View allAll Photos Tagged Question
Posted for a new young friend of mine in response to his questions at www.flickr.com/photos/8765199@N07/2578190812/in/set-72157...
This is a $100 Hanwei Practical Knightly sword on the left, shown in comparison to a $1000 customized Albion.
If you want a stout, servicable banger sword you won't go wrong with these Hanwei swords in my humble opinion. The Knightly sword is proportioned, weighted, and balanced appropriately. It stands up nicely to edge-on-edge theatrical swordplay. And it even rings pleasingly when the edge is struck. The handle is secure and comfortable in the hand. The tang is wide and peened well over the pommel. I have set this particular sword to banging in several afternoon sessions in the backyard against the Hanwei Practical hand-and-a-half with only minor nicking to the rebated edge.
Do not expect precision in the grind of these blades. They are polished with no rough edges, but the wavering hand-ground marks are still visible on the blade surface. That being said I have to point out that the fullers are as straight and evenly cut as most of the "museum quality" and "battle-ready" Windlass Swords I have inspected though!
I have seen these Hanwei practical swords around for years. They are a favorite among reenactors who do live steel sparring. Just look carefully at the swords worn by knights at reenactment events here on Flickr and you will see the Practical Knightly Sword is popular the world round. I finally bought two practical Hanweis last spring. Lets face it, if you like swords you like clanging them together in mock swordplay!
As a teenager I would spend weeks making a sword only to nick the thing to Hell and back in just a couple hours swordfighting with my buddy out in the woods. Yes, I remember well what it was like to want a sword when my budget was $0.00. Ha! That's why I started making swords in the first place. I couldn't afford one so I just forged my own.
When I was a kid back in the 1980s the ONLY swords available were those cheapo "Made in Toledo" wall-hangers advertised in the back of my Dad's hunting magazines. Even at a cool $40 the "Sword of Cortez" was far beyond my means to obtain.
When I was a senior in high school I remember agonizing over a brass-hilted India-made "Sword of King Arthur" that cost $125 in an SQP catalog, still too expensive for me to buy. You can get one of those swords for about $40 from a Bud K catalog these days, but I wouldn't own one now.
I was graduating from college when I made my first big sword purchase, a thirteenth century Del Tin that cost $279 from Museum Replicas! That was back in the old days when Museum Reps offered Del Tins before they went all Windlass. Since then I have bought several Del Tins and considered them top of the line until Albion came along a couple years ago.
Regardless of the sword you buy there are a few things to remember:
-Real swords were never meant to be hit edge-on-edge. Knights went to great pains to avoid abusing their swords in such a way. Swords were and still are expensive. Even the finest sword available will nick if struck on the edge. Fence with sharp broad-bladed swords like they do in movies and you will be left with two double-edged saw blades. Nuff said.
-Swords are not meant to cut through trees, bricks, rocks, chains or much else that they are shown to cleave on film. Believe me, I have proved this to myself the hard way many times and it is very frustrating :-(
Swords were made to cut flesh and bone and perhaps the lesser armor of the day. If you feel the need to do some hack and slash go at some dried tree branches or cardboard tubes. Broomsticks are fun to cut into kindling, but even a 1 inch dowel rod will test a rat-tail tang. A narrow tang may snap and send the pommel of your sword flying off with a solid blow. Again, this is the voice of experience you are reading here...
long section: Allium root tip
common name: onion
magnification: 100x
Berkshire Community College Bioscience Image Library
Technical Questions:bioimagesoer@gmail.com
U.S. Ambassador to the Sultanate of Oman Leslie Tsou asks a question during the Chiefs of Mission Conference View from the Hill: U.S. Foreign Policy session, attended by Secretary of State Antony J. Blinken, Assistant Secretary for the Bureau of Legislative Affairs Naz Durakoglu, Senator Panelist Ranking Member James Risch (R-ID), and SFRC Chairman Bob Menendez (D-NJ), at the U.S. Department of State in Washington, D.C., on June 22, 2022. [State Department photo by Ron Przysucha/ Public Domain]
Deputy Secretary of State Tony Blinken and British Foreign Secretary Philip Hammond at the Global Chiefs of Mission Conference at the U.S. Department of State in Washington, D.C., on March 26, 2015. [State Department photo/ Public Domain]
Excited and proud to share this with you. Chad from Tin Questions interviewed me about my life and my portrait work. I had such a great time and I think it turned out wonderful. Read the intro in Chad's words:
I recently went camping and got ate up by mosquitos. My next guest on “Tin Questions”, Austrian wetplate photographer Markus Hofstätter, lives in a town known for these pesky insects. Not only is Markus a well known European photographer, he is also a great resource to the wetplate community, sharing his knowledge, doing equipment reviews and similar to "Tin Questions", conducting the occasional interview. Hear how a love of shooting pool with both sticks and cameras eventually turned into a desire to slow down and create beautiful images using a historic process.
Listen to “Tin Questions” on your favorite podcast provider.
open.spotify.com/show/4GtyKMPDLzL9wGIdjXu5do
podcasts.apple.com/at/podcast/tin-questions/id1662388680?...
The question was, if bodys of yellow spacemen exist with and without the supporting bars inside. Answer, as seen on the picture: Yes!
World Bank President, Jim Yong Kim answers questions during a press conference with Chile's President, Sebastian Pinera Echenique (right) and Chile's Minister of Finance, Felipe Larraín (left) at the La Moneda Presidential Palace in Santiago, Chile on July 4, 2013. Photo © Dominic Chavez/World Bank.
A tiatr by Francis de Tuem released on 27.3.16 Easter Sunday
more on the tiatr here goo.gl/Q7fhXl
Xavier Gomes
Un merci spécial à Emerson, Robbie et Darcy @ChildrensWishNC qui ont posé des questions aujourd’hui.
Thanksgiving 2018 at Our House
Coral Springs, Florida U.S.A.
[ A smart, kind, loving, family member, and a talented
head-nurse at a major Miami Hospital. Whenever we
have a medical question we always call; Aunt Cathy! ]
[ My Aunt Cathy (65) is my father's youngest sister. She's only
four years older than myself. We have a 60+ year friendship]
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_Springs,_Florida
Click this if you'd like
to see the slide-show:
WeatherGirl was particularly keen to return to the V&A because she wanted to see their temporary exhibit Out of the ordinary: Spectacular craft. There was some very cool work there a number of different (and very diverse) artists, all of whom share a certain obsessive quality and intense level of detail. (It reminded us a lot of Jess Larson's cool work, especially her wonderful girdles.)
I took quite a few photos of the artworks, but (much to my surprise) this may be my favorite. Naomi Filmer focuses on the human body, but taking unusual views or using unusual techniques. This is from a lenticular image where you see this face in different ways as you move around it; I really like the superposition of these two angles.
One of my gorgeous nieces (I'm lucky to have 6). One of her favourite games with her dad is for him to ask her a "really hard question but not so hard". Captured while she was waiting for the "really hard question".
Events as they are unfolding in the Dail this afternoon, October 3.
The proceedings can be accessed from this link Dail TV
Below is a copy of the statement released by the Labour Party leader Deputy Pat Rabbitte
HEART OF MATTER IS : ‘WAS AHERN RIGHT TO ACCEPT MONIES?’
It is fair comment that the Opposition has shown restraint in the matter of the Taoiseach accepting money for private use while a serving Minister. However, since Mr Ahern had created a context that sought to explain the Drumcondra monies in terms of his private family affairs, common decency required that opposition politicians should have demonstrated a certain restraint.
And then on Sunday I heard Minister of State, Conor Lenihan, ridicule that restraint. It was, he said, ineffectiveness, not decency, on the part of the Opposition. The suggestion was apparently that the Opposition should cut through the smokescreen to the heart of the matter. To me the heart of the matter is: was Mr Ahern right to do what he did? Is it remotely credible that monies outstanding for 13 years, without any repayment of any kind, can suddenly be called loans? You don’t need to be as bright as Minister Lenihan to know that these transactions, if they happened, were gifts and therefore there are tax implications.
Can we do more than highlight the absolute impropriety of a serving Minister for Finance accepting payment for a nixer outside the State. Never mind the “no law was broken” defence. By any standards it was wrong. What would have happened to a Senior Civil Servant in the Department of Finance if he trousered money for a private encounter in Manchester? He would be sacked. Why is it alright for the Minister but not alright for the civil servant? What does it say about this Government’s standards that not a single Cabinet Minister can bring himself or herself to say what everybody knows: that what happened at Manchester was wrong. You believe in the tooth fairy if you believe that businessmen happen along to a function in a posh hotel to listen to any old Joe Soap talk to them about the Irish economy and then organise an impromptu collection to give him something for himself.
In normal life you get gifts from your friends and you take loans from strangers. Yet Mr Ahern got loans from his friends and gifts from strangers.
Maybe Minister of State Lenihan’s derision of the Opposition is because we didn’t adequately probe behind the discreet veil drawn over the other 50,000 by Mr Ahern when he says enigmatically that he “put back into” his account. “Back into his account from where”? is the questions that must be answered. Where was the 50.000 resting since Mr Ahern didn’t have a bank account? In a sock in the hotpress? If the Taoiseach says this 50.000 was savings I accept that but if he enjoyed a T.D’s salary, a Ministerial salary and the use of a premises bought by friends of Fianna Fail, how can it be portrayed that he was in straitened circumstances?
Why if there were 50.000 in “savings” was it necessary to raise a Bank loan and if a Bank Loan was in place why was it necessary to have a whiparound to replace the Bank Loan ?
An effective Opposition doing its job must ask the Taoiseach: have you evaded tax? Why did you say you paid CGT and gift tax? Why is that relevant here? Are you serious that you had no Bank account while Minister for Finance? Did you have a Bank Account elsewhere on the Island? Or outside the jurisdiction? Or did someone else open one on your behalf? If the whiparound was among friends why is there a cheque in there for 5,000 from NCB stockbrokers? How many times have NCB been retained by the State? How many of the donors were appointed on how many occasions to state boards? Who were the donors in Manchester? What was the function? Are they involved in business in Ireland? Did any of them win state contracts? Is this another loop in the golden circle?
Our new Tanaiste is also impatient with the Opposition. On Thursday he told the House he could scarcely forbear to sit in silence and watch the Opposition squander the opportunity for accountability. Well the Tanaiste had better grow accustomed to sitting in silence. The only question he will be allowed at Cabinet after this debacle is “Bhuil cead agam dul amach?” Mr McDowell sought and got a mandate to ride shotgun on Fianna Fail standards in government. He has comprehensively failed the first test. As he said himself:
“A party that stands for nothing will stand for anything.”
If the Tanaiste can no longer ask questions aloud maybe he would ask himself what Des O’Malley would have said if the Taoiseach of the day admitted receiving money, not for political purposes, but for his private use while a serving Minister?
Forget the orchestrated phone-ins to radio stations, the unscientific polls and the packed television audiences, was it right or wrong to accept money for private use while a serving Minister? You are on the record as saying you did nothing wrong and your Cabinet Ministers without exception have parroted that line. Brian Lenihan alone said it would be unthinkable.
But all the rest Hannafin, O’Donoghue, O’Dea, Dempsey, Ahern, Coughlan, Martin and Cullen can see no wrong. If anything demonstrates why this country needs a change of government it is the media parade of your Ministers, blind to standards, defending the indefensible.
We used to play 20 questions in the car when I was a kid, in those long ago olden days before cars came with TVs in the headrests...the second question was always 'Is it bigger than a bread box'? I'm not sure we even knew what a bread box was, 'cause I don't think we had one... but that phrase keeps popping into my mind nowadays... it's about women and girls and body image, and the struggles we go through... Why can't I stop stressing about my body, and is it too big, or too flabby, or I'm putting the wrong foods in, or I'm not exercising enough, or SHE must be a happy person 'cause she's so damn skinny, and really, truly, who gives a BLEEP if I'm bigger than a bread box!
So this is made in defiance, to be stuck on the fridge when I'm eating well, and when I'm not eating well, and with shoulders squared back, and chin in air I say, "I AM bigger than a bread box!"
it's a magnet for sale at my etsy shop! see profile for details!
NASA astronauts Mark Vande Hei, left, and Joe Acaba right, answer audience questions with the Smithsonian's Marty Kelsey, center, during "What's New in Aerospace," Thursday, June 14, 2018 at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington. Acaba and Vande Hei answered questions from the audience and spoke about their experiences aboard the International Space Station for 168 days as part of Expedition 53 and 54. Photo Credit: (NASA/Joel Kowsky)
Questions and answers. Q. Do you get stung? A. Yes, I receive an occasional sting, beekeepers should expect this. Q. How many times have you been stung? A. At one time or over the years? I like to say it only hurts for a minute but there are some real sensitive areas on the human body and the bees know where they are. Q. Do you wear a bee suit? A. Only when I need to, I would rather receive a few stings than sweat to death. It's 97°F in the shade. Don't do what I do! Do what you are comfortable with. Bee stings can be deadly.
About the Garden
Lan Su Chinese Garden Essential Information
Download the Organizational Profile.
Download our 2009-2011 Strategic Plan.
Frequently Asked Questions
When did the Garden open?
The Garden opened September 14, 2000.
Where is the Garden located?
The Garden is located between NW 2nd and 3rd and NW Flanders and Glisan in Old Town/Chinatown. The Garden can be reached from I-405 by taking the Everett Street Exit and turning east. The Garden is also available by MAX, which is Portland’s light rail system, or by buses 1, 4, 5, 8, 10, 16, 33, 40, and 77. Visit TriMet’s Trip Planner, which can provide door to door directions using public transit.
How much is admission?
Your admission gains access to the Garden, Teahouse, and when offered, public tours and exhibits. Some special events are not included with admission or may require the purchase of a tea service. For more information, please see the events page. With a membership, admission is free for one year.
$9.50 Adults
$8.50 Seniors (age 62 & over)
$7.00 Students (age 6-18 and college students with I.D.)
Children five and under are free
Individual adult admission tickets and discounted admission bundles are available for purchase in advance at 503.228.8131.
What are your hours?
The Lan Su Chinese Garden is open to visitors seven days a week year-round, closing only on Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Year’s Day.
Summer hours April 1 - October 31 10:00 a.m. - 6:00 p.m. Winter hours November 1 - March 31 10:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m.
What does a membership provide?
All memberships are good for one-year free admission to the Garden, a 10% discount in the gift store and teahouse, and quarterly newsletter. Prices being at $25 for a student membership, $40 for an individual membership, $60 for a family membership with additional higher memberships. Additional membership information is available on our membership page.
How big is the Garden?
The Garden is one city block or approximately 40,000 square feet.
How big is the lake?
The lake, named Lake Zither, is about 8,000 square feet.
What are those free-standing rocks?
The rocks, called Tai Hu rocks are limestone mined from Lake Tai, a fresh-water lake near Suzhou. They are prized for their four virtues which are: the holes that allow life force to flow freely, the rough texture, their slenderness, and being top-heavy. Over 500 tons of rock was shipped from China for the Garden.
What types of wood are used in the Garden?
There are three types of wood used in the Garden. San-Mu (Northeast China Fir) is used for most of the beams and columns. Dong-Bei-Song (Northeast China Pine) is used for the largest columns. Yingxing (Gingko) wood is used for the pale yellow decorative carving in the Pavilions. Nanmu (similar to walnut) is used for the carvings in the doors and windows.
What are leak windows?
The windows, around the Garden and inside the walls, are called “leak” windows since they allow the visitor to see the view “leaking” through. There are 51 windows, each unique, in and around the Garden.
Is there a Gift Store?
The Garden Shop is just outside the entrance and is open the same hours as the Garden.
What is the Teahouse?
The Garden’s Teahouse, run by the Tao of Tea, located with the Garden allows visitors to sip authentic Chinese tea and view the Garden. The Teahouse also offers small snack. It is located in the Tower of Cosmic Reflections.
Where can I park?
The Garden is surrounded by on-street parking meters, both short term and long term. A number of parking garages within a few blocks including a Smartpark on the corner of NW Davis and Naito Parkway.
Is the Garden available for rent?
The Garden is available for both before and after hours events, including weddings. For more information, please see the Rental page for more details.
Are tours available?
The Garden tries to offer tours on a daily basis at noon and 1 pm. You may visit the Garden without a tour, and tours are free. To schedule a private tour of 15 or more, please call the Garden’s tour coordinator at 503.228.8131 ext. 1001. Please see the Tours page for more details.
Is the Garden wheelchair accessible?
The Garden has a wheelchair accessible route that travels throughout the Garden.
Who owns the Garden?
The City of Portland owns the Garden, and contracts with the Lan Su Chinese Garden, a non-profit organization, to operate the Garden.
Can I bring my pet?
Please leave your pets at home.
for more: www.lansugarden.org/home
Part of the Question of the Moment bulletin board set, “What is your favourite word?”
Feel free to use in your own library or classroom.
The big question haunting Tamil Nadu politics ever since the demise of Jayalalithaa is – will another film star ever become the chief minister of Tamil Nadu?
The answer is blowing in the winds as both Rajinikanth and Kamal Haasan have woken up from their hibernation and thrown hints about...
www.expressess.com/world-news-are-rajinikanth-kamal-haasa...
All my photographic images are copyright. All rights reserved ©.
Do not use, copy or edit any of my images without my permission. Feel free to contact me for any question.
Follow me on : www.facebook.com/a.carabillo and www.instagram.com/alessandrocarabillo/?hl=it
Why is asking questions so important and how do you do it? You can watch the video, taken from a lesson of our "Train The Trainer" course, our principal Philip explains the importance of knowing what you want to know and how to obtain the information you are looking for. To know more about life skills, etiquettes and career building skills that will help them achieve their dreams, ambitions and influence success in their business, social and family lives, you can follow the given link and subscribe to our channel to get regular updates.
HORIZONS-SANCY. Art Nature.
LAC CHAUVET.
LA NATURE A-T-ELLE UN PRIX ?
Oeuvre de
Jérémie RIGAUDEAU
Illustrateur et plasticien, PALEYRAC (24)
L'artiste remet en question la position même du statut d'artiste, celle de ses productions et la méditation auprès de son publique.
Il s'adapte aux environnements, hors des champs d'exposition habituels, réinterrogeant ainsi les codes de compréhension et de perception.
Ici le langage à appréhender est :
L'arbre déraciné calibré, emballé simplement dans un sac plastique et qui git sur le sol.
LA NATURE A-T-ELLE UN PRIX ?
Question de chacun sur la marchandisation.
Quel est aujourd'hui le produit dit consommable ?
Comment l'homme exploite t-il la nature ?
A-t-on franchi les limites de la production.
L'homme a-t-il un droit illimité sur son environnement ?
L'artiste dénonce un monde où la prise en compte écologique reste partielle voire absurde pour mieux en faire ressortir ces problématiques contemporaines.
Une installation prenant tout son sens grâce au contexte et à l'espace dans lequel elle s'inscrit.
Au dépliant de l'office de tourisme.
A vous les amis de réfléchir sur cette oeuvre pour le moins sensible et dépasse l'art classique.
Vous pouvez revenir en arrière pour suivre le petit feuilleton qu'il m'a inspiré.
Merci à tous pour votre intérêt, le suivi dans ma galerie, la lecture, les favoris.
Bien amicalement vôtre sur FLICKR.
Allstar Weekend wows Kaiserslautern
By Rick Scavetta, U.S. Army Garrison Kaiserslautern
KAISERSLAUTERN, Germany – When Athena Balderas got picked up from Ramstein Intermediate School last Friday, she thought her mom was taking her to rent some movies.
“No, I have something better,” her mother Michelle Stevens told her. “I have a surprise for you.”
Earlier, Stevens told Facebook friends she would see Allstar Weekend, the latest American teen music sensation, with her daughter at the band’s Jan. 21 stop in Kaiserslautern. A friend, who had won premium seats and backstage passes from the American Forces Network, offered them to Stevens.
They bought Allstar Weekend’s debut album “Suddenly Yours” and found the band’s videos online. That evening they were in the front row at Vogelweh’s Galaxy Theater.
“It’s really cool to see an American band,” said Athena, 8, who first heard about the band while visiting relatives last year in upstate New York.
In mid-January, the San Diego-based Allstar Weekend – who got their start on the Disney Channel in 2009 – toured U.S. military bases in England, Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands, courtesy of Armed Force Entertainment. The show, sponsored locally by U.S. Army Garrison Kaiserslautern’s Directorate of Families and Morale Welfare & Recreation, was better than driving to Frankfurt to watch a concert, Stevens said.
“Here it feels like home, we’re celebrating together with our military family,” Stevens said. “Plus, it’s nice to have something American to do.”
The band launched into their set of pop rock songs to include; “Journey to the End of My Life,” “Here With You,” “The Weekend,” and “Dance Forever.” They also covered of Shania Twain’s “You’re Still the One” and Bowling For Soup’s “1985.”
They also offered some songs on acoustic guitars and even rapped a little. During the piano-based ballad “Amy,” the band invited a teenage girl to sit onstage. Afterward, another teen jumped onstage to offer hugs.
Each song ended with the high-pitched shrill of screaming young girls, dozens who crowded the stage during the show. Like many parents, Air Force Master Sgt. Ron Russo sat in the back of the theater. His wife Sibel sat up front with daughters Anatolia, 8, and Kayra, 2.
One morning he heard on AFN, “The next caller had a chance to win.” Russo dialed the station, knowing nothing about the contest or the prize.
“He asked the easiest question about Justin Timberlake, about how he started with the Mickey Mouse club and then was with a famous boy band,” the 40-year-old Virginia Beach-native said. “I said ‘C’mon, the answer’s J.T.’”
After the show, Lt. Col. Kevin Hutchison and Command Sgt. Maj. Richard Jessup, the command team from U.S. Army Garrison Kaiserslautern, thanked the band and presented each player with a command coin.
“We know you have to leave home and live on the road to offer performances to our Soldiers, airmen and their families,” Hutchison said. “We recognize things of excellence and this was and an excellent performance.”
As a kid, singer Zach Porter’s father was in the Navy and he remembers living on bases and moving a lot, he said. He can relate to the audience of military members and their families, he said.
“It’s a big part of who I am today,” Porter said “I understand it’s hard every two years packing up and start new schools and make new friends. So, I’m glad we got to do this.”
While military audiences overseas may have missed Allstar Weekend’s stateside television appearances, their presence on the Internet gives new fans a chance to further explore the band’s music, Porter said.
“It’s good for us to play for a new audience,” Porter said. “We covered a few songs that we thought people would know, if they don’t know all of our songs. It warmed up the audience to our own music and bridged the gap.”
Touring military bases was also a chance for the band to give back something to those serving overseas, said bass guitarist Cameron Quiseng. He especially enjoyed feedback from the crowd, when they signed autographs after each show.
“The crowds are amazing, chanting and singing along,” Quiseng said. “For us to come and perform for them and give them a good time, it really means a lot to us.”
(Photos by Rick Scavetta, U.S. Army Garrison Kaiserslautern)
It all started with an innocent question from Greg via AIM. He asked me if I knew where he could find a Where's Waldo hat. I tried a few queries in Google and Froogle, but the best I could do was pull up a couple of knitting patterns, and pictures of other people with Waldo hats. He wasn't about to knit one and neither was I, but I offered to sew one up for him out of fleece since it's a rare occasion that I get to connect with an old friend from the East Coast.
I ended up making 4 Waldo hats before I perfected the pattern and got the sizing right. I showed my creations to my brother and he casually mentioned, "You know, it would be funny if there was a flash mob where a lot of people showed up dressed like Waldo. It would be like the puzzle where there were thousands of Waldos and you had to find the real Waldo."
I thought it was a brilliant idea, so I decided to make it come true.
Behold:
Participate in the re-creation of the most difficult Waldo puzzle ever! Come out to the square across from the San Francisco Ferry Building on Saturday November 11th at noon in a red and white striped shirt and blue pants. This event will occur rain or shine. If it rains, we will congregate inside the Ferry Building.
For event details and costuming resources, visit the Mob of Waldos web site.
If you think this is a cool idea, please help to spread the word! The bigger the turnout, the more fun it will be!
WordPress theme based on Blue Kino 1.2 by Kino
Gerani (Greek: Γεράνι, literally 'Geranium', Turkish: Turnalar) is a village in the Famagusta District of Cyprus, located 8 km (5.0 mi) northeast of Trikomo. It is under the de facto control of Northern Cyprus.
Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.
Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.
A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.
Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.
Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.
Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.
Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.
The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.
Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.
Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.
By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.
EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.
However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.
On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.
In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.
By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.
In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.
The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.
After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".
As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.
Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.
On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.
The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.
Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.
The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.
Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.
Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria
An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."
In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.
Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.
In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.
Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.
Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.
Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.
The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:
UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.
The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.
By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."
After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.
On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.
The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.
During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.
In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.
Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.
A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.
Host Muhammad Ali Raza Loved with Christen People Community
Host Muhammad Ali Raza love Jesus Christ Loved many more God Bless you Mr.Ali Raza
christen,
christening,
christensen,
christen dye,
christine makeup,
christen press,
christendom,
christian betzmann,
christian songs,
christian prince,
christian movies,
christian geet,
christian bale,
christian seavey,
christian azan,
christian music,
christen and heather,
christian and nessa,
christian agt,
christine and the queen,
christen accept islam,
christen and queen,
christen and tobin,
a christian girl question zakir naik,
a christian student question dr zakir naik,
a christian wedding,
a christian song,
a christian girl,
a christian funeral,
a christian wife vs a worldly wife,
a christian turn'd turk,
christian bale movies,
christen bensten,
kristen bell,
christian ball,
christen beck,
christian bhajan,
christian church,
christen cartoon,
christian classen,
christine cosmetics,
christen cooper,
christen c,
christen cooper we just fit,
christine car,
christen dominique,
christen dominique son,
christian death,
christen dominique joker,
christen dominique asmr,
christen dominique morning and night routines,
christen dominique you,
christen eagle,
christian entrance,
christen eagle ii,
christen eagle dcs,
christen eagle aerobatics,
christen eagle rc,
christen eve,
christian english song,
christian gray,
christian girl,
christian guzman,
christian grey movie,
christen gerhart,
christen games,
christina gomez,
kristen hanby,
kristen hanby pranks,
christine ha,
christian history,
christian hindi movie,
christen hayden,
christen harper interview,
christen hypsometer,
i christen thee machine,
i christen thee the flying wasp,
i christening,
i christen thee the flying wasp gif,
christen jones,
christen jackson,
christen james,
christen johnson,
christine jorgensen,
christiane jaccottet,
kristen jernigan,
kristen johnson actress,
gordon j christensen,
christen kwame,
christian knight,
christen kuklinski interview,
christian kane,
christian kirksey,
kristen kelly,
christian keyes,
christine ko sansar tv,
christian lion,
christine le,
christian lee,
christen love island,
christen lien,
kristen leo,
christen lewe gemeente lichtenburg,
christen limbaugh bloom,
scott l christensen artist,
scott l christensen,
alex christensen l'amour toujours,
christian movie,
christen martin,
christen mcallister,
christian marriage,
christen married,
christen movie songs,
christen noel asmr,
christen noel mic squishing,
christen noel amor,
christian nepali song,
christen new song,
christen nails,
kristen nicole,
christian nodal,
christen dominique wet n wild,
christen oliver,
christian owens,
christian olsen,
christian oldies,
christen ocean,
kristen o'keefe,
christina oliveras,
christen press highlights,
christen prank,
christen press goal,
christen press interview,
christian prayer,
christen press 8,
christen dominique q&a,
christen press q&a,
christen dominique quick makeup,
harley quinn christen dominique,
christen listen quran,
christen hören quran,
cristiano ronaldo,
christen rhule,
christen renee shoulder massage,
christian rap,
christen reighter,
christian rock,
christian renegade,
christen reighter ted,
christian songs in urdu,
christian story,
christian songs for kids,
christian songs in urdu zaboor,
christian status,
christian shaadi,
christian yu,
christian yelich,
christian yoga,
christian youtuber,
yamen and christen,
christen press yellow card,
yamen chooses christen,
yamen and christen kiss,
christen noel 3dio,
christen 2-32,
great planes christen eagle 46,
7 tage radikale christen,
8 things about christen press,
hangar 9 christen eagle,
hangar 9 christen eagle electric,
studio 90 christen press,
hangar 9 christen eagle ii
So, how much wood would a woodchuck chuck if a woodchuck would chuck wood?
an unanswerable question, unless groundhogs (i.e., woodchucks) learned English
This is an item from the Ghostbusters Collection, completely hand-made and one of a kind.
Sean McCullough, creator of McCullough's Miscellanea, creates each piece completely by hand. As he collects items here and there, no two pieces will ever be the same. Materials often used are plastic, cardboard, and wire.
This item is currently for sale. However, the majority of the creations from McCullough's Miscellanea have started falling apart. I wish you good luck!
Have a question or other inquiry? Contact Sean!
Facebook: www.facebook.com/mccmiscellanea
Email: ductel762@gmail.com
NBC's Andrea Mitchell asks U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry a question during his joint press conference with Ukrainian Foreign Minister Pavlo Klimkin at the U.S. Department of State in Washington, D.C., on July 29, 2014. [State Department photo/ Public Domain]
mémoire2cité - A la fin des années 1930, sous le Front Populaire, s’amorce une démocratisation des loisirs et du sport. Cette massification des loisirs sportifs, et en particulier de la natation, s’intensifie après-guerre, grâce à la mise en place d’une véritable politique d’Etat en faveur du développement de la pratique sportive, accompagnée par la construction d’équipements de proximité. Cette politique conduit à redéfinir et à rationaliser la conception de la piscine, autant d’un point de vue architectural que fonctionnel.
I. Vers une étatisation des politiques sportives
1. Une idée en germe depuis les années 1930
Vers la fin des années 1920, le sport, et en particulier la question de l’équipement sportif, commence à s’imposer au niveau national, comme un objet incontournable de souci et d’action politique. La volonté de créer une structure institutionnelle chargée de concevoir et de contrôler cette politique publique relative au sport s’affirme de plus en plus. Cette idée est en germe depuis l’armistice, comme l’indique la réflexion d’Edouard Herriot, maire de Lyon : « Peut-être arriverons-nous ainsi peu à peu à la constitution d’un grand service central – ministère ou non – de l’Éducation physique » (Édouard Herriot, 1919).
Parallèlement, des revendications sociales se font entendre pour une meilleure accessibilité au sport par la classe populaire. Ces requêtes sont entendues par le Front populaire, qui initie une politique de démocratisation de la culture sportive, s’appuyant sur l’invention de notions telles que temps libre et loisirs. Dans le but de diffuser et de mettre en oeuvre cette conception du sport pour tous, est créé en 1937 (à l’occasion d’un remaniement ministériel), un sous-secrétariat d’Etat aux Sports, aux Loisirs et à l’Education physique (rattaché au ministère de l’Education nationale dirigé par Jean Zay), à la tête duquel est placé Léo Lagrange. Ce dernier entreprend une série d’actions, à la fois concrètes et symboliques, comme l’aide à l’équipement communal (dont la nécessité est rendue évidente par les conclusions d’un inventaire national des installations existantes) ou la création d’un Brevet sportif populaire. Cette conception du sport de masse n’obtient cependant pas la faveur de tous. On note d’ailleurs, dans le mouvement sportif national, le rejet d’une politique d’intervention autoritaire des pouvoirs publics. Si les actions du Front Populaire sont stoppées par la déclaration de la guerre, elles ont toutefois conduit à une véritable prise de conscience de l’enjeu politique sportif au niveau national.
Sous le régime de Vichy (juin 1940-juin 1944), est créé un Commissariat Général à l’Education Générale et Sportive (CGEGS), qui s’appuie sur le sport pour diffuser l’idéologie du gouvernement, prônant des valeurs de discipline, de redressement moral, physique et intellectuel et de retour à l’ordre. Dans ces années, où le sport est surtout un outil de propagande, s’esquissent toutefois de nouvelles prescriptions concernant l’architecture des piscines (qui se doit d’être épurée et rationnelle), et la volonté de rattraper le retard de la France en matière d’équipement sportif par rapport aux autres pays européens.
2. Quelques réalisations remarquables des années 1950
Au sortir de la guerre, la question sportive n’est pas une priorité et la période 1945-1957 se caractérise par une faible intervention publique. Malgré les constructions réalisées grâce à des politiques municipales sociales et volontaristes dans les années 1930, le nombre d’équipements sportifs, et en particulier de piscines couvertes et chauffées, est encore très faible par rapport à la moyenne européenne. Ce sous-équipement va rapidement poser problème, d’autant plus que l’accroissement démographique est en plein essor, entraînant une augmentation de la jeunesse et donc une recrudescence de la pratique sportive, parallèlement à une forte urbanisation. Si l’effort est d’abord porté vers la reconstruction (du secteur industriel et du cadre de vie : logements, services administratifs, voirie, etc.), les questions de la jeunesse, du sport, de l’éducation populaire et du plein air travaillent les esprits du gouvernement.
Dans les Hauts-de-France, de nombreuses piscines ont subi des dégradations pendant la guerre et nécessitent une rénovation (une grande partie des piscines cheminotes par exemple).
Le stade nautique olympique de Tourcoing est complété, en 1951, d’un toit en partie ouvrant, une première du genre, amené à un grand développement dans les deux décennies suivantes. Faute de moyens financiers suffisants (il existe des subventions, mais les moyens alloués à la Jeunesse et aux Sports restent faibles) et d’une volonté politique forte, le nombre de constructions de piscines entre 1945 et 1958 demeure restreint. Ainsi, à Lens, suite à la destruction du stade nautique pendant la guerre, la construction d’une nouvelle piscine est projetée dès l’après-guerre, mais faute de financement, il faut attendre les années 1960 pour que le projet aboutisse.
Les quelques installations nautiques nouvelles qui sont réalisées au cours des 1950, sous l’impulsion d’initiatives locales, sont majoritairement découvertes et ne sont donc exploitables que quelques mois dans l’année. Si ces édifices sont aboutis au niveau technique et architectural, ils ne sont pas en mesure de satisfaire les besoins en matière de bassins éducatifs praticables pendant l’année scolaire. Ils répondent plus à une volonté d’offrir à la population un équipement de loisirs sportifs. Il s’agit souvent de la réalisation de projets municipaux d’avant-guerre, n’ayant pas eu l’occasion de voir le jour.
Dans ces piscines des années 1950, le double bassin est définitivement adopté et elles répondent aux nouvelles prescriptions édictées dans les années 1940 en matière d’architecture sportive, qui se doit avant tout d’être fonctionnelle et pratique, largement ouverte sur l’extérieur par des baies vitrées, sa beauté résidant essentiellement dans l’harmonie de ses proportions et l’agencement de lignes géométriques pures.
Ainsi, dans l’Oise, la ville de Compiègne décide en 1949 (sous le mandat de Jean Legendre), l’édification d’une piscine en bordure de l’Oise, rendue possible grâce aux indemnités des dommages de guerre et de la reconstruction, ainsi qu’à une subvention élevée de la part du Secrétariat d’Etat à l’Enseignement technique, à la Jeunesse et aux Sports. La piscine, conçue par l’architecte-urbaniste de la ville, J. Gossart, est inaugurée le 1er juin 1952. Des bains-douches sont aménagés dans les sous-sols. Il s’agit d’un grand bâtiment blanc rectangulaire en béton armé, inséré sur la berge boisée de l’Oise, s’ouvrant en son centre sur les deux bassins de plein-air de la piscine (25 x 12,5 m et 8 x 12,5 m), avec un plongeoir à double hauteur (3 et 5 mètres). Les baigneurs surplombent l’Oise et évoluent dans un cadre propice à la détente, correspondant bien aux prescriptions d’avant-guerres recommandant la construction d’équipements sportifs et de loisirs en plein air, dans un environnement naturel. Les gradins d’environ 800 places, font également face à l’Oise. L’architecture est simple et fonctionnelle, sans aucun décor ; elle obéit à un modernisme pur et efficace. Elle est remarquable du fait de sa situation en bord de rivière, comme l’était également la piscine découverte de l’Hôtel-Dieu à Pontoise (Val d’Oise) construite en 1961 par l’architecte Jean Letu et aujourd’hui détruite. La piscine de Compiègne, ouverte de mai à septembre, connaît un grand succès, qui ne cesse de croître d’année en année. Fermée dès 1985 car son bassin souffrait de fuites (et remplacée par la piscine Mercières, construite en 1988), elle est aujourd’hui à l’abandon.
A Caudry (Nord), le stade nautique municipal est construit en 1951-1952, sur les plans d'Edmond Lancelle (1898-1957), architecte du Cambrésis actif pendant les deux périodes de reconstruction, grâce à la volonté du maire Albert Dhélin (maire de 1947 à 1965). L’architecte est associé à Marc Revaux, ingénieur-conseil spécialisé en construction de piscines. Son architecture semble inspirée de la piscine de Bruay-en-Artois et est similaire à celle du Cateau-Cambrésis, reconstruite en 1954 par la même équipe d’architecte-ingénieur. Elle allie le style Paquebot de l’Art Déco (présence d’oculi en forme de hublots) aux codes du mouvement moderne international des années 1950. Les bassins sont entourés sur deux côtés par les bâtiments des vestiaires, et sur le deuxième grand côté par des gradins surplombés par une terrasse avec buvette (dans l’angle). La forme de U renversé de l’élégant plongeoir associée à la ligne courbe du toboggan qui lui fait face, animent l’orthogonalité des alignements de cabines. Le portique d’entrée, reprenant ces lignes courbes, s’ouvre sur un guichet vitré aux formes dynamiques et sculpturales. La piscine est dominée par une grande tour-horloge, rythmant les séances de natation. On retrouve cette tour-horloge marquant l’entrée de la piscine, à la piscine olympique de la Scarpe à Arras (1955) et au stade nautique de Bapaume (Pas-de-Calais). A Bapaume, le bâtiment abritant l’accueil et les vestiaires est largement vitré et s’ouvre sur les bassins, entourés d’un portique. Son architecte, Emile Cauwet, est spécialiste de l’architecture scolaire (groupe scolaire Ferdinand-Buisson à Boulogne-Billancourt), industrielle et sportive, et prône une esthétique moderniste et fonctionnelle.
A Boulogne-sur-Mer (Pas-de-Calais), une piscine municipale est judicieusement intégrée au nouveau casino, bâtiment monumental, manifeste de l’architecture des années 1950, conçu par les architectes Sonrel et Bonhomme, et situé derrière la plage de la station balnéaire. La piscine, localisée au rez-de-chaussée, est vitrée sur deux côtés et donne vue sur la plage. Le bâtiment en béton armé, monté sur pilotis (rappelant l’architecture de Le Corbusier), est décoré sur ses façades extérieures de mosaïques réalisées par l’artiste Françoise Lelong. La façade côté plage s’ouvre par un portique avec terrasse.
Ainsi les piscines des années 1950, souvent d’une grande sobriété correspondant aux préceptes architecturaux du mouvement moderne, s’inscrivent dans la continuité des piscines de la fin des années 1930. Il faut attendre les années 1960 pour qu’une nouvelle impulsion soit donnée à l’innovation architecturale dans le domaine des piscines, grâce à la mise en place d’une véritable politique interventionniste de l’Etat en faveur de l’équipement sportif sous la Ve République, dans le cadre de trois lois de programme planifiant la construction d’équipements sportifs et socio-éducatifs. Ce nouveau cadre législatif se traduit par une "mise en administration" du bâti sportif par l’État1.
II. Les mesures mises en place entre 1961 et 1976 par l’Etat en faveur de la construction des piscines
A partir de la Ve République, le sport et la construction sportive sont désormais perçus comme un service d’intérêt public du ressort de l’Etat. Déterminé, l’Etat entreprend une série de mesures incitatives visant à créer un maillage de piscines publiques praticables en toutes saisons (la plupart des piscines étaient alors découvertes et non chauffées) sur l’ensemble du territoire national. L’objectif principal est que tous les enfants aient accès à un bassin pour apprendre à nager, et qu’ainsi soit enfin mis en application l’apprentissage obligatoire de la natation à l’école (dans les programmes depuis la fin du 19e siècle). La priorité des piscines des années 1960-1970 est donc portée vers la jeunesse et l’éducation.
1. Les lois programmes : une nouvelle politique économique en faveur de l’équipement sportif
Lors de l’instauration du premier gouvernement de la Ve République, est créé un Haut-commissariat (puis Secrétariat d’Etat) à la Jeunesse et aux Sports (rattaché au ministère de l’Education Nationale), dirigé par Maurice Herzog. Ce dernier souhaite impulser de manière urgente une politique de construction afin de combler le sous-équipement en matière d’édifices à destination de la jeunesse : "Notre objectif, notre seul objectif est de mettre à la disposition de notre jeunesse, les moyens de s’exprimer plus complètement. Nous voulons que des millions de jeunes Français puissent aller au stade, à la piscine, se rencontrer dans les Maisons de Jeunes" (Equipements pour la jeunesse et les sports, 1962). Cette volonté se concrétise le 28 juillet 1961, avec la promulgation, dans le cadre du IVe plan, de la première loi de programme, qui instaure, sur une durée de quatre ans (1962-1965), un plan assurant un financement national durable et concret en faveur des équipements sportifs et socio-éducatifs. Ce plan prend la forme de subventions élevées (représentant généralement entre 20 et 50% du coût total) destinées à aider de nombreuses collectivités locales dans leur projet de constructions sportives. Ces aides se poursuivent et sont même revalorisées lors de la deuxième loi de programme d’équipements sportifs (1966-1970), votée le 2 juillet 1965. La troisième loi (1971-1975), votée le 13 juillet 1971, montre une détermination encore plus forte de l’Etat à augmenter massivement le nombre d’équipements à grande échelle, en particulier dans les nouvelles zones urbaines, et à former des éducateurs, ceci pour favoriser le sport de masse pour tous. Ces années marquent en revanche le début du désengagement financier de l’État, que l’on discerne par la baisse progressive des montants des subventions accordées. Ces subventions sont bien sûr soumises à certaines conditions. Et, pour assurer et contrôler la qualité technique et le respect des normes des piscines construites, les municipalités doivent en faire valider les avant-projets par l’Etat.
Certains dossiers de subventions conservés aux Archives nationales montrent que de nombreuses municipalités des Hauts-de-France bénéficient de cette aide dès les années 1960 (par exemple les piscines de Lomme, de Noyon, de Chantilly, de Lens, etc.).
Ces lois de programmes d’équipements ne se résument toutefois pas à ces aides financières : l’Etat développe également des mesures permettant d’inciter plus efficacement les collectivités à entreprendre la construction d’une piscine, en facilitant leurs démarches administratives et en réduisant les coûts de construction.
2. L’agrément de modèles de piscines : normaliser, encadrer et faciliter la construction
Suite à l’application de la première loi de programme, le Haut-Commissariat à la Jeunesse et aux Sports, constate que les prix de revient des équipements sportifs sont fréquemment trop élevés et que les architectes municipaux chargés de ces constructions ne sont la plupart du temps pas qualifiés pour ce type de constructions complexes et techniques. D’où la volonté de normaliser et de rationaliser les équipements sportifs, notamment les piscines, et de contrôler les projets proposés par de plus en plus d’entreprises, de constructeurs ou de bureaux d’études aux collectivités. Dans ce but est créée le 25 mai 1963 une commission spéciale dont la mission est d’agréer, sur le plan technique, des projets-types d’équipements susceptibles d’être réalisés dans toute la France. La commission est composée de treize sièges et se réunit plusieurs fois dans l’année pour donner son avis sur les projets d’architecture présentés à l’agrément. Pour ce faire, elle se base sur les qualités techniques du projet, sur les possibilités d’adaptation de l’architecture aux terrains divers, ainsi que sur les qualifications professionnelles des candidats à l’agrément. A partir de 1967, la commission se montre plus exigeante sur l’esthétique, l’harmonie, et l’originalité architecturale.
L’objectif principal de cette commission était de pouvoir proposer aux collectivités un panel de modèles de piscines variées et conformes aux caractéristiques définies par l’Etat, livrables clefs en mains et ayant des prix fixes. Cette procédure de normalisation devait de cette façon, assurer la qualité des équipements construits en France ainsi qu’une plus grande rapidité de réalisation. Le premier numéro de la revue Piscines informations résume avec enthousiasme tous les avantages que présente pour les municipalités le choix d’un projet-type agréé, se faisant ainsi le relais des services de l’Etat : "Plus que jamais, ces projets-types agréés sont la solution simple et économique. Prix plafonnés, projets clairement déterminés, normes parfaitement respectées, marché de gré à gré, financements faciles et par conséquent, réalisations rapides, tels sont les principaux avantages que permet d’obtenir le choix d’une exécution conforme à un projet-type agréé". Tout est mis en oeuvre pour inciter les collectivités à s’orienter de préférence vers un projet-type. Une documentation fournie permet en outre d’aider les maîtres d’ouvrages à choisir un programme (nombre et taille des bassins, piscine couverte ou non, etc.) adapté aux besoins de leur commune, notamment en fonction du nombre d’habitants.
Il faut attendre 1966 pour que les premiers projets-types soient validés par la commission d’agrément, qui est alors placée sous la responsabilité du nouveau ministère de Jeunesse et des Sports, créé en janvier 1966. La procédure d’agrément est un succès auprès des constructeurs, ingénieurs et architectes. Ils sont ravis de pouvoir bénéficier de ce moyen permettant d’officialiser leurs projets, et mettent à profit leur savoir-faire et leurs idées au service de l’élaboration d’une nouvelle architecture des piscines. Ainsi, parmi les 134 projets-types validés par la commission d’agrément entre 1966 et 1971 (date de mise en arrêt de la procédure), on compte 64 modèles de piscines. La plupart de ces projets présentent des programmes simples et polyvalents, avec un ou plusieurs bassins susceptibles de s’adapter à différents besoins. Avant le lancement de la procédure, toujours dans le but de promouvoir l’apprentissage de la natation, le secrétariat d’Etat avait également agréé trois modèles de piscines-écoles, bassins de natation découverts ou couverts. Ces piscines scolaires, en matériaux préfabriqués, sont constituées d’un bassin métallique suspendu sous lequel sont situées les cabines de change et les installations techniques. Une carte postale montre un de ces bassins découverts (type PF) construit à Barlin (Pas-de-Calais).
Seuls certains de ces modèles agréés ont eu du succès et ont été sélectionnés à plusieurs reprises par les municipalités mais ils n’ont pas véritablement été construits à grande échelle. Pour "vendre" leurs piscines, les constructeurs n’hésitent pas à vanter les avantages de leurs projets agréés à travers de nombreuses publicités diffusées dans la presse spécialisée2, ou grâce à des brochures publicitaires envoyées aux municipalités. Dans les Hauts-de-France, on dénombre onze modèles adoptés une ou plusieurs fois par les communes, conduisant à la construction de vingt-trois piscines couvertes. Certains modèles de piscines sont construits avant que les architectes en demandent l’agrément : par exemple la piscine S.5 de l’architecte Michel Denisse, qu’il met en oeuvre dans sa ville natale, Hénin-Liétard, et pour le district urbain de Montreuil-sur-Mer en 1966, alors qu’il n’obtient l’agrément qu’en 1967. C’est le cas également pour la piscine couverte de Cambrai, inaugurée en 1964, qui sert de prototype à Pierre Prod’homme et René Lancelle (architectes à Cambrai) avant de proposer à l’agrément un modèle de piscine.
On relève toutefois que, si la commission privilégie l’agrément de piscines couvertes ou transformables (c’est-à-dire pouvant s’ouvrir aux beaux-jours), en ne validant qu’un seul modèle de piscine de plein-air, c’est encore ce type qui est majoritairement construit en France, en raison de son faible coût de fabrication.
Ainsi les résultats de la procédure d’agrément sont plutôt satisfaisants mais pas suffisants pour l’Etat qui souhaite intensifier davantage l’implantation de piscines publiques exploitables toute l’année en France, en particulier dans les petites et moyennes communes, ou les quartiers populaires de grandes agglomérations, dont les budgets sont très modestes et qui n’ont pas pu bénéficier de l’élan de construction des décennies précédentes. Pour ce faire, le ministère de la Jeunesse et des Sports, lance, suite à l’organisation de plusieurs concours d’architecture sur le thème des piscines économiques et transformables, une opération nommée « Mille piscines » visant à une répartition uniforme et égalitaire des piscines sur tout le territoire, afin que désormais tous les enfants puissent apprendre à nager. La création d’un réseau d’équipements natatoire apparaît d’autant plus nécessaire depuis la décentralisation de l’enseignement du second degré en 1964 et la création de collèges d’enseignement secondaires (CES) dans des petites villes.
3. L’opération "Mille piscines" : une industrialisation totale des piscines pour équiper le territoire à grande échelle
Mise en place de l’opération Mille piscines
La troisième loi de programme prévoit, en 1971, la réalisation prioritaire, entre autres équipements, d’un millier de piscines (dont 850 industrialisées et 150 destinées à la compétition) en quatre ans (1972-1976). Cette opération, appelée "Mille piscines", entre dans la continuité des volontés étatiques édictées depuis le début de la Ve République en matière d’équipement natatoire, mais elle est également motivée par deux évènements qui ont frappé l’opinion publique à l’été 1968 : la noyade de 150 personnes, dont une majorité d’enfants, suite au naufrage d’un bateau de plaisance sur le lac Léman à moins de 50 mètres de la rive ; et les mauvaises performances des nageurs français aux jeux Olympiques de Mexico. Le général de Gaulle donne alors pour mission à Joseph Comiti, secrétaire d’Etat à la Jeunesse et aux Sports, d’équiper la France d’un maximum de piscines afin d’enseigner la natation à toute la jeunesse française.Devant l’importance de l’objectif à atteindre : mille piscines, pouvant s’adapter aux possibilités financières souvent limitées des petites et moyennes communes (de 8000 à 15000 habitants) et dont le programme doit concilier l’apprentissage de la natation, la détente et l’entraînement sportif quelle que soit la saison , le secrétariat d’Etat oriente résolument la recherche vers le développement de techniques de préfabrication et d’industrialisation totale de l’architecture, afin de pouvoir produire des piscines en grande série à moindre coût (le prix de revient doit être situé autour de 1 200 000 francs). Pour augmenter l’efficacité et la rapidité de l’opération, l’Etat centralise et facilite le processus administratif (conception et passage des marchés), assure le suivi des réalisations et des travaux, devenant ainsi le maître d’ouvrage des opérations, dont il subventionne largement le coût auprès des villes qui se portent acquéreurs. Les municipalités doivent seulement fournir le terrain et se décider pour un modèle de piscine parmi ceux proposés. A noter que l’Etat se réserve toutefois de refuser ce choix et d’attribuer un autre modèle à la commune, compte tenu des obligations liés aux marchés de série. Pour aider à choisir et expliquer les démarches à mettre en oeuvre, le secrétariat d’Etat diffuse auprès des communes intéressées une documentation abondante et incitative (dépliants, brochures, albums techniques, etc.). Ce système très rationalisé laisse donc peu de marge de manoeuvre aux petites communes qui, si elles souhaitent s’équiper rapidement d’une piscine, sont quasiment obligées de passer par ce système. Ainsi, il s’agit, selon Patrick Facon (2006), de "construire plus vite, moins cher, sans viser d’emblée la perfection – mais en donnant des outils même rudimentaires dans les meilleurs délais".
Dès 1970, l’Etat amorce le lancement de cette opération avec la création de 50 "bassins d’apprentissage mobiles" (B.A.M.), dont la fabrication, la conception, le montage et la mise en service sont réalisés par deux entreprises sélectionnées sur concours en 1969 : Walrvae Nausicaa et la société Techniques et Loisirs. Ces bassins de 12,5 x 6 m, peu onéreux et facilement mis en oeuvre, en service d’avril à septembre, sont à affectés par roulement à des communes ne possédant pas d’établissement natatoire. Ils ont pour but de faire patienter les municipalités pendant l’avancée de l’opération "Mille piscines", et de sensibiliser, en attendant, les futurs usagers des piscines industrialisées et ainsi amorcer le développement de la pratique massive de la natation à l’école. Ce service rencontre un grand succès et le secrétariat passe une deuxième commande de 45 B.A.M. en 1972. Ces installations ont été mises en service dans plus de 700 communes jusqu’en 1976 (date fin de l’opération "Mille piscines").
Les concours nationaux d’idées de 1969
Précédant le lancement de cette opération, l’Etat avait organisé en 1969 et 1971 des séries de concours d’architecture nationaux sur le thème de la piscine, qui devaient conduire à une sélection de modèles de piscines facilement industrialisables. Les deux premiers concours sont lancés le 22 mai 1969 et ont pour objectif de recenser et de comparer toutes les idées nouvelles en matière de piscine. Ces concours sont avant tout ouverts aux architectes, contrairement aux agréments qui mobilisent plutôt des entreprises.
Le premier concours porte sur les "piscines transformables", confirmant l’orientation voulue par le ministère de favoriser la construction d’équipements conciliant, en un seul équipement, les bénéfices d’une installation de plein-air et d’une piscine couverte. Les architectes doivent imaginer une piscine ouverte aux beaux-jours, destinée aux agglomérations moyennes et aux quartiers de grandes villes et comportant les équipements suivant : un bassin sportif de 25 m sur 15 m équipé d’un plongeoir, un bassin d’apprentissage de 15 sur 12,5 m, une pataugeoire de 30 m2 et des annexes fonctionnelles et techniques.
Le second concours concerne les "piscines économiques". Le programme, plus dépouillé, visant à l’économie tant du point de vue de la construction que de la gestion, correspond aux besoins des petites villes : un bassin mixte de 25 m sur 10 m (dont la profondeur varie de 0,7 à 2 m) permettant de nombreuses activités (baignade familiale, entraînement sportif, apprentissage, compétition, détente) et des annexes fonctionnelles et techniques. Comme pour le premier concours, la façade ou la toiture doit être largement ouvrable. L’architecte doit également prévoir la possibilité d’extensions par l’ajout de bassins de plein air.
Ces deux concours connaissent un grand succès : d’après Joseph Comiti, 400 architectes s’y sont intéressés et 150 projets ont été reçus. Neuf avant-projets de piscines transformables sont retenus et quatre pour les piscines économiques. Ces projets, d’une grande originalité, présentent tous des systèmes inédits de toitures ou de façades escamotables permettant l’ouverture complète de la piscine sur l’extérieur. La piscine Tournesol de Bernard Schoeller remporte le premier prix aux deux concours. Robert Hirt gagne le deuxième prix pour les piscines transformables, tandis que le deuxième prix pour les piscines économiques est attribué à la piscine Caneton de Jean-Paul Aigrot, Franc Charras et Alain Charvier. Tous les avant-projets primés doivent normalement faire l’objet d’un prototype en vue d’étudier les possibilités concrètes d’une industrialisation. Mais au final, peu de projets s’y prêtent véritablement. Quelques projets du premier concours sont construits à titre expérimental, et seuls les deux premiers projets lauréats au concours des piscines économiques (Tournesol et Caneton) sont retenus en février 1970 par le secrétariat d’Etat pour la poursuite des études techniques en vue d’une construction en série. Les architectes sont mis en contact avec le bureau d’études SERI-Renault pour approfondir leur projet, puis un appel d’offres international pour les différents lots (tous les éléments doivent être préfabriqués en usine) est lancé en août 1971 pour la construction de prototypes. Pour la réalisation de la coque de la piscine Tournesol, c’est la proposition de la société Durafour qui est retenue, et l’entreprise générale GBA pour la piscine Caneton. Les prototypes primés sont construits à Nangis (Seine-et-Marne) pour la piscine Tournesol et à Salbris (Loir-et-Cher) pour la piscine Caneton. Après une année d’observation et de fonctionnement, les marchés en série sont conclus en décembre 1972 et les premières piscines Tournesol et Caneton sont construites sur tout le territoire national à partir de 1973. Il est prévu de construire 250 exemplaires de chaque piscine. En réalité, 183 piscines Tournesol ont été réalisées en France, et 196 piscines Caneton.
inventaire.hautsdefrance.fr/dossier/les-piscines-des-tren... -
les Piscines TOURNESOL En réalité, 183 piscines Tournesol ont été réalisées en France, et 196 piscines Caneton.
inventaire.hautsdefrance.fr/dossier/les-piscines-des-tren... - @ les pisçines Tournesol ↑ a et b Dossier sur la piscine de Carros
↑ Notice de la piscine de Bonneveine [archive], sur le site de la DRAC de PACA.
↑ Notice de la piscine de Carros-le-Neuf [archive], sur le site de la DRAC de PACA.
↑ Bilan 2011-2012 : Patrimoine architectural du xxe siècle, édifices « labellisés », édifices « labellisés » inscrits ou classés [archive], sur le site du ministère de la Culture.
↑ Christine Lescoutte-Gardent, « La piscine en travaux », Sud Ouest, 9 février 2013 (lire en ligne [archive]).
↑ Marc Gaillard, Architectures des sports, Éditions du Moniteur, coll. « Architecture / Les bâtiments », 1981 (ISBN 2-281-00014-1), p. 54.
↑ « Piscine de Carros » [archive], 2006 (consulté le 9 décembre 2017)
↑ « Les piscines Tournesol de Monsieur Schoeller » [archive], sur archipostcard.blogspot.fr (consulté le 9 décembre 2017)
↑ www.pss-archi.eu/immeubles/FR-50129-19686.html [archive]
↑ « Piscine du bois du château à Lorient » [archive], sur guide-piscine.fr, 1er juin 2016 (consulté le 21 août 2016)
↑ « Piscine de Baud » [archive], sur guide-piscine.fr, 28 juin 2016 (consulté le 21 août 2016)
↑ a et b « La piscine Tournesol en phase de démolition » [archive], sur ouest-france.fr, Ouest France, 27 novembre 2015 (consulté le 21 août 2016)
↑ « Démolition de la piscine communautaire | CCB – Communauté de Communes du Bouzonvillois » [archive] (consulté le 29 août 2016)
↑ « Lille : la piscine tournesol de la rue françois coppee, c'est déja fini » [archive], sur www.lavoixdunord.fr/ [archive], 26 avril 2016 (consulté le 9 janvier 2017)
↑ « Fermeture définitive de la piscine Tournesol à Louvroil » [archive], sur Agglo Maubeuge-Val de Sambre, 24 mars 2016 (consulté le 9 janvier 2017)
↑ Dixième anniversaire de la piscine Atlantis. [archive]
↑ « Sa démolition a débuté : la piscine à ventre ouvert ! » [archive], sur lavoixdunord.fr, 19 décembre 2012 (consulté le 9 janvier 2017)
↑ Emmanuel Delahaye, « La piscine Tournesol a vécu », L'Alsace, 5 février 2016 (lire en ligne [archive])
↑ « La piscine a été démolie », L'Alsace, 12 janvier 2014 (lire en ligne [archive])
↑ CMS Anan6, « Communauté de Communes du Sud-Ouest Amiénois | Piscine communautaire » [archive], sur www.ccsoa.fr (consulté le 9 janvier 2017)
↑ Schoeller, Bernard, Piscine tournesol, plans de projet M 1:100, Archives Commune de Larochette, Paris, 1974.
↑ Galerie d'architecture moderne [archive], sur citedechaillot.fr.
↑ [PDF] Plein air, Beauvais, Diaphane, 2008 (ISBN 978-2-9530799-1-3, lire en ligne [archive]), chap. 15 (« Jurisprudence, dénomination, botanique »), p. 40–41.
Bernard Schoeller et Secrétariat d'État à la Jeunesse et aux Sports, Projet Tournesol : Opération 1000 piscines, dossier technique de présentation, Paris, R. Lacer, 1972, 31 p. (OCLC 1505704, notice BnF no FRBNF35900611, LCCN 75503940)
Gérard Monnier (dir.), L'architecture moderne en France, vol. 3 : De la croissance à la compétition : 1967-1999, Paris, Picard, coll. « Librairie de l'architecture et de la ville », 2000, 311 p. (ISBN 2-7084-0571-3), « Les piscines Tournesol », p. 16–18
Patrick Facon, « Les piscines Tournesol », dans Gérard Monnier (dir.) et Richard Klein (dir.), Les années ZUP : Architectures de la croissance, 1960-1973, Paris, Picard, 2002, 301 p. (ISBN 2-7084-0629-9), p. 91–110
« Remise à neuf de la coupole d'une piscine 'Tournesol' », Les Cahiers techniques du bâtiment, no 279, mai 2008, p. 32–34 (ISSN 0241-6794)
Odile Fillion, « Volumes d'eau », D'A. D'Architectures, no 104, août-septembre 2000, p. 36–51
fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piscine_Tournesol