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Siena è un comune di 54.391 abitanti della Toscana centrale, capoluogo dell'omonima provincia.
La città è universalmente conosciuta per il suo patrimonio artistico e per la sostanziale unità stilistica del suo arredo urbano medievale, nonché per il suo famoso Palio; il centro storico è stato infatti dichiarato dall'UNESCO patrimonio dell'umanità nel 1995.
Siena fu fondata come colonia romana al tempo dell'Imperatore Augusto e prese il nome di Saena Iulia.
All'interno del centro storico senese sono stati ritrovati dei siti di epoca etrusca, che possono far pensare alla fondazione della città da parte degli etruschi.
Il primo documento noto in cui viene citata la comunità senese risale al 70 e porta la firma di Tacito che, nel IV libro delle Historiae, riporta il seguente episodio: il senatore Manlio Patruito riferì a Roma di essere stato malmenato e ridicolizzato con un finto funerale durante la sua visita ufficiale a Saena Iulia, piccola colonia militare della Tuscia. Il Senato romano decise di punire i principali colpevoli e di richiamare severamente i senesi a un maggiore rispetto verso l'autorità.
Dell'alto Medioevo non si hanno documenti che possano illuminare intorno ai casi della vita civile a Siena. C'è qualche notizia relativa alla istituzione del vescovado e della diocesi, specialmente per le questioni sorte fra il Vescovo di Siena e quello di Arezzo, a causa dei confini della zona giurisdizionale di ciascuno: questioni nelle quali intervenne il re longobardo Liutprando, pronunziando sentenza a favore della diocesi aretina. Ma i senesi non furono soddisfatti e pertanto nell'anno 853, quando l'Italia passò dalla dominazione longobarda a quella franca, riuscirono ad ottenere l'annullamento della sentenza emanata dal re Liutprando. Pare, dunque, che al tempo dei Longobardi, Siena fosse governata da un gastaldo, rappresentante del re: Gastaldo che fu poi sostituito da un Conte imperiale dopo l'incoronazione di Carlo Magno. Il primo conte di cui si hanno notizie concrete fu Winigi, figlio di Ranieri, nel 867. Dopo il 900 regnava a Siena l'imperatore Ludovico III, il cui regno non durò così a lungo, dal momento che nel 903 le cronache raccontano di un ritorno dei conti al potere sotto il nuovo governo del re Berengario.
Siena si ritrova nel X secolo al centro di importanti vie commerciali che portavano a Roma e, grazie a ciò divenne un'importante città medievale. Nel XII secolo la città si dota di ordinamenti comunali di tipo consolare, comincia a espandere il proprio territorio e stringe le prime alleanze. Questa situazione di rilevanza sia politica che economica, portano Siena a combattere per i domini settentrionali della Toscana, contro Firenze. Dalla prima metà del XII secolo in poi Siena prospera e diventa un importante centro commerciale, tenendo buoni rapporti con lo Stato della Chiesa; i banchieri senesi erano un punto di riferimento per le autorità di Roma, ai quali si rivolgevano per prestiti o finanziamenti.
Alla fine del XII secolo Siena, sostenendo la causa ghibellina (anche se non mancavano, le famiglie senesi di parte guelfa, in sintonia con Firenze), si ritrovò nuovamente contro Firenze di parte guelfa: celebre è la vittoria sui toscani guelfi nella battaglia di Montaperti, del 1260, celebrata anche da Dante Alighieri. Ma dopo qualche anno i senesi ebbero la peggio nella battaglia di Colle Val d'Elsa, del 1269, che portò in seguito, nel 1287, alla ascesa del Governo
dei Nove, di parte guelfa. Sotto questo nuovo governo, Siena raggiunse il suo massimo splendore, sia economico che culturale.
Dopo la peste del 1348, cominciò la lenta decadenza della Repubblica di Siena, che comunque non precluse la strada all'espansione territoriale senese, che fino al giorno della caduta della Repubblica comprendeva un terzo della toscana. La fine della Repubblica Senese, forse l'unico Stato occidentale ad attuare una democrazia pura a favore del popolo, avvenne il 25 aprile 1555, quando la città, dopo un assedio di oltre un anno, dovette arrendersi stremata dalla fame, all'impero di Carlo V, spalleggiato dai fiorentini, che cedette in feudo il territorio della Repubblica ai Medici, Signori di Firenze, per ripagarli delle spese sostenute durante la guerra. Per l'ennesima volta i cittadini senesi riuscirono a tenere testa ad un imperatore, che solo grazie alle proprie smisurate risorse poté piegare la fiera resistenza di questa piccola Repubblica e dei suoi cittadini.
Dopo la caduta della Repubblica pochi senesi guidati peraltro dall'esule fiorentino Piero Strozzi, non volendo accettare la caduta della Repubblica, si rifugiarono in Montalcino, creando la Repubblica di Siena riparata in Montalcino, mantenendo l'alleanza con la Francia, che continuò ad esercitare il proprio potere sulla parte meridionale del territorio della Repubblica, creando notevoli problemi alle truppe degli odiati fiorentini. Essa visse fino al 31 maggio del 1559 quando fu tradita dagli alleati francesi, che Siena aveva sempre sostenuto, che concludendo la pace di Cateau-Cambrésis con l'imperatore Carlo V, cedettero di fatto la Repubblica ai fiorentini.
Lo stemma di Siena è detto "balzana". È uno scudo diviso in due porzioni orizzontali: quella superiore è bianca, quella inferiore nera,con la Lupa che allatta Senio e Ascanio. Secondo la leggenda, starebbe a simboleggiare il fumo nero e bianco scaturito dalla pira augurale che i leggendari fondatori della città, Senio e Ascanio, figli di Remo, avrebbero acceso per ringraziare gli dei dopo la fondazione della città di Siena. Un'altra leggenda riporta che la balzana derivi dai colori dei cavalli, uno bianco ed uno nero, che Senio e Ascanio usarono nella fuga dallo zio Romolo che li voleva uccidere e con i quali giunsero a Siena. Per il loro presunto carattere focoso che, si dice, rasenta la pazzia, anche i senesi sono definiti spesso "balzani".
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Siena (em português também conhecida como Sena) é uma cidade e sede de comuna italiana na região da Toscana, província do mesmo nome, com cerca de 52.775 (ISTAT 2003) habitantes. Estende-se por uma área de 118 km2, tendo uma densidade populacional de 447 hab/km2. Faz fronteira com Asciano, Castelnuovo Berardenga, Monteriggioni, Monteroni d'Arbia e Sovicille.
Siena é universalmente conhecida pelo seu património artístico e pela notável unidade estilística do seu centro histórico, classificado pela UNESCO como Património da Humanidade.
Segundo a mitologia romana, Siena foi fundada por Sénio, filho de Remo, e podem-se encontrar numerosas estátuas e obras de arte mostrando, tal como em Roma, os irmãos amamentados pela loba. Foi um povoamento etrusco e depois colónia romana (Saena Julia) refundada pelo imperador Augusto. Era, contudo, uma pequena povoação, longe das rotas principais do Império. No século V, torna-se sede de uma diocese cristã.
As antigas famílias aristocráticas de Siena reclamam origem nos Lombardos e à data da submissão da Lombardia a Carlos Magno (774). A grande influência da cidade como pólo cultural, artístico e político é iniciada no século XII, quando se converte num burgo autogovernado de cariz republicano, substituindo o esquema feudal.
Todavia, o esquema político conduziu sempre a lutas internas entre nobres e externas com a cidade rival de Florença. Data do século XIII a ruptura entre as facções rivais dos Guibelinos de Siena e dos Guelfos de Florença, que seria argumento para a Divina Comédia de Dante.
Em 4 de Setembro de 1260, os Guibelinos apoiaram as forças do rei Manfredo da Sicília e derrotaram os Guelfos em Montaperti, que tinham um exército muito superior em armas e homens. Antes da batalha, toda a cidade fora consagrada à Virgem Maria e confiada à sua protecção. Hoje, essa protecção é recordada e renovada, lembrando os sienenses da ameaça dos aliados da Segunda Guerra Mundial de bombardearam a cidade em 1944, o que felizmente não veio a acontecer.
Siena rivalizou no campo das artes durante o período medieval até o século XIV com as cidades vizinhas. Porém, devastada em 1348 pela Peste Negra, nunca recuperou o seu esplendor, perdendo também a sua rivalidade interurbana com Florença. A Siena actual tem um aspecto muito semelhante ao dos séculos XIII-XIV. Detém uma universidade fundada em 1203, famosa pelas faculdades de Direito e Medicina, e que é uma das mais prestigiadas universidades italianas.
Em 1557 perde a independência e é integrada nas formações políticas e administrativas da Toscana.
Siena também deu vários Papas, sendo eles: Alexandre III, Pio II, Pio III e Alexandre VII.
Os dois grandes santos de Siena são Santa Catarina (1347-1380) e São Bernardino (1380-1444). Catarina Benincasa, filha de um humilde tintureiro, fez-se irmã na Ordem Terceira dominicana (para leigos)e viveu como monja na casa dos pais. É famosa pelo intercâmbio interior com o próprio Cristo, que num êxtase lhe disse: "Eu sou aquele que é e tú és aquela que não é". Apesar da origem modesta, influenciou papas e príncipes com sua sabedoria e seu exemplo, conseguindo inclusive convencer o papa de então, contra a maioria dos cardeais, a regressar a Roma do exílio de Avinhon na França. Quanto ao franciscano São Bernardino, ele é célebre por ter sido o maior expoente, no Catolicismo, da via espiritual de invocação do Nome Divino, que encontra similares em todas as grandes religiões, do Budismo (nembutsu) ao Islã ([[dhikr]]) e ao Hinduísmo (mantra). Os sermões que Bernbardino fez na praça central de Siena provocaram tal fervor religioso e devoção ao nome de Jesus que o conselho municipal decidiu colocar o monograma do nome de Jesus (composto pelas letras IHS, significando "Jesus salvador dos homens")na fachada do prédio do governo. Do mesmo modo, muitos cidadãos o pintaram sobre as fachadas de suas casas, como até hoje se pode ver na cidade.
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Siena also widely spelled Sienna in English) is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of Siena.
The historic centre of Siena has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site. It is one of the nation's most visited tourist attractions, with over 163,000 international arrivals in 2008.[1] Siena is famous for its cuisine, art, museums, medieval cityscape and the palio.
Siena, like other Tuscan hill towns, was first settled in the time of the Etruscans (c. 900–400 BC) when it was inhabited by a tribe called the Saina. The Etruscans were an advanced people who changed the face of central Italy through their use of irrigation to reclaim previously unfarmable land, and their custom of building their settlements in well-defended hill-forts. A Roman town called Saena Julia was founded at the site in the time of the Emperor Augustus. The first document mentioning it dates from AD 70. Some archaeologists assert that Siena was controlled for a period by a Gaulish tribe called the Saenones.
The Roman origin accounts for the town's emblem: a she-wolf suckling infants Romulus and Remus. According to legend, Siena was founded by Senius, son of Remus, who was in turn the brother of Romulus, after whom Rome was named. Statues and other artwork depicting a she-wolf suckling the young twins Romulus and Remus can be seen all over the city of Siena. Other etymologies derive the name from the Etruscan family name "Saina," the Roman family name of the "Saenii," or the Latin word "senex" ("old") or the derived form "seneo", "to be old".
Siena did not prosper under Roman rule. It was not sited near any major roads and lacked opportunities for trade. Its insular status meant that Christianity did not penetrate until the 4th century AD, and it was not until the Lombards invaded Siena and the surrounding territory that it knew prosperity. After the Lombard occupation, the old Roman roads of Via Aurelia and the Via Cassia passed through areas exposed to Byzantine raids, so the Lombards rerouted much of their trade between the Lombards' northern possessions and Rome along a more secure road through Siena. Siena prospered as a trading post, and the constant streams of pilgrims passing to and from Rome provided a valuable source of income in the centuries to come.
The oldest aristocratic families in Siena date their line to the Lombards' surrender in 774 to Charlemagne. At this point, the city was inundated with a swarm of Frankish overseers who married into the existing Sienese nobility and left a legacy that can be seen in the abbeys they founded throughout Sienese territory. Feudal power waned however, and by the death of Countess Matilda in 1115 the border territory of the Mark of Tuscia which had been under the control of her family, the Canossa, broke up into several autonomous regions.
Siena prospered as a city-state, becoming a major centre of money lending and an important player in the wool trade. It was governed at first directly by its bishop, but episcopal power declined during the 12th century. The bishop was forced to concede a greater say in the running of the city to the nobility in exchange for their help during a territorial dispute with Arezzo, and this started a process which culminated in 1167 when the commune of Siena declared its independence from episcopal control. By 1179, it had a written constitution.
This period was also crucial in shaping the Siena we know today. It was during the early 13th century that the majority of the construction of the Siena Cathedral (Duomo) was completed. It was also during this period that the Piazza del Campo, now regarded as one of the most beautiful civic spaces in Europe, grew in importance as the centre of secular life. New streets were constructed leading to it, and it served as the site of the market and the location of various sporting events (perhaps better thought of as riots, in the fashion of the Florentine football matches that are still practised to this day). A wall was constructed in 1194 at the current site of the Palazzo Pubblico to stop soil erosion, an indication of how important the area was becoming as a civic space.
In the early 12th century a self-governing commune replaced the earlier aristocratic government. The consuls who governed the republic slowly became more inclusive of the poblani, or common people, and the commune increased its territory as the surrounding feudal nobles in their fortified castles submitted to the urban power. Siena's republic, struggling internally between nobles and the popular party, usually worked in political opposition to its great rival, Florence, and was in the 13th century predominantly Ghibelline in opposition to Florence's Guelph position (this conflict formed the backdrop for some of Dante's Commedia).
On 4 September 1260 the Sienese Ghibellines, supported by the forces of King Manfred of Sicily, defeated the Florentine Guelphs in the Battle of Montaperti. Before the battle, the Sienese army of around 20,000 faced a much larger Florentine army of around 33,000. Prior to the battle, the entire city was dedicated to the Virgin Mary (this was done several times in the city's history, most recently in 1944 to guard the city from Allied bombs). The man given command of Siena for the duration of the war, Bonaguida Lucari, walked barefoot and bareheaded, a halter around his neck, to the Duomo. Leading a procession composed of all the city's residents, he was met by all the clergy. Lucari and the bishop embraced, to show the unity of church and state, then Lucari formally gave the city and contrade to the Virgin. Legend has it that a thick white cloud descended on the battlefield, giving the Sienese cover and aiding their attack. The reality was that the Florentine army launched several fruitless attacks against the Sienese army during the day, then when the Sienese army countered with their own offensive, traitors within the Florentine army killed the standard bearer and in the resulting chaos, the Florentine army broke up and fled the battlefield. Almost half the Florentine army (some 15,000 men) were killed as a result. So crushing was the defeat that even today if the two cities meet in any sporting event, the Sienese supporters are likely to exhort their Florentine counterparts to “Remember Montaperti!”.
The limits on the Roman town, were the earliest known walls to the city. During the 10th and 11th centuries, the town grew to the east and later to the north, in what is now the Camollia district. Walls were built to totally surround the city, and a second set was finished by the end of the 13th century. Much of these walls still exist today.[2]
Siena's university, founded in 1240 and famed for its faculties of law and medicine, is still among the most important Italian universities. Siena rivalled Florence in the arts throughout the 13th and 14th centuries: the important late medieval painter Duccio di Buoninsegna (1253–1319) was a Sienese, but worked across the peninsula, and the mural of "Good Government" by Ambrogio Lorenzetti in the Palazzo Pubblico, or town hall, is a magnificent example of late-Medieval/early Renaissance art as well as a representation of the utopia of urban society as conceived during that period. Siena was devastated by the Black Death of 1348, and also suffered from ill-fated financial enterprises. In 1355, with the arrival of Charles IV of Luxembourg in the city, the population rose and suppressed the government of the Nove (Nine), establishing that Dodici (Twelve) nobles assisted by a council with a popular majority. This was also short-lived, being replaced by the Quindici (Fifteen) reformers in 1385, the Dieci (Ten, 1386–1387), Undici (Eleven, 1388–1398) and Twelve Priors (1398–1399) who, in the end, gave the city's seigniory to Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan in order to defend it from the Florentine expansionism.
In 1404 the Visconti were expelled and a government of Ten Priors established, in alliance with Florence against King Ladislas of Naples. With the election of the Sienese Pius II as Pope, the Piccolomini and other noble families were allowed to return to the government, but after his death the control returned into popular hands. In 1472 the Republic founded the Monte dei Paschi, a bank that is still active today and is the oldest surviving bank in the world. The noble factions returned in the city under Pandolfo Petrucci in 1487, with the support of Florence and of Alfonso of Calabria; Petrucci exerted an effective rule on the city until his death in 1512, favouring arts and sciences, and defending it from Cesare Borgia. Pandolfo was succeeded by his son Borghese, who was ousted by his cousin Raffaello, helped by the Medici Pope Leo X. The last Petrucci was Fabio, exiled in 1523 by the Sienese people. Internal strife resumed, with the popular faction ousting the Noveschi party supported by Clement VII: the latter sent an army, but was defeated at Camollia in 1526. Emperor Charles V took advantage of the chaotic situation to put a Spanish garrison in Siena. The citizens expelled it in 1552, allying with France: this was unacceptable for Charles, who sent his general Gian Giacomo Medici to lay siege to it with a Florentine-Imperial army.
The Sienese government entrusted its defence to Piero Strozzi. When the latter was defeated at the Battle of Marciano (August 1554), any hope of relief was lost. After 18 months of resistance, it surrendered to Spain on 17 April 1555, marking the end of the Republic of Siena. The new Spanish King Philip, owing huge sums to the Medici, ceded it (apart a series of coastal fortress annexed to the State of Presidi) to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, to which it belonged until the unification of Italy in the 19th century. A Republican government of 700 Sienese families in Montalcino resisted until 1559.
The picturesque city remains an important cultural centre, especially for humanist disciplines
I’m off to visit my first rain forest this weekend, and I’m not too sure what to expect. Plus I’ll be traveling alone hence, the nervousness. Would really appreciate it if anyone who’s been there could answer my slightly hysterical questions. :)
You will be rewarded in chocolate chip cookies and kind. :)
1.As crazy as it sounds, what does one wear to a rain forest? (!)
2.I’ll be fasting, will that be a problem?
3.Will I need anything else apart from Siddhalepa to ward off the leeches?
4.What does one do when approached by a snake?
4.1 Yell
4.2 Run
4.3 Play dead
Through the glass.
Through the mask.
Through the monitor.
Through the screen.
How are we enjoying our human made environment?
Will we take responsibility this time?
Will we learn?
Are we truly...intelligent?
That remains to be seen, doesn't it...
From the series "TOTEM"
THE FORGOTTEN BEATNIK WHO LIVED ON THE LEFT BANK IN AN ATTIC. Who knows what great work he wrote that earned him fame and fortune?
Tags: Henry-Murger German Who-is-he? Writer Beatnik-Quiz Questions Monmartre Died-Poor Died-Young Cafes Lived-in-Monmartre FREE-ART OUTDOOR-CAFES LEFT-BANK BOHEMIANS BEATNIKS WINE ARTISTS WRITERS LOVERS MUSICIANS POETS THE-ARTS FRANCE ALCOHOL IMPRESSIONISM PAINTINGS POETS LIFESTYLES
This picture was taken over 5 years ago. I love it because it captures my "essence".
50 Questions
Tagged by ShePuppy
Post a pic of yourself & answer the questions.
1: What are you doing?
Watching America's Next Top Model...
2: Something about you that nobody ever knew?
I've never been kissed. I've never had a "true" relationship.
3: Biggest phobias?
I am so scared of the dark.
4: How tall are you?
5ft 3
5: Ever been in love?
Yes
6: Any tattoos that you want?
I'm actually getting a tattoo of my fave girl, Alice next Saturday!
7: Any piercings that you want?
I really want a tragus piercing but I have terrbily sensitive ears.
8: Makeouts or cuddling?
No.
9: Shoe size?
8 1/2
10: Favorite bands?
Pink Floyd, Nine Inch Nails, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Switchblade Symphony, Rasputina...things of that sort.
11: Something you miss?
My friends. I have none outside of my house right now. (My sister, my cat and Alice are literally my friends...so sad)
12: Favourite song?
The Great Below by NIN
13: How old are you?
26
14: Zodiac sign?
Pisces
15: Hair Color?
White with a hint of pale green.
16: Favourite Quote?
"..I listened to the old brag of my heart, I am, I am, Iam." ~Sylvia Plath from the Bell Jar
17: Favourite singer?
Trent Reznor
18: Favourite colour?
Pink
19: Loud music or soft?
What does loud music consist of? I hate lite rock and easy listening...so I guess loud?
20: Where do you go when you're sad?
My bed.
21: What's your grail stock Blythe? Goldie
22: What are some of your grail custom Blythes?
I really REALLY want a Calvera girl but it has to be perfect.
23:How many kids do you have? None.
24: Turn on?
An open mind, a sense of humor, good taste in music and a big...nose.
25: Turn off?
Guys who KNOW they're good looking.
26: The reason I joined Flickr?
Blythe
27: Most recent Blythe obsession:
Mimsy Beuno hats.
28: Last thing that made you cry?
Talking about my inability to drive.
29: Last time you cried?
A couple days ago.
30: Meaning behind your url:
Daifuku is a type of mochi (asian bean cake) that I used to eat. I got really sick one time from eating too much and now I can't eat it any more. Darling is just one of my favorite nick names.
31: Last book you read?
Good grief...Its been a while since I've ready anything. I have severe ADD so reading is a problem.
32: Last song you listened to?
"Folksom Prison Blues" by Johnny Cash
33: Last show you watched?
America's Next Top Model
34: Last person you talked to?
My sister, Melissa
35: The relationship between you and the person you last texted?
Father
36: Favourite food?
Unagi Sushi roll (eel)
37: Place you want to visit?
The Daikenyama (sp?) district in Japan. Blythe shopping!!
38: Last place you were?
Outside of the house-Party City, inside the house-My bedroom
39: Do you have a crush?
Does Trent Reznor count?
40: Last time you kissed someone?
I already told you, I've never been kissed...
41: Last time you were insulted and what was it?
My sister told me I need to plan things out better about an hour ago...but it's true.
42: What are you looking forward to?
Next Saturday's tattoo appointment!
43: Any dolly plans today? Straightening up the doll house.
44: Are you tired?
Ermgerd..So very tired
45: Wearing any bracelets?
No.
46: Last sport you played?
......
47: Last song you sang?
"Freedom" by George Micheal
48: Last prank call you remember doing?
I Pony-fied my sister's computer so that everything she ready said "Call Me Maybe" lyrics.
49: Last time you hung out with anyone?
Maybe a month or two ago. Unless you count my sister, which was yesterday.
50: Do you consider yourself to be approachable?
Hmm...Personality wise, yes. Image wise, I'm a bit intimidating.
I fell in love at 17 and married that man at 25. We were the ideal couple and admired by many. He could build anything, fix anything, was handsome, loving and so very kind. I was the somewhat pretty girl, in my view, but never quite good enough. I grew up with a constant questioning of my looks, my worth, my intelligence. I had a boyfriend for two seconds in 7th grade, and then not again until late in my senior year. And guess what? I married him. Never had I felt more at home and safe, and truly in love. The problem was, I had never stopped questioning my worth. And I continued to look for validation and nods of approval from other people. It became “not enough” to have my husband’s love, I was looking for more. Though I was not aware I was doing this, I also started to measure and question my husband’s love as true or not. This would look like me flirting with people even in front of my husband (if he seemed jealous, maybe he really loved me) or leading people on just enough to have to tell them I was in a relationship. This was a pattern for me, one I didn’t see clearly at the time. (I also didn’t see, couldn’t see that every flirt, glance, or lead-on was me looking for me). And, I loved him. When he would leave for work, I would feel a loss, I loved being with him. I even think he knew about me and my insecurities, and loved me still.
We decided to have kids once he turned 30, and that was when things got really strained.
Jonas came in to this world with an extremely rare genetic disorder that ultrasound and genetic testing at the time did not detect. The dream of starting a family the way I had imagined was thrown into a washing machine, dryer and then a wood chipper. He struggled with life from the start, and ended up in the hospital a lot. That started the dynamic of once my husband came home, I would hand him our son and go hide in housework or a book or some other escape. There was a lot of love, pain, struggling, more hospitalizations, sleepless nights and generalized anxiety. I was not grounded in who I was, I was surviving. Jonas wasn’t even typical for an atypical child. In the handicapped and special needs world, he was the most complex. That wasn’t even the most difficult part. That was the crying. He seemed to never stop. He mostly cried, with little moments of calm (the opposite from other children)...something that didn’t improve much till he was 5 or so. Then I had this great idea to have another baby. At least I could have something ‘normal’ to deal with. Wesley came about 18 months later, and was as I imagined. Perfectly typical. Keeping myself busy, distracted, “important”, having so many reasons to not deal with who I was and what I needed led me to eventually come to the realization that our marriage wasn’t working. He didn’t love me. I had been collecting evidence like “see he didn’t even kiss me goodnight” “he never called to check in from work” or “why does he call me from work, he doesn’t think I know how to take care of the kids?” I had convinced myself he wasn’t the ‘one’ for me after all. That the love must not be real, and it must be somewhere else. So, I started to wait for my true love. And thoughts like “wait, He was my true love so what happened??” came but for some reason I avoided working it out. I had my answer, true love was coming from somewhere else. And then guess what? It did.
I started down the divorce path, and it got real. There were so many moments I knew I had messed everything up, and I should just go back and try to repair things. That was paired with a justification because evidence still showed he didn’t love me. I mean, he was letting me divorce him.
Our divorce took years. I couldn’t do it. Then I could. Then I couldn’t. I stalled, he stalled. I avoided. He avoided. But all the while, I was in a new relationship...the one I called the ‘true love’. The stalling and avoiding was impacting my new relationship. It felt like I was taking off my own arm so that I could feel more complete. And it made as much sense as that. The pain got so overwhelming at one point, I broke up my new relationship thinking it would all get easier. I had been dealing with extreme anger and hatred from my ex-husband’s family. A family I once loved, and who supposedly loved me. There was so much anxiety and fear and pain, at one point I contracted mono, paired with hepatitis and spent months on the couch. Alone. That was when I realized my now ex husband found the love of his life. How could I feel jealous and angry? Well, I did. She was younger. And pretty. Great body. And she had my kids with her half the time. What.the.fuck.
It got ugly. I had finally found moments of peace and workability with my ex husband where he wasn’t angry all the time, and now she’s here? Well, that brought a new level of tension and drama. I remember a soccer game where he brought his brother and parents, and I brought my sister so I’d have backup. His girlfriend was sitting on the ground with Jonas and I couldn’t even get near him. How freaking awkward. What were people thinking. What does it mean about me that I cant just go over there and tell her that I would like to hold my own son. In times like those, I wanted the earth to swallow me up. It went on like that for a while. I had moments of extending the olive branch, and trying to be nice and sharing movie recommendations. Something inside of me knew it could be different. I even saw things I liked about her. And deep down, I still loved my ex. I could see that I didn’t love him romantically per se, but that I was not complete with the way things were. It was like a nagging constant voice of why? why? why? why? In my head. Meaning, why was it like this? Why are we pretending to be enemies? Didn’t it make sense what I did? Aren’t you happier now? Why are you still mad? Voices in my head would confuse me and have me wonder why I’m still wanting him to prove his love to me. After all I did? But it was like that: “You should hate me. Why do you hate me? You should thank me. I am so sorry. You should be sorry. “
Years go by in a mostly polite, kind-of peaceful manner and then I had a great idea. I would invite them to this enormous party I was having for Jonas. He had lived for 10 years by then, and every time he was sick I would try to prepare myself for his death. So when he was about to turn 10, I thought we should throw him a ‘life party’. I rented a place, and catered the event with food and drinks, music, games, and a movie I had made about Jonas (which included his dad and now girlfriend). Well, they came, and it was fine. They managed to find people to talk to without it being awkward for them, and I was so happy to be having a party of love that I didn’t even worry about them. I also didn’t worry if I was hugging my new husband too much. I guess I was starting to feel overall more comfortable inside with the choices we all made. Well then the first of many small miracles happened. When the party was over, she sent me a text. She shared that it was amazing for her to get a glimpse of the mother that I really am, instead of through the lens of my ex family (who still hated my guts I was sure). She saw the love, and what I had created for Jonas, and she started to wonder at the person I really was. It was the first moment perhaps, that she actually saw me. For me, that was validating and gave me the energy to keep going, to keep moving in the direction of healing and peace. Man, all it took was saying something nice to one another. We make it so complicated.
The next monumental moment was after I took a course through Landmark Education and invited her to my ‘graduation night’. She came, and she brought me a gift. I thought that was adorable. Maybe I was starting to actually like this girl? That very night, she signed up for the same course, and signed her husband (my ex husband) up too. Once we all took that course, our healing and forgiving and connecting took off. All we needed was a common language so that no one feels blamed, or wronged. We all learned about how dynamics are created, and how we keep patterns alive in our thinking -and now we had tools to actually share when we got hurt or upset. This is also around the time that I finally started to understand what happened in my marriage. I learned that when I was younger and in a certain moment with my parents, I convinced myself that they didn’t love me. It was not conscious. I also in that moment, learned to shut my love off in response. I then got to see how that had created patterns of hurt and pain, and shutting off my love for people- all without me knowing it was a decision I made from childhood. I actually felt justified and it all felt real. To constantly question people’s love became normal. I collect evidence to support my ‘truth’, and then I usually distance myself from that person. Divorce.
Yes, I do think it could have been avoided had I learned this about myself sooner. But would I go back now? No. I’d even go through the yuckiest, sickest, deepest sadness of my life to be where we are today. After Landmark, we were no longer afraid to share time together. We started hanging out a little bit more. We eventually shared Christmas Eve together. We really enjoyed our time together. We hit a few bumps in the road, but they didn’t stop us, and Megan and I started calling each other if we sensed something was up. We realized we had a common commitment to the kids being happy, and now we were both living from that. In the past three years, my husband and I hosted their first baby shower at our home, we have gone on vacation together, we have had countless dinners, brunches and lunches together. Last Christmas Jonas ended up in the hospital for about 3 weeks. His heart stopped. For 25 minutes. My ex husband Kieran, his wife Megan and I stood at the head of Jonas’s bed and watched while they tirelessly tried to revive him. They surrounded me in love beyond what I could have ever expected. What we shared in that moment, really got me present to that THAT IS EXACTLY WHAT IT IS LIKE TO SHARE A CHILD. Before the drama. Blaming. Comparing. When we are able to forget about our own complaints, judgements, etc...we were just there because we love someone. Our son. Stepson. Whatever. It’s all love. When we let love BE there, it all makes sense. Those few weeks with the four of us in the same hospital room provided a slowing down of life, and a presence with each other that is difficult to achieve in every day life. We talked about what each of us wants for Jonas. What kind of life we want to have for him, for us as a family and as individuals. COVID didn’t stop us, and only kept us in the conversation of how we really want to live. We have had dinners or lunches every weekend when we ‘trade’ the kids. We are talking about that together, anything is possible. We could even live abroad. What can I say? Life works when we clean up our complaints and take responsibility for our happiness. Imagine if I hadn’t invited them to Jonas’s party? It just took an act of kindness.
This is a story about true love. And how I know it exists. No, I didn’t marry my high school sweetheart, travel the world, have 3 kids who are now doctors and lawyers and now we’re sitting on the front porch swing holding hands.
No, no, it’s much more than that. Love, Grief, and Gut Wrenching Pain. Dreams and expectations thwarted. Lies of the worst kind. Near death experiences. Divorce. Is the true love about my current husband? No. And yes. It is the true love that existed all along that allowed for healing and an ultimately stable environment for our kids. True love, isn’t the marriage that lasts for 40 years only. It is there in the mess, in the hurt, in the pain, in the lies. It’s just covered up by our opinions and thoughts about it all. I am so profoundly happy that I listened to the voice (that was almost silenced) that I could still love my first husband, and that it didn’t have to be romantic to still be love. And trust it to build what we built. Kieran held the other end of this. I am so grateful to his wife Megan for being so strong and badass to allow space for that to happen. And my husband, who tirelessly fought for us to all heal.
And lastly, perhaps the greatest love affair was me falling in love with me. I never knew how to do that. Everyone says ‘love yourself so that you can love others’. But no one ever tells us what that actually looks like in real life. It might look like saying “No”. Maybe not having the third glass of wine because you don’t need it to feel ‘comfortable’. Maybe it looks like exercising not to get into a size ‘6’ but because you want to nurture your well being. Telling the truth. Not needing so much validation. It might look different altogether for others. But its not a course, we do not get a certificate in this. It becomes a declaration. For me, I declare myself worthy of love exactly as I am, with my awful mistakes and loving intentions all the same. I hope this inspires all to do the same. No matter what.
Scouts hike along Thomas Road for the first area show. 2010 National Scout Jamboree at Fort A.P. Hill, Virginia, Wednesday July 28, 2010. Photo by Jim Brown
**********Beginning of Shooting Data Section**********
Canon EOS 5D Mark II iso - 500 f/11 shutter - 1/500
file name - 6732-07-001-128 date - 7/28/10 time - 8:26:49 AM
program - Program AE white balance - Auto
meter - multi-segment tone comp - 0 exp. comp - 0.0
flash - off
what advantage is there to being born with a silver spoon ... when the riches of life come from within
submitted to 100 words
76/100 words: question
jsc2018e048495 (May 14, 2018) --- At the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia, Expedition 56 crew member Sergey Prokopyev of Roscosmos (right) answers a reporter’s question May 14 during a crew news conference. Prokopyev, Serena Auñón-Chancellor of NASA (left) and Alexander Gerst of the European Space Agency (center) will launch June 6 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan on the Soyuz MS-09 spacecraft for a six month mission on the International Space Station. Credit: NASA/Elizabeth Weissinger
70 - 80% Of Women Do Not Wear The Right Size Bra!
Every female knows the problem involved in finding the right bra. Questions like What cup Size are you presently? What style do you require? Seem to never cease!
Well...First and principal it's miles critical which you understand your accurate length. A badly becoming bra can lead to again troubles, muscle tension, and even complications. If you're for your teen years, the strain because of a badly fitting bra can lead to everlasting issues with posture and even lower back pain. So that?S why young adults must be suit with the aid of a bra expert at the least two times a year or even after every substantial growth pattern.
Your first consideration must be the cause you need the bra; is it for athletics, insurance, consolation or help? There are different sorts and types of bras made for particular forms of bodies and bodily sports. Although it might be first-rate, no one bra can do it all; you have got one of a kind bras for unique jobs. A Sexy bra for those intimate personal moments or a Sports Bra for when you need to carry out onerous exercising.
First Bras
Training bras are for more youthful ladies who have simply started out to increase breasts and aren't capable of in shape into widespread size bras. Age isn't the priority, as a substitute its getting the proper match and aid on your breast size.
bodyshaperforwomen.com/women-do-not-wear-the-right-size-bra/
Grab your old-style red/ blue lens glasses and enjoy this anaglyph photograph.
© Norman Posselt (Monotype)
I am trying to put together a better list of what fits my clothing. Right now I own Minifee and I've been told that some of my clothing fits Bluefairy msds. I would really appreciate it if anyone could take the time to let me know what other MSD sculpts fit my clothing so I can list it on my Etsy. You can PM me if you'd like. Thank you! <3
Yes, more tracings . . .
It took a while to finish this one (it's from the beginning of September) because I couldn't decide how to best re-illustrate the fish once I'd traced them. I'm learning that it's ok if an entry gets put aside for a week or two until you truly know how to finish it. Too often I rush into finishing something, only to be miffed at my own efforts.
A full interview with the Israeli painter Raphael Perez (in Hebrew Rafi Peretz) about the ideas behind the naive painting, resume, personal biography and CV
Question: Raphael Perez Tell us about your work process as a naive painter?
Answer: I choose the most iconic and famous buildings in every city and town that are architecturally interesting and have a special shape and place the iconic buildings on boulevards full of trees, bushes, vegetation, flowers.
Question: How do you give depth in your naive paintings?
Answer: To give depth to the painting, I build the painting with layers of vegetation, after those low famous buildings, followed by a tall avenue of trees, and behind them towers and skyscrapers, in the sky I sometimes put innocent signs of balloons, kites.
A recurring motif in some of my paintings is the figure of the painter who is in the center of the boulevard and paints the entire scene unfolding in front of him, also there are two kindergarten teachers who are walking with the kindergarten children with the state flags that I paint, and loving couples hugging and kissing and family paintings of mother, father and child walking in harmony on the boulevard.
Question: Raphael Perez What characterizes your naive painting?
Answer: Most naive paintings have the same characteristics
(Definition as it appears in Wikipedia)
• Tells a simple story to absorb from everyday life, usually with humans.
• The representation of the painter's idealization to reality - the mapping of reality.
• Failure to maintain perspective - especially details even in distant details.
• Extensive use of repeating patterns - many details.
• Warm and bright colors.
• Sometimes the emphasis is on outlines.
• Most of the characters are flat, lack volume
• No interest in texture, expression, correct proportions
• No interest in anatomy.
• There is not much use of light and shadow, the colors create a three-dimensional effect.
I find these definitions to be valid for all my naive paintings
Question: Raphael Perez Why do you mainly choose the city of Tel Aviv?
Answer: I was born in Jerusalem, the capital city which I love very much and also paint,
I love the special Bauhaus buildings in Tel Aviv, the ornamental buildings that were built a century ago in the 1920s and 1930s, the beautiful boulevards, towers and modern skyscrapers give you the feeling of the hustle and bustle of a large metropolis and there are quite a few low and tall buildings that are architecturally fascinating in their form the special one
Also, the move to Tel Aviv, which is the capital of culture, freedom, and secularism, allowed me to live my life as I chose, to live in a relationship with a man, Jerusalem, which is a traditional city, it is more complicated to live a homosexual life, also, the art world takes place mainly in the city of Tel Aviv, and it is possible that from a professional point of view, this allows I can support myself better in Tel Aviv than in any other city in Israel.
Question: raphael perez are the paintings of the city of Tel Aviv different from the paintings of the city of Jerusalem
Answer: Most of the paintings of Jerusalem have an emphasis on the color yellow, gold, the color of the old city walls, the subjects I painted in Jerusalem are mainly a type of idealization of a peaceful life between Jews and Arabs and paintings that deal with the Jewish religious world, a number of paintings depict all shades of the currents of Judaism of today
In contrast, the Tel Aviv paintings are more colorful, with skyscrapers, the sea, balloons and more secular motifs
Question: Raphael Perez Tell us about which buildings and their architects you usually choose in your city paintings
Answer: My favorite buildings are those that have a special shape that anyone can recognize and are the symbols of the city and you will give several examples:
In the city of Tel Aviv, my favorite buildings are: the opera building with its unusual geometric shape, the Yisrotel tower with its special head, the Hail Bo Shalom tower that for years was the symbol of the tallest building in Tel Aviv, the Levin house that looks like a Japanese pagoda, the burgundy-colored Nordeau hotel with the special dome at the end of the building, A pair of Alon towers with the special structure of the sea, Bauhaus buildings typical of Tel Aviv with the special balconies and the special staircase, the Yaakov Agam fountain in Dizengoff square appears in a large part of the paintings, many towers that are in the stock exchange complex, the Aviv towers and other tall buildings on Ayalon, in some of the paintings I took plans An outline of future buildings that need to be built in the city and I drew them even before they were built in reality,
In the paintings of Jerusalem, I mainly chose the area of the Old City and East Jerusalem, a painting of the walls of the Old City, the Western Wall, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, the El Akchea Mosque, the Tower of David, most of the famous churches in the city, the right hand of Moses, in most of the paintings the Jew is wearing a blue shirt with a red male cord I was in the youth movement and the Arab with a galabia, and in the paintings of the religious public then, Jews with black suits and white shirts, tallitas, kippahs, special hats, synagogues and more
I also created three paintings of the city of Haifa and one painting of Safed
In the Haifa paintings I drew the university, the Technion, the famous Egged Tower, the Sail Tower, well-known hotels, of course the Baha'i Gardens and the Baha'i Temple, Haifa Port and the boats and other famous buildings in the city
Question: Have you created series of other cities from around the world?
Answer: I created series of New York City with all the iconic and famous buildings such as: the Guggenheim Museum, the famous skyscrapers - the Chrysler Building, the Empire State Building, Lincoln Center, the famous synagogue in the city, the Statue of Liberty, the flags of the United States and other famous buildings
Two paintings of London and all its famous sites, Big Ben, famous monuments, the Ferris wheel, Queen Elizabeth and her family, the double bus, the famous public telephone, palaces, famous churches, well-known monuments
I created 4 naive paintings of cities in China, a painting of Shanghai, two paintings of the city of Suzhou and a painting of the World Park in the city of Beijing... I chose the famous skyline of Shanghai with all the famous towers, the famous promenade, temples and old buildings, two Paintings of the city of Suzhou with the famous canals, bridges, special gardens, towers and skyscrapers of the city
Why did Mr Jinnah avoid this activity relating to Allama Iqbal in 1944. And was Inamullah Khan the same person who later became Chief Justice of West Pakistan
We were seeing each other after 3 months and I had been through couple of major events like starting a new job, getting a car and completing School. This her drilling me with questions eventhough she's pissed off that I was late for our meeting.
P.S. I think I have figured out something, its tough for people to stay mad at you when you are taking snaps, As they know that those snaps are gonna end up in the albums.
For a new constable posted to central London the information you are expected to know can be overwhelming. The fact is that most London policemen do not come from London and their knowledge of London may be somewhat scant, to remedy this all new Police Officers straight from Hendon were told by everybody who was older in service to obtain a 'Nicholsons'. This was the Nicholson's pocket guide to London which was an invaluable mine of information which seemed to become more and more dogeared as the officer retained the information in his head so that he could eventually dispense with it. A very necessary appointment for the London Policeman.See link.
Time to start preparing for Alex's arrival! I want to make sure he has some goodies waiting for him when he gets home. Thanks for your help!
Photo Courtesy of the "Peace Plus One - World Sustainability Project"
and McMaster Institute for Sustainable Development in Commerce
SUBJECT:
北京能源网络 Beijing Energy Network
in partnership with the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
presents
北耳 Beijing Energy & Environment Roundtable (BEER)
featuring
» Chivas Lam, Venture Partner, Qiming Venture Partners
» Mark Levine, Group Leader, China Energy Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Labs
» Sebastian Meyer, Director of Research & Advisory, Azure International
» Edward Steinfeld, Professor of Political Economy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
发展未来能源技术：中美合作是答案吗？Developing Energy Technologies for the Future: Are U.S.-China Partnerships the Answer?
5:00pm - 6:15pm: Cocktail Session
6:15pm - 7:30pm: Panel Discussion
** About the Talk (报告内容) **
In the 20th century, we understood energy technology development to be something that took place within the confines of single national economies. The development phases were long, the capital requirements intense, and the levels of uncertainty and risk extremely high. When energy technologies found their way across borders, if they did at all, they did so as mature systems, ones that could be "transferred" from one place to another. Today, an entirely new pattern seems to be afoot. Overseas innovators are teaming with Chinese partners to co-develop energy technologies. Upstream innovations -- often pioneered in Europe, the U.S., and Japan -- are being translated into commercially-viable systems on Chinese soil and in conjunction with Chinese corporate partners and Chinese financing. Yet, as this process surges forward -- both because of the demand for such technologies in China, and the availability of Chinese financing -- significant questions remain. At the commercial level, which technologies are most suited for cross-border development, and which are not? Once financing is secured and cross-border partnerships are established, what is required to make joint technology development actually work? How should the process be organized, and by whom? At the policy level, to what extent can governments be relied upon over the long run to support co-development efforts? What are the risks of protectionist backlash? Under what circumstances might public financing be withdrawn? How do political risks differ across various types of energy technology? This panel will take an "inside-out" look at cross-border technology co-development, starting from the perspective of the commercial players themselves -- the most active drivers of the process -- and then drawing the broader ramifications for public policy and national interest.
** About the Speakers (报告人简历) **
Chivas Lam is a Venture Partner of Qiming Ventures focusing on the Cleantech Sector. Chivas brings over 25 years of operational experience in the General Industrial Manufacturing and Energy Sector. Prior to joining Qiming, Chivas was the President Asia Pacific of the Morgan Crucible Company. He successfully led reengineering and integration of multiple business units and was instrumental to operational enhancement and profit growth. Prior to Morgan Crucible, Chivas held various Senior Positions with GEC Alstom in Project Management and Business Development in China and Australia. Chivas started his career with Hong Kong Electric Company Limited.
Mark Levine is the Group Leader of the China Energy Group at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL). Previously, he was director of the LBNL's Environmental Division, which is a leader in research on buildings energy efficiency, indoor air quality, and various clean energy technologies. His major passion in the past two decades has involved analyzing and promoting energy efficiency in China. Dr. Levine is a board member of five leading non-profits in the United States (American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy, Center for Clean Air Policy, Center for Resource Solutions, the US-China Green Energy Council, and California Clean Energy Fund, an innovative green venture capital fund) and one in Asia. He has also founded or co-founded two successful non-profits, including the acclaimed Beijing Energy Efficiency Center. Dr. Levine graduated summa cum laude from Princeton University, earned a PhD from the University of California.
Sebastian Meyer has covered the wind industry in China since 2004, and has built up a successful research and advisory practice focused on the alternative energy space. Sebastian came to China from London, where he specialized in due diligence supporting project finance and M&A transactions related to alternative energy. He also worked in the transition economies of Europe through the 90’s heading the Warsaw equity research team and covering industrial manufacturers and privatization programs for Creditanstalt Investmentbank - the leading western investment bank focused on the region at the time. Sebastian’s career spans debt and equity financing, project finance, equity research and valuation, mergers & acquisitions, and management consulting within the context of alternative energy and transition economies.
Edward Steinfeld is a professor of political economy in the MIT Department of Political Science and co-director of the China Energy Group in the MIT Industrial Performance Center. Steinfeld received his BA, MA, and PhD in political science from Harvard University. In addition to a variety of academic articles, Steinfeld is the author of Playing Our Game: Why China's Rise Doesn't Threaten the West and Forging Reform in China: The Fate of State-Owned Industry. Steinfeld is the author of numerous articles in both academic and non-academic journals, including Comparative Politics, Political Studies, World Development, The Far Eastern Economic Review, The Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal, and The South China Morning Post. Steinfeld is a member of the board of directors of the National Committee on US-China Relations, as well as a member of the academic committee of the Center for Industrial Development and Environmental Governance at Tsinghua University.
** About BEN & BEER (北京能源网路和北耳简介) **
The Beijing Energy Network (BEN) is a grassroots organization with a mission of promoting knowledge sharing, networking, and collaboration in understanding and tackling China’s energy and environmental challenges among individuals and organizations from diverse sectors such as government, finance, industry, media, advocacy, think tanks and academia. Our membership currently stands at over 1,900 strong.
The flagship activity of BEN is the Beijing Energy & Environmental Roundtable (BEER), an approximately twice-monthly happy hour/speaker series. BEER events are free and open to all with no RSVP necessary. We hope you will come early, stay late, listen and ask questions, catch up with old friends and make new ones.
Please note, we ask that our speaker's remarks remain off the record unless they otherwise grant permission. A listing of our past events can be found here.
If you would like to learn more, receive email updates from BEN, have a suggestion for an event, or are interested in possibly being a speaker yourself, please sign up to our Google Group, or if you can't access that link from China, send an email to beijing-energy-network+owner@googlegroups.com.
Caen (prononciation : /ˈkɑ̃/3) est une commune française du Nord-Ouest4 de la France en Normandie. Préfecture du département du Calvados, elle était jusqu'au 1er janvier 2016 le chef-lieu de l'ancienne région Basse-Normandie. Depuis 2016, elle est le siège du conseil régional de Normandie et donc la capitale politique de la région tandis que Rouen avec le siège de la préfecture (chef-lieu) est la capitale administrative. La Normandie présente donc, à l'instar de la Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, la particularité de posséder une gouvernance « bicéphale ».
Elle est nommée la « Ville aux cent clochers », comme Rouen. Ses habitants sont appelés les Caennais (/ka.ˈnɛ/ ou /ka.ˈne/)5.
Cité de Guillaume le Conquérant et capitale du duché de Normandie avec Rouen, la ville a hérité d’un très riche patrimoine architectural en partie détruit lors de la bataille de Caen. La ville a gardé la mémoire de ce moment clé de la Seconde Guerre mondiale en édifiant notamment un Mémorial pour la Paix, célèbre dans le monde pour les cérémonies de commémorations qui y ont lieu.
Du fait de son positionnement dans la recherche (avec le Ganil par exemple), de l'ancienneté de son université (fondée en 1432 après celles de Paris et Montpellier), de sa grande richesse culturelle (ville d'Europe la plus pourvue en librairies indépendantes et agglomération française la plus dotée en équipements culturels rapportés au nombre d'habitants) et de son caractère festif, Caen est souvent considérée comme étant la capitale culturelle et intellectuelle de la Normandie.
Peuplée intra-muros de 105 512 habitantsNote 1, Caen est la commune la plus peuplée du département du Calvados. La ville se situe ainsi en 39e position de toutes les communes de la France métropolitaine et se classe au 40e rang en ce qui concerne le territoire français pris en totalité (métropole et outre-mer). Elle est au centre d'une agglomération de 200 230 habitants (3e après Rouen et Le Havre) et à la tête d'une aire urbaine de 419 974 habitants (2e de la région après celle de Rouen et au 22e rang national). Elle est le siège de la communauté urbaine Caen la Mer, qui avec 268 476 habitants, est le second plus important établissement public de coopération intercommunale de Normandie après la Métropole Rouen Normandie.
Étymologie
On dispose de peu de sources sur la fondation de la ville de Caen et l’origine de son nom. Les hypothèses anciennes sur la question ont été multiples et la plupart du temps farfelues. Par exemple, celle qui considère que « Caen » puisse être une altération du saxon, sans doute *Gatehēm « maison de la barrière », si l'on reconstitue un étymon plausibleNote 5, en partant du fait historique que Caen aurait été un lieu de péage. Or, il s'agit d'un point de vue qui ne relève pas de l'analyse toponymique.
Seules les attestations anciennes permettent d'étudier un toponyme et d'organiser un corpus cohérent, c'est-à-dire conforme à l'évolution phonétique connue des langues d'oïl, à savoir pour Caen : Cadomo > Cadon pour *Cadom (chute de la voyelle finale -o) > Cathum pour *Cathom (lénition [d] en [ð] à l'intervocalique) > Cathem > Cahem (amuïssement de [ð] et passage de [o] à [ə]). Cette évolution est comparable à celle de Rouen, mentionné à une époque ancienne comme Ratomagos, Rotomagus, puis Rodomo > Rothom > Rothem > Rohem. D'autres Ruan, Rouans, etc. offrent des formes comparables ou encore Condom issu de Condatomagus avec traitement occitan des consonnes [d] [t].
Un élément -magus est identifié avec certitude dans les exemples précédents, il représente le celtique (gaulois) magos > magus « champ, marché » (cf. vieil irlandais mag « plaine »). Il est vraisemblable qu'on le retrouve aussi dans Caen étant donné la similarité des formes postérieures de Caen et de ces exemples. En revanche, le premier élément de Caen est radicalement différent. Il s'explique probablement aussi par le gaulois. La plupart des toponymistes proposent catu- « bataille, combat »43,44,45 attesté, entre autres, dans le nom du peuple gaulois des Caturiges. Le vieux celtique catu- a évolué en celtique insulaire comme en ancien français (lénition de [t] en [d]), d'où le gallois cad « combat, troupe », le breton kad, l'irlandais cath « combat »46 et cad- en ancien français, d'où les formes Cadon, Cadomo.
La signification globale du toponyme Catumagos est donc « champ de combat », c'est-à-dire peut-être « terrain d'exercice au combat », ou « champ de bataille ».
Homonymie avec Cahan (Orne) et Cahon (Somme)46.
Histoire
De la Préhistoire au Haut Moyen Âge
Il existait sur le site de la ville de Caen des petits noyaux d'habitats préhistoriques dispersés sur les bords de l'Odon et sur les hauteurs.
Au début de l'âge du Fer, des constructions s'implantent dans le secteur de Beaulieu47.
Du Ier au IIIe siècle, un bourg s'est développé à l'emplacement de l’actuelle abbaye aux Hommes à proximité d'une voie romaine reliant Augustodurum (Bayeux) à Noviomagus (Lisieux). Ce bourg n'était qu'un vicus sans fonctions politiques ou administratives, ce rôle étant attribué à Aregenua, capitale des Viducasses située à une quinzaine de kilomètres au sud de Caen. Sa vocation était essentiellement artisanale. Le bourg connait de profonds changements au IIIe siècle. À partir de 275, les invasions barbares mettent fin à la prospérité antérieure et désorganisent les réseaux commerciaux. On constate que le bourg artisanal se tourne progressivement vers les activités agricoles. À la même époque, la transgression marine dunkerquienne provoque une montée progressive des eaux qui a pour conséquence une multiplication des inondations. À la fin du IIIe siècle, les bâtiments sont laissés au marécage qui progresse et les habitants se déplacent vers le coteau légèrement plus au nord48.
Aregenua perd de son importance et l'actuel territoire de Caen passe sous l'influence d'Augustodurum. Au VIIe siècle, des missionnaires venus de Bayeux, notamment saint Regnobert de Bayeux, fondent des oratoires, entourés de leur cimetière, le long de l'ancienne voie romaine au centre de petits villages isolés dans la vallée de l'Orne et de l'Odon. Les invasions normandes viennent interrompre cet essor pré-urbain.
Caen sous les ducs de Normandie
Articles détaillés : Château de Caen et fortifications de Caen.
Au Xe siècle, un nouvel essor urbain accompagne le grand redémarrage du duché de Normandie. Les paroisses Saint-Étienne, Saint-Sauveur, Saint-Georges, Saint-Gilles49 et probablement Saint-Michel-de-Vaucelles sont fondées à cette époque. Le bourg de Caen (burgus Cadomus) est attesté depuis le règne du duc Richard II (996-1026)50. Une ville, constituée de plusieurs noyaux, commence à se structurer sur l'axe reliant Saint-Pierre à Saint-Martin en passant par Saint-Sauveur. Au début du XIe siècle, le premier texte se référant à Caen, la charte de l’abbaye de Fécamp, la décrit ainsi « la ville qui s'appelle Cathim, sur la rivière Orne, de part et d'autre, avec ses églises, ses vignes, ses prés, ses moulins, avec le marché, le tonlieu et le port, et toutes ses dépendances ».
Ce mouvement urbain est confirmé et accru au XIe siècle par la politique de Guillaume le Conquérant et de son épouse Mathilde de Flandre. En 1047, après sa victoire à la bataille du Val-ès-Dunes, le duc de Normandie organise le concile de la Trêve de Dieu sur la rive droite de l'Orne vers Vaucelles51 et fait construire en 1061 la chapelle Sainte-Paix, alors sur le territoire de Mondeville, pour recueillir des reliques de saints amenées pour cette occasion. Le couple ducal fonde également deux grandes abbayes à l'est et à l'ouest du tissu urbain existant dans lesquelles ils se feront inhumer, en 1083 dans l'abbaye aux Dames pour Mathilde de Flandre et, en 1087 dans l'abbaye aux Hommes pour Guillaume le Conquérant. Surtout, il fait édifier vers 1060 une vaste forteresse, qui n'est encore qu'un vaste camp clos de murs, entre ses deux abbayes, au sommet de l'éperon calcaire dominant la vallée de l'Orne, dans lequel le duc et sa cour résideront régulièrement, et dote le bourg en plein développement d'une enceinte urbaine englobant le noyau central de l’agglomération naissante entre Saint-Étienne-le-Vieux et Saint-Pierre (Bourg-le-Duc)52.
D'un gros bourg de constitution anarchique, Caen devient une ville majeure et la seconde capitale de la Normandie, au détriment de Bayeux, pourtant ville épiscopale, qui voit sa prééminence rapidement remise en cause. Le choix de Guillaume est guidé par sa volonté d'une capitale positionnée au centre du duché, et surtout à vise à imposer son pouvoir dans cette partie orientale de la Normandie, terres indociles dont était issue les conjurés de 1046. Ainsi, c'est dans la cité développée par leur père que Guillaume le Roux, roi d'Angleterre, et son frère aîné, Robert Courteheuse, duc de Normandie, signent en 1091 le traité de Caen censé régler les querelles de succession. La ville poursuit son développement sous Robert Courteheuse qui fait creuser un canal entre l'Orne et l'Odon formant ainsi l'île Saint-Jean ; ce bras d'eau, appelé canal Robert, a pour effet d'assainir ce terrain marécageux, d'offrir une protection face aux agressions extérieures et d'ouvrir un bief permettant l'érection de moulins. Son frère, Henri Ier Beauclerc, qui s'empare du royaume d'Angleterre en 1100 et du duché de Normandie six ans plus tard, fait aménager le château en construisant un donjon et une nouvelle salle d'apparat (actuelle salle de l'Échiquier). Selon le chroniqueur Robert de Torigni, en 1123, Henri Beauclerc « fait édifier un grand donjon dans le château de Caen, et surélever l'enceinte que son père y avait fait construire ». C'est lui également qui établit l'Échiquier de Normandie alors que sa chambre des comptes siégeait dans un bâtiment, aujourd'hui disparu, rue Saint-Jean, et sa chambre de justice dans la grande salle romane, et fait clore de canaux et de murs le nouveau faubourg de la ville, l'île Saint-Jean52.
En 1203, Jean sans Terre affranchit la commune de Caen qui peut alors se doter d’un beffroi, d’une cloche, d’un sceau et d’un hôtel de ville, bâti sur le pont Saint-Pierre. Au cours de l’incorporation du duché à la France par le roi Philippe II Auguste, Caen tombe le 21 mai 1204, avant Rouen. Le roi de France maintient les droits municipaux et remanie profondément les défenses du château, avec notamment la construction de la chemise du donjon.
Guerre de Cent Ans
Édouard III d'Angleterre lors de sa chevauchée qu'il mènera à travers la Normandie, le Vexin, le Beauvaisis, le Vimeu, le Ponthieu, le Boulonnais et le Calaisis, après avoir débarqué le 12 juillet 1346 à Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue dans la baie de Morsalines, est le 26 juillet aux portes de la ville dont les fortifications sont médiocres et comble de malchance les eaux de l'Orne et de l'Odon sont très basses qu'elles peuvent être franchies à gué. Le capitaine de la place Robert de Warignies s'enferme dans la citadelle alors que Raoul de Brienne, connétable de France, avec ses chevaliers se rendent au comte de Kent, Thomas de Hollande53. La ville est pillée et brûlé pendant trois joursNote 6. Pressé de gagner la Picardie Édouard III n'assiège pas le château, et peu après son départ la garnison française reprend la ville53. Dans les années qui suivirent, tirant la leçon, la ville et ses deux abbayes s'enferment dans de solides remparts. Ils permettront de détourner les chevauchées d'Henri de Lancastre et de Charles le Mauvais, malgré quelques faiblesse dont la division en trois bourgs : Bourg-le-Roi, bien fortifié, l'île Saint-Jean, médiocrement, et l'Île-aux-Prés (place de la République) pas du tout et la présence aux deux extrémités du bourg des deux abbayes qui peuvent servir de retranchement dans le cas où elles seraient prises. C'est de Caen que Bertrand du Guesclin, connétable de France, qui a fait de la ville son quartier général, part, en 1373, reconquérir le pays, Normandie, Guyenne, Saintonge et Poitou. Sa statue, par Arthur Le Duc, orne la place Saint-Martin55.
Durand l'été 1417, la ville après avoir été isolée, est de nouveau assiégée et oppose pendant dix-sept jours une résistance héroïque face à Henri V56 qui a débarqué le 1er août à l'embouchure de la Touques avec une armée forte de 10 000 hommes57, alors que Caen dispose seulement d'une centaine d'arbalétriers à cheval, vingt-deux dizainiers et leur demi-millier de fantassins, la milice bourgeoise et la garnison du château aux ordres du sire de Montenay comprenant cent hommes d'armes et un corps d'archer génois55.
L’envahisseur anglais massacre 2 000 bourgeois, pille et traite les survivants en rebelles à « leur » roi. La région de Caen sera le lieu d’une très vive résistance à l’occupant anglais qui y procédera à un grand nombre d’exécutions de résistants entre 1418 et 1450.
La fondation, en 1432, de l’université de Caen fait partie des mesures de Jean de Lancastre, duc de Bedford, régent de Normandie, afin de tenter de se concilier la population caennaise. La fin de l’année 1434 voit un soulèvement commandé par Jean de Chantepie. Après la bataille de Formigny, Dunois avec une partie de l'armée française met le siège devant la ville le 4 juin 1450. Charles VII vient en personne à l'abbaye d'Ardenne commander les opérations. Le 1er juillet, le duc de Somerset, Edmond Beaufort, capitaine du château, et Richard Harrington, grand bailli de Caen, remettent la forteresse à Dunois avec la somme de 300 000 écus d'or, pour les frais de siège et embarquent à Ouistreham58.
Le 6 juillet Charles VII fait son entrée solennelle dans la ville, escorté de René d'Anjou, roi de Sicile, du connétable de Richemont Arthur III de Bretagne, des comtes de Clermont et de Dunois58. La Normandie redevenue française, Charles VII récompensera la ville de sa « fidélité et loyauté » en confirmant tous ses privilèges et libertés en 1458 (confirmation de la Charte aux Normands).
Après avoir réuni, à Tours, les représentants des villes marchandes du royaume le 20 octobre 1470, Louis XI autorise, en novembre, un établissement des foires à Caen, par ses lettres patentes59. L'objectif étant de favoriser la croissance du commerce en Normandie et de ralentir la fuite de devises, liée notamment à la puissance des foires de Bruges et d'Anvers.
XVIe siècle
Les protestants, prennent le contrôle de la ville en avril 1562, leur iconoclasme s'en prend, entre autres, au tombeau de Guillaume le Conquérant et de la reine Mathilde. Le service catholique est suspendu. Gabriel Ier de Montgommery, chef des huguenots de Normandie, après s’être enfui de Rouen et avoir rassemblé des nouvelle troupes au Havre s'empare de la ville. Arrivé à Caen en décembre 1562, le chef du parti huguenot, l'amiral de Coligny, ordonne, avant son départ le 19 mars 1563, la démolition, « afin d'avoir le profit qui se tireroit des plombs ont elle étoit couverte », de l'abbaye aux Hommes dont le chartrier est brûlé. En 1584, la peste fait 10 000 victimes à Caen. Le Parlement de Normandie et la Cour des Aides et la Chambre des Comptes sont déplacés à Caen de janvier 1589 à avril 1594 à la suite du soulèvement de Rouen contre le roi ; les parlementaires fidèles au roi se rendant à Caen60.
XVIIe siècle
La Révolte des va-nu-pieds amorcée à Caen le 13 août 1639 fut menée par un certain Bras-Nus se donnant le grade de colonel de l’armée souffrante ; il finit roué. Prudemment restée à l’écart des troubles de la Fronde, Caen va voir la création de l’Académie des sciences, arts et belles-lettres de Caen et de la première Académie de Physique de France qui lui acquerra une réputation de capitale des beaux esprits et le surnom d'« Athènes normande ».
Au XVIIe siècle, la croissance démographique et l'essor économique que connait la ville sous le règne personnel de Louis XIV obligent la ville à lancer de grandes opérations d’urbanisme afin de régler les problèmes posés par la congestion de la circulation et la pression démographique. Entre 1629 et 1635, la ville fait détruire les maisons qui se trouvaient entre le carrefour Saint-Pierre et le Châtelet et déplacer la partie du cimetière de l’église Saint-Pierre qui se trouvait derrière ces maisons. La place Saint-Pierre est ainsi formée dans le deuxième quart du XVIIe siècle. La ville, trop à l’étroit dans ses murailles, finit par repousser ces frontières en investissant les Petits près. Entre 1609 et 1603, la ville fait abattre des maisons pour transformer en rue une simple venelle servant à conduire les chevaux à l’abreuvoir sur le Grand Odon et, en 1626, un pont sur l’Odon est construit au bout de la rue des Jésuites (actuelle rue Saint-Laurent). En 1635-1637, la ville lance une importante opération d’urbanisme consistant à aménager une grande place carrée entourée de maisons construites en pierre de taille sur un alignement déterminé. Cette place royale (actuelle place de la République) est terminée par l’érection du séminaire des Eudistes et de son église dédiée aux Très Saints Cœurs de Jésus et Marie entre 1664 et 1703. Non loin de la place Royale, les Jésuites, installés au collège du Mont en 1609, se font ériger l’église Sainte-Catherine-des-Arts (actuelle église Notre-Dame-de-la-Gloriette) entre 1684 et 1689. Des promenades publiques arborées sont aménagées dans la Prairie le long de l’Orne et du canal Robert ; le cours-la-Reine (actuel cours Général-de-Gaulle) est planté en 1676 et le cours de l’Orne (actuel cours Kœnig) en 1691.
Pour préserver l'orthodoxie catholique et stimuler la foi, les ordres de la Contre-Réforme, soutenus par les autorités royales, multiplient les fondations d’églises, de couvents et de monastères destinés à accueillir les formes rajeunies de la piété. De nombreuses congrégations s’installent donc à Caen : Jésuites, Carmélites, Ursulines, Visitation. Jean Eudes fonde à Caen la congrégation de Jésus et Marie (Eudistes) et l'ordre de Notre-Dame de Charité. La révocation de l’Édit de Nantes s'accompagnent de nombreuses persécutions : destruction du temple, internement aux Nouveaux et Nouvelles Catholiques… Ces représailles forcèrent de nombreux Caennais protestants refusant d'abjurer, riches marchands et industriels pour la plupart, à l'exil. L’émigration atteignit les proportions d’un véritable dépeuplement et le commerce de la province en fut ruinéNote 7. Un rapport de l’intendant Foucauld adressé au ministre Pontchartrain qui voulait établir une juridiction consulaire à Caen, affirme l’impossibilité de recruter un semblable tribunal en cette ville : « La plupart des marchands de Caen, étant « religionnaires », ont quitté le royaume ; ceux qui y sont restés sont passés à Paris ou à Rouen, et le commerce est à présent « peu de chose à Caen. » L'absolutisme louis-quatorzien mit également fin aux franchises municipales dont jouissait Caen en supprimant les élections municipales et en transformant les offices d’échevin des nobles, des bourgeois et des marchands en charges vénales.
XVIIIe siècle
Caen vit, en 1713, 1715 et 1725, des émeutes liées à la cherté du pain.
Le 30 décembre 1775, se produit un des plus violents séismes qu'ait connu la Normandie. L'intensité à l'épicentre situé dans la région de Caen est estimé à VII sur l'échelle MSK. Toutes les maisons de la ville ont été agitées, de nombreux dégâts sont signalés61.
À la Révolution, le procureur-syndic Georges Bayeux et le commandant de la place Henri de Belzunce furent massacrés par la foule. En 1793, la section caennaise des Jacobins de Caen rompit ses attaches avec ceux de Paris. Nombre de Girondins cherchant refuge à Caen lors de leur chute, celle-ci devint le centre des insurrections fédéralistes auxquelles se joignit la société caennaise des Carabots. C'est le faible recrutement des armées fédéralistes qui incita Charlotte Corday à quitter Caen le 9 juillet 1793 pour aller assassiner Marat à Paris.
Révolution et Empire
Le 2 août 1793, l’armée de la Convention entre à Caen, signant la fin de l’insurrection fédéraliste.
Le 2 mars 1812, des émeutes débutent à la halle aux grains et au moulin Montaigu. Les émeutiers protestent contre la disette qui sévit depuis 1811. Le préfet Mechin et le maire Lentaigne de Logivière sont pris à partie. L'ordre est rétabli le soir même. Plusieurs personnes sont arrêtées dans les jours suivants. Le 6 mars, 4 000 soldats arrivent en renfort dans la ville. Le 14 mars, 61 personnes sont jugées, 4 hommes et 4 femmes sont condamnés à mort. Ils sont exécutés le 15 mars. Les autres personnes sont condamnées à des travaux forcés ou à de la prison.
XIXe siècle
Le XIXe siècle voit notamment l'inauguration du canal de Caen à la mer, immédiatement suivie de celle de la gare ferroviaire (1857-58). La ville est alors un centre intellectuel important de la Normandie, avec notamment la fondation, par Arcisse de Caumont, de diverses sociétés savantes (Congrès scientifique, Société française pour la conservation des monuments, en 1834, Association normande pour la vulgarisation des sciences; Caumont participe aussi aux travaux de la Société des antiquaires de Normandie) 62. La ville sort de ses limites historiques et s'étend sur les pentes au-dessus de la vieille ville (quartier bourgeois autour de la gare Saint-Martin, ouverte en 1884) ou quartier plus populaire au-dessus de Vaucelles.
Chronologie
Les dates marquantes sont :
•6 avril 1815 : Charles X fait un passage à Caen et fait libérer les personnes emprisonnées depuis 1812 ;
•1837 : début des travaux du canal de Caen à la mer ;
•1857 :
o5 mai : inauguration du premier système de distribution d'eau ;
o23 août : inauguration du canal de Caen à la mer ;
•3 août 1858 : inauguration de la gare de Caen par le couple impérial ;
•10 août 1863 : inauguration des bains et lavoirs.
Démographie
La croissance démographique s'amenuise. On recense 36 231 habitants en 1806, 41 394 habitants en 1856 et 45 380 habitants en 190663. Régulièrement, l'évolution est même légèrement négative :
•entre 1851 et 1856 (– 3 886 hab.)
•entre 1861 et 1876 (– 2 559 hab.)
•entre 1891 et 1906 (– 938 hab.)
La croissance reprend à partir de 1906. En 1936, les Caennais étaient 61 334.
Caen au XXe siècle
1900 à 1940
Caen durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale
Caen perd environ 68 % de son volume bâti durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale car elle s'est trouvée sur une ligne de front très disputée lors du débarquement en Normandie le 6 juin 1944 (Jour J). Les bombardements anglo-américains du 6 juin au 19 juillet 1944 font près de 2 000 victimes parmi les habitants de la ville64. Elle est libérée par les forces canadiennes qui ont combattu pendant un mois les troupes SS. Quelques-uns de ses principaux monuments ont néanmoins été sauvegardés.
La reconstruction de Caen a officiellement duré de 1947 à 1963 avec de larges avenues rectilignes bordées par des immeubles de pierre de Caen d'environ cinq étages, ce qui confère une certaine unité architecturale à plusieurs parties de la ville. De nombreux immeubles qui avaient un toit plat ont été chapeautés d'un toit à pentes traditionnel. La ville, profondément meurtrie par la guerre, a été décorée de l'ordre national de la Légion d'honneur en 1948.
1945 à 2000
En réparation des dommages de guerre, et comme le monastère des Bénédictines avait été en grande partie détruit en 1944 pendant la bataille de Caen, il a été confié à l'architecte Jean Zunz de le reconstruire à la Folie-Couvrechef, qui est maintenant intégrée à l'agglomération. Il a confié la verrière de la Création du Monde à l'artiste Sergio de Castro en 1956. La réalisation durera trois ans65.
Article détaillé : 1968 à Caen.
En 1963 est inauguré le parc des expositions, symbolisant ainsi la fin de la reconstruction de Caen. En 1968 Caen est touchée de plein fouet par trois événements : les grèves ouvrières et la nuit d'émeute du 26 et 27 janvier : les mois de mai et juin dans le cadre des événements de mai 68 et enfin l'affaire du Théâtre-Maison de la Culture (TMC) au mois de décembre.
Monuments et lieux touristiques
Une longue histoire a doté la ville de Caen de nombreux monuments historiques dont les principaux (deux abbayes et le château) ont été construits sous Guillaume le Conquérant au XIe siècle. Notons qu'il existe, contrairement à l'image véhiculée par la Seconde Guerre mondiale, un centre ancien (le vieux Caen) situé à l'ouest de la ville.
Surnommée « ville aux cent clochers »169 (comme Rouen, Dijon ou Poitiers), on y dénombre une quarantaine d'églises dont il ne reste parfois qu'un pan de mur. La capitale bas-normande compte 86 édifices protégés monuments historiques170, ce qui est assez remarquable compte tenu des sinistres causés par les bombardements de l'été 1944.
Bien que beaucoup d'entre eux aient été détruits en 1944, la ville compte encore de nombreux hôtels particuliers et de demeures plus modestes. Les plus anciens datent de la Renaissance, mais la majeure partie d'entre eux a été édifiée aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles.
La reconstruction de la ville a également doté Caen de nombreux monuments remarquables.
Saint-Pierre 1910
huile sur toile de Pierre Ucciani.
•Éléments fortifiés :
ole château de Guillaume le Conquérant, en particulier la salle de l'Échiquier
oles vestiges des fortifications de Caen, notamment la Tour Leroy
•Maisons à pans de bois :
ola maison des Quatrans, une maison traditionnelle du XVe siècle.
ono 52 et no 54 rue Saint-Pierre, l'ancien musée de la poste, maisons datant du début du XVIe siècle.
•Une collégiale : la collégiale du Saint-Sépulcre
•Nombreuses églises :
oL'ancienne église Saint-Martin, aujourd'hui en ruine,
oL'ancienne église Saint-Gilles, aujourd'hui en ruine,
oSaint-Pierre, édifiée entre les XIIe et XVIe siècles sur la place Saint-Pierre,
oSaint-Jean, penchée car construite sur d'anciens marais,
oSaint-Sauveur,
oSaint-Michel de Vaucelles
oSaint-Nicolas,
oSaint-Ouen,
oVieux Saint-Sauveur,
oSaint-Étienne-le-Vieux.
•Deux abbayes :
ol'abbaye aux Hommes (église Saint-Étienne, Palais Ducal, salle des Gardes, mur d'enceinte)
ol'abbaye aux Dames (église abbatiale de la Trinité)
Renaissance
•Remaniement des églises par Hector Sohier :
ole chevet de l'église Saint-Pierre
ole chevet de la nef Saint-Eustache de Notre-Dame-de-Froide-Rue (actuel Saint-Sauveur)
ole chœur du Vieux Saint-Sauveur
•Hôtels particuliers Renaissance :
ol'hôtel de Than (vers 1520-1530)
ol'hôtel d'Escoville (vers 1540)
ol'hôtel de Mondrainville (vers 1550)
ola cour des Imprimeurs, maisons construites pour Jean Macé dans les premières années du XVIe siècle
omaison natale de Malherbe (1582)
Époque classique
•Église et abbayes :
ol'église Notre-Dame-de-la-Gloriette
ole portail des églises du Vieux-Saint-Sauveur et Saint-Michel
oles bâtiments conventuels de l'abbaye aux Hommes (occupés actuellement par les services municipaux de Caen) et de l'abbaye aux Dames (actuel siège du conseil régional de Normandie)
oancien couvent de la Visitation de Caen
•Bâtiments civils officiels
ole Logis des gouverneurs au château (actuel musée de Normandie)
oPavillon des sociétés savantes
•Hôtels particuliers :
odu XVIIe autour de l'ancienne place Royale, aujourd'hui place de la République (hôtels Daumesnil et de Banville)
odu XVIIIe autour de la place Saint-Sauveur, de la place Fontette et le palais de justice de Caen et dans le quartier Saint-Jean (hôtel le Brun de Fontenay et hôtel de Blangy)
XIXe siècle
•Palais de Justice
•L'hôtel de préfecture du Calvados
•Le Bon-Sauveur (chapelle classée monument historique et jardins)
•La gare Saint-Martin
•La statue de Louis XIV par Louis Petitot
•Les hôtels particuliers (maison Charbonnier) et villas (Villa Baumier)
•Monastère des Visitandines (1890)
XXe siècle
•Maquette historique : plan de Rome à l'époque de son apogée monumentale (IVe siècle) de Paul Bigot, situé dans l'enceinte de l'université de Caen, à la maison de la recherche en sciences humaines.
•Statues :
oStatue équestre de du Guesclin de Arthur Le Duc, inscrite en 2006171
ole Phénix de Louis Leygue, classé en 2012172
•Les cités-jardins
ola cité-jardin des Rosiers, inscrite en 2007173
ole Nice caennais
•Bâtiments de l'Entre-deux-guerres :
ol'hôtel des postes (1932), inscrite en 2010174
ola gare de Caen, reconstruite par Henri Pacon (1934)
•Immeubles de la Reconstruction :
opar Henry Bernard
actuel campus 1 de l'université (1957), classé en 2012172
l'église Saint-Julien (1963), inscrite en 2005, classée en 2007175
ol'église du Sacré-Cœur de la Guérinière, inscrite en 2005176
ole château d'eau de la Guérinière, inscrit en 2010177
ole monastère des bénédictines, en partie classé et en partie inscrit en 2005178
ol'ancienne chambre de commerce de Caen, inscrite en 2003179
•Architecture contemporaine :
ole stade Michel-d'Ornano, inauguré en 1993, terrain du Stade Malherbe, club qui alterne entre Ligue 1 (saison 2010-2011) et Ligue 2.
ole Musée des Beaux-Arts, dans l'enceinte du château
ole Mémorial pour la Paix, inauguré en 1988.
ole nouveau palais de justice par Architecture-Studio
XXIe siècle
•Le Cargö (2007)
•les salles du rempart, musée de Normandie (2008)
•l'École supérieure d'arts et médias de Caen (2009)
•Le Dôme, prix de l'Équerre d'argent dans la catégorie lieu d'activité en 2016
•la bibliothèque Alexis-de-Tocqueville, construite par Rem Koolhaas sur la presqu'île portuaire (2017)
Les orgues
Les orgues de l'abbatiale Saint-Étienne (grand-orgue Cavaillé-Coll 1885 et orgue de chœur Dupont 1992), de l’église réformée et de l’église Saint-André (orgue Dupont 1982)180, ainsi que les églises Saint-Pierre (JF Dupont, 1997), Saint-Jean, Saint-Julien, Saint-Paul, Saint-Ouen, chapelle de la DRAC.
China and India
Website:
www.museudooriente.pt/?lang=en
english
“On the gods, I can affirm neither that they do exist nor that they do not exist: much prevents the acquisition of such knowledge beginning with the obscurity addressed by the question and followed by the brevity of human life.”
Protagoras (5th century BC)
“Gods of Asia” (in contrast to “The Gods of Asia” that would be of ridiculously pretentious scope) is a title that runs of risk of getting mired in equivocation. We are victims of the inappropriateness of a word’s meaning in one language when applied to another and particularly when dealing with the word god. The terms monotheist and polytheist are Western notions that prove rather lacking when considering Hinduism or Taoism. The first Western missionaries reaching Asia referred constantly to idolatry whenever encountering statues in places of worship that seemed strange to them. However, having hardly begun explaining the great Asian religions, we are immediately struck by the sheer similarities that they share with the great Western religions that shock anybody attempting to move on from the prevailing prejudices. The idea of a single God, considered by some to be the great Judaic religious contribution, was already in practice in Asia. The Brahman in Hinduism, the Tao of the Chinese are single, the origin of everything and everything exists in them. It would bizarre for the Hindus and Taoists to depict the almighty as a grizzled old man with a white beard not so much due to the fact that this would be sacrilege, as Islamic believers would hold, but rather because both fall outside the scope of any human understanding and are beyond any means of representation. The concept that “God made man in His image” swiftly becomes “man made God in his image”.
Furthermore, when dealing with Asian religions, there are references to gods when other terms would be used by Western religions. The Hindu gods are, in fact, the diverse manifestations of Brahman acting in the world and only as such susceptible to depiction. The Chinese gods bear a closer relationship with the saints of Christianity. Each serves its own particular function, such as Eloy as patron saint of goldsmiths or Saint Genevieve as the patron saint of Paris, which in the latter case would be known as the goddess of the Parisian earth within a Chinese pantheon.
Some of the similarities existing among all the religions are indeed surprising. The idea of the trinity is central to Hinduism. Given that everything born has to one day die, Brahman becomes creator, conservator and destroyer as reflected in the three manifestations: Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Vishnu is incarnate as God was incarnated in Jesus Christ. The Chinese are somewhat more abstract in this area given that their belief system holds that from the Three are born all beings.
Each founder of a religion is inseparable from the surrounding environment in which emerging. Just as the New Testament is not understandable unless its message is situated within the context of the Old Testament, the message of Buddha Shakyamuni was announced within a Hindu society and does not call into question beliefs such as reincarnation or karma. The Taoist religion becomes incomprehensible if stripped of either the Taoist philosophy that preceded it or the beliefs of ancient China.
Another common point is that the original message has been subject to whatever first the disciples or later the faithful decided to do with it given that the founders never actually set it down in writing. Neither Jesus Christ nor Shakyamuni not to mention Zhang Daoling left any written legacy. It was only through witnesses that we gain our awareness of their thinkings and teachings: rather disturbing when considering the general accuracy of such accounts. Just as Jesus Christ would not agree with what Churches have done with his message and in his name down through the centuries, Shakyamuni would not recognise his own thinking in the elaborations of those wishing to spread his message. Many founders of religions sought only to provide an answer to a precise question. Just as Jesus Christ wanted to introduce charity, Shakyamuni wanted to find a means to escape the suffering of existence. Just as Jesus Christ did not call into question the God of the Bible, Shakyamuni made no pronouncement on either Brahman or nirvana to such an extent of stating that Buddhism was a religion without a god.
Despite all that has been written, Judaism, Christianity and Islam are not the only book based religions. Buddhism, Jainism and Taoism are based on texts even if quite different to the Bible or the Koran. As regards the mirabilia spreading all the beliefs on either side of the Urals, it should be remembered that Asian thinkers knew how to distinguish between directly reading texts in order to gain the admiration of crowds and their interpretation at the philosophical or theological level and demonstrating a thorough understanding in the meantime.
We may inquire as to the origins of all these similarities between the world’s great religions. Are they due to the very nature of the human spirit? From a shared human story dating back to the beginnings of history? Factual influences for this, however, appear to be extremely limited even if we may recall that the halos of Western saints derive from the aura of light that is depicted around Buddhas in Asia and the concept of Hell complete with boiling cauldrons and devouring fires also originates in the East (with the difference that in the Orient, Hell is not eternal).
May it be said, as an Indian thinker once wrote, that all men worship the same god under different names? No. While the concept of a single god exists in the Asian religions and accepting that all world religions have undergone sometimes less than inspired revisions running counter to their original content, and that there are particularities common to all, it would certainly be fallacious not to see the differences inherent to each. Taoism provides an explanation of the world but each is free to accept it or otherwise and engages in no form of proselytism. Buddhism seeks to end with suffering in the hope that all men may benefit from its message but without ever becoming an imposition and sought to be tolerant regarding long existing local beliefs given its acceptance that spirits exist within living beings. As regards theological differences, these are only too susceptible to generating interminable debates.
However, this is not the intention of this exhibition nor does it involve presenting the gods of India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand, China, Vietnam, Korea and Japan with a concern to somehow encapsulate the beliefs of others into the content of picturesque or striking images. It is rather more about setting out why they are worthy of the same respect that we provide our own religions.
The exhibition thus seeks to raise awareness about certain aspects of the religious art of Asia, particularly at the popular level, and introduce the still living mythology underlying the objects on display. Hence, all the great religions of the continent are included: Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism and Shinto. While the Western word “god”, corresponds closest to abstract
Asian concepts such as Brahman in India or Tao in China, the supernatural beings represented here are far more manifestations of the divine in the human world.
português
“Sobre os deuses, nada posso afirmar, nem que existem nem que não existem: muitas coisas o impedem de saber, a começar pelo lado obscuro que envolve a pergunta, e a seguir pela brevidade da vida humana”
Protágoras (século V a.C.)
“Deuses da Ásia” (e não “Os deuses da Ásia”, o que seria uma pretensão ridícula) é um título que corre o risco de gerar grandes equívocos. Somos vítimas da inadequação das palavras de uma língua para a outra, e mais particularmente quando se trata da palavra deus. Os termos monoteísta e politeísta são noções ocidentais muito mal adaptadas quando se trata do hinduísmo ou do taoísmo. Os primeiros missionários ocidentais que chegaram à Ásia falavam dos idólatras sempre que viam em templos estas estátuas que lhes pareciam estranhas. No entanto, mal começamos a informar sobre as grandes religiões asiáticas, são, antes de tudo, as semelhanças com as grandes religiões ocidentais que espantam quem tente abstrair-se dos preconceitos correntes. A ideia do Deus único, que alguns consideram ser a grande contribuição da religião judaica, já vigorava na Ásia. O Brahman do hinduísmo, o Tao dos chineses são o Único, a Origem de tudo, e tudo neles existe. Seria ridículo para os hindus e taoistas verem representados o Brahman ou o Tao sob os traços de um ancião de barba branca, não tanto pelo facto que isto possa ser um sacrilégio, como o pensam os islamitas, mas porque tanto um como o outro escapam ao entendimento humano e situam-se para além de qualquer forma. A ideia de que “Deus fez o homem à sua imagem” transforma-se rapidamente em “o homem fez Deus à sua imagem”. Mas quando se trata de religiões asiáticas, fala-se de deuses quando no Ocidente utilizar-se-ia um outro termo. Os deuses hinduístas são, de facto, manifestações diversas do Brahman actuando no mundo e como tais podem ser representados. Os deuses chineses são mais aparentados aos santos do cristianismo. Cada um deles tem uma função, como Santo Elói é o patrono dos ourives ou Santa Genoveva é a padroeira de Paris, que neste caso, para os chineses, seria conhecida como deusa do Solo de Paris.
Algumas das semelhanças que existem entre todas as religiões são surpreendentes. A ideia da trindade é central no hinduísmo. Visto que tudo o que nasce tem que morrer, o Brahman manifesta-se enquanto criador, conservador e destruidor, o que se traduz pelas suas três manifestações, Brahma, Vishnu e Shiva. Vishnu incarna-se como Deus se incarnou em Jesus Cristo. Os chineses são mais abstractos nesta matéria, já que para eles é do Três que nascem todos os seres.
Cada fundador de religião é inseparável do meio em que apareceu. Tal como o Novo Testamento não é compreensível se a sua mensagem não for situada no contexto do Antigo Testamento, a mensagem do Buda Shakyamuni foi anunciada numa sociedade hinduísta e não põe em causa a crença nas reincarnações e no karma. A religião taoista torna-se incompreensível se for omitida a filosofia taoista que a precedeu e as crenças da antiguidade chinesa.
Um outro ponto comum é que a mensagem original é vítima do que fizeram dela os discípulos ou sobretudo depois, os fiéis, já que os fundadores nunca escreveram uma linha. Nem Jesus Cristo, nem Shakyamuni, nem Zhang Daoling deixaram algum escrito. Foi somente por testemunhos que se pôde conhecer o seu pensamento, o que não deixa de ser assustador quando nos lembramos do que estes valem. Tal como Jesus Cristo não concordaria com o que as Igrejas, ao longo dos séculos, fizeram com a sua mensagem, Shakyamuni não reconheceria o seu pensamento nas elaborações dos que quiseram divulgar o seu contributo. Muitos fundadores de religiões quiseram fornecer apenas uma resposta a uma pergunta precisa. Tal como Jesus Cristo quis introduzir a misericórdia. Shakyamuni quis encontrar uma via para escapar aos sofrimentos da existência. Tal como Jesus Cristo não pôs em causa o Deus da Bíblia, Shakyamuni não se pronunciou sobre o Brahman ou o nirvana, de tal maneira que chegou a dizer-se que o budismo era uma religião sem deus.
Apesar do que se escreveu, o judaísmo, o cristianismo e o Islão não são as únicas religiões do livro. O budismo, o jainismo e o taoísmo têm como base textos que nada devem aos da Bíblia ou do Corão. Quanto às mirabilia que espalham todas as crenças de cada lado dos Urais, é preciso reconhecer que os pensadores asiáticos souberam distinguir entre uma leitura dos textos ao primeiro grau, que suscita a admiração das multidões, e a sua interpretação a um nível filosófico ou teológico, para que seja entendido o sentido profundo.
Donde vêm as semelhanças entre todas as grandes religiões? Da natureza própria do espírito humano? De uma história comum da humanidade que remonta à origem dos tempos? As influências factuais parecem ser, no entanto, limitadas, mesmo que se lembre que a auréola dos nossos santos provém da aura de luz que se põe à volta dos Budas na Ásia e que a ideia do Inferno, com os seus caldeirões fumegantes e os seus fogos devoradores são originários também do Oriente (com a diferença que no Oriente o Inferno não é eterno).
Pode-se dizer, como o escreveu um pensador indiano, que todos os homens veneram o mesmo deus sob nomes diferentes? Não. Se o conceito de um deus único existe nas religiões asiáticas e já que todas as religiões do mundo conheceram reveses por vezes pouco brilhantes e contrárias ao seu pensamento original, e que algumas particularidades se encontram em todas, seria falacioso não ver as diferenças próprias de cada uma. O taoísmo fornece uma explicação do mundo, mas cada um é livre de poder aceitá-la ou não e não desenvolve nenhum tipo de proselitismo. O budismo procura apagar o sofrimento, esperando que todos os homens possam usufruir da sua mensagem, mas sem a impor, e quis-se tolerante no que toca às crenças locais antigas, visto que admite a existência de espíritos no meio dos seres. No que toca às diferenças teológicas, estas poderiam dar lugar a debates intermináveis.
Mas não é esta a intenção da exposição. Nem tão pouco apresentar deuses da Índia, da Indonésia, de Mianmar, da Tailândia, da China, do Vietname, da Coreia e do Japão com a preocupação de limitar as crenças dos outros ao conteúdo de imagens pitorescas ou belas, mas sim de mostrar que elas merecem o mesmo respeito que nós prestamos às nossas.
A exposição procura, isso sim, tornar conhecidos certos aspectos da arte religiosa na Ásia, sobretudo ao nível popular, e introduzir a mitologia ainda viva que está subjacente aos objectos apresentados. Daí estarem representadas as grandes religiões do continente, o hinduísmo, o budismo, o taoísmo, o shintô. Uma vez que a palavra ocidental “deus”, corresponde mais a conceitos asiáticos abstractos como Brama, na Índia, e Tao, na China, os seres sobrenaturais representados são muito mais manifestações do divino no mundo humano.
_______________________________________________________-
english
The Museum of the Orient (Portuguese: Museu do Oriente) in Lisbon, Portugal celebrates the history of Portuguese exploration with a collection of Asian artifacts. The museum opened in May, 2008, and is located in a refurbished industrial building on the Alcântara waterfront. The collection includes Indonesian textiles, Japanese screens, antique snuff bottles, crucifixes made in Asia for Western export, and the Kwok On Collection of masks, costumes, and accessories.
português
O Museu do Oriente está instalado no edifício Pedro Álvares Cabral, antigos armazéns da Comissão Reguladora do Comércio do Bacalhau em Alcântara, Lisboa.
O museu reúne colecções que têm o Oriente como temática principal, nas vertentes histórica, religiosa, antropológica e artística.
A exposição permanente engloba 1400 peças alusivas à presença portuguesa na Ásia e 650 peças pertencentes à colecção Kwok On.
O museu é da responsabilidade da Fundação Oriente e foi inaugurado no dia 8 de Maio de 2008.
A actual directora é Maria Manuela d'Oliveira Martins.
Foi classificado como Monumento de interesse público (MIP) pelo IGESPAR em 15 de junho de 2010.
Medicare Overview
If you have questions about Medicare, you’re not alone. Here’s what you need to know.
What is Medicare?
Medicare is a health insurance program managed by the federal government which helps pay for medical expenses such as hospital, nursing, doctor visits, prescription drugs, hospice care, and preventive services.
Who is eligible for Medicare?
Any citizen or permanent resident who is age 65 or above can be eligible for Medicare.
People with permanent disabilities under the age of 65 are also eligible if they qualify for Social Security Disability Insurance or have End Stage Renal Disease.
Younger widows and disabled adult children can also qualify for Medicare.
Will I Be Enrolled Automatically?
If you are receiving Social Security or Railroad Retirement benefits, you will be automatically enrolled into Traditional Medicare (Parts A and B).
For anyone who is not automatically enrolled, you’ll need to sign up manually.
How Do I Sign Up For Medicare?
Each of the different “parts” has a separate enrollment process. You can sign up through the Social Security office, or online at Medicare.gov.
When Should I Sign Up For Medicare?
To avoid paying penalties you should sign up during the 3 months before you turn 65, unless you have coverage through an employer.
What does Medicare cover?
Traditional Medicare covers hospital, doctor and nursing care. Part A generally covers hospital and other inpatient expenses. Part B covers doctor expenses and preventative services. Medicare Part D helps pay for prescription drugs.
What does Medicare NOT cover?
Traditional Medicare does not cover dental, vision, hearing aids, and other health expenses.
For additional coverage you can sign up for Medical Advantage, purchase a supplemental Medigap plan, or enroll in a PACE program.
What is Medicare Advantage (Part C)?
Medicare Advantage combines Parts A, B, and D into a single plan which you purchase through a private insurance company. These plans typically include all the benefits from Parts A and B, as well as additional optional benefits such as dental, vision, gym memberships and more. Medicare Advantage plans are similar to other health insurance with deductibles, coinsurance, and a monthly premium.
What is Medigap?
Medigap is extra insurance which can help pay for medical expenses that Medicare does not cover. Most states offer a standard set of Medigap options, which are sold through private insurance companies and vary in benefit levels and cost.
What is PACE?
PACE is a Medicare resource for those who qualify which stands for “Programs of All-Inclusive Care for the Elderly”. PACE can help provide social services, dentistry, prescription drugs, and nursing home care. If you have Medicaid you won’t have to pay a monthly premium for PACE, but there is a monthly payment otherwise.
How much does Medicare cost?
In most cases you pay a monthly premium for your Medicare coverage, and you also pay the deductible and coinsurance amounts before benefits are applied.
Most people who paid Medicare taxes during their life are eligible for “premium-free” Part A. If not, it can cost over $400 a month. Part B typically costs $135.50 per month, although it can be higher for people with higher incomes.
Medicare Advantage plans range from costing zero to several hundred dollars per month. Medigap plans range from as low as $22 per month to several hundred dollars. What you pay for PACE depends on your financial situation.
What If I Can’t Afford Medicare?
If you have limited resources to pay for Medicare costs, you may be eligible for financial assistance through the government. Contact the State Health Insurance Assistance Program in your area to explore your options.
Changes to Medicare in 2019
Aside from slightly higher premiums and deductibles, the coverage gap known as the “donut hole” has been closed for brand-name drugs in 2019. Another change is that you can try out or switch your Medical Advantage plan for up to 3 months.There’s also improved Medicare resources online to help beneficiaries.
There’s also been an increase in coverage for a range of medical expenses:
Outpatient physical speech and occupational therapy
Telemedicine and telehealth services
Meal delivery services
Home-safety improvements such as wheelchair ramps or bathroom bars
Transportation to medical offices
In-home assistance from health aides for Medical Advantage plans
Make the Most of your Medicare
It’s important not to wait too long to sign up for Medicare, but you don’t want to rush into it either. Do some research to find the best plan for your specific needs. The more informed you are, the better you’ll be able to take advantage of what Medicare has to offer.
Please visit www.agilehealthinsurance.com/... to learn more and www.agilehealthinsurance.com/ for more information on your health insurance options.
Question Mark. Aus der Serie „Satzzeichen“ 2014
Rotierende Skulptur aus Lianen Findling, fluoriszierendes Klebeband, schwarze Totenkopf Büchse und Schwarz Licht
Skulptur, Objekt, Video, Installation, Fotografie
Markus Wintersberger 2014
Screenshot: vark.com
01. Homepage
02. After login
See my review about the service at SML Wiki: Aardvark
Oesterreichische Nationalbank
Logo of the Austrian National Bank
Headquarters Vienna, Austria
Central Bank of Austria
Currency€
To ISO 4217 EUR
website
Previous Austro- Hungarian Bank
List of Central Banks
Oesterreichische Nationalbank, at Otto-Wagner -Platz No. 3, Vienna
The Austrian National Bank (OeNB), Austria's central bank as an integral part of the European System of Central Banks (ESCB) and the Eurosystem. It is instrumental in the design of the economic development in Austria and in the euro area. Legally, the OeNB is a public limited company.. However, it is also subject to further enshrined in the National Bank Act regulations resulting from its separate position as a central bank. In the framework of the Eurosystem, the OeNB contributes to a stability-oriented monetary policy. At the national level, it cares about the preservation of financial stability and the money supply and manage foreign exchange reserves to hedge against the euro in times of crisis. The guideline values in terms of the tasks of the Austrian National Bank are "security, stability and trust".
Contents
1 History
1.1 1816 to 1818
1.2 1818 to 1878
1.3 1878 to 1922
1.4 1922 to 1938
1.5 1938 to 1945
1.6 1945 to 1998
1.7 From 1999
2 The OeNB as a modern central bank
3 Legal form and organs
3.1 Legal framework
3.2 organs
3.2.1 General
3.2.2 General
3.2.3 Board of Directors
4 Tasks
4.1 Monetary policy strategies and monetary policy decision-making process
4.1.1 Economic analysis
4.1.2 Production of statistical information
4.1.3 Contribute to international organizations
4.2 Implementation of monetary policy
4.2.1 use of monetary policy instruments
4.2.2 Reserve Management
4.2.3 Money Supply
4.3 Communication of monetary policy
4.4 ensure financial stability
4.4.1 Financial Stability
4.4.2 Payment System Stability and payments
5 The OeNB in the European System of National Banks
6 President / Governors
7 See also
8 Literature
9 links
10 Notes and references
History
1816-1818
As long as 50 years before the founding of the National Bank the Habsburgs carried out first experiments with securities in the form of paper money. Finally, in the 18th Century the issue of banknotes transferred to a state independent institution, while the issue of paper money called "Banco notes," founded in 1705 by the "Vienna City Bank" took place in 1762.
In wartime governance took back control of the money issue, so there was an inflation of Banco-Zettel 1796-1810. The state ordered the forced acceptance of paper money in private transport, which led to a fast-growing discount on bills in the market. 1799 was therefore one for 100 guilders paper money only 92 guilders in silver coins, and at the end of 1810 the value of the paper florin had fallen to 15 % of the nominal value of the Banco-Zettel. Later, the Habsburgs declared a devaluation of the Banco-Zettel in the ratio of 5:1. This act was considered by the business community as a sovereign default, which the paper money experienced a rapid devaluation.
At the end of the Napoleonic wars the Habsburg multinational state ( → Habsburg Monarchy) faced a new challenge: the restoration of a European balance. Church, the nobility, the army and the bureaucracy as elements in the Ancien Régime were not sufficient to solve this problem, a well -founded economic situation was needed. Moreover, one could not ignore readily the laws of supply and demand.
In this regard, were the first June 1816 by Emperor Francis I two patents issued (later to distinguish the "main patent" or "bank patent"), the "privileged Austrian National Bank", conceived as a public company, had to constitute itself as soon a possible, propose the emperor three of its directors for selection of the governor and take up their activity provisionally on 1 July 1816.
The National Bank had henceforth a monopoly on the issuance of paper money, which led to a slowdown in the Austrian monetary system and an increase in the value of paper money. The economy was again a solid source of money keeping constant the value of money regardless of the spending plans of the State. The equity of the Bank justified this by share issues.
Initially comprised the activities of the bank - under temporary management - the redemption of paper money and the issuance of shares. The full effectiveness attained the National Bank until after the issue of 1,000 shares and the associated possibility of shareholders to set the management themselves.
1818-1878
On 15 July 1817 recieved the National Bank as the "first Bankprivilegium" the exclusive right to unrestricted issue of banknotes and in this context a special position in terms of Rediskontgeschäfts (rediscount business). Beginning of 1818 the definitive bank management was ready. Part of it were among leading figures of Viennese society, including the banker Johann Heinrich von Geymüller and Bernard of Eskeles. From 1830 to 1837 the Office of the Governor was held by Adrian Nicholas Baron Barbier.
In the countries of the Habsburg Monarchy, which were characterized in large part by an agricultural oriented activity pattern, some regions showed a lively commercial-industrial growth. The goal now was to create a system of economic exchange between these areas. Successively established the National Bank branch network and thus guaranteed a uniform money and credit supply. From its headquarters in Vienna this network extended over early industrial areas and commercial centers in Eastern and Central Europe to the northern Mediterranean.
Trade bills and coins were preferred assets of the National Bank, less the supply of money to the state. With the exchange transactions, the National Bank supported the economic growth of the monarchy and secured at the same time the supply of silver coins in the event that the need for these increases in exchange for bank notes, contrary to expectations. 1818 was the National Bank, however, by increasing public debt, due to high spending in times of crisis, not spared to make an increase in the government debt positions on the asset side of its balance sheet.
The patent provisions of the founding of the National Bank not sufficiently secured against the autonomy of governance. At the center of the struggle for independence, this was the question of the extent to which the issue of banknotes must be made on the basis of government bonds. In 1841, a renewal of Bankprivilegiums got a weakening of the independence by pushing back the influence of the shareholders in favor of the state administration. During the revolution of 1848/49 followers of constitutional goals received great support from senior figures in the National Bank. For about a hundred years, the Austrian branch of the Rothschild bank (from which from 1855, the "Royal Privileged Austrian Credit-Institute for Commerce and Industry", the later Creditanstalt, was born) was playing a leading role in the banking center of Vienna. Salomon Mayer von Rothschild was involved during the pre-March in all major transactions of the National Bank for the rehabilitation of the state budget.
Special focus the National Bank was putting on the development of the premium that was payable at the exchange of banknotes into silver money in business dealings. The increase, which corresponded to a depreciation of the notes issued by the Bank should be prevented. From an overall state perspective, the increase of the silver premium means a deterioration in terms of the exchange ratio towards foreign countries, influencing the price competitiveness of the Austrian foreign trade adversely. The stabilization of the premium were set some limits. Although the height of the emission activitiy was depending on the Bank, but also the price of silver and the potential effects of increased government debt materially affected the silver premium. Especially the 1848 revolution and conflicts in the following years caused an increasement of the silver premium.
Mid-century, the private banking and wholesale houses were no longer able to cope with the rapidly growing financial intermediation of the Habsburg monarchy. New forms of capital formation were required. From an initiative of the House of Rothschild, the first by the government approved and private joint-stock bank was created. This formation was followed in 1863 and 1864 by two other joint-stock banks, whose major shareholders included important personalities of the aristocracy, who possessed large liquid funds. Overall, grew with these banks the money creation potential of the "financial center of Vienna".
The central bank faced another difficult task: with its limited resources it had to secure sufficient liquidity on the one hand and on the other hand prevent the inflationary expansion of the money supply. Through close contacts with the shareholders of Vienna was a financial center (informal) ballot, especially in times of crisis, easily dealt out. In contrast, it gave differences of opinion in the Fed Board, which required enforcement of decisions.
In 1861, Friedrich Schey Koromla became director of the National Bank. On 27 December 1862 experienced the Bankprivilegium another innovation. The independence of the National Bank of the State was restored and anchored. Furthermore, was introduced the direct allocation of banknotes in circulation by the system of "Peel'schen Bank Act", which states that the fixed budget of 200 million guilders exceeding circulation of banknotes must be covered by silver coins. In 1866, when the German war ended in defeat for Austria, the compliance of the system was no longer met. The state felt itself forced to pay compensation for breach of privilege. This balance was supported by a law of 1872, after the National Bank may issue notes up to a maximum of 200 million guilders and each additional payment must be fully backed by gold or silver.
1873 the economic boom of the Habsburg monarchy was represented in a long-lasting rise in the share price. A now to be expecting break could by the behavior of the Vienna Stock not be intercepted, so it came to the "Great Crash of 1873". The in 1872 fixed restrictions of the circulation of notes for a short time have been suspended. Contrary to expectations, the money supply in crisis peak but only outgrew by nearly 1% the prescribed limit in the bank acts. The banks and the industrial and commercial companies survived the crash without major losses, although the share prices significantly lay below the initial level.
The years with high growth were followed by a period of stagnation.
1878-1922
As part of the compensation negotiations between Austria and Hungary in 1867, the National Bank was able to exercise fully their Privilegialrechte, the Kingdom of Hungary but now had the certified right, every ten years exercisable, to found an own central bank (bank note). As resulted from the first 10 -year period that furthermore none of the two parts of the monarchy wanted to build an independent money-issuing bank (Zettelbank), was built on 28 June 1878, initially to 31 December 1887 limited, an Austro-Hungarian Bank, and equipped with the Fed privilege. The first privilege of the new bank was a compromise in which on the one hand, regulations on liability for national debts as well as regulations limiting the influence of the government on banking businesses were included. 1878 Gustav Leonhardt was Secretary of the Bank.
The General Assembly and the General Council formed the unit of the bank management. Two directorates and major institutions - in Vienna and Budapest - represented the dual nature of the bank. 1892-1900 followed a long discussion finally the currency conversion from guilders (silver currency) to the crown (gold standard) with "Gold Crown" said coins.
Since the new banknotes were very popular in the public, now many gold coins piled up in the vaults of the Austro-Hungarian Bank. This period was characterized by a balanced combination of price growth and damping, the "per capita national product" grew while prices remained mostly stable. Against this background, it was easy for the Fed to encourage a new wave of industrialization.
With a third privilege in 1899 conditions were established under which the bank could be put into the financial services of the two countries, on the other hand there have been important innovations that paved a good exchange policy. By 1914, the exchange ratio of the Austro-Hungarian currency was unchanged with only minor fluctuations. In contrast, was the by conflicts marked political development.
The expansive foreign policy quickly led to high costs from which had to be shouldered by the central bank a significant part. The stability of the currency was in danger. Shortly after the beginning of World War I in 1914, laid down the Military Command to indemnify any seized property with double the price. There was an increasing scarcity of goods, connected with an ongoing expansion of the money supply and finally the increase in the price level on the 16-fold.
The resulting cost of the war of the Dual Monarchy were covered to 40% on central bank loans and 60% through war bonds. Over the duration of the war, the power force built up in recent decades has been frozen at the end of the conflict in 1918, the real income of the workers had fallen to one-fifth of the last year of peace.
With the end of the war the end for the old order had come, too. The decay of Cisleithania and Transleithania caused in several successor states, despite the efforts of the central bank to maintain the order, a currency separation (see Crown Currency in the decay of the monarchy, successor states). First, a separate "Austrian management" of the bank was introduced. It was encouraged to shoulder the shortcomings of the state budget of the Republic of Austria founded in 1918.
The new South Slav state began in January 1919 stamping its crown banknotes. The newly founded Czechoslovak Republic retained the crown currency (to date), but their printed banknotes in circulation as of February 1919 with indications that now these ar Czechoslovak crowns. (The country could an inflation as experienced by Austria avoide.) In March 1919, German Austria began to stamp its crown banknotes.
The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye of 10 September 1919, by Austria on 25 October 1919 ratified and which on 16 July 1920 came into force, determined the cancellation and replacement of all crown banknotes of all successor states of Austria-Hungary as well as the complete liquidation of the Austro-Hungarian Bank under the supervision of the war winners. The last meetings of the Bank took place mid 1921 and at the end of 1922.
After a period of overvaluation of the crown the dollar rate rose from 1919 again. 1921, had to be paid over 5,000 Austrian crowns per dollar. In addition to the significant drop in the external value existed in Austria rising inflation. End of 1922 was ultimately a rehabilitation program with foreign assistance - the "Geneva Protocol" - passed which slowed down the inflation.
1922-1938
With Federal Law of 24 July 1922 the Minister of Finance was commissioned to build a central bank, which had to take over the entire note circulation plus current liabilities of the Austrian management of the Austro-Hungarian Bank. With Federal Law of 14 November 1922, certain provisions of the law were amended and promulgated the statutes of the Austrian National Bank. By order of the Federal Government Seipel I 29 December 1922, the Board of the Austrian Austro-Hungarian Bank issued authorization for the central bank union activity with 1 January 1923 have been declared extinct and was made known the commencement of operations of the Oesterreichische Nationalbank this day.
The statutes of the Austrian National Bank (OeNB) secured the independence from the state, the independence of the Bank under exclusion of external influences and the corresponding equity. First, the stabilization of the Austrian currency was at the forefront. With the Schilling Act of 20 December 1924 was the schilling currency (First Republic) with 1 Introduced in March 1925, it replaced the crown currency. For 10,000 crowns now you got a shilling.
As an important personality in terms of the order of the state budget, Dr. Victor Kienböck has to be mentioned. He was in the time from 1922 to 1924 and from 1926 to 1929 finance minister of the First Republic and from 1932 to 1938 President of the Austrian National Bank. Through his work remained the Austrian Schilling, also beyound the global economy crisis, stable. Under this condition, the Fed was able to cope with the large number of bank failures of the past.
1938-1945
According to the on 13th March issued Anschlussgesetz (annexation law) , the Reichsmark with order of the Fuehrer and Chancellor of 17 was March 1938 introduced in the country Austria and determines the course: A Reichsmark is equal to one shilling fifty pence. On the same day, the Chancellor ordered that the management of the to be liquidated National Bank was transferred to the Reichsbank.
With regulation of three ministers of the German Reich of 23 April 1938, the National Bank was established as a property of the Reichsbank and its banknotes the quality as legal tender by 25 April 1938 withdrawn; public funds had Schilling banknotes until 15th of may in 1938 to accept. All the gold and foreign exchange reserves were transferred to Berlin.
The Second World War weakened the Austrian economy to a great extent, the production force after the war corresponded to only 40% of that of 1937 (see also air raids on Austria). To finance the war, the Reichsbank brought to a high degree banknotes in circulation, which only a great victory of the kingdom (Reich) actual values would have been opposable. Since prices were strictly regulated, inflation virtually could be "banned" during the war.
1945-1998
In occupied postwar Austria about 10 billion shillings by Allied military occupying powers were initially printed, which contributed to significant price increases.
With the re-establishment of the Republic of Austria by the Austrian declaration of independence of 27 April 1945, it came to the resumption of activities of the Oesterreichische Nationalbank. By the "Fed Transition Act" of July 1945 preliminary legal regulations for the operations of the Bank have been established. The restoration of the Austrian currency was their first big job. The goal was the summary of all currencies, which at the time were in circulation, and their secondment to a new Austrian currency. The "Schilling Act" of November 1945, the basis for the re-introduction of the Schilling (Second Republic) as legal tender in Austria. The next step was to reduce excess liquidity to make necessary funds for new business investment available and to make the external value of the shilling for the development of the economy competitive. First, however, less changed the inflationary situation and also the shilling was still significantly undervalued in relation to other currencies.
The "Currency Protection Act" of 1947 brought a significant change in the monetary overhang. Some deposits have been deleted without replacement, others converted into claims against the Federal Treasury. The following exchange operations also significantly reduced the amount of cash: banknotes from 1945 were canceled and exchanged for new schilling notes in the ratio 1:3. Only 150 shillings per person could go 1-1.
To control inflation, the social partners came to the foreground. The associations of employers and employees set in 1947 prices for supplies, wages were also raised. This was the first of the five "wage-price agreements" of the social partners. In 1952, inflation was held back by limiting the use of monetary policy instruments by the National Bank. Also, the external sector slowly relaxed after the end of the Korean War.
In 1955, the Austrian National Bank was re-established by the new National Bank Act as a corporation and the by the National Bank Transition of Authorities Act (Nationalbank-Überleitungsgesetz) established provisional arragement abolished. The National Bank Act stipulated that each half of the capital should be situated at the federal government and private shareholders. In addition to the independence of bank loans of the state, the new National Bank Act also contained an order that the central bank must watch within their monetary and credit policies on the economic policies of the federal government. From now on also included within the instruments of the National Bank were the areas open market and minimum reserve policy.
The Austrian economy increasingly stabilized, through good fiscal and monetary policy a high growth could be attained, with low inflation and long-term maintenance of external equilibrium.
1960, Austria joined the European Free Trade Association and participated in the European integration.
In the sixties came the international monetary system based on gold-dollar convertibility into currency fluctuations and political reforms were necessary. First, the loosening of exchange rate adjustments between several states was an option. However, U.S. balance of payments problems brought with it restrictions on capital movements, and then the Euro-Dollar market was born. In 1971, the convertibility of the U.S. dollar was lifted.
1975 interrupted a recession increasing growth time. International unbalanced ayments caused very extensive foreign exchange movements, whereby the intervention force of Austrian monetary policy has been strongly challenged. Their task now was to control the effect of foreign exchange on domestic economic activities to stabilize the shilling in the context of constantly shifting exchange rates and to control the price rise appropriately. Since the inflow of foreign funds reached to high proportions, so that the economic stability has been compromised, the policy went the way of the independent course design in a pool of selected European currencies.
The collapse of the economy forced the policy makers to a new course with active mutual credit control, subdued wage growth, financial impulses in supply and demand, and interest rates are kept low. This system of regulation, however, kept back the need for structural change, so it had to be given up in 1979. In the same year a fire destroyed large parts of the main building of the Austrian National Bank in Vienna. The repairs lasted until 1985.
Target in the eighties was to strengthen the economic performance using a competitive power comparison. The findings from the seventies stimulated the Austrian monetary policy to align the Schilling course at the Deutsche Mark to ensure price stability in the country. In addition, the structural change was initiated by inclusion in a large area. Stable, if not necessarily comfortable environment of monetary policy was a prerequisite, to secure the companies long-term productivity gains and thus safeguard their position in the economy.
Initially, this development stood a high level of unemployment in the way. Growth until the second half of the decade increased, at the same time increased the competitiveness and current accounts could be kept in balance.
In the nineties, the annexation of Austria took place in the European Community. 1995 Austria became a member of the European Union (EU) and joined the exchange rate mechanism of the European Monetary System. In 1998, the Central Banks (ESCB) have established the independence of institutions or bodies of the European Community and the governments of the EU Member States through an amendment to the National Bank Act of the Austrian National Bank to implement the goals and tasks of the European System. Thus, the legal basis for the participation of Austria in the third stage of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) was created in 1999.
As of 1999
The Austrian National Bank, and other national central banks including the European Central Bank ( ECB), belongs to the European System of Central Banks.
On 1 January 1999 was introduced in the third stage of Economic and Monetary Union in Austria and ten other EU Member States, the euro as a common currency. The European Central Bank is henceforth responsible for monetary and currency policy, decisions in this regard will be taken in accordance with the Council of the European Central Bank.
Since May 2010, the OeNB is in full possession of the Republic of Austria, after originally lobbies, banks and insurance companies were involved with 50 % of the share capital in it. In 2011, the National Bank Act was adapted by an amendment (Federal Law Gazette I No. 50 /2011) in this circumstance, a renewed privatization is thus excluded by law.
The OeNB as a modern central bank
With the withdrawal from the retail business in the sixties as well as the first major internationalization and implementation of a strategic management in the seventies, the OeNB went on the way to a future-oriented central bank. Another major reform of banking began at the end of the eighties.
In terms of global development, the OeNB established in 1988 as a service company and expanded its guiding values - "security, stability and trust" - to the principles of " fficiency" and "cost-consciousness". The business center was optimized and strategic business experienced through targeted improvements a reinforcement. Be mentioned as examples are intensifying domestic cooperation in the area of payments by encouraging the creation of the Society for the Study co-payments (STUZZA), the liberalization of capital movements, the professional management of foreign exchange reserves, the improvement of the supply of money through the construction of the money center and the internationalization of business activities through the establishment of representative offices in Brussels (European Union), Paris (OECD) and the financial center of New York.
After Austria's accession to the EU in 1995, the OeNB participated in the European Monetary System (EMS ) and its Exchange Rate Mechanism. The integration in the third stage of Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) was the next step towards further development of policy stability. Since the conclusion of the Maastricht Treaty, the Austrian National Bank has very fully considered its role in the ESCB and created a basis for inclusion in the community. The profound economic and monetary policy of Austria was also a reference that qualified the OeNB to actively participate in the monetary future of Europe, a greater harmonization of the statistical framework and monetary policy instruments with a view to the euro system, the preparation of the issue of European banknotes, and the establishment of operational processes and organizational integration of business processes within the ESCB being specific objectives of the OeNB.
In the following, it came, inter alia, to the establishement of an economic study department, of an education or training initiative and to strengthen the position of payment transactions through the TARGET system.
A in 1996 created "OeNB master plan" provided important points for the upcoming transition to the euro.
In May 1998, a new pension system came into force, by which new employees were incorporated into a two-pillar model.
1999, Austria's participation in the third stage of EMU was manifest. The Austrian National Bank - as part of the ESCB - became the owner of the European Central Bank and received new powers in this context in the sense of participation in the monetary policy decision-making at the level of the European Community. With the introduction of the euro, monetary policy functions of the General Council have been transferred to the Governing Council. However, the implementation remains the responsibility of national central banks.
Activities of the Oesterreichische Nationalbank were or are, for example, the further professionalization of asset management, the expansion of the network of representative offices by opening a representative office in the financial center of London, preparation of the smooth introduction of euro cash in 2002 and the participation of the OeNB on the creation of the "A-SIT" (Center for secure Information Technology Center - Austria) and the "A-Trust" (society of electronic security systems in traffic GmbH ) in order to promote security in information technology.
de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oesterreichische_Nationalbank
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