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Just across the street from the famous al-Azhar Mosque in Islamic Cairo is probably the holiest site in the entire city: the al-Hussein Mosque, built in 1154 CE.
The mosque was named after Hussein [the second Ismaili imam, grandson of the Prophet Muhammad (saw) and son of Ali, the fourth caliph for Sunnis and the first imam for Shias].
Hussein was beheaded as a martyr in the Battle of Karbala in present-day Iraq on the 10th of Muharram, 680 CE. This date is known as Ashura (loosely translated to "ten" in Arabic) and its observance is one of the many aspects of Islam that separates the Sunnis from the Shias.
For Shias, the 10th of Muharram is a day of mourning as it is the day their first imam became a martyr. Sunnis however fast on the 10th of Muharram as it is said that the Prophet Moses fasted on this day to show gratitude to God for freeing the Israelites from Egypt.
However, Hussein became a martyr in 680 in Iraq, so why was there a mosque built in his honor in Egypt almost 500 years later?
Hussein's body and head was buried in Karbala near the place of his death after the battle, and a shrine / mosque was built in the space a few years later. It is known as the Hussein Mosque (similar to what became the name of the Cairene mosque). All the martyrs from the Battle of Karbala were also buried in a nearby mass grave. This site commonly known as the holiest site for Shias after Makkah/Medina.
But it is said that around the time that the 21st Shia Imam / Fatimid ruler, Tayyab, went into hiding, the head of Hussein was ordered to be transferred from the Hussein Mosque in Karbala to Cairo, and in 1154 they built a mausoleum for it, and a mosque around it: the al-Hussein Mosque. It is believed that this is the present location of Hussein's head, as well as a few other artifacts.
Next to Hussein's mausoleum is what is known to be the oldest and complete Qur'an existing today (pictured). It is written in much larger text than normally found in Qur’ans and it is blocked off by bars and glass, the same one's blocking off the mausoleum.
Also in the mosque (though the only confirmation I got of this is from two Egyptians in the mosque at the time), there is a closed off room that is said to house a few hairs from the Prophet Muhammad's (saw) beard, a sword and eyelashes. However, Topkapi Palace in Turkey claims to have the same artifacts and more -- perhaps both places have them. I have not yet been to Turkey so I cannot confirm the accuracy of this detail.
However there is something that I would like to write of al-Hussein's mosque that I found, as a Muslim, very disheartening.
In Islam, there is a term known as Shirk. Literally, "polytheism." Or to consider anyone a god other than God, or to associate partners with God (as in the Prophet Jesus being God's son). In Islam, shirk is known as one of the worst, if not the worst, sin. It is written in the Qur'an that God forgives any sin except for those who commit shirk.
Well, the reason I felt very disheartened in the al-Hussein Mosque is because I witnessed countless amounts of shirk. The acts of course could also be seen as paying respects, but there are tamer ways to pay respects, I feel.
I don't mean to offend anyone by writing this, because everyone has the right to believe and behave however they want, but as a Muslim, I was not happy with what I saw going on in the al-Hussein mosque.
In the mausoleum, the entire group was singing chants and prayers about Hussein (seen here). Many were rubbing their heads and hands against the railing that surrounded the mausoleum. Others kissed it. Weeping. Outside of the mausoleum in the prayer area, men were praying in groups facing the mausoleum. Almost as if they were prostrating before Hussein. These could all be seen as either signs of respect or simply praying toward Makkah (as Makkah is technically in the direction they were praying), but then why did they choose to pray directly in front of the mausoleum? The entire mosque was empty. To me, this is known as shirk, as they were dignifying Hussein to holy levels. Something very wrong in Islam.
The same thing was going on for the closed off room that housed Muhammad's (saw) beard / sword (seen in this photo here). Men lined up to kiss the door that supposedly housed such artifacts. Rubbed their heads and face against the door. To me, there are other ways to show respect than to kiss and bow your heads towards a person, or the idea of a person. Especially when the ways you choose to show respect is forbidden in Islam.
But what bothered me most about all of it was that no one was saying anything. It seemed common place.
Shias obviously hold Hussein in a much higher light than Sunnis do – and by connection they hold Ali in a much higher light. This form of paying respects is common place at the mosque in Karbala where the majority of people who go are Shia. But in Egypt, where it is said that Sunni is by and large the majority sect? Like figures that describe 99% Sunni? Why is there so much of this going on in a mosque, and on an Eid of all days!
(btw, there cannot be any absolute truth to the 99% figure of Sunnis. Cairo was in fact created by the Fatimid Empire, who was all Shia. There is a big anti-Shia sentiment in Cairo, or rather all of Egypt, but there is no way there are that few Shias in this country.)
A friend brought it to my attention that when she went for Umrah (like Hajj/pilgrimage) that security had to keep Muslims from the Prophet's (saw) tomb in Medina as they would perform the same type of shirk acts that I described to her there as well. Why was no one keeping these Muslims from doing the same thing here?
I really don’t mean to offend anyone in this writing, but I just can't understand why this was going on. So if anyone can enlighten me, please do so. I also posted up a video of the reverence inside the mausoleum here.
Meiji Shrine (明治神宮 Meiji Jingū?), located in Shibuya, Tokyo, is the Shinto shrine that is dedicated to the deified spirits of Emperor Meiji and his wife, Empress Shōken.[1] When Emperor Meiji died in 1912 and Empress Shōken in 1914, the Japanese people wished to pay their respects to the two influential Japanese figures. It was for this reason that Meiji Shrine was constructed and their souls enshrined on November 1, 1920.[2]
After the emperor's death in 1912, the Japanese Diet passed a resolution to commemorate his role in the Meiji Restoration. An iris garden in an area of Tokyo where Emperor Meiji and Empress Shōken had been known to visit was chosen as the building's location. Construction began in 1915, and the shrine was built in the traditional Nagarezukuri style and is made up primarily of Japanese cypress and copper. It was formally dedicated in 1920, completed in 1921, and its grounds officially finished by 1926.[3]
The original building was destroyed during the Tokyo air raids of World War II. The present iteration of the shrine was funded through a public fund raising effort and completed in October, 1958.[4]
Meiji Shrine was brought into the flow of current events with the 2009 visit of United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. After arriving in Tokyo on her first foreign trip representing the newly elected President Barack Obama, she made her way to this shrine in advance of meetings with Japan's leaders to show her "respect toward history and the culture of Japan." [5]
Meiji Shrine is located in a forest that covers an area of 700,000 square-meters (about 175 acres). This area is covered by an evergreen forest that consists of 120,000 trees of 365 different species, which were donated by people from all parts of Japan when the shrine was established. The forest is visited by many people both as a spiritual home of the people and as a recreation and relaxation area in the center of Tokyo.[2] The shrine itself is comprised of two major areas:
[edit]Naien
The Naien is the inner precinct, which is centered on the shrine buildings and includes a treasure museum that houses articles of the Emperor and Empress. The treasure museum is built in the Azekurazukuri style.
[edit]Gaien
The Gaien is the outer precinct, which includes the Meiji Memorial Picture Gallery that houses a collection of 80 large murals illustrative of the events in the lives of the Emperor and his consort. It also includes a variety of sports facilities, including the National Stadium, and is seen as the center of Japanese sports. It also includes the Meiji Memorial Hall, which was originally used for governmental meetings, including discussions surrounding the drafting of the Meiji Constitution in the late 19th century. Today it is used for Shinto weddings.
New year, and my first run in with a security jobs-worth.
On private property I generally respect any "no photograph" signs. I might bitch about them under my breath, but the long and short of it (at least in the UK) is that the land is private property and the owner has the right to restrict entry on any grounds he likes. Sure, he'll be in deep water if he tried to do it on race or gender, but that's how it is.
Anyway, tonight, inspired by some other shots I had seen, I decided to take a wander up to the roof terrace of 1 New Change, London. This is a new development combining two floors of retail, a couple of floors of offices and finally a 6th floor roof terrace bar/restaurant which overlooks St Paul's cathedral and gives a good view down toward the eye and the Shard.
Given that it was 6:30pm on a bank holiday, the restaurant was closed but the terrace was open and empty bar for one couple of were enjoying the view and taking some pot shots on a compact (good luck with that).
I deploy the tripod, Nikon D300 and proceed to take some shots. Swap some lenses about, take a few more. Finally getting a bit cold I started putting everything away.
Cue day-glo security guard.
"Is that a professional camera?" he asks.
I was completely perplexed by the question. I was ready for accusations of terrorist, but not to classify my camera. I replied that I didn't know what he meant, but that I wasn't a professional, it was a hobby. (A slight fib as I will shoot for money, but in this instance I was just amusing myself).
He then proceeded to explain that professional cameras weren't allowed. I proceeded to explain that without a "professional" camera as he called it, it was pointless taking photographs as night.
He didn't stand up to cross examination very well, falling back onto "sorry, it's the rules" and "we've been watching you on the CCTV" (I waved at the CCTV at this point).
I then asked for the name of the building owner.
As I was all packed up and had done all my shots (and it was cold) at that point I left.
They do seem to have an interesting idea of law there, they had a sign saying "It is illegal to smoke on this terrace", which is actually bull. The terrace is outside, so it is not illegal. They could have a rule saying it is not allowed, but a rule by the company is not a law and the best they could do is ask you to leave.
I should have lit up a smoke.
So who fancies a long exposure mob (i.e. no flashes!)?
"The Zone wants to be respected. Otherwise it will punish."
"The Zone is a very complicated system of traps, and they're all deadly. I don't know what's going on here in the absence of people, but the moment someone shows up, everything comes into motion. Old traps disappear and new ones emerge. Safe spots become impassable. Now your path is easy, now it's hopelessly involved. That's the Zone. It may even seem capricious. But it is what we've made it with our condition. It happened that people had to stop halfway and go back. Some of them even died on the very threshold of the room. But everything that's going on here depends not on the Zone, but on us!."
–– said the STALKER (Tarkovsky)
(At the Carrie Blast Furnaces, Pittsburgh)
Sony NEX-5n 18-200mm
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Taken at the top of the Twin Peaks.
This long Labor Day weekend was full of baseball fever, with the Los Angeles Dodgers visiting the San Francisco Giants for a 3-game series. This is the longest and fiercest sports rivalry in existence, dating back to the late 19th Century when they represented different parts of New York City. For 2021, the rivalry was even fiercer, with the Dodgers trying to defend their World Series title and the Giants giving unexpectedly strong performance; coming into this weekend, the two teams were tied for the best record in baseball.
Needless to say, many Dodgers fans were visiting San Francisco and I could easily find them everywhere. Dodgers fans were showing up in force at Oracle Park at every game, including yours truly for the first. As a Southern Californian and a Dodgers fan myself, I was very pleased - especially since I hate the Giants and their techbro fan base!
There were also many groups of friends/couples/families/etc. gathering over the weekend with split baseball loyalties, as with this couple.
The Giants ended up taking two of the three games this weekend, and ended the season with 107 wins and 55 losses, its best record ever, beating the Dodgers by one game and winning the National League West Division. However, the Dodgers would become the wildcard in the playoff, and would defeat the Giants 3 games to 2 in the division series. It was an amazing run for the history books, down to the final out of the last division series game.
U.S. Veterans protesting Trump policies. This image was taken in Vero Beach, Florida with my ancient Apple 8 Plus which was the only camera I had on hand.
Explore # 402 ! 11-04-'09 !
( I know, to my cost, yet wouldn't change a minute )
“He who wants a rose must respect the thorn ! ”
This is an extract from comments I left on a contacts photo' earlier to-day ~ (which was a macro of rose thorns) !
Un-sure of what to post this evening (UK) I came up with this shot that was straight out of the camera, into my PC via a HCSD card, being a RAW file I opened the free Canon soft-ware, tweaked the colour, contrast, light, sharpness and applied a crop ! As I didn't want to alter the image to much I left the green spoiler in the bottom left-hand corner ! The converted Jpeg Image seen here is straight out of the computer !
-Respect, rester correct.
-Plages, couples, Détente.
-Jeux ( Greedy, Skippo, Bingo, Scrabble et plus encore ...)
-Club à votre disposition.
-Promenade, discutions ...
-Pédalos, bateau (visite sur l'eau).
-Animations et le reste est à découvrir.
Visit this location at :::::* Aquila Island *::::: in Second Life
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Photograph taken at an altitude of Five metres at 10:57am on Tuesday 13th April 2021 off the Mall and Horse Guards Road within the grounds of St James's Park in Central London, one of the Royal parks of London situated in South West London.
Here we see a group of feral Pigeons (Columba Livia domestica), resting on a branch in a prime location close to the lake within the park grounds. It is a relative of a relative of Stock doves and Rock Doves which are the purest of the species.
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Nikon D850 Focal length: 120mm Shutter speed: 1/80s Aperture: f/14.0 iso80 RAW (14 bit uncompressed) Image size L (8256 x 5504 FX). Hand held with Nikkor VR Vibration Reduction enabled on Normal setting. Colour space Adobe RGB. AF-C focus 51 point with 3-D tracking. Manual exposure. Metering: Centre weighted average metering. White balance: Auto 1 white balance (5100K). Colour space: Adobe RGB. Nikon Auto Distortion control on. Picture control: Neutral with +2 sharpening
Nikkor AF-S 24-120mm f/4G ED VR. Lee SW150 MKII filter holder. Lee SW150 77mm screw in adapter ring. Lee SW150 Circular polarizer glass filter. Lee SW150 Filters field pouch.Nikon EN-EL15a battery. Hoodman HEYENRG round eyepiece oversized eyecup.Mcoplus professional MB-D850 multi function battery grip 6960.Two Nikon EN-EL15a batteries (Priority to battery in Battery grip). Black Rapid Curve Breathe strap. My Memory 128GB Class 10 SDXC 80MB/s card. Lowepro Flipside 400 AW camera bag.
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LATITUDE: N 51d 30m 8.97s
LONGITUDE: E 0d 8m 7.13s
ALTITUDE: 18.0m
RAW (TIFF) FILE: 130.00MB NEF: 91.6MB
PROCESSED (JPeg) FILE: 34.40MB
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PROCESSING POWER:
Nikon D850 Firmware versions C 1.20 (14/01/2021) LD Distortion Data 2.018 (18/02/20) LF 1.00
HP 110-352na Desktop PC with AMD Quad-Core A6-5200 APU 64Bit processor. Radeon HD8400 R3 Series graphics card (26/03/21). 8 GB DDR3 Memory with 1TB Data storage. 64-bit Windows 10. Verbatim USB 2.0 1TB desktop hard drive. WD My Passport Ultra 1tb USB3 Portable hard drive. Nikon ViewNX-1 64bit Version 1.4.1 (18/02/2020). Nikon Capture NX-D 64bit Version 1.6.2 (18/02/2020). Nikon Picture Control Utility 2 (Version 2.4.5 (18/02/2020). Nikon Transfer 2 Version 2.13.5. Adobe photoshop Elements 8 Version 8.0 64bit.
I realized that cutting people from my life doesn’t mean I hate them, it simply means, I respect me.
A short walk south down Centre Street from the site of the parsonage, at the corner of Hobart Street, is the site of Ingersoll’s ordinary (or tavern). Nathaniel Ingersoll was one of the most respected members of the Salem Village community. His tavern/inn was located at a bend on the Andover Road (today Centre Street), a convenient stop for travelers and a gathering center for the village. The earliest part of the building that stands here today was built circa 1670. According to historian Charles Upham, in 1692, the Ingersoll garden abutted the parsonage orchards. Upham also describes the Ingersoll property with a separate dwelling house from the ordinary, as well as the town’s watch house, where sentinels guarded against Native American attack. Ingersoll lived on this property for seventy years.
The first three to be accused of witchcraft in 1692 – Tituba, Sarah Osborne (alternate spellings Osburn, Osborn, Osbourne), and Sarah Good were scheduled to be examined here on March 1, but so many people turned up to witness the event that it had to be moved down the road to the meetinghouse to accommodate the crowd. Nevertheless, the attendees spent lots of money for tavern refreshments that day – on food, cider, and rum.
Both examinations and afflictions took place on this land. In mid-March, Deodat Lawson witnessed the afflicted Mary Walcott at the ordinary, with self-inflicted teeth marks on her wrist. Rebecca Nurse was also held here before her examination, as was Dorothy Good. It was here that John Indian became afflicted when Elizabeth Cary from Charlestown came to town to defend herself against witchcraft accusations. Wilmott Redd of Marblehead was also examined here.
On March 28, William Rayment and Daniel Elliot were at Ingersoll’s tavern with some of the afflicted girls. The two men, along with Nathaniel Ingersoll’s wife Hannah, heard the girls claim to see the specter of Goody Proctor. Oddly, the accusers were almost casual about it and did not act in their usual dramatic fashion. One said of Proctor, “Goody Proctor, old witch, I’ll have her hang.” When scolded by Hannah Ingersoll for these words, one of the girls admitted to acting out “for sport, they must have some sport.”
April 21 saw another disturbing event at the ordinary, when Nathaniel’s adopted son Benjamin Hutchinson struck with his sword at a place where Abigail Hobbs claimed the specter of George Burroughs was seen. According to Hobbs, the specter turned into a cat, only to be picked up by the specter of Sarah Good. Hobbs’s dramatic visions ended with the sighting of a huge gathering of witches out on the hill.
Nathaniel Ingersoll was born circa 1633. When his father Richard died, the 11-year-old Ingersoll inherited 75 acres of land. While still a boy, he went to live with his father’s friend Governor Endecott on Endecott’s 300-acre country estate, Orchard Farm, where he was employed as a “servant” for four years. More like an apprenticeship, this employment readied him for taking on his own home and farm when older.
Nathaniel Ingersoll married Hannah Collins around the age of nineteen, approximately the same time he started his own farm. The couple had one daughter, who died young. Neighbor Joseph Hutchinson, the father of several sons, agreed that the Ingersolls could adopt one of his boys, Benjamin, and raise him as their own.
Historian Charles Upham calls Nathaniel Ingersoll “the Father of the Village.” He was a Lieutenant in the militia and one of two deacons of the church – the other was his good friend Edward Putnam, the brother of Thomas Putnam.
Ingersoll was reportedly fair, honest, and generous. One example of this is evident in the records regarding Reverend George Burroughs’s return to Salem Village from Maine in May of 1683. Burroughs came to settle his outstanding debts (among them, the funeral costs of his first wife, loaned to him by Captain John Putnam with whom he had initially lodged) and in turn receive his back pay. Despite his voluntary return, John Putnam had him arrested when he arrived in Salem Village. The marshal was instructed to present him with a list of debts owed. Ingersoll arose and said to Putnam, “To my knowledge you and Mr. Burroughs have reckoned and balanced accounts two or three times since, as you say, this money was due, and you never made any mention of it when you reckoned with Mr. Burroughs.” Despite this defense, and Putnam’s acknowledgement of the facts, Burroughs was held overnight at Ingersoll’s ordinary, under guard. Six villagers, led by Nathaniel Ingersoll, posted bail for his release. The case was finally settled by late June. Nine years later, Burroughs was accused of witchcraft and executed on August 19, 1692.
In 1701, Nathaniel Ingersoll gave land to the village on which to build the second meetinghouse: “it shall stand on Watch-House Hill, before Deacon Ingersoll’s door.” Before the new meetinghouse was built, the “elevated spot” was levelled and cleared.
Nathaniel Ingersoll died in 1719 at the age of 85. He remembered his many relatives in his will, and deeded property for a training field to the town.
Additional note: Nathaniel Ingersoll’s father’s friend Governor John Endecott was the longest-serving Governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony: he was the 1st, 10th, 13th, 15th, and 17th governor, serving portions of 1629-1664. His Orchard Farm was located in present-day Danversport. The Endecott Pear Tree, which still stands, was planted in its current location by Endecott between 1632 and 1649, and is thought to have been brought from England on the Arabella in 1630. It is America’s oldest cultivated tree.
Additional note: A notable descendant of Nathaniel Ingersoll is Nathaniel Bowditch (1773-1838), the eminent mathematician known as the father of modern maritime navigation, whose The New Practical Navigator is used to this day.
salemwitchmuseum.com/locations/ingersolls-ordinary/
Nathaniel Ingersoll was born 1632 Salem, Essex Co, MA, and was mentioned in his father's (Richard Ingersoll) will as the youngest son. He married to Hannah Collins, 25 March 1657 at Salem. [1] Nathaniel was chosen deacon of the church at Salem Village 24 Nov 1689 and at the same time he was a Lieutenant and inn-holder. He played an active part in the witchcraft delusion in 1692. [2]
Nathaniel Ingersoll was an important figure in Salem, and many of the early meetings and events of the Salem Witch Trials occurred at his home/tavern since church meetings were held at his home. He participated in the trials themselves, as well. [3] [4]
www.wikitree.com/wiki/Ingersoll-57
Nathaniel Ingersoll (1632-1718) was born in Salem to Richard and Ann Ingersoll, who arrived to Salem in 1629 from Bedfordshire England. Ingersoll and his family ran an “ordinary” – the 17th century term for a local tavern – which was the social center of the community of Salem Village, then an agricultural village of Salem Town. The estate even had a watch tower for citizens to watch for Native American attacks from the forest.
During the Salem Witch Trials of 1692, those accused of witchcraft were brought to the Ordinary before their initial hearings and held in an upstairs room. Originally, the hearings themselves – with accusers throwing themselves on the ground in front of the judges, screaming, and claiming to see the “specters” of the accused torturing them – were to be held in the barroom as county court sessions were. Due to the large crowds that wanted to watch the spectacle, the hearings were moved down the road to the meetinghouse (see past post), but afterwards the judges and spectators returned to the tavern for lunch and drinks. John Indian, Reverend Samuel Parris’ slave and husband of Tituba, the first accused and killed of witchcraft, worked the bar sometimes for Ingersoll, and he would show off scars on his arm to out-of-towners who passed through, bragging that he got them when he was attacked by witches. The barroom at Ingersoll’s is also where one of the accusers admitted that they were accusing and sending innocent people to their deaths for nothing but “sport.”
When Nathaniel Ingersoll died in 1718, the estate was sold and operated as a tavern through the 1700s and into the 1800s under different owners. Due to its proximity to the militia training field, it was frequented by the men who later marched from Danvers to confront the British soldiers on the day of the Battle of Lexington and Concord. The home eventually became the parsonage of the First Church of Danvers and remained as such until about 1970, when the home was acquired as a private home.
buildingsofnewengland.com/2020/05/12/ingersolls-ordinary-...
Historical Significance (include explanation of themes checked above)
Here Nathaniel Ingersoil, lieutenant of the militia and first deacon of
the Village Church, kept a tavern "saling beere, slder, lickers, and provision" to travelers. His house was the "headquarters of the village" where military, civic, and prayer meetings were held, and such persons as Increase & Cotton Mather entertained. On the surcdnding grounds, witchcraft came to Salem
Village in 1692, and persons accused of being witches were examined by Magis- trates Jonathan Corwln and John Hathorne in Ingersoil1 s Ordinary.
Deacon Ingersoil died in 1719, and the house was conveyed to Joseph Cross, mariner of Salem in 1736. About 1753 Cross made extensive repairs on the Old house. The house was licensed as a tavern from 1751 - 1793. In 1302,the house wassold toMa.1.Gen.Ebenezer Goodale whokept a large butchering business, and occupied the house for 30 years. Goodale did not get along well with his neighbors and the area became somewhat run down. The First Church purchased the house for a parsonage in May 1332, and it was used for this purpose until the late 1966«s. Many religious and civil organizations met here during its use as a parsonage.
10. Bibliography and/or references (such as local histories, deeds, assessor's records, early maps,etc.)
Priest, George F., "Salem Village Parsonage"
Pratt, Annette,
Upham, Charles P . caxem Witchcraft Boston, 1367, v o l , 1 S.IS5-179
Tapley, Harriet, Perley, Sidney,
"Old Tavern Days in Danvers: Danvers. Hist Soc C„ n Danvers, 1920, vol.8, p.7-Q *"o 1 1 ,
"Center of Salem Village"in 1700"
)anvers Hist,S_oc^oll^Danvers 1019, vol 7 o 38-39
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U.S. National Parks Park Ranger. Everett, Washington. Check out the homepage for the AJM STUDIOS Northwest Police Department! Visit the Northwest Law Enforcement Association. Visit the Northwest Law Enforcement Association Homepage. 2013 Photo. 2014.
This is a Tlingit House Post illustrating the theme "Respect for Self," but unfortunately I do not have the artist's name.
The Khajuraho Group of Monuments is a group of Hindu and Jain temples in Madhya Pradesh, India, about 175 kilometres southeast of Jhansi. They are one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India. The temples are famous for their nagara-style architectural symbolism and their erotic sculptures.
Most Khajuraho temples were built between 950 and 1050 by the Chandela dynasty. Historical records note that the Khajuraho temple site had 85 temples by 12th century, spread over 20 square kilometers. Of these, only about 20 temples have survived, spread over 6 square kilometers. Of the various surviving temples, the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple is decorated with a profusion of sculptures with intricate details, symbolism and expressiveness of ancient Indian art.
The Khajuraho group of temples were built together but were dedicated to two religions - namely Hinduism and Jainism - suggesting a tradition of acceptance and respect for diverse religious views among Hindus and Jains.
LOCATION
Khajuraho group of monuments are located in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, in Chhatarpur district, about 620 kilometres southeast of New Delhi. The temples are in a small town also known as Khajuraho, with a population of about 20,000 people (2001 Census).
Khajuraho is served by Civil Aerodrome Khajuraho (IATA Code: HJR), with services to Delhi, Agra, Varanasi and Mumbai. The site is also linked by Indian Railways service, with the railway station located approximately six kilometres from the monuments entrance.
The monuments are about 10 kilometres off the east-west National Highway 75, and about 50 kilometres from the city of Chhatarpur, that is connected to Bhopal - the state capital - by the SW-NE running National Highway 86.
HISTORY
The Khajuraho group of monuments was built during the rule of the Rajput Chandela dynasty. The building activity started almost immediately after the rise of their power, throughout their kingdom to be later known as Bundelkhand. Most temples were built during the reigns of the Hindu kings Yashovarman and Dhanga. Yashovarman's legacy is best exhibited by Lakshmana temple. Vishvanatha temple best highlights King Dhanga's reign. The largest and currently most famous surviving temple is Kandariya Mahadeva built in the reign of King Ganda from 1017-1029 CE. The temple inscriptions suggest many of the currently surviving temples were complete between 970 to 1030 CE, with further temples completed during the following decades.
The Khajuraho temples were built about 35 miles from the medieval city of Mahoba, the capital of the Chandela dynasty, in the Kalinjar region. In ancient and medieval literature, their kingdom has been referred to as Jijhoti, Jejahoti, Chih-chi-to and Jejakabhukti.
Khajuraho was mentioned by Abu Rihan-al-Biruni, the Persian historian who accompanied Mahmud of Ghazni in his raid of Kalinjar in 1022 CE; he mentions Khajuraho as the capital of Jajahuti. The raid was unsuccessful, and a peace accord was reached when the Hindu king agreed to pay a ransom to Mahmud of Ghazni to end the attack and leave.
Khajuraho temples were in active use through the end of 12th century. This changed in the 13th century, after the army of Delhi Sultanate, under the command of the Muslim Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak, attacked and seized the Chandela kingdom. About a century later, Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveller in his memoirs about his stay in India from 1335 to 1342 CE, mentioned visiting Khajuraho temples, calling them “Kajarra” as follows:
...near (Khajuraho) temples, which contain idols that have been mutilated by the Moslems, live a number of yogis whose matted locks have grown as long as their bodies. And on account of extreme asceticism they are all yellow in colour. Many Moslems attend these men in order to take lessons (yoga) from them.
— Ibn Battuta, about 1335 CE, Riḥlat Ibn Baṭūṭah, Translated by Arthur Cotterell
Central Indian region, where Khajuraho temples are, remained in the control of many different Muslim dynasties from 13th century through the 18th century. In this period, some temples were desecrated, followed by a long period when they were left in neglect. In 1495 CE, for example, Sikandar Lodi’s campaign of temple destruction included Khajuraho. The remoteness and isolation of Khajuraho protected the Hindu and Jain temples from continued destruction by Muslims. Over the centuries, vegetation and forests overgrew, took over the temples.
In the 1830s, local Hindus guided a British surveyor, T.S. Burt, to the temples and they were thus rediscovered by the global audience. Alexander Cunningham later reported, few years after the rediscovery, that the temples were secretly in use by yogis and thousands of Hindus would arrive for pilgrimage during Shivaratri celebrated annually in February or March based on a lunar calendar. In 1852, Maisey prepared earliest drawings of the Khajuraho temples.
NOMENCLATURE
The name Khajuraho, or Kharjuravāhaka, is derived from ancient Sanskrit (kharjura, खर्जूर means date palm, and vāhaka, वाहक means "one who carries" or bearer). Local legends state that the temples had two golden date-palm trees as their gate (missing when they were rediscovered). Desai states that Kharjuravāhaka also means scorpion bearer, which is another symbolic name for deity Shiva (who wears snakes and scorpion garlands in his fierce form).
Cunningham’s nomenclature and systematic documentation work in 1850s and 1860s have been widely adopted and continue to be in use. He grouped the temples into the Western group around Lakshmana, Eastern group around Javeri, and Southern group around Duladeva.
Khajuraho is one of the four holy sites linked to deity Shiva (the other three are Kedarnath, Kashi and Gaya). Its origin and design is a subject of scholarly studies. Shobita Punja has proposed that the temple’s origin reflect the Hindu mythology in which Khajuraho is the place where Shiva got married; with Raghuvamsha verse 5.53, Matangeshvara honoring ‘’Matanga’’, or god of love.
DESCRIPTION
The temple site is within Vindhya mountain range in central India. An ancient local legend held that Hindu deity Shiva and other gods enjoyed visiting the dramatic hill formation in Kalinjar area. The center of this region is Khajuraho, set midst local hills and rivers. The temple complex reflects the ancient Hindu tradition of building temples where gods love to play.
The temples are clustered near water, another typical feature of Hindu temples. The current water bodies include Sib Sagar, Khajur Sagar (also called Ninora Tal) and Khudar Nadi (river). The local legends state that the temple complex had 64 water bodies, of which 56 have been physically identified by archeologists so far.
All temples, except one (Chaturbhuja) face sunrise - another symbolic feature that is predominant in Hindu temples. The relative layout of temples integrate masculine and feminine deities and symbols highlight the interdependence. The art work symbolically highlight the four goals of life considered necessary and proper in Hinduism - dharma, kama, artha and moksha.
Of the surviving temples, 6 are dedicated to Shiva and his consorts, 8 to Vishnu and his affinities, 1 to Ganesha, 1 to Sun god, 3 to Jain Tirthanks. For some ruins, there is insufficient evidence to assign the temple to specific deities with confidence.
An overall examination of site suggests that the Hindu symbolic mandala design principle of square and circles is present each temple plan and design. Further, the territory is laid out in three triangles that converge to form a pentagon. Scholars suggest that this reflects the Hindu symbolism for three realms or trilokinatha, and five cosmic substances or panchbhuteshvara. The temple site highlights Shiva, the one who destroys and recycles life, thereby controlling the cosmic dance of time, evolution and dissolution. The temples have a rich display of intricately carved statues. While they are famous for their erotic sculpture, sexual themes cover less than 10% of the temple sculpture. Further, most erotic scene panels are neither prominent nor emphasized at the expense of the rest, rather they are in proportional balance with the non-sexual images. The viewer has to look closely to find them, or be directed by a guide. The arts cover numerous aspects of human life and values considered important in Hindu pantheon. Further, the images are arranged in a configuration to express central ideas of Hinduism. All three ideas from Āgamas are richly expressed in Khajuraho temples - Avyakta, Vyaktavyakta and Vyakta.
The Beejamandal temple is under excavation. It has been identified with the Vaidyanath temple mentioned in the Grahpati Kokalla inscription.
Of all temples, the Matangeshvara temple remains an active site of worship. It is another square grid temple, with a large 2.5 metres high and 1.1 metres diameter lingam, placed on a 7.6 metres diameter platform.
The most visited temple, Kandariya Mahadev, has an area of about 6,500 square feet and a shikhara (spire) that rises 116 feet. Jain templesThe Jain temples are located on east-southeast region of Khajuraho monuments. Chausath jogini temple features 64 jogini, while Ghantai temple features bells sculptured on its pillars.
ARCHITECTURE OF THE TEMPLES
Khajuraho temples, like almost all Hindu temple designs, follow a grid geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. This design plan has three important components - Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure.
The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, concentrically layered, self-repeating structure around the core of the temple called garbhagriya, where the abstract principle Purusha and the primary deity of the temple dwell. The shikhara, or spire, of the temple rises above the garbhagriya. This symmetry and structure in design is derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.
The circle of mandala circumscribe the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect 64 sub-squares called padas.
Most Khajuraho temples deploy the 8x8 padas grid Manduka Vastupurushamandala, with pitha mandala the square grid incorporated in the design of the spires. The primary deity or lingas are located in the grid’s Brahma padas.
The architecture is symbolic and reflects the central Hindu beliefs through its form, structure and arrangement of its parts. The mandapas as well as the arts are arranged in the Khajuraho temples in a symmetric repeating patterns, even though each image or sculpture is distinctive in its own way. The relative placement of the images are not random but together they express ideas, just like connected words form sentences and paragraphs to compose ideas. This fractal pattern that is common in Hindu temples. Various statues and panels have inscriptions. Many of the inscriptions on the temple walls are poems with double meanings, something that the complex structure of Sanskrit allows in creative compositions. All Khajuraho temples, except one, face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is this east side.Above the vastu-purusha-mandala of each temple is a superstructure with a dome called Shikhara (or Vimana, Spire). Variations in spire design come from variation in degrees turned for the squares. The temple Shikhara, in some literature, is linked to mount Kailash or Meru, the mythical abode of the gods.In each temple, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the pilgrim to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa and the main deity. The pillars, walls and ceilings around the space, as well as outside have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life - kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This clockwise walk around is called pradakshina. Larger Khajuraho temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One near the entrance, on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapas are also arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. This use of same underlying architectural principle is common in Hindu temples found all over India. Each Khajuraho temple is distinctly carved yet also repeating the central common principles in almost all Hindu temples, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as “an organism of repeating cells”.
CONSTRUCTION
The temples are grouped into three geographical divisions: western, eastern and southern.
The Khajuraho temples are made of sandstone, with a granite foundation that is almost concealed from view. The builders didn't use mortar: the stones were put together with mortise and tenon joints and they were held in place by gravity. This form of construction requires very precise joints. The columns and architraves were built with megaliths that weighed up to 20 tons. Some repair work in the 19th Century was done with brick and mortar; however these have aged faster than original materials and darkened with time, thereby seeming out of place.
The Khajuraho and Kalinjar region is home to superior quality of sandstone, which can be precision carved. The surviving sculpture reflect fine details such as strands of hair, manicured nails and intricate jewelry.
While recording the television show Lost Worlds (History Channel) at Khajuraho, Alex Evans recreated a stone sculpture under 4 feet that took about 60 days to carve in an attempt to develop a rough idea how much work must have been involved. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone. They concluded that these temples would have required hundreds of highly trained sculptors.
CHRONOLOGY
The Khajuraho group of temples belong to Vaishnavism school of Hinduism, Saivism school of Hinduism and Jainism - nearly a third each. Archaeological studies suggest all three types of temples were under construction at about the same time in late 10th century, and in use simultaneously. Will Durant states that this aspect of Khajuraho temples illustrates the tolerance and respect for different religious viewpoints in the Hindu and Jain traditions. In each group of Khajuraho temples, there were major temples surrounded by smaller temples - a grid style that is observed to varying degrees in Hindu temples in Angkor Wat, Parambaran and South India.
The largest surviving Saiva temple is Khandarya Mahadeva, while the largest surviving Vaishnava group includes Chaturbhuja and Ramachandra.
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple plan is 109 ft in length by 60 ft, and rises 116 ft above ground and 88 ft above its own floor. The central padas are surrounded by three rows of sculptured figures, with over 870 statues, most being half life size (2.5 to 3 feet). The spire is a self repeating fractal structure.
ARTS AND SCULPTURE
The Khajuraho temples feature a variety of art work, of which 10% is sexual or erotic art outside and inside the temples. Some of the temples that have two layers of walls have small erotic carvings on the outside of the inner wall. Some scholars suggest these to be tantric sexual practices. Other scholars state that the erotic arts are part of Hindu tradition of treating kama as an essential and proper part of human life, and its symbolic or explicit display is common in Hindu temples. James McConnachie, in his history of the Kamasutra, describes the sexual-themed Khajuraho sculptures as "the apogee of erotic art": "Twisting, broad-hipped and high breasted nymphs display their generously contoured and bejewelled bodies on exquisitely worked exterior wall panels. These fleshy apsaras run riot across the surface of the stone, putting on make-up, washing their hair, playing games, dancing, and endlessly knotting and unknotting their girdles....Beside the heavenly nymphs are serried ranks of griffins, guardian deities and, most notoriously, extravagantly interlocked maithunas, or lovemaking couples."
The temples have several thousand statues and art works, with Kandarya Mahadeva Temple alone decorated with over 870. Some 10% of these iconographic carvings contain sexual themes and various sexual poses. A common misconception is that, since the old structures with carvings in Khajuraho are temples, the carvings depict sex between deities; however the kama arts represent diverse sexual expressions of different human beings. The vast majority of arts depict various aspects the everyday life, mythical stories as well as symbolic display of various secular and spiritual values important in Hindu tradition. For example, depictions show women putting on makeup, musicians making music, potters, farmers, and other folks in their daily life during the medieval era. These scenes are in the outer padas as is typical in Hindu temples.
There is iconographic symbolism embedded in the arts displayed in Khajuraho temples. Core Hindu values are expressed in multitude of ways. Even the Kama scenes, when seen in combination of sculptures that precede and follow, depict the spiritual themes such as moksha. In the words of Stella Kramrisch,
This state which is “like a man and woman in close embrace” is a symbol of moksa, final release or reunion of two principles, the essence (Purusha) and the nature (Prakriti).
— Stella Kramrisch, 1976
The Khajuraho temples represent one expression of many forms of arts that flourished in Rajput kingdoms of India from 8th through 10th century CE. For example, contemporary with Khajuraho were the publications of poems and drama such as Prabodhacandrodaya, Karpuramanjari, Viddhasalabhanjika and Kavyamimansa. Some of the themes expressed in these literary works are carved as sculpture in Khajuraho temples. Some sculptures at the Khajuraho monuments dedicated to Vishnu include the Vyalas, which are hybrid imaginary animals with lions body, and are found in other Indian temples. Some of these hybrid mythical art work include Vrik Vyala (hybrid of wolf and lion) and Gaja Vyala (hybrid of elephant and lion). These Vyalas may represent syncretic, creative combination of powers innate in the two.
TOURISM AND CULTURAL EVENTS
The temples in Khajuraho are broadly divided into three parts: the Eastern group, the Southern Group and the Western group of temples of which the Western group alone has the facility of an Audio guided tour wherein the tourists are guided through the seven eight temples. There is also an audio guided tour developed by the Archaeological Survey of India which includes a narration of the temple history and architecture.
The Khajuraho Dance Festival is held every year in February. It features various classical Indian dances set against the backdrop of the Chitragupta or Vishwanath Temples.
The Khajuraho temple complex offers a light and sound show every evening. The first show is in English language and the second one in Hindi. It is held in the open lawns in the temple complex, and has received mixed reviews.
The Madhya Pradesh Tourism Development has set up kiosks at the Khajuraho railway station, with tourist officers to provide information for Khajuraho visitors.
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Der Tempelbezirk von Khajuraho umfasst eine Gruppe von etwa 20 Tempeln im Zentrum und in der näheren Umgebung der Stadt Khajuraho im indischen Bundesstaat Madhya Pradesh. Sie zählen zum UNESCO-Welterbe.
GESCHICHTE
Nahezu alle Tempel Khajurahos wurde von den Herrschern der Chandella-Dynastie zwischen 950 und 1120 erbaut. Die Chandellas waren ein zwischen dem 10. und 16. Jahrhundert regierender Rajputen-Klan, welcher sich um 950 in Gwalior festsetzte. Im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert waren die Chandellas die führende Macht in Nordindien, wenngleich sie formell noch bis 1018 Vasallen der Pratihara waren.
Nach dem Niedergang der Dynastie im 12. Jahrhundert wurden die Tempel kaum noch oder gar nicht mehr benutzt und blieben dem Wuchs des Dschungels überlassen. Der politisch, militärisch und wirtschaftlich bedeutungslos gewordene Ort lag abseits aller Wege und blieb somit auch in der Zeit des islamischen Vordringens in Nordindien von Zerstörungen verschont. Im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert zählte die einstmals bedeutsame Stadt nur noch etwa 300 Einwohner. Im 19. Jahrhundert wurden die Tempel von den Briten 'wiederentdeckt'. Zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts begannen systematische Sicherungs- und Restaurierungsarbeiten, die schließlich zur Wiederherstellung dieses einzigartigen Architektur-Ensembles führten.
TEMPEL
Ursprünglich gab es in Khajuraho etwa 80 Tempelbauten verstreut auf einer Gesamtfläche von ca. 21 Quadratkilometer, heutzutage sind davon nur noch etwa 20 erhalten, von denen die meisten in zwei Gruppen stehen. Die Mehrzahl der Tempel ist den hinduistischen Hauptgöttern geweiht, einige den Jaina-Tirthankaras. Buddhistische Bauten gab es wohl nicht, jedenfalls wurden keine buddhistischen Skulpturen entdeckt.
Alle Tempel stehen auf 1,50 bis 3 Meter hohen Plattformen (jagatis), die das Bauwerk vor Witterungseinflüssen (Monsunregen) und freilaufenden Tieren schützten. Hinzu kommt eine Sockelzone, die bei den späteren Tempeln (ab ca. 950) mehrfach gestuft ist und durchaus nochmals 3 Meter hoch sein kann. Plattform und Sockel tragen natürlich auch zu einer 'Erhöhung' des aufstehenden Bauwerks im übertragenen Sinn bei.
Die Mehrzahl der Tempeleingänge sind nach Osten, also in Richtung der aufgehenden Sonne ausgerichtet, d. h. die Cella (garbhagriha) liegt im Westen. Bei zwei Tempeln ist es umgekehrt: sie orientieren sich nach Westen, d. h. in Richtung der untergehenden Sonne (Lalguan-Mahadeva-Tempel und Chaturbuja-Tempel). Beide Ausrichtungen sind bei indischen Tempeln seit Jahrhunderten möglich und üblich. Die vorderen zwei Begleitschreine des Lakshmana-Tempels liegen einander gegenüber und sind nach Süden bzw. Norden ausgerichtet.
WESTGRUPPE (Hindu-Tempel)
- Matangeshvara-Tempel (ca. 950)
- Varaha-Tempel (ca. 950)
- Lakshmana-Tempel (ca. 950)
- Devi-Tempel
- Vishvanatha-Tempel (ca. 1000)
- Nandi-Schrein
- Parvati-Schrein
- Jagadambi-Tempel
- Chitragupta-Tempel
- Kandariya-Mahadeva-Tempel (1. Hälfte 11. Jh.)
OSTGRUPPE (Jain-Tempel)
- Parsvanatha-Tempel (ca. 960)
- Adinatha-Tempel (ca. 1050)
- Shantinatha-Tempel
- Ghantai-Tempel (ca. 990)
EINZELTEMPEL (Hindu-Tempel)
- Chausath-Yogini-Tempel (ca. 875)
- Lalguan-Mahadeva-Tempel (ca. 920)
- Brahma-Tempel (ca. 930)
- Khakra-Math-Tempel (ca. 980)
- Vamana-Tempel (ca. 1050)
- Javari-Tempel (ca. 1100)
- Chaturbuja-Tempel (ca. 1120)
- Duladeo-Tempel (ca. 1120)
ARCHITEKTUR
Die Tempel von Khajuraho bieten die Möglichkeit, auf engstem Raum die Entwicklung der indischen Baukunst in einer Zeitspanne von etwa 200 Jahren zu verfolgen − von kleinen (wenig gegliederten, einräumigen und geschlossenen) Tempeln hin zu großen (stark gegliederten, mehrräumigen und offenen) Bauten. Auch die Höhe der Bauten erfährt während dieser Zeit eine enorme Steigerung. Gemeinsam ist nahezu allen Bauten (Ausnahme: Chausath-Yogini-Tempel), dass sie über Dachaufbauten (Shikhara-Türme oder Pyramidendächer) verfügen, die von gerippten amalaka-Steinen und kalasha-Krügen bekrönt werden.
FRÜHZEIT
Abgesehen vom Chausath-Yogini-Tempel, dem ältesten und vollkommen anderen baulichen Traditionen verpflichteten Tempelbau in Khajuraho, bestehen die frühen Tempel nur aus einer − von einem gestuften Pyramidendach bedeckten − Cella (garbhagriha), der im Fall des Brahma-Tempels noch ein Portalvorbau (antarala), im Fall des Varaha-Tempels und des Matangesvara-Tempels jeweils ein kleiner offener Vorraum (mandapa) vorgesetzt ist. Die Außenwände sind nur geringfügig gegliedert und überwiegend steinsichtig.
BLÜHTZEIT
Die Blütezeit der Tempelarchitektur in Khajuraho beginnt mit dem Lakshmana-Tempel (ca. 930−950), der wahrscheinlich vom Maladevi-Tempel in Gyaraspur und von früheren Tempelbauten in Rajasthan beeinflusst ist, die ihrerseits wiederum allesamt auf die beim Bau des Kalika-Mata-Tempels in Chittorgarh (ca. 700) erstmals entwickelten baulichen Innovationen zurückgeführt werden können. Diese sind im Wesentlichen: mehrere hintereinander liegende, aber harmonisch miteinander verbundenen Bauteile (mandapas, antarala und garbhagriha); gleiche Grundfläche von großer Vorhalle (mahamandapa) und Sanktumsbereich; Cella als eigenständiger Baukörper im Innern; Pfeiler − und nicht mehr Wände − als tragende Stützelemente für die Dachaufbauten − dadurch wurde es möglich, die Räume nach außen hin durch balkonähnliche Vorbauten zu öffnen; mehrfache Abstufung und Gliederung der verbliebenen Wandteile außen wie innen − dadurch treten sie gar nicht mehr als 'Wand' in Erscheinung; Fortsetzung der Außenwandgliederung im Dachaufbau.
Beim Lakshmana-Tempel ist die Cella als eigener, innenliegender Baukörper gestaltet und von einem Umgang (pradakshinapatha) umgeben. Der gesamte Sanktumsbereich sowie seine vier Nebenschreine werden − erstmals in Khajuraho − von steil und hoch aufragenden Shikhara-Türmen überhöht; die weniger wichtigen Vorhallen werden auch weiterhin von den insgesamt flacheren, pyramidenförmigen Dächern bedeckt, so dass eine architektonische Steigerung der Tempel − einem Gebirge durchaus vergleichbar − hin zur Cella erreicht wird.
Die wichtigsten Nachfolgebauten des Lakshmana-Tempels sind der Vishvanatha-Tempel (ca. 1000) und der Kandariya-Mahadeva-Tempel (ca. 1050), bei denen wegen der vielfältigen architektonischen Gliederungen und des dichten Skulpturenprogramms eine Stein- bzw. Wandsichtigkeit nicht mehr wahrzunehmen ist.
SKULPTUREN
Auch im Hinblick auf die Entwicklung der indischen Skulptur bieten die Tempel von Khajuraho einen Überblick über ca. 200 Jahre indischer Kunstgeschichte − von den in Architekturelemente eingebundenen und eher unbewegt und statisch erscheinenden Reliefdarstellungen der Frühzeit bis hin zu den beinahe freiplastisch gearbeiteten und durch ihre Posenvielfalt nahezu lebendig wirkenden Figuren.
FRÜHZEITLICHE SKULPTUREN
Die nur wenig gegliederten Außenwände der frühen Tempel von Khajuraho zeigen kaum figürlichen oder ornamentalen Schmuck. Dieser ist, noch stark reliefgebunden, auf die Portale (Lalguan-Mahadeva-Tempel, Brahma-Tempel) sowie auf einige Fensternischen (Matangeshvara-Tempel) beschränkt. Erotische Skulpturen sind in den frühen Tempeln noch nicht zu finden.
SKULPTUREN DER BLÜHTEZEIT
Auch hier ist es der Lakshmana-Tempel, der für Khajuraho neue Zeichen setzt: Während die Außenwände der Vorhallen nur wenig figürliche Reliefs zeigen, sind die Wände des Sanktums überreich mit Skulpturen geschmückt. Darunter finden sich Götterfiguren (devas oder devis), „schöne Mädchen“ (surasundaris) und Liebespaare (mithunas); auch die ersten erotischen Skulpturen sind in den unteren (erdnahen) Feldern der Mittelregister sowie im Figurenfries der Plattform zu sehen. Die mittleren Felder zeigen dagegen zärtliche Liebespaare mit kleineren Begleitfiguren, die oberen Götterfiguren. Eine Hierarchie der Figurenanordnung ist also deutlich wahrnehmbar. Bei den unmittelbaren Nachfolgebauten (Vishvanatha-Tempel, Jagadambi-Tempel und Kandariya-Mahadeva-Tempel) nimmt die Anzahl der Figuren und somit auch der erotischen Darstellungen zu.
Bei den Jain-Tempeln und den späteren Hindu-Tempeln sind kaum noch erotisch-sexuelle Darstellungen zu finden; hier überwiegt die Anzahl der Götterfiguren manchmal sogar die der „schönen Mädchen“.
ARCHÄOLOGISCHES MUSEUM
Zu den Sehenswürdigkeiten im Bereich des Tempelbezirks von Khajuraho gehört auch das im Ortskern gelegene Archäologische Museum (auch Rani Durgavati-Museum genannt). Es beherbergt einige sehr schöne Skulpturen, die im Rahmen der Ausgrabungs- und Restaurierungsarbeiten gefunden und hierher verbracht wurden, weil sie keinem der erhaltenen Tempelbauten direkt zuzuordnen waren.
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