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Made for the highly respected Nicca 35mm rangefinder cameras of the 1950s. Here's the original box which is in excellent condition. The flash units sold by Nicca may have been manufactured for them by West Electric Co., Ltd., of Osaka and Tokyo. For more please visit my blog at www.yashicasailorboy.com
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Robert Gourlay, a well respected Scottish Reformer came to Upper Canada in 1818 and after seeing many issues with how the Province was being administered began to question the Provincial Parliament and the cadre of Colonial Elites who seemed to run everything. He hit a nerve and was run out of the Province after being illegally arrested and charged. But it was through his efforts that the reform movement got its spark and became the flame of change leading to the eventual establishment of Responsible Government. Today a bust of Gourlay sits in St. James Park in downtown Toronto.
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A sign reading, “silence and respect” sits near the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Arlington National Cemetery, May 6, 2015, Arlington, Va. (U.S. Army photo by Rachel Larue)
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Gallery on the homepage was renewed after a long time ･･･.
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El consejero de Hacienda y Economía del Gobierno Vasco, Pedro Azpiazu, ha participado esta mañana en un desayuno informativo organizado por Executive Forum, con la colaboración de Enviser. El portavoz del grupo parlamentario vasco, Aitor Esteban, ha acompañado al consejero y le ha presentado destacando su “visión de justicia social” en el desempeño de su trabajo y su amplio conocimiento de los diferentes tipos de realidades, fruto de su experiencia previa en diversas administraciones.
Azpiazu ha comenzado su discurso acerca de las perspectivas de desarrollo económico en la próxima década advirtiendo que “ya se está” produciendo una ralentización. Sin que se esperase que esta tendencia llegase a alcanzar los niveles de la crisis anterior, el consejero ha reconocido que “la escasa resiliencia de nuestra economía sigue siendo una asignatura pendiente que no hemos terminado de superar, aunque creo que podemos estar más cerca de conseguirlo”. En este sentido, ha explicado que se prevé un crecimiento del 1,9% para 2020, frente al 2,2% del año pasado. A su juicio, estos seguirían siendo unos datos positivos teniendo en cuenta el entorno europeo y, sobre todo, que desde que se inició la recuperación en 2014 se han mantenido años de crecimiento entorno al 3%.
Con respecto al problema del paro, Apiazu ha considerado que esta escasa resiliencia sería una de las principales causas de las altas tasas de paro durante los periodos de crisis. Pese a ello, se ha mostrado optimista valorando factores como la propia tasa decreciente del paro, el carácter excepcional de la anterior crisis y la expectativa de que “en la próxima década asistiremos a unas enormes necesidades de relevo de la generación del baby boom, que llega a la jubilación, mientras que se reduce la población de forma natural”.
En relación con al crecimiento del País Vasco, el consejero ha afirmado que “somos muy conscientes de lo que representa un reducido tamaño como el nuestro en esta era del capitalismo global”, así como que “los temas de competitividad son una seña de identidad del Gobierno vasco”. Por este motivo, ha explicado que trabajan por construir su ventaja competitiva y lograr una alta productividad, “aunque sabemos bien que ni podemos ni queremos aspirar a ser una gran ciudad global”. En esta línea, ha aludido al Índice de Competitividad Regional de la Comisión Europea, que destacaría que “en España la divergencia es enorme y que solo el País Vasco lucha por seguir la estela irresistible de Madrid”, ya que “la ventaja de las capitales es abrumadora”.
De este modo, Azpiazu ha denunciado que en España “las capitales se lo llevan todo” y que sea el país de la Unión Europea “con mayor disparidad en 2019 entre su región más competitiva y la menos competitiva”. Por tanto, ha reivindicado que Euskadi siga siendo “un pequeño gran motor dentro de la geografía económica”, para lo cual “necesitamos poder desplegar nuestra propia idiosincrasia, nuestras instituciones y ser fieles a los valores de nuestra sociedad”.
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Photograph taken at an altitude of Two hundred and forty metres at 15.14pm on Tuesday May 7th 2024 off South Street in Rhayader, Mid-Wales from the Low level professional photography hide at Gigrin Farm feeding station.
The Red Kite (Milvus Milvus) is a medium sized bird of prey (Raptor) in the Accipitridae family, and was saved from national extinction by a long running protection programme. It has now been successfully re-introduced into England and Scotland, and Wales, and they are listed under schedule 1 of the Wildlife and Countryside act, currently with a green status.
They can reach 66cms in length with up to a 195cms wingspan, and there around 4,600 breeding pairs in the UK in 2024.
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Kashgar is an oasis city with an approximate population of 350,000. It is the westernmost city in China, located near the border with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. Kashgar has a rich history of over 2,000 years and served as a trading post and strategically important city on the Silk Road between China, the Middle East, and Europe. Kashgar is part of the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor.
Located historically at the convergence point of widely varying cultures and empires, Kashgar has been under the rule of the Chinese, Turkic, Mongol, and Tibetan empires. The city has also been the site of an extraordinary number of battles between various groups of people on the steppes.
Now administered as a county-level unit of the People's Republic of China, Kashgar is the administrative centre of its eponymous prefecture in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region which has an area of 162,000 square kilometres and a population of approximately 3.5 million. The city's urban area covers 15 km2, though its administrative area extends over 555 km2.
NAME
The modern Chinese name is 喀什 (Kāshí), a shortened form of the longer and less-frequently used (simplified Chinese: 喀什噶尔; traditional Chinese: 喀什噶爾; pinyin: Kāshígé’ěr; Uyghur: قەشقەر). Ptolemy (AD 90-168), in his Geography, Chapter 15.3A, refers to Kashgar as “Kasi”. Its western and probably indigenous name is the Kāš ("rock"), to which the East Iranian -γar ("mountain"); cf. Pashto and Middle Persian gar/ġar, from Old Persian/Pahlavi girīwa ("hill; ridge (of a mountain)") was attached. Alternative historical Romanizations for "Kashgar" include Cascar and Cashgar.
Non-native names for the city, such as the old Chinese name Shule 疏勒 and Tibetan Śu-lig may have originated as an attempts to transcribe the Sanskrit name for Kashgar, Śrīkrīrāti ("fortunate hospitality")
Variant transcriptions of the official Uyghur: يېڭىشەھەر include: K̂äxk̂är or Kaxgar, as well as Jangi-schahr, Kashgar Yangi Shahr, K’o-shih-ka-erh, K’o-shih-ka-erh-hsin-ch’eng, Ko-shih-ka-erh-hui-ch’eng, K’o-shih-ko-erh-hsin-ch’eng, New Kashgar, Sheleh, Shuleh, Shulen, Shu-lo, Su-lo, Su-lo-chen, Su-lo-hsien, Yangi-shaar, Yangi-shahr, Yangishar, Yéngisheher, Yengixəh̨ər and Еңишәһәр.
HISTORY
HAN DYNASTY
The earliest mention of Kashgar occurs when a Chinese Han dynasty envoy traveled the Northern Silk Road to explore lands to the west.
Another early mention of Kashgar is during the Former Han (also known as the Western Han dynasty), when in 76 BC the Chinese conquered the Xiongnu, Yutian (Khotan), Sulei (Kashgar), and a group of states in the Tarim basin almost up to the foot of the Tian Shan range.
Ptolemy speaks of Scythia beyond the Imaus, which is in a “Kasia Regio”, probably exhibiting the name from which Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to the district) are formed. The country’s people practised Zoroastrianism and Buddhism before the coming of Islam.
In the Book of Han, which covers the period between 125 BC and 23 AD, it is recorded that there were 1,510 households, 18,647 people and 2,000 persons able to bear arms. By the time covered by the Book of the Later Han (roughly 25 to 170 AD), it had grown to 21,000 households and had 3,000 men able to bear arms.
The Book of the Later Han provides a wealth of detail on developments in the region:
"In the period of Emperor Wu [140-87 BC], the Western Regions1 were under the control of the Interior [China]. They numbered thirty-six kingdoms. The Imperial Government established a Colonel [in charge of] Envoys there to direct and protect these countries. Emperor Xuan [73-49 BC] changed this title [in 59 BC] to Protector-General.
Emperor Yuan [40-33 BC] installed two Wuji Colonels to take charge of the agricultural garrisons on the frontiers of the king of Nearer Jushi [Turpan].
During the time of Emperor Ai [6 BC-AD 1] and Emperor Ping [AD 1-5], the principalities of the Western Regions split up and formed fifty-five kingdoms. Wang Mang, after he usurped the Throne [in AD 9], demoted and changed their kings and marquises. Following this, the Western Regions became resentful, and rebelled. They, therefore, broke off all relations with the Interior [China] and, all together, submitted to the Xiongnu again.
The Xiongnu collected oppressively heavy taxes and the kingdoms were not able to support their demands. In the middle of the Jianwu period [AD 25-56], they each [Shanshan and Yarkand in 38, and 18 kingdoms in 45], sent envoys to ask if they could submit to the Interior [China], and to express their desire for a Protector-General. Emperor Guangwu, decided that because the Empire was not yet settled [after a long period of civil war], he had no time for outside affairs, and [therefore] finally refused his consent [in AD 45].
In the meantime, the Xiongnu became weaker. The king of Suoju [Yarkand], named Xian, wiped out several kingdoms. After Xian’s death [c. AD 62], they began to attack and fight each other. Xiao Yuan [Tura], Jingjue [Cadota], Ronglu [Niya], and Qiemo [Cherchen] were annexed by Shanshan [the Lop Nur region]. Qule [south of Keriya] and Pishan [modern Pishan or Guma] were conquered and fully occupied by Yutian [Khotan]. Yuli [Fukang], Danhuan, Guhu [Dawan Cheng], and Wutanzili were destroyed by Jushi [Turpan and Jimasa]. Later these kingdoms were re-established.
During the Yongping period [AD 58-75], the Northern Xiongnu forced several countries to help them plunder the commanderies and districts of Hexi. The gates of the towns stayed shut in broad daylight."
And, more particularly in reference to Kashgar itself, is the following record:
"In the sixteenth Yongping year of Emperor Ming 73, Jian, the king of Qiuci (Kucha), attacked and killed Cheng, the king of Shule (Kashgar). Then he appointed the Qiuci (Kucha) Marquis of the Left, Douti, King of Shule (Kashgar). ‹See TfD›
In winter 73, the Han sent the Major Ban Chao who captured and bound Douti. He appointed Zhong, the son of the elder brother of Cheng, to be king of Shule (Kashgar). Zhong later rebelled. (Ban) Chao attacked and beheaded him."
THE KUSHANS
The Book of the Later Han also gives the only extant historical record of Yuezhi or Kushan involvement in the Kashgar oasis:
"During the Yuanchu period (114-120) in the reign of Emperor, the king of Shule (Kashgar), exiled his maternal uncle Chenpan to the Yuezhi (Kushans) for some offence. The king of the Yuezhi became very fond of him. Later, Anguo died without leaving a son. His mother directed the government of the kingdom. She agreed with the people of the country to put Yifu (lit. “posthumous child”), who was the son of a full younger brother of Chenpan on the throne as king of Shule (Kashgar). Chenpan heard of this and appealed to the Yuezhi (Kushan) king, saying:
"Anguo had no son. His relative (Yifu) is weak. If one wants to put on the throne a member of (Anguo’s) mother’s family, I am Yifu’s paternal uncle, it is I who should be king."
The Yuezhi (Kushans) then sent soldiers to escort him back to Shule (Kashgar). The people had previously respected and been fond of Chenpan. Besides, they dreaded the Yuezhi (Kushans). They immediately took the seal and ribbon from Yifu and went to Chenpan, and made him king. Yifu was given the title of Marquis of the town of Pangao [90 li, or 37 km, from Shule].
‹See TfD›
Then Suoju (Yarkand) continued to resist Yutian (Khotan), and put themselves under Shule (Kashgar). Thus Shule (Kashgar), became powerful and a rival to Qiuci (Kucha) and Yutian (Khotan)."
However, it was not very long before the Chinese began to reassert their authority in the region:
“In the second Yongjian year (127), during Emperor Shun’s reign, Chenpan sent an envoy to respectfully present offerings. The Emperor bestowed on Chenpan the title of Great Commandant-in-Chief for the Han. Chenxun, who was the son of his elder brother, was appointed Temporary Major of the Kingdom. ‹See TfD›
In the fifth year (130), Chenpan sent his son to serve the Emperor and, along with envoys from Dayuan (Ferghana) and Suoju (Yarkand), brought tribute and offerings.”
From an earlier part of the same text comes the following addition:
“In the first Yangjia year (132), Xu You sent the king of Shule (Kashgar), Chenpan, who with 20,000 men, attacked and defeated Yutian (Khotan). He beheaded several hundred people, and released his soldiers to plunder freely. He replaced the king [of Jumi] by installing Chengguo from the family of [the previous king] Xing, and then he returned.”[38]
Then the first passage continues:
“In the second Yangjia year (133), Chenpan again made offerings (including) a lion and zebu cattle. ‹See TfD›
Then, during Emperor Ling’s reign, in the first Jianning year, the king of Shule (Kashgar) and Commandant-in-Chief for the Han (i.e. presumably Chenpan), was shot while hunting by the youngest of his paternal uncles, Hede. Hede named himself king.
‹See TfD›
In the third year (170), Meng Tuo, the Inspector of Liangzhou, sent the Provincial Officer Ren She, commanding five hundred soldiers from Dunhuang, with the Wuji Major Cao Kuan, and Chief Clerk of the Western Regions, Zhang Yan, brought troops from Yanqi (Karashahr), Qiuci (Kucha), and the Nearer and Further States of Jushi (Turpan and Jimasa), altogether numbering more than 30,000, to punish Shule (Kashgar). They attacked the town of Zhenzhong [Arach − near Maralbashi] but, having stayed for more than forty days without being able to subdue it, they withdrew. Following this, the kings of Shule (Kashgar) killed one another repeatedly while the Imperial Government was unable to prevent it.”
THREE KINGDOMS TO THE SUI
These centuries are marked by a general silence in sources on Kashgar and the Tarim Basin.
The Weilüe, composed in the second third of the 3rd century, mentions a number of states as dependencies of Kashgar: the kingdom of Zhenzhong (Arach?), the kingdom of Suoju (Yarkand), the kingdom of Jieshi, the kingdom of Qusha, the kingdom of Xiye (Khargalik), the kingdom of Yinai (Tashkurghan), the kingdom of Manli (modern Karasul), the kingdom of Yire (Mazar − also known as Tágh Nák and Tokanak), the kingdom of Yuling, the kingdom of Juandu (‘Tax Control’ − near modern Irkeshtam), the kingdom of Xiuxiu (‘Excellent Rest Stop’ − near Karakavak), and the kingdom of Qin.
However, much of the information on the Western Regions contained in the Weilüe seems to have ended roughly about (170), near the end of Han power. So, we can’t be sure that this is a reference to the state of affairs during the Cao Wei (220-265), or whether it refers to the situation before the civil war during the Later Han when China lost touch with most foreign countries and came to be divided into three separate kingdoms.
Chapter 30 of the Records of the Three Kingdoms says that after the beginning of the Wei Dynasty (220) the states of the Western Regions did not arrive as before, except for the larger ones such as Kucha, Khotan, Kangju, Wusun, Kashgar, Yuezhi, Shanshan and Turpan, who are said to have come to present tribute every year, as in Han times.
In 270, four states from the Western Regions were said to have presented tribute: Karashahr, Turpan, Shanshan, and Kucha. Some wooden documents from Niya seem to indicate that contacts were also maintained with Kashgar and Khotan around this time.
In 422, according to the Songshu, ch. 98, the king of Shanshan, Bilong, came to the court and "the thirty-six states in the Western Regions" all swore their allegiance and presented tribute. It must be assumed that these 36 states included Kashgar.
The "Songji" of the Zizhi Tongjian records that in the 5th month of 435, nine states: Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all came to the Wei court.
In 439, according to the Weishu, ch. 4A, Shanshan, Kashgar and Karashahr sent envoys to present tribute.
According to the Weishu, ch. 102, Chapter on the Western Regions, the kingdoms of Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all began sending envoys to present tribute in the Taiyuan reign period (435-440).
In 453 Kashgar sent envoys to present tribute (Weishu, ch. 5), and again in 455.
An embassy sent during the reign of Wencheng Di (452-466) from the king of Kashgar presented a supposed sacred relic of the Buddha; a dress which was incombustible.
In 507 Kashgar, is said to have sent envoys in both the 9th and 10th months (Weishu, ch. 8).
In 512, Kashgar sent envoys in the 1st and 5th months. (Weishu, ch. 8).
Early in the 6th century Kashgar is included among the many territories controlled by the Yeda or Hephthalite Huns, but their empire collapsed at the onslaught of the Western Turks between 563 and 567 who then probably gained control over Kashgar and most of the states in the Tarim Basin.
TANG DYNASTY
The founding of the Tang dynasty in 618 saw the beginning of a prolonged struggle between China and the Western Turks for control of the Tarim Basin. In 635, the Tang Annals reported an emissary from the king of Kashgar to the Tang capital. In 639 there was a second emissary bringing products of Kashgar as a token of submission to the Tang state.
Buddhist scholar Xuanzang passed through Kashgar (which he referred to as Ka-sha) in 644 on his return journey from India to China. The Buddhist religion, then beginning to decay in India, was active in Kashgar. Xuanzang recorded that they flattened their babies heads, tattooed their bodies and had green eyes. He reported that Kashgar had abundant crops, fruits and flowers, wove fine woolen stuffs and rugs. Their writing system had been adapted from Indian script but their language was different from that of other countries. The inhabitants were sincere Buddhist adherents and there were some hundreds of monasteries with more than 10,000 followers, all members of the Sarvastivadin School.
At around the same era, Nestorian Christians were establishing bishoprics at Herat, Merv and Samarkand, whence they subsequently proceeded to Kashgar, and finally to China proper itself.
In 646, the Turkic Kagan asked for the hand of a Tang Chinese princess, and in return the Emperor promised Kucha, Khotan, Kashgar, Karashahr and Sarikol as a marriage gift, but this did not happen as planned.
In a series of campaigns between 652 and 658, with the help of the Uyghurs, the Chinese finally defeated the Western Turk tribes and took control of all their domains, including the Tarim Basin kingdoms. Karakhoja was annexed in 640, Karashahr during campaigns in 644 and 648, and Kucha fell in 648.
In 662 a rebellion broke out in the Western Regions and a Chinese army sent to control it was defeated by the Tibetans south of Kashgar.
After another defeat of the Tang Chinese forces in 670, the Tibetans gained control of the whole region and completely subjugated Kashgar in 676-8 and retained possession of it until 692, when the Tang dynasty regained control of all their former territories, and retained it for the next fifty years.
In 722 Kashgar sent 4,000 troops to assist the Chinese to force the "Tibetans out of "Little Bolu" or Gilgit.
In 728, the king of Kashgar was awarded a brevet by the Chinese emperor.
In 739, the Tangshu relates that the governor of the Chinese garrison in Kashgar, with the help of Ferghana, was interfering in the affairs of the Turgesh tribes as far as Talas.
In 751 the Chinese were defeated by an Arab army in the Battle of Talas. The An Lushan Rebellion led to the decline of Tang influence in Central Asia due to the fact that the Tang dynasty was forced to withdraw its troops from the region to fight An Lushan. The Tibetans cut all communication between China and the West in 766.
Soon after the Chinese pilgrim monk Wukong passed through Kashgar in 753. He again reached Kashgar on his return trip from India in 786 and mentions a Chinese deputy governor as well as the local king.
BATTLES WITH ARAB CALIPHATE
In 711, the Arabs invaded Kashgar, but did not hold the city for any length of time. Kashgar and Turkestan lent assistance to the reigning queen of Bukhara, to enable her to repel the Arabs. Although the Muslim religion from the very commencement sustained checks, it nevertheless made its weight felt upon the independent states of Turkestan to the north and east, and thus acquired a steadily growing influence. It was not, however, till the 10th century that Islam was established at Kashgar, under the Kara-Khanid Khanate.
THE TURKIC RULE
According to the 10th-century text, Hudud al-'alam, "the chiefs of Kashghar in the days of old were from the Qarluq, or from the Yaghma." The Karluks, Yaghmas and other tribes such as the Chigils formed the Karakhanids. The Karakhanid Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan converted to Islam in the 10th century and captured Kashgar. Kashgar was the capital of the Karakhanid state for a time but later the capital was moved to Balasaghun. During the latter part of the 10th century, the Muslim Karakhanids began a struggle against the Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan, and the Khotanese defeated the Karakhanids and captured Kashgar in 970. Chinese sources recorded the king of Khotan offering to send them a dancing elephant captured from Kashgar. Later in 1006, the Karakhanids of Kashgar under Yusuf Kadr Khan conquered Khotan.
The Karakhanid Khanate however was beset with internal strife, and the khanate split into two, the Eastern and Western Karakhanid Khanates, with Kashgar falling within the domain of the Eastern Karakhanid state. In 1089, the Western Karakhanids fell under the control of the Seljuks, but the Eastern Karakhanids was for the most part independent.
Both the Karakhanid states were defeated in the 12th century by the Kara-Khitans who captured Balasaghun, however Karakhanid rule continued in Kashgar under the suzerainty of the Kara-Khitans. The Kara-Khitan rulers followed a policy of religious tolerance, Islamic religious life continued uninterrupted and Kashgar was also a Nestorian metropolitan see. The last Karakhanid of Kashgar was killed in a revolt in 1211 by the city's notables. Kuchlug, a usurper of the throne of the Kara-Khitans, then attacked Kashgar which finally surrendered in 1214.
THE MONGOLS
The Kara-Khitai in their turn were swept away in 1219 by Genghis Khan. After his death, Kashgar came under the rule of the Chagatai Khans. Marco Polo visited the city, which he calls Cascar, about 1273-4 and recorded the presence of numerous Nestorian Christians, who had their own churches. Later In the 14th century, a Chagataid khan Tughluq Timur converted to Islam, and Islamic tradition began to reassert its ascendancy.
In 1389−1390 Tamerlane ravaged Kashgar, Andijan and the intervening country. Kashgar endured a troubled time, and in 1514, on the invasion of the Khan Sultan Said, was destroyed by Mirza Ababakar, who with the aid of ten thousand men built a new fort with massive defences higher up on the banks of the Tuman river. The dynasty of the Chagatai Khans collapsed in 1572 with the division of the country among rival factions; soon after, two powerful Khoja factions, the White and Black Mountaineers (Ak Taghliq or Afaqi, and Kara Taghliq or Ishaqi), arose whose differences and war-making gestures, with the intermittent episode of the Oirats of Dzungaria, make up much of recorded history in Kashgar until 1759. The Dzungar Khanate conquered Kashgar and set up the Khoja as their puppet rulers.
QING CONQUEST
The Qing dynasty defeated the Dzungar Khanate during the Ten Great Campaigns and took control of Kashgar in 1759. The conquerors consolidated their authority by settling other ethnics emigrants in the vicinity of a Manchu garrison.
Rumours flew around Central Asia that the Qing planned to launch expeditions towards Transoxiana and Samarkand, the chiefs of which sought assistance from the Afghan king Ahmed Shah Abdali. The alleged expedition never happened so Ahmad Shah withdrew his forces from Kokand. He also dispatched an ambassador to Beijing to discuss the situation of the Afaqi Khojas, but the representative was not well received, and Ahmed Shah was too busy fighting off the Sikhs to attempt to enforce his demands through arms.
The Qing continued to hold Kashgar with occasional interruptions during the Afaqi Khoja revolts. One of the most serious of these occurred in 1827, when the city was taken by Jahanghir Khoja; Chang-lung, however, the Qing general of Ili, regained possession of Kashgar and the other rebellious cities in 1828.
The Kokand Khanate raided Kashgar several times. A revolt in 1829 under Mahommed Ali Khan and Yusuf, brother of Jahanghir resulted in the concession of several important trade privileges to the Muslims of the district of Altishahr (the "six cities"), as it was then called.
The area enjoyed relative calm until 1846 under the rule of Zahir-ud-din, the local Uyghur governor, but in that year a new Khoja revolt under Kath Tora led to his accession as the authoritarian ruler of the city. However, his reign was brief—at the end of seventy-five days, on the approach of the Chinese, he fled back to Khokand amid the jeers of the inhabitants. The last of the Khoja revolts (1857) was of about equal duration, and took place under Wali-Khan, who murdered the well-known traveler Adolf Schlagintweit.
1862 CHINESE HUI REVOLT
The great Dungan revolt (1862–1877) involved insurrection among various Muslim ethnic groups. It broke out in 1862 in Gansu then spread rapidly to Dzungaria and through the line of towns in the Tarim Basin.
Dungan troops based in Yarkand rose and in August 1864 massacred some seven thousand Chinese and their Manchu commander. The inhabitants of Kashgar, rising in their turn against their masters, invoked the aid of Sadik Beg, a Kyrgyz chief, who was reinforced by Buzurg Khan, the heir of Jahanghir Khoja, and his general Yakub Beg. The latter men were dispatched at Sadik’s request by the ruler of Khokand to raise what troops they could to aid his Muslim friends in Kashgar.
Sadik Beg soon repented of having asked for a Khoja, and eventually marched against Kashgar, which by this time had succumbed to Buzurg Khan and Yakub Beg, but was defeated and driven back to Khokand. Buzurg Khan delivered himself up to indolence and debauchery, but Yakub Beg, with singular energy and perseverance, made himself master of Yangi Shahr, Yangi-Hissar, Yarkand and other towns, and eventually became sole master of the country, Buzurg Khan proving himself totally unfit for the post of ruler.
With the overthrow of Chinese rule in 1865 by Yakub Beg (1820–1877), the manufacturing industries of Kashgar are supposed to have declined.
Yaqub Beg entered into relations and signed treaties with the Russian Empire and the British Empire, but when he tried to get their support against China, he failed.
Kashgar and the other cities of the Tarim Basin remained under Yakub Beg’s rule until May 1877, when he died at Korla. Thereafter Kashgaria was reconquered by the forces of the Qing general Zuo Zongtang during the Qing reconquest of Xinjiang.
QING RULE
There were eras in Xinjiang's history where intermarriage was common, "laxity" which set upon Uyghur women led them to marry Chinese men and not wear the veil in the period after Yaqub Beg's rule ended, it is also believed by Uyghurs that some Uyghurs have Han Chinese ancestry from historical intermarriage, such as those living in Turpan.
Even though Muslim women are forbidden to marry non-Muslims in Islamic law, from 1880-1949 it was frequently violated in Xinjiang since Chinese men married Muslim Turki (Uyghur) women, a reason suggested by foriengers that it was due to the women being poor, while the Turki women who married Chinese were labelled as whores by the Turki community, these marriages were illegitimate according to Islamic law but the women obtained benefits from marrying Chinese men since the Chinese defended them from Islamic authorities so the women were not subjected to the tax on prostitution and were able to save their income for themselves. Chinese men gave their Turki wives privileges which Turki men's wives did not have, since the wives of Chinese did not have to wear a veil and a Chinese man in Kashgar once beat a mullah who tried to force his Turki Kashgari wife to veil. The Turki women also benefited in that they were not subjected to any legal binding to their Chinese husbands so they could make their Chinese husbands provide them with as much their money as she wanted for her relatives and herself since otherwise the women could just leave, and the property of Chinese men was left to their Turki wives after they died. Turki women considered Turki men to be inferior husbands to Chinese and Hindus. Because they were viewed as "impure", Islamic cemeteries banned the Turki wives of Chinese men from being buried within them, the Turki women got around this problem by giving shrines donations and buying a grave in other towns. Besides Chinese men, other men such as Hindus, Armenians, Jews, Russians, and Badakhshanis intermarried with local Turki women. The local society accepted the Turki women and Chinese men's mixed offspring as their own people despite the marriages being in violation of Islamic law. Turki women also conducted temporary marriages with Chinese men such as Chinese soldiers temporarily stationed around them as soldiers for tours of duty, after which the Chinese men returned to their own cities, with the Chinese men selling their mixed daughters with the Turki women to his comrades, taking their sons with them if they could afford it but leaving them if they couldn't, and selling their temporary Turki wife to a comrade or leaving her behind.
An anti-Russian uproar broke out when Russian customs officials, 3 Cossacks and a Russian courier invited local Turki (Uyghur) prostitutes to a party in January 1902 in Kashgar, this caused a massive brawl by the inflamed local Turki Muslim populace against the Russians on the pretense of protecting Muslim women because there was anti-Russian sentiment being built up, even though morality was not strict in Kashgar, the local Turki Muslims violently clashed with the Russians before they were dispersed by guards, the Chinese sought to end to tensions to prevent the Russians from building up a pretext to invade.
After the riot, the Russians sent troops to Sarikol in Tashkurghan and demanded that the Sarikol postal services be placed under Russian supervision, the locals of Sarikol believed that the Russians would seize the entire district from the Chinese and send more soldiers even after the Russians tried to negotiate with the Begs of Sarikol and sway them to their side, they failed since the Sarikoli officials and authorities demanded in a petition to the Amban of Yarkand that they be evacuated to Yarkand to avoid being harassed by the Russians and objected to the Russian presence in Sarikol, the Sarikolis did not believe the Russian claim that they would leave them alone and only involved themselves in the mail service.
Many of the young Kashgari women were most attractive in appearance, and some of the little girls quite lovely, their plaits of long hair falling from under a jaunty little embroidered cap, their big dark eyes, flashing teeth and piquant olive faces reminding me of Italian or Spanish children. One most beautiful boy stands out in my memory. He was clad in a new shirt and trousers of flowered pink, his crimson velvet cap embroidered with gold, and as he smiled and salaamed to us I thought he looked like a fairy prince. The women wear their hair in two or five plaits much thickened and lengthened by the addition of yak's hair, but the children in several tiny plaits.
The peasants are fairly well off, as the soil is rich, the abundant water-supply free, and the taxation comparatively light. It was always interesting to meet them taking their live stock into market. Flocks of sheep with tiny lambs, black and white, pattered along the dusty road; here a goat followed its master like a dog, trotting behind the diminutive ass which the farmer bestrode; or boys, clad in the whity-brown native cloth, shouted incessantly at donkeys almost invisible under enormous loads of forage, or carried fowls and ducks in bunches head downwards, a sight that always made me long to come to the rescue of the luckless birds.
It was pleasant to see the women riding alone on horseback, managing their mounts to perfection. They formed a sharp contrast to their Persian sisters, who either sit behind their husbands or have their steeds led by the bridle; and instead of keeping silence in public, as is the rule for the shrouded women of Iran, these farmers' wives chaffered and haggled with the men in the bazar outside the city, transacting business with their veils thrown back.
Certainly the mullas do their best to keep the fair sex in their place, and are in the habit of beating those who show their faces in the Great Bazar. But I was told that poetic justice had lately been meted out to one of these upholders of the law of Islam, for by mistake he chastised a Kashgari woman married to a Chinaman, whereupon the irate husband set upon him with a big stick and castigated him soundly.
That a Muslim should take in marriage one of alien faith is not objected to; it is rather deemed a meritorious act thus to bring an unbeliever to the true religion. The Muslim woman, on the other hand, must not be given in marriage to a non-Muslim; such a union is regarded as the most heinous of sins. In this matter, however, compromises are sometimes made with heaven: the marriage of a Turki princess with the emperor Ch'ien-lung has already been referred to; and, when the present writer passed through Minjol (a day's journey west of Kashgar) in 1902, a Chinese with a Turki wife (? concubine) was presented to him.
FIRST EAST TURKESTAN REPUBLIC
Kashgar was the scene of continual battles from 1933 to 1934. Ma Shaowu, a Chinese Muslim, was the Tao-yin of Kashgar, and he fought against Uyghur rebels. He was joined by another Chinese Muslim general, Ma Zhancang.
BATTLE OF KASHGAR (1933)
Uighur and Kirghiz forces, led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq Bay, attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang. They were defeated.
Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveler, who held the title Sayyid (descendent of prophet Muhammed) and arrived at Kashgar on August 26, 1933, was shot in the stomach by the Chinese Muslim troops in September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uighur leader Timur Beg killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque.
Han chinese troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang's army. A number of Han chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the 36th division, presumably they had converted to Islam.
BATTLE OF KASHGAR (1934)
The 36th division General Ma Fuyuan led a Chinese Muslim army to storm Kashgar on February 6, 1934, attacking the Uighur and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic. He freed another 36th division general, Ma Zhancang, who was trapped with his Chinese Muslim and Han Chinese troops in Kashgar New City by the Uighurs and Kirghiz since May 22, 1933. In January, 1934, Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops repulsed six Uighur attacks, launched by Khoja Niyaz, who arrived at the city on January 13, 1934, inflicting massive casualties on the Uighur forces. From 2,000 to 8,000 Uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were massacred by Tungans in February, 1934, in revenge for the Kizil massacre, after retreating of Uighur forces from the city to Yengi Hisar. The Chinese Muslim and 36th division Chief General Ma Zhongying, who arrived at Kashgar on April 7, 1934, gave a speech at Id Kah Mosque in April, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China government at Nanjing. Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed or wounded by the 36th division on March 16, 1934.
PEOPLE´S REPUBLIC OF CHINA
Kashgar was incorporated into the People's Republic of China in 1949. During the Cultural Revolution, one of the largest statues of Mao in China was built in Kashgar, near People's Square. In 1986, the Chinese government designated Kashgar a "city of historical and cultural significance". Kashgar and surrounding regions have been the site of Uyghur unrest since the 1990s. In 2008, two Uyghur men carried out a vehicular, IED and knife attack against police officers. In 2009, development of Kashgar's old town accelerated after the revelations of the deadly role of faulty architecture during the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. Many of the old houses in the old town were built without regulation, and as a result, officials found them to be overcrowded and non-compliant with fire and earthquake codes. When the plan started, 42% of the city's residents lived in the old town. With compensation, residents of faulty buildings are being counseled to move to newer, safer buildings that will replace the historic structures in the $448 million plan, including high-rise apartments, plazas, and reproductions of ancient Islamic architecture. The European Parliament issued a resolution in 2011 calling for "culture-sensitive methods of renovation." The International Scientific Committee on Earthen Architectural Heritage (ISCEAH) has expressed concern over the demolition and reconstruction of historic buildings. ISCEAH has, additionally, urged the implementation of techniques utilized elsewhere in the world to address earthquake vulnerability.
Following the July 2009 Urumqi riots, the government focused on local economic development in an attempt to ameliorate ethnic tensions in the greater Xinjiang region. Kashgar was made into a Special Economic Zone in 2010, the first such zone in China's far west. In 2011, a spate of violence over two days killed dozens of people. By May 2012 two-thirds of the old city had been demolished, fulfilling "political as well as economic goals." In July 2014 the Imam of the Id Kah Mosque, Juma Tayir, was assassinated in Kashgar.
CLIMATE
Kashgar features a desert climate (Köppen BWk) with hot summers and cold winters, with large temperature differences between those two seasons: The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −5.3 °C in January to 25.6 °C in July, while the annual mean is 11.84 °C. Spring is long and arrives quickly, while fall is somewhat brief in comparison. Kashgar is one of the driest cities on the planet, averaging only 64 millimetres of precipitation per year. The city’s wettest month, July, only sees on average 9.1 millimetres of rain. Because of the extremely arid conditions, snowfall is rare, despite the cold winters. Records have been as low as −24.4 °C in January and up to 40.1 °C in July. The frost-free period averages 215 days. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 50% in March to 70% in September, the city receives 2,726 hours of bright sunshine annually.
DEMOGRAPHICS
Kashgar is predominately peopled by Muslim Uyghurs. Compared to Ürümqi, Xinjiang's capital and largest city, Kashgar is less industrial and has significantly fewer Han Chinese residents.
ECONOMICS AND SOCIETY
The city has a very important Sunday market. Thousands of farmers from the surrounding fertile lands come into the city to sell a wide variety of fruit and vegetables. Kashgar’s livestock market is also very lively. Silk and carpets made in Hotan are sold at bazaars, as well as local crafts, such as copper teapots and wooden jewellery boxes.
In order to boost the economy in Kashgar region, the government classified the area as the sixth Special Economic Zone of China in May 2010.
Mahmud al-Kashgari (Turkish: Kâşgarlı Mahmud) (Mahmut from Kashgar) wrote the first Turkic–Arabic Exemplary Dictionary called Divan-ı Lugat-it Türk[citation needed]
The movie The Kite Runner was filmed in Kashgar. Kashgar and the surrounding countryside stood in for Kabul and Afghanistan, since filming in Afghanistan was not possible due to safety and security reasons.
SIGHTS
Kashgar's Old City has been called "the best-preserved example of a traditional Islamic city to be found anywhere in Central Asia". It is estimated to attract more than one million tourists annually.
- Id Kah Mosque, the largest mosque in China, is located in the heart of the city.
- People's Park, the main public park in central Kashgar.
- An 18 m high statue of Mao Zedong in Kashgar is one of the few large-scale statues of Mao remaining in China.
- The tomb of Afaq Khoja in Kashgar is considered the holiest Muslim site in Xinjiang. Built in the 17th century, the tiled mausoleum 5 km northeast of the city centre also contains the tombs of five generations of his family. Abakh was a powerful ruler, controlling Khotan, Yarkand, Korla, Kucha and Aksu as well as Kashgar. Among some Uyghur Muslims, he was considered a great Saint (Aulia).
- Sunday Market in Kashgar is renowned as the biggest market in central Asia; a pivotal trading point along the Silk Road where goods have been traded for more than 2,000 years. The market is open every day but Sunday is the largest.
TRANSPORTATION
AIR
Kashgar Airport serves mainly domestic flights, the majority of them from Urumqi. The only scheduled international flights are passenger and cargo services with Pakistan's capital Islamabad.
RAIL
Kashgar has the westernmost railway station in China. It is connected to the rest of China's rail network via the Southern Xinjiang Railway, which was built in December 1999. Kashgar–Hotan Railway opened for passenger traffic in June 2011, and connected Kashgar with cities in the southern Tarim Basin including Shache (Yarkand), Yecheng (Kargilik) and Hotan. Travel time to Urumqi from Kashgar is approximately 25 hours, while travel time to Hotan is approximately ten hours.
The investigation work of a further extension of the railway line to Pakistan has begun. In November 2009, Pakistan and China agreed to set up a joint venture to do a feasibility study of the proposed rail link via the Khunjerab Pass.
Proposals for a rail connection to Osh in Kyrgyzstan have also been discussed at various levels since at least 1996.
In 2012, a standard gauge railway from Kashgar via Tajikistan and Afghanistan to Iran and beyond has been proposed.
ROAD
The Karakorum highway (KKH) links Islamabad, Pakistan with Kashgar over the Khunjerab Pass. The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor is a multibillion-dollar project was that will upgrade transport links between China and Pakistan, including the upgrades to the Karakorum highway. Bus routes exist for passenger travel south into Pakistan. Kyrgyzstan is also accessible from Kashgar, via the Torugart Pass and Irkeshtam Pass; as of summer 2007, daily bus service connects Kashgar with Bishkek’s Western Bus Terminal. Kashgar is also located on China National Highways G314 (which runs to Khunjerab Pass on the Sino−Pakistani border, and, in the opposite direction, towards Ürümqi), and G315, which runs to Xining, Qinghai from Kashgar.
WIKIPEDIA
In recognition of their outstanding service to Delaware, Governor John Carney honored 13 young people and five groups with the Governor’s Youth Volunteer Service Awards during a ceremony May 24 at the Polytech Adult Education Conference Center in Woodside.
“Across the state, I am impressed by the level of commitment our young people have to serving others,” Governor Carney said. “I am proud to honor their energy, spirit and willingness as they help us to build stronger and healthier communities. Without question, they demonstrate that one person can make a difference in the lives of others.”
More than 200 people, including Renee Beaman, director of DHSS' Division of State Service Centers, which oversees the awards, and Georgeanna Windley, Chair of the Governor’s Commission on Community and Volunteer Service, joined the Governor in honoring the young volunteers for their outstanding service, community impact and inspiration to others.
The Governor’s Youth Volunteer Service Awards are sponsored by the Office of the Governor and are coordinated by the State Office of Volunteerism and the Governor’s Commission on Community and Volunteer Service.
2017 GOVERNOR’S YOUTH VOLUNTEER SERVICE AWARD WINNERS
INDIVIDUALS
Wei-Ling Moloy
Arts & Culture
Nominator: Angela Williamson
Wei-Ling Moloy is an active volunteer at Hagley Museum & Library, serving as a youth leader in its Youth Leadership Program (YLP) and as a camp counselor. As a youth leader, Wei-Ling facilitates and designs programs and activities related to Hagley’s stories of technology, science, and innovation. As a camp counselor, she supported the adult camp instructors by interacting with campers, assisting with activities, and maintaining the enjoyment and safety of campers. Beginning in 2014, as a shy, quiet volunteer, Wei-Ling has grown into a strong leader who is respected both by her fellow youth leaders and the adult mentors in the Hagley Museum & Library volunteer program.
Suprit Bodla
Community Service
Nominator: Jim Power
Since 2013, Suprit Bodla has volunteered with the Boy Scouts of America, Christiana Care Health System and the Leukemia and Lymphoma Society (LLS). He has organized a variety of fundraisers to benefit LLS and also to raise public awareness of the fight against blood cancer. Suprit is also a student mentor for the Science Ambassadors Program at the Charter School of Wilmington, where he, along with his peers, helped to organize a STEM tutoring program at Marbrook Elementary School and work with the Delaware Children’s Museum to provide science and match activities for Engineering Week.
Nadeem D. Boggerty
Community Service
Nominators: Adrienne Gomez
Dover High School honor student Nadeem D. Boggerty has been volunteering in his community for the past six years with his church, his school and through social organizations. One of the many organizations at which Nadeem volunteers is the Calvary Church in Dover, where he and his family help pack boxes and assist with dinner on Thanksgiving each year. Nadeem also participates in several social service organizations (the Omega Gents, a program steered by Omega Psi Phi Fraternity, Inc.; EMBODI, hosted by Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc.; and BeB.O.L.D., a nonprofit youth mentoring organization in Dover) where he has helped feed the homeless, staff information tables at Back-to-School Fairs, toy drives, First State Community Day, and other activities that support the local community.
Sarah Davis
Education
Nominator: Michelle Neef
Fourteen-year-old Sarah Davis been volunteering with Faithful Friends Animal Society for four years. Sarah passionately promotes, educates and supports her community and has become a true leader and advocate for her generation. Furthermore, she displays great compassion while taking the initiative to ensure the safety of animals. Her tenacity has saved the lives of many dogs and cats, and improved the lives of neighbors who care for them. Sarah has provided long-term foster care to neonate kittens and delivered food from Faithful Friends Animal Society Pet Food Bank to pet owners with low incomes or those struggling in other ways to assist them in keeping their family pets in their home. She also rescued dogs and cats from perilous environments and has been instrumental for the Trap-Neuter-Return program, which works to reduce and improve the community cat population.
Cheyenne McGowan
Environment
Nominator: Emily Krueger
Cheyenne McGowan started with the Brandywine Zoo as a summer teen intern with its Zoo Camps during the summer of 2016. After the summer, she continued her volunteer efforts by signing up to help with various educational events at the zoo, including International Red Panda Day, Vulture Weekend, and Noon Year’s Eve. Her role for these events was educating the public at learning stations using animal artifacts, activities, or crafts. In addition, Cheyenne frequently came in to interpret the zoo’s animal exhibits to the public as a docent. Since she started volunteering a year ago, Cheyenne has helped educate hundreds of people at the zoo, which serves the greater Wilmington area, on different environmental topics, including climate change, animal adaptations, and specific animal facts.
Michael Robinette
Health & Special Needs
Nominator: Margaret Jenkins
Since 2013, Michael Robinette has volunteered with the Mary Campbell Center’s Children & Youth program. Mike works with more than 100 children each summer, in a variety of age groups with unique physical or intellectual disabilities. His responsibilities include assisting children in different activities throughout the day such as arts and crafts, games, swimming and cooking. Mike also supports staff with talent show planning and production. Additionally, he provides supervision and companionship for campers on field trips during the summer camp program. Mike gets to know the campers on a one-on-one level and is quick to learn their likes and dislikes, and when they need or want help.
Santiago Vizcaino
Health & Special Needs
Nominator: Richard Huber
Santiago Vizcaino began volunteering with the Delaware Division for the Visually Impaired in the summer of 2016. During his time with the agency, Santiago has provided assistance in producing resource material for students with visual impairments, assisting staff with departmental projects and developing training procedures for the organization. Beginning at the Instruction Resource Material Center, Santiago produced large-print reading material for students, which were provided to 247 students. He developed a process that allowed books to be converted to PDF format, which allows a student with a visual impairment to use an iPad or other electronic device to review the document via voice narration or zoom text option, depending on the individual student’s needs. In addition, Santiago helped to develop training procedures for other volunteers.
Joy Baker
Human Needs
Nominator: Joyce Sessoms
In 2016 alone, Joy Baker volunteered an estimated 200+ hours in a variety of capacities in the Delmar and Laurel communities. She serves on the Youth Board of Directors of The ARK Education Resource Center, volunteers at her church as an assistant to the program coordinator responsible for youth activities, and is a member of the National Honor Society. For ARK, Joy acts as a recruiter and fundraiser, and is also an active participant in ARK-sponsored events like the Back-to-School Extravaganza held in Janosik Park.
Katelyn Craft
Human Needs
Nominator: Emily Holcombe
In July 2016, Katelyn Craft began volunteering at Exceptional Care for Children (ECC), Delaware’s first and only nonprofit pediatric skilled nursing facility for children who are medically fragile. Through the Resident Playdate volunteer program, ECC is able to provide the residents the chance to interact with individuals who can offer something other than medical care. At age 14, Katy knew she wanted to bring smiles and joy to children who have extensive medical needs. She has spent more than 100 hours reading, playing games, watching movies, assisting with arts and crafts projects, or just spending quality time with children who have little family involvement. In addition, Katy volunteered her time assisting with special events and fundraisers, like the Gala Fundraiser and Visits with Santa.
Daevean DeShields
Human Needs
Nominator: Aaron Tyson
Following the inspiration of his grandfather, Daevean DeShields created Project HOOP, which stands for Helping Out Other People. The goal of Project HOOP was to fill 1,000 bags with supplies to be distributed to people who are homeless through Faith United Methodist Church’s Open Hands Sound & Clothing Ministry. After recruiting from his local and school community (including his school principal), Daevean was able to meet and surpass his goal with a remarkable 1,015 bags assembled.
Jakob Ryan Thomas
Public Safety
Nominator: Shirin Skovronski
For almost two years, Jakob Ryan Thomas has volunteered as a junior firefighter with the Mill Creek Fire Company. In 2016 alone, he responded to 488 calls of emergency responses to structure fires, motor vehicle crashes, medical assistance, and other miscellaneous calls, amassing more than 500 volunteer hours. Jakob’s actions assisted the community in multiple emergencies, which were often quite serious and dangerous in nature.
Richard Thomas
Public Safety
Nominator: Robert Bassett, Jr.
Richard Thomas has been a volunteer firefighter with Camden-Wyoming Fire Company for two years, assisting in more than 300 emergency situations such as car accidents and house fires. Richard also assists with teaching fire prevention to children. Despite his youth, Richard is well-respected at the fire company and is seen as a mentor for new firefighters.
Ananya Singh
Social Justice/Advocacy
Nominator: Meghan Pasricha
For the past nine years, Ananya Singh has been a member of the Global Youth H.E.L.P. Inc. (GYH), a Delaware nonprofit whose mission is to train and support young people to become leaders by serving their communities through community service projects. Ananya served first as president of the middle school chapter and is currently chair of the high school chapter. Her time and efforts have been vital for many different community service projects, including the Annual Backpack Donation for the YWCA Home-Life Center, the Christmas Hygiene Product Donation, the Annual Ice Cream Party for the YWCA Home-Life Center and the Premier Charities Feeding the Homeless. She also has taught English and karate to younger children.
GROUPS
Greater Milford Boys & Girls Club
Arts & Culture
Nominator: Kenny Monroe
Following the devastation of Hurricane Matthew (Sept. 28-Oct. 10, 2016) in the Caribbean, the Teen TITAN program members of the Greater Milford Boys & Girls Club developed the “Hope for Haiti Donation Drive.” In a relatively short time, the Team Titan program members spent 400 hours collecting clothing, toiletries, bottled water, educational material and other items. More than 300 items filled more than 10 boxes and were sent to the people in Haiti to be used as they began to rebuild and recover from the effects of Hurricane Matthew.
Cape Henlopen High School Army Junior Reserve Officers Training Program
Community Service
Nominator: Angela Thompson
For 10 continuous years, the participants of the Army Junior Reserve Officers Training Program (JROTC) at Cape Henlopen High School have learned that everyone belongs to a community and therefore has a responsibility to that community. The 45 young men and women who comprise the current JROTC roster continue that legacy of service by devoting an average of 2,000 man-hours to community service activities benefiting a number of organizations, including the Delaware Seashore State Park, Beebe Medical Center, American Red Cross Blood Drive, the Salvation Army, Brandywine Senior Citizens Center and the National Kidney Foundation.
A.I. du Pont Middle School – Walk in the Kings Footsteps
Education
Nominator: Michele Fidance
When posed with the question “What will I do to walk in the footsteps of Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.?” the student body of A.I. du Pont Middle School in Wilmington decided to answer the question literally. A small group of students, led by Jobs for Delaware Graduates (JDG) instructors, were given the project of researching the speeches of Dr. King in order to choose quotes that meant something to them. The students then inscribed their selected quote on a cut-out of a footprint, which was then affixed to the wall in the cafeteria as a means to inspire their fellow students. Once students beyond the JDG classes saw the footprints, they wanted to participate as well. The project helped to raise awareness among students of Dr. King’s life, teaching and legacy, and how it translates into community action and service.
P.S. duPont Middle School Student Council – Adopt a Family
Health and Special Needs
Nominator: Mallory Stratton
Each year, the student council of P.S. duPont Middle School in Wilmington spearheads its annual Adopt-A-Family Drive. The drive involves the school community at-large adopting the families of 15 to 20 P.S. duPont students who are need assistance to make the holiday season a little brighter. The donations of clothing, books and toys generated by the student council benefited upwards of 50 fellow students and their siblings in 2016.
Delmar High School - Wildcat Wellness Pantry
Human Needs
Nominator: Michele Fidance
The Wildcat Wellness Pantry is a food pantry at the Delmar American Legion, which provides nonperishable food and household items for individuals in need. The pantry is staffed by as many as eight Jobs for Delaware Graduate (JDG) volunteers. The JDG volunteers come in on Saturdays to assist families in need and taking inventory to ensure the pantry can reach even more people. An additional group of more than 60 volunteers collect the proceeds from canned food drives that occur during the school year to continually stock the pantry.
Glenn Shorrock
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Glenn Barrie Shorrock (born 30 June 1944) is an English-born Australian singer-songwriter. He was a founding member of pop groups The Twilights, Axiom and Little River Band as well as being a solo performer.
The Twilights had eight consecutive national hit singles including "Needle in a Haystack" and "What's Wrong with the Way I Live". Axiom's top 10 hits were "Arkansas Grass", "Little Ray of Sunshine" and "My Baby's Gone". Little River Band had national and international chart success, including the Shorrock-penned "Emma", "Help Is on Its Way" and "Cool Change".
Shorrock was inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame as a solo artist in 1991 and as a member of Little River Band in 2004. In May 2001 the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), as part of its 75th Anniversary celebrations, named "Cool Change" as one of the APRA Top 30 Australian songs of all time.
Twighlights
Glenn Barrie Shorrock was born on 30 June 1944 in Chatham, Kent, United Kingdom. His family migrated to Adelaide, South Australia in August 1954 when he was ten.[1] His father was a Yorkshire-born fitter and turner at the Weapons Research Establishment in Salisbury.[2] The 1954–55 summer had days of 42 °C (108 °F) and Black Sunday bushfires ravaged the Adelaide Hills in January 1955.[3] His London-born mother was not impressed with Australia, and she took Shorrock and his younger sister back to UK, only to return to Australia for a second attempt in 1956.[2] The family settled in Elizabeth 20 km (12 mi) north of Adelaide.[4]
Shorrock's first public performance took place in 1958 in a Lutheran church hall—he was miming to Elvis Presley's "All Shook Up" on a gramophone and strumming on a cardboard guitar when the player stopped—he was forced to continue singing by himself and realised he had a good voice.[1][5]
In 1962, Shorrock formed his first band, The Checkmates, with Clem McCartney, Mike Sykes and Billy Volraat.[6] They were a doo wop harmony group covering The Platters and The Crew Cuts material.[7] Sometimes teaming up with instrumental groups, The Vector Men or The Hurricanes, The Checkmates performed in Adelaide cafes and folk clubs.[8] As a result of The Beatles' popularity, members of The Checkmates and The Hurricanes merged to form The Twilights in 1964.[7][8]
Main article: The Twilights
In 1964 Shorrock, with McCartney as co-lead vocalist, formed The Twilights by merging with The Hurricanes' Frank Barnard on drums, Peter Brideoak on guitar, Terry Britten on guitar and John Bywaters on bass guitar.[7][8] Their debut single, "I'll Be Where You Are", co-written by Shorrock and Britten,[9] was released in June 1965.[8] The band had eight consecutive hit singles including covers of The Velvelettes' "Needle in a Haystack" and The Hollies' "What's Wrong with the Way I Live" (recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London).[8] With two lead singers, two guitarists and five vocalists, the Twilights performed note-perfect covers of pop-rock songs and were famed for their live prowess.[8] They relocated to Melbourne late in 1965 and were popular with teenage audiences and respected by fellow musicians. In July 1966, they won Hoadley's Battle of the Sounds with the prize including a trip to London.[8] In 1967, shortly after returning from London, the group regularly performed the entire Sgt Pepper's album live in sequence, weeks before it was released in Australia.[8] Shorrock married his first wife, Sue, while he was a member of The Twilights.[1] The Twilights disbanded in January 1969 and Shorrock became band manager for Brisbane pop group, The Avengers.[4]
Axiom
In May 1969 in Melbourne, Shorrock formed an early Australian 'supergroup', Axiom, with Brian Cadd on keyboards and vocals, Don Mudie on lead guitar (both ex-The Groop), Doug Lavery (The Valentines) on drums and Chris Stockley (Cam-Pact) on guitar.[10] They recorded two highly acclaimed albums, Fool's Gold and If Only...; and had three top 10 singles, "Arkansas Grass", "Little Ray of Sunshine" and "My Baby's Gone" on the Go-Set national charts.[10] Axiom travelled to UK but disbanded there in March 1971, Shorrock had also parted with his first wife of four years, Sue.[2][3]
Shorrock remained in the UK to pursue his solo career, he signed with MAM Records and released the self-penned "Let's Get the Band Together" single in October 1971.[4] This was followed by a cover of "Rock'n'Roll Lullaby" (written by Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil) in March 1972.[4] As Andre L'Escargot and His Society Syncopaters, he released "Purple Umbrella" with his backing band being Quartet members Britten, Kevin Peek, Trevor Spencer and Alan Tarney.[4] He joined the multinational progressive rock band Esperanto, which released their debut album Esperanto Rock Orchestra in 1973 with the Shorrock written track "Statue of Liberty".[4] He left Esperanto before their third album was released in 1974 and performed backing vocals for Cliff Richard.[1][4]
Little River Band
Mississippi was an Australian rock band which was working in UK with Beeb Birtles on vocals and guitar, Graham Goble (later Graeham Goble) on guitar and vocals and Derek Pellicci on drums. They contacted Glenn Wheatley (former bass guitarist for The Masters Apprentices) to become their manager. Birtles, previously in Adelaide band Zoot, called Shorrock to take part in the line up. Shorrock returned to Australia in October 1974 and joined Mississippi in January 1975 in Melbourne.[11] They were soon renamed as Little River Band with the original line up of Birtles, Goble, Pellicci, Shorrock and lead guitarist Ric Formosa and bassist Roger McLachlan.[2] The group went on to become one of the most successful bands ever to come out of Australia, and the first to achieve major commercial success in the United States.[3] For Little River Band, Shorrock wrote the hits "Emma", "Help Is on Its Way" (Australian No. 1) and "Cool Change".[4]
While still a member of Little River Band, Shorrock released a solo single, a cover of Bobby Darin's 1959 hit "Dream Lover" in April 1979 on EMI, which peaked at No. 8 on the Kent Music Report Singles Chart.[6][12] In February 1982, Shorrock left Little River Band and was replaced by former 1960s pop singer, John Farnham who was managed by Wheatley.[8] Shorrock returned to Little River Band in 1988 but, despite several quality albums, they did not regain the earlier stellar recognition. He left again in 1991 leaving the naming rights with guitarist Stephen Housden.[3] In May 2001 the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), as part of its 75th Anniversary celebrations, named "Cool Change", as one of the Top 30 Australian songs of all time.[13]
Later solo career
In 1982 Shorrock released a solo album Villain of the Peace and a single, "Rock and Roll Soldier" on Capitol Records recorded in Los Angeles with John Boylan (Charlie Daniels, Little River Band) producing. "Rock and Roll Soldier" reached the Australian top 40 in November but he did not achieve the international success attained with Little River Band. Late in 1982 he toured Australia and then teamed with Renée Geyer to release a duet, "Goin' Back" on Mushroom Records in February 1983. One of his backing singers was Wendy Matthews who had been a session singer in Los Angeles.[14] "We're Coming to Get You", which peaked at No. 6 in October, was recorded with folk group, The Bushwackers it was the theme for the film, We're Coming to Get You. He released "Don't Girls Get Lonely?" in November. In 1984, he recorded "Restless" for the documentary World Safari II: The Final Adventure.[4]
In 1985, Shorrock released The First Twenty Years, which was a double-LP album compilation of his career work with tracks by The Twilights, Axiom, Little River Band and solo work.[15] He was compere of Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) TV music series, Rock Arena in 1986 and as a breakfast announcer for radio station Magic 11 in Sydney.[16] His solo single, "American Flyers" appeared in July. He performed on the tour of stage show One for the Money in 1986–87.[16] He appeared in other stage shows including his own showcase productions Go Cat Go (1990–91) and Two Up (1996).
On 25 March 1991, Shorrock was inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame, alongside contemporary rocker Billy Thorpe, bass-baritone Peter Dawson and jazz musician Don Burrows.[17] In 1993, he re-joined with Axiom band mate, Brian Cadd, to record Blazing Salads and three singles for Blue Martin Records, and a subsequent two-year tour.[18] On tour Shorrock played his hit songs, along with those of Axiom accompanied by Cadd and a backing band of Rex Goh on guitar (ex-Air Supply), Kirk Lorange on guitar (Richard Clapton Band) and Mark Kennedy on drums (Spectrum, Ayers Rock, Marcia Hines Band).[4][18]
Long Way to the Top was a 2001 ABC TV six-part documentary on the history of Australian rock and roll from 1956 to the modern era.[19] Shorrock provided interviews, "In Awe of The Beatles", "Being Pop Stars" and "Coming from the UK", on his early years with The Twilights.[20] Long Way to the Top Tour followed in August–September 2002 with Shorrock appearing with The Twilights in the first set performing "What's Wrong with the Way I Live?" and "Needle in a Haystack"; he returned in the second set with Axiom to perform "Arkansas Grass" and "Little Ray of Sunshine".[16][21]
In 2002 Shorrock reunited with other Little River Band founders Beeb Birtles and Graeham Goble to form Birtles Shorrock Goble.[16] On 17 October 2004, the 1970s members of Little River Band: Birtles, David Briggs, Goble, George McArdle, Derek Pellicci and Shorrock, were inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame.[22] The later members including fellow Australian, John Farnham, and US-based musicians, were not included in this induction.[22] Due to a 2002 legal ruling on their right to use the band's name—two US-based members held the trademark—they performed "Help Is on the Way" as Classic Lineup of the Little River Band or Little River Band – Classic Lineup (sources vary).[22] Birtles Shorrock Goble recorded a successful DVD and CD, Full Circle (2005) and toured until 2007. In August–September, the trio played a medley of Little River Band hits at the Countdown Spectacular 2 concert series.
In 2005 Shorrock also undertook his career-spanning The Reminiscing Tour – Glenn Shorrock & Friends with invited guest singers including Doug Parkinson and Wendy Matthews.[16] In May–June 2006, he partnered actress Judy Nunn on the first season of reality TV singing competition, It Takes Two, they were voted off after week three.[23] His first solo CD for seven years, Meanwhile, which contains acoustic versions of his career hits was released in 2007 on the Liberation Blue label. He performed The Beatles tribute show Let It Be with Parkinson, Sharon O'Neill and Mark Williams.[24]
In 2008 Shorrock toured with the musical Shout! The Legend of the Wild One, based on the life of Australian rocker Johnny O'Keefe.[24][25] In July 2010, Shorrock performed a retrospective of his 45 years in the music industry.[2][5] Currently Glenn Shorrock continues to tour Australia performing for public and private events in Australia and promotes new local music artists. In early 2013 Glenn and his band were headlining performers in Macau, New York and London for the media launch of the Titanic II project. This was at the personal invitation of Australian entrepreneur Clive Palmer.
Two days after the terrible events at Manchester Arena, GWR 6959 Modified Hall 4-6-0 No.6990 Witherslack Hall shows respect by having a wreath on the smoke box door. The photograph was taken on the 24th May 2017 at Bury Bolton Street Station which is just outside Manchester. The railway is part of the East Lancashire Railway.
i left flickr on sunday evening with a rather bitter and unpleasant taste in my mouth...
and a huge pain in my heart for my dear friend nora....
i feel i must explain as i mailed many of my contacts whom did not see the images im about to tell you of...
nora had posted an image of her son and another member of flickr added a link below,
which can only be described as an outrageous attack on nora and her faith....
the link to the image and its description was by far one of the most disturbing
things i have witnessed here on flickr.......
it saddened me to think that i belong to such a community.......
thank you to those of you who rallied around in support of nora.....
the reason i have titled this image so is as follows.....
freedom is ours freedom to post what we wish in our streams...
choice again is ours and we have the choice to post and view whatever we feel....
respect is not just mine but its yours too ...respect others and allow them to make thier choice to post what they have concience to live with and stand by....
but again to have the respect not to push your or my views down other peoples throats by linking images of hatred and disrespect to my syream or that of others....
i guess what im trying to say is ..
the reason for this image is that although we look similar and sail the same waters ,we are not the same...
we have our own views, choices, religions,tastes and preferences....
and im not stupid enough to think that we all have to like what others do. we should at least have the grace to respect thier choices......
Nora your my friend and i have a huge ammout of love and respect for you
and it really breaks my heart that you have been treated in this way.......
and to the rest of my flickr friends i hope you now understand my rantings and pleas the other evening.......
flickr is my sanctuary ,my island away from the ugliness around me in the real world...
to end i want to say the person who made this cowardly outrageous attack on nora
is no longer active on flickr.....
but thier removal does not take away the pain and upset they have caused......
i hope that they sleep well at night and the ugly hatred in thier hearts does not haunt them for ever........
andrew.xxxxx
Diver letting an Olive Sea Snake (Aipysurus laevis) go by.
Snake Pit dive site on the Great Barrier Reef.
Karate For Kids
Karate for kids classes in Cave Creek, Chandler, Mesa, Glendale, Arizona are taught in a method to develop life skills such as respects, enhanced self-discipline, greater confidence and respect in children. The karate for kids programs with the local ATA martial arts schools doesn’t only teach how to kick and punch. The karate classes will teach kids the valuable life lessons of self-control and the ability to defend themselves. All of the Karate Kids classes teach the attributes necessary to be a confident individual within our community.
Our Local ATA Martial Art schools in Cave Creek, Chandler, Mesa, Glendale, Arizona have carefully designed the karate programs for the youth within the community- age appropriate programs that are specifically aimed at the child’s development both physically and mentally. These karate lessons are taught through a top ranked and nationally recognized “Karate For Kids” program, that has a well established training curriculum designed school aged students.
bullying seminars, martial arts business coaching mesa karate, chandler karate, cave creek karate,
#1 with parents in the ATA Karate Schools in Cave Creek, Chandler, Mesa, Glendale, Arizona is the renowned Karate for Kids character development “ATA Life Skills” program designed for personal Victory in Martial Arts with skills such as perseverance, integrity, courtesy, self-esteem and the respect for others while incorporating social life skills that develops naturally within the group.
It is always a good time to start a program at one our three locations as the #1 Karate For Kids schools in Las Vegas and Henderson. Together with kids their own age, every youngster can mature and grow with the self confidence that a karate kids program develops within them.
Martial Arts Classes For Women
In today’s world of fitness, women are looking for a structured and interesting workout in a manner to stay fit that breaks away from their traditional daily routine. Repeating the same exercise every day can be draining and break ones motivation and is rarely goal oriented. It isn’t the normal daily gym workout. ATA Martial Arts of Cave Creek, Chandler, Mesa, Glendale, Arizona is a training facility that women are finding the variety of goal oriented conditioning that is exciting. While the physical nature of martial arts is rewarding and a personal martial arts victory, it also teaches the self defense and survival tactics that is needed in todays ever changing world.
There are many important mental and physical health benefits in our women’s martial art classes in Las Vegas and Henderson. While toning vital muscles and building coordination will enhance self-confidence, awareness and increase cardiovascular is health. Women who Attend ATA karate classes will improve balance, flexibility, increase exercise stamina levels while developing a greater sense of self-esteem, hence the term… “Victory” in Martial Arts.
Martial Arts have been known to provide much needed stress relief, promote self-control, concentration, and boost the ability to remain calm under stress. ATA Martial Arts routines are even helping women keep their memory sharp on a day-to-day basis!
Cave Creek, Chandler, Mesa, Glendale, Arizona ATA Martial Arts facilities are the community martial arts experts that provide rigorous karate classes for women of all ages to develop their strength of body and mind.
It’s a fact! Women are breaking away from their traditional exercise routines such as gym workouts and finding balance, freedom and motivation at ATA Martial Arts. It’s time for you to experience the benefits of karate classes designed for women with the community Martial Art experts in Las Vegas and Henderson.
Adult Martial Arts Classes for Men
Martial Arts classes for men in Cave Creek, Chandler, Mesa, Glendale, Arizona is more then just kicking and punching. ATA Karate Classes create a stronger self awareness, enhanced confidence, greater focus, and a true Victory in Martial Arts for men of all ages.
In an adult class a karate student will train will practical concepts in a safe, clean and enjoyable facility, while incorporating life skills to de-stress from life’s everyday challenges. Las Vegas ATA Martial Arts and Henderson ATA Martial arts offers three location to serve our community. Learning a skill set that will stick with you for life, no matter what age, allowing you to gain the self confidence desired so that you can feel comfortable with confrontation in any real life situation.
As one of the top martial arts training facilities in the community our Martial Arts programs such as Karate for Kids, Taekwondo and MMA and Fitness is a key method of enhancing the body’s functions, including flexibility, coordination, and balance with strength and endurance. Yes! It relieves stress while having some fun as well as meeting new people. As an adult, you do not need to have prior training before you get into a Martial Arts class. ATA Martial Arts has a defined teaching curriculum designed to take each student to the peak of their performance while greatly enhancing their skills creating a personal “Martial Arts Victory”.
KRAV MAGA & MMA FITNESS
Krav Maga and ATA’s MMA and athletic training is combined to provide a diverse full body workout while incorporating real life scenario drills for self defense.
This class features a structured curriculum that is in continuous motion utilizing all levels of MMA and Krav Maga skills with self defense drills in a manner to enhance cardio-respiratory for your cardiovascular system. Krav Maga students don’t’ just perform blocks, punches, kicks and movements you would find at a gym to music or in the mirror, students train in an environment that is preparing them for real life conditions.
The Krav Maga & MMA Fitness in Cave Creek, Chandler, Mesa, Glendale, Arizona is a true Conditioning Program that specializes in a Total Body Workout that doesn’t feel like to boring fitness class you may have taken before. Krav Maga Conditioning Program brings a fresh experience and keeps each and every student motivated in class on a day to day basis.
With a strong dedication and commitment to the Krav Maga and MMA Fitness Training student, Krav Instructors teach a combination of strength training, combatives, flexibility skills, and workouts with our top notch academy training facility. There is a emphasize on muscular strength and cardiovascular endurance for Krav students in Henderson and Las Vegas while instilling the distinctive awareness and self defense techniques needed for street survival in our ever changing world.
Correct body alignment to maximize efficiency can be key, our team of professional instructors will work on refining Krav Maga technique through exciting repetition drills and training.
All levels of Krav Maga, MMA & Fitness from the beginner to the experienced can train at anyone of our three locations. Call today and don’t delay.
“Tell me again how you think God will judge others for who they love, and not judge you for hating someone you’ve never met?”
A big THANK YOU to all of the nice folks to who spot copyright infringement and report it to me. A lot of top equine photographers have given up on posting their work because it gets stolen.
And for those who do not understand copyright law: LEARN IT and RESPECT IT.
Budapest (Acerca de este sonido /ˈbudɒpɛʃt/ (?·i)) es la capital y ciudad más poblada de Hungría,3 así como su principal centro industrial, comercial y de transportes.4 La ciudad posee 1,74 millones de habitantes (2011),5 una disminución significativa respecto de los casi 2,1 millones con que contaba a mediados de los años 1980,6 que representan un quinto de la población total de Hungría. Es la ciudad más poblada de Europa central-oriental y la séptima de la Unión Europea. La ciudad ocupa una superficie de 525 km²7 y su área metropolitana cuenta con una población de 2,38 millones de habitantes. Budapest se convirtió en una única ciudad cuando ocupó las dos orillas del río Danubio, unificando las ciudades de Buda y Óbuda, en la orilla oeste, con Pest, en la orilla este, el 17 de noviembre de 1873.7 8
La historia de Budapest comenzó con Aquincum, originalmente un asentamiento celta9 10 que se convirtió en la capital romana de Panonia Inferior.9 Los húngaros llegaron al territorio en el siglo IX.11 Su primer asentamiento fue saqueado por los mongoles en 1241-42.12 La ciudad restablecida se convirtió en uno de los centros de la cultura del Renacimiento humanista en el siglo XV.13 14 Después de la batalla de Mohács y tras casi 150 años de dominio otomano,15 el desarrollo de la región entró en una nueva era de prosperidad en los siglos XVIII y XIX, y Budapest se convirtió en una ciudad global después de la unificación de 1873.16 También se convirtió en la segunda capital de Austria-Hungría, una gran potencia que se disolvió en 1918. Budapest fue el punto focal de la revolución húngara de 1848, la República Soviética Húngara de 1919, la Operación Panzerfaust en 1944, la batalla de Budapest de 1945 y la Revolución de 1956.
Considerada como una de las ciudades más bellas de Europa,3 17 18 Budapest cuenta con varios sitios que son Patrimonio de la Humanidad, entre los que se incluyen, a orillas del Danubio, el barrio del Castillo de Buda, la avenida Andrássy, la Plaza de los Héroes y el Metropolitano del Milenio, el segundo más antiguo del mundo.17 19 Otros puntos destacados incluyen un total de 80 manantiales geotérmicos,20 el mayor sistema de cuevas de aguas termales del mundo,21 la segunda sinagoga más grande y el tercer edificio del Parlamento más grande del mundo. La ciudad atrae a alrededor de 4,3 millones de turistas al año, convirtiéndola en la 25.ª ciudad más popular del mundo, según Euromonitor.22
Budapest es, también, un importante centro financiero de Europa Central. La ciudad se situó tercera (de un total de 65 ciudades) en el Índice de Mercados Emergentes elaborado por Mastercard,23 y clasificada como la ciudad mejor habitable de Europa Central y Europa del Este por índice de calidad de vida según Economist Intelligence Unit.24 25 También se clasificó como el "séptimo lugar idílico de Europa para vivir" por la revista Forbes,26 y como la novena ciudad más bella del mundo por UCityGuides.27 Es, también, la mejor ciudad de Europa Central y del Este en el índice Innovation Cities' Top 100.28 29
Toponimia[editar]
El nombre de «Budapest» es la composición de los nombres de las ciudades «Buda» y «Pest», ya que se unieron (junto con Óbuda) para convertirse en una sola ciudad en 1873.30 Una de las primeras apariciones del nombre combinado «Buda-Pest» fue en 1831 en el libro Világ («Mundo»), escrito por el conde István Széchenyi.
El origen de las palabras «Buda» y «Pest» es incierto. Según las crónicas de la Edad Media el nombre de «Buda» viene del nombre de su fundador, Bleda (Buda), el hermano del huno Atila. La teoría de que «Buda» fue el nombre de una persona es apoyada también por los estudiosos modernos.31 Una explicación alternativa sugiere que deriva de la palabra eslava «вода, voda» («agua»), una traducción del nombre en latín Aquincum, que era el principal asentamiento romano en la región.32
También existen varias teorías sobre el origen del nombre «Pest». Una de las teorías sostiene que proviene de la época romana,33 ya que había una fortaleza, «Contra-Aquincum», que en esta región que se conoce como «Pession» (Πέσσιον, III.7. § 2) por Ptolomeo.34 Según otra teoría, toma su origen de la palabra eslava «пещера, peshtera» («cueva») o de la palabra «печь, pesht» («horno») en referencia a una cueva local.35 En la antigua lengua húngara había un significado similar para la palabra «horno/cueva» y el nombre antiguo original alemán de esta región fue «Ofen». Más tarde, «Ofen», en alemán, se refiere a la parte de Buda.
Historia[editar]
La corona de San Esteban, la espada, el cetro y el orbe de Hungría.
El primer asentamiento en el territorio de Budapest fue construido por los celtas9 antes del año 1 a. C. y fue ocupado más tarde por los romanos. El asentamiento romano, Aquincum, se convirtió en la principal ciudad de la Baja Panonia en el 106 a. C.9 Los romanos construyeron carreteras, anfiteatros, baños y casas con calefacción por suelo en este campamento militar fortificado.36
El tratado de paz de 829 añadió Panonia a Bulgaria debido a la victoria del ejército búlgaro de Omurtag sobre el Sacro Imperio Romano de Ludovico Pío. Budapest surgió de dos fronteras búlgaras, las fortalezas militares de Buda y Pest, situada en las dos orillas del Danubio.37 Los húngaros, liderados por Árpád, se establecieron en el territorio a finales del siglo IX,11 38 y un siglo más tarde se fundó oficialmente el Reino de Hungría.11 Las investigaciones sitúan la residencia de la Casa de Árpad en un lugar cercano de lo que se convertiría en Budapest.39 La invasión tártara en el siglo XIII rápidamente demostró que la defensa es difícil en una llanura.7 11 El rey Béla IV de Hungría ordenó la construcción de muros de hormigón armado en torno a las ciudades11 y estableció su propio palacio real en la cima de los cerros protectores de Buda.12 En 1361 se convirtió en la capital de Hungría.12
El Castillo de Buda en la Edad Media.
El papel cultural de Buda fue particularmente importante durante el reinado del rey Matías Corvino.7 El Renacimiento italiano tuvo una gran influencia en la ciudad.7 Su biblioteca, la Bibliotheca Corvinniana, fue la colección de crónicas históricas y obras filosóficas y científicas más grande de Europa en el siglo XV, y la segunda en tamaño sólo superada por la Biblioteca Vaticana.7 Después de la fundación de la primera universidad húngara de Pécs en 1367,40 la segunda se estableció en Óbuda en 1395.40 El primer libro impreso en húngaro fue en Buda en 1473.41 Buda tenía unos 5000 habitantes hacia 1500,42 aunque estudios modernos apuntan a que la suma de Buda y Pest tenía entre 15 000 y 25 000 habitantes.43
Los otomanos saquearon Buda en 1526, la sitiaron en 1529 y, finalmente, la ocuparon en 1541. La ocupación turca duró más de 140 años.7 Los turcos construyeron muchas instalaciones de baños en la ciudad.11 Bajo el gobierno otomano, muchos cristianos se convirtieron al islam. En 1547 el número de cristianos se redujo a alrededor de mil, y en 1647 había descendido a sólo unos setenta.42 La parte no ocupada occidental del país se convirtió en parte del imperio de los Habsburgo como Hungría real.
En 1686, dos años después del infructuoso asedio de Buda, una renovada campaña comenzó a entrar en la capital húngara. Esta vez, el ejército de la Liga Santa era dos veces más grande, con más de 74.000 hombres. Entre ellos había ingleses, alemanes, holandeses, croatas, húngaros, españoles, checos, italianos, franceses, daneses y suecos, junto con otros europeos como voluntarios, artilleros, y oficiales. Las fuerzas cristianas reconquistaron Buda y, en los años siguientes, todas las tierras húngaras anteriores, a excepción de las zonas cercanas a Timişoara (Temesvár), fueron arrebatadas a los turcos. En el Tratado de Karlowitz de 1699 estos cambios territoriales fueron reconocidos oficialmente, y en 1718 todo el Reino de Hungría fue liberado del poder otomano. La ciudad fue destruida durante la batalla.7 Hungría se incorporó entonces al Imperio Habsburgo.7
La Ópera Nacional de Hungría, construida en el período de Austria-Hungría.
La orilla del Danubio en Budapest en una imagen de 1873.
1867 fue el año de la reconciliación que trajo consigo el nacimiento de Austria-Hungría. El siglo XIX fue dominado por la lucha por la independencia de Hungría y la modernización.7 La insurrección nacional contra los Habsburgo comenzó en la capital húngara en 1848 y fue derrotado poco más de un año después. Esto hizo de Budapest la capital gemela de una monarquía dual. Fue este compromiso que abrió la segunda fase de gran desarrollo en la historia de Budapest, que duró hasta la Primera Guerra Mundial. En 1849, el Puente de las Cadenas que une Buda con Pest, abrió sus puertas el primer puente permanente sobre el Danubio44 y en 1873 fueron Buda y Pest oficialmente fusionadas con la tercera parte, Óbuda (antiguo Buda), creando así la nueva metrópoli de Budapest. La dinámica Pest se convirtió en centro político, administrativo, económico, comercial y cultural del país. La población de origen étnico húngaro superó a la alemana en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX debido a la migración masiva desde la superpoblada y rural el Transdanubia y la Gran Llanura Húngara. Entre 1851 y 1910 la proporción de húngaros se incrementó de 35,6% a 85,9%, el húngaro se convirtió en la lengua dominante y el alemán fue desplazado. La proporción de judíos llegó a su punto máximo en 1900 con el 23,6%.45 46 47 Debido a la prosperidad y la gran comunidad judía presente en la ciudad a principios del siglo XX, Budapest fue conocida también como la "Meca judía".48
En 1918, Austria-Hungría perdió la guerra y se desplomó; por lo que Hungría se declaró una república independiente. En 1920 el Tratado de Trianon finalizó la partición del país; como resultado, Hungría perdió dos tercios de su territorio y alrededor de dos tercios de sus habitantes en virtud del tratado, incluyendo 3,3 millones de los 10 millones de húngaros étnicos.49 50
El Puente de las Cadenas de Budapest, volado por las fuerzas nazis.
En 1944, hacia el final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Budapest fue parcialmente destruida por los ataques aéreos británico y americano. Desde el 24 de diciembre de 1944 al 13 de febrero de 1945, la ciudad fue sitiada durante la Batalla de Budapest. La capital sufrió grandes daños causados por el ataque de las fuerzas soviéticas y rumanas y las tropas defensoras alemanas y húngaras. Todos los puentes fueron destruidos por los alemanes. Más de 38.000 civiles perdieron la vida durante el conflicto.
Entre el 20% y el 40% de los 250.000 habitantes judíos de Budapest murieron a causa del genocidio perpetrado por los nazis y el Partido de la Cruz Flechada durante 1944 y principios de 1945.51 El diplomático sueco Raoul Wallenberg logró salvar la vida de decenas de miles de judíos en Budapest, dándoles pasaportes suecos y tomándolos bajo su protección consular.52
En 1949, Hungría fue declarada como República Popular comunista. El nuevo gobierno comunista consideró edificios como el Castillo de Buda símbolos del régimen anterior y, durante la década de 1950, el palacio fue destruido y los interiores fueron destruidos.
El centro de Budapest en 1979.
En 1956, las manifestaciones pacíficas en Budapest condujeron al estallido de la Revolución Húngara. La dirección se derrumbó después de las manifestaciones de las masas que se iniciaron el 23 de octubre, pero los tanques soviéticos entraron en Budapest para aplastar la revuelta. La lucha continuó hasta principios de noviembre, dejando más de 3.000 muertos.
Desde la década de 1960 a finales de 1980 Hungría era referida, en ocasiones y de forma satírica, la "barraca feliz" en el Bloque del Este,53 y gran parte de los daños de guerra de la ciudad fueron finalmente reparados. Los trabajos en el Puente de Erzsébet, el último en ser reconstruido, fue terminado en 1964. A principios de 1970, se inauguró la línea M2 del metro de Budapest en su sentido este-oeste, seguida de la línea M3 en 1982. En 1987, el Castillo de Buda y las orillas del Danubio fueron incluidos en la lista de Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la Unesco. La Avenida Andrássy (incluyendo el tren subterráneo del Milenio, Hősök tere y Városliget) se añadió a la lista de la Unesco en 2002. En la década de 1980 la población de la ciudad alcanzó los 2,1 millones de habitantes. En los últimos tiempos se ha producido una disminución significativa en la población, debido principalmente, a un movimiento demográfico masivo al condado de Pest.
En las últimas décadas del siglo XX los cambios políticos de 1989-90 produjeron importantes cambios en la sociedad civil y en las calles de Budapest. Los monumentos comunistas fueron retirados de los lugares públicos y llevados a Memento Park. En los primeros veinte años de la nueva democracia, el gobierno de la ciudad fue presidido por Gábor Demszky.
Geografía[editar]
El área de 525 km² de Budapest se encuentra en el centro de Hungría rodeado de asentamientos de la aglomeración en el condado de Pest. La capital se extiende a 25 y 29 kilómetros al norte-sur y este-oeste, respectivamente. El río Danubio entra en la ciudad por el norte, y más tarde lo rodea dos islas, Óbuda y la isla de Margarita.7 La tercera isla, Csepel, es la más grande de las islas del Danubio de Budapest, sin embargo, sólo la punta más al norte se encuentra dentro de los límites de la ciudad. El río que separa las dos partes de la ciudad está a sólo 230 metros de ancho en su punto más estrecho en Budapest. Pest se encuentra en la planicie de la Gran Llanura, mientras que el terreno en Buda es muy accidentado.7 El terreno de Pest se levanta con una ligera pendiente hacia el este, por lo que las partes más orientales de la ciudad están a la misma altura que las pequeñas colinas de Buda, en particular la colina Gellért y Monte del Castillo. Las colinas de Buda son principalmente de piedra caliza y dolomita, el agua creó espeleotemas, que se pueden encontrar los más famosos en las la cuevas Pálvölgyi y Szemlőhegyi. Los cerros se formaron en la era del Triásico. El punto más alto de las colinas y de Budapest es la colina János, a 527 metros sobre el nivel del mar. El punto más bajo es la línea del Danubio, que es de 96 metros sobre el nivel del mar. Los bosques de las colinas de Buda están protegidos medioambientalmente.
Distritos[editar]
Artículo principal: Distritos de Budapest
Originalmente había 10 distritos de Budapest después de la unificación de las tres ciudades en 1873. El 1 de enero de 1950 Budapest se unió con varios pueblos vecinos y el número de sus distritos se elevó a 22, formando el Gran Budapest. En ese tiempo hubo cambios, tanto en el orden de los distritos como en sus tamaños. Ahora hay 23 distritos, seis en Buda, 16 en Pest y uno en la isla de Csepel, en el Danubio. Cada distrito puede asociarse con una o varias partes de la ciudad con nombres de ciudades anteriores de Budapest. El mismo centro de la ciudad, en un sentido más amplio, comprende los distritos V, VI, VII, VIII, IX y XIII en el lado de Pest, y el I, II, XI y XII en el lado de Buda de la ciudad.54
Los 23 distritos de Budapest
Palacio Gresham
Distrito IV[editar]
El distrito IV está ubicado al norte de Budapest, sobre la orilla oeste del Río Danubio. Antes de 1950, fecha en que se anexaron varias zonas a Budapest, se trataba de la localidad de Újpest. El nombre significa "Nuevo Pest", porque se formó al borde de la Ciudad de Pest en 1840. Újpest fue una Aldea o Villa por seis décadas antes de 1907, cuando se transformó en pueblo. Como decíamos, en 1950 el pueblo se unificó con Budapest, para formar el Gran Budapest, y constituirse en el IV Distrito.
Distrito XXI[editar]
Ubicación[editar]
El distrito XXI está ubicado al norte de la isla de Csepel, por el este fluye el Danubio y en la otra margen se encuentran los distritos IX, XX y XXIII, por el oeste la frontera del distrito la marca de forma natural el contorno de la isla con la ribera del Danubio que en su margen opuesta presenta los distritos XI y XXII, por el sur el límite demarcado por la capital, es decir los límites propios del poblado de Szigetszentmiklós.
Barrios de mayor relevancia[editar]
Barrio de la calle Ady Endre
Csillágtelep
Barrio de Királymajori
Barrio de Vízmű
Barrio de la calle Árpád
Historia[editar]
En la segunda mitad del siglo XX ocurrió la industrialización más importante del distrito, lo que lo convirtió en una base de la industria pesada. En esta zona se asentaron los trabajadores, quienes contribuyeron a la formación de zonas urbanísticas, parques y barrios. El distrito se convirtió así en bastión de la clase obrera húngara.
Fue independiente hasta el 1 de enero de 1950, cuando junto con otras zonas fue anexionado como parte integral de Budapest capital.
Economía[editar]
El distrito XXI es considerado como uno de los distritos industriales clásicos de Budapest (por su industria metalúrgica, acerera y de papel)
En la primera mitad del siglo XX la economía del distrito esta unida al nombre de Manfréd Weiss, quien con su empresa metalúrgica tenía la gama más amplia de productos que para la época existía en toda la región de Europa central y oriental
Después de la II Guerra Mundial la fábrica pasó a funcionar a manos del estado. A mediados de los años 50 hasta en el Tíbet eran comercializados los productos de la fábrica. A finales de los 80 debido a la baja demanda de productos y lo elevado de los costos de mantenimiento, la fábrica fue paralizándose paulatinamente.
En la actualidad el conjunto funciona como zona industrial, albergando cientos de otras empresas, oficinas, y pequeñas fábricas.
Riquezas naturales[editar]
Solamente una zona protectora alberga el Distrito, en la loma de Tamariska en la zona de Királyerdő que desde 1999 fue declarada por la ciudad capital como patrimonio natural, ya que en sus bancos arenosos se encuentran innumerables especies vegetales autóctonas y exclusivas de la zona.
Clima[editar]
Invierno en la plaza Vörösmarty.
La ciudad tiene un clima húmedo continental, un clima de transición entre el clima templado, cubierto de nieve de Transdanubia, el clima variable continental de la gran llanura plana y abierta del este y el clima casi sub-mediterráneo del sur.55
La primavera se caracteriza por la abundancia de sol y lluvias aisladas. La temperatura comienza a subir notablemente en abril, por lo general alcanzan máximas de 25 °C al final del mes, aunque hay cortos períodos de frío con bajas temperaturas en la zona con 0-5 °C y las heladas pueden aparecer incluso a mediados de mayo.
En los veranos, los prolongados períodos de calor, con temperaturas entre 32-35 °C, se intercambian con breves períodos húmedos con frentes fríos provenientes del oeste, con temperaturas de entre 18-25 °C. La humedad es alta, de vez en cuando, en verano principalmente secundaria por la influencia del Mediterráneo. Sin embargo, en general, el calor es seco y las temperaturas nocturnas son muy agradables, especialmente en los suburbios residenciales. En el centro de Pest, sin embargo, no es raro que las temperaturas sean superiores a 25 °C en medianoche. Las tormentas, algunas de ellas violentas con rachas fuertes y lluvias torrenciales, también son frecuentes. La temperatura más alta registrada fue de 40,7 °C el 20 de julio de 2007.56
Las temperaturas altas pueden mantenerse por encima de 20 °C hasta el final de octubre. Las noches más frías y las heladas llegan por primera vez, por lo general, en la segunda semana de octubre. Los cortos períodos fríos varían con el veranillo de San Miguel, que puede durar semanas enteras. En noviembre sobreviene la abundante lluvia, a veces nieve, y una caída drástica de las temperaturas (a 10 °C durante todo el otoño del mes).
Los inviernos son variables e impredecibles. Los vientos del oeste traen aire templado oceánico, con temperaturas de entre 5-10 °C, casi sin congelar y dispersa la lluvia o nieve. Las borrascas que se desplazan desde el mar Mediterráneo pueden traer tormentas de nieve con 20-40 cm de caída en un solo día, seguido por aire frío de Rusia. Las borrascas del Atlántico sur y el viento puede traer un clima inusualmente cálido, con temperaturas alcanzando los 15 °C incluso en enero. El anticiclón de Siberia trae cada dos años un período muy soleado pero frío con una duración de una semana o dos con puntos bajos en el rango climático de -15 a -20 °C. Los anticiclones con los centros superiores de Europa occidental producen niebla fría sin cambios en la temperatura entre el día y la noche y se quedan alrededor o un poco por debajo de 0 °C. La niebla puede durar semanas. Las borrascas mediterráneas que se mueven por encima de la capa de niebla puede llevar uno o dos días de lluvia helada.57 58 59
[ocultar]Gnome-weather-few-clouds.svg Parámetros climáticos promedio de Budapest WPTC Meteo task force.svg
MesEne.Feb.Mar.Abr.May.Jun.Jul.Ago.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dic.Anual
Temp. máx. abs. (°C)18.119.725.430.234.039.540.739.435.230.822.619.340.7
Temp. máx. media (°C)2.95.510.616.421.924.626.726.621.615.47.74.015.3
Temp. media (°C)-0.42.36.112.016.619.721.521.216.911.85.41.811.2
Temp. mín. media (°C)-1.70.03.57.612.115.116.816.512.87.852.9-0.07.8
Temp. mín. abs. (°C)-25.6-23.4-15.1-4.6-1.63.05.95.0-3.1-9.5-16.4-20.8-25.6
Precipitación total (mm)372930426263454940395343532
Días de precipitaciones (≥ 1 mm)76668876557778
Horas de sol558413718223024827425519715667481933
Fuente: www.met.hu60
Economía[editar]
Budapest se convirtió en una ciudad global debido a la industrialización. En 1910, el 45,2% de la población total trabajaban en fábricas. La capital húngara fue una de las más grandes ciudades industriales de Europa con 600.000 trabajadores de fábricas en la década de 1960. Entre 1920 y 1970, más de la mitad del total de la producción industrial de Hungría se hacía en Budapest. La Metalurgia (FÉG), la industria textil y la industria del automóvil (Ikarus) fueron los principales sectores que recibieron los cambios estructurales.61
Ahora casi todas las ramas de la industria se encuentra en Budapest. Los principales productos son los aparatos de comunicación de ingeniería e informática, máquinas eléctricas, lámparas incandescentes (General Electric). La industria farmacéutica también es importante, muy conocida Egis y las compañías Gedeon Richter y Chinoin son húngaras, mientras que Teva también tiene una división aquí.
La industria está más bien en las afueras, pues el centro es el lugar para el servicio principal de empresas financieras nacionales e internacionales, como Telekom Hungría, General Electric, Vodafone, Telenor, Erste Bank, CIB Bank, K&H Bank&Insurance, UniCredit, Budapest Bank, Generali Providencia Insurance, ING, Aegon Insurance, Allianz. Las bases regionales de Volvo Co., Saab, Ford, GE, IBM, TATA Consultancy Services Limited están Budapest. El grupo MOL de Petróleo y Gas húngaros, que con sus subsidiarias, es un líder integrado de petróleo y gas en Europa Central y del Este. El OTP Bank, que es el banco más grande de Hungría, con sucursales en otros ocho países, tienen su sede en la capital.
Budapest es el centro de los servicios, asesoría financiera, transacciones de divisas, servicios comerciales y bienes. Los servicios de comercio y logística están bien desarrollados. El turismo y la hostelería también merecen mención, ya que en la capital existen miles de establecimientos de restaurantes, bares, cafés y lugares de fiesta.
Lugares de interés[editar]
Budapest, con las riberas del Danubio, el barrio del castillo de Buda y la avenida Andrássy
UNESCO logo.svg Welterbe.svg
Nombre descrito en la Lista del Patrimonio de la Humanidad
BudapestDSCN3838.JPG
Vista del Puente de las cadenas desde el Castillo de Buda.
PaísFlag of Hungary.svg Hungría
TipoCultural
Criteriosii, iv
N.° identificación400bis
RegiónEuropa y América del Norte
Año de inscripción1987 (XI sesión)
Año de extensión2000
[editar datos en Wikidata]
El Parlamento de estilo neogótico contiene, entre otras cosas, las joyas de la corona húngara. La Basílica de San Esteban, donde se exhibe la Mano Derecha del Santo fundador de Hungría, el rey San Esteban. La cocina húngara y la cultura café pueden degustarse, por ejemplo, en el Café Gerbeaud, y los restaurantes Százéves, Biarritz, Fortuna, Alabárdos, Arany Szarvas, Kárpátia y el famoso Mátyás Pince. Hay restos romanos en el Museo Aquincum y mobiliario histórico en el Museo Nagytétény, que son sólo dos de los 223 museos de Budapest.
Vista del Parlamento de noche desde el río Danubio
La colina del castillo, los muros de contención del río Danubio y el conjunto de Andrássy út han sido oficialmente reconocidos por la UNESCO como Patrimonio de la Humanidad.
La colina del castillo y el distrito del castillo albergan tres iglesias, seis museos y una serie de interesantes edificios, calles y plazas. El antiguo Palacio Real es uno de los símbolos de Hungría y ha sido escenario de batallas y guerras desde el siglo XIII. Hoy en día alberga dos museos impresionantes y la Biblioteca Nacional Széchenyi. El cercano Palacio Sándor alberga las oficinas y la residencia oficial del Presidente de Hungría. La Iglesia de San Matías, de siete siglos de antigüedad, es una de las joyas de Budapest. A su lado está una estatua ecuestre del primer rey de Hungría, el rey San Esteban, y tras ésta el Bastión de los Pescadores, desde donde se abre una vista panorámica de toda la ciudad. Las estatuas del Turul, el pájaro guardián mítico de Hungría, se pueden encontrar tanto en el Barrio del Castillo y el Distrito XII.
Plaza de los Héroes.
En Pest, sin duda el espectáculo más importante es Andrássy út, mientras que las calles Kodály Körönd y Oktogon están llenas de tiendas y grandes pisos construidos muy juntos. Desde allí hasta la Plaza de los Héroes las casas se separan por completo y son más amplias. En el marco del conjunto se encuentra el ferrocarril metropolitano más antiguo de Europa continental, la mayoría de cuyas estaciones conservan su aspecto original. La Plaza de los Héroes está dominada por el Monumento del Milenio, con la Tumba del Soldado Desconocido en el frente. A los lados se encuentran el Museo de Bellas Artes y la Kunsthalle de Budapest, y detrás se abre el Parque de la Ciudad, con el castillo de Vajdahunyad. Una de las joyas de Andrássy út es la Ópera Nacional de Hungría. Memento Park, un parque temático con estatuas notables de la era comunista, está situado a las afueras del centro de la ciudad y es accesible por transporte público.
En la ciudad reside la sinagoga más grande de Europa (la Sinagoga de la Calle Dohány)62 y la segunda más grande del mundo. La sinagoga se encuentra en el barrio judío ocupando varias cuadras en el centro de Budapest bordeado por Király utca, Wesselényi utca, el Grand Boulevard y la carretera Bajcsy Zsilinszky. La ciudad también se enorgullece de tener el mayor baño de aguas medicinales de Europa (Baños Széchenyi) y el tercer edificio del Parlamento más grande del mundo. La tercera iglesia más grande de Europa (la Basílica de Esztergom) y el segundo mayor castillo barroco del mundo (Gödöllő) se encuentran en las proximidades.
En el paisaje urbano de Budapest puede distinguirse la Estatua de la Libertad, que tiene 14 metros de altura y descanasa sobre un pedestal de 26 metros en la Colina Gellért.63 La estatua fue construida en bronce durante la ocupación soviética de Hungría.
Iglesia de San Matías
Basílica de San Esteban
Castillo de Vajdahunyad
Mercado Central de Budapest
Sinagoga de la Calle Dohány
Vista del Castillo de Buda de noche desde el río Danubio.
Cultura[editar]
Ópera Nacional de Hungría.
Museo de Bellas Artes.
La tradición de la danza de la cuenca de los Cárpatos es el área única de la cultura de la danza europea, que es también una especie de transición entre los Balcanes y las regiones de Europa Occidental. En Budapest existen varios conjuntos de auténtica danza folclórica húngara, algunos de ellos profesionales. Budapest es una de las pocas ciudades del mundo donde hay una escuela secundaria para el aprendizaje de la danza folclórica.
En Budapest, actualmente hay 837 monumentos diferentes, que representan la mayor parte del estilo artístico europeo. Son prominentes los clásicos y únicos edificios de estilo Art Nouveau húngaros.
Los 223 museos y galerías de la ciudad presentan no sólo exposiciones y arte húngaro, sino también arte y ciencia de la cultura universal y europea. Entre los más importantes que se encuentran en la ciudad destacan el Museo Nacional de Hungría, la Galería Nacional Húngara, el Museo de Bellas Artes, el Museo Histórico de Budapest, el Parque Memento y el Museo de Artes Aplicadas.
En Budapest hay cuarenta teatros, siete salas de conciertos y un teatro de la ópera. También se celebran a menudo en edificios históricos festivales al aire libre, conciertos y conferencias que enriquecen la oferta cultural del verano. Las instituciones más prestigiosas de teatro son la Opereta y Teatro Musical de Budapest, el Teatro József Attila, el Teatro Katona József, el Teatro Madách, la Ópera Nacional de Hungría, el Teatro Nacional, el Vigadó, el Teatro Radnóti Miklós y el Teatro de la Comedia.
Muchas bibliotecas tienen colecciones únicas en Budapest, como la Biblioteca Nacional Széchenyi, que mantiene las reliquias históricas de la época antes de la impresión de los libros. La Biblioteca metropolitana Ervin Szabó juega un papel importante en la educación general de la población de la capital. Otras bibliotecas importantes son la Biblioteca de la Academia de Ciencias de Hungría, la Biblioteca de la Universidad Eötvös Loránd, la Biblioteca del Parlamento y de la Biblioteca Nacional de Literatura Extranjera.
Entre los eventos culturales de Hungría, el mayor festival al aire libre es el Festival de Sziget, que es muy popular en toda Europa. Otros que también son importantes y se celebran en la ciudad son el Festival de la Primavera de Budapest, el Festival de Otoño de Budapest, la Fiesta del Vino de Budapest y el Festival de Budapest de Pálinka.
Los turistas que visitan Budapest disponen de mapas gratuitos e información acerca de los diversos "puntos de interés" por la empresa municipal BTDM en sus puntos de información.64 Está disponible para los visitantes las tarjeta de 24 y 72 horas de Budapest. Para el transporte, la validez de la tarjeta es gratuita y hay descuentos en varios museos, restaurantes y otros lugares de interés.65 La ciudad también es conocida por sus bares en antiguas ruinas.66
Baños termales[editar]
En 1934, Budapest recibió el título de «Ciudad de Balnearios» por ser la capital que dispone de más pozos de aguas medicinales y termales del mundo;[cita requerida] es conocida por algunos como «La capital mundial de las aguas medicinales».
Su red es única: el rendimiento de las aguas termales, con temperaturas de 21 a 78 grados centígrados, que brotan de 118 fuentes naturales y de pozos artificiales, supera los 70 millones de litros diarios. En Budapest se encuentran conocidos baños termales públicos: Balneario Gellért (Gellért fürdő), Balneario Széchenyi (Széchenyi fürdő) el balneario europeo más grande, Balneario Lukács (Lukács fürdő), Balneario Rudas (Rudas fürdő), Balneario Király (Király fürdő) y Balneario Rác (Rác fürdő).
Baños termales Széchenyi.
Las aguas medicinales sirven para tratar enfermedades de los órganos locomotrices, de la circulación sanguínea y de la ginecología.
En los alrededores de estos baños termales existen pozos y salas para beber agua medicinal con alto contenido de distintos tipos minerales. La más conocida de estas salas de ingesta sirve de entrada al baño termal Lukács, que fue inaugurado en 1937, orientándose sus aguas medicinales a la curación de problemas digestivos. El edificio del baño termal fue construido en 1894. Sus efectos benéficos medicinales pronto fueron conocidos en el resto de Europa, convirtiéndose en uno de los lugares más notables de esta saludable especialidad.
También son famosos los baños termales de la época turca que funcionan hoy en día, como por ejemplo el Király, construido a finales de los años 1500, y el baño Rác. El baño Rudas —con su sala octogonal de columnas y cúpula— es el baño turco más antiguo y mejor ornamentado.
Islas[editar]
En el Danubio se pueden encontrar siete islas: Astillero, Isla Margarita, Isla de Csepel, Palotai-Sziget (actualmente una península), Népsziget, Haros-Sziget, y Sziget Molnár.
Entre las islas notables se incluyen:
La Isla Margarita de 2,5 km (1,6 millas) de largo y 0,965 kilómetros cuadrados (238 acres) de superficie. Se compone principalmente de un parque y es una popular zona de recreo para los turistas y lugareños por igual. La isla se encuentra entre el Puente Margarita (sur) y el puente Árpád (norte). En la isla se pueden encontrar discotecas, piscinas, un parque acuático, pistas para correr, de ciclismo, de atletismo y gimnasios. Durante el día la isla está ocupada por la gente que hace deporte o simplemente descansa. En el verano (por lo general los fines de semana) los más jóvenes van a la isla por la noche de fiesta en sus terrazas, o para divertirse con una botella de alcohol en un banco o en el césped (esta forma de entretenimiento se denomina a veces como banco-fiesta).
La isla de Csepel (pronunciación en húngaro:] tʃɛpɛlsiɡɛt [) es la isla mayor del río Danubio en Hungría. Tiene 48 km (30 millas) de largo, su ancho es de 6.8 km (3,75-5 millas) y su área abarca 257 km2 (99 millas cuadradas), aunque sólo el extremo norte se encuentra dentro de los límites de la ciudad.
Hajógyári-Sziget ([hɒjo ː ː ɟa siɡɛt ri], o Sziget Óbudai-) es una isla artificial, ubicada en el tercer distrito. Esta isla alberga numerosas actividades tales como: wake boarding, motos de agua durante el día, y clubes de baile durante la noche. Esta es la isla donde tiene lugar el famoso Festival de Sziget, recibiendo cientos de actuaciones por año y alrededor de 400.000 visitantes en su última edición. Se están llevando a cabo muchos proyectos de construcción para hacer de esta isla uno de los centros de ocio más importantes de Europa, el plan es construir edificios de apartamentos, hoteles, casinos y un puerto deportivo.
Luppa-Sziget es la isla más pequeña de Budapest, situada en la región norte.
IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776
The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America
When in the Course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. — That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. — Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.
He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.
He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.
He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.
He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.
He has obstructed the Administration of Justice by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers.
He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.
He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance.
He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.
He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power.
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation:
For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:
For protecting them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:
For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:
For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:
For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury:
For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:
For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies
For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:
For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.
He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.
He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people.
He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.
He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.
He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.
In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.
Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.
We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States, that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. — And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor.
— John Hancock
New Hampshire:
Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton
Massachusetts:
John Hancock, Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry
Rhode Island:
Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery
Connecticut:
Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott
New York:
William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris
New Jersey:
Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark
Pennsylvania:
Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross
Delaware:
Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean
Maryland:
Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton
Virginia:
George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton
North Carolina:
William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn
South Carolina:
Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton
Georgia:
Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton
de pronto uno se pregunta respecto de sus caminos... respecto de los pasos dados, esta noche reflexiva uno se pregunta de pronto...
que soñaba antes, que queria... que exactamente esperaba?
he caminado, caminos extraños... huraños, celosos, caminos infieles, caminos engañosos, caminos que me usaron, caminos que me derrumbaron...
he caminado caminos... que me cambiaron, que me enfriaron, que me torturaron, caminos engañosos que pensaba que queria... y quise de verdad en algunos lapsus...
me reencuentro luego frente de ellos y curiosamente dejan de significar... de pronto ya es muy tarde y es como si quisieran que uno les recorra y los pies ya no tienen ganas... es tarde!
he caminado caminos hacia ningun lado, caminos sin salida, caminos absurdos como causas perdidas, caminos gastados y hasta malos caminos.
tambien he flotado, por caminos por caminos buenos, caminos sinceros, caminos que me sonrien sin apegos y por mas que quisiera andar por ellos enternamente no se puede y uno debe de entender que esos caminos simplemente no llevan a ningun lado...
ahora... me pregunto, que es lo que realmente hubiera querido encontrar al final del camino? que es lo que se busca? si viajo de pronto a mi corazon de niña... que es lo que se supone le corresponde a cada uno?
y si no hay nada? si de pronto uno advierte y se encuentra que en este camino particular de la vida de uno... no hay respuesta, que no importa el camino que se tome... simplemente en este tema particular uno no tiene respuesta... no hay nada al final...
de pronto estoy cansada de caminar...
de pronto ya ni importa...
O Hikaru foi taggeado pela Thai e depois de muuuuuito tempo enfim consegui alguma coisa e_ê
Bem, com isso fica faltando apenas mais uma tag da troca de estilos... Ainda estou decidindo meus alvos! ‘-‘
Regras:
- Revele um segredo profundo da sua doll, algo que ninguém ou quase ninguém saiba;
- Poste uma foto relacionada a esse segredo;
- Marque pelo menos 5 dolls e seus respectivos pais para fazerem a tag também.
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- As flores morrem no meu jardim constantemente, assim como a minha vida, que de fato nunca chegou a me pertencer... – a garota cortava as flores delicadamente enquanto se amargurava com a sua condição
– Ei, me diga.... Você sentirá a minha falta Hikaru?
- NÃO DIGA BOBAGENS! – Aumentou o tom de voz aborrecido – Eu jamais deixarei você ir...
A garota deu um sorriso de canto, não por achar aquela situação engraçada, mas por que sentia que se assim não o fizesse, seria incapaz de esconder suas lágrimas. Por muito tempo ela esteve vagando por esse mundo, sem nenhuma razão ou qualquer perspectiva, ela apenas existia.... – Estava exausta - Quem diria que aquela pessoa mudaria tudo?!
- Eu não sou uma mulher comum... – respirou fundo tentando resgatar a sua coragem – Minha existência nesse mundo é apenas um castigo e você sabe muito bem disso. Minhas asas foram cortadas há muito tempo.... Eu já não lembro mais o que é se sentir viva! Mas, eu sou realmente muito grata a você por ter me livrado dessa solidão.
- Ruoxi... Não! Não faça isso! – Suplicava com as mãos tremulas.
- Quem diria... – ela puxou uma pequena rosa azul e a encarou seriamente – Eu fiz você sentir medo Hikaru.... E também, sou a responsável por essas lagrimas que estão repletas de ódio por mim. Sabe, se eu pudesse ter um único desejo atendido... – ela se levantou sem olhar para trás – Eu pediria que caso nos encontrássemos novamente eu pudesse realmente.... Te fazer feliz, ao invés de fazê-lo chorar como agora.
O sol que estava prestes a se pôr iluminava-os em um tom de despedida, enquanto que uma forte ventania os silenciava em meio a dor. Apesar de não ter asas, a sombra de Ruoxi se mostrava contraditória a essa realidade uma vez que um par de asas negras se mostraram visíveis. Esse era o peso de sua alma, de sua existência.... Jamais poderia ser perdoada pelos seus pecados, mas ela sabia que as vidas que salvara nos últimos anos poderiam amenizar essa dor.
- Adeus...
- NÃO! NÃO PODE ME DEIXAR! – Tentou puxá-la para perto de si, mas foi inútil, ela já havia desaparecido bem diante de seus olhos.
“Me desculpe, parece que mais uma vez... Eu te fiz chorar Hikaru...”
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Talvez esse seja o maior segredo de Hikaru, algo doloroso que até mesmo hoje causa uma dor profunda nele. Jun evita tocar no assunto pois sabe a reação de seu irmão. Algo que ninguém sabe é o segredo de sua família que sempre foi muito bem guardado. Seus pais, assim como seus avós, foram caçadores de demônios que lutaram incansavelmente para promover a paz. Em certa ocasião um anjo caído atravessou o caminho de seus avós este jurou que os ajudaria em sua caçada, pois procurava uma maneira de se redimir com o céu. (Ninguém sabia ao certo o que fizera de tão ruim para ser banida do céu, ela também nunca revelou!) Desde então, esse anjo foi uma importante arma para sua família, uma aliança que de fato foi a chave para batalhas triunfantes. Porém, conforme os anos se passavam, mais e mais esse anjo foi enfraquecendo... Hikaru e Ruoxi se apaixonaram apesar das diversidades, neste momento Ruoxi que antes não tinha mais vontade de viver passou a ter um único desejo: se tornar uma mulher comum que tivesse o direito de ama-lo de volta. Mas conforme seu amor por Hikaru crescia, mais e mais ela sentiu medo de morrer. Uma vez que sabia que esse dia se aproximava. Certa vez, um demônio muito forte apareceu ameaçando destruir toda a vida na terra, em um ato desesperado para proteger Hikaru, ela usou todo o seu poder para derrotar o demônio. Mas para isso teve que pagar um preço muito caro: sua vida! Ruoxi era muito boa em esconder os seus verdadeiros sentimentos, por isso ainda que estivesse verdadeiramente triste.... Ela não chorou sequer uma vez, pois temia que Hikaru sofresse ainda mais com a sua partida.
Foi muito difícil para Hikaru apaga-la de sua vida, depois da perda que sofreu ele nunca mais voltou a ser o mesmo.... Decidiu abandonar a sua antiga vida e com o seu irmão partiu para outro país afim de abrir a própria empresa e se tornar muito bem-sucedido, coisa que felizmente conseguiu.
De vez em quando ele ainda lembra da canção que Ruoxi cantava para ele... Hikaru chegou a se envolver com muitas mulheres ao longo dos anos, tendo muitos casos inclusive..., mas também não chegou a leva-los a sério. Para ele foi apenas um passatempo, seu coração ainda hoje permanece trancado as sete chaves. Apesar de não admitir ele sente muita falta do tempo em que caçava demônios, por isso ainda mantem muitas das armas que usava por perto e usa Sebastian como alvo para descontar a sua raiva.
By T. W. Windeatt. (Read at Torquay, July, 1893.)
The little town and ancient borough of Totnes has during its lengthened history been the birthplace of men, not a few of whom have made their mark in the world, and not the least of these is one born in the present century – Wills, the Australian explorer – whose name deserves to be enshrined in the Transactions of this Association.
William John Wills was born in Totnes on the 5th January, 1834, being the son of William Wills, a surgeon then practising in Totnes, and Sarah, youngest daughter of William Galley, an old and respected inhabitant.* They both spent the latter part of their lives in and died at Torquay. As a boy Wills seems to have early developed an enquiring and thoughtful mind. His father says he was never a child in the common acceptation of the term, as he gave early indication of diligence and discretion scarcely compatible with the helplessness and simplicity of such tender years. He was educated at the Ashburton Grammar School, where he went as a boarder when eleven years of age, and of which school Mr. Paige, who still survives, was then the head master. A deep cutting in one of the benches in the old chapel of St Lawrence, then and now the schoolhouse, “W. J. WILLS” is still to be seen and records his sojourn there. Mr. Fabyan Amery, one of his schoolfellows, speaks of him as having always been a very scientific boy, and very observant of natural phenomena, which he always tried to get some scientific reason for. There appears to have been nothing remarkable in his progress at school, though his master commended his steady diligence and uniform propriety of conduct Mr. Paige remarked on one occasion to his father, “It vexes me that John does not take a top prize, for I see by his countenance that he understands as much, if not more, than any boy in my school; yet from want of readiness in answering he allows very inferior lads to win the tickets from him.”
* Henry Le Visconte, who was first lieutenant in the Erebus, and perished in the Franklin Expedition, was first cousin to Mrs. Wills.
He left school when sixteen and commenced to study medicine in his father’s surgery. In 1852 he studied practical chemistry under Dr. John Stenhouse at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, who spoke of him as one of his most promising pupils, and ventured the assurance that in two years he would be second to none in England in practical chemistry.
In 1852 Dr. Wills determined to join the exodus then pouring out from England to Australia, engaged as medical attendant on board the Ballaarat, and arranged to take out the subject of my sketch, and a younger brother Tom with him. A few days after this arrangement was made Wills came to his father, and with that expression in his countenance so peculiarly his own, said, “My dear father, I have a favour to ask of you. I see my mother is grieving, although she says nothing, at our all leaving her together. Let Tom and me go alone. I will pledge myself to take care of him.” After a consultation this new plan was agreed upon. Dr. Wills released himself from his engagement with Messrs. Simpkins and Marshall for the Ballaarat, and secured two berths for the boys in one of Mr. W. S. Lindsay’s ships, which at that time were conveying living freights to Melbourne, their Channel port of departure being Dartmouth.
Wills’s love of knowledge in its details is evidenced by a story told by his father of him at this time. “I found,” he said, “that William had shortly before sailing expended some money on a quantity of stuff rolled up like balls of black rope-yarn, and exclaimed with astonishment, ‘In the name of goodness, are you going to chew or smoke all the way to Australia?'” for the commodity was the good old pigtail tobacco. He said smiling, “This is to make friends with the sailors. I intend to learn something about a ship by the time we reach our destination.” His mode of proceeding, as he told his father, was first to secure the good graces of the crew through the persuasive medium of the pigtail; then to learn the name and use of every rope, and of every part of the ship’s tackle from stem to stern. He thus soon acquired the art of splicing and reefing, and was amongst the first to go aloft in a storm, and to lend a hand in taking in topsails.
On arriving in Australia the two lads obtained situations as shepherds at Deniliquin, about 200 miles from Melbourne, at £30 a year and their rations. In August, 1853, Dr. Wills reached Melbourne, but it was some two months after landing before he ascertained his sons’ location, and joined them at their sheep station. William subsequently removed to Ballarat with his father, where he remained twelve months attending to patients in his father’s absence, and opening a gold office, where he perfected a plan of his own for weighing specimens containing quartz and gold in water, so as to find the quantity of each component. His thoughts and conversation were, however, constantly reverting to the interior of the great continent, and to the hope that he would some day undertake the journey to the Gulf of Carpentaria. In 1856 Wills obtained an appointment under Mr. F. Byerly, a gentleman in the Survey Department, and under him he commenced to learn surveying. A letter of advice as to the study of science written to his youngest brother at Totnes while he was engaged on a survey at an out station (St. Arnaud) evidenced his earnest love of science, and the following paragraph in it, referring to the study of astronomy, which I venture to think worth quoting, shows he had no difficulty in reconciling science and religion:
“As the great object of the science is the correction of error and the investigation of truth, it necessarily leads all those that feel an interest in it to a higher appreciation and desire for truth; and you will easily perceive that a man having a knowledge of all these vast worlds, so much more extensive than our own, must be capable of forming a far higher estimate of that Almighty Being who created all these wonders than one who knows nothing more than the comparatively trifling things that surround us on earth.”
Another paragraph at the end of this letter speaks for itself, and gives us the key to the man:
“One other piece of advice I must give you before I shut up; that is, never try to show off your knowledge, especially in scientific matters. It is a sin that certain persons we know have been guilty of. The first step is to learn your own ignorance, and if ever you feel inclined to make a display, you may be sure you have as yet learned nothing.”
In 1860 an expedition was organized by the colony of Victoria for the exploration of Australia, and to ascertain the nature of the interior of the great continent, which was then a sealed book; for up to that time the efforts towards exploration had been confined to lonely wanderings through the outer boundaries of the unknown continent, and opinions varied as to whether the interior was a vast inland sea, as Oxley and the first of the explorers believed, or whether it was a stony desert unfit for man and beast, as Sturt concluded.
Mr. Ambrose Kyte, whose name was, however, concealed from the public at the time, offered £1,000 as an inducement to the Government and others to come forward and raise funds for the exploration. Parliament voted £6,000, and subscriptions from the public raised the fund to £9,000. A Committee of the Royal Society undertook the superintendence of the arrangements. Twenty-four camels were imported from India with native drivers, and provisions and stores for twelve months were provided. After considerable delay the choice of a leader fell upon Robert O’Hara Burke. He was forty years of age, an Irishman from county Galway. When quite a youth he served in an Austrian cavalry regiment, and subsequently in the Irish Constabulary and the Police Force of Victoria; possessing bravery and dauntless courage, he had no special aptitude or scientific training to lead such an Expedition. He was enthusiastic and impulsive but was unfortunately without the indispensable experience of a seasoned bushman.
The appointment of second in command fell upon Mr. G. I. Landells, who owed his preferment to the circumstance of his having been employed to bring the camels from India, an appointment, however, which, as the sequel shows, was a most unfortunate one. Wills, who by this time was a seasoned bushman, with great powers of endurance, tendered his services as astronomer and guide without thinking of any distinct post of command, his object being exclusively scientific. Dr. Ludwick Becker was appointed naturalist and artist, Dr. Herman Beckler as botanist and medical adviser. Ten white men, among whom was John King (a private soldier) and three sepoys, were appointed to accompany the Expedition.
The explorers left Melbourne on the 20th August, 1860, amid considerable enthusiasm; nearly the whole population suspending ordinary business, and turning out to witness the start. The mayor of Melbourne publicly addressed them, and wished them God-speed, and through the settled districts their progress, which was slow, was a kind of triumphal march. The route marked out for them was to strike the river Darling, then the lower Barcoo (Cooper’s Creek), and from that point to go northwards to the Gulf of Carpentaria.
Swan Hill, on the Murray, which, properly speaking, was the northern boundary of the colony of Victoria, was reached on September 8th. At Balranald, beyond the Murray, Burke found it impossible to get on any longer with his foreman (Ferguson) and discharged him. He had, however, no sooner rid himself of this troublesome man than Mr. Landells, his second in command, began to sow dissension, and to exhibit insubordination in an unmistakable manner. This reached a crisis by the time they came to Menindie, on the Darling, and after a violent scene Landells resigned, returning to Melbourne full of violent complaints against Burke, and Dr. Beckler was foolish enough to follow Landells’ example of resigning, on the alleged ground that he did not like the way Burke spoke to Landells. Fortunately for Burke’s reputation a very full account of all that took place was written at the time by Wills to Professor Neumayer, and the committee expressed their entire approbation of Burke’s conduct, an opinion shared in by the general public, as evidenced by the newspapers of that date. Burke, on the resignation of Mr. Landells, immediately promoted Wills to the post he had vacated, which appointment the committee confirmed. Here there was perfect union and reciprocal understanding. Neither had petty jealousies or reserved views. The success of the expedition was their object, not personal glory their aim. The leader had every confidence in his second, and the second was proud of his leader. But Mr. Burke committed an error in the selection of Mr. Wright for the third position in command, without any previous knowledge or experience of his capabilities. In this he acted from his impulsive nature, and the consequences bore heavily on his own and Wills’ fate.
Burke then made his second mistake by dividing his party, and on 19th October left Menindie, where he had formed a depot, with about one half of his number, leaving the others behind, and made a rush to the Barcoo. He reached Torowota on 29th October, and from that encampment forwarded a despatch, and an exhaustive surveying report from Wills, to the secretary of the expedition. In his own despatch Burke said:
“I consider myself very fortunate in having Mr, Wills as my second in command. He is a capital officer, zealous and untiring in the performance of his duties, and I trust he will remain my second as long as I am in charge of the expedition.”
Burke sent Wright back to Menindie with instructions to follow him up with the remainder of the camels to Cooper’s Creek, and Wright himself admitted he gave Burke his word to take the remainder of the party out as soon as he arrived at Menindie. This, however, he omitted to do, and unaccountably delayed making any start until the 26th January, 1861, and to this criminal delay may be attributed the whole of the crushing disaster which subsequently overtook the expedition.
Cooper’s Creek, where a camp was formed, was reached on the 11th November. In a letter to one of his sisters from there Wills describes the place as follows:–
“To give you an idea of Cooper’s Creek, fancy extensive flat, sandy plains, covered with herbs dried like hay, and imagine a creek or river, somewhat similar in appearance and size to the Dart above the Weir, winding its way through these flats, having its banks densely clothed with gum trees and other evergreens. So far there appears to be a considerable resemblance, but now for the difference. The water of Cooper’s Creek is only a number of waterholes. In some places it entirely disappears, the water in flood-time spreading all over the flats, and forming no regular channel.”
While awaiting the arrival of the tardy Wright, short explorations of the adjoining country were made, chiefly by Wills, with the view of examining two or three promising routes to the Gulf of Carpentaria. On the last of these trips Wills penetrated eighty miles, and would have gone further, but the men in charge of the camels fell asleep and let them escape, and the return had to be done on foot in a broiling sun of 146 degrees, no shade, and very little water.
Impatient at Wright’s delay, and irritated almost to madness in waiting for him, and seeing the time slipping by, Burke and Wills determined to make a dash for the Gulf of Carpentaria while the opportunity still remained to them.
Burke again divided his small party, and taking Wills, King, and Grey, one horse, six camels, and three months’ provisions, started on Sunday, the 16th December, for a dash across the continent. Four men – Brahe, Patten, McDonnough, and Dost Mahomet – with six camels and twelve horses, were left at the camp at Cooper’s Creek, which was made a depot, and Brahe placed in charge until the arrival of Wright or some other person duly appointed by the committee to take command of the remainder of the expedition at Menindie. A surveyor was expected to be sent on to assist Wills, and plenty of work was laid out for all until the return of Burke and Wills – Brahe receiving the most positive orders to remain at Cooper’s Creek until this took place, three or four months being named as the possible time of absence.
Wills strongly advised a direct course northward for the exploring party, but Burke hesitated to adopt it unless he could feel confident of a supply of water. The more westerly course was therefore adopted at the commencement of the journey; but after a day or two they turned to the east, and scarcely deviated throughout from the 141st degree of east longitude.
Wills kept a diary giving a full account of the journey to the Gulf from the start to February, 1861, which contains very interesting details of each day’s progress. The first point the explorers made for was Eyre’s Creek, and on their first day’s journey they came upon a large tribe of blacks, who, Wills says, came pestering them to go to their camp and have a dance, and nothing but a threat to shoot them would keep them away. They were fine-looking men, but decidedly not of a warlike nature. The explorers crossed Sturt’s supposed “stony desert”, and did not find it the melancholy waste or bad travelling they were led to expect.
On 20th December they came upon a large camp of not less that forty or fifty blacks, who brought them presents of fish, for which they gave them beads and matches. On Christmas-eve they reached Gray’s Creek, and took a day’s rest to celebrate the festival. Their camp was really an agreeable place, an oasis in the desert; for there they had all the advantage of food and water attendant on the position of a large creek or river, free from the annoyance of the ants, flies, and mosquitoes invariably met with amongst timber or heavy scrub. The following day they struck a magnificent creek coming from the N.N.W., and this they followed until the 30th, by which time it had tended considerably to the N.E. This stream has since received the name of “Burke’s Creek”. The country adjacent they found an alternation of sand ridges and grassy plains. On 8th January they came into green and luxuriant country, improving at every step. Flocks of pigeons rose and flew, and fresh plants and rich vegetation met the eye on every side. On the 10th, passing over fine open plains, they came to the main creek in those flats, “Patten’s Creek”, flowing along the foot of a stony range. From here they pushed on over fairly good country, coming repeatedly upon blacks in their way, some of whom, being surprised by the explorers coming suddenly upon them, fled, dreadfully frightened. On the 30th January, 1861, having got to within a comparatively short distance of the shores of Carpentaria, Burke and Wills determined to leave Gray and King in charge of the camels, one of whom, having got logged in the creek, had already been left behind, and to proceed onwards on foot, leading the horse. The river or creek down which they passed, and which was quite salt, is named in the journal the Cloncurry. The channel making a sudden turn. Wills remarked that it might be a new river. “If it should prove so,” said Burke, “we will call it after my old friend Lord Cloncurry.”
In crossing Billy’s Creek the horse got bogged in a quicksand, and was with difficulty rescued. They came again on blacks, who shuffled off, and near their fire was a fine hut, the best they had ever seen, built on the same principle as those at Cooper’s Creek, but much larger and more complete. Hundreds of wild geese, plovers, and pelicans were enjoying themselves in the watercourses on the marshes, the water of which was too brackish to be drunk. They then soon came to a channel through which the sea-water entered. Here they passed three blacks, who pointed out unasked the best way down. Next morning they started at daybreak for the sea, leaving the horse behind short hobbled. Here Wills’ diary, from which I have been quoting, abruptly ends, and was not resumed until the 19th February, when they had already started on their fatal homeward journey. Burke did not keep any regular journal, but in his notes, under date of the 28th March, 1861, he says: “At the conclusion of the report it would be as well to say that we reached the sea, but could not obtain a view of the open ocean, although we made every endeavour to do so.” There is no doubt whatever that the two explorers reached the verge of the northern ocean.*
* In the account of McKinlay’s Expedition from Adelaide, in August, 1861, it is mentioned that when he, in the following February, found himself on the Gulf of Carpentaria, dense walls of mangrove barred his way to the shore, and there can he little doubt that it was the same obstacle which prevented Burke and Wills from viewing the open sea.
Having thus accomplished the grand object of their expedition Burke and Wills rejoined Gray and King, where they had left them with the camels, and the four proceeded together on the return journey on the 13th February. Wills’ notes on their scamper back to Cooper’s Creek are brief but powerful. An incessant rainfall made the country boggy, and added to their troubles. On the 2nd March, at Salt-bush Camp, they found Golah, the camel which they had been obliged to leave behind on the outward journey. It was thin and miserable, and had fretted at finding itself left behind, but began to eat as soon as it saw the other camels.
On 5th March Burke became ill from eating part of a large snake which they had killed, and poor Golah, being completely done up, and unable to come on, even when pack and saddle were taken off, had to be finally left behind. On 13th March it rained so heavily that Wills had to put his watch and field-book in the pack to keep them dry. All the creeks became flooded, and the poor travellers had to seek shelter under some fallen rocks. Their journey was now slow, as they had to keep on the stony ridge instead of following the flats, which were very boggy owing to the rain. On the 20th they commenced to lighten the loads of the camels by leaving 60 lbs. weight of things behind. Rain continued to fall in torrents, and the ground they passed over was at times either full of water or covered with slimy mud. The names given to some of their camps by Wills – viz., “Humid Camp”, “Muddy Camp”, “Mosquito Camp”, show some of the trials they had to encounter. Gray, who had been complaining of dysentery, stole some of the flour, and was punished by Burke. Five days after this (March 30th) the camel Boocha was killed for food at a place which by gentle irony they called “Boocha’s Rest”; and on the 10th April the horse, which was reduced and knocked up from want of food, was killed also. Down to the 17th nothing very noteworthy is recorded.
On that day – the beginning of the end – Wills records the death of Gray, whom the others had thought to be shamming. The survivors sorrowfully buried him in the lonely bush: they were so weak that it was with difficulty they could dig a grave sufficiently deep to lay him in. After a day’s delay to rest their wearied limbs they pushed on, but in a most exhausted state, straining every nerve to reach the goal of their arduous labours, their legs almost paralysed, so that it was a trying task to walk a few yards. Four days afterwards they were cheered by the sight of the familiar landmarks of their old camp at Cooper’s Creek. King describes in vivid language the delight of Burke when he thought he saw the depot camp. “There they are!” he shouted. “I see them.” But, alas! the wish was father to the thought. There was no one there. Lost and bewildered in amazement, he appeared like one stupefied when the horrible truth that the camp had been deserted burst upon him. He was quite overwhelmed, and flung himself on the ground broken-hearted. Wills looked about him in all directions, and presently turning to King said, “They are gone”, and pointing a short way off added, “There are the things they have left.” Calm and quiet as ever, he never once, as King testified, showed the slightest anger or loss of command of himself.
On a tree was marked “Dig 21st April”, and from under it a box was extracted containing provisions, and a bottle with a note from Brahe conveying the mortifying intelligence that he had only seven hours before abandoned the depot, and was encamped fourteen miles away, that he had remained four months at Cooper’s Creek, and that Wright had not turned up with the supplies. The explorers felt that, exhausted as they were, it was useless to attempt to overtake Brahe. They rested for two days, and on the morning of Thursday, April 23rd, Burke, Wills, and King, strengthened by the provisions they had found, resumed their journey. Wills and King were desirous of following their track out from Menindie, but unfortunately Burke preferred striking for the South Australian stations, having heard it positively stated at a meeting of the Royal Society that there were settlers within 100 miles of Cooper’s Creek. Wills deferred to his leader, and so they went to their destruction, making for Adelaide via Mount Hopeless (ominous name). There was, in fact, nothing to commend this route, while everything was in favour of that by the Darling. The one road they knew nothing of, the other was familiar to them, and as a matter of fact the nearest police station on the Adelaide line of march was distant between four and five hundred miles. Before starting Wills’ journals were buried in the cache, with the following note from Burke:
“Depot No. 2, Cooper’s Creek Camp, 65.
“The return party from Carpentaria, consisting of myself, Wills, and King (Grey dead), arrived here last night and found that the depot party had only started on the same day. We proceed on to-morrow, slowly down the creek towards Adelaide by Mount Hopeless, and shall endeavour to follow Gregory’s track; but we are very weak. The two camels are done up, and we shall not be able to travel faster than four or five miles a day. Grey died on the road from exhaustion and fatigue. We have all suffered much from hunger. The provisions left here will, I think, restore our strength. We have discovered a practicable route to Carpentaria, the chief position of which lies in the 140° of east longitude. There is some good country between this and the Stony Desert. From thence to the tropics the land is dry and stony. Between the Carpentaria a considerable portion is rangy, but well watered and richly grassed. We reached the shores of Carpentaria on the 11th of February, 1861. Greatly disappointed at finding the party here gone.
“(Signed) Robert O’Hara Burke, Leader.
“April 22nd, 1861.
“P.S. – The camels cannot travel, and we cannot walk, or we should follow the other party. We shall move very slowly down the creek.”
By slow stages the doomed explorers moved on day by day through what was little better than a desert. The second and third days they came upon some friendly blacks, who gave them fish. On 28th April one of the two remaining camels got bogged by the side of a water hole, and it being impossible to get him out, he was shot the next day, his flesh providing them with food. On May 7th the remaining camel would not rise even without any load on its back, and after making every attempt to get him up they had to leave him to himself. Burke and Wills then went down the creek to reconnoitre, and fortunately fell in with some blacks fishing, who gave them food and took them to their camp, where they passed two nights. Some days after, being pressed for food, several excursions were made to find the blacks again, but without success. On May 17th, however, King unexpectedly came upon the nardoo plant, the seed of which is powdered by the natives and baked into a cake. This discovery raised their spirits, as they considered that with this food they would be able to support themselves, even if they had to remain on the creek and wait for assistance from town. On 27th May Wills started alone to the depot at Cooper’s Creek to see if any relief had arrived.
Brahe – who, it will be remembered, deserted his post at the depot only seven hours before the wearied explorers returned there – fell in with Wright’s party at Balloo on his way to the Darling on the 28th or 29th April, and on the 3rd May Wright started with him for the depot, which they actually reached on the 9th. It seemed fated, however, that blunder should succeed blunder, for here they remained but a quarter of an hour, and casting but a hurried glance around came to the conclusion that the depot had not been visited in the interval, and with fatal and criminal neglect never even opened the cache. Had they done so the papers and letters deposited would have been found, and all would yet have been well. Wills, who had met natives on the way, and been given food by them, arrived at Cooper’s Creek on this return visit on the 30th May, and naturally enough failed to discover it had been re-visited by Wright and Brahe, who had left no record behind them. He opened the cache, buried the remainder of his journal and letters, with the following touching note:–
“Depot Camp, May 30th.
“We have been unable to leave the creek. Both camels are dead, and our provisions are exhausted. Mr. Burke and King are down the lower part of the creek. I am about to return to them, when we shall probably come up this way. We are trying to live the best way we can, like the blacks, but find it hard work. Our clothes are going to pieces fast. Send provisions and clothes as soon as possible.
“W. J. Wills.”
“The depot party having left contrary to instructions, has put us in this fix. I have deposited some of my journals here for fear of accident. “W. J. W.”
Wills then started to rejoin Burke and King. He received kindly assistance on the way from the blacks, and rejoined his companions on 6th June. His diary which he continued to keep was brief but expressive. They had little but nardoo to live upon, and though it allayed the pangs of hunger, it contained little nourishment; the poor fellows were literally starving to death. In his diary under date of 21st June Wills says:–
“I feel much weaker than ever, and can scarcely crawl out of the mia-mia. Unless relief comes in some form or other I cannot possibly last more than a fortnight. It is a great consolation at least, in this position of ours, to know that we have done all we could, and that our deaths were rather be the result of the mismanagement of others than of any rash act of our own. Had we come to grief elsewhere, we could only have blamed ourselves; but here we are returned to Cooper’s Creek, where we had every reason to look for provisions and clothing, and yet have to die of starvation, in spite of the explicit instructions given by Mr. Burke, that the depot party should await our return, and the strong recommendation by the Committee ‘that we should be followed up by a party from Menindie.'”
He suffered much from cold, his clothing was reduced to a wide awake, a merino shirt, a regatta shirt without sleeves, the remains of a pair of flannel trousers, two pairs of socks in rags, and a waistcoat. Wills finding his weakness increasing, it was resolved that Burke and King, as the only chance of saving the party, should go in search of natives, and having collected and pounded sufficient nardoo seed to last Wills for eight days, they constructed a rude shelter of boughs for him, placed water and firewood within his reach, and took a sorrowful farewell of him, Wills giving Burke a letter and his watch for his father, and telling King if he survived Burke to carry out his last wishes. In a postscript to this letter Wills says, “I think to live about four or five days. My spirits are excellent.” On the 29th June Wills made his last entry in his diary, shewing that he maintained his calmness of spirit and resignation to the last.
“Friday, 29th June, 1861. — Clear, cold night; slight breeze from the east; day beautifully warm and pleasant. Mr. Burke suffers greatly from the cold, and is getting extremely weak. He and King start to-morrow up the creek to look for the blacks; it is the only chance we have of being saved from starvation. I am weaker than ever, although I have a good appetite, and relish the nardoo much; but it seems to give us no nutriment, and the birds here are so shy as not to be got at. Even if we got a good supply of fish, I doubt whether we could do much work on them and the nardoo alone. Nothing now but the greatest good luck can save any of us; and as for myself I may live four or five days if the weather continues warm. My pulse is at forty-eighty and very weak, and my legs and arms are nearly skin and bone. I can only look out, like Mr. Micawber, ‘for something to turn up.’ Starvation on nardoo is by no means very unpleasant, but for the weakness one feels, and the utter inability to move one’s self; for as far as the appetite is concerned it gives the greatest satisfaction. Certainly fat and sugar would be more to one’s taste; in fact, those seem to me to be the great stand-by for one in this extraordinary continent – not that I mean to depreciate the farinaceous food, but the want of sugar and fat in all substances obtainable here is so great that they become almost valueless to us as articles of food without the addition of something else.
(Signed) “W. J. Wills.”
We are now, alas ! nearing the end of this ill-fated expedition. Burke and King had not travelled many miles when, on the second day from leaving Wills, Burke gave in from sheer weakness, and died early the next morning. King remained two days to recover strength, and then returned to where they had left Wills, taking back with him three crows he had shot, and nardoo he had discovered, and was shocked to find Wills lying dead in his gunwah, where he would appear to have sunk quietly to rest, but in utter loneliness, a few hours after Burke and King had left him. King buried the corpse with sand, and remained there some days prostrated at the death of his companions, and at being left alone in the vast wilderness. The nardoo running short, and being unable to gather it, he tracked some of the natives by their footprints in the sand, and eventually fell in with a number of them, who were kindly disposed, and so was preserved from the fate of his companions.
The Exploration Committee at Melbourne seem by their supineness to have helped on the final catastrophe. Although informed of the criminal delay of Wright at Menindie, they took no steps to urge his departure from there. Dr. Wills, our hero’s father, unable to bear the suspense in the month of June, walked with a small pack on his shoulders, and a stick in his hand, from Ballarat to Melbourne, a distance of seventy-five miles, and his energetic appeals led to a search party, under Mr. A. W. Howitt, being sent out.
Two of the three camels lost on one of the excursions at Cooper’s Creek on the way out were discovered in South Australia and brought to Adelaide. News of this reaching Melbourne excited the interest of the public, and doubtless contributed to the awakened energy of the Committee. In connection with this Mr. Fabyan Amery has contributed a strange and interesting story. He tells me that a Mr. James Wills, who had been a servant at the Ashburton Grammar School, in special attendance upon the boarders, whilst Wills was a pupil there, was, in 1861, residing with his wife, whom he had married in the Colony, on the banks of the Murray river; and one morning Mrs. Wills, casting her eyes around the horizon, spied in the far distance two animals, which with quick feminine decision she declared to be camels. This she mentioned to her husband, who ridiculed the idea, as no camels were ever known in Australia. She persisted in her opinion, and started towards them to satisfy her curiosity. Sure enough they proved to be two camels, undoubtedly two of those who had escaped from the ill-fated expedition, and which, with the wonderful instinct of their species, had sniffed the water at a great distance, and in an almost exhausted state were making for the river. Mrs. Wills went up to them, when the youngest came and ate out of her hand. Her husband immediately gave information to the police, which he understood was forwarded to the Governor of Victoria, and which he always believed led to the despatch of the Relief Expedition. Howitt started early in July, 1861, taking Brahe with him, who had come down with Wright’s despatches, and made all speed to Cooper’s Creek. On 13th September he arrived at the fatal depot, and on the 15th King was discovered sitting in a hut which the natives had made for him. He presented a melancholy appearance, wasted to a shadow, and only distinguishable as a civilized being by the remnants of clothes upon him. As soon as King was well enough to accompany them the relief party proceeded down to the place where Wills died. The remains were found, carefully collected, and interred where they lay, Howitt reading that sublime chapter – 1 Corinthians xi. – and cutting the following inscription on a tree close by to mark the spot:
W. J. WILLS
XLV Yds
W.N.W.
A. H.
Burke’s remains were subsequently discovered and buried, wrapped in a Union Jack. Howitt then returned to Melbourne, taking King with him. He subsequently went back again, disinterred the remains of Burke and Wills, and brought them to Melbourne, where, after lying solemnly in state, they were accorded a public funeral, and so –
“After life’s fitful fever they sleep well.”
No one who has read the simple records of this great expedition, with all its blunders – so successful as far as its great object was concerned, but so fatal as regards the precious lives of the explorers – but must admire the character, actions, and quiet heroism of Wills. None of the blunders which led to the disaster which befell the Expedition are traceable to him. Throughout the toilsome journey he maintained his quiet, equable temperament. Loyal to his leader he deferred to his wishes, never complained of or reflected on others, continued and carefully recorded his scientific observations to the last, and laid himself down to die in utter loneliness in the vast wilderness with perfect resignation and calmness, as if he were but falling asleep in his father’s arms; and “his works do follow him”; for they opened up the way to the march of civilization, and have been rich in results. The greater part of the country he explored is now in a state of cultivation, with homesteads containing prosperous settlers in all directions, and so early as 1867 a stage coach was running not many miles from where he and Burke laid down their lives. The testimony of the colonists to Wills was on all sides that of admiration for his devoted heroism, appreciation of the scientific results achieved by him, and deep regret at the sacrifice of his young and promising life.
Sir Henry Barkly, the Governor of Victoria, in a letter to his mother, said of Wills: “You may rely upon it that the name of William John Wills will go down to posterity, both at home and in this colony, amongst the brightest of those who have sacrificed their lives for the advancement of scientific knowledge and the good of their fellow-creatures.” Dr. Mueller, of the Melbourne Botanical Gardens, who as a tribute to his memory named a new plant in the Australian Flora Eremophila Willsii, “to record by botany the glory never to be forgotten of the intrepid and talented but most unfortunate Wills”, maintained that it was only by his skilful guidance and scientific talents that the great geographic success of the expedition was achieved.
A portion of the city was directed to be thereafter named Wills Street by order of the Governor. A massive obelisk was erected to the memory of the two martyrs in the cemetery where they were buried; and on April 21st, 1866, a monument raised to them by the Victorian Legislature at a cost of £4,000, consisting of a statue of each of these two distinguished explorers, was unveiled by the Governor in Collins Street, one of the principal thoroughfares of Melbourne. The day chosen for the ceremony was the fourth anniversary of the return of Burke and Wills to Cooper’s Creek, and their surviving companion King was present on the occasion, which to him must have been one of mingled sorrow and pleasure.
Wills was not forgotten in his native town. The inhabitants, aided by the contributions of Devonshire men in Australia, erected a granite obelisk on the plains containing this inscription:Inscription on obelisk to W. J. Wills in Totnes
And though more than thirty years have passed since his death Wills is not forgotten in the colony; for only last year one of the colonists from Devon, Mr. Angel, who returned from South Australia on a visit to Totnes, and to his native parish of Littlehempstone, finding the inscription on the memorial becoming obliterated had it renewed on a tablet of white marble let into the granite,* that the coming race may not be unmindful of the patient and courageous life and heroic death of this Devonshire hero, the martyred Wills.
* Since this paper was written Mr. F. Horn, marble mason, of Totnes, has executed a successful medallion of Wills, which has been let into the obelisk above the tablet."
devonassoc.org.uk/devoninfo/wills-the-australian-explorer...
Ganesha, also spelled Ganesh, and also known as Ganapati and Vinayaka, is a widely worshipped deity in the Hindu pantheon. His image is found throughout India and Nepal. Hindu sects worship him regardless of affiliations. Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains, Buddhists, and beyond India.
Although he is known by many attributes, Ganesha's elephant head makes him easy to identify. Ganesha is widely revered as the remover of obstacles, the patron of arts and sciences and the deva of intellect and wisdom. As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rituals and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as patron of letters and learning during writing sessions. Several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography.
Ganesha emerged as a distinct deity in the 4th and 5th centuries CE, during the Gupta Period, although he inherited traits from Vedic and pre-Vedic precursors. He was formally included among the five primary deities of Smartism (a Hindu denomination) in the 9th century. A sect of devotees called the Ganapatya arose, who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity. The principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa.
ETYMOLOGY AND OTHER NAMES
Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati and Vighneshvara. The Hindu title of respect Shri is often added before his name. One popular way Ganesha is worshipped is by chanting a Ganesha Sahasranama, a litany of "a thousand names of Ganesha". Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. At least two different versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama exist; one version is drawn from the Ganesha Purana, a Hindu scripture venerating Ganesha.
The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana, meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system and isha, meaning lord or master. The word gaņa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva. The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation. Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the Gaņas" to mean "Lord of Hosts" or "Lord of created categories", such as the elements. Ganapati, a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of gaṇa, meaning "group", and pati, meaning "ruler" or "lord". The Amarakosha, an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha : Vinayaka, Vighnarāja (equivalent to Vighnesha), Dvaimātura (one who has two mothers), Gaṇādhipa (equivalent to Ganapati and Ganesha), Ekadanta (one who has one tusk), Heramba, Lambodara (one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), and Gajanana; having the face of an elephant).
Vinayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak (aṣṭavināyaka). The names Vighnesha and Vighneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) refers to his primary function in Hindu theology as the master and remover of obstacles (vighna).
A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai. A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a "child" while pillaiyar means a "noble child". He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk", also "elephant tooth or tusk". Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have originally meant "the young of the elephant", because the Pali word pillaka means "a young elephant".
In the Burmese language, Ganesha is known as Maha Peinne, derived from Pali Mahā Wināyaka. The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is Phra Phikhanet or Phra Phikhanesuan, both of which are derived from Vara Vighnesha and Vara Vighneshvara respectively, whereas the name Khanet (from Ganesha) is rather rare.
In Sri Lanka, in the North-Central and North Western areas with predominantly Buddhist population, Ganesha is known as Aiyanayaka Deviyo, while in other Singhala Buddhist areas he is known as Gana deviyo.
ICONOGRAPHY
Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art. Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time. He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down or on an elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations.
Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the 6th century. The 13th century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900–1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973–1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost, and another similar statue is dated c. 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal. Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature. A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century. Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a pasha (noose) in the other upper arm.
The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (abhaya mudra). The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme.
COMMON ATTRIBUTES
Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art. Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head. One of his popular forms, Heramba-Ganapati, has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known. While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories. The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created by Parvati using clay to protect her and Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant. Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source. Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva's laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.
Ganesha's earliest name was Ekadanta (One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken. Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk. The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the Mudgala Purana, which states that the name of Ganesha's second incarnation is Ekadanta. Ganesha's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries). This feature is so important that, according to the Mudgala Purana, two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it: Lambodara (Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) and Mahodara (Great Belly). Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly. The Brahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., cosmic eggs) of the past, present, and future are present in him. The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms. Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts. His earliest images had two arms. Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries. The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms. According to the Ganesha Purana, Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vasuki around his neck. Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha's forehead may be a third eye or the Shaivite sectarian mark , which consists of three horizontal lines. The Ganesha Purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead. A distinct form of Ganesha called Bhalachandra includes that iconographic element. Ganesha is often described as red in color. Specific colors are associated with certain forms. Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise on Hindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations as Heramba-Ganapati and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage). Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualized as blue during meditation in that form.
VAHANAS
The earliest Ganesha images are without a vahana (mount/vehicle). Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana, Ganesha uses a mouse (shrew) in five of them, a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation as Vikata, and Shesha, the divine serpent, in his incarnation as Vighnaraja. Mohotkata uses a lion, Mayūreśvara uses a peacock, Dhumraketu uses a horse, and Gajanana uses a mouse, in the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana. Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse, elephant, tortoise, ram, or peacock.
Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse, shrew or rat. Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet. The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation. The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag. The names Mūṣakavāhana (mouse-mount) and Ākhuketana (rat-banner) appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama.
The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpret Gaṇapati's mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes tamoguṇa as well as desire". Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolizes those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish. Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word mūṣaka (mouse) is derived from the root mūṣ (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of vighna (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as Vigneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk grāma-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence. Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places.
ASSOCIATIONS
OBSTACLES
Ganesha is Vighneshvara or Vighnaraja or Vighnaharta (Marathi), the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order. He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Paul Courtright says that "his task in the divine scheme of things, his dharma, is to place and remove obstacles. It is his particular territory, the reason for his creation."
Krishan notes that some of Ganesha's names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time. Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of the Ganapatyas, to this shift in emphasis from vighnakartā (obstacle-creator) to vighnahartā (obstacle-averter). However, both functions continue to be vital to his character.
BUDDHI (KNOWLEDGE)
Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning. In Sanskrit, the word buddhi is a feminine noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect. The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha's names in the Ganesha Purana and the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya. This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama that Ganesha says are especially important. The word priya can mean "fond of", and in a marital context it can mean "lover" or "husband", so the name may mean either "Fond of Intelligence" or "Buddhi's Husband".
AUM
Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Aum, also spelled Om. The term oṃkārasvarūpa (Aum is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound. The Ganapati Atharvashirsa attests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows:
(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trinity) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire [Agni] and air [Vāyu]. You are the sun [Sūrya] and the moon [Chandrama]. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and Swargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).
Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body in iconography and the shape of Aum in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts.
FIRST CHAKRA
According to Kundalini yoga, Ganesha resides in the first chakra, called Muladhara (mūlādhāra). Mula means "original, main"; adhara means "base, foundation". The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests. This association is also attested to in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Courtright translates this passage as follows: "[O Ganesha,] You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [mūlādhāra cakra]." Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara. Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby "governing the forces that propel the wheel of life".
FAMILY AND CONSORTS
Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son of Shiva and Parvati, the Puranic myths give different versions about his birth. In some he was created by Parvati, in another he was created by Shiva and Parvati, in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati's bath water that had been thrown in the river.
The family includes his brother the war god Kartikeya, who is also called Subramanya, Skanda, Murugan and other names. Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the first born. In northern India, Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, when worship of him declined significantly in northern India. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers and may reflect sectarian tensions.
Ganesha's marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories. One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried brahmacari. This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India. Another pattern associates him with the concepts of Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity); these qualities are sometimes personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha's wives. He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: daşi). Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, Sarasvati or Śarda (particularly in Maharashtra). He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lakshmi. Another pattern, mainly prevalent in the Bengal region, links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo.
The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had begotten two sons: Kşema (prosperity) and Lābha (profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to be Śubha (auspiciouness) and Lābha. The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma, the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma's cult as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity.
WOSHIP AND FESTIVALS
Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions; especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business. K.N. Somayaji says, "there can hardly be a [Hindu] home [in India] which does not house an idol of Ganapati. [..] Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country". Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity.
Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity, and Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies. Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin performances of arts such as the Bharatnatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha. Mantras such as Om Shri Gaṇeshāya Namah (Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah (Om, Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts).
Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as modaka and small sweet balls (laddus). He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a modakapātra. Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with red sandalwood paste (raktacandana) or red flowers. Dūrvā grass (Cynodon dactylon) and other materials are also used in his worship.
Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesh Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in the śuklapakṣa (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of bhādrapada (August/September) and the Gaṇeśa jayanti (Gaṇeśa's birthday) celebrated on the cathurthī of the śuklapakṣa (fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of māgha (January/February)."
GANESH CHATURTI
An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesha Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September. The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising Ganesha's visit. The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi, when idols (murtis) of Ganesha are immersed in the most convenient body of water. Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, or 7th day. In 1893, Lokmanya Tilak transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event. He did so "to bridge the gap between the Brahmins and the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them" in his nationalistic strivings against the British in Maharashtra. Because of Ganesha's wide appeal as "the god for Everyman", Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule. Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions, and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day. Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra. The festival also assumes huge proportions in Mumbai, Pune, and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples.
TEMPLES
In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as an acolyte or subordinate deity (pãrśva-devatã); as a deity related to the principal deity (parivāra-devatã); or as the principal deity of the temple (pradhāna), treated similarly as the highest gods of the Hindu pantheon. As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati’s doorkeeper. In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (lit. "eight Ganesha (shrines)") in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city of Pune, each of these eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore and legend. The eight shrines are: Morgaon, Siddhatek, Pali, Mahad, Theur, Lenyadri, Ozar and Ranjangaon.
There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations: Wai in Maharashtra; Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Jodhpur, Nagaur and Raipur (Pali) in Rajasthan; Baidyanath in Bihar; Baroda, Dholaka, and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following: Kanipakam in Chittoor; the Jambukeśvara Temple at Tiruchirapalli; at Rameshvaram and Suchindram in Tamil Nadu; at Malliyur, Kottarakara, Pazhavangadi, Kasargod in Kerala, Hampi, and Idagunji in Karnataka; and Bhadrachalam in Andhra Pradesh.
T. A. Gopinatha notes, "Every village however small has its own image of Vighneśvara (Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, below pīpaḹa (Sacred fig) trees [...], in a niche [...] in temples of Viṣṇu (Vishnu) as well as Śiva (Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in Śiva temples [...]; the figure of Vighneśvara is invariably seen." Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, including southeast Asia, Nepal (including the four Vinayaka shrines in the Kathmandu valley), and in several western countries.
RISE TO PROMINENCE
FIRST APEARANCE
Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries. Shanti Lal Nagar says that the earliest known iconic image of Ganesha is in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra, which has been dated to the Gupta period. His independent cult appeared by about the 10th century. Narain summarizes the controversy between devotees and academics regarding the development of Ganesha as follows:
What is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaņeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaņeśa's Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.
POSSIBLE INFLUENCES
Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:
In the post 600 BC period there is evidence of people and places named after the animal. The motif appears on coins and sculptures.
Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that, "although by the second century CE the elephant-headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut."
One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vinayakas (Vināyakas). In Hindu mythology, the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties but who were easily propitiated. The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. Krishan is one of the academics who accepts this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, "He is a non-vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering". Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear in Indian art and coinage as early as the 2nd century. According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of Sri Lanka in the early pre-Christian era.
A metal plate depiction of Ganesha had been discovered in 1993, in Iran, it dated back to 1,200 BCE. Another one was discovered much before, in Lorestan Province of Iran.
First Ganesha's terracotta images are from 1st century CE found in Ter, Pal, Verrapuram and Chandraketugarh. These figures are small, with elephant head, two arms, and chubby physique. The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times (2nd-3rd centuries CE).
VEDIC AND EPIC LITERATURE
The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit: gaṇapati) occurs twice in the Rig Veda, but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for Brahmanaspati, according to commentators. While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today. In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to Bṛhaspati—who is the deity of the hymn—and Bṛhaspati only". Equally clearly, the second passage (RV 10.112.9) refers to Indra, who is given the epithet 'gaṇapati', translated "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts)." However, Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha .
Two verses in texts belonging to Black Yajurveda, Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā (2.9.1) and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (10.1), appeal to a deity as "the tusked one" (Dantiḥ), "elephant-faced" (Hastimukha), and "with a curved trunk" (Vakratuņḍa). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th century commentator Sayana explicitly establishes this identification. The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk (vakratuṇḍa) and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane, and a club, is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says "we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin". However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions. Thapan reports that these passages are "generally considered to have been interpolated". Dhavalikar says, "the references to the elephant-headed deity in the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā have been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity".
Ganesha does not appear in Indian epic literature that is dated to the Vedic period. A late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata says that the sage Vyasa (Vyāsa) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on condition that Vyasa recite the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed, but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata, in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix. The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during preparation of the critical edition. Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for Vyāsa's dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation. Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, and Moriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in South Indian manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend. The term vināyaka is found in some recensions of the Śāntiparva and Anuśāsanaparva that are regarded as interpolations. A reference to Vighnakartṛīṇām ("Creator of Obstacles") in Vanaparva is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.
PURANIC PERIOD
Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas "defy precise chronological ordering", the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life are in the late texts, c. 600–1300. Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant's head are in the later Puranas, which were composed from c. 600 onwards. He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries.
In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that:
Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding Gaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.
Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century, when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. The 9th-century philosopher Adi Shankara popularized the "worship of the five forms" (Panchayatana puja) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition. This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, and Surya. Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.
SCRIPTURES
Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism, some Brahmins (brāhmaṇas) chose to worship Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed the Ganapatya tradition, as seen in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana.
The date of composition for the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana - and their dating relative to one another - has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comments about dating and provides her own judgement. "It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries", she says, "but was later interpolated." Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the Ganesha Purana to be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.
R.C. Hazra suggests that the Mudgala Purana is older than the Ganesha Purana, which he dates between 1100 and 1400. However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the Mudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, the Mudgala Purana specifically mentions the Ganesha Purana as one of the four Puranas (the Brahma, the Brahmanda, the Ganesha, and the Mudgala Puranas) which deal at length with Ganesha. While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions. Another highly regarded scripture, the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during the 16th or 17th centuries.
BEYOND INDIA AND HINDUISM
Commercial and cultural contacts extended India's influence in western and southeast Asia. Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who reached foreign lands as a result.
Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures. From approximately the 10th century onwards, new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders. The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.
Hindus migrated to Maritime Southeast Asia and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them. Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in Hindu art of Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional influences. The spread of Hindu culture to southeast Asia established Ganesha in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina, Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region. In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of the Chams in Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles. Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success.
Before the arrival of Islam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practiced. Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region.
Ganesha appears in Mahayana Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name. His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period. As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, he is often shown dancing. This form, called Nṛtta Ganapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet. In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known as Heramba, is popular; he has five heads and rides a lion. Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him. A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is tshogs bdag. In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot by Mahākāla, (Shiva) a popular Tibetan deity. Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, and sometimes dancing. Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In northern China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531. In Japan, where Ganesha is known as Kangiten, the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806.
The canonical literature of Jainism does not mention the worship of Ganesha. However, Ganesha is worshipped by most Jains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of Kubera. Jain connections with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections. The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century. A 15th-century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of Ganapati images. Images of Ganesha appear in the Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
WIKIPEDIA
But I have the utmost respect for those of you who do. The ability to shoot something that is already beautiful and really make it stand out I find inspiring.
I've tried a number of times to shoot flowers and I am always disappointed. They tend to look plain and like nothing special (see below), so when I do shoot them I try to be really different. So, after trying a number of different angles isolating this against a blue sky I went and shot this almost straight into the sun filtering through the trees and really like the outcome.
I have no idea what this is so if anyone knows please let me know.
L'abbaye de Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire, appelée également abbaye de Fleury, est une abbaye bénédictine de style roman.
Le monastère fut fondé vers 630-650, par des moines venus d'Orléans. On y respectait la règle de Saint-Benoît.
Vers 660, à l'initiative de l'Abbé Mommole (Mumma ou Mummolus) , les reliques de Saint Benoît sont translatées du Mont-Cassin en Italie vers l'Abbaye de Fleury (Translatio Sancti Benedicti).
"L'an de notre Seigneur 660 le 5 des ides de Juillet sous le règne de Clovis, fils de Dagobert, le corps de saint Benoît a été transporté, par le ministère du moine Aigulphe, du mont Cassin dans ce monastère de Fleury, saint Mommole étant abbé." (encyclopedie-universelle.com/abbaye)
Saint Aigulphe, (Ayoul ou Ayou, Aigilphus), né à Vineuil-lès-Blois, devenu moine à l'abbaye de Fleury, fut envoyé par saint Mommole (Mummolus) au Mont-Cassin d'où il rapporta les reliques de saint Benoît. Il fut élu abbé de Lérins en 661 et il y produisit un grand bien ; mais il fut mis à mort par deux moines indignes soutenus par Mommole, évêque d'Uzès, qui voulait s'emparer des biens du monastère. Ce fut le 3 septembre environ l'an 676.
Aigulphe nommé abbé de Lérins mourut en martyr, victime de son dévouement pour son monastère vers 675. Les moines Arcade et Colombe avec l’aide de l’évêque d’Uzès Mommole, se rebellèrent contre lui, le jetèrent en prison, lui coupèrent la langue et lui crevèrent les yeux. Enfin ils le livrèrent avec 33 autres moines à des pirates qui les tuèrent sur une île située entre la Corse et la Sardaigne. Le corps a été ramené à l’abbaye de Lérins en 675 par Rigomir. (Histoire de l'Eglise gallicane...
Jacques Longueval Fontenai - 1 janvier 1732 - Gaude Éditeur - p 88).
La possession de la dépouille de saint Benoît fait toujours l’objet d’un débat entre le Monte Cassino et Fleury-sur-Loire.
Dom Mabillon en 1685 a imprimé le "brevis narratio", document qu’il date du VIIème siècle et qui parle du déplacement des reliques du saint en l’abbaye de Fleury. (Dom MABILLON, Vetera Analecta, vol. IV, 1685, pp.451-453).
Ce voyage aurait été fait à l’initiative de l’abbé Mummolus, vers 660.
Si cela est vrai, il y a de fortes chances qu’on n’ait déplacé que quelques ossements du saint : en effet, au cours des derniers travaux de reconstruction de l’abbaye du Monte-Cassino, qui commencèrent dès 1946, l’urne contenant les ossements du saint et de sa sœur fut retrouvée.
"C’est dès le IVe siècle que s’établit un rapport étroit entre les reliques et la stabilité sociale : les reliques bénéficient en effet à la communauté, apportant la paix, les bonnes moissons, etc.
Le culte des reliques s’établit donc peu à peu dans la communauté chrétienne (…)
Mais une telle pratique ne s’intègre pas spontanément dans un cérémoniel reconnu ; saint Augustin, par exemple, s’inquiète de telles cérémonies où il voit occasion à ripailles et, peut-être, des prolongations de coutumes païennes (…)
C’est en Orient que, les premiers, des Pères, comme Cyrille, évoquèrent le pouvoir guérisseur des corps saints. (…)
On assiste d’abord à un mouvement "privé", qui concerne les couches supérieures de la société désireuses de s’approprier des reliques. Mais, celles-ci étant de plus en plus marquées par leur pouvoir en faveur de l’intérêt collectif, elles devinrent, en particulier grâce à l’action des évêques, emblèmes devant être mises au service de la collectivité.
(…)
Une fonction particulière des reliques est donc d’assurer la paix et l’ordre social.
(Edina Bozoky, La Politique des reliques, de Constantin à Saint Louis, préface de Jean-Claude Schmitt, Paris, Beauchesne, 2006)
The Abbey of Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire, also called Fleury Abbey, is a Benedictine abbey in the Romanesque style.
The monastery was founded around 630-650, by monks from Orléans. It respected the rule of St. Benedict.
To 660, at the initiative of Abbot Mommole (Mumma or Mummolus), the relics of Saint Benedict are Monte Cassino in Italy translated to the Abbey of Fleury (Translatio Sancti Benedicti).
"The year of our Lord 660, 5 of the ides of July, during the reign of Clovis, son of Dagobert, the body of St Benedict was transported, by Aigulphe monk, from Monte Cassino in this monastery of Fleury, saint Mommole being Abbot." (encyclopedia - universal .com/Abbey)
Saint Aigulphe, (Ayoul or Ayou, Aigilphus), born in Vineuil-lès-Blois, having become a monk at the Abbey of Fleury, was sent by saint Mommole (Mummolus) to Monte Cassino where he brought the relics of saint Benedict. He was elected Abbot of Lérins in 661 and and there occurred a great good ; but he was put to death by two unworthy monks supported by Mommole, Bishop of Uzès, who wanted to seize the property of the monastery. It was September 3 about the year 676.
Aigulphe appointed Abbot of Lérins died as a martyr, victim of his devotion to his monastery to 675. Monks Arcade and Colombe with the help of the Bishop of Uzès Mommole, rebelled against him, cast him into prison, they cut off his tongue and and he gouged out his eyes. Finally they delivered with 33 other monks to pirates who killed him on an island between Corsica and Sardinia. The body was brought back to the Abbey of Lérins in 675 by Rigomir. (History of the Gallican Church...
Jacques Longueval Fontenai - 1 January 1732 - Gaude editor - p 88).
Possession of the remains of St. Benedict always the subject of a debate between the Monte Cassino and Fleury-sur-Loire.
DOM Mabillon in 1685 printed the 'brevis narrate", document that it dates from the 7th century and chronicles the movement of relics of the saint in the abbey of Fleury. (Dom MABILLON, Vetera Analecta, vol. IV, 1685, pp.451 - 453).
This trip would have done at the initiative of Abbot Mummolus, to 660.
If this is true, there are chances that it has moved only a few bones of the saint: indeed, during the last reconstruction of the Abbey of Monte Cassino, which began as early as 1946, the urn containing the bones of the saint and his sister was found.
React, Respect, Intersect was created by two professional artists and a team of youth artists as part of the Groundswell Community Mural Project’s flagship Summer Leadership Institute (SLI). SLI teams spend seven weeks during working with artists and community-based organizations, learning job skills and creating public art throughout New York City. This mural depicts a utopian environment where vehicular traffic, pedestrians of all ages and abilities, bicyclists, skateboarders, and animals respectfully share the street. It focuses not only on traffic and pedestrian safety education, but also site-specific themes and cultural diversity.
The safety education focus of this mural was informed by workshops lead by NYCDOT Safety Education. The artists and youth artists researched safety issues near the mural site which influenced their final design. Speed of vehicular traffic, high levels of carbon dioxide in the air, and the need for all modes of transportation to respectfully share the streets are just a few of the themes beautifully integrated in to this mural.
NYCDOT Urban Art Program, Special Project
React, Respect, Intersect by Yana Dimitrova and Adam Kidder
Presented with NYCDOT Safety Education and Groundswell Community Mural Project
East 5th Street in Kensington, Brooklyn
The story so far when the heroes were hidden from the N.M.D's invasion. Spyro And Cynder found Twilight, Luna, and all the 5 friends of Twilight are in the Labritory X . They rescue them and they greet them as respect, but, then the Darkness Bolts and Dark Spyro found them and try to kill them, but then they escape, and they left out of the Drago United States to another place to hide to fight another day. The N.M.D took all over the Four Tribes of Aron and Dark Nightmare Moon and Dark Twilight we're glad to take over and soon they will take Equestria after Dark Proffeser Yuka made an invention to weaken the elements of God and Harmony and soon magic from Princeses Celeasta, And others too. Meanwhlle the heros we're hiding at the South Serpentine Geren Country with outher South Serpenterins and were scared that what happen. "Whats going on?" " What Happened ?" "Who are these strange beast?" "Help us Lord save us!." They were speaking south serpentine lagnage almost asia lagnage like our world but differint way. Twilight and the outhers don't know what they saying, but Spyro and Cynder knows the langage. "Everyone come down." Said Spyro with the serpentine langage. "Yes come down everyone." Said Cynder. "We can't come down drago's, we in crisess here! "said one of the south serpentine. "Yea." "absolutly." "Uh huh." "And who's those strage beast." Said another south serpritine with the english word." Beast!,Beast! Were are not best we're ponies." said Rarity. "Yea , and who do you think your calling us beast." Said Rainbow Dash. When everybody was started to arguing Fluttershy was silant and left out of the building and when she left, Cynder saw her and started to follow her where she's going. Fluttershy dosen't know Cynder is following her, so she's looking for animals that she miss her home and she's doesn't know where she's going all she sees a lot of damages and broken buildings like a warfare. Then suddenly! She saw strage birds were flying though the atomsphere at the night and the moon was red blood color and even the stares were red too. But the birds fly so strangly and when she saw that someone chasing them, and when she look she saw a pony with wings. The body was yellow but dull in the night, the hair was dark pink just like Fluttershy, and she look closer, she got feard and she hid along the dibries. What she saw was Dark Fluttershy, and she was taking the birds along the dark ravens to the N.M.D, but one bird flew hard as it could and try to defend its self from thr dark ravens. The dark ravens cuaght up with the bird and knoke it down to gound below. Fluttershy saw the horrer including Cynder,she saw what there doing and she was about to stop them. And when she was about to use the sword of shadow a strage dark blue cloud was covering the seine and her. "Ahhh what's going on here? I can't see anything around here. Cynder's mind was talking. Then when she try to slash her way out, the cloud kept going around her. Then she keep walking and still the dark blue cloud is still there with her then she herd her name calling. "Cynder,Cynder come." "Who is this, come with your face or I'll come for you." As she said it the blue cloud came red glowey eyes and started to stare at Cynder. "Ahhh its y-." Then Cynder was hymotise by Dark Nightmare Moon's magic. "Ha that was to easy and you think Cynder was hard huh Dark Cynder. "Well you think it was easy but soon you see she's harder then you think." Said Dark Cynder. "Oh shut up." "Did you got Cynder?" Said Dark Spyro as he saw Cynder her eyes just stare and glowing red eyes. You got her yes. "Yes I got her, now we need to bait Fluttershy and others as well then when we got them all we distroy them for ever." "Good plan." Said Dark Cynder. Correct you are Dark Nightmare Moon. Said Dark Spyro. As Dark Nightmare Moon call Dark Fluttershy with the brace microphone and said. "Is the birds are caught aready Darkfluttershy?" "Absooouly." Said Dark Fluttershy. "And there be right to the dungen so once you come home there ready to be vanish." "Excelent and soon when my proffeser made the ray canon to elemnate elements of harmony and God will dominate this world and Equestria HaHa!" Dark Nightmare Moon howled. Meanwhile when Fluttershy was still hiding from Dark Fluttershy and her hechmens. Dark Fluttershy told her hechmans to go. And when they left someware, Fluttershy saw they left and went to the bird that was hit , she wants to see if the bird was ok. As she move closer the bird was ok but broke its wing that been hit on the ground. "Oh you poor little bird are you aright little one." The bird just nood a little. "Its ok I got you I got you." Said Fluttershy's soft voice as she pad it the bird soft head, the bird tweeted as a soft tone. "Your little brave bird aren't you, you risk your life for your friends." "Twee." The birds sadly low voice tone. "Don't worry will find your friends soon I promise." "Tweet" the birds happy high voice tone." Cynder, Fluttershy were are you. Fluttershy knows that voice and it was Spyro and he's looking for them, but, Fluttershy is still afraid of Spyro and Cynder because there big dragons and she still afraidof big big dragons. So she didn't say a word and kept holding the little bird as a componey. "Cynder, Fluttershy were are you! As Spyro's voice was geting louder and louder, but, still Fluttershy kept silent. "Fluttershy there you are, I've been looking for you every ware, do you here me its not good to go alone here by youself. And where's Cynder have you seen her?" Fluttershy was still slient and still another word for 3mins. "Look Fluttershy don't be afried of me I won't hurt you including Cynder see won't hurt you eather, we're friendly and kind to your friends." Fluttershy was still silent. "Please don't be afraid look I'll walk away a little." But still Fluttershy just peep and started to shake. "Oh Fluttershy I'm sorry." Said Spyro. Then suddenly Spyro herd another voice and it was calling his name. "Cyn-Cynder it that you." As he walk and left fluttershy alone it was getting fogey, he felt bad to leave her alone ,but, she want her fear go away. When Spyro follow her voice he stoped."Cynder!" Cried Spyro "I've been looking all over for you where have you been?" "I was looking for Fluttershy just the same as you." Cynder's words were not her's, it was Dark Nightmare Moon voice as controled Cynder. "Come closer Cynder, so I can see you." Said Spyro. As Spyro said to her she come closer along with Dark Nightmare Moon. "You!" Cried Spyro. "That's right Spyro along with my new pals Dark Cynder." "Hi Spyro." Dark Cynder voice friendly. "And Dark Spyro." "Hello Spyro we meet again, heh,heh." "No what have you done to Cynder!" Cried Spyro. "Who her why she's controled by me and you be next Spyro." As she started to stare at Spyro's eyes with her red sharp glowing eye Spyro jerk and doudge her magic and ran to warned Fluttershy and the outhers that there coming. "Stop him he's getting away." Dark Spyro warnd her. "Then let's follow him Said Dark Nightmare Moon. When they'er chasing Spyro, Spyro yeid and warned to all the town that the N.M.D forces are coming. Then he saw Futtershy still there liying with the bird. "Fluttershy, Fluttershy please leave,leave and get outta here-."POW, WHAM,KA-BAM! Suddenly Spyro got hit on his face and flew the building "Ack!" Spyro felt the pain of his face and he feel a horse just kicked him. "Hahaha. " that was Dark Fluttershy's laugh. "Spyro I'm comeing to get you." "Dh, Enh." Spyro was getting up and started to charge and yell with a battle cry. "YEAAARAHHHH!" when he reach to Dark Fluttershy he was about to use his light sowrd of courage to swing at its might. Then Suddenly a dark magic grab Spyro and he coulden't move. "Noooo, GRAHRAH!, NUGHH!" As Spyro tried to struggle Dark Nightmare Moon came with her friends. "Ha! I got Spyro and now Spyro time to die. But first Dark Fluttershy, attack Fluttershy." Command Dark Nightmare Moon. "Nooooooo!" Cried Spyro. Dark Fluttershy raise her hooves at Fluttershy and Fluttershy was started to weep and cry to prepare her doom. "Nooo! Light wave! "Spyro's Element of God distroyed the dark magic from Dark Nightmare Moon. And he's freed from her curse and he went to protect Fluttershy with his might. As Dark Fluttershy was close to hit Fluttershy, Spyro block the attack and hured at Dark Fluttershy. Spyro pownd Dark Fluttershy with element light with his paws "POW, BAM,WHAMM!" Dark Fluttershy tried to doge the attack, but, he was to fast. Spyro kept puching,slashing and kicking, and when she had enough she screemed with a loud voice. The scream was so strong it rumbled the ground. Spyro cover his ears that can't bare the sceam then Spyro felt the dark magic grip again and when he doge it Dark Fluttershy and Dark Spyro puch at Spyro, and Spyro felt to the gound. "Ha we got him." Said Dark Spyro. Spyro try to get up but Dark Fluttershy kept punch him and he is trap along with fluttershy. "HAHAHA. You guys are weak, you tried to elemanate with yoour light, but you light just ran out." Said Dark Nightmare Moon. "So Spyro you die first with beatting to death to prevent distroying my work of eternal nightmare night with Dark Fluttershy so any last words Spyro." "Go ahed kill me if you must, but I'll die with my honor to the Lord our God and my country and live eternal happiness with God and my friends." "Oh that's touching, now kill him! "Dark Fluttershy kept beating him up and Fluttershy herd the words that friendship is stonger then fear so Fluttershy scream all her might and Dark Fluttershy stop beating him . Dark Spyro,Dark Cynder and Dark Nightmare Moon hurd her ears and left to her home along her hechmans. Cynder was relse from the dark magic curse, including Spyro. When everybody herd her screaming they came to them what was the proplum then when the south serpentins saw what it happens they help them up and take them to the hospital and when they woke up Luna,Twilight,Rainbow Dash, Pinkie Pie, Rarity Apple Jack and all the south serprntins came to them "what were am I?" Said Spyro Cynder, and Fluttershy. "Your at the hospital you three said Twilight but the docter said you be fine." But what happen to you? " "Well I was trying to find Cynder and Fluttershy. But Dark Nightmare Moon came along her heachmans." "You mean my evil clone!" Said Luna. "Yep" said Cynder she hymotise me and cuaght Spyro." "And beating him up to death with-with-with Dark F-F-Fluttershy!" Cried Fluttershy. "But you screamed so loud that they left,and I thank you for saving me and Cynder Fluttershy." "Wait where's the bird." Fluttershy said. "All don't worry the bird is still ok and it will fly till tommorow Fluttershy." Said Apple Jack. "And that's was a doosey Fluttershy you scream like an earthquake." Said Pinkie Pie. "Well I do scream maybe a long time. "HAHAHAHAHAHAHAHA." Everyone luagh. I hope you like the story sorry was long but this is my work to show this comic book I'm working on. But first I'm still working outher comics I'm doing. So any way this is Dark Fluttershy the fourth dark pony created from Dark Proffeser Yuka and she scream very loud as Fluttershy. Dark Fluttershy still loves animals just like Fluttershy but the dark animals of the four tribes of aron. She's bad and evil and she doese kill outers with her dark beasts. Dark Fluttershy is not kindness to outers except her dark animals and darkforces. Dark Fluttershy the dark animal tamer and killer. BY SPYRO91@92©.
Fotógrafo: Javier Castillo
Aquí en el pueblo de Iruya la cultura aborigen se entrecruza con la cultura hispana, logrando la supervivencia de ambas, lo cual ha generado un proceso histórico de interculturalidad.
Iruya, su nombre tiene una variedad de significados, y de acuerdo a la antigüedad del pueblo a pesar de ser un pueblo relativamente nuevo con respecto a las comunidades del Interior. Se detallan a continuación dos de sus significados ya que se acercan más al origen de la palabra “iruya”:
IRUYA: Voz quechua o aymara, proveniente de la palabra IRUYOC “Iru” = paja y “yoc” = abundancia, iruya = abundante paja.
IRUYA: voz aymara o quechua, palabra del dialecto quechua, hablado por los primeros habitantes de este lugar.
Iruya - Salta - Argentina
© Todos Los Derechos Reservados
{ Gratitude Day 11 : Freedom }
In honor of Veteran's Day in the US...I am, of course, thankful for my freedom. My husband continues to serve active duty in the Army by choice, and I am very thankful.
This is an IR flag that my husband wore on his ACU's (Army Combat Uniform) when he was deployed to Iraq. The IR (infrared) flag is worn when in combat for easier identification of friendly troops.
Thank you to all who have served -past and present.
Konstantin Dmitrievich Glinka (Russian: Константи́н Дми́триевич Гли́нка) (1867–1927) was a Russian soil scientist. He was Director of the Agricultural College of Leningrad and Experimental Station, and the first director of the Dokuchaev Soil Science Institute. He authored over 150 works on soil, geography, mineralogy, and geology. He is known for having published the first world soil map in 1906.
Biography
Konstantin Glinka was born on June 23 (July 5), 1867 (sometimes indicated on August 1 (Julian calendar)), in the village of Koptevo, Dukhovshchinsky Uyezd, Smolensk province, Russian Empire. He came from a Russian noble family with Polish roots.
His father, the nobleman Dmitry Konstantinovich Glinka, was a respected and progressive figure. He had an estate and was very successful in farming, skills which Glinka's father passed on along his son.
After graduating from St. Petersburg University in 1889 he married Antonina Georgievna Znamenskaya.[8]
Upon returning home to Leningrad from the First International Soil Congress to the USA in 1927, he fell ill and died on November 2, 1927. He is buried at the Shuvalov cemetery in St. Petersburg.
Career
In 1876-1885 he studied at the Smolensk classical gymnasium.
In 1885 he entered the Natural Department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of St. Petersburg University.
In 1889 he graduated from the University with a diploma of the 1st degree. At the request of V. V. Dokuchaev, Glinka joined the Mineralogy Department to prepare for a professorship.
In 1889 he began to engage in geological and soil research at the University under the guidance of V. B. Dokuchaev. He worked in the Poltava (1889-1890) and in the expedition of the Forest Department (1892). He organized research in Smolensk, Novgorod (early 1890s), Pskov (1898-1899) and Voronezh (1899, 1913) provinces.
In 1890 he was appointed curator of the mineralogical collection at the University.
From 1890 he conducted practical classes with students of the 1st and 2nd courses in crystallography and crystal optics.
In 1894 K. D. Glinka, on the recommendation of V. V. Dokuchaev, was appointed staff assistant at the New Alexandria Institute of Agriculture and Forestry in Puławy (Poland) as an assistant in the Department of Mineralogy and Geology.
In 1896 he completed his Master's Thesis: "Glauconite, its origin, chemical composition and nature of weathering."[10]
After defending his thesis, he was appointed professor of the same department. At the same time, he is acting as a professor of soil science, teaching in the stead of N.M. Sibirtseva who had taken ill.
In 1900 became a professor of geology, and in 1901 professor of soil science. In 1901 he headed the Department of Soil Science.
In 1906 he became Head of Soil Survey of the Resettlement Administration.
In 1908, he published the first edition of his textbook on soil science. It included the first schematic soil map of the world. Dokuchaev published a soil map of the northern hemisphere in 1899.
Glinka was also appointed chairman of the professorial disciplinary court in 1908.
In 1909 he completed his Doctoral Thesis: "Research in the field of weathering processes."
In 1909 he attended the First Agrogeological Congress in Budapesy. From this point in his career, Glinka became increasingly involved in the international community of soil scientists.
In 1911 he moved to Saint Petersburg, where he opened a private docent course in soil science at the University.
In 1912 he was elected professor at the Bestuzhev Higher Courses for Women, where he lectured on soil science.
In 1913 he founded the Voronezh Agricultural Institute which then headed through 1919.
In 1915 he published the next edition of his soil science textbook. It included revised mapping. A shortened version was interpreted into German, and from German into English by Curtis F. Marbut. Glinka became very influential resulting in wide distribution of the ideas of the Russian school of soil science.
In 1922 he was appointed director and organizer of the Petrograd (later Leningrad) Agricultural Institute and professor of soil science.
In 1923 he became the head professor at the State Institute of Experimental Agronomy.
On January 2, 1926, K. D. Glinka was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union - Department of Physical and Mathematical Sciences (in the physical category).
On April 2, 1927, K. D. Glinka was elected a full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences in the Department of Physical and Mathematical Sciences (soil science). He became the first soil scientist elected to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
In the same year, he was appointed to head the V.V. Dokuchaev Soil Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
In the summer of 1927 K. D. Glinka led the Soviet delegation to the First International Congress of Soil Scientists in Washington. He was elected president of the Second International Congress of Soil Scientists (this congress was held in 1930 in Moscow and was organized by Nikolai Vavilov).
Awards and recognition
1927, Moscow
1898 - Order of the Double Dragon (Chinese) 2nd Class 3rd Grade
1900 - Order of Saint Anna 3rd degree
1910 - Order of Saint Anna 2nd degree
- Order of Saint Stanislaus 2nd class
- Russian Geographical Society awarded the Lütke Gold Medal to Glinka for his work on soil geography.
Ranks and titles
1891 - Collegiate secretary with seniority, according to the University diploma of the 1st degree
1894 - Titular Councilor with seniority, for long service
1897 - Master of mineralogy and geology, in rank
1897 - Adjunct professor at the Novo-Alexandria Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, Department of Mineralogy and
Geology
1898 - Collegiate assessor with seniority, for long service.
1900 - Professor of the Novo-Alexandria Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, Department of Mineralogy and Geology
1909 - State Councilor with seniority
Organizations
Member of the Soil Commission under the Imperial Free Economic Society from 1889
Member of the St. Petersburg Society of Naturalists from 1892
Member of the State Institute of Experimental Agronomy
Member of the Library Commission of the Institute (1899), Chairman of the Commission from 1900
Member of Moscow Soil Committee
Member of the Russian Mineralogical Society
Member of the Russian Geographical Society
Member of the Hungarian Geological Society
Chairman of the Voronezh Committee for Assistance to Russian Prisoners of War
Member of the Agronomic Society at the Leningrad Agricultural Institute
Editor of the international magazine Internat Mitteluns für Boden from the first year of its publication
Full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1927
Honorary Member of the International Union of Soil Sciences
Memorials
In the USSR, the name of K. D. Glinka was given to the Voronezh Agricultural Institute, where he was rector in 1913-1917 and 1921-1922. In 2011 the institute was renamed.
A street in the Levoberezhny district of the city of Voronezh is named after K. D. Glinka.
In 1990 a Memorial plaque was unveiled at house 12 on Alekseevsky street, located near the Voronezh State Agrarian University.
Works
Textbook "Soil Science", 1915
From 1889 to 1927 Konstantin Glinka wrote about 100 scientific papers on soil science, mineralogy and geology in Russian, German, French and Italian.
K voprosu o lesnykh pochvakh (К вопросу о лесных почвах) (1889) SPb.: tip. t-va Obshchestv. pol'za.
Pochvennaya karta Rossiyskoy Imperii (Почвенная карта Российской Империи) (1914) Atlas Aziatskoy Rossii (Атлас Азиатской России). pages 36-37
Voronezh is a city and the administrative centre of Voronezh Oblast in southwestern Russia straddling the Voronezh River, located 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) from where it flows into the Don River. The city sits on the Southeastern Railway, which connects western Russia with the Urals and Siberia, the Caucasus and Ukraine, and the M4 highway (Moscow–Voronezh–Rostov-on-Don–Novorossiysk). In recent years the city has experienced rapid population growth, rising in 2021 to 1,057,681, up from 889,680 recorded in the 2010 Census, making it the 14th-most populous city in the country.
History
The first chronicle references to the word "Voronezh" are dated 1177, when the Ryazan prince Yaropolk, having lost the battle, fled "to Voronozh" and there was moving "from town to town". Modern data of archeology and history interpret Voronezh as a geographical region, which included the Voronezh river (tributary of the Don) and a number of settlements. In the lower reaches of the river, a unique Slavic town-planning complex of the 8th – early 11th century was discovered, which covered the territory of the present city of Voronezh and its environs (about 42 km long, about 13 forts and many unfortified villages). By the 12th – 13th centuries, most of the old towns were desolate, but new settlements appeared upstream, closer to Ryazan.
For many years, the hypothesis of the Soviet historian Vladimir Zagorovsky dominated: he produced the toponym "Voronezh" from the hypothetical Slavic personal name Voroneg. This man allegedly gave the name of a small town in the Chernigov Principality (now the village of Voronezh in Ukraine). Later, in the 11th or 12th century, the settlers were able to "transfer" this name to the Don region, where they named the second city Voronezh, and the river got its name from the city. However, now many researchers criticize the hypothesis, since in reality neither the name of Voroneg nor the second city was revealed, and usually the names of Russian cities repeated the names of the rivers, but not vice versa.
The linguistic comparative analysis of the name "Voronezh" was carried out by the Khovansky Foundation in 2009. There is an indication of the place names of many countries in Eurasia, which may partly be not only similar in sound, but also united by common Indo-European languages: Varanasi, Varna, Verona, Brno, etc.
A comprehensive scientific analysis was conducted in 2015–2016 by the historian Pavel Popov. His conclusion: "Voronezh" is a probable Slavic macrotoponym associated with outstanding signs of nature, has a root voron- (from the proto-Slavic vorn) in the meaning of "black, dark" and the suffix -ezh (-azh, -ozh). It was not “transferred” and in the 8th - 9th centuries it marked a vast territory covered with black forests (oak forests) - from the mouth of the Voronezh river to the Voronozhsky annalistic forests in the middle and upper reaches of the river, and in the west to the Don (many forests were cut down). The historian believes that the main "city" of the early town-planning complex could repeat the name of the region – Voronezh. Now the hillfort is located in the administrative part of the modern city, in the Voronezh upland oak forest. This is one of Europe's largest ancient Slavic hillforts, the area of which – more than 9 hectares – 13 times the area of the main settlement in Kyiv before the baptism of Rus.
In it is assumed that the word "Voronezh" means bluing - a technique to increase the corrosion resistance of iron products. This explanation fits well with the proximity to the ancient city of Voronezh of a large iron deposit and the city of Stary Oskol.
Folk etymology claims the name comes from combining the Russian words for raven (ворон) and hedgehog (еж) into Воронеж. According to this explanation two Slavic tribes named after the animals used this combination to name the river which later in turn provided the name for a settlement. There is not believed to be any scientific support for this explanation.
In the 16th century, the Middle Don basin, including the Voronezh river, was gradually conquered by Muscovy from the Nogai Horde (a successor state of the Golden Horde), and the current city of Voronezh was established in 1585 by Feodor I as a fort protecting the Muravsky Trail trade route against the slave raids of the Nogai and Crimean Tatars. The city was named after the river.
17th to 19th centuries
In the 17th century, Voronezh gradually evolved into a sizable town. Weronecz is shown on the Worona river in Resania in Joan Blaeu's map of 1645. Peter the Great built a dockyard in Voronezh where the Azov Flotilla was constructed for the Azov campaigns in 1695 and 1696. This fleet, the first ever built in Russia, included the first Russian ship of the line, Goto Predestinatsia. The Orthodox diocese of Voronezh was instituted in 1682 and its first bishop, Mitrofan of Voronezh, was later proclaimed the town's patron saint.
Owing to the Voronezh Admiralty Wharf, for a short time, Voronezh became the largest city of South Russia and the economic center of a large and fertile region. In 1711, it was made the seat of the Azov Governorate, which eventually morphed into the Voronezh Governorate.
In the 19th century, Voronezh was a center of the Central Black Earth Region. Manufacturing industry (mills, tallow-melting, butter-making, soap, leather, and other works) as well as bread, cattle, suet, and the hair trade developed in the town. A railway connected Voronezh with Moscow in 1868 and Rostov-on-Don in 1871.
20th century
World War II
During World War II, Voronezh was the scene of fierce fighting between Soviet and combined Axis troops. The Germans used it as a staging area for their attack on Stalingrad, and made it a key crossing point on the Don River. In June 1941, two BM-13 (Fighting machine #13 Katyusha) artillery installations were built at the Voronezh excavator factory. In July, the construction of Katyushas was rationalized so that their manufacture became easier and the time of volley repetition was shortened from five minutes to fifteen seconds. More than 300 BM-13 units manufactured in Voronezh were used in a counterattack near Moscow in December 1941. In October 22, 1941, the advance of the German troops prompted the establishment of a defense committee in the city. On November 7, 1941, there was a troop parade, devoted to the anniversary of the October Revolution. Only three such parades were organized that year: in Moscow, Kuybyshev, and Voronezh. In late June 1942, the city was attacked by German and Hungarian forces. In response, Soviet forces formed the Voronezh Front. By July 6, the German army occupied the western river-bank suburbs before being subjected to a fierce Soviet counter-attack. By July 24 the frontline had stabilised along the Voronezh River as the German forces continued southeast into the Great Bend of the Don. The attack on Voronezh represented the first phase of the German Army's 1942 campaign in the Soviet Union, codenamed Case Blue.
Until January 25, 1943, parts of the Second German Army and the Second Hungarian Army occupied the western part of Voronezh. During Operation Little Saturn, the Ostrogozhsk–Rossosh Offensive, and the Voronezhsko-Kastornenskoy Offensive, the Voronezh Front exacted heavy casualties on Axis forces. On January 25, 1943, Voronezh was liberated after ten days of combat. During the war the city was almost completely ruined, with 92% of all buildings destroyed.
Post-war
By 1950, Voronezh had been rebuilt. Most buildings and historical monuments were repaired. It was also the location of a prestigious Suvorov Military School, a boarding school for young boys who were considered to be prospective military officers, many of whom had been orphaned by war.
In 1950–1960, new factories were established: a tire factory, a machine-tool factory, a factory of heavy mechanical pressing, and others. In 1968, Serial production of the Tupolev Tu-144 supersonic plane was established at the Voronezh Aviation factory. In October 1977, the first Soviet domestic wide-body plane, Ilyushin Il-86, was built there.
In 1989, TASS published details of an alleged UFO landing in the city's park and purported encounters with extraterrestrial beings reported by a number of children. A Russian scientist that was cited in initial TASS reports later told the Associated Press that he was misquoted, cautioning, "Don't believe all you hear from TASS," and "We never gave them part of what they published", and a TASS correspondent admitted the possibility that some "make-believe" had been added to the TASS story, saying, "I think there is a certain portion of truth, but it is not excluded that there is also fantasizing".
21st century
From 10 to 17 September 2011, Voronezh celebrated its 425th anniversary. The anniversary of the city was given the status of a federal scale celebration that helped attract large investments from the federal and regional budgets for development.
On December 17, 2012, Voronezh became the fifteenth city in Russia with a population of over one million people.
Today Voronezh is the economic, industrial, cultural, and scientific center of the Central Black Earth Region. As part of the annual tradition in the Russian city of Voronezh, every winter the main city square is thematically drawn around a classic literature. In 2020, the city was decorated using the motifs from Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's The Nutcracker. In the year of 2021, the architects drew inspiration from Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale The Snow Queen as well as the animation classic The Snow Queen from the Soviet Union. The fairy tale replica city will feature the houses of Kai and Gerda, the palace of the snow queen, an ice rink, and illumination.
In June 2023, during the Wagner Group rebellion, forces of the Wagner Group claimed to have taken control of military facilities in the city. Later they were confirmed to have taken the city itself.
Administrative and municipal status
Voronezh is the administrative center of the oblast.[1] Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as Voronezh Urban Okrug—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.[1] As a municipal division, this administrative unit also has urban okrug status.
City divisions
The city is divided into six administrative districts:
Zheleznodorozhny (183,17 km²)
Tsentralny (63,96 km²)
Kominternovsky (47,41 km²)
Leninsky (18,53 km²)
Sovetsky (156,6 km²)
Levoberezhny (123,89 km²)
Economy
The leading sectors of the urban economy in the 20th century were mechanical engineering, metalworking, the electronics industry and the food industry.
In the city are such companies as:
Tupolev Tu-144
Voronezhselmash (agricultural engineering)
Sozvezdie[36] (headquarter, JSC Concern “Sozvezdie”, in 1958 the world's first created mobile telephony and wireless telephone Altai
Verofarm (pharmaceutics, owner Abbott Laboratories),
Voronezh Mechanical Plant[37] (production of missile and aircraft engines, oil and gas equipment)
Mining Machinery Holding - RUDGORMASH[38] (production of drilling, mineral processing and mining equipment)
VNiiPM Research Institute of Semiconductor Engineering (equipment for plasma-chemical processes, technical-chemical equipment for liquid operations, water treatment equipment)
KBKhA Chemical Automatics Design Bureau with notable products:.
Pirelli Voronezh.
On the territory of the city district government Maslovka Voronezh region with the support of the Investment Fund of Russia, is implementing a project to create an industrial park, "Maslowski", to accommodate more than 100 new businesses, including the transformer factory of Siemens. On September 7, 2011 in Voronezh there opened a Global network operation center of Nokia Siemens Networks, which was the fifth in the world and the first in Russia.
Construction
In 2014, 926,000 square meters of housing was delivered.
Clusters of Voronezh
In clusters of tax incentives and different preferences, the full support of the authorities. A cluster of Oil and Gas Equipment, Radio-electronic cluster, Furniture cluster, IT cluster, Cluster aircraft, Cluster Electromechanics, Transport and logistics cluster, Cluster building materials and technologies.
Geography
Urban layout
Information about the original urban layout of Voronezh is contained in the "Patrol Book" of 1615. At that time, the city fortress was logged and located on the banks of the Voronezh River. In plan, it was an irregular quadrangle with a perimeter of about 238 meter. inside it, due to lack of space, there was no housing or siege yards, and even the cathedral church was supposed to be taken out. However, at this small fortress there was a large garrison - 666 households of service people. These courtyards were reliably protected by the second line of fortifications by a standing prison on taras with 25 towers covered with earth; behind the prison was a moat, and beyond the moat there were stakes. Voronezh was a typical military settlement (ostrog). In the city prison there were only settlements of military men: Streletskaya, Kazachya, Belomestnaya atamanskaya, Zatinnaya and Pushkarskaya. The posad population received the territory between the ostrog and the river, where the Monastyrskaya settlements (at the Assumption Monastery) was formed. Subsequently, the Yamnaya Sloboda was added to them, and on the other side of the fort, on the Chizhovka Mountain, the Chizhovskaya Sloboda of archers and Cossacks appeared. As a result, the Voronezh settlements surrounded the fortress in a ring. The location of the parish churches emphasized this ring-like and even distribution of settlements: the Ilyinsky Church of the Streletskaya Sloboda, the Pyatnitskaya Cossack and Pokrovskaya Belomestnaya were brought out to the passage towers of the prison. The Nikolskaya Church of the Streletskaya Sloboda was located near the marketplace (and, accordingly, the front facade of the fortress), and the paired ensemble of the Rozhdestvenskaya and Georgievskaya churches of the Cossack Sloboda marked the main street of the city, going from the Cossack Gate to the fortress tower.
Climate
Voronezh experiences a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb) with long, cold winters and short, warm summers.
Transportation
Air
The city is served by the Voronezh International Airport, which is located north of the city and is home to Polet Airlines. Voronezh is also home to the Pridacha Airport, a part of a major aircraft manufacturing facility VASO (Voronezhskoye Aktsionernoye Samoletostroitelnoye Obshchestvo, Voronezh aircraft production association) where the Tupolev Tu-144 (known in the West as the "Concordski"), was built and the only operational unit is still stored. Voronezh also hosts the Voronezh Malshevo air force base in the southwest of the city, which, according to a Natural Resources Defense Council report, houses nuclear bombers.[citation needed]
Rail
Since 1868, there is a railway connection between Voronezh and Moscow. Rail services form a part of the South Eastern Railway of the Russian Railways. Destinations served direct from Voronezh include Moscow, Kyiv, Kursk, Novorossiysk, Sochi, and Tambov. The main train station is called Voronezh-1 railway station and is located in the center of the city.
Bus
There are three bus stations in Voronezh that connect the city with destinations including Moscow, Belgorod, Lipetsk, Volgograd, Rostov-on-Don, and Astrakhan.
Education and culture
Aviastroiteley Park
The city has seven theaters, twelve museums, a number of movie theaters, a philharmonic hall, and a circus. It is also a major center of higher education in central Russia. The main educational facilities include:
Voronezh State University
Voronezh State Technical University
Voronezh State University of Architecture and Construction
Voronezh State Pedagogical University
Voronezh State Agricultural University
Voronezh State University of Engineering Technologies
Voronezh State Medical University named after N. N. Burdenko
Voronezh State Academy of Arts
Voronezh State University of Forestry and Technologies named after G.F. Morozov
Voronezh State Institute of Physical Training
Voronezh Institute of Russia's Home Affairs Ministry
Voronezh Institute of High Technologies
Military Educational and Scientific Center of the Air Force «N.E. Zhukovsky and Y.A. Gagarin Air Force Academy» (Voronezh)
Plekhanov Russian University of Economics (Voronezh branch)
Russian State University of Justice
Admiral Makarov State University of Sea and River Fleet (Voronezh branch)
International Institute of Computer Technologies
Voronezh Institute of Economics and Law
and a number of other affiliate and private-funded institutes and universities. There are 2000 schools within the city.
Theaters
Voronezh Chamber Theatre
Koltsov Academic Drama Theater
Voronezh State Opera and Ballet Theatre
Shut Puppet Theater
Festivals
Platonov International Arts Festival
Sports
ClubSportFoundedCurrent LeagueLeague
RankStadium
Fakel VoronezhFootball1947Russian Premier League1stTsentralnyi Profsoyuz Stadion
Energy VoronezhFootball1989Women's Premier League1stRudgormash Stadium
Buran VoronezhIce Hockey1977Higher Hockey League2ndYubileyny Sports Palace
VC VoronezhVolleyball2006Women's Higher Volleyball League A2ndKristall Sports Complex
Religion
Annunciation Orthodox Cathedral in Voronezh
Orthodox Christianity is the predominant religion in Voronezh.[citation needed] There is an Orthodox Jewish community in Voronezh, with a synagogue located on Stankevicha Street.
In 1682, the Voronezh diocese was formed to fight the schismatics. Its first head was Bishop Mitrofan (1623-1703) at the age of 58. Under him, the construction began on the new Annunciation Cathedral to replace the old one. In 1832, Mitrofan was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church.
In the 1990s, many Orthodox churches were returned to the diocese. Their restoration was continued. In 2009, instead of the lost one, a new Annunciation Cathedral was built with a monument to St. Mitrofan erected next to it.
Cemeteries
There are ten cemeteries in Voronezh:
Levoberezhnoye Cemetery
Lesnoye Cemetery
Jewish Cemetery
Nikolskoye Cemetery
Pravoberezhnoye Cemetery
Budyonnovskoe Cemetery
Yugo-Zapadnoye Cemetery
Podgorenskоye Cemetery
Kominternovskoe Cemetery
Ternovoye Cemetery is а historical site closed to the public.
Born in Voronezh
18th century
Yevgeny Bolkhovitinov (1767–1837), Orthodox Metropolitan of Kiev and Galicia
Mikhail Pavlov (1792–1840), Russian academic and professor at Moscow University
19th century
1801–1850
Aleksey Koltsov (1809–1842), Russian poet
Ivan Nikitin (1824–1861), Russian poet
Nikolai Ge (1831–1894), Russian realist painter famous for his works on historical and religious motifs
Vasily Sleptsov (1836–1878), Russian writer and social reformer
Nikolay Kashkin (1839–1920), Russian music critic
1851–1900
Valentin Zhukovski (1858–1918), Russian orientalist
Vasily Goncharov (1861–1915), Russian film director and screenwriter, one of the pioneers of the film industry in the Russian Empire
Anastasiya Verbitskaya (1861–1928), Russian novelist, playwright, screenplay writer, publisher and feminist
Mikhail Olminsky (1863–1933), Russian Communist
Serge Voronoff (1866–1951), French surgeon of Russian extraction
Andrei Shingarev (1869–1918), Russian doctor, publicist and politician
Ivan Bunin (1870–1953), the first Russian writer to win the Nobel Prize for Literature
Alexander Ostuzhev (1874–1953), Russian and Soviet drama actor
Valerian Albanov (1881–1919), Russian navigator and polar explorer
Jan Hambourg (1882–1947), Russian violinist, a member of a famous musical family
Volin (1882–1945), anarchist
Boris Hambourg (1885–1954), Russian cellist who made his career in the USA, Canada, England and Europe
Boris Eikhenbaum (1886–1959), Russian and Soviet literary scholar, and historian of Russian literature
Anatoly Durov (1887–1928), Russian animal trainer
Samuil Marshak (1887–1964), Russian and Soviet writer, translator and children's poet
Eduard Shpolsky (1892–1975), Russian and Soviet physicist and educator
George of Syracuse (1893–1981), Eastern Orthodox archbishop of the Ecumenical Patriarchate
Yevgeny Gabrilovich (1899–1993), Soviet screenwriter
Semyon Krivoshein (1899–1978), Soviet tank commander; Lieutenant General
Andrei Platonov (1899–1951), Soviet Russian writer, playwright and poet
Ivan Pravov (1899–1971), Russian and Soviet film director and screenwriter
William Dameshek (1900–1969), American hematologist
20th century
1901–1930
Ivan Nikolaev (1901–1979), Soviet architect and educator
Galina Shubina (1902–1980), Russian poster and graphics artist
Pavel Cherenkov (1904–1990), Soviet physicist who shared the Nobel Prize in physics in 1958 with Ilya Frank and Igor Tamm for the discovery of Cherenkov radiation, made in 1934
Yakov Kreizer (1905–1969), Soviet field commander, General of the army and Hero of the Soviet Union
Iosif Rudakovsky (1914–1947), Soviet chess master
Pawel Kassatkin (1915–1987), Russian writer
Alexander Shelepin (1918–1994), Soviet state security officer and party statesman
Grigory Baklanov (1923–2009), Russian writer
Gleb Strizhenov (1923–1985), Soviet actor
Vladimir Zagorovsky (1925–1994), Russian chess grandmaster of correspondence chess and the fourth ICCF World Champion between 1962 and 1965
Konstantin Feoktistov (1926–2009), cosmonaut and engineer
Vitaly Vorotnikov (1926–2012), Soviet statesman
Arkady Davidowitz (1930), writer and aphorist
1931–1950
Grigory Sanakoev (1935), Russian International Correspondence Chess Grandmaster, most famous for being the twelfth ICCF World Champion (1984–1991)
Yuri Zhuravlyov (1935), Russian mathematician
Mykola Koltsov (1936–2011), Soviet footballer and Ukrainian football children and youth trainer
Vyacheslav Ovchinnikov (1936), Russian composer
Iya Savvina (1936–2011), Soviet film actress
Tamara Zamotaylova (1939), Soviet gymnast, who won four Olympic medals at the 1960 and 1964 Summer Olympics
Yury Smolyakov (1941), Soviet Olympic fencer
Yevgeny Lapinsky (1942–1999), Soviet Olympic volleyball player
Galina Bukharina (1945), Soviet athlete
Vladimir Patkin (1945), Soviet Olympic volleyball player
Vladimir Proskurin (1945), Soviet Russian football player and coach
Aleksandr Maleyev (1947), Soviet artistic gymnast
Valeri Nenenko (1950), Russian professional football coach and player
1951–1970
Vladimir Rokhlin, Jr. (1952), Russian-American mathematician and professor of computer science and mathematics at the Yale University
Lyubov Burda (1953), Russian artistic gymnast
Mikhail Khryukin (1955), Russian swimmer
Aleksandr Tkachyov (1957), Russian gymnast and two times Olympic Champion
Nikolai Vasilyev (1957), Russian professional football coach and player
Aleksandr Babanov (1958), Russian professional football coach and player
Sergey Koliukh (1960), Russian political figure; 4th Mayor of Voronezh
Yelena Davydova (1961), Soviet gymnast
Aleksandr Borodyuk (1962), Russian football manager and former international player for USSR and Russia
Aleksandr Chayev (1962), Russian swimmer
Elena Fanailova (1962), Russian poet
Alexander Litvinenko (1962–2006), officer of the Russian FSB and political dissident
Yuri Shishkin (1963), Russian professional football coach and player
Yuri Klinskikh (1964–2000), Russian musician, singer, songwriter, arranger, founder rock band Sektor Gaza
Yelena Ruzina (1964), athlete
Igor Bragin (1965), footballer
Gennadi Remezov (1965), Russian professional footballer
Valeri Shmarov (1965), Russian football player and coach
Konstantin Chernyshov (1967), Russian chess grandmaster
Igor Pyvin (1967), Russian professional football coach and player
Vladimir Bobrezhov (1968), Soviet sprint canoer
1971–1980
Oleg Gorobiy (1971), Russian sprint canoer
Anatoli Kanishchev (1971), Russian professional association footballer
Ruslan Mashchenko (1971), Russian hurdler
Aleksandr Ovsyannikov (1974), Russian professional footballer
Dmitri Sautin (1974), Russian diver who has won more medals than any other Olympic diver
Sergey Verlin (1974), Russian sprint canoer
Maxim Narozhnyy (1975–2011), Paralympian athlete
Aleksandr Cherkes (1976), Russian football coach and player
Andrei Durov (1977), Russian professional footballer
Nikolai Kryukov (1978), Russian artistic gymnast
Kirill Gerstein (1979), Jewish American and Russian pianist
Evgeny Ignatov (1979), Russian sprint canoeist
Aleksey Nikolaev (1979), Russian-Uzbekistan footballer
Aleksandr Palchikov (1979), former Russian professional football player
Konstantin Skrylnikov (1979), Russian professional footballer
Aleksandr Varlamov (1979), Russian diver
Angelina Yushkova (1979), Russian gymnast
Maksim Potapov (1980), professional ice hockey player
1981–1990
Alexander Krysanov (1981), Russian professional ice hockey forward
Yulia Nachalova (1981–2019), Soviet and Russian singer, actress and television presenter
Andrei Ryabykh (1982), Russian football player
Maxim Shchyogolev (1982), Russian theatre and film actor
Eduard Vorganov (1982), Russian professional road bicycle racer
Anton Buslov (1983–2014), Russian astrophysicist, blogger, columnist at The New Times magazine and expert on transportation systems
Dmitri Grachyov (1983), Russian footballer
Aleksandr Kokorev (1984), Russian professional football player
Dmitry Kozonchuk (1984), Russian professional road bicycle racer for Team Katusha
Alexander Khatuntsev (1985), Russian professional road bicycle racer
Egor Vyaltsev (1985), Russian professional basketball player
Samvel Aslanyan (1986), Russian handball player
Maksim Chistyakov (1986), Russian football player
Yevgeniy Dorokhin (1986), Russian sprint canoer
Daniil Gridnev (1986), Russian professional footballer
Vladimir Moskalyov (1986), Russian football referee
Elena Danilova (1987), Russian football forward
Sektor Gaza (1987–2000), punk band
Regina Moroz (1987), Russian female volleyball player
Roman Shishkin (1987), Russian footballer
Viktor Stroyev (1987), Russian footballer
Elena Terekhova (1987), Russian international footballer
Natalia Goncharova (1988), Russian diver
Yelena Yudina (1988), Russian skeleton racer
Dmitry Abakumov (1989), Russian professional association football player
Igor Boev (1989), Russian professional racing cyclist
Ivan Dobronravov (1989), Russian actor
Anna Bogomazova (1990), Russian kickboxer, martial artist, professional wrestler and valet
Yuriy Kunakov (1990), Russian diver
Vitaly Melnikov (1990), Russian backstroke swimmer
Kristina Pravdina (1990), Russian female artistic gymnast
Vladislav Ryzhkov (1990), Russian footballer
1991–2000
Danila Poperechny (1994), Russian stand-up comedian, actor, youtuber, podcaster
Darya Stukalova (1994), Russian Paralympic swimmer
Viktoria Komova (1995), Russian Olympic gymnast
Vitali Lystsov (1995), Russian professional footballer
Marina Nekrasova (1995), Russian-born Azerbaijani artistic gymnast
Vladislav Parshikov (1996), Russian football player
Dmitri Skopintsev (1997), Russian footballer
Alexander Eickholtz (1998) American sportsman
Angelina Melnikova (2000), Russian Olympic gymnast
Lived in Voronezh
Aleksey Khovansky (1814–1899), editor
Ivan Kramskoi (1837–1887), Russian painter and art critic
Mitrofan Pyatnitsky (1864–1927), Russian musician
Mikhail Tsvet (1872–1919), Russian botanist
Alexander Kuprin (1880–1960), Russian painter, a member of the Jack of Diamonds group
Yevgeny Zamyatin (1884-1937), Russian writer, went to school in Voronezh
Osip Mandelstam (1891–1938), Russian poet
Nadezhda Mandelstam (1899-1980), Russian writer
Gavriil Troyepolsky (1905–1995), Soviet writer
Nikolay Basov (1922–2001), Soviet physicist and educator
Vasily Peskov (1930–2013), Russian writer, journalist, photographer, traveller and ecologist
Valentina Popova (1972), Russian weightlifter
Igor Samsonov, painter
Tatyana Zrazhevskaya, Russian boxer