountain tracts along the current border between Norway and Sweden, the Sami exploited the resources all the way down to Hedmark.
There are no censuses or other records of population and settlement in the Middle Ages. At the time of the Reformation, the population was below 200,000 and only in 1650 was the population at the same level as before the Black Death. When Christianity was introduced after the year 1000, the population was around 200,000. After the Black Death, many farms and settlements were abandoned and deserted, in the most marginal agricultural areas up to 80% of the farms were abandoned. Places such as Skien, Veøy and Borgund (Ålesund) went out of use as trading towns. By the year 1300, the population was somewhere between 300,000 and 560,000 depending on the calculation method. Common methods start from detailed information about farms in each village and compare this with the situation in 1660 when there are good headcounts. From 1300 to 1660, there was a change in the economic base so that the coastal villages received a larger share of the population. The inland areas of Eastern Norway had a relatively larger population in the High Middle Ages than after the Reformation. Kåre Lunden concludes that the population in the year 1300 was close to 500,000, of which 15,000 lived in cities. Lunden believes that the population in 1660 was still slightly lower than the peak before the Black Death and points out that farm settlement in 1660 did not reach the same extent as in the High Middle Ages. In 1660, the population in Troms and Finnmark was 6,000 and 3,000 respectively (2% of the total population), in 1300 these areas had an even smaller share of the country's population and in Finnmark there were hardly any Norwegian-speaking inhabitants. In the High Middle Ages, the climate was more favorable for grain cultivation in the north. Based on the number of farms, the population increased 162% from 1000 to 1300, in Northern and Western Europe as a whole the growth was 200% in the same period.
Late Middle Ages (1319–1537)
Due to repeated plague epidemics, the population was roughly halved and the least productive of the country's farms were laid waste. It took several hundred years before the population again reached the level before 1349 . However, those who survived the epidemics gained more financial resources by sharing. Tax revenues for the state almost collapsed, and a large part of the noble families died out or sank into peasant status due to the fall in national debt . The Hanseatic League took over trade and shipping and dominated fish exports. The Archbishop of Nidaros was the country's most powerful man economically and politically, as the royal dynasty married into the Swedish in 1319 and died out in 1387 . Eventually, Copenhagen became the political center of the kingdom and Bergen the commercial center, while Trondheim remained the religious center.
From Reformation to Autocracy (1537–1660)
In 1537 , the Reformation was carried out in Norway. With that, almost half of the country's property was confiscated by the royal power at the stroke of a pen. The large seizure increased the king's income and was able, among other things, to expand his military power and consolidated his power in the kingdom. From roughly the time of the Reformation and in the following centuries, the state increased its power and importance in people's lives. Until around 1620, the state administration was fairly simple and unspecialised: in Copenhagen, the central administration mainly consisted of a chancellery and an interest chamber ; and sheriffs ruled the civil (including bailiffs and sheriffs) and the military in their district, the sheriffs collected taxes and oversaw business. The accounts were not clear and without summaries. The clergy, which had great power as a separate organization, was appointed by the state church after the Reformation, administered from Copenhagen. In this period, Norway was ruled by (mainly) Danish noble sheriffs, who acted as intermediaries between the peasants and the Oldenborg king in the field of justice, tax and customs collection.
From 1620, the state apparatus went through major changes where specialization of functions was a main issue. The sheriff's tasks were divided between several, more specialized officials - the sheriffs retained the formal authority over these, who in practice were under the national administration in Copenhagen. Among other things, a separate military officer corps was established, a separate customs office was established and separate treasurers for taxes and fees were appointed. The Overbergamtet, the central governing body for overseeing mining operations in Norway, was established in 1654 with an office in Christiania and this agency was to oversee the mining chiefs in the Nordenfjeld and Sønnenfjeld areas (the mines at Kongsberg and Røros were established in the previous decades). The formal transition from county government to official government with fixed-paid county officials took place after 1660, but the real changes had taken place from around 1620. The increased specialization and transition to official government meant that experts, not amateurs, were in charge of each area, and this civil service meant, according to Sverre Steen that the dictatorship was not a personal dictatorship.
From 1570 until 1721, the Oldenborg dynasty was in repeated wars with the Vasa dynasty in Sweden. The financing of these wars led to a severe increase in taxation which caused great distress.
Politically-geographically, the Oldenborg kings had to cede to Sweden the Norwegian provinces of Jemtland , Herjedalen , Idre and Särna , as well as Båhuslen . As part of the financing of the wars, the state apparatus was expanded. Royal power began to assert itself to a greater extent in the administration of justice. Until this period, cases of violence and defamation had been treated as civil cases between citizens. The level of punishment was greatly increased. During this period, at least 307 people were also executed for witchcraft in Norway. Culturally, the country was marked by the fact that the written language became Danish because of the Bible translation and the University of Copenhagen's educational monopoly.
From the 16th century, business became more marked by production for sale and not just own consumption. In the past, it was particularly the fisheries that had produced such a large surplus of goods that it was sold to markets far away, the dried fish trade via Bergen is known from around the year 1100. In the 16th century, the yield from the fisheries multiplied, especially due to the introduction of herring in Western Norway and in Trøndelag and because new tools made fishing for herring and skre more efficient. Line fishing and cod nets that were introduced in the 17th century were controversial because the small fishermen believed it favored citizens in the cities.
Forestry and the timber trade became an important business, particularly because of the boom saw which made it possible to saw all kinds of tables and planks for sale abroad. The demand for timber increased at the same time in Europe, Norway had plenty of forests and in the 17th century timber became the country's most important export product. There were hundreds of sawmills in the country and the largest had the feel of factories . In 1680, the king regulated the timber trade by allowing exports only from privileged sawmills and in a certain quantity.
From the 1520s, some silver was mined in Telemark. When the peasants chased the German miners whereupon the king executed five peasants and demanded compensation from the other rebellious peasants. The background for the harsh treatment was that the king wanted to assert his authority over the extraction of precious metals. The search for metals led to the silver works at Kongsberg after 1624, copper in the mountain villages between Trøndelag and Eastern Norway, and iron, among other things, in Agder and lower Telemark. The financial gain of the quarries at that time is unclear because there are no reliable accounts. Kongsberg ma
SA Police Museum.
This police museum was established in 1977 to conserve and detail some of the work and achievements of South Australian police personnel. The museum has five main galleries with different themes as well as a collection of police uniforms, police cars and motor cycles etc. The history of the South Australian Mounted Police Force began in 1838 making it the third oldest organised police force in the world after England and Ireland! Henry Inman was the first police chief in April 1838. The mounted police and their horses were in a paddock behind the SA Museum which later became their barracks and the state armoury site. They wore blue British style uniforms with a differences between the uniforms of footed and mounted officers. Our forward thinking police department was the first in Australia to introduce bicycles for officers in 1893 and they were not totally replaced by motor cycles until the 1950s. More significant than the introduction of bicycles was the introduction of female police officers 1915 – the second country in the British Empire to do so after NSW which also introduced female officers in 1915. These female officers received the same pay and had the same conditions as the men. The first female officers who were instrumental in having the women’s force established were Kate Cocks and Annie Ross. Kate Cocks had worked in Children’s Welfare before being transferred to the Police Department. The responsibilities of these two women centred on women and violence, prostitution and youth sex offences. SA also followed NSW’s early introduction of finger printing, the earliest form of forensic science in the police force in 1894. But SA provided the new Commonwealth of Australia with a uniform system of finger printing which was adopted across all states in 1904. The Police Museum also has a replica of a Black Maria police van for transporting criminals in a secure horse drawn carriage. The Black Maria’s were introduced in 1874 and used until replaced by motor vehicles in 1928.
Police Barracks.
Law and order in the British colony of South Australia was undertaken by British troops in the first instance from December 1836 until the Police Act was passed in 1839. Then a local force of ten mounted officers and ten foot constables was established with ongoing support from the British troops in the colony. South Australia was the first colony to have a police force but the first three heads were all dismissed in early years: the first for selling sly grog in 1837; the second for dishonesty and the third a few years later in 1856. He was Commissioner Tolmer who was sacked for undermining his subordinates. The force was officially created in April 1838 and soon established itself once Governor Gawler arrived in October 1838. He introduced uniforms for the officers. Apart from keeping the peace the officers were often involved with protecting colonists from bushrangers or escaped convicts and ensuring peaceful relations between Aborigines and some local pastoralists.
Conflict between whites and Aborigines was reported and acted upon quickly but not often to the satisfaction of the Aboriginal people. Aborigines were not allowed to give evidence in court cases although they were to be protected by British law and the Protector of Aborigines. Despite the lack of fair trials one white man was hung in 1846 at Rivoli Bay for murdering an Aboriginal man. Racial tensions between settlers and Aborigines continued in the 1840s but was largely quelled by 1850 even on Eyre Peninsula which had witnessed a number of white murders and retaliative attacks by whites. By the early 1850s Aboriginal or Native constables, who were paid one shilling a day, were also employed with almost 50 on the payroll by then. The first Premier of South Australia Boyle Travers Finniss became Police Commissioner in 1843 succeeding Captain O’Halloran and he was eventually replaced with Inspector Alexander Tolmer in 1853. He established the Escort route from the Victorian goldfields for SA residents returning with gold for the Adelaide Assay Office. Police stations were spread across the colony from Mt Gambier to Port Lincoln and Melrose in the north and Wellington in the east and major towns like Gawler, Strathalbyn, Willunga, Burra and Kapunda totalling about 20 police stations in the colony. In 1853 there were 126 police officers and 16 Native constables in the police force a sudden decrease from a year or so earlier.
In 1851 the first section of police barracks and stables for the mounted police was erected just off North Terrace. They are now behind the South Australian Museum. The main police station was in King William Street. The colonial engineer and early Surveyor General Captain Freeling designed the first barrack buildings of 1851. The limestone pointed stone Gothic style buildings were added to in 1855 to form a quadrangle in case this was needed for defensive circumstances, but primarily to create an enclosed parade ground for the police and the military.
Au delà de l'histoire, tout compte fait assez ordinaire, de ce modeste monastère, les superbes boiseries sculptées conservées dans l'église en sont aujourd'hui le principal intérêt. Elles sont classées parmi les monuments historiques depuis 1889.
Commandées par les moines et leurs prieurs (Jean Le Moyne, puis Etienne Le Moyne, prieurs de 1640 1694) ces boiseries ont été réalisées à l'occasion de deux campagnes (1673-1674 et 1678-1681) par l'atelier d'un sculpteur auvergnat, Simon Bouer [1], originaire du bourg de Menat (actuel Puy-de-Dôme). De la première période date le grand retable à colonnes torses ; de la seconde période les entourages et les décorations des portes des chapelles latérales du chœur, les 26 stalles richement décorées de visages, de motifs floraux et d'animaux fantastiques (1678-1680), le jubé (1681), ainsi que l'imposant lutrin et le Christ biface. Ce magnifique ensemble de l'art baroque provincial, unique en Limousin, mérite incontestablement une visite. [Alain Corneau y a tourné quelques scènes de son film "Tous les matins du monde", qui retrace avec talent la vie du musicien et compositeur Marin Marais (1656-1728), avec, dans les premiers rôles, Jean-Pierre Marielle et Gérard Depardieu ].
A une époque indéterminée, que la tradition orale du village situe pendant la période révolutionnaire, les boiseries du moutier ont été recouvertes d'une couche d'enduit blanc. L'administration des Beaux-Arts tenta sans succès de les décaper en 1896. Le mérite du nettoyage reviendra à l'abbé Victor-Julien Malapert, curé de Moutier-d'Ahun de 1904 à 1963, qui consacra sa vie à rendre ces boiseries à leur état d'origine (il fut souvent aidé, dit-on, volens nolens, par les enfants du catéchisme...) Un nouveau nettoyage superficiel, assorti d'un traitement des bois, a été effectué il y a une quinzaine d'années en vue de protéger ce témoignage inestimable de l'art de Simon Bouer et de son atelier, ainsi que de la volonté des moines d'embellir le lieu de leurs cinq offices quotidiens. (Les monogrammes des religieux ayant commandé ces travaux sont gravés sur la partie inférieure des boiseries, des deux côtés en avant des stalles.)
Beyond the history, in the final analysis rather ordinary, of this modest monastery, the superb carved woodworks preserved in the church are the principal interest today. They are classified among the historic buildings since 1889.
Ordered by the monks and their priors (Jean Moyne, then Etienne Moyne, priors of 1640 1694) these woodworks were carried out at the time of two campaigns (1673-1674 and 1678-1681) by the workshop of a sculptor auvergnat, Simon Bouer [1], originating in the borough of Menat (current Puy-de-Dome). First period dates the large retable with twisted columns; second period entourages and the decorations of the doors of the side chapels of the chorus, 26 stalls richly decorated with faces, floral reasons and fantastic animals (1678-1680), jubé (1681), as well as the imposing lectern and double-side Christ. This splendid whole of the provincial, single Baroque art in the Limousin, deserves a visit incontestably. [Alain Corneau turned some scenes of its film there “Every morning of the world”, which recalls with talent the life of the musician and type-setter Marin Marais (1656-1728), with, in the first roles, Jean-Pierre Marielle and Gerard Depardieu].
At one unspecified time, that the oral tradition of the village locates for the revolutionary period, the woodworks of the moutier were covered with a coat of white plaster. The administration of the Art schools tried without success to pickle them in 1896. The merit of cleaning will be allocated to the abbot Victor-Julien Malapert, priest of Moutier-in Ahun of 1904 to 1963, which devoted its life to return these woodworks to their country of origin (it was often helped, tells one, volens nolens, by the children of catechism…) A new surface cleaning, together with a treatment of wood, was carried out there are about fifteen years with a view protect this priceless testimony from art from Simon Bouer and his workshop, as well as will of the monks to embellish the place of their five daily offices. (The monogrammes of the monk having ordered this work are engraved on the lower part of the woodworks, on the two sides in front of the stalls.)
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"Cette église de la Renaissance (1517) conserve une façade imposante en pierre sombre de Castione, attribuée à Maître Tommaso (peut-être un Rodari de Maroggia). Elle présente une rosace de 5 m de diamètre avec 12 rayons (fin XVe-début XVIe s.).
En 1811-12, le bras nord du transept de la chapelle de la Vierge du Rosaire fut rénové.
L'intérieur à nef unique abrite de nombreux stucs de G.B. Barberini et des toiles de l'école lombarde du XVIIe s. (C. Procaccini, B. Roverio dit le « Genovesino » et F. Mazzucchelli dit le « Morazzone »).
Sur les côtés de l'autel, fresques de R. Torricelli. Les architectures en trompe-l'oeil au-dessus de l'autel sont de G. A. F. Orelli. Parmi les fresques, celle de « l'ange musicien » (Airaghi) est très intéressante. Dans les lunettes de la voûte, Sibylles et Prophètes. La coupole repose sur une croisée ornée de caissons à rosettes. Sur le maître-autel (G. Baroffio ? 1763), retable avec Crucifixion. Les deux grandes fresques sur les murs E des bras du transept sont d'A. Caironi (Chute de Simon Mage et Lapidation de St Stéphane). Une nouvelle table d'autel a été placée sous la coupole. La chaire en stuc brillant est de G. Rusca et les deux premiers devants d'autel à gauche et à droite en enduit de stuc coloré (« scagliola »), de G. M. Pancaldi.
Le grand bénitier près de l'entrée est appelé fontaine « Trivulziana » (il a appartenu à G. Giacomo Trivulzio, seigneur de Mesocco au XVe s.), et présente des emblèmes des Sforza.
L'édifice a été agrandi au XVIIIe s. et restauré au XXe. Les derniers travaux (1990-99) concernaient la nef, le presbytère, une partie des chapelles (restauration des ornements du XIXe s.) et l'orgue du XVIe s.
L'oratoire de S. Marta est situé côté N."
Die Kirche an der Piazza Collegiata hat ihre Renaissancestruktur (1517) beibehalten. Die Fassade aus dunklem Stein von Castione wird Maestro Tommaso (vielleicht Tommaso Rodari aus Maroggia) zugeschrieben. Die Rosette wurde an der Schwelle des 15./16. Jahrhunderts geschaffen.
1811/12 wurde die Rosenkranzkapelle errichtet.
Das einzige Kirchenschiff ist ausgeschmückt mit Stukkaturen von G.B. Barberini und weist Gemälde lombardischer Schule des 17. Jahrhunderts auf (C. Procaccini, B. Roverio, und F. Mazzucchelli, genannt "Il Morazzone").
Die Fresken seitlich des Altars werden Rocco Torricelli zugeschrieben, die Scheinarchitekturen über dem Altar dem Maler G. A. F. Orelli. Unter den Fresken von Airaghi sticht ein Harfe spielender Engel hervor. Die Rundbilder in den acht Lünetten des Gewölbes stellen Sibylle und die Propheten dar und sind von denjenigen in der Sixtinischen Kapelle inspiriert. Die Kuppel ruht auf einem Kreuzgewölbe mit rosettengeschmückten Kassetten. Die Tafel des Hauptaltars ist von G. Baroffio (1763) und stellt die Kreuzigung dar. Die grossen Fresken an den Ostwänden des Querschiffs hat Agostino Caironi gemalt. Die mit Stukkaturen versehene Kanzel ist von Grazioso Rusca, die Schnitzereien der beiden Seitenaltäre sind von G. M. Pancaldi.
Sehr interessant ist der Weihwasserkessel am Haupteingang, "Fontana Trivulziana " genannt, denn der frühere Besitzer war Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, Machthaber von Mesocco (15. Jahrhundert). Die Sforza-Wappen stammen vielleicht aus dem Schloss von Vigevano.
Die Kirche wurde im 18. Jahrhundert erweitert und im 20. Jahrhundert vollständig restauriert. Die letzten Arbeiten 1990-1999 betrafen das Kirchenschiff, den Chor, die Seitenkapellen und die Orgel aus dem 16. Jahrhundert. Unter der Kuppel wurde ein neuer Altar angebracht.
Auf der Südseite befindet sich das Oratorium Santa Marta." Ticino / Switzerland.
The conserved steel truss railway bridge spanning Upper Bukit Timah Road and a track of the rail (1932 - 2011).
Rijks Museum - National Museum of Netherlands
Vision
The Rijksmuseum links individuals with art and history.
Mission
At the Rijksmuseum, art and history take on new meaning for a broad-based, contemporary national and international audience.
As a national institute, the Rijksmuseum offers a representative overview of Dutch art and history from the Middle Ages onwards, and of major aspects of European and Asian art.
The Rijksmuseum keeps, manages, conserves, restores, researches, prepares, collects, publishes, and presents artistic and historical objects, both on its own premises and elsewhere.
From 1800 to 2013
The Rijksmuseum first opened its doors in 1800 under the name ‘Nationale Kunstgalerij’. At the time, it was housed in Huis ten Bosch in The Hague. The collection mainly comprised paintings and historical objects. In 1808, the museum moved to the new capital city of Amsterdam, where it was based in the Royal Palace on Dam Square.
After King Willem I’s accession to the throne, the paintings and national print collection were moved to the Trippenhuis on Kloveniersburgwal, while the other objects were returned to The Hague. The current building was put into use in 1885. The Netherlands Museum for History and Art based in The Hague moved into the same premises, forming what would later become the departments of Dutch History and Sculpture & Applied Art.
The beginning
On 19 November 1798, more than three years after the birth of the Batavian Republic, the government decided to honour a suggestion put forward by Isaac Gogel by following the French example of setting up a national museum. The museum initially housed the remains of the viceregal collections and a variety of objects originating from state institutions. When the Nationale Kunstgalerij first opened its doors on 31 May 1800, it had more than 200 paintings and historical objects on display. In the years that followed, Gogel and the first director, C.S. Roos, made countless acquisitions. Their first purchase, The Swan by Jan Asselijn, cost 100 Dutch guilders and is still one of the Rijksmuseum’s top pieces.
Move to Amsterdam
In 1808, the new King Louis Napoleon ordered the collections to be moved to Amsterdam, which was to be made the capital of the Kingdom of Holland. The works of art and objects were taken to the Royal Palace on Dam Square, the former city hall of Amsterdam, where they were united with the city’s foremost paintings, including the Night Watch by Rembrandt. In 1809, the Koninklijk Museum opened its doors on the top floor of the palace.
A few years after Willem I returned to the Netherlands as the new king in 1813, the ‘Rijks Museum’ and the national print collection from The Hague relocated to the Trippenhuis, a 17th-century town-palace on Kloveniersburgwal, home to what would later become the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Much to the regret of the director, Cornelis Apostool, in 1820 many objects including pieces of great historical interest were assigned to the Kabinet van Zeldzaamheden [Royal Gallery of Rare Objects], which had been founded in The Hague. In 1838, a separate museum for modern 19th-century art was established in Paviljoen Welgelegen in Haarlem. Contrary to the days of Louis Napoleon, very few large acquisitions were made during this period.
Cuypers Cathedral
The Trippenhuis proved unsuitable as a museum. Furthermore, many people thought it time to establish a dedicated national museum building in the Netherlands. Work on a new building did not commence until 1876, after many years of debate. The architect, Pierre Cuypers, had drawn up a historic design for the Rijksmuseum, which combined the Gothic and the Renaissance styles. The design was not generally well-received; people considered it too mediaeval and not Dutch enough. The official opening took place in 1885.
Nearly all the older paintings belonging to the City of Amsterdam were hung in the Rijksmuseum alongside paintings and prints from the Trippenhuis, including paintings such as Rembrandt’s Jewish Bride, which had been bequeathed to the city by the banker A. van der Hoop. The collection of 19th-century art from Haarlem was also added to the museum’s collection. Finally, a significant part of the Kabinet van Zeldzaamheden, which had by then been incorporated into the new Netherlands Museum for History and Art, was returned to Amsterdam.
Renovations
Over the years, collections continued to grow and museum insight continued to expand, and so the Rijksmuseum building underwent many changes. Rooms were added to the south-west side of the building between 1904 and 1916 (now the Philips wing) to house the collection of 19th-century paintings donated to the museum by Mr and Mrs Drucker-Fraser. In the 1950s and 1960s, the two original courtyards were covered and renovated to create more rooms.
In 1927, while Schmidt-Degener was Managing Director, the Netherlands Museum was split to form the departments of Dutch History and Sculpture & Applied Art. These departments were moved to separate parts of the building after 1945. The arrival of a collection donated by the Association of Friends of Asian Art in the 1950s resulted in the creation of the Asian Art department.
The 1970s saw record numbers of visitors of almost one-and-a-half million per year, and the building gradually started to fall short of modern requirements.
‘Verder met Cuypers'
The current renovation reinstates the original Cuypers structure. The building work in the courtyards are removed. Paintings, applied art and history are no longer displayed in separate parts of the building, but form a single chronological circuit that tells the story of Dutch art and history.
The building is thoroughly modernized, while at the same time restoring more of Cuypers original interior designs: the Rijksmuseum has dubbed the venture ‘Verder met Cuypers‘ [Continuing with Cuypers]. The Rijksmuseum will be a dazzling new museum able to satisfy the needs of its 21st-century visitors!
Every year, the Rijksmuseum compiles an annual report for the previous year. Annual reports dating back to 1998 can be found here (in Dutch only). Reports relating to the years before 1998 are available in the reading room of the library.
O Museu Rijks é um dos maiores e mais importantes museus da Europa.
É o maior dos Países Baixos, com acervo voltado quase todo aos artistas holandeses. As obras vão desde exemplares da arte sacra até a era dourada holandesa, além de uma substancial coleção de arte asiática.
Esse é o Rijksmuseum, o Museu Nacional dos Países Baixos. E aproveite, caro leitor, porque o Rijks esteve parcialmente fechado para reforma durante 10 anos – voltou a funcionar só em 2013. Ou seja, quem esteve em Amsterdam na última década não conheceu o Rijks, pelo menos não completamente.
Mas o quê tem lá? Muita coisa. Destaque para as coleções de arte e História holandesas. Os trabalhos dos pintores Frans Hals e Johannes Vermeer são alguns dos mais concorridos, mas imbatível mesmo é Rembrandt van Rijn, considerado um dos maiores pintores de todos os tempos. Se você não é um fã de museus de arte, mas faz questão de conhecer o trabalho desses grandes artistas, uma dica: assim que chegar ao Rijks, vá direto para a ala onde estão as obras-primas. Assim você vê o mais importante no início da visita, quando ainda está descansado e poderá dedicar o tempo necessário para essas obras.
A mais famosa delas é a “A Ronda Noturna”, de Rembrandt, uma obra que inspirou músicas, pinturas, filmes e até um flash mob. Quando o Rijks foi reaberto, artistas recriam a cena mostrada no quadro dentro de um shopping de Amsterdam. A ação está no vídeo abaixo e eu te garanto que vale a pena dar play.
Read more: www.360meridianos.com/2014/01/museus-de-amsterdam.html#ix...
Read more: www.360meridianos.com/2014/01/museus-de-amsterdam.html#ix...
Rijksmuseum, Museu Nacional
42 Stadhouderskade
Amsterdam
O museu Rijksmuseum de Amsterdã é o Museu Nacional da Holanda, onde você encontrará uma impressionante coleção permanente, formada por 5.000 pinturas e 30.000 obras de arte, além de 17.000 objetos históricos.
Esse museu nacional foi fundado em 1885 e está instalado em um edifício de estilo neogótico. A sua principal atração é a extensa coleção de quadros pintados por artistas holandeses, abrangendo um período que vai do séc. XV aos dias de hoje. A obra de arte mais famosa em exibição é o quadro A Ronda Noturna, de Rembrandt.
O museu Rijksmuseum está dividido em cinco departamentos: pintura, escultura, arte aplicada, arte oriental, história dos Países Baixos e gravuras. O núcleo da coleção é a pintura e suas obras mais representativas são as que pertencem ao Século de Ouro holandês, com quadros de artistas como Rembrandt, Vermeer ou Frans Hals.
Ver fonte: dreamguides.edreams.pt/holanda/amsterda/rijksmuseum
Museu Rijks, Amesterdão
O Museu Rijks (Museu Nacional) é um edifício histórico, sendo o maior museu nos Países Baixos. O Museu é o maior no numero relativamente às suas colecções, na área do edifício em si, no financiamento e no numero de funcionários empregados.
Cada ano, mais de um milhão de pessoas visitam o Museu Rijks. O Museu emprega cerca de 400 pessoas, incluindo 45 conservadores de museu que são especializados em todas as áreas.
O Museu Rijks é internacionalmente reconhecido pelas suas exibições e publicações, mas não só apenas por estes produtos de grande qualidade, mas também pelas áreas no museu em si que são fonte de inspiração e encorajam a criação de novas ideias.
O museu também tem recursos consideráveis para a educação, para a decoração e apresentação de exibições. Importantes designers são regularmente chamados a trabalharem em projectos no Museu Rijks.
O edifício principal do Museu Rijks está a ser renovado. A boa noticia é que a melhor parte da exposição está apresentada na redesenhada ala Philips. O nome desta exposição denomina-se "The Masterpieces'.
O museu abre diariamente das 10 da manhã até ás 5 da tarde.
A entrada é pela Stadhouderskade 42.
Rijksmuseum
Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.
O Rijksmuseum é um museu nacional dos Países Baixos, localizada em Amsterdão na Praça do museu. O Rijksmuseum é dedicado à artes e história. Ele tem uma larga coleção de pinturas da idade de ouro neerlandesa e uma substancial coleção de arte asiática.
O museu foi fundado em 1800 na cidade da Haia para exibir a coleção do primeiro-ministro. Foi inspirado no exemplo francês. Pelos neerlandeses ficou conhecida como Galeria de Arte. Em 1808 o museu mudou-se para Amsterdã pelas ordens do rei Louis Napoleón, irmão de Napoleão Bonaparte. As pinturas daquela cidade, como A Ronda Nocturna de Rembrandt, tornaram-se parte da coleção.
Em 1885 o museu mudou-se para sua localização atual, construído pelo arquiteto neerlandês Pierre Cuypers. Ele combinou elementos góticos e renascentistas. O museu tem um posição proeminente na Praça do Museu, próximo ao Museu van Gogh e ao Museu Stedelijk. A construção é ricamente decorada com referências da história da arte neerlandesa. A Ronda Nocturna de Rembrandt tem seu próprio corredor no museu desde 1906. Desde 2003 o museu sofreu restaurações, mas as obras-primas são constatemente presentes para o público.
A coleção de pinturas inclui trabalhos de artistas como Jacob van Ruysdael, Frans Hals, Johannes Vermeer e Rembrandt e de alunos de Rembrandt.
Em 2005, 95% do museu está fechado para renovação, mas as pinturas da coleção permanente ainda estão em mostra em uma exibição especial chamada As Obras-primas.
Algumas das pinturas do museu:
Rembrandt van Rijn
A Ronda Nocturna
Os síndicos da guilda dos fabricantes de tecidos
A noiva judia
A lição de Anatomia do Dr. Deyman
Pedro negando Cristo
Saskia com um véu
Retrato de Titus em hábito de monge
Auto-retrato como Apóstolo Paulo
Tobias, Ana e o Bode
Johannes Vermeer:
A Leiteira
A Carta de Amor
Mulher de Azul a ler uma carta
A Rua pequena
Frans Hals:
Retrato de um jovem casal
A Companhia Reynier Real
O bebedor alegre
Retrato de Lucas De Clercq
Retrato de Nicolaes Hasselaer
Retrato de um homem
Página oficial do Rijksmuseum
Virtual Collection of Masterpieces (VCM)
O melhor museu de Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum
O Commons possui uma categoria contendo imagens e outros ficheiros sobre Rijksmuseum
Rijksmuseum Amsterdam
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Se você visitar Amsterdam, precisará conhecer o Museu Nacional da Holanda: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. O Museu Nacional fica na Praça do Museu, situada no centro de Amsterdam. O Museu Nacional, ou Rijksmuseum, possui uma maravilhosa coleção de arte e história holandesas. Após uma visita ao Rijksmuseum, você saberá mais sobre história e arte e terá visto alguns dos maiores marcos culturais da Holanda.
Obras-primas do Museu Nacional
Ao todo, a coleção do Rijksmuseum apresenta a história da Holanda em um contexto internacional, desde 1.100 até o presente. Há alguns ícones da história e cultura da Holanda que você não pode perder:
Ronda Noturna (de Nachtwacht) de Rembrandt é uma das mais famosas obras desse mestre holandês e é de tirar o fôlego.
O Rijksmuseum tem uma das melhores coleções de pinturas dos grandes mestres do século XVII, como Frans Hals, Jan Steen, Vermeer e Rembrandt.
Assim como o Museu Histórico de Haia, o Rijksmuseum apresenta lindas casas de bonecas, mobiliadas em detalhes, datando de 1676.
Se você não puder ir ao Delft Real, pode ainda apreciar algumas das melhores cerâmicas de Delft, de conjuntos de chá a vasos, no Museu Nacional.
Museu que é visita obrigatória em Amsterdam
Quer sua estadia em Amsterdam seja breve ou longa, você deve visitar o Rijksmuseum. Chegue cedo para evitar enfrentar filas. Combine a visita ao Rijksmuseum com várias outras atrações próximas, como o Museu Van Gogh, o Museu Stedelijk Amsterdam e a Coster Diamonds
Para obter mais informações sobre Amsterdam, retorne à página sobre Amsterdam ou à página sobre os museus de Amsterdam.
Barcelona (highly edited)
Direct upload via Black Dragon
※たまに蛇がウロチョロします※
・・・何だかイマイチ決めきらんかったので、また明日にしようと思う。
Visit this location at Matoluta Sanctuary -Conserve Freedom- in Second Life
Sal tree is also known as Sakhua in Jharkhand which plays a vital role in conserving environment of this state. It is linked to almost every ancient religions of India and worshiped by many tribes of Jharkhand. It has many uses both commercial and medicinal. Today Sal forests are disappearing and needs conservation programmes.
Introduction
Sal tree grows in straight upward direction very slowly. It can grow up to 35 meter height. The circumference of this tree can increase up to 15 meter. It has broad leaves of hand's palm size. This tree accommodates itself as per the climate of the area. It remains evergreen in areas where rain fall is sufficient but in drier areas its leaves fall in autumn season i.e. in the month of February and March. New leaves come in April and May.
Historical Importance of the tree
Sal tree is linked to almost every ancient religions of India. Sal tree is favoured by God Vishnu. Mahavir, Jains worship God, achieved enlightenment under this tree. It is also famous as Gautam Buddha was born under this tree.
Cultural importance in view of people of Jharkhand
Sal tree is worshiped by many tribes of Jharkhand. During marriages the bride and groom have to sit on the wood of this tree for getting blessing of God and making their future life successful. The main festival is Sarhul which is celebrated during spring season when the flowers of Sal trees appear. The god, responsible for the protection of tribes, is worshiped during this festival with Sal flowers. A day before this festival Pahan, the village priest, fills three earthen pots with water, keeping fast for two days. The next morning the level of water is observed. If average water level remains normal then it indicates the prediction of good rain but if water level decreases then it is predicted that there is a sign of poor rain. Pahan fasts for two days during this festival. During this festival villagers gather at Sarna place, a worship place is offered to God. Sal flowers are distributed by Pahan, which people keep in their houses for bringing happiness. Girls dances by holding their shoulders which is also called Chhotanagpuri dance. Whole festival is concentrated near Sal tree flowers.
Uses of Sal trees
1. Commercial Use : Sal is used as valuable timber. Its wood is durable and hard and used in constructing frames of doors and windows. Dry leaves are used for making serving plates. Green as well as dry leaves are used in making bowls used for serving Paan (prepared from Betel and nut) and snacks like gol gappa, idli, black grams etc. Sal tree resins are used in festive ceremonies as burning incense. Oil extracted from fruits and seeds are used for burning lamps and also as cooking oil.
2. Medicinal use: During removal of resin a sticky substance is extracted from these trees which are used in producing ayurvedic medicine for diarrhea and dysentery. It is also used in producing ointments for skin diseases and ear related ailments. Fruit of this tree is used in treatment of epilepsy, chlorosis and excess salivation. Seeds are used in treating dental problems. Seed is also used in washing hair. People use its branches for brushing their teeth.
3. Other uses: Tribal people use its leaves in preparing rice cakes and for smoking. It is also used as preparing fertilizers. Tribal people use leaves as marriage invitation card by keeping turmeric and rice between these leaves.
Governmental role in preserving Sal forests
The growth of civilization has raised the issue of conserving Sal forest in Jharkhand. Due to demand of timbers for houses and furniture, Sal trees are disappearing very fast. Trees are also being cut illegally from forest. As growth of this tree is slow hence it is required to save these forests. Government has already taken steps for reincarnation of Sal trees by planting saplings in different forest areas. Village forest protection committee is formed in many villages to save illegal tree felling. Forest Attribution Research and Analysis Zone of the State Forest Department has started a project in which Sal saplings are grown in polybags under laboratory conditions for three years and then distributed for plantation in different forest. Village committee is encouraged to plant Sal trees in Panchayat places and common village lands.
08/03/20. Diamond Hill, Kowloon, Hong Kong. A Dennis Trident chassis and Alexander body.
Hong Kong bus collection: www.flickr.com/photos/hhhumber/collections/72157648884926...
The Sorolla Museum, which maintains the original atmosphere of the home and studio of the painter, Joaquín Sorolla y Bastida (Valencia, 1863 - Cercedilla, 1923), houses the largest collection of his works. It is one of the artist’s most complete and best conserved houses in Europe and its garden, which was also designed by him, is a precious oasis in the city.
Located in the Chamberi neighbourhood, the Museum was created at the request of his widow, Clotilde García del Castillo, who in her last will and testament donated her properties to the Spanish Estate in order to fund a museum in memory of her husband. This Museum hosts most of the objects Sorolla gathered throughout his life. The artist’s work predominates, mostly paintings and drawings, and it is the largest and most representative such collection in existence.
It comes from donations from his wife and children and was enlarged in 1951 when Joaquín Sorolla García, Sorolla’s son, donated all of his property. Since 1982, the collection has grown with purchases made by the Spanish State, in efforts to complete it.
Sorolla gathered many other objects that precede the objects from the Museum’s collection. There are sculptures, ceramics, popular jewellery, antique photographs, and a significant anthology of letters received by the painter throughout his life.
My re-visit to Darjeeling, October, 2015.
Darjeeling is located in the Lesser Himalaya, within the state of West Bengal, India, at an elevation of 6,700 ft. The word Darjeeling has evolved from the Sanskrit, "Durjaya Linga", means "Shiva of invincible prowess, who rules the Himalayas. It is also believed that the name Darjeeling also comes from the Tibetan word dorje, meaning the thunderbolt sceptre of the Hindu deity Indra, and ling, a place or land.
Darjeeling is noted for its tea industry, the spectacular views of Kangchenjunga, the world's third-highest mountain, and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway is a 600 mm (2 ft) narrow-gauge railway that was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1999 for being "an outstanding example of the influence of an innovative transportation system on the social and economic development of a multi-cultural region, which was to serve as a model for similar developments in many parts of the world", becoming only the second railway in the world to have this honour.
The development of the town dates back to the mid-19th century, when the colonial British administration set up a sanatorium and a military depot. Subsequently, extensive tea plantations were established in the region, and tea growers developed hybrids of black tea and created new fermentation techniques. The resultant distinctive Darjeeling tea is internationally recognised and ranks among the most popular of the black teas.
During the British Raj, Darjeeling's temperate climate led to its development as a hill station for British residents seeking to escape the summer heat of the plains. The development of Darjeeling as a sanatorium and health resort proceeded briskly. Arthur Campbell, a surgeon with the Company, and Lieutenant Robert Napier were responsible for establishing a hill station there. Campbell's efforts to develop the station, attract immigrants to cultivate the slopes and stimulate trade resulted in a hundredfold increase in the population of Darjeeling between 1835 and 1849.
Darjeeling has several British-style public schools and churches. The varied culture of the town reflects its diverse demographic milieu consisting of Gorkhas, Bhutia, Lepcha and other mainland Indian ethno-linguistic groups.
Darjeeling Mall and Mall Road is a center of attraction to all the tourists. Visitors who have taken a stroll along this mystic tree shaded meandering Mall Road and enjoyed the views of the mountain ranges and the lovely Rhododendrons, knows all about it. Mall Road is a mountain walkway the British families once used for leisure strolls to enjoy the sheer serenity and the best of views that Darjeeling has to offer. Its actually a loop, that starts from the Chowrasta Mall, goes around the Observatory Hill and returns to the Mall itself. So there are two entries to this road from the Mall. The Mall road is also known as Bhanubhakta Sarani named after the Nepali national poet whose statue is erected on the Mall where the road begins.
History
The history of Darjeeling is intertwined with that of Sikkim, Nepal, British India and Bhutan. Until the early 19th century, the hilly area around Darjeeling was controlled by the kingdom of Sikkim, while the plains around Siliguri were intermittently occupied by the Kingdom of Nepal, with settlement consisting of a few villages of Lepcha and Kirati people.The Chogyal of Sikkim had been engaged in unsuccessful warfare against the Gorkhas of Nepal. From 1780, the Gorkhas made several attempts to capture the entire region of Darjeeling. By the beginning of 19th century, they had overrun Sikkim as far eastward as the Teesta River and had conquered and annexed the Terai. In the meantime, the British were engaged in preventing the Gorkhas from overrunning the whole of the northern frontier. The Anglo-Gorkha war broke out in 1814, which resulted in the defeat of the Gorkhas and subsequently led to the signing of the Sugauli Treaty in 1815. According to the treaty, Nepal had to cede all those territories which the Gorkhas had annexed from the Chogyal of Sikkim to the British East India Company (i.e. the area between Mechi River and Teesta River). Later in 1817, through the Treaty of Titalia, the British East India Company reinstated the Chogyal of Sikkim, restored all the tracts of land between the River Mechi and the River Teesta to the Chogyal of Sikkim and guaranteed his sovereignty.
Flora and fauna
Darjeeling is a part of the Eastern Himalayan zoo-geographic zone. Flora around Darjeeling comprises sal, oak, semi-evergreen, temperate and alpine forests. Dense evergreen forests of sal and oak lie around the town, where a wide variety of rare orchids are found. The Lloyd's Botanical Garden preserves common and rare species of plants, while the Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park specialises in conserving and breeding endangered Himalayan species, especially red panda. A conservation centre for red pandas opened at Darjeeling Zoo in 2014, building on a prior captive breeding.
The town of Darjeeling and surrounding region face deforestation due to increasing demand for wood fuel and timber, as well as air pollution from increasing vehicular traffic.
Wildlife in the district is protected by the wildlife wing of the West Bengal Forest Department. The fauna found in Darjeeling includes several species of ducks, teals, plovers and gulls that pass Darjeeling while migrating to and from Tibet. Small mammals found in the region include civets, mongooses and badgers. The nearby Jaldapara National Park consists of semi-evergreen and sal forests. Animals found here include the one-horned rhinoceros, elephant, tiger, leopard and hog deer, while the main bird species include the Bengal florican and herons.
Late at night and call to us
building nesting in our skulls
so it can rest conveniently
conserving all the energy it takes
lower your head and take some
time to feel the sound
surrender expectations
it's not just an explanation that we've found.
Buck Run is a limestone spring Creek in the far western corner of Chester County, PA. The headwaters are now in densely forested reclaimed land preserved by the Nature Conservency. They harbor beautiful fish, including (according to some recent studies) both a resurgent brook trout and a wild brown trout population.