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en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions. With a total area of about 106,400,000 square kilometres (41,100,000 sq mi),[1] it covers approximately 20% of the Earth's surface and about 26% of its water surface area. The first part of its name refers to Atlas of Greek mythology, making the Atlantic the "Sea of Atlas".
The oldest known mention of "Atlantic" is in The Histories of Herodotus around 450 BC (Hdt. 1.202.4): Atlantis thalassa (Greek: Ἀτλαντὶς θάλασσα; English: Sea of Atlas); see also: Atlas Mountains. The term Ethiopic Ocean, derived from Ethiopia, was applied to the southern Atlantic ocean as late as the mid-19th century.[2] Before Europeans discovered other oceans, the term "ocean" itself was synonymous with the waters beyond the Strait of Gibraltar that we now know as the Atlantic. The early Greeks believed this ocean to be a gigantic river encircling the world.
The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. As one component of the interconnected global ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean (which is sometimes considered a sea of the Atlantic), to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south. (Other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica.) The equator subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean.
Geography
The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea and Barents Sea. To the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe; the Strait of Gibraltar (where it connects with the Mediterranean Sea–one of its marginal seas–and, in turn, the Black Sea, both of which also touch upon Asia) and Africa.
In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean. The 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. Some authorities show it extending south to Antarctica, while others show it bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean.[3]
In the southwest, the Drake Passage connects it to the Pacific Ocean. The man-made Panama Canal links the Atlantic and Pacific. Besides those mentioned, other large bodies of water adjacent to the Atlantic are the Caribbean Sea; the Gulf of Mexico; Hudson Bay; the Arctic Ocean; the Mediterranean Sea; the North Sea; the Baltic Sea and the Celtic Sea.
Covering approximately 22% of Earth's surface, the Atlantic is second in size to the Pacific. With its adjacent seas, it occupies an area of about 106,400,000 square kilometres (41,100,000 sq mi);[1] without them, it has an area of 82,400,000 square kilometres (31,800,000 sq mi). The land that drains into the Atlantic covers four times that of either the Pacific or Indian oceans. The volume of the Atlantic with its adjacent seas is 354,700,000 cubic kilometers (85,100,000 cu mi) and without them 323,600,000 cubic kilometres (77,640,000 cu mi).
The average depth of the Atlantic, with its adjacent seas, is 3,339 metres (1,826 fathoms; 10,950 ft); without them it is 3,926 metres (2,147 fathoms; 12,880 ft). The greatest depth, Milwaukee Deep with 8,380 metres (4,580 fathoms; 27,500 ft), is in the Puerto Rico Trench. The Atlantic's width varies from 1,538 nautical miles (2,848 km; 1,770 mi) between Brazil and Sierra Leone to over 3,450 nautical miles (6,400 km; 4,000 mi) in the south
Cultural significance
Transatlantic travel played a major role in the expansion of Western civilization into the Americas. It is the Atlantic that separates the "Old World" from the "New World". In modern times, some idioms refer to the ocean in a humorously diminutive way as the Pond, describing both the geographical and cultural divide between North America and Europe, in particular between the English-speaking nations of both continents. Many British people refer to the United States and Canada as "across the pond", and vice versa
Ocean bottom
The principal feature of the bathymetry (bottom topography) is a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.[5] It extends from Iceland in the north to approximately 58° South latitude, reaching a maximum width of about 860 nautical miles (1,590 km; 990 mi). A great rift valley also extends along the ridge over most of its length. The depth of water at the apex of the ridge is less than 2,700 metres (1,500 fathoms; 8,900 ft) in most places, while the bottom of the ridge is three times as deep. Several peaks rise above the water and form islands.[6] The South Atlantic Ocean has an additional submarine ridge, the Walvis Ridge.[7]
The Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the Atlantic Ocean into two large troughs with depths from 3,700–5,500 metres (2,000–3,000 fathoms; 12,000–18,000 ft). Transverse ridges running between the continents and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge divide the ocean floor into numerous basins. Some of the larger basins are the Blake, Guiana, North American, Cape Verde, and Canaries basins in the North Atlantic. The largest South Atlantic basins are the Angola, Cape, Argentina, and Brazil basins.
The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat with occasional deeps, abyssal plains, trenches, seamounts, basins, plateaus, canyons, and some guyots. Various shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography with few deep channels cut across the continental rise.
Ocean floor trenches and seamounts:
•Puerto Rico Trench, in the North Atlantic, is the deepest trench at 8,605 metres (4,705 fathoms; 28,230 ft)[8]
•Laurentian Abyss is found off the eastern coast of Canada
•South Sandwich Trench reaches a depth of 8,428 metres (4,608 fathoms; 27,650 ft)
•Romanche Trench is located near the equator and reaches a depth of about 7,454 metres (4,076 fathoms; 24,460 ft).
Ocean sediments are composed of:
•Terrigenous deposits with land origins, consisting of sand, mud, and rock particles formed by erosion, weathering, and volcanic activity on land washed to sea. These materials are found mostly on the continental shelves and are thickest near large river mouths or off desert coasts.
•Pelagic deposits, which contain the remains of organisms that sink to the ocean floor, include red clays and Globigerina, pteropod, and siliceous oozes. Covering most of the ocean floor and ranging in thickness from 60–3,300 metres (33–1,800 fathoms; 200–11,000 ft) they are thickest in the convergence belts, notably at the Hamilton Ridge and in upwelling zones.
•Authigenic deposits consist of such materials as manganese nodules. They occur where sedimentation proceeds slowly or where currents sort the deposits, such as in the Hewett Curve.
Water characteristics
On average, the Atlantic is the saltiest major ocean; surface water salinity in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand (3.3 – 3.7%) by mass and varies with latitude and season. Evaporation, precipitation, river inflow and sea ice melting influence surface salinity values. Although the lowest salinity values are just north of the equator (because of heavy tropical rainfall), in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers enter. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25° north and south, in subtropical regions with low rainfall and high evaporation.
Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from below −2 °C (28 °F). Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by 7–8 °C (12–15 °F).
The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major water masses. The North and South Atlantic central waters make up the surface. The sub-Antarctic intermediate water extends to depths of 1,000 metres (550 fathoms; 3,300 ft). The North Atlantic Deep Water reaches depths of as much as 4,000 metres (2,200 fathoms; 13,000 ft). The Antarctic Bottom Water occupies ocean basins at depths greater than 4,000 metres.
Within the North Atlantic, ocean currents isolate the Sargasso Sea, a large elongated body of water, with above average salinity. The Sargasso Sea contains large amounts of seaweed and is also the spawning ground for both the European eel and the American eel.
The Coriolis effect circulates North Atlantic water in a clockwise direction, whereas South Atlantic water circulates counter-clockwise. The south tides in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-diurnal; that is, two high tides occur during each 24 lunar hours. In latitudes above 40° North some east-west oscillation occurs.
Climate
Climate is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as winds. Because of the ocean's great capacity to store and release heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. Precipitation can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from water temperatures.
The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents influence climate by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. The winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents influence adjacent land areas.
The Gulf Stream and its northern extension towards Europe, the North Atlantic Drift, for example, warms the atmosphere of the British Isles and north-western Europe and influences weather and climate as far south as the northern Mediterranean. The cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of eastern Canada (the Grand Banks of Newfoundland area) and Africa's north-western coast. In general, winds transport moisture and air over land areas. Hurricanes develop in the southern part of the North Atlantic Ocean. More local particular weather examples could be found in examples such as the; Azores High, Benguela Current, Nor'easter.
History
The Atlantic Ocean appears to be the second youngest of the five oceans. It did not exist prior to 130 million years ago, when the continents that formed from the breakup of the ancestral super continent Pangaea were drifting apart from seafloor spreading. The Atlantic has been extensively explored since the earliest settlements along its shores.
The Vikings, the Portuguese, and the Spaniards were the most famous among early explorers. After Columbus, European exploration rapidly accelerated, and many new trade routes were established.
As a result, the Atlantic became and remains the major artery between Europe and the Americas (known as transatlantic trade). Scientific explorations include the Challenger expedition, the German Meteor expedition, Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and the United States Navy Hydrographic Office.
Notable crossings
Ra II, a ship built from papyrus, was successfully sailed across the Atlantic by Thor Heyerdahl proving that it was possible to cross the Atlantic from Africa using such boats in early epochs of history.
•Around 980 – 982, Eric the Red discovered Greenland, geographically and geologically a part of the Americas.
•In 985 or 986, Bjarni Herjólfsson was the first European to sight the Americas. He did not go ashore, though.
•In the year 1000, the Icelander Leif Ericson was the first European to set foot on North American soil, corresponding to today's Eastern coast of Canada, i. e. the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, including the area of land named "Vinland" by Ericson. The Norse discovery was documented in the 13th century Icelandic Sagas and was corroborated by recent L'Anse aux Meadows archeological evidence.
•Around 1010, Thorfinnr Karlsefni led an attempted Viking settlement in North America with 160 settlers, but was later driven off by the natives. His son Snorri Thorfinnsson was the first American born (somewhere between 1010 and 1013) to European (Icelandic) immigrant parents.
•In 1419 and 1427, Portuguese navigators reached Madeira and Azores, respectively.
•From 1415 to 1488, Portuguese navigators sailed along the Western African coast, reaching the Cape of Good Hope.
•In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed on the island of San Salvador in The Bahamas.
•In 1497, John Cabot landed at Bonavista Newfoundland and Labrador.
•In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil.
•In 1524, Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano discovered the United States of America's east coast.
•In 1534, Jacques Cartier entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence and reached the mouth of the St. Lawrence River.
•In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed Newfoundland for the English Crown.
•In 1764 William Harrison (the son of John Harrison) sailed aboard the HMS Tartar, with the H-4 time piece. The voyage became the basis for the invention of the global system of Longitude.
•In 1858, Cyrus West Field laid the first transatlantic telegraph cable (it quickly failed).
•In 1865 Brunel's ship the SS Great Eastern laid the first successful transatlantic telegraph cable .
•In 1870 the small City of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) became the first small Lifeboat to cross the Atlantic from Cork to Boston with two men crew, John Charles Buckley and Nikola Primorac (di Costa), only.[9]
•In 1896 Frank Samuelsen and George Harbo from Norway became the first people to ever row across the Atlantic Ocean.
•On April 15, 1912 the RMS Titanic sank after hitting an iceberg with a loss of more than 1,500 lives.[10]
•1914–1918, the First Battle of the Atlantic took place.
•In 1919, the American NC-4 became the first seaplane to cross the Atlantic (though it made a couple of landings on islands and the sea along the way, and taxied several hundred miles).
•Later in 1919, a British aeroplane piloted by Alcock and Brown made the first non-stop transatlantic flight, from Newfoundland to Ireland.
•In 1921, the British were the first to cross the North Atlantic in an airship.
•In 1922, Sacadura Cabral and Gago Coutinho were the first to cross the South Atlantic in an airship.
•In 1927, Charles Lindbergh made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight in an aircraft (between New York City and Paris).
•In 1931, Bert Hinkler made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight across the South Atlantic in an aircraft.
•In 1932, Amelia Earhart became the first female to make a solo flight across the Atlantic
•1939–1945, the Second Battle of the Atlantic. Nearly 3,700 Allied ships were sunk at a cost of 783 German U-boats.[11]
•In 1952, Ann Davison was the first woman to single-handedly sail the Atlantic Ocean.
•In 1965, Robert Manry crossed the Atlantic from the U.S. to England non-stop in a 13.5 foot (4.05 meters) sailboat named "Tinkerbell".[12] Several others also crossed the Atlantic in very small sailboats in the 1960s, none of them non-stop, though.
•In 1969 and 1970 Thor Heyerdahl launched expeditions to cross the Atlantic in boats built from papyrus. He succeeded in crossing the Atlantic from Morocco to Barbados after a two-month voyage of 6,100 km with Ra II in 1970, thus conclusively proving that boats such as the Ra could have sailed with the Canary Current across the Atlantic in prehistoric times.[13]
•In 1975, Fons Oerlemans crossed the Atlantic in 82 days, starting from Safi (Morocco) to Trinidad and Tobago, on a selfmade raft.
•In 1980, Gérard d'Aboville was the first man to cross the Atlantic Ocean rowing solo.
•In 1984, Five Argentines sail in a 10-meter-long raft made from tree trunks named Atlantis from Canary Islands and after 52 days 3,000 miles (4,800 km) journey arrived to Venezuela in an attempt to prove travelers from Africa may have crossed the Atlantic before Christopher Columbus.[14][15]
•In 1994, Guy Delage was the first man to allegedly swim across the Atlantic Ocean (with the help of a kick board, from Cape Verde to Barbados).
•In 1998, Benoît Lecomte was the first man to swim across the northern Atlantic Ocean without a kick board, stopping for only one week in the Azores.
•In 1999, after rowing for 81 days and 4,767 kilometres (2,962 mi), Tori Murden became the first woman to cross the Atlantic Ocean by rowboat alone when she reached Guadeloupe from the Canary Islands.
Ethiopic Ocean
The Aethiopian Sea, Ethiopic Ocean or Ethiopian Ocean (Okeanos Aithiopos), is an old name for what is now called the South Atlantic Ocean, which is separated from the North Atlantic Ocean by a narrow region between Natal, Brazil and Monrovia, Liberia. The use of this term illustrates a past trend towards referring to the whole continent of Africa by the name Aethiopia. The modern nation of Ethiopia, in northeast Africa, is nowhere near the Ethiopic Ocean, which would be said to lie off the west coast of Africa. The term Ethiopian Ocean sometimes appeared until the mid-19th century.[
Economy
The Atlantic has contributed significantly to the development and economy of surrounding countries. Besides major transatlantic transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the sedimentary rocks of the continental shelves. The Atlantic hosts the world's richest fishing resources, especially in the waters covering the shelves. The major fish are cod, haddock, hake, herring, and mackerel.
The most productive areas include Newfoundland's Grand Banks, the Nova Scotia shelf, Georges Bank off Cape Cod, the Bahama Banks, the waters around Iceland, the Irish Sea, the Dogger Bank of the North Sea, and the Falkland Banks. Eel, lobster, and whales appear in great quantities. Various international treaties attempt to reduce pollution caused by environmental threats such as oil spills, marine debris, and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea.
Terrain
From October to June the surface is usually covered with sea ice in the Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, and Baltic Sea. A clockwise warm-water gyre occupies the northern Atlantic, and a counter-clockwise warm-water gyre appears in the southern Atlantic. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin, first discovered by the Challenger Expedition dominates the ocean floor. This was formed by the vulcanism that also formed the ocean floor and the islands rising from it.
The Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. These include the Norwegian Sea, Baltic Sea, North Sea, Labrador Sea, Black Sea, Gulf of Saint Lawrence, Bay of Fundy, Gulf of Maine, Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Sea.
Islands include Newfoundland (including hundreds of surrounding islands), Greenland, Iceland, Faroe Islands, Great Britain (including numerous surrounding islands), Ireland, Rockall, Sable Island, Azores, St. Pierre and Miquelon, Madeira, Bermuda, Canary Islands, Caribbean, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Annobón Province, Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Ascension Island, Saint Helena, Trindade and Martim Vaz, Tristan da Cunha, Gough Island (Also known as Diego Alvarez), Falkland Islands, Tierra del Fuego, South Georgia Island, South Sandwich Islands, and Bouvet Island.
Natural resources
The Atlantic harbors petroleum and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales), sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, and precious stones.
Natural hazards
Icebergs are common from February to August in the Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic and have been spotted as far south as Bermuda and Madeira. Ships are subject to superstructure icing in the extreme north from October to May. Persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September, as can hurricanes north of the equator (May to December).
The United States' southeast coast has a long history of shipwrecks due to its many shoals and reefs. The Virginia and North Carolina coasts were particularly dangerous.
The Bermuda Triangle is popularly believed to be the site of numerous aviation and shipping incidents because of unexplained and supposedly mysterious causes, but Coast Guard records do not support this belief.
Hurricanes are also a natural hazard in the Atlantic, but mainly in the northern part of the ocean, rarely tropical cyclones form in the southern parts. Hurricanes usually form between June 1 and November 30 of every year. The most notable hurricane in the Atlantic would be Hurricane Katrina in the 2005 season
Current environmental issues
Endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales. Drift net fishing can kill dolphins, albatrosses and other seabirds (petrels, auks), hastening the fish stock decline and contributing to international disputes.[16] Municipal pollution comes from the eastern United States, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea.
In 2005, there was some concern that warm northern European currents were slowing down, but no scientific consensus formed from that evidence.[17]
On June 7, 2006, Florida's wildlife commission voted to take the manatee off the state's endangered species list. Some environmentalists worry that this could erode safeguards for the popular sea creature.
Marine pollution
Marine pollution is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or particles. The biggest culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture fertilizer chemicals as well as livestock and human waste. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.[18]
Marine debris, which is also known as marine litter, describes human-created waste floating in a body of water. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter
Bordering countries and territories
The states (territories in italics) with a coastline on the Atlantic Ocean (excluding the Baltic and Mediterranean Seas) are:
Europe
• Belgium
• Denmark
• Germany
• Spain
• France
• Faroe Islands
• Guernsey
• Isle of Man
• Ireland
• Iceland
• Jersey
• Netherlands
• Norway
• Portugal
• Sweden
• United Kingdom
Africa
• Morocco
• Angola
• Benin
• Bouvet Island
• Côte d'Ivoire
• Cameroon
• Democratic Republic of the Congo
• Republic of the Congo
• Cape Verde
• Western Sahara (claimed by Morocco)
• Spain (Canary Islands)
• Gabon
• Ghana
• Guinea
• Gambia
• Guinea-Bissau
• Equatorial Guinea
• Liberia
• Mauritania
• Namibia
• Nigeria
• Senegal
• Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
• Sierra Leone
• São Tomé and Príncipe
•
South America
• Argentina
• Brazil
• Chile
• Colombia
• Falkland Islands
• France (French Guiana)
• Guyana
• South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
• Suriname
• Uruguay
• Venezuela
Caribbean
• Aruba
• Anguilla
• Antigua and Barbuda
• Bahamas
• Saint Barthélemy
• Barbados
• Cuba
• Curaçao
• Cayman Islands
• Dominica
• Dominican Republic
• France (Martinique and Guadeloupe)
• Grenada
• Haiti
• Jamaica
• Saint Lucia
• Saint Martin
• Montserrat
• Netherlands (Caribbean Netherlands)
• Puerto Rico
• Saint Kitts and Nevis
• Sint Maarten
• Turks and Caicos Islands
• Trinidad and Tobago
• Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
• British Virgin Islands
• United States Virgin Islands
Central and North America
• Belize
• Bermuda
• Canada
• Costa Rica
• Greenland
• Guatemala
• Honduras
• Mexico
• Nicaragua
• Panama
• Saint Pierre and Miquelon
• United States
This particular ferris wheel "Splendid" was found in Cannes, France
A Ferris wheel is an amusement ride consisting of a rotating upright wheel with multiple passenger-carrying components (commonly referred to as passenger cars, cabins, tubs, capsules, gondolas, or pods) attached to the rim in such a way that as the wheel turns, they are kept upright, usually by gravity. Some of the largest modern Ferris wheels have cars mounted on the outside of the rim, with electric motors to independently rotate each car to keep it upright. These wheels are sometimes referred to as observation wheels and their cars referred to as capsules. However, these alternative names are also used for wheels with conventional gravity-oriented cars.
The original Ferris Wheel was designed and constructed by George Washington Gale Ferris Jr. as a landmark for the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. The generic term Ferris wheel, now used in American English for all such structures, has become the most common type of amusement ride at state fairs in the United States.
The current tallest Ferris wheel is the 167.6-metre (550 ft) High Roller in Las Vegas, Nevada, which opened to the public in March 2014.
The original Ferris Wheel, sometimes also referred to as the Chicago Wheel, was designed and constructed by Ferris Jr.
With a height of 80.4 metres (264 ft) it was the tallest attraction at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois, where it opened to the public on June 21, 1893. It was intended to rival the 324-metre (1,063 ft) Eiffel Tower, the center piece of the 1889 Paris Exposition.
Ferris was a graduate of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and a Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, bridge-builder. He began his career in the railroad industry and then pursued an interest in bridge building. Ferris understood the growing need for structural steel and founded G.W.G. Ferris & Co. in Pittsburgh, a firm that tested and inspected metals for railroads and bridge builders.
The wheel rotated on a 71-ton, 45.5-foot axle comprising what was at that time the world's largest hollow forging, manufactured in Pittsburgh by the Bethlehem Iron Company and weighing 89,320 pounds, together with two 16-foot-diameter (4.9 m) cast-iron spiders weighing 53,031 pounds.
There were 36 cars, each fitted with 40 revolving chairs and able to accommodate up to 60 people, giving a total capacity of 2,160. The wheel carried some 38,000 passengers daily and took 20 minutes to complete two revolutions, the first involving six stops to allow passengers to exit and enter and the second a nine-minute non-stop rotation, for which the ticket holder paid 50 cents.
The Exposition ended in October 1893, and the wheel closed in April 1894 and was dismantled and stored until the following year. It was then rebuilt on Chicago's North Side, near Lincoln Park, next to an exclusive neighborhood. This prompted William D. Boyce, then a local resident, to file a Circuit Court action against the owners of the wheel to have it removed, but without success. It operated there from October 1895 until 1903, when it was again dismantled, then transported by rail to St. Louis for the 1904 World's Fair and finally destroyed by controlled demolition using dynamite on May 11, 1906.
Antique Ferris wheels
The Wiener Riesenrad (German for "Viennese Giant Wheel") is a surviving example of nineteenth-century Ferris wheels. Erected in 1897 in the Wurstelprater section of Prater public park in the Leopoldstadt district of Vienna, Austria, to celebrate Emperor Franz Josef I's Golden Jubilee, it has a height of 64.75 metres (212 ft) and originally had 30 passenger cars. A demolition permit for the Riesenrad was issued in 1916, but due to a lack of funds with which to carry out the destruction, it survived.
Following the demolition of the 100-metre (328 ft) Grande Roue de Paris in 1920, the Riesenrad became the world's tallest extant Ferris wheel. In 1944 it burnt down, but was rebuilt the following year with 15 passenger cars, and remained the world's tallest extant wheel until its 97th year, when the 85-metre (279 ft) Technocosmos was constructed for Expo '85, at Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
Still in operation today, it is one of Vienna's most popular tourist attractions, and over the years has featured in numerous films (including Madame Solange d`Atalide (1914), Letter from an Unknown Woman (1948), The Third Man (1949), The Living Daylights (1987), Before Sunrise (1995)) and novels.
World's tallest Ferris wheels
Chronology of world's tallest-ever wheels
•1893: the original Ferris Wheel was 80.4 metres (264 ft) tall. Built for the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois, it was moved to St. Louis, Missouri, in 1904 for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, and demolished there in 1906.
•1895: the Great Wheel was built for the Empire of India Exhibition at Earls Court, London, UK, and was 94 metres (308 ft) tall.[15] Construction began in March 1894[16] and it opened to the public on 17 July 1895. It stayed in service until 1906 and was demolished in 1907, having carried over 2.5 million passengers.
•1900: the Grande Roue de Paris was built for the Exposition Universelle, a world's fair held in Paris, France. It was demolished in 1920,[8] but its 100-metre (328 ft) height was not surpassed until almost 90 years after its construction.
•1920: the Wiener Riesenrad was built to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Emperor Franz Josef I, at the entrance of the Wurstelprater amusement park in Austria's capital Vienna. Constructed in 1897, when the Grande Roue de Paris was demolished in 1920, the Riesenrad became the world's tallest extant Ferris wheel with 64.75-metre (212 ft), and it remained so for the next 65 years until 1985, its 97th year.
•1985: Technocosmos, later renamed Technostar, was an 85-metre (279 ft) tall giant Ferris wheel, originally built for the Expo '85 World Fair in Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan. Work began on dismantling Technostar in November 2009.
•1989: the Cosmo Clock 21 was built for the YES '89 Yokohama Exposition at Minato Mirai 21, Yokohama, Japan. Originally constructed with a height of 107.5 metres (353 ft),it was dismantled in 1997 and then in 1999 relocated onto a taller base which increased its overall height to 112.5 metres (369 ft).
•1992: Igosu 108 at Biwako Tower, Shiga, Japan, opened April 26 at 108 metres (354 ft) tall, hence its name. It has since been moved to Vietnam, where it opened as the Sun Wheel on a new base, now totaling 115 metres (377 ft) tall.
•1997: the Tempozan Ferris Wheel, in Osaka, Japan, opened to the public on 13 July, and is 112.5 metres (369 ft) tall.
•1999: the Daikanransha at Palette Town in Odaiba, Japan, is 115 metres (377 ft) tall.
•2000: the London Eye, in London, United Kingdom, is 135 metres (443 ft) tall. Although officially opened on 31 December 1999, it did not open to the public until March 2000, because of technical problems.
•2006: the Star of Nanchang, in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, China, opened for business in May and is 160 metres (525 ft) tall.
•2008: the Singapore Flyer, in Singapore, is 165 metres (541 ft) tall. It started rotating on 11 February, and officially opened to the public on 1 March 2008.
•2014: the High Roller, in Las Vegas, Nevada, United States, is 167.6 metres (550 ft) tall. It opened to the public on 31 March 2014, and is currently the world's tallest Ferris wheel in operation.
•2020: the Ain Dubai, in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, is 250 metres (820 ft) tall. It is due to open in 2020.
Une grande roue ou roue panoramique est une variante de très grande taille des manèges.
L'attraction est constituée d'une roue à la verticale ainsi que de nacelles attachées à la jante où montent les passagers. La première grande roue fut conçue par George Washington Gale Ferris Jr. à l'occasion de l'Exposition universelle de 1893 à Chicago. On trouve généralement les grandes roues dans les parcs d'attractions ou les fêtes foraines, mais depuis l'inauguration de London Eye, la grande roue de Londres, on en trouve de plus en plus dans les centres-villes.
Son but est principalement de donner aux passagers une vue panoramique sur une ville, en tournant à une vitesse modérée, voire parfois très lente. Elle n'est majoritairement pas une attraction à sensations, excepté les quelques effets éventuels de vertige dus à la hauteur en la faisant pivoter, de légers balancements dus au vent, ou d'effets inattendus de descentes, comme sur la Pixar Pal-A-Round.
La première évocation d'une grande roue à proprement parler figure dans les journaux de voyages de Peter Mundy, un navigateur et voyageur britannique du XVIIe siècle, originaire de Penryn en Cornouailles. Lors de son exploration de l'empire ottoman, il passe quelques jours à Plovdiv en Bulgarie et évoque les différents systèmes de balançoires à but festif, dont les moins dangereuses, pour les enfants seraient les ancêtres de la grande roue.
La grande roue « moderne » voit le jour grâce à George Washington Gale Ferris, Jr., diplômé de Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, il fabriquait des ponts à Pittsburgh en Pennsylvanie. Il commença sa carrière dans l'industrie des voies ferrées, puis fut intéressé par la construction des ponts. Ferris comprit le besoin croissant d'acier de construction et fonda G.W.G. Ferris & Co. à Pittsburgh, une entreprise qui testait et contrôlait les métaux utilisés pour les voies ferrés et les ponts.
Ferris conçut la première grande roue, à l'occasion de l'exposition universelle de 1893 à Chicago1. La grande roue était censée être une attraction rivale de la tour Eiffel, l'œuvre centrale de l'Exposition universelle de Paris de 1889. Ce fut l'attraction la plus imposante de l'exposition, du haut de ses 80 mètres, elle était constituée de deux moteurs à vapeur et pouvait supporter 2 160 personnes. Elle contenait 36 nacelles de 60 places chacune (40 assises et 20 debout). Cela prenait vingt minutes pour que la roue fasse deux tours. Au premier tour, six arrêts permettaient aux passagers de monter et de descendre et le deuxième tour était complet sans arrêt. Le ticket coutait 50 cents à l'époque. À la fin de l'exposition universelle, la grande roue fut déplacée près d'un quartier huppé du nord de Chicago. Elle fut à nouveau utilisée pour l'exposition universelle de Saint-Louis dans le Missouri en 1904, qui célébrait le centenaire de l'acquisition de la Louisiane. Elle fut démantelée en 19062. Son axe, qui pesait 70 tonnes, a été le plus grand projet forgé de tous les temps. Des morceaux de cette grande roue furent utilisés pour construire un pont au-dessus de la rivière Kankakee, à 72 km au sud de Chicago3.
La seconde grande roue construite mesure 94 mètres. Nommée Gigantic Wheel (« roue géante »), elle fut construite à Londres dans le quartier d'Earls Court en 1895 sur le modèle de celle de Chicago. Les concepteurs de cette roue, deux Australiens, Adam Gaddelin et Gareth Watson, en construiront ensuite plus de 200.
La troisième installation fut édifiée en 1897, elle mesure 65 mètres. Conçue par Hubert Cecil Booth, elle se situe dans le parc du Prater à Vienne (Autriche). Elle tourne aujourd'hui encore et reste l'un des symboles du parc.
Une grande roue fut construite lors de l'Exposition universelle de 1900 à Paris avenue de Suffren (actuel village suisse), elle avait un diamètre de 106 mètres et comportait 80 nacelles (contre 36 pour celle de Chicago) pouvant contenir chacune 20 personnes4. Elle fut démolie en 19375. La grande roue de la jetée de Santa Monica est, avec celle de la jetée centrale de Blackpool, un des rares exemples de grande roue non édifiés sur terre ferme.
Certaines versions récentes permettent d'avoir des nacelles mobiles par rapport à la distance avec l'axe et ainsi se rapprocher du centre de la roue durant la rotation sans être cantonnée au seul périmètre de la roue (par exemple Pixar Pal-A-Round à Disney California Adventure).
Une autre évolution de la grande roue est constituée de plusieurs grandes roues reliés à l'aide de bras hydrauliques comme le Sky Whirl (Six Flags Great America, Illinois) conçu par la société Intamin.
Certaines grandes roues sont désormais transportables et itinérantes et s'installent dans les plus grands centres-villes.
Certains propriétaires de grande roue préfèrent le terme de « roue panoramique » (« observation wheel ») à celui de grande roue, c'est souvent le cas pour les roues les plus imposantes, même si elles ressemblent fortement à la grande roue originale de Ferris. Souvent en centre-ville, elles visent à observer la ville de haut avec un but panoramique.
Plusieurs grandes roues célèbres sont décrites comme panoramiques par leur concepteur, parmi elles figurent le Singapore Flyer6, mais également le London Eye7 à Londres ou encore la High Roller à Las Vegas.
Photo captured via Minolta MD Zoom Rokkor-X 24-50mm F/4 lens and the bracketing method of photography. Palouse Region within the Columbia Plateau Region. Whitman County, Washington. Late December 2017.
Exposure Time: 1/250 sec. * ISO Speed: ISO-200 * Aperture: F/8 * Bracketing: +1 / -1 * Color Temperature: 6050 K * Film Plug-In: Fuji Superia 400 ++
Multiple integrated circuits at the heart of Europe’s space missions, etched together onto a single piece of silicon.
This 20 cm-diameter wafer contains 35 replicas of five different space chips, each incorporating up to about 10 million transistors or basic circuit switches.
Laid down within a microchip, these designs endow a space mission with the ability to perform various specialised tasks such as data handling, communications processing or attitude control.
To save money on the high cost of fabrication, various chips designed by different companies and destined for multiple ESA projects are crammed onto the same silicon wafers, etched into place at specialised semiconductor manufacturing plants.
Once tested for functionality, the chips on the wafer are chopped up and packaged for use, then mounted on printed circuit boards for connection with other microelectronic components aboard a satellite.
Since 2002, ESA’s Microelectronics section has maintained a catalogue of ‘building blocks’ for chip designs, known as Intellectual Property cores, available to European industry through ESA licence.
More information: www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Engineering_Technology/M...
Credit: ESA-Guus Schoonewille
😮 Need something to equip?
Huge selection of 3D printed wheels and coupling rods in many sizes are available at en.bricks-on-rails.de/3d-druck
Needed to get the roll of film out of the camera because it should be finished but advanced it and there was one more shot worth of film, took a picture, advanced it and hit the end, popped the lever to wind the exposed film back into magazine to drop it off at Long's Drugs on Shaw and First in Fresno, California.
In this photo I have the units broken into groups, Armoured, Artillery, Engineers, Transport, SF, Historical and RAEME
Belgian Air Component's General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon display aircraft taxiing to the runway before commencing its display at the 2011 RAF Waddington International Air Show.
Some cool turning parts images:
Pont Alexandre III
Image by David McA Photographs
A long exposure shot of the Seine at the Pont Alexandre III, a wonderfully ornate bridge more than the Seine by the Grand Palais in Paris.
I liked the way that the low evening sun lit up the gilded parts of the...
Read more about Cool Turning Components photos
(Posted by a Precision Machining China Manufacturer)
Just like astronauts themselves, each and every part to be used in a spacecraft goes through exhaustive testing, guided by ESA-backed standards - just ask Circuit the Component...
Credit: ESA – Ed Grace
The green toenail of the statue, the names in gold, the Belgian blue stone and the liberation photo: the pieces of a puzzle of historic reality, now long gone.
Somewhere in Brentford, next to the busy elevated section of the A4, is a little warehouse where the famous folding Brompton bicycle comes to be.
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Los Angeles, CA '19
J. Paul Getty Museum
Buried by Vesuvius Exhibition, on loan from the Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples
Villa dei Papiri, Herculaneum, 1st Century BC-1st Century AD
Copyright © 2021 by Craig Paup. All rights reserved.
Any use, printed or digital, in whole or edited, requires my written permission.
Components for a 54 Sqn SEPECAT Jaguar GR.1, including 2 Turbomeca Adour Mark 104 engines, are prepared ready for painting.
Estas son las tres piezas que he creado para una de las chicas de El Reto.Espero que le gusten y que monte algo bonito con ellas.He incorporado la cremallera,que tanto me acompaña estos días, al embroidered.
The action of the Helvara rifle is totally unlike other bolt action rifles. The action is locked by a locking block dropping into recesses in the receiver; when the bolt carrier is pulled back, a wedge pulls the locking block up and out of these recesses. The trigger is a two-stage design which wraps around the sear.
See also:
Almost every single component of the Flavel mansion seen here came from a carpenter's shop.
It would be a colossal job to build a precise replica of this building today even with our power tools.
In 1885 carpenters did have access to a variety of treadle tools, particularly saws and scroll saws. One wonders how much effort it would have taken to cut the many scrollwork designs seen here. The operators of treadle saws must have developed powerful muscles in one leg and, quite possibly, repetitive motion injuries.
However, a power tool was of little use unless the carpenter knew how to apply it to achieve the desired result. The crisp, repeating, and symmetrical designs have little or no margin for error.
I wish I knew how many carpenters were employed in creating the fancy wooden trim for the Flavel mansion, and how the carpentry shop was organized and managed. I hope for their sake that the carpenters had a fair amount of variety in their work. Imagine being the person responsible for every turned ornamental ball finial on the entire mansion!
Now that I think of it, I wonder where the carpentry shop was located. There was ample room for one on the ample lot. If that is where it was, I wonder whether any archaeological remains still exist that would be worth investigating.
========================================================
Flavel House History
The Flavel House Museum was the home of Captain George Flavel (1823-1893), one of Astoria’s most influential citizens in the late 1800s. Captain Flavel was a noted bar pilot on the Columbia River and a prominent businessman.
His Queen Anne style house was designed by German-born architect Carl W. Leick and was completed in the spring of 1886 as his retirement home.
The Captain lived here for seven years with his wife Mary Christina Boelling (1839-1928) and his two grown daughters, Nellie and Katie. The couple’s son, George Conrad Flavel, never lived in his parent’s new residence as he was already married and living in a house of his own.
The house remained in the family until 1934 when George and Mary’s great-granddaughter, Patricia Jean Flavel, gave the property to the city as a memorial to her family.
In 1936 there was talk of tearing the house down and establishing an outdoor community park on the property. However, the city had financial difficulties and decided to return the property to Patricia Flavel. That same year the residence and grounds were deeded to Clatsop County with the understanding that both would be kept in good repair and used for public purposes.
From 1937 through World War II, the Public Health Department, the Red Cross, and the local Welfare Commission all had offices in the house.
In 1951, there was once again the talk of tearing the house down, this time to make way for a parking lot for the County Courthouse.
Concerned citizens organized to save the home, and the Flavel House was made into a local history museum managed by the Clatsop County Historical Society while still under the ownership of the County.
Eventually, the County transferred full ownership of the property to the Historical Society.
About the Interior
The Flavel House is approximately 11,600 square feet and consists of two and a half stories, a single story rear kitchen, a four-story tower, and a full basement.
The interior woodwork around the doors, windows, and stair-cases are Eastlake-influenced in design. The Douglas Fir doors, moldings, and wainscoting were faux wood-grained by a master craftsman to look like exotic hardwoods such as mahogany and burl rosewood. The wood likely came from a mill in Portland or San Francisco and was shipped to Astoria by steamer.
Six fireplaces grace the home and feature different imported tiles from around the world, elaborate hand-carved mantels, and a patterned metal firebox designed to burn coal.
The fourteen-foot high ceilings on the first floor and the twelve-foot high ceilings on the second floor are embellished with plaster medallions and plaster crown moldings.
The house was very modern with wall-to-wall carpet-ing, gaslighting, indoor plumbing, and a central heating system.
The First Floor is comprised of the public rooms such as the grand entrance hall, the formal parlor, the music room (the scene of musical recitals by the Flavel daughters), the library (the heart of the house), the dining room, and the conservatory. The butler’s pantry, the kitchen, and the mudroom make up the housekeeping area.
The Second Floor features the main bathroom, five bedchambers, and a small room used as a sewing room or storage room.
The Attic Floor is a large, unfinished area with two small plain bedrooms used by the Flavel’s domestic help.
The tower gave the Captain a broad view of Astoria and the Columbia River to keep an eye on the local ship traffic.
The Basement of the house originally had a dirt floor and contained a large wood-burning furnace.
About the Exterior
The Flavel House rests on park-like grounds covering an entire city block. It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1951.
The Queen Anne architectural style, popular from 1880 to 1910, can be seen in the house’s steeply pitched roof, patterned shingles, and cut-away bay windows.
Other characteristics of the Queen Anne style are the octagonal-shaped tower, the one-story wrap-around porch, and its asymmetrical facade.
Decorative elements of the Stick and Italianate styles are also apparent in the vertical stickwork, the bracketed eaves, and the hooded moldings above the windows and doors.
Outlining the roof and verandas of the house is the original wrought-iron cresting.
About the Carriage House
The Carriage House was built on the south-west corner of the property in 1887. It served as the place where the family kept their carriage, sleigh, and small buggies.
It also had three temporary holding stalls for their horses, a tack room, and a hayloft upstairs.
In the mid-1890s, the Carriage House was home to the family’s hired caretaker, Alex Murray.
In time, automobiles, including the Flavel’s Studebaker sedan, found a home in the Carriage House, and the family’s driver kept a room upstairs.
Today the Carriage House functions as the Visitor Center, museum store, and exhibit hall for the Flavel House Museum and the administrative offices of the Clatsop County Historical Society.
The London County Council owned and operated tramways were amongst the largest component system that made up the capital city's extensive tram system. The LCCT had its origins in the 1899 purchase of the first of the horse operated tramways that the Council were allowed to acquire and operate under its powers and those of the 1870 Tramways Act. Others followed and in 1903 the first conversion to electric operation, that would in time encompass the whole network, took place. London, for various reasons, saw much of the central area lines operated on the conduit system - however in outer suburbs, where the tramways made a real impact, the more standard overhead electrification system prevailed.
The LCCT had much joint and inter-running with the numerous other operators that made up the patchwork quilt of London's tramways map. These included other council systems, some of which the LCCT operated, as well as the systems that came under the ownership of the Underground group. In 1933 all were merged together in London Transport and one the new organisation's earliest decisions was to replace trams with trolleybuses.
The time tables are listed as "North of Thames" and "South of Thames" showing the largely divided network the LCC operated that was determined by both the river - few London bridges carried tramway traffic - and the attitude of certain key local authorities, most notably the Cities of London and Westminster who would not allow street tramway operation. There was one central 'link' and interestingly this timetable guide notes the closure, for reconstruction, of the Kingsway Subway. Opened in 1906 and constructed along the lines of the 'new' Kingsway that was constructed under the auspices of the Council, this had only operated single deck trams on routes 33 and 35. Upon reopening it would allow the passage of the double deck fleet. The notes states "Pullman Services" - this simply denotes the refurbished fleet of cars that the LCC was slowly introducing and that did not include catering services as on railways!
The timetable shows first and last cars and a basic frequency. Oddly the LCC did not show running or journey times - this would feature on the post-1933 versions of the map and guide issued by London Transport. It shows the LCCT routes and the through running on to the lines of various other operators both company and municipal such as the MET, LUT, Croydon and West Ham.
I'd bet most American flight attendants - trapped in their drab, serviceable navy-blue sack dresses - would cry at the sight of that little green dress. Granted you'd need the right figure to carry that line of piping at the bust - but it's such a stunning colour and, well, just PRETTY.
The man on the right seems awfully young to have four stripes on his cuff....
Components of nature !
Yalova Harbor - Turkey 2009
for better quality
www.yousifalhomoudi.com/?gallery_category=tourism#!pretty...[pp_gal]/17/
One of my work colleagues ordered this circuit board in a kit form.
I offered to put it together for him, as I used to work as a communications technician.
It's been over 16 years since I last fitted components onto a circuit board....it was quite enjoyable.
It worked 1st go!!
It is a voice changer module
Here are the six pieces used in C6 mechs (in case you hadn't already figured it out).
More importantly, however, is the XML needed to create a Wanted List on BrickLink. The list is for 20 of each of the pieces in new condition in Light Bluish Gray (Also called Medium Stone Grey by Lego). Once you import the list you can adjust the colors and quantities, etc. to your liking.
Here is the XML in a text doc. Just open the file, copy all the text and paste it into the Upload section of the "Add Item" tab, in your Wanted List on BrickLink.
If anyone needs more detailed instructions, let me know and I'll post them (I know it's not a very intuitive system).
Edit: I should mention that this is part of the C6 System for building Lego mechs for the game MFØ, just in case you ended up here randomly.