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Photo not taken by me. However I did the camera settings, lighting, flash and then edited it so I believe it's my right to upload it just as an MUA would upload pictures of their makeup effects.
These were taken to demonstrate some makeup for an upcoming project that me and a small team are undertaking. More details to come later!!
Images captured by Alice who did the makeup and who I'd basically only given my camera to to make sure I had the flash going off in the video I was taking. When we looked back at them they were better than the ones I'd got earlier so I've mostly edited the ones that she took.
The NYPD --- contrary, perhaps, to the Starsky and Hutch image we foreigners have --- use a small fleet of Smart cars for traffic management. And here some of them are, parked for the night up near West 34th Street, with yet another new tower of millionaire apartments, rising in the background.
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A sign reading, “silence and respect” sits near the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Arlington National Cemetery, May 6, 2015, Arlington, Va. (U.S. Army photo by Rachel Larue)
僕の写真の原点です・・・
It is a starting point in my photograph ･･･.
Gallery on the homepage was renewed after a long time ･･･.
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It is hard today to imagine that this unassuming house, pictured in June 2009 sitting amongst the pines on Bournemouth's East Cliff, was at the centre of one the most sensational murder cases of the 20th century.
In 1935 the house was occupied by Leeds born Francis Rattenbury, in his sixties, and his wife Alma who was some 30 years his junior.
They had met in the Canadian city of Victoria where Rattenbury was a hugely successful and well respected architect and a married father of two.
Alma was a twice married mother of one and a talented musician, beautiful and vivacious she had soon captured the older man's heart. It scandalised local society and Rattenbury's family to such an extent when he divorced his wife and married his young lover that the couple felt they could no longer stay in Victoria and made plans to move to England.
When they arrived at the Villa Madeira at number 5 Manor Rd in the early 30's they had been married 5 years and had a young son John, as well as Christopher, Alma's son from her previous marriage.
Alma hired a live in domestic help to assist her with the day to day running of the home and all appeared to have settled down into a fairly unremarkable routine.
But Francis Rattenbury who was used to a busy, successful professional life was starting to feel his age and without much to occupy his mind had started to become reclusive, turning to drink in the evenings. By 1934 he no longer wanted to drive the family car and so an advert was placed in the Bournemouth Echo " Daily willing lad, 14-18, for housework. Scout trained preferred. Apply between 11-12, 8-9, 5 Manor Rd Bournemouth ".
When 17 year old George Stoner, a local youth from 104 Redhill Drive was accepted into the position no-one could possibly have foreseen the terrible events that were about to unfold.
George Stoner was almost completely unschooled in the ways of the world, he had few friends, didn't drink and his father said of him " One could not wish for a better boy. He was not a boy to go out at all. He was rather keen on staying in, rather reserved ".
Very soon the young Stoner was living in his employers home, his duties included gardening and driving Mrs Rattenbury around on errands as and when required.
Perhaps rather suprisingly the pair embarked upon an affair, could there be two more unlikely bedfellows ? She was twice his age, married with two young sons and had a wealth of life experience, and he has been described as somewhat mentally slow, shy, and had never been known to keep the company of a girl.
Francis Rattenbury continued to be reclusive, drinking and suffering from bouts of depression he worried about his finances and had moved to a room on the property's ground floor. Although strained, the couple's relationship remained on a friendly footing and it would seem almost impossible that he didn't know about his wife's affair with the younger man, but it seemed not to bother him having told Alma " Live your life as if i had already gone ".
On the evening of 23rd March 1935 Francis Mawson Rattenbury was found slumped in his chair with blood pouring from a serious wound to the back of his skull. The family doctor was called and the old man was taken to the Strathallen nursing home in nearby Owls Rd.
The police turned up at the Villa Madeira to find a highly excited and incoherrent Alma who admitted to commiting the attack on her husband and was arrested for his attempted murder and taken to the Madeira Rd police station. She was formally charged at the Stafford Rd law courts, pleading not guilty on the advice of her solicitor.
Francis Rattenbury died of his injuries a few days later and Alma was charged with murder. Meanwhile George Stoner had told Irene Riggs, the Rattenbury's live in home help, that it was he who had killed the old man . As a result Stoner was arrested at Central Station as he stepped off a train and was formally charged with murder, he confessed, claiming he had acted alone, whilst Alma continued to maintain that it was she who had acted alone.
When they were both charged together at the Stafford Rd courts on the 2nd April 1935 the proceedings drew a crowd of around 150, mainly women. On their next appearance there were 25 journalists in court. On advice, both pleaded not guilty and a trial was set to try the pair at the Old Bailey. Sensational newspaper headlines followed.
Before the trial Alma was persuaded to retract her confession for the sake of her children, she no longer denied that Stoner had commited the crime.
For his part Stoner seemed not to care to prove his innocence, his only concern was that Alma should not be convicted .
The trial attracted huge media and public attention with the police at times, struggling to contain the crowds outside the Old Bailey.
Alma was aquitted at the end of the trial, she looked a broken woman. Stoner was found guilty and sentenced to death.
A few days after the trial Alma Rattenbury caught a train from London and alighted at Christchurch station. After a short walk to the nearby banks of the River Avon she stabbed herself to death. Her funeral at the Wimborne Rd Cemetery at Cemetery Junction attracted a large, and sometimes undignified crowd eager for a view of the proceedings.
Meanwhile, a public petition signed by over 350,000 people was handed to the Home Secretary pleading for Stoner's death sentence to be commuted to life. The Home Secretary obliged and Stoner was sentenced to life imprisonment. A model prisoner, he served 7 years before being released and seeing military action in WWII.
After the war he returned to Redhill Drive and lived an anonymous life back in his home town. He died in Christchurch Hospital in 2000 aged 83,on the 65th anniversary of Francis Rattenbury's death, just half a mile from the spot where Alma Rattenbury had taken her own life.
The story is undoubtedly a sad one and is full of twists and turns that invite speculation. What was the truth of that night ? There are those that believe Stoner was led astray by a much older and wiser woman who was the real culprit in this sorry affair. Others maintain that Stoner killed the old man in a jealous rage.
There is no doubt that it is a compelling story that gripped the nation back in 1935 and seems to prove the old adage that truth is stranger than fiction.
See related images for further information.
Further reading. Tragedy in Three Voices by Sir Michael Havers / Peter Shankland / Anthony Barrett
Murder at the Villa Madeira by Sir David Napley.
Both books are worth reading but if you only read one i would recommend the first one.
Two days after the terrible events at Manchester Arena, GWR 6959 Modified Hall 4-6-0 No.6990 Witherslack Hall shows respect by having a wreath on the smoke box door. The photograph was taken on the 24th May 2017 at Bury Bolton Street Station which is just outside Manchester. The railway is part of the East Lancashire Railway.
i left flickr on sunday evening with a rather bitter and unpleasant taste in my mouth...
and a huge pain in my heart for my dear friend nora....
i feel i must explain as i mailed many of my contacts whom did not see the images im about to tell you of...
nora had posted an image of her son and another member of flickr added a link below,
which can only be described as an outrageous attack on nora and her faith....
the link to the image and its description was by far one of the most disturbing
things i have witnessed here on flickr.......
it saddened me to think that i belong to such a community.......
thank you to those of you who rallied around in support of nora.....
the reason i have titled this image so is as follows.....
freedom is ours freedom to post what we wish in our streams...
choice again is ours and we have the choice to post and view whatever we feel....
respect is not just mine but its yours too ...respect others and allow them to make thier choice to post what they have concience to live with and stand by....
but again to have the respect not to push your or my views down other peoples throats by linking images of hatred and disrespect to my syream or that of others....
i guess what im trying to say is ..
the reason for this image is that although we look similar and sail the same waters ,we are not the same...
we have our own views, choices, religions,tastes and preferences....
and im not stupid enough to think that we all have to like what others do. we should at least have the grace to respect thier choices......
Nora your my friend and i have a huge ammout of love and respect for you
and it really breaks my heart that you have been treated in this way.......
and to the rest of my flickr friends i hope you now understand my rantings and pleas the other evening.......
flickr is my sanctuary ,my island away from the ugliness around me in the real world...
to end i want to say the person who made this cowardly outrageous attack on nora
is no longer active on flickr.....
but thier removal does not take away the pain and upset they have caused......
i hope that they sleep well at night and the ugly hatred in thier hearts does not haunt them for ever........
andrew.xxxxx
The Cumberland University graduate was a devoted husband and father, a member of the Methodist Church, devout Bible reader and a gentleman who was respected by all. An attorney, he was an eloquent speaker who used his gift well as a politician. He ran for three political offices: state representative, governor and Congress winning the former and latter races.
Above all, he was resolute in his belief that the Union should not divide and dissolve into civil war. Yet, when the Southern states seceded, he cast his lot with Tennessee, and, eventually, the Confederacy, a decision that cost his life.
Robert Hopkins Hatton was born Nov. 2, 1826, in Youngstown or Steubenville, Ohio, to Robert Clopton Hatton, a Methodist Episcopal minister, and his wife Margaret. The couple had six children, two who died in infancy. Young Robert began school at six in Alleghany City, Pa., and the family moved to Nashville in 1835 when he was eight. In 1837 the Hattons relocated to a farm in the Beech Grove community of Sumner County. While his father preached in Gallatin and later clerked and taught school, the boy worked on the farm, enjoyed hunting foxes with his dogs and studying in school. In the fall of 1845, Cumberland University allowed an 18-year-old Hatton to enter the junior class. Two years later he graduated with his class of four in June 1847.
Helping relay the story of Hatton from this point will be Martin Frost, 61, a Lebanon resident who is semiretired from Kimbro Oil Company as an accountant and chief financial officer and who has been portraying General Hatton since 1998. “I first heard of Hatton the first year I was here in 1984 as we drove around the square. I asked who the General was on the top of the Confederate monument,” said Frost, a member of the Sons of Confederate Veterans, the Robert H. Hatton Camp #723, which was named in memory and honor of Hatton.
Frost proceeded to study the General's life and then was asked to play Hatton at a Cedar Grove Cemetery candlelight tour. “I usually portray him three or four times a year at the fairgrounds or on the square for tourism visits, and different civic organizations have asked me to tell the story of Robert Hatton in uniform. It’s usually just here in the County because he’s not too widely known,” Frost said.
As for Hatton’s progress after graduation, Frost shares, “He entered Cumberland’s law school for one year and ran out of money, so he went to teach. He didn’t like that. He came back to Lebanon and obtained a license to practice law and studied and was able to pass the bar exam and worked as an attorney, and then Cumberland University gave him a law degree, probably because of the relationships he had with his professors.”
Hatton joined in the practice of law in 1850 in a partnership with Col. Jordan Stokes of Lebanon. In the spring of 1850 he was appointed by the board of managers of the Washington Monument in the District of Columbia as an agent to present its claims to the people of Tennessee. And on Dec. 16, 1852, he married Sophie K. Reilly, six months his junior, of Williamson County.
WLM - Robert HattonAbout this time, he dissolved his partnership with Stokes and formed a new one, the firm of Hatton and Green, attorneys- and counselors- at-law, with Nathan Green Jr.
In 1855 as a candidate for the Whig party, the Lebanon lawyer was elected as representative from Wilson County to the General Assembly of Tennessee. While he served in Nashville, his wife and children, Reilly, Manie and later, Emily, resided in Lebanon. Then he ran as the American and Whig party candidate for governor in 1857. By this time Lebanon townsfolk referred to him as “Our Bob”. “In this race against Isham Harris for governor, they were traveling together and stumping around the State. They were at odds in Fayetteville and had a fistfight on the platform. He whipped Harris, who was quite a bit older,” said Frost. “He won the fight but lost the election.”
In 1858 Hatton was elected Grand Master for the Order of Tennessee of the Grand Lodge of the Order of Odd Fellows, and in 1859, he ran and won the election to the U.S. Congress as Representative from the State’s Fifth District. “He did a lot of traveling while campaigning and as member of the Order of Odd Fellows,” said Frost. “I think he loved his wife a lot and enjoyed the children. He was very intelligent and must have been well liked. He seemed to succeed in everything he tried.”
Hatton traveled to the District of Columbia in November 1859, leaving his family at their home on the northeast corner of Lebanon’s West Main Street and Hatton Avenue, 327 W. Main, a site on Lebanon's Civil War Trail (today the location of the Shelter Insurance office).
A reporter for The New York Times provides a detailed description of the tall, 136-pound Hatton from Congress in mid-January 1860.
Robert Hatton, of Tennessee, then obtained the floor for a set speech, and at once commanded attention. He is rather tall, rather thin, with a large head and long face, made longer by a profusion of orange chinbeard, harmonizing well with pink cheeks, a large fair forehead, high and expansive; blue eyes, set wide apart on each side of a small irregular nose, high cheek bones, and a great quantity of thick brown hair, rather inclined to curl, but hardly having length sufficient to indulge its propensity. Decidedly, Mr. Hatton has more of the studied graces of an orator than any member yet seen upon the floor. His gestures are full, found, and appropriate—seldom violent—never grotesque, but always emphatic, and with an inclination to the florid order. His head shows imagination, and the perceptives largely developed—the qualities of causality and caution, however, not being visibly from this gallery—if at all existing. His voice is musical and full of the church-organ tone; and he speaks with the deliberativeness of a man determined to say nothing in support of which he is not willing to stand a pistol shot.
From his hotel in the nation’s capitol, Hatton wrote his wife frequently asking about the children and how much he missed family and home. His epistles often reported on sermons he heard while visiting a variety of church denominations. He kept Sophie up to- date on his Bible reading and commented frequently about the drinking of many of those serving in Congress. (Hatton wouldn’t touch a drop of wine or liquor while in D.C.)
Most fervent upon his heart and mind was the fact that a crack in the Union was unavoidable. Hatton wrote his wife Dec. 6, 1860: Now that I am here, my worst anticipations are more than realized. Disunion is inevitable. What will follow, God only knows. Have, today, listened to furious speeches from Wigfall, of Texas; Iverson, of Georgia; and Brown, of Mississippi. Go out of the Union, their States are determined to. So, with South Carolina, Louisiana, Florida and perhaps others. There is not wisdom or patriotism enough in the land to save it.
In his diary two days later, Hatton noted: What shall I write? That the government is upon the eve of disruption. It is. The indications today, are, that before the 4th day of March, five or six of the Southern States will secede. The probabilities are that all the other Southern States will follow, and very soon. The folly of mankind has never been greater than is now being exhibited by the politicians of the South, and the North. Disunion is ruin to both sections.
Hatton made an impassioned speech Feb. 8, 1861, to the U.S. House of Representatives, but war between the states was plunging nearer like a runaway steam locomotive without a brakeman. When the 36th Congress adjourned, Hatton returned to Lebanon, still speaking his piece on holding the country together. His most famous speech, according to Frost, was made April Fool’s Day 1861, as for 2½ hours he urged his fellow citizens to remain in the Union. That night, tempers flared. “A crowd of people, some seem to think they were students from Cumberland, came to his house after everyone had gone to bed and started yelling and beating on pots and pans,” said Frost. “It woke everybody up, and Hatton came out with a pistol and fired it a few times, and they dispersed. A little bit later on the square, he was burned in effigy.”
Whatever strong feelings Hatton held for the Union, attitudes would change upon the news from Fort Sumter, S.C., and the news of President Lincoln calling for 75,000 volunteers to “put down the rebellion”. Hatton volunteered his services to the State of Tennessee. In May he called for volunteers for the Provisional Army of Tennessee and was elected captain of a company of 100 or more men out of Lebanon. “Six companies, totaling about 600 men from Wilson County, left Lebanon on May 20, 1861, and were mustered in at Nashville, and then took the train to Camp Trousdale in Sumner County. They were half finished with basic training when Tennessee declared its independence and separation,” said Frost. “Six companies from Wilson County and four from Sumner, Smith and DeKalb counties formed the 7th Tennessee Infantry Regiment, and Capt. Hatton was elected colonel. He trained and armed them well, and about July 20, they loaded on a train and then went to Nashville to Chattanooga to Knoxville to Bristol and to Virginia.
“Hatton had made arrangements to meet his wife in Nashville just before he left, but she was unable to meet him. So when he left Lebanon, he never saw his family again other than the little boy who came over to training camp a few days.” Hatton and his men initially fought in some smaller battles of the war as he served with Gen. Robert E. Lee in the Cheat Mountain Campaign and then with Gen. Stonewall Jackson in the northern part of the Shenandoah Valley in fall and winter of 1861-62. He wrote numerous letters to his wife from Warm Springs, Va. In the spring Hatton’s troops were directed to the peninsula below Richmond, Va.
In his last correspondence, dated May 28, 1862, 6:30 p.m., from near Richmond, Hatton wrote: The struggle, will no doubt, be bloody; that we will triumph, and that gloriously, I am confident. Would that I might bind to my heart, before the battle, my wife and children. That pleasure may never again be granted to me. If so, farewell; and may the God of all mercy be to you and ours, a guardian and friend. “If we meet again, we’ll smile; If not, this parting has been well.” Affectionately your husband, R. Hatton.
On the evening of May 31, 1862, Hatton, who had been promoted to Brigadier General eight days previously, formed his line in the presence of Confederate President Jefferson Davis, General Lee and Gen. Joe Johnston at the Battle of Seven Pines, also known as the Battle of Fair Oaks. “He had been given command of the Tennessee brigade, and on the 31st the brigade was held in reserve,” said Frost. “But about 6 o’clock they were ordered to the front to make a charge. They did, and evidently did a fine job. Hatton was on his horse, and he was leading the charge. A charge was a walking movement to the front, an orderly advance to the front. Hatton, on his horse, he was a tremendous target.”
Last seen alive in the charge on Nine Mile Road, Hatton was waving his hat, and his voice cheered his men with his final words, “Forward, my brave boys! Forward!” When his favorite horse, Ball, was shot from beneath him, the young General got up, ran forward and in less then 30 steps later, he fell beneath the blast of a hostile gun. There is still an argument as to whether he was hit by rifle shot or cannon shot, but a missile to the head killed him instantly. The time was reported as sunset. Hatton was 35. (Of Hatton’s original 1,000 soldiers from Wilson, Smith, Sumner and DeKalb counties, only 47 survived when General Lee surrendered April 9, 1865, at Appomattox.) Hatton’s body was carried off the field of battle by two of his soldiers as the Tennessee Brigade fell back to the original line of the battle. His pistols were found by a Union soldier and returned to his family 30 years later.
WLM - Gen. Hattons widow Sophie who lived to 89“The body was placed on a train and shipped to Tennessee. Because the bridge across the Tennessee River at Chattanooga had been burned, they were not able to send the body back to Lebanon,” said Frost. “Someone made the decision to bury the body in Knoxville. It remained in Knoxville until spring of 1866, and in March the body was brought back.”
Nearly four years after his death, Hatton was buried on a rainy day, March 23, 1866. His mortal remains were taken from his house on West Main to the Methodist Church where every seat was filled. Thousands were reported to have attended the funeral of “the most popular man in Lebanon”. From the church, the mile-long procession to Cedar Grove Cemetery was fronted by Hatton’s slave, Jerry, who had accompanied him during the war. Jerry led a black mare that belonged to Hatton. The General was finally laid to rest in his hometown.
Nine years later, in 1875, Reilly, Hatton’s son, died at age 21½ on the eve before he was to graduate from Cumberland University. He was buried beside his father. As for Hatton’s other survivors, his widow Sophie lived a good, long life, serving 15 years as a missionary to Japan and for eight years as state librarian of Tennessee. She died in 1916 at the age of 89. Daughter Manie Campbell Hatton never wed and taught for 53 years in Middle Tennessee, 48 of those years at Howard School in Nashville. She died in 1938 at 82. Daughter Emily married missionary Willard Towson, and they carried the gospel to Japan for 22 years. She had two sons and a daughter. One son, Hatton D. Towson, served in World War I and was wounded in the Battle of Argonne in 1919 and died from his injuries later that year back home in Georgia.
General Hatton's closest living relative is Mary Em Towson Hobbs, of Decatur, Ga. Her father was Lambuth Reilly Towson, the son of Emily Hatton Towson, the General's youngest child. “There are five living descendants of four generations. I’m the oldest, 80 years old,” said Hobbs during a phone interview in January. “I’m the great-granddaughter, and my brother had two sons. One of them is 60 and one is 56, and one of them has a daughter and she has a nine-year-old son.”
WLM - Mary Em Townson Hobbs is Gen. Hattons closest living relativeAs for what she knows about her great-grandfather, pieces of family history were handed down from her parents and other family members, and she spent some time as a child with her great-aunt Manie, the General's daughter. She has also gleaned much from a half dozen or so trips to Lebanon, specifically from meeting with the local members of the Sons of Confederate Veterans, the Robert H. Hatton Camp, who have made her an honorary member. “Every time I come up there, I learn more from them than they learn from me, but it’s been thrilling,” she said.
During one visit in recent years, she and her nephew, Robert Hatton Towson, who lives in Goodlettsville, shared some of the family memorabilia with the group, such as Hatton's diaries. Asked for her conclusions about what she believes her greatgrandfather Hatton was like, and she answered, “I would say he had a personality to stand up for what he thought.”
Buried in Cedar Grove Cemetery, Hatton’s grave lies about 20 yards inside the entrance of Gate 2 on the north side of the road. A 16-foot-tall limestone obelisk, erected by the survivors of the 7th Tennessee, marks his grave, and nearby are interred his wife, his parents, his three children and a grandson.
Inscribed on the west face of the obelisk are the words:
General Robert Hatton
Born Nov. 2, 1826
Fell May 31, 1862
While leading the Tenn. Brigade in the Battle of Seven Pines, Va.
As for Lebanon’s most famous landmark, the monument topped by Hatton’s statue on the square?
“In the late 1800’s, the Confederate veterans began to feel compelled to erect monuments at cemeteries and town squares in memory of all their fallen comrades,” explained Frost. “It was happening all across the South. Here, they had already put one monument up in 1899 in Cedar Grove Cemetery. “I think the United Daughters of the Confederacy approached the City about putting up a statue in the center of square, and they were given ownership of the space to erect a Confederate monument. The veterans raised the money and designed the monument.”
Thus, on May 20, 1912, a monument unveiling occurred with great fanfare in Lebanon as the people of Wilson County honored their Confederate veterans. The area overflowed with people, horses and buggies, as the grandchildren of the veterans sang “Dixie” and a Tennessee National Guard detail fired a salute.
WLM- Limestone obelisk marks Hattons gravesite at Cedar Grove CemetryOn the western face of this limestone monument, GENL HATTON is etched below the officer’s feet. Beneath it reads: Erected in honor of the Confederate veterans of Wilson County and all other true Southern soldiers 1861-1865. The south face bears the words: As long as honor or courage is cherished the deeds of these heroes will live. Whether on the scaffold high or in the battles of van the fittest place for man to die is when he dies for man.” The east face reads: “To our mothers and daughters of the Confederacy from 1861 to the present;” and the north face informs: “Erected by the S.G. Shepard Camp No. 941 UCV with contributions from true friends of the Southern soldier.”
Curiously, some may notice, Hatton’s statue faces west. Noted Frost, “Most monuments of Confederate officers face either north or south—either facing the enemy or turning their back—but Hatton faces west and is standing, not mounted. The reason everyone understands is because when he left for Nashville, he was going west. That was the last time the townspeople saw him.
“Had he not been killed, had he survived during the war; no doubt he would have been a major general commanding a division,” opined Frost, who had two great-great-grandfathers serve in the Confederacy. Said Lebanon businessman Jack Cato, a true student of the Civil War whose greatgrandfather fought under Hatton, “He was a very bright young man, and he had served in the state legislature and had run for governor and been in Congress at the outbreak of the war. We just wonder what his legacy would have been had he lived.”
GENERAL ROBERT HOPKINS HATTON
Born: Nov. 2, 1826, in Youngstown or Steubenville, Ohio
Died: May 31, 1862, in the Battle of Seven Pines, aka the Battle of Fair Oaks
Buried: Cedar Grove Cemetery in Lebanon
Parents: Robert Clopton Hatton and Margaret Campbell Hatton
Wife: Sophia Keron Reilly
Children: Son Reilly, daughters Manie and Emily
Education: Graduate of Cumberland University
Career: Lawyer, politician-statesman, soldier
Military: Captain, Colonel of 7th Tennessee Infantry Regiment,
Brigadier General of Tennessee Brigade
Associations: Methodist Church, Grand Lodge of the Order of Odd Fellows
Other facts: Gifted orator, prodigious letter writer, tireless worker
Biography: Life of General Hatton by James Vaulx Drake, 1867. Reprints
of Hatton’s biography are available for $25 at the Lebanon City Hall.
Diver letting an Olive Sea Snake (Aipysurus laevis) go by.
Snake Pit dive site on the Great Barrier Reef.
Midtown, Manhattan, New York City, New York, United StatesSummaryBuilt in three stages between 1912 and 1932, the New York Times Building reflects both the development of the Times Square neighborhood and the history of one of the most highly-respected newspapers in the United States. Founded on Nassau Street in 1851, the Times moved to West 42nd Street in 1905, constructing a skyscraper headquarters at the crossing of Broadway and Seventh Avenue, which had been named Times Square the previous year. The newspaper quickly outgrew the so-called Times Tower and in 1912-13 the eleven-story Times Annex was constructed about two hundred feet away on the north side of West 43rd Street, between Seventh and Eighth Avenues. Architect Mortimer J. Fox, of the firm Buchman & Fox, closely patterned the tripartite neo-Gothic elevations on the 1905 building, designing a limestone base and brick shaft, crowned by a richly embellished terra-cotta cornice and parapet.The Annex became the newspaper's headquarters, accommodating editorial and executive departments, as well as new printing presses and mechanical equipment. The editors christened their new headquarters the "monarch of Times Square" and claimed it was the largest newspaper plant in the world.In 1922, the Times filed plans to double the plant's capacity. Ludlow & Peabody designed the one hundred-foot long addition, which consisted of an expanded staff entrance, five identical bays to the west, and a five-story setback attic level in the style of the French Renaissance. At the center of the hipped roof attic, which extended across both buildings, was a seven-story tower, capped by a pyramidal roof and slender lantern. This Chateauesque feature gave the expanded Annex a dignified and conspicuous presence in an increasingly incandescent Times Square, making the building visible from all comers of the entertainment district.The west wing was constructed in 1930-32. Albert Kahn, the noted Detroit-based architect, designed the plan and maintained the building's primarily neo-Gothic vocabulary, adding three additional bays, a second lobby, and roof-top studio. In recognition of its importance to the newspaper, the Annex was renamed the New York Times Building in 1942.The New York Times Building is one of Times Square's oldest and best preserved non-theatrical structures. Extending 318 feet along the north side of West 43rd Street, the extenor survives largely intact, and the building continues to serve as the newspaper's editorial and business offices.DESCRIPTIONThe New York TimesFor one hundred and fifty years, The New York Times has been one of the world's best-known and highly respected newspapers. Established by Henry Jarvis Raymond, George Jones and Edward B. Welsey in 1851, the newspaper flourished in a series of increasingly prominent Manhattan structures, including sites in the financial district, along Park Row, and since 1905, in Times Square. The Times initially leased space at 113 Nassau Street, but it soon moved to a larger structure at the southeast corner of Nassau and Beekman Streets. In 1856, the owners acquired the Old Brick Presbyterian Church and graveyard "at the northern apex of the triangle formed by Park Row and Nassau and Beekman Streets," which they replaced with a five-story, eighty-foot tall, building designed in the Italianate style by the architect Thomas R. Jackson (1826-1901). The floor plan provided a model for future Times structures: the heavy presses and printing equipment were housed in the basement, while staff offices were located above, on the first, fourth, and fifth stories. To provide space for future expansion, the second and third stories were temporarily leased to outside tenants.The early 1880s were a prosperous period for the Times and in 1886 George Jones proposed to build "the largest and handsomest newspaper office in the world."3 With few sites available in the immediate area, he decided to construct an entirely new building at the same location while retaining as much of the existing structure as possible. Credit for this technological feat went to the architect-engineer George B. Post (1837-1913) who planned and supervised construction of a twelve-story building without interfering with daily operations. Completed in 1889, the granite and limestone Romanesque Revival headquarters (a designated New York City Landmark) was described in King's Handbook of New York (1892) as "the Times expressed in stone."4The Times struggled financially during the early 1890s due to competition from "penny" papers, such as the Journal and World, as well as the financial panic of 1893. Despite hopes that rental income from vacant floors would supplement circulation revenue, in 1893 the newspaper was sold to the New York Times Publishing Company, a corporation headed by Times editor Charles R. Miller. Three years later, in August 1896, Adolph S. Ochs (1858-1935) became publisher, and by August 1900, the company's major shareholder.Soon after taking full control of the Times, he added the familiar slogan "All the News that's Fit to Print" to the masthead, signaling his intention to maintain the newspaper's traditional high standards.Times SquareNew York City's population experienced a dramatic rise in the last decades of the nineteenth century, inspiring fierce competition among daily newspapers. While some lowered prices and ran sensational headlines to attract readers, others, like the Tribune, built lofty skyscrapers to provide office space and rental revenue, as well as to serve as highly visible symbols of each company's success.In the late 1890s, Ochs developed plans to build a new headquarters. As publisher of the Chattanooga Times, Ochs undertook a similar, though far more modestly-sized project in 1891, constructing the city's tallest structure. Crowned by a domed corner pavilion, the six-story Romanesque Revival building attracted considerable attention in Chattanooga and ten thousand people attended the dedication.5 Ochs recognized that a new Manhattan headquarters would offer numerous benefits. In addition to providing additional office space, an impressive structure would generate invaluable publicity for the Times.Several sites were considered, including a large plot on lower Broadway, between Barclay and Murray Streets, but escalating real estate prices in the City Hall area convinced him to choose a less costly location. The Herald was the first major newspaper to abandon Printing House Square, acquiring a full-block site bounded by Broadway and Sixth Avenue, West 35th and 36th Streets. Constructed in 1892-95, the two-stoiy Renaissance Revival structure (McKim, Mead & White, demolished) was notable for its height and handsome glazed loggia, which permitted views into the pressroom.In July 1901, Ochs assembled a similarly prominent trapezoidal site at the center of Longacre Square. Real estate developers were the first group to recognize the area's potential. During the 1850s, brownstone rowhouses and churches began to dominate the blocks west of Broadway, attracting a "superior class of residents."6 Modest hotels and multiple dwellings followed, as well as a large concentration of stables, harness shops, and carriage manufacturers. Because of these establishments the neighborhood became known as Longacre Square, recalling a similar commercial district in London. In 1882, the Metropolitan Opera House (J. C. Cady, demolished) opened on Broadway, between West 39th and 40th Streets. The presence of this elite institution, filling an entire city block and accommodating more than three thousand listeners, would help Longacre Square become the city's primary entertainment district.In subsequent years, a significant group of theaters were built close-by, including the Casino (Francis H. Kimball & Thomas Wisedell, 1882, demolished), the Broadway (J. B. McElfatrick, 1887-88, demolished) Hammerstein's Olympia (J. B. McElfatrick, 1895, demolished), and the New Amsterdam (Herts & Tallent 1903, a designated New York City Landmark and Interior), as well as such luxury hotels as the Astor (Clinton & Russell, 1904-9, demolished) and the Knickerbocker (Marvin & Davis with Bruce Price, 1901-6, a designated New York City Landmark).These new buildings, along with construction of the IRT subway, between 1901 and 1904, convinced Ochs that his new headquarters would stand at the center of a major urban crossroads.7 Measuring 58 feet at the southern end, 20 feet at the northern end, and 138 and 143 feet on the sides, the wedge-shaped building would be located at the intersection of Broadway and Seventh Avenue, between West 42nd and 43rd Streets. The architects Eidlitz & McKenzie (C. L. W. Eidlitz and Andrew C. McKenzie) were responsible for the design, and it was, for a brief period, the city's second tallest structure. Consisting of a twenty-five story shaft set on a sixteen-story base, the so-called Times Tower was constructed by the George A. Fuller Company, with Purdy & Henderson as structural engineers,8 Inspired by "Giotto's Tower" (begun 1334) in Florence, Italy, the limestone, brick and terra-cotta elevations originally featured neo-Gothic and Renaissance Revival details, produced by the Perth Amboy Terra Cotta Co.9The tower's upper stories housed editorial offices, while the lower stories were divided between various departments and outside tenants. Due to the building's slender profile and small footprint, there were few interior rooms and most offices had two windows. The Times claimed that "There is probably not another building in New York City, probably in the world, so saturated with fresh air and sunlight."10 In the basement were various presses as well as the platforms of the recently completed IRT subway. On April 8,1904 the New York City Board of Alderman named the station and the "previously nameless" intersection Times Square, forever linking the newspaper with the neighborhood."The Times AnnexThe Times quickly outgrew the 42nd Street tower, with no possibility of expansion onto an adjoining site. Despite escalating real estate prices in the immediate neighborhood "it did not occur to anyone to suggest that the [newspaperj should desert Times Square."12 The owners viewed the midtown location as "strategic" — at the center of the entertainment district and at the intersection of various existing and proposed transit routes.In 1912, the New York Times Company acquired two lots on the north side of West 43rd Street, between Seventh and Eighth Avenues, including a one hundred by one hundred-foot lot purchased from Lee Shubert for $300,000 -- a "record price for property west of Broadway in the Times Square District" — and a forty-three by one hundred-foot lot leased from the Astor estate.13The Times Annex would be the newspaper's sixth building. It was designed by Mortimer J. Fox (1874-1948) of the architectural firm Buchman & Fox.14 Albert C. Buchman (1859-1936) and Fox founded their partnership in 1899. A native New Yorker, Fox studied at the College of the City of New York (now City College) and at the Columbia School of Mines (later the Columbia School of Architecture). The firm was responsible for many private residences and commercial buildings, including Saks & Company (1901-2, altered, now Herald Center), the Leonori Apartments (1901, part of the Upper East Side Historic District), and the terra-cotta clad World's Tower B uilding (1914) on West 40th Street.15 In 1917, Fox left the firm to become a director and vice president of the Columbia Bank (later part of Manufacturer's Trust). After ten years, he retired to pursue a successful career as a landscape painter. Buchman, a graduate of Cornell University, was associated with Ely Jacques Kahn after 1919.16Fox designed the Annex in the neo-Gothic style, patterning the general configuration and decorative vocabulary on that of the Times Tower. In September 1911, an unidentified Times writer declared:No one will be able to doubt after the most cursory glance that the Times Building and its Annex are related, and that, separated though they be by Seventh Avenue, they yet house branches of the same institution.17Rising to a height of 170 feet, the building consisted of an eleven-story tower set beside a four-story extension.18 This "mounted" tower configuration, like that of the Times Tower, not only gave the Annex the appearance of greater height, but it ensured employees that their new offices would "enjoy as much light and air" as their previous ones. The elevations that were most visible from Broadway - the south and east facades - were treated identically, clad in Indiana limestone, light-colored Kittanning-faced brick and mat-faced terra cotta. The crown, marked by a multistory arcade, projecting cornice and parapet, was the building's most prominent feature, closely resembling that of the former headquarters. To accentuate the relationship between the Times Tower and the Annex, the upper stories were encrusted with identical terracotta tablet flowers, composite capitals, shells, and scroll-like reliefs. The fenestration was also similar, juxtaposing groups of triple one-over-one double-hung windows with deep reveals to single one-over-one double-hung windows with label moldings.Construction began in March 1912 and was completed in August 1913.19 The George A. Fuller Company, the contractor for the Times Tower, again served as builder. Established in Chicago in 1882, the firm specialized in steel-frame construction, erecting such distinguished commercial structures in New York City as the Fuller (aka Flatiron) Building (1901-3), Pennsylvania Station (demolished), the Plaza Hotel (1905-07, 1921) and the Seagram Building (1955-58). At the time of construction, the Fuller Company was among the most successful builders in the United States, with offices in seven cities.The Annex had a considerably larger footprint than its predecessor, with a total of 170,000 square feet of space. Staff and visitors passed through a neo-Gothic portico with revolving doors into a marble-clad lobby. Immediately east of this entrance were three loading bays, two storefronts, and a twenty-five foot wide arcade leading to Weber & Field's Music Hall (William Albert Swasey, 1911-12, demolished) on West 44th Street.20 To alleviate street congestion, the three bays opened onto a fifty-eight by thirty-eight-foot brick paved freight hall where wagons could be loaded and unloaded from raised platforms. The name of the newspaper was found in four locations, carved into the cornice between the second and third stories, on an illuminated sign above the main entrance, on globe-shaped lighting fixtures between each of the loading bays, and on the roof where one-story-tall letters, facing east, spelled "TIMES ANNEX."The first issue was printed in the Annex on March 3, 1913. Once the new plant was fully operational, the newspaper's link to the Times Tower became primarily symbolic. With nearly all floors leased to outside tenants, only the publication and subscription offices remained in the former headquarters, which were connected to the Annex by means of a four hundred-foot long concrete conduit beneath Seventh Avenue, housing steam and electric cables, as well as a pneumatic tube.22 The Times, nonetheless, chose to retain ownership of the Times Tower until 1961, using it as a highly visible venue for such special events as the annual New Year's celebration, as well as to display various illuminated signs and the world-famous electronic news zipper.23A staff of six hundred persons worked in the Annex, making the Times one of the largest employers in the area. As in the Times Tower, the executive and editorial offices were located in the crown. At the eleventh story was Ochs' private office and an assembly hall for lectures and large meetings. On the tenth story was the main library and subject "morgue." The fifth story was devoted to recreation, with showers and dining rooms, and the sixth, seventh, and eighth stories were "reserved for growth." Of particular significance was the steel frame, which was engineered at "above code standards" to support additional floors should they be required.24Ludlow & Peabody and the 1922-24 AdditionCirculation continued to grow throughout the late 1910s, reaching 331,000 copies a day in 1921. While rival newspapers built large printing plants in areas where property values were significantly lower, such as the New York American and Evening Journal (Charles E. Birge, 1927) at 210 South Street, the Evening Graphic (1927) at 346 Hudson Street, the New York Evening Post (Horace Trumbauer, 1926) at 75 West Street, and the Daily News (Raymond M. Hood, 1929-30, a designated New York City Landmark) at 220 East 42nd Street (near Second Avenue), the Times remained committed to publishing in the heart of Times Square and the Annex would become a significant expression of the newspaper's presence and influence.25 In January 1922, the Times filed plans with the Department of Buildings to double the plant's printing capacity. Six years earlier, the newspaper had acquired five five-story flats on 43rd Street, immediately west of the recently completed Annex. These structures were subsequently demolished, providing a one hundred by one hundred foot lot for a " 14 story fireproof storage + workroom + office" structure. The architectural firm Ludlow & Peabody was hired to design the addition. William Orr Ludlow (c. 1871-1954) was trained at the Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey. After graduating in 1892, he joined the firm of Carerre & Hastings where he worked as a draftsman until 1895. From about 1895 to 1908 he was associated with Charles A. Valentine and Lawrence Valk. In 1909, he formed a partnership with Charles S. Peabody (1880-1935). A native of Brooklyn, Peabody studied architecture at Columbia University and the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris. Their partnership lasted for more than twenty years, with the firm designing numerous residential, corporate and institutional buildings throughout the United States.27 In New York City the firm was responsible for the Prospect branch of the People's Trust Company in Brooklyn (1919-20), the Johns-Manville Building at 292 Madison Avenue (1924), forty-eight-story 10 East 40th Street (1928), and thirty-eight-story Chase National Bank Headquarters (1928) at 20 Pine Street.The scale and density of Times Square increased dramatically following construction of the Annex. Grand movie palaces like the Capitol (1914, demolished) and Loew's State (1920, demolished) lined both sides of Seventh Avenue and Broadway, seating as many as five thousand persons. Many prominent skyscrapers were also built in the area during this period, such as the neo-Gothic World's Tower and the Spanish Renaissance-style Candler Building (Willauer, Shape & Bready, 1914-20) on West 42nd Street. Notable for their height and sumptuous use of terracotta ornament, these light-colored towers may have provided inspiration for the upper stories of Ludlow & Peabody's addition.Construction began in January 1922 and was completed in October 1924.28 The addition featured an eleven-story base and a four-story attic level surmounted by a seven-story tower. Clad in limestone, brick and terra cotta, the one hundred foot-long addition was designed to give the impression that the two structures had been built at the same time. To accomplish this effect, Ludlow & Peabody obtained permission to build a five-bay structure that would match the height of the Annex and to extend the projecting cornice onto the new facade.29 The terra cotta used to clad the base and the lower floors was closely modeled on the Annex,30 which explicitly referred back to the Times Tower. For reasons that are unknown, the facade's consistency and reference to the original Times Tower and Annex was diminished by the fenestration, in which steel three-over-three double-hung windows were installed instead of the one-over-one double-hung windows used in the Times Tower and Annex. This choice of windows somewhat undermined the intended coherence of the 43rd Street elevations.Above the base was the four-story attic level extending across both structures. This part of the 1922-24 addition, which is largely hidden from view on 43rd Street because of the deep setback and parapet, was designed in the style of the French Renaissance. At the center of the hipped roof is a seven-story tower with balconies, capped by a pyramidal roof and slender lantern. The Chateauesque feature gave the expanded Annex a dignified and conspicuous presence in an increasingly incandescent Times Square, making it visible to the thousands who congregated in the entertainment district each night. On the four sides of the seventeenth story were one-story tall neon letters that spelled out "TIMES" and at the top of the lantern was a flagpole that flew the newspaper's logo.The expanded Annex enclosed nearly 318,000 square feet of floor space.32 Inside, the general floor arrangement was retained. Most of the lower floors continued to function as offices and the new fourteenth story became the executive wing, with spacious mahogany-paneled offices for Ochs and various vice presidents, as well as a library and private dining room.33Albert Kahn and the West WingTimes Square reached its zenith in the late 1920s. The district became nationally famous, celebrated in both Hollywood films and live musical revues. The Times prospered and circulation increased, reaching 431,000 daily copies in 1929. Many editorial improvements were made to the newspaper during these years, including expanded coverage of financial news, as well as the introduction of a Sunday magazine supplement and book review section.Despite a modest decline in readership following the stock market crash of October 1929, and a significant drop in advertising lines, Ochs continued to develop plans for a $2 million plant on Third Avenue, between Pacific and Dean Streets, in downtown Brooklyn, as well as a seventy-five foot long addition to the Annex.35 Both buildings were designed by Albeit Kahn, Inc., Architects and Engineers. Founded by Albert Kahn (1869-1942) in 1902, the Detroit-based firm specialized in industrial buildings, producing such important works as the Ford River Rouge Plant (1917-1939) and the Chrysler Corporation Half-Ton Truck Plant (1938). The firm also designed several newspaper plants, including the Detroit News (1915), Detroit Free Press (1925) and Detroit Times (1930).36 In March 1930, Moritz Kahn, a member of the firm, published an essay on the design of newspaper buildings. While much of the discussion focused on interior planning, considerable attention was also paid to decoration and construction materials. He advised:The newspaper publisher... is under a certain obligation to the public so far as the appearance of his plant is concerned. There is, to a certain degree, a bond between architecture and newspaper publication in that both are chroniclers of current events. Both are of importance in moulding the character and developing the culture of the public. Consequently, while the planning of the interior of a newspaper building must be done with a keen eye for efficiency, the exterior of the building should possess architectural merit.By the late 1920s, West 43rd Street had changed considerably. The Annex was flanked by two large structures, the fifteen-story Times Square Hotel to the west, and the south elevation of the thirty-three-story Paramount Building (Rapp & Rapp, a designated New York City Landmark) to the east. Crowned by a two-story tall clock with faces on four sides and an illuminated glass sphere that flashed to indicate the hour, the Paramount Building became one of the most visible structures in Times Square, overshadowing the Annex, the recently completed addition, and even the Times Tower.In August 1930, the newspaper filed plans to alter and expand the Annex. The west wing was built on the former site of the Yandis Court Apartments, located between Ludlow & Peabody's 1922-24 addition and the Ascension Memorial Church and rectory (both demolished). Directly across the street, the site faced the Lyric (Victor Hugo Koehler, 1903), Apollo (Eugene DeRosa, 1920), and Selwyn (George Keister, 1918, demolished) theaters, as well as the Hotel Dixie (later Carter Hotel).Construction commenced November 16,1930 and was officially completed January 7, 1932.40 The fifteen-story west wing, which cost more than $1 million, exclusive of equipment, was designed to "permit the expansion of practically all departments... without rearrangement of space in the present structure."41 While Kahn used a modern classical vocabulary in the award-winning Brooklyn plant, on 43rd Street his firm adopted a more contextual approach, duplicating the neo-Gothic crown, shaft, and base of the earlier Annex and addition.In contrast to many recent office towers, his design emphasized the building's horizontal character, directing the eye rhythmically west along the projecting cornice, rather than toward the sky. Perhaps in anticipation of future construction, the building's west facade was treated sparely, with unadorned fenestration and simple two-tone brickwork. Only minor changes were made to the elevations', above the two entrances, between the third and fourth floors, a neo-Gothic clock was installed in 1931, as well as a series of glass globe lighting fixtures beside each delivery bay.With opening of the west wing in August 1931, the Annex stretched 318 feet along West 43rd Street. Times' historian Meyer Berger described the building as "a spreading white monument."43 Eighteen stories tall, 221 feet high, it was valued at $3.05 million. In recognition of the building's importance to the newspaper, the Annex was renamed the New York Times Building in 1942.44Subsequent HistoryUnder Ochs' successor, Arthur Hays Sulzberger (1891-1961), the east section of the building was expanded to the north, occupying the former site of the 44th Street Theater, which the Times acquired in 1943.45 Designed by the architects Shreve, Lamb & Harmon, the 1947 addition (not part of this designation) obscured much of the north elevation which was mostly dismantled to link the structures. At this time, fifteen new presses were installed in the basement increasing the plant's capacity by fifty percent, and bedrooms were built on the fourteenth floor to provide overnight accommodations for executives during emergencies.46 The main entrance was redesigned by the architects Shreve, Lamb & Harmon in 1946. In addition to stripping the west and center porticos of various neo-Gothic arches and other details, a third public entrance (with expanded lobby) was added to the east, replacing a single delivery bay. The new entrance had a revolving door and a grid of windows, surmounted by an Art Deco relief. Removed from the facade of the Brooklyn plant, which closed in the mid-1930s and was sold to the Brooklyn Eagle in 1945, the bronze sculpture depicts two muscular figures flanking an image of the earth with the motto "ALL THE NEWS THAT'S FIT TO PRINT" below.In December 1946, a simple ceremony marked the opening of the redesigned entrance. It was reported at the time that no key could be found to lock the original 1913 entrance and that an "old-timer" recalled that when the Annex opened "it was decided to throw the key away on the theory that the Times would never close its doors."47 The radio station WQXR, which was purchased by the Times in 1944, moved to new studios on the ninth and tenth stories in 1950. A new auditorium was also constructed on the ninth story, designed by Shreve, Lamb & Harmon.48After World War 13, Times Square entered an significant period of decline. Hurt by the middle-class exodus to the suburbs and the growing popularity of television, the entertainment district began to lose its luster. Despite such changes and plans for construction of a new three-block long printing plant on the Upper West Side (Egger & Higgins, 1957-59), the Times continued to publish the daily paper on West 43rd Street.49 A pamphlet, issued by the newspaper, dramatically described each evening's activity:... on the ground floor of its building in Forty-third Street, is a fleet of trucks, waiting to speed the paper to readers in all parts of the world ... So when the presses start and the papers start coming up the carriers in a swift stream . . . becomes a maelstrom of activity . . . . Out of the doors on the street roll the trucks no matter what the weather... some to catch planes, some to catch trains, some to meet other trucks and divide up their burdens for runs into the country, some for local delivery - all of them hastening on schedule, loaded with news of the world.50To better manage the growing number of delivery trucks, in 1951 the roadbed on West 43rd Street was re-paved and widened by two feet, and in 1962 the seven delivery bays to the west were also widened (Egger & Higgins). Large quartz floodlights were installed over each bay in 1967. The stone facing on the rusticated columns was removed, and east of the entrances the arches were squared-off and the columns replaced by steel pillars.In 1963, a fire destroyed the original clock which was replaced with a seven by seven-foot tall digital "jump" clock. Two years later, in 1965, the building was recognized by Sigma Delta Chi, a society devoted to professional journalism, as an "Historic Site in Journalism." As the twenty-first site identified by the society, the members placed a rectangular bronze plaque dedicated to Ochs between the west and center entrances.During the 1980s, the west end of the attic level was altered to enclose an audio visual center and auditorium. At this time, a large window wall was cut into the attic's north face. In 1997, the presses came to a halt and the balance of printing operations were moved to a new printing plant (Polshek Partnership, 1994-97) at 26-50 Whitestone Expressway in College Point, Queens. The Times is currently planning to build a new skyscraper headquarters on the east side of Eighth Avenue, between West 40th and 41st Streets, designed by the Italian architect Renzo Piano. DescriptionThe New York Times Building occupies a 318 by 100 foot site on West 43rd Street, between Seventh and Eighth Avenues. Based on French Gothic, and French and Italian Renaissance sources, the eighteen-story structure is faced in Indiana limestone, tan brick, and cream-colored terra cotta. The building is divided into three major parts: a four-story east section, an eleven-story main section (1912-13, 1922-24, 1930-32), a five-story set-back attic level and seven-story tower (1922-24). The fenestration in the 1912-13 portion of the building consists of one-over-one double-hung, steel stash. The 1924 and 1931 additions have a combination of mostly three-over-three and six-over-six double-hung, steel windows. Replacement windows are either steel or aluminum.The south elevation faces West 43rd Street and consists of a two-story limestone base, a brick shaft, and richly-embellished terra-cotta crown. The first story is divided into sixteen bays, of which twelve are used as delivery bays. These twelve bays have been stripped, widened, and framed by non-historic steel columns (c. 1962). To the west of the entrances, the arches above each bay have been retained, while to the east, they have been squared. Attached to each column is a globe-shaped lighting fixture (c. 1962) modeled on those installed before 1922. The non-historic delivery bay doors are painted blue. Most of the second-story windows, except for one at the west end and four at the east end, are arranged in pairs and share a common sill. These windows are surmounted by a continuous shell frieze and cornice. Non-historic lighting fixtures are attached above the cornice and directed toward each delivery bay.Three entrance porticoes are located at the center of the first story. Whereas the two unused entrances at the west are framed by the original porticoes and pilasters (1930-32), the east or main staff and visitors entrance (1946) consists of two revolving doors surmounted by a grid of six windows and a rectangular bronze relief. The west entrance is flanked by globe-shaped lighting fixtures, while to either side of the main entrance are non-historic slender bronze-and-glass lighting fixtures (1985) attached to the wall. A bronze plaque dedicated to Adolph S. Ochs is attached to the facade between the main and center entrance. The west and center entrances have bronze doors surmounted by windows. Above the left door of the west entrance is an air conditioner. Above each entrance, at the second story, are three recessed triple-hung windows, surmounted by a frieze with relief panels, each with a pair of griffins grasping a shield. Two flagpoles extend from each sill above the center and main entrance. A single gargoyle projects between the west and center entrance. Between the third and fourth stories, aligned between the west and main entrance is a digital "Times" clock (1967) projecting over the sidewalk.The four-story east section (1912-13) is clad in brick above the second story. It has three single-hung windows on each floor. The fourth story windows are crowned by ogee moldings with finials. Above the fourth story is a richly embellished terra-cotta cornice supported by four decorative corbels. A terra-cotta parapet extends across roof.Floors 3 through 9 are clad in brick. From east to west, the fenestration is arranged as follows: a single window with ogee molding, three pairs of recessed windows, a single window with ogee molding (1911), a single window with ogee molding, three pairs of recessed windows, a single window with ogee molding (1922-24), three recessed windows, and a single window with ogee molding (1930-32). Between the ninth and tenth story extends a continuous entablature interrupted by decorative terra-cotta capitals with small cartouches crowning brick pilasters that rise from the base of the third story.The tenth and eleventh stories are treated as a single composition in terra cotta, with three groups of three triple windows framed by arches springing from decorative capitals and flanked by pilasters faced with tablet flowers. To accentuate the southeast comer, these pilasters repeat near the end of the south and east facades. The triple windows are divided by thin metal columns resting on squat pedestals. At the eleventh story, the windows rest on decorative metal spandrels. Each group of windows is flanked by a single window at the tenth story and a single window with balcony crowned by an ogee molding with finial at the eleventh story. Crowned by a continuous bracketed terra-cotta cornice, the eleventh story is surmounted by a decorative shell frieze, which extends onto the east facade. A decorative parapet, alternating three-dimensional decorative relief panels and pedestals, extends across the roof.Set back from the street is the five-story attic level (1920-22) with a hipped roof and dormer windows. The fourteenth story is faced with fleur-de-lys reliefs within raised interlaced diagonal bands. Directly above is a bracketed terra-cotta cornice, a decorative frieze, and parapet. Atop each of the parapet's pedestals is a small obelisk. Towards the west end of the fourteenth story, a section of the parapet has been removed and a small addition has been made into the roof (1985). The hipped roof is covered to give the appearance of standing seam teme metal.The tower is divided into the three bays. At the seventeenth story, each window has a small balcony and is crowned by a ogee molding. In the central bay, a single (sealed) window rises from the fourteenth to the fifteenth story. The fifteenth and sixteenth story is faced with low fleur-de-lys reliefs set within raised interlaced diagonal bands. The tower sets backs at the eighteenth story and is enclosed by a terra-cotta parapet with three-dimensional relief panels. Behind the parapet, each facade has three arched windows between pilasters. The eighteenth story has a pedimented dormer on each facade, flanked by scrolls and finials. The pyramidal roof, covered to give the appearance of standing seam teme metal, rises to a slender lantern, enclosed by an arched railing resting on shell-like objects. Directly below the lantern, on all sides, aligned with the pedimented dormer, is a round-arched dormer.The brick east elevation (1912) is visible above the four-story extension. From east to west, the fenestration is arranged as follows: a single window with ogee molding, three pairs of recessed windows, and a single window with ogee molding. The tenth and eleventh stories are faced in terra cotta and treated as a single composition, with three groups of triple windows framed by arches springing from decorative capitals and flanked by pilasters faced with tablet flowers. The triple windows are divided by thin metal columns resting on squat pedestals. At the eleventh story, the windows rest on decorative metal spandrels. Each group of windows is flanked by a single window at the tenth story and a single window with balcony crowned by an ogee arch with finial. The eleventh story is crowned by a continuous bracketed cornice, surmounted by a decorative shell frieze. Extending across the roof is a decorative parapet, alternating squat pedestals with sets of five three-dimensional decorative panels.The attic level sets back at the twelfth story. At center, a section of the parapet has been replaced by a pair of non-historic windows. The thirteenth and fourteenth stories have paired central windows with ogee moldings flanked by a single window with sills. The fourteenth story is faced with fleur-del-lys reliefs set within raised interlaced diagonal bands. The east facade is crowned by a bracketed terra-cotta cornice, a decorative frieze, and parapet. Obelisks rise from each of the pedestals. At the north end of the parapet rises a terra-cotta-clad chimney with chimney cap.The west elevation (1930-32) is visible above the adjacent garage and from Eighth Avenue. Brown and beige brickwork frames the double and triple hung windows, as well as the blind windows, on the fifth through eleventh stories. At the top of the eleventh story is a terra-cotta parapet and decorative reliefs. The attic level sets back at the twelfth story. The thirteenth and fourteenth stories each have a single two-over-two window at either end. At the fourteenth story, the windows and a wide central panel are decorated with fleur-de-lys reliefs set within raised interlaced diagonal panels. Decorative parapets mark the base of the fifteenth and sixteenth stories. Above the fifteenth story is a small tower capped by a hipped roof treated to give the appearance of standing seam terne metal with a metal dormer containing three round-arched double-hung windows. Below each window are decorative chevrons. Small finials mark the top of the dormer and roof.The north facade visible above the ninth story. Up to the eleventh story, the facade is clad in light-colored brick or terra cotta. The windows are arranged in groups of three, with delicate sills and lintels on the eleventh story. The eleventh story is crowned by a simple comice with a decorative shell frieze. The attic level sets back at the twelfth story. Across the thirteenth and fourteenth story, from west to east, the fenestration is arranged as follows: a single window with ogee molding, three groups of triple windows with shared sills, a single window with ogee molding, three pairs of windows with sills, a single window with sill, and two slender windows (the windows to the east are not visible). The fourteenth story is faced with fleur-de-lys reliefs set within raised interlaced diagonal bands, and crowned by a bracketed terra-cotta cornice, a decorative frieze, and parapet. Atop each of the pedestals is a small obelisk. Near the east end rises the central tower (see previous description). The upper stories of the tower only are visible from the north end of Shubert Alley, at 45th Street. Toward the west end of the facade, several sections of the parapet have been removed and replaced by glass walls (1985). The small tower has a single window, squat chimney, and hipped roof rising from the parapet at the sixteenth story.- From the 2001 NYCLPC Landmark Designation Report
Ganesha, also spelled Ganesh, and also known as Ganapati and Vinayaka, is a widely worshipped deity in the Hindu pantheon. His image is found throughout India and Nepal. Hindu sects worship him regardless of affiliations. Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains, Buddhists, and beyond India.
Although he is known by many attributes, Ganesha's elephant head makes him easy to identify. Ganesha is widely revered as the remover of obstacles, the patron of arts and sciences and the deva of intellect and wisdom. As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rituals and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as patron of letters and learning during writing sessions. Several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography.
Ganesha emerged as a distinct deity in the 4th and 5th centuries CE, during the Gupta Period, although he inherited traits from Vedic and pre-Vedic precursors. He was formally included among the five primary deities of Smartism (a Hindu denomination) in the 9th century. A sect of devotees called the Ganapatya arose, who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity. The principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa.
ETYMOLOGY AND OTHER NAMES
Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati and Vighneshvara. The Hindu title of respect Shri is often added before his name. One popular way Ganesha is worshipped is by chanting a Ganesha Sahasranama, a litany of "a thousand names of Ganesha". Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. At least two different versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama exist; one version is drawn from the Ganesha Purana, a Hindu scripture venerating Ganesha.
The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana, meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system and isha, meaning lord or master. The word gaņa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva. The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation. Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the Gaņas" to mean "Lord of Hosts" or "Lord of created categories", such as the elements. Ganapati, a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of gaṇa, meaning "group", and pati, meaning "ruler" or "lord". The Amarakosha, an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha : Vinayaka, Vighnarāja (equivalent to Vighnesha), Dvaimātura (one who has two mothers), Gaṇādhipa (equivalent to Ganapati and Ganesha), Ekadanta (one who has one tusk), Heramba, Lambodara (one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), and Gajanana; having the face of an elephant).
Vinayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak (aṣṭavināyaka). The names Vighnesha and Vighneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) refers to his primary function in Hindu theology as the master and remover of obstacles (vighna).
A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai. A. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a "child" while pillaiyar means a "noble child". He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk", also "elephant tooth or tusk". Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have originally meant "the young of the elephant", because the Pali word pillaka means "a young elephant".
In the Burmese language, Ganesha is known as Maha Peinne, derived from Pali Mahā Wināyaka. The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is Phra Phikhanet or Phra Phikhanesuan, both of which are derived from Vara Vighnesha and Vara Vighneshvara respectively, whereas the name Khanet (from Ganesha) is rather rare.
In Sri Lanka, in the North-Central and North Western areas with predominantly Buddhist population, Ganesha is known as Aiyanayaka Deviyo, while in other Singhala Buddhist areas he is known as Gana deviyo.
ICONOGRAPHY
Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art. Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time. He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down or on an elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations.
Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the 6th century. The 13th century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900–1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha's common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973–1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost, and another similar statue is dated c. 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal. Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature. A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century. Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a pasha (noose) in the other upper arm.
The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (abhaya mudra). The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme.
COMMON ATTRIBUTES
Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art. Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head. One of his popular forms, Heramba-Ganapati, has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known. While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories. The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created by Parvati using clay to protect her and Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant. Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source. Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva's laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.
Ganesha's earliest name was Ekadanta (One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken. Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk. The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the Mudgala Purana, which states that the name of Ganesha's second incarnation is Ekadanta. Ganesha's protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries). This feature is so important that, according to the Mudgala Purana, two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it: Lambodara (Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) and Mahodara (Great Belly). Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly. The Brahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., cosmic eggs) of the past, present, and future are present in him. The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms. Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts. His earliest images had two arms. Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries. The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms. According to the Ganesha Purana, Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vasuki around his neck. Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha's forehead may be a third eye or the Shaivite sectarian mark , which consists of three horizontal lines. The Ganesha Purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead. A distinct form of Ganesha called Bhalachandra includes that iconographic element. Ganesha is often described as red in color. Specific colors are associated with certain forms. Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise on Hindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations as Heramba-Ganapati and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage). Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualized as blue during meditation in that form.
VAHANAS
The earliest Ganesha images are without a vahana (mount/vehicle). Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana, Ganesha uses a mouse (shrew) in five of them, a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation as Vikata, and Shesha, the divine serpent, in his incarnation as Vighnaraja. Mohotkata uses a lion, Mayūreśvara uses a peacock, Dhumraketu uses a horse, and Gajanana uses a mouse, in the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana. Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse, elephant, tortoise, ram, or peacock.
Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse, shrew or rat. Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet. The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation. The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag. The names Mūṣakavāhana (mouse-mount) and Ākhuketana (rat-banner) appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama.
The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpret Gaṇapati's mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes tamoguṇa as well as desire". Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolizes those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish. Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word mūṣaka (mouse) is derived from the root mūṣ (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of vighna (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as Vigneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk grāma-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence. Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places.
ASSOCIATIONS
OBSTACLES
Ganesha is Vighneshvara or Vighnaraja or Vighnaharta (Marathi), the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order. He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Paul Courtright says that "his task in the divine scheme of things, his dharma, is to place and remove obstacles. It is his particular territory, the reason for his creation."
Krishan notes that some of Ganesha's names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time. Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of the Ganapatyas, to this shift in emphasis from vighnakartā (obstacle-creator) to vighnahartā (obstacle-averter). However, both functions continue to be vital to his character.
BUDDHI (KNOWLEDGE)
Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning. In Sanskrit, the word buddhi is a feminine noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect. The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha's names in the Ganesha Purana and the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya. This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama that Ganesha says are especially important. The word priya can mean "fond of", and in a marital context it can mean "lover" or "husband", so the name may mean either "Fond of Intelligence" or "Buddhi's Husband".
AUM
Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Aum, also spelled Om. The term oṃkārasvarūpa (Aum is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound. The Ganapati Atharvashirsa attests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows:
(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trinity) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire [Agni] and air [Vāyu]. You are the sun [Sūrya] and the moon [Chandrama]. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and Swargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).
Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body in iconography and the shape of Aum in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts.
FIRST CHAKRA
According to Kundalini yoga, Ganesha resides in the first chakra, called Muladhara (mūlādhāra). Mula means "original, main"; adhara means "base, foundation". The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests. This association is also attested to in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Courtright translates this passage as follows: "[O Ganesha,] You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [mūlādhāra cakra]." Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara. Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby "governing the forces that propel the wheel of life".
FAMILY AND CONSORTS
Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son of Shiva and Parvati, the Puranic myths give different versions about his birth. In some he was created by Parvati, in another he was created by Shiva and Parvati, in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati's bath water that had been thrown in the river.
The family includes his brother the war god Kartikeya, who is also called Subramanya, Skanda, Murugan and other names. Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the first born. In northern India, Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, when worship of him declined significantly in northern India. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers and may reflect sectarian tensions.
Ganesha's marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories. One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried brahmacari. This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India. Another pattern associates him with the concepts of Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity); these qualities are sometimes personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha's wives. He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: daşi). Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, Sarasvati or Śarda (particularly in Maharashtra). He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lakshmi. Another pattern, mainly prevalent in the Bengal region, links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo.
The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had begotten two sons: Kşema (prosperity) and Lābha (profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to be Śubha (auspiciouness) and Lābha. The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma, the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma's cult as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a popular deity.
WOSHIP AND FESTIVALS
Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions; especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business. K.N. Somayaji says, "there can hardly be a [Hindu] home [in India] which does not house an idol of Ganapati. [..] Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country". Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity.
Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity, and Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies. Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin performances of arts such as the Bharatnatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha. Mantras such as Om Shri Gaṇeshāya Namah (Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah (Om, Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts).
Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as modaka and small sweet balls (laddus). He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a modakapātra. Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with red sandalwood paste (raktacandana) or red flowers. Dūrvā grass (Cynodon dactylon) and other materials are also used in his worship.
Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesh Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in the śuklapakṣa (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of bhādrapada (August/September) and the Gaṇeśa jayanti (Gaṇeśa's birthday) celebrated on the cathurthī of the śuklapakṣa (fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of māgha (January/February)."
GANESH CHATURTI
An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesha Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September. The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising Ganesha's visit. The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi, when idols (murtis) of Ganesha are immersed in the most convenient body of water. Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, or 7th day. In 1893, Lokmanya Tilak transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event. He did so "to bridge the gap between the Brahmins and the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them" in his nationalistic strivings against the British in Maharashtra. Because of Ganesha's wide appeal as "the god for Everyman", Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule. Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions, and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day. Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra. The festival also assumes huge proportions in Mumbai, Pune, and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples.
TEMPLES
In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as an acolyte or subordinate deity (pãrśva-devatã); as a deity related to the principal deity (parivāra-devatã); or as the principal deity of the temple (pradhāna), treated similarly as the highest gods of the Hindu pantheon. As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati’s doorkeeper. In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (lit. "eight Ganesha (shrines)") in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city of Pune, each of these eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore and legend. The eight shrines are: Morgaon, Siddhatek, Pali, Mahad, Theur, Lenyadri, Ozar and Ranjangaon.
There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations: Wai in Maharashtra; Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Jodhpur, Nagaur and Raipur (Pali) in Rajasthan; Baidyanath in Bihar; Baroda, Dholaka, and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following: Kanipakam in Chittoor; the Jambukeśvara Temple at Tiruchirapalli; at Rameshvaram and Suchindram in Tamil Nadu; at Malliyur, Kottarakara, Pazhavangadi, Kasargod in Kerala, Hampi, and Idagunji in Karnataka; and Bhadrachalam in Andhra Pradesh.
T. A. Gopinatha notes, "Every village however small has its own image of Vighneśvara (Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, below pīpaḹa (Sacred fig) trees [...], in a niche [...] in temples of Viṣṇu (Vishnu) as well as Śiva (Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in Śiva temples [...]; the figure of Vighneśvara is invariably seen." Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, including southeast Asia, Nepal (including the four Vinayaka shrines in the Kathmandu valley), and in several western countries.
RISE TO PROMINENCE
FIRST APEARANCE
Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries. Shanti Lal Nagar says that the earliest known iconic image of Ganesha is in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra, which has been dated to the Gupta period. His independent cult appeared by about the 10th century. Narain summarizes the controversy between devotees and academics regarding the development of Ganesha as follows:
What is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaņeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaņeśa's Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.
POSSIBLE INFLUENCES
Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:
In the post 600 BC period there is evidence of people and places named after the animal. The motif appears on coins and sculptures.
Thapan's book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that, "although by the second century CE the elephant-headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut."
One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vinayakas (Vināyakas). In Hindu mythology, the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties but who were easily propitiated. The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. Krishan is one of the academics who accepts this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, "He is a non-vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering". Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear in Indian art and coinage as early as the 2nd century. According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of Sri Lanka in the early pre-Christian era.
A metal plate depiction of Ganesha had been discovered in 1993, in Iran, it dated back to 1,200 BCE. Another one was discovered much before, in Lorestan Province of Iran.
First Ganesha's terracotta images are from 1st century CE found in Ter, Pal, Verrapuram and Chandraketugarh. These figures are small, with elephant head, two arms, and chubby physique. The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times (2nd-3rd centuries CE).
VEDIC AND EPIC LITERATURE
The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit: gaṇapati) occurs twice in the Rig Veda, but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for Brahmanaspati, according to commentators. While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today. In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to Bṛhaspati—who is the deity of the hymn—and Bṛhaspati only". Equally clearly, the second passage (RV 10.112.9) refers to Indra, who is given the epithet 'gaṇapati', translated "Lord of the companies (of the Maruts)." However, Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha .
Two verses in texts belonging to Black Yajurveda, Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā (2.9.1) and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (10.1), appeal to a deity as "the tusked one" (Dantiḥ), "elephant-faced" (Hastimukha), and "with a curved trunk" (Vakratuņḍa). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th century commentator Sayana explicitly establishes this identification. The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk (vakratuṇḍa) and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane, and a club, is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says "we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin". However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions. Thapan reports that these passages are "generally considered to have been interpolated". Dhavalikar says, "the references to the elephant-headed deity in the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā have been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity".
Ganesha does not appear in Indian epic literature that is dated to the Vedic period. A late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata says that the sage Vyasa (Vyāsa) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on condition that Vyasa recite the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed, but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata, in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix. The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during preparation of the critical edition. Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for Vyāsa's dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation. Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, and Moriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in South Indian manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend. The term vināyaka is found in some recensions of the Śāntiparva and Anuśāsanaparva that are regarded as interpolations. A reference to Vighnakartṛīṇām ("Creator of Obstacles") in Vanaparva is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.
PURANIC PERIOD
Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas "defy precise chronological ordering", the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life are in the late texts, c. 600–1300. Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant's head are in the later Puranas, which were composed from c. 600 onwards. He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries.
In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that:
Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding Gaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.
Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century, when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. The 9th-century philosopher Adi Shankara popularized the "worship of the five forms" (Panchayatana puja) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition. This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, and Surya. Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.
SCRIPTURES
Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism, some Brahmins (brāhmaṇas) chose to worship Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed the Ganapatya tradition, as seen in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana.
The date of composition for the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana - and their dating relative to one another - has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comments about dating and provides her own judgement. "It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries", she says, "but was later interpolated." Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the Ganesha Purana to be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.
R.C. Hazra suggests that the Mudgala Purana is older than the Ganesha Purana, which he dates between 1100 and 1400. However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the Mudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, the Mudgala Purana specifically mentions the Ganesha Purana as one of the four Puranas (the Brahma, the Brahmanda, the Ganesha, and the Mudgala Puranas) which deal at length with Ganesha. While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions. Another highly regarded scripture, the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during the 16th or 17th centuries.
BEYOND INDIA AND HINDUISM
Commercial and cultural contacts extended India's influence in western and southeast Asia. Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who reached foreign lands as a result.
Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures. From approximately the 10th century onwards, new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders. The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.
Hindus migrated to Maritime Southeast Asia and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them. Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in Hindu art of Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional influences. The spread of Hindu culture to southeast Asia established Ganesha in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina, Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region. In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of the Chams in Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles. Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success.
Before the arrival of Islam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practiced. Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region.
Ganesha appears in Mahayana Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name. His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period. As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, he is often shown dancing. This form, called Nṛtta Ganapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet. In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known as Heramba, is popular; he has five heads and rides a lion. Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him. A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is tshogs bdag. In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot by Mahākāla, (Shiva) a popular Tibetan deity. Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, and sometimes dancing. Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In northern China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531. In Japan, where Ganesha is known as Kangiten, the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806.
The canonical literature of Jainism does not mention the worship of Ganesha. However, Ganesha is worshipped by most Jains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of Kubera. Jain connections with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections. The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century. A 15th-century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of Ganapati images. Images of Ganesha appear in the Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
WIKIPEDIA
By respected architect Archibald Elliott (Edinburgh), 1823. Model castellated jail built on site of former Jedburgh Castle (demolished 1409). Sham battlements with small towers at angles (entrance in NE tower) enclosing a D-plan site at top of Castle Gate. At centre of site square 2-storey 3-bay Gaoler's House with towers at each corner; flanked by rectangular 2-storey 5-bay cell blocks. Walls enclosing quadrants between blocks serving as exercise yards. Buildings and walls of cream sandstone rubble with ashlar dressings; buildings and fortifications with battlemented parapet and moulded ashlar coping; quadrant walls with plain semi-circular coping. Base course and string courses above ground floor and below parapet. All windows with deep splayed reveals.
Jedburgh old Castle Jail is a fine example of a purpose built early 19th century jail with a complex double walled layout, demonstrating some fine castellated stone detailing, and prominently sited to the head of the town’s main street on the mound of the demolished Jedburgh Castle. It is contemporary and in the same style as the larger Stirling Old Town Jail, although Jedburgh is a more refined plan layout and design.
Jedburgh castle had been demolished by the Scots in 1409 to prevent the English using it during the Border wars, and all that remained was fragments of masonry. The mound on which it stood was largely covered by trees, and was the site of the town gallows. Archibald Elliott, the architect of Edinburgh's Calton Jail, was chosen to design the new jail and by 1834 the Parish Minister John Purves remarked that there was "no more comfortable place of confinement in Scotland.” In 1847 the jail was altered to come into line with the Prison Acts of 1839 which stipulated separate cells. The Bridewell, having been originally built with separate cells anyway, is therefore the least altered part of the complex. Jedburgh jail at one point moved someone to poetry:
I'd rather lie in the belly o' a whale
Than spend a nicht in Jethart Gaol.
“Tell me again how you think God will judge others for who they love, and not judge you for hating someone you’ve never met?”
The all-powerful and widely respected "Nifty Fifty, AF 50mm F/1.8 D was my third, and newest lens brought into my collection!
This is a totally different beast. My first prime lens has taken a bit to get used to! It will be successful in the objectives presented to it by me though, with a little practice.
I was hurting in these areas -
* Low Light
* Fast-focusing Accuracy
* Great depth presentation in everyday shooting
* Uncanny clarity and color representation
I needed something that could handle a lot more light than I had before and this certainly does that. I want to get into portraits and do street crawls and I want to have the ability to be lightning quick and razor sharp and keep it moving.
This lens can do all of that and more. Hopefully I'll be able to bring some amazing results soon.
The Ride of Respect is an annual mass ride by motorcyclists to pay tribute both to UK tri-service personnel and to the fallen and their families.
Over the past 4 years' rides, it have raised around a half million pounds for military charities
Please NOTE and RESPECT the copyright:
© 2013 photos4dreams - All rights reserved.
This image may not be copied, reproduced, published or distributed in any medium without the expressed written permission of the copyright holder.
for purchase information see my profile
Budapest (Acerca de este sonido /ˈbudɒpɛʃt/ (?·i)) es la capital y ciudad más poblada de Hungría,3 así como su principal centro industrial, comercial y de transportes.4 La ciudad posee 1,74 millones de habitantes (2011),5 una disminución significativa respecto de los casi 2,1 millones con que contaba a mediados de los años 1980,6 que representan un quinto de la población total de Hungría. Es la ciudad más poblada de Europa central-oriental y la séptima de la Unión Europea. La ciudad ocupa una superficie de 525 km²7 y su área metropolitana cuenta con una población de 2,38 millones de habitantes. Budapest se convirtió en una única ciudad cuando ocupó las dos orillas del río Danubio, unificando las ciudades de Buda y Óbuda, en la orilla oeste, con Pest, en la orilla este, el 17 de noviembre de 1873.7 8
La historia de Budapest comenzó con Aquincum, originalmente un asentamiento celta9 10 que se convirtió en la capital romana de Panonia Inferior.9 Los húngaros llegaron al territorio en el siglo IX.11 Su primer asentamiento fue saqueado por los mongoles en 1241-42.12 La ciudad restablecida se convirtió en uno de los centros de la cultura del Renacimiento humanista en el siglo XV.13 14 Después de la batalla de Mohács y tras casi 150 años de dominio otomano,15 el desarrollo de la región entró en una nueva era de prosperidad en los siglos XVIII y XIX, y Budapest se convirtió en una ciudad global después de la unificación de 1873.16 También se convirtió en la segunda capital de Austria-Hungría, una gran potencia que se disolvió en 1918. Budapest fue el punto focal de la revolución húngara de 1848, la República Soviética Húngara de 1919, la Operación Panzerfaust en 1944, la batalla de Budapest de 1945 y la Revolución de 1956.
Considerada como una de las ciudades más bellas de Europa,3 17 18 Budapest cuenta con varios sitios que son Patrimonio de la Humanidad, entre los que se incluyen, a orillas del Danubio, el barrio del Castillo de Buda, la avenida Andrássy, la Plaza de los Héroes y el Metropolitano del Milenio, el segundo más antiguo del mundo.17 19 Otros puntos destacados incluyen un total de 80 manantiales geotérmicos,20 el mayor sistema de cuevas de aguas termales del mundo,21 la segunda sinagoga más grande y el tercer edificio del Parlamento más grande del mundo. La ciudad atrae a alrededor de 4,3 millones de turistas al año, convirtiéndola en la 25.ª ciudad más popular del mundo, según Euromonitor.22
Budapest es, también, un importante centro financiero de Europa Central. La ciudad se situó tercera (de un total de 65 ciudades) en el Índice de Mercados Emergentes elaborado por Mastercard,23 y clasificada como la ciudad mejor habitable de Europa Central y Europa del Este por índice de calidad de vida según Economist Intelligence Unit.24 25 También se clasificó como el "séptimo lugar idílico de Europa para vivir" por la revista Forbes,26 y como la novena ciudad más bella del mundo por UCityGuides.27 Es, también, la mejor ciudad de Europa Central y del Este en el índice Innovation Cities' Top 100.28 29
Toponimia[editar]
El nombre de «Budapest» es la composición de los nombres de las ciudades «Buda» y «Pest», ya que se unieron (junto con Óbuda) para convertirse en una sola ciudad en 1873.30 Una de las primeras apariciones del nombre combinado «Buda-Pest» fue en 1831 en el libro Világ («Mundo»), escrito por el conde István Széchenyi.
El origen de las palabras «Buda» y «Pest» es incierto. Según las crónicas de la Edad Media el nombre de «Buda» viene del nombre de su fundador, Bleda (Buda), el hermano del huno Atila. La teoría de que «Buda» fue el nombre de una persona es apoyada también por los estudiosos modernos.31 Una explicación alternativa sugiere que deriva de la palabra eslava «вода, voda» («agua»), una traducción del nombre en latín Aquincum, que era el principal asentamiento romano en la región.32
También existen varias teorías sobre el origen del nombre «Pest». Una de las teorías sostiene que proviene de la época romana,33 ya que había una fortaleza, «Contra-Aquincum», que en esta región que se conoce como «Pession» (Πέσσιον, III.7. § 2) por Ptolomeo.34 Según otra teoría, toma su origen de la palabra eslava «пещера, peshtera» («cueva») o de la palabra «печь, pesht» («horno») en referencia a una cueva local.35 En la antigua lengua húngara había un significado similar para la palabra «horno/cueva» y el nombre antiguo original alemán de esta región fue «Ofen». Más tarde, «Ofen», en alemán, se refiere a la parte de Buda.
Historia[editar]
La corona de San Esteban, la espada, el cetro y el orbe de Hungría.
El primer asentamiento en el territorio de Budapest fue construido por los celtas9 antes del año 1 a. C. y fue ocupado más tarde por los romanos. El asentamiento romano, Aquincum, se convirtió en la principal ciudad de la Baja Panonia en el 106 a. C.9 Los romanos construyeron carreteras, anfiteatros, baños y casas con calefacción por suelo en este campamento militar fortificado.36
El tratado de paz de 829 añadió Panonia a Bulgaria debido a la victoria del ejército búlgaro de Omurtag sobre el Sacro Imperio Romano de Ludovico Pío. Budapest surgió de dos fronteras búlgaras, las fortalezas militares de Buda y Pest, situada en las dos orillas del Danubio.37 Los húngaros, liderados por Árpád, se establecieron en el territorio a finales del siglo IX,11 38 y un siglo más tarde se fundó oficialmente el Reino de Hungría.11 Las investigaciones sitúan la residencia de la Casa de Árpad en un lugar cercano de lo que se convertiría en Budapest.39 La invasión tártara en el siglo XIII rápidamente demostró que la defensa es difícil en una llanura.7 11 El rey Béla IV de Hungría ordenó la construcción de muros de hormigón armado en torno a las ciudades11 y estableció su propio palacio real en la cima de los cerros protectores de Buda.12 En 1361 se convirtió en la capital de Hungría.12
El Castillo de Buda en la Edad Media.
El papel cultural de Buda fue particularmente importante durante el reinado del rey Matías Corvino.7 El Renacimiento italiano tuvo una gran influencia en la ciudad.7 Su biblioteca, la Bibliotheca Corvinniana, fue la colección de crónicas históricas y obras filosóficas y científicas más grande de Europa en el siglo XV, y la segunda en tamaño sólo superada por la Biblioteca Vaticana.7 Después de la fundación de la primera universidad húngara de Pécs en 1367,40 la segunda se estableció en Óbuda en 1395.40 El primer libro impreso en húngaro fue en Buda en 1473.41 Buda tenía unos 5000 habitantes hacia 1500,42 aunque estudios modernos apuntan a que la suma de Buda y Pest tenía entre 15 000 y 25 000 habitantes.43
Los otomanos saquearon Buda en 1526, la sitiaron en 1529 y, finalmente, la ocuparon en 1541. La ocupación turca duró más de 140 años.7 Los turcos construyeron muchas instalaciones de baños en la ciudad.11 Bajo el gobierno otomano, muchos cristianos se convirtieron al islam. En 1547 el número de cristianos se redujo a alrededor de mil, y en 1647 había descendido a sólo unos setenta.42 La parte no ocupada occidental del país se convirtió en parte del imperio de los Habsburgo como Hungría real.
En 1686, dos años después del infructuoso asedio de Buda, una renovada campaña comenzó a entrar en la capital húngara. Esta vez, el ejército de la Liga Santa era dos veces más grande, con más de 74.000 hombres. Entre ellos había ingleses, alemanes, holandeses, croatas, húngaros, españoles, checos, italianos, franceses, daneses y suecos, junto con otros europeos como voluntarios, artilleros, y oficiales. Las fuerzas cristianas reconquistaron Buda y, en los años siguientes, todas las tierras húngaras anteriores, a excepción de las zonas cercanas a Timişoara (Temesvár), fueron arrebatadas a los turcos. En el Tratado de Karlowitz de 1699 estos cambios territoriales fueron reconocidos oficialmente, y en 1718 todo el Reino de Hungría fue liberado del poder otomano. La ciudad fue destruida durante la batalla.7 Hungría se incorporó entonces al Imperio Habsburgo.7
La Ópera Nacional de Hungría, construida en el período de Austria-Hungría.
La orilla del Danubio en Budapest en una imagen de 1873.
1867 fue el año de la reconciliación que trajo consigo el nacimiento de Austria-Hungría. El siglo XIX fue dominado por la lucha por la independencia de Hungría y la modernización.7 La insurrección nacional contra los Habsburgo comenzó en la capital húngara en 1848 y fue derrotado poco más de un año después. Esto hizo de Budapest la capital gemela de una monarquía dual. Fue este compromiso que abrió la segunda fase de gran desarrollo en la historia de Budapest, que duró hasta la Primera Guerra Mundial. En 1849, el Puente de las Cadenas que une Buda con Pest, abrió sus puertas el primer puente permanente sobre el Danubio44 y en 1873 fueron Buda y Pest oficialmente fusionadas con la tercera parte, Óbuda (antiguo Buda), creando así la nueva metrópoli de Budapest. La dinámica Pest se convirtió en centro político, administrativo, económico, comercial y cultural del país. La población de origen étnico húngaro superó a la alemana en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX debido a la migración masiva desde la superpoblada y rural el Transdanubia y la Gran Llanura Húngara. Entre 1851 y 1910 la proporción de húngaros se incrementó de 35,6% a 85,9%, el húngaro se convirtió en la lengua dominante y el alemán fue desplazado. La proporción de judíos llegó a su punto máximo en 1900 con el 23,6%.45 46 47 Debido a la prosperidad y la gran comunidad judía presente en la ciudad a principios del siglo XX, Budapest fue conocida también como la "Meca judía".48
En 1918, Austria-Hungría perdió la guerra y se desplomó; por lo que Hungría se declaró una república independiente. En 1920 el Tratado de Trianon finalizó la partición del país; como resultado, Hungría perdió dos tercios de su territorio y alrededor de dos tercios de sus habitantes en virtud del tratado, incluyendo 3,3 millones de los 10 millones de húngaros étnicos.49 50
El Puente de las Cadenas de Budapest, volado por las fuerzas nazis.
En 1944, hacia el final de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Budapest fue parcialmente destruida por los ataques aéreos británico y americano. Desde el 24 de diciembre de 1944 al 13 de febrero de 1945, la ciudad fue sitiada durante la Batalla de Budapest. La capital sufrió grandes daños causados por el ataque de las fuerzas soviéticas y rumanas y las tropas defensoras alemanas y húngaras. Todos los puentes fueron destruidos por los alemanes. Más de 38.000 civiles perdieron la vida durante el conflicto.
Entre el 20% y el 40% de los 250.000 habitantes judíos de Budapest murieron a causa del genocidio perpetrado por los nazis y el Partido de la Cruz Flechada durante 1944 y principios de 1945.51 El diplomático sueco Raoul Wallenberg logró salvar la vida de decenas de miles de judíos en Budapest, dándoles pasaportes suecos y tomándolos bajo su protección consular.52
En 1949, Hungría fue declarada como República Popular comunista. El nuevo gobierno comunista consideró edificios como el Castillo de Buda símbolos del régimen anterior y, durante la década de 1950, el palacio fue destruido y los interiores fueron destruidos.
El centro de Budapest en 1979.
En 1956, las manifestaciones pacíficas en Budapest condujeron al estallido de la Revolución Húngara. La dirección se derrumbó después de las manifestaciones de las masas que se iniciaron el 23 de octubre, pero los tanques soviéticos entraron en Budapest para aplastar la revuelta. La lucha continuó hasta principios de noviembre, dejando más de 3.000 muertos.
Desde la década de 1960 a finales de 1980 Hungría era referida, en ocasiones y de forma satírica, la "barraca feliz" en el Bloque del Este,53 y gran parte de los daños de guerra de la ciudad fueron finalmente reparados. Los trabajos en el Puente de Erzsébet, el último en ser reconstruido, fue terminado en 1964. A principios de 1970, se inauguró la línea M2 del metro de Budapest en su sentido este-oeste, seguida de la línea M3 en 1982. En 1987, el Castillo de Buda y las orillas del Danubio fueron incluidos en la lista de Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la Unesco. La Avenida Andrássy (incluyendo el tren subterráneo del Milenio, Hősök tere y Városliget) se añadió a la lista de la Unesco en 2002. En la década de 1980 la población de la ciudad alcanzó los 2,1 millones de habitantes. En los últimos tiempos se ha producido una disminución significativa en la población, debido principalmente, a un movimiento demográfico masivo al condado de Pest.
En las últimas décadas del siglo XX los cambios políticos de 1989-90 produjeron importantes cambios en la sociedad civil y en las calles de Budapest. Los monumentos comunistas fueron retirados de los lugares públicos y llevados a Memento Park. En los primeros veinte años de la nueva democracia, el gobierno de la ciudad fue presidido por Gábor Demszky.
Geografía[editar]
El área de 525 km² de Budapest se encuentra en el centro de Hungría rodeado de asentamientos de la aglomeración en el condado de Pest. La capital se extiende a 25 y 29 kilómetros al norte-sur y este-oeste, respectivamente. El río Danubio entra en la ciudad por el norte, y más tarde lo rodea dos islas, Óbuda y la isla de Margarita.7 La tercera isla, Csepel, es la más grande de las islas del Danubio de Budapest, sin embargo, sólo la punta más al norte se encuentra dentro de los límites de la ciudad. El río que separa las dos partes de la ciudad está a sólo 230 metros de ancho en su punto más estrecho en Budapest. Pest se encuentra en la planicie de la Gran Llanura, mientras que el terreno en Buda es muy accidentado.7 El terreno de Pest se levanta con una ligera pendiente hacia el este, por lo que las partes más orientales de la ciudad están a la misma altura que las pequeñas colinas de Buda, en particular la colina Gellért y Monte del Castillo. Las colinas de Buda son principalmente de piedra caliza y dolomita, el agua creó espeleotemas, que se pueden encontrar los más famosos en las la cuevas Pálvölgyi y Szemlőhegyi. Los cerros se formaron en la era del Triásico. El punto más alto de las colinas y de Budapest es la colina János, a 527 metros sobre el nivel del mar. El punto más bajo es la línea del Danubio, que es de 96 metros sobre el nivel del mar. Los bosques de las colinas de Buda están protegidos medioambientalmente.
Distritos[editar]
Artículo principal: Distritos de Budapest
Originalmente había 10 distritos de Budapest después de la unificación de las tres ciudades en 1873. El 1 de enero de 1950 Budapest se unió con varios pueblos vecinos y el número de sus distritos se elevó a 22, formando el Gran Budapest. En ese tiempo hubo cambios, tanto en el orden de los distritos como en sus tamaños. Ahora hay 23 distritos, seis en Buda, 16 en Pest y uno en la isla de Csepel, en el Danubio. Cada distrito puede asociarse con una o varias partes de la ciudad con nombres de ciudades anteriores de Budapest. El mismo centro de la ciudad, en un sentido más amplio, comprende los distritos V, VI, VII, VIII, IX y XIII en el lado de Pest, y el I, II, XI y XII en el lado de Buda de la ciudad.54
Los 23 distritos de Budapest
Palacio Gresham
Distrito IV[editar]
El distrito IV está ubicado al norte de Budapest, sobre la orilla oeste del Río Danubio. Antes de 1950, fecha en que se anexaron varias zonas a Budapest, se trataba de la localidad de Újpest. El nombre significa "Nuevo Pest", porque se formó al borde de la Ciudad de Pest en 1840. Újpest fue una Aldea o Villa por seis décadas antes de 1907, cuando se transformó en pueblo. Como decíamos, en 1950 el pueblo se unificó con Budapest, para formar el Gran Budapest, y constituirse en el IV Distrito.
Distrito XXI[editar]
Ubicación[editar]
El distrito XXI está ubicado al norte de la isla de Csepel, por el este fluye el Danubio y en la otra margen se encuentran los distritos IX, XX y XXIII, por el oeste la frontera del distrito la marca de forma natural el contorno de la isla con la ribera del Danubio que en su margen opuesta presenta los distritos XI y XXII, por el sur el límite demarcado por la capital, es decir los límites propios del poblado de Szigetszentmiklós.
Barrios de mayor relevancia[editar]
Barrio de la calle Ady Endre
Csillágtelep
Barrio de Királymajori
Barrio de Vízmű
Barrio de la calle Árpád
Historia[editar]
En la segunda mitad del siglo XX ocurrió la industrialización más importante del distrito, lo que lo convirtió en una base de la industria pesada. En esta zona se asentaron los trabajadores, quienes contribuyeron a la formación de zonas urbanísticas, parques y barrios. El distrito se convirtió así en bastión de la clase obrera húngara.
Fue independiente hasta el 1 de enero de 1950, cuando junto con otras zonas fue anexionado como parte integral de Budapest capital.
Economía[editar]
El distrito XXI es considerado como uno de los distritos industriales clásicos de Budapest (por su industria metalúrgica, acerera y de papel)
En la primera mitad del siglo XX la economía del distrito esta unida al nombre de Manfréd Weiss, quien con su empresa metalúrgica tenía la gama más amplia de productos que para la época existía en toda la región de Europa central y oriental
Después de la II Guerra Mundial la fábrica pasó a funcionar a manos del estado. A mediados de los años 50 hasta en el Tíbet eran comercializados los productos de la fábrica. A finales de los 80 debido a la baja demanda de productos y lo elevado de los costos de mantenimiento, la fábrica fue paralizándose paulatinamente.
En la actualidad el conjunto funciona como zona industrial, albergando cientos de otras empresas, oficinas, y pequeñas fábricas.
Riquezas naturales[editar]
Solamente una zona protectora alberga el Distrito, en la loma de Tamariska en la zona de Királyerdő que desde 1999 fue declarada por la ciudad capital como patrimonio natural, ya que en sus bancos arenosos se encuentran innumerables especies vegetales autóctonas y exclusivas de la zona.
Clima[editar]
Invierno en la plaza Vörösmarty.
La ciudad tiene un clima húmedo continental, un clima de transición entre el clima templado, cubierto de nieve de Transdanubia, el clima variable continental de la gran llanura plana y abierta del este y el clima casi sub-mediterráneo del sur.55
La primavera se caracteriza por la abundancia de sol y lluvias aisladas. La temperatura comienza a subir notablemente en abril, por lo general alcanzan máximas de 25 °C al final del mes, aunque hay cortos períodos de frío con bajas temperaturas en la zona con 0-5 °C y las heladas pueden aparecer incluso a mediados de mayo.
En los veranos, los prolongados períodos de calor, con temperaturas entre 32-35 °C, se intercambian con breves períodos húmedos con frentes fríos provenientes del oeste, con temperaturas de entre 18-25 °C. La humedad es alta, de vez en cuando, en verano principalmente secundaria por la influencia del Mediterráneo. Sin embargo, en general, el calor es seco y las temperaturas nocturnas son muy agradables, especialmente en los suburbios residenciales. En el centro de Pest, sin embargo, no es raro que las temperaturas sean superiores a 25 °C en medianoche. Las tormentas, algunas de ellas violentas con rachas fuertes y lluvias torrenciales, también son frecuentes. La temperatura más alta registrada fue de 40,7 °C el 20 de julio de 2007.56
Las temperaturas altas pueden mantenerse por encima de 20 °C hasta el final de octubre. Las noches más frías y las heladas llegan por primera vez, por lo general, en la segunda semana de octubre. Los cortos períodos fríos varían con el veranillo de San Miguel, que puede durar semanas enteras. En noviembre sobreviene la abundante lluvia, a veces nieve, y una caída drástica de las temperaturas (a 10 °C durante todo el otoño del mes).
Los inviernos son variables e impredecibles. Los vientos del oeste traen aire templado oceánico, con temperaturas de entre 5-10 °C, casi sin congelar y dispersa la lluvia o nieve. Las borrascas que se desplazan desde el mar Mediterráneo pueden traer tormentas de nieve con 20-40 cm de caída en un solo día, seguido por aire frío de Rusia. Las borrascas del Atlántico sur y el viento puede traer un clima inusualmente cálido, con temperaturas alcanzando los 15 °C incluso en enero. El anticiclón de Siberia trae cada dos años un período muy soleado pero frío con una duración de una semana o dos con puntos bajos en el rango climático de -15 a -20 °C. Los anticiclones con los centros superiores de Europa occidental producen niebla fría sin cambios en la temperatura entre el día y la noche y se quedan alrededor o un poco por debajo de 0 °C. La niebla puede durar semanas. Las borrascas mediterráneas que se mueven por encima de la capa de niebla puede llevar uno o dos días de lluvia helada.57 58 59
[ocultar]Gnome-weather-few-clouds.svg Parámetros climáticos promedio de Budapest WPTC Meteo task force.svg
MesEne.Feb.Mar.Abr.May.Jun.Jul.Ago.Sep.Oct.Nov.Dic.Anual
Temp. máx. abs. (°C)18.119.725.430.234.039.540.739.435.230.822.619.340.7
Temp. máx. media (°C)2.95.510.616.421.924.626.726.621.615.47.74.015.3
Temp. media (°C)-0.42.36.112.016.619.721.521.216.911.85.41.811.2
Temp. mín. media (°C)-1.70.03.57.612.115.116.816.512.87.852.9-0.07.8
Temp. mín. abs. (°C)-25.6-23.4-15.1-4.6-1.63.05.95.0-3.1-9.5-16.4-20.8-25.6
Precipitación total (mm)372930426263454940395343532
Días de precipitaciones (≥ 1 mm)76668876557778
Horas de sol558413718223024827425519715667481933
Fuente: www.met.hu60
Economía[editar]
Budapest se convirtió en una ciudad global debido a la industrialización. En 1910, el 45,2% de la población total trabajaban en fábricas. La capital húngara fue una de las más grandes ciudades industriales de Europa con 600.000 trabajadores de fábricas en la década de 1960. Entre 1920 y 1970, más de la mitad del total de la producción industrial de Hungría se hacía en Budapest. La Metalurgia (FÉG), la industria textil y la industria del automóvil (Ikarus) fueron los principales sectores que recibieron los cambios estructurales.61
Ahora casi todas las ramas de la industria se encuentra en Budapest. Los principales productos son los aparatos de comunicación de ingeniería e informática, máquinas eléctricas, lámparas incandescentes (General Electric). La industria farmacéutica también es importante, muy conocida Egis y las compañías Gedeon Richter y Chinoin son húngaras, mientras que Teva también tiene una división aquí.
La industria está más bien en las afueras, pues el centro es el lugar para el servicio principal de empresas financieras nacionales e internacionales, como Telekom Hungría, General Electric, Vodafone, Telenor, Erste Bank, CIB Bank, K&H Bank&Insurance, UniCredit, Budapest Bank, Generali Providencia Insurance, ING, Aegon Insurance, Allianz. Las bases regionales de Volvo Co., Saab, Ford, GE, IBM, TATA Consultancy Services Limited están Budapest. El grupo MOL de Petróleo y Gas húngaros, que con sus subsidiarias, es un líder integrado de petróleo y gas en Europa Central y del Este. El OTP Bank, que es el banco más grande de Hungría, con sucursales en otros ocho países, tienen su sede en la capital.
Budapest es el centro de los servicios, asesoría financiera, transacciones de divisas, servicios comerciales y bienes. Los servicios de comercio y logística están bien desarrollados. El turismo y la hostelería también merecen mención, ya que en la capital existen miles de establecimientos de restaurantes, bares, cafés y lugares de fiesta.
Lugares de interés[editar]
Budapest, con las riberas del Danubio, el barrio del castillo de Buda y la avenida Andrássy
UNESCO logo.svg Welterbe.svg
Nombre descrito en la Lista del Patrimonio de la Humanidad
BudapestDSCN3838.JPG
Vista del Puente de las cadenas desde el Castillo de Buda.
PaísFlag of Hungary.svg Hungría
TipoCultural
Criteriosii, iv
N.° identificación400bis
RegiónEuropa y América del Norte
Año de inscripción1987 (XI sesión)
Año de extensión2000
[editar datos en Wikidata]
El Parlamento de estilo neogótico contiene, entre otras cosas, las joyas de la corona húngara. La Basílica de San Esteban, donde se exhibe la Mano Derecha del Santo fundador de Hungría, el rey San Esteban. La cocina húngara y la cultura café pueden degustarse, por ejemplo, en el Café Gerbeaud, y los restaurantes Százéves, Biarritz, Fortuna, Alabárdos, Arany Szarvas, Kárpátia y el famoso Mátyás Pince. Hay restos romanos en el Museo Aquincum y mobiliario histórico en el Museo Nagytétény, que son sólo dos de los 223 museos de Budapest.
Vista del Parlamento de noche desde el río Danubio
La colina del castillo, los muros de contención del río Danubio y el conjunto de Andrássy út han sido oficialmente reconocidos por la UNESCO como Patrimonio de la Humanidad.
La colina del castillo y el distrito del castillo albergan tres iglesias, seis museos y una serie de interesantes edificios, calles y plazas. El antiguo Palacio Real es uno de los símbolos de Hungría y ha sido escenario de batallas y guerras desde el siglo XIII. Hoy en día alberga dos museos impresionantes y la Biblioteca Nacional Széchenyi. El cercano Palacio Sándor alberga las oficinas y la residencia oficial del Presidente de Hungría. La Iglesia de San Matías, de siete siglos de antigüedad, es una de las joyas de Budapest. A su lado está una estatua ecuestre del primer rey de Hungría, el rey San Esteban, y tras ésta el Bastión de los Pescadores, desde donde se abre una vista panorámica de toda la ciudad. Las estatuas del Turul, el pájaro guardián mítico de Hungría, se pueden encontrar tanto en el Barrio del Castillo y el Distrito XII.
Plaza de los Héroes.
En Pest, sin duda el espectáculo más importante es Andrássy út, mientras que las calles Kodály Körönd y Oktogon están llenas de tiendas y grandes pisos construidos muy juntos. Desde allí hasta la Plaza de los Héroes las casas se separan por completo y son más amplias. En el marco del conjunto se encuentra el ferrocarril metropolitano más antiguo de Europa continental, la mayoría de cuyas estaciones conservan su aspecto original. La Plaza de los Héroes está dominada por el Monumento del Milenio, con la Tumba del Soldado Desconocido en el frente. A los lados se encuentran el Museo de Bellas Artes y la Kunsthalle de Budapest, y detrás se abre el Parque de la Ciudad, con el castillo de Vajdahunyad. Una de las joyas de Andrássy út es la Ópera Nacional de Hungría. Memento Park, un parque temático con estatuas notables de la era comunista, está situado a las afueras del centro de la ciudad y es accesible por transporte público.
En la ciudad reside la sinagoga más grande de Europa (la Sinagoga de la Calle Dohány)62 y la segunda más grande del mundo. La sinagoga se encuentra en el barrio judío ocupando varias cuadras en el centro de Budapest bordeado por Király utca, Wesselényi utca, el Grand Boulevard y la carretera Bajcsy Zsilinszky. La ciudad también se enorgullece de tener el mayor baño de aguas medicinales de Europa (Baños Széchenyi) y el tercer edificio del Parlamento más grande del mundo. La tercera iglesia más grande de Europa (la Basílica de Esztergom) y el segundo mayor castillo barroco del mundo (Gödöllő) se encuentran en las proximidades.
En el paisaje urbano de Budapest puede distinguirse la Estatua de la Libertad, que tiene 14 metros de altura y descanasa sobre un pedestal de 26 metros en la Colina Gellért.63 La estatua fue construida en bronce durante la ocupación soviética de Hungría.
Iglesia de San Matías
Basílica de San Esteban
Castillo de Vajdahunyad
Mercado Central de Budapest
Sinagoga de la Calle Dohány
Vista del Castillo de Buda de noche desde el río Danubio.
Cultura[editar]
Ópera Nacional de Hungría.
Museo de Bellas Artes.
La tradición de la danza de la cuenca de los Cárpatos es el área única de la cultura de la danza europea, que es también una especie de transición entre los Balcanes y las regiones de Europa Occidental. En Budapest existen varios conjuntos de auténtica danza folclórica húngara, algunos de ellos profesionales. Budapest es una de las pocas ciudades del mundo donde hay una escuela secundaria para el aprendizaje de la danza folclórica.
En Budapest, actualmente hay 837 monumentos diferentes, que representan la mayor parte del estilo artístico europeo. Son prominentes los clásicos y únicos edificios de estilo Art Nouveau húngaros.
Los 223 museos y galerías de la ciudad presentan no sólo exposiciones y arte húngaro, sino también arte y ciencia de la cultura universal y europea. Entre los más importantes que se encuentran en la ciudad destacan el Museo Nacional de Hungría, la Galería Nacional Húngara, el Museo de Bellas Artes, el Museo Histórico de Budapest, el Parque Memento y el Museo de Artes Aplicadas.
En Budapest hay cuarenta teatros, siete salas de conciertos y un teatro de la ópera. También se celebran a menudo en edificios históricos festivales al aire libre, conciertos y conferencias que enriquecen la oferta cultural del verano. Las instituciones más prestigiosas de teatro son la Opereta y Teatro Musical de Budapest, el Teatro József Attila, el Teatro Katona József, el Teatro Madách, la Ópera Nacional de Hungría, el Teatro Nacional, el Vigadó, el Teatro Radnóti Miklós y el Teatro de la Comedia.
Muchas bibliotecas tienen colecciones únicas en Budapest, como la Biblioteca Nacional Széchenyi, que mantiene las reliquias históricas de la época antes de la impresión de los libros. La Biblioteca metropolitana Ervin Szabó juega un papel importante en la educación general de la población de la capital. Otras bibliotecas importantes son la Biblioteca de la Academia de Ciencias de Hungría, la Biblioteca de la Universidad Eötvös Loránd, la Biblioteca del Parlamento y de la Biblioteca Nacional de Literatura Extranjera.
Entre los eventos culturales de Hungría, el mayor festival al aire libre es el Festival de Sziget, que es muy popular en toda Europa. Otros que también son importantes y se celebran en la ciudad son el Festival de la Primavera de Budapest, el Festival de Otoño de Budapest, la Fiesta del Vino de Budapest y el Festival de Budapest de Pálinka.
Los turistas que visitan Budapest disponen de mapas gratuitos e información acerca de los diversos "puntos de interés" por la empresa municipal BTDM en sus puntos de información.64 Está disponible para los visitantes las tarjeta de 24 y 72 horas de Budapest. Para el transporte, la validez de la tarjeta es gratuita y hay descuentos en varios museos, restaurantes y otros lugares de interés.65 La ciudad también es conocida por sus bares en antiguas ruinas.66
Baños termales[editar]
En 1934, Budapest recibió el título de «Ciudad de Balnearios» por ser la capital que dispone de más pozos de aguas medicinales y termales del mundo;[cita requerida] es conocida por algunos como «La capital mundial de las aguas medicinales».
Su red es única: el rendimiento de las aguas termales, con temperaturas de 21 a 78 grados centígrados, que brotan de 118 fuentes naturales y de pozos artificiales, supera los 70 millones de litros diarios. En Budapest se encuentran conocidos baños termales públicos: Balneario Gellért (Gellért fürdő), Balneario Széchenyi (Széchenyi fürdő) el balneario europeo más grande, Balneario Lukács (Lukács fürdő), Balneario Rudas (Rudas fürdő), Balneario Király (Király fürdő) y Balneario Rác (Rác fürdő).
Baños termales Széchenyi.
Las aguas medicinales sirven para tratar enfermedades de los órganos locomotrices, de la circulación sanguínea y de la ginecología.
En los alrededores de estos baños termales existen pozos y salas para beber agua medicinal con alto contenido de distintos tipos minerales. La más conocida de estas salas de ingesta sirve de entrada al baño termal Lukács, que fue inaugurado en 1937, orientándose sus aguas medicinales a la curación de problemas digestivos. El edificio del baño termal fue construido en 1894. Sus efectos benéficos medicinales pronto fueron conocidos en el resto de Europa, convirtiéndose en uno de los lugares más notables de esta saludable especialidad.
También son famosos los baños termales de la época turca que funcionan hoy en día, como por ejemplo el Király, construido a finales de los años 1500, y el baño Rác. El baño Rudas —con su sala octogonal de columnas y cúpula— es el baño turco más antiguo y mejor ornamentado.
Islas[editar]
En el Danubio se pueden encontrar siete islas: Astillero, Isla Margarita, Isla de Csepel, Palotai-Sziget (actualmente una península), Népsziget, Haros-Sziget, y Sziget Molnár.
Entre las islas notables se incluyen:
La Isla Margarita de 2,5 km (1,6 millas) de largo y 0,965 kilómetros cuadrados (238 acres) de superficie. Se compone principalmente de un parque y es una popular zona de recreo para los turistas y lugareños por igual. La isla se encuentra entre el Puente Margarita (sur) y el puente Árpád (norte). En la isla se pueden encontrar discotecas, piscinas, un parque acuático, pistas para correr, de ciclismo, de atletismo y gimnasios. Durante el día la isla está ocupada por la gente que hace deporte o simplemente descansa. En el verano (por lo general los fines de semana) los más jóvenes van a la isla por la noche de fiesta en sus terrazas, o para divertirse con una botella de alcohol en un banco o en el césped (esta forma de entretenimiento se denomina a veces como banco-fiesta).
La isla de Csepel (pronunciación en húngaro:] tʃɛpɛlsiɡɛt [) es la isla mayor del río Danubio en Hungría. Tiene 48 km (30 millas) de largo, su ancho es de 6.8 km (3,75-5 millas) y su área abarca 257 km2 (99 millas cuadradas), aunque sólo el extremo norte se encuentra dentro de los límites de la ciudad.
Hajógyári-Sziget ([hɒjo ː ː ɟa siɡɛt ri], o Sziget Óbudai-) es una isla artificial, ubicada en el tercer distrito. Esta isla alberga numerosas actividades tales como: wake boarding, motos de agua durante el día, y clubes de baile durante la noche. Esta es la isla donde tiene lugar el famoso Festival de Sziget, recibiendo cientos de actuaciones por año y alrededor de 400.000 visitantes en su última edición. Se están llevando a cabo muchos proyectos de construcción para hacer de esta isla uno de los centros de ocio más importantes de Europa, el plan es construir edificios de apartamentos, hoteles, casinos y un puerto deportivo.
Luppa-Sziget es la isla más pequeña de Budapest, situada en la región norte.
Respect: who do you give it to and why?
Respect: where do you get it?
Respect: how can I show my respect for ....?
Has another earned your esteem? How? How often?
What is correct in behavior or character?
You know how? Where is that rule book? Did you study that book?
Any government agency you hold in high or special regard for getting it right almost always still? Why? For how long?
What politician do you regard in a state of high or special regard? Why?
_______________
below from www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/a/albert_camus.html
are a few quotes from Albert Camus, French Philosopher
Date of Birth: November 7, 1913
Date of Death: January 4, 1960
Men must live and create. Live to the point of tears.
Methods of thought which claim to give the lead to our world in the name of revolution have become, in reality, ideologies of consent and not of rebellion.
Nobody realizes that some people expend tremendous energy merely to be normal.
Note, besides, that it is no more immoral to directly rob citizens than to slip indirect taxes into the price of goods that they cannot do without.
Nothing is more despicable than respect based on fear.
One leader, one people, signifies one master and millions of slaves.
EXPLORE # 169 on Wednesday, April 23, 2008
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This is the cover photo of my set National Language Movement 2011
This Photo was taken on 21th Fab at 01:30 pm , From Jatio Shaheed Minar , Dhaka, BANGLADESH, This Photo was Taken while my Special Photowalk with The flickr Group Frame BANGLADESH
Description :The Bengali Language Movement: and in Bangali Trnslation to ভাষা আন্দোলন
The Bengali Language Movement: Can read In Bangoli here]ভাষা আন্দোলন, also known as the Language Movement (Bengali: ভাষা আন্দোলন; Bhasha Andolon), was a political effort in Bangladesh (then known as East Pakistan), advocating the recognition of the Bengali language as an official language ofPakistan. Such recognition would allow Bengali to be used in government affairs.When the state of Pakistan was formed in 1947, its two regions, East Pakistan (also called East Bengal) and West Pakistan, were split along cultural, geographical, and linguistic lines. In 1948, the Government of Pakistan ordained Urdu as the sole national language, sparking extensive protests among the Bengali-speaking majority of East Pakistan. Facing rising sectarian tensions and mass discontent with the new law, the government outlawed public meetings and rallies. The students of the University of Dhaka and other political activists defied the law and organised a protest on 21 February 1952. The movement reached its climax when police killed student demonstrators on that day. The deaths provoked widespread civil unrest led by the Awami Muslim League, later renamed the Awami League. After years of conflict, the central government relented and granted official status to the Bengali language in 1956. In 2000,UNESCO declared 21 February International Mother Language Day for the whole world to celebrate[1], in tribute to the Language Movement and the ethno-linguistic rights of people around the world.The Language Movement catalysed the assertion of Bengali national identity in Pakistan, and became a forerunner to Bengali nationalist movements, including the 6-point movement and subsequently the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. In Bangladesh, 21 February is observed as Language Movement Day, a national holiday. The Shaheed Minar monument was constructed near Dhaka Medical College in memory of the movement and its victims
Background
The present nations of Pakistan and Bangladesh were part of undivided India during the British colonial rule. From the mid-19th century, the Urdu language had been promoted as thelingua franca of Indian Muslims by political and religious leaders such as Sir Khwaja Salimullah, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk and Maulvi Abdul Haq.[2][3] Urdu is an Indo-Aryan language of the Indo-Iranian branch, belonging to the Indo-European family of languages. It developed under Persian, Arabic and Turkic influence on apabhramshas (last linguistic stage of the medieval Indian Aryan language Pali-Prakrit)[4] in South Asia during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire.[5] With its Perso-Arabic script, the language was considered a vital element of the Islamic culture for Indian Muslims; Hindi and the Devanagari script were seen as fundamentals of Hindu culture.[2]While the use of Urdu grew common with Muslims in northern India, the Muslims of Bengal (a province in the eastern part of British Indian sub-continent) primarily used the Bengali language. Bengali is an Eastern Indo-Aryan language that arose from the eastern Middle Indic languages around 1000 CE[6] and developed considerably during the Bengal Renaissance. As early as the late 19th century, social activists such as the Muslim feminist Roquia Sakhawat Hussain were choosing to write in Bengali to reach out to the people and develop it as a modern literary language. Supporters of Bengali opposed Urdu even before the partition of India, when delegates from Bengal rejected the idea of making Urdu the lingua franca of Muslim India in the 1937 Lucknow session of the Muslim League. The Muslim League was a British Indian political party that became the driving force behind the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state separate from British India.[7]
The Other Set related to this set are available here at : International Mother Language Day
All other Photos of this set are available at : National Language Movement Dat 2011
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