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We stayed at the City of Arts and Sciences from late afternoon till night time. There was a beautiful blue cast through twilight and then, about 8.00pm the lights came on. I forgot the tripod so it was a case of having a steady hand. A bit of noise in there but I'm glad I hung around - we had a few glasses of wine as well needless to say.
We decided to go for a city break rather than sun in Tenerife again this September. Other than a few days in the North East we haven’t been away since last March and wanted a change and hopefully some sun. The problem is getting flights from the north of England to the places we want to go to. We chose Valencia as we could fly from East Midlands – which was still a pain to get to as it involved the most notorious stretch of the M1 at five in the morning. In the end we had a fairly good journey, the new Ryanair business class pre-booked scheme worked quite well and bang on time as usual. It was dull when we landed with storms forecast all week, the sky was bright grey – the kiss of death to the photography I had in mind. I was full of cold and wishing I was at work. It did rain but it was overnight on our first night and didn't affect us. There has been a drought for eleven months apparently and it rained on our first day there! The forecast storms didn't materialise in Valencia but they got it elsewhere.
You May notice discrepancies in the spelling of some Spanish words or names, this is because Valencian is used on signs, in some guide books and maps. There are two languages in common use with distinct differences. There may also be genuine mistakes - it has been known!
Over the course of a Monday to Sunday week we covered 75 miles on foot and saw most of the best of Valencia – The City of Bell Towers. The Old City covers a pretty large area in a very confusing layout. There was a lot of referring to maps – even compass readings! – a first in a city for us. The problem with photography in Valencia is that most of the famous and attractive building are closely built around, some have poor quality housing built on to them. Most photographs have to be taken from an extreme angle looking up. There are no high points as it is pan flat, there are a small number of buildings where you can pay to go up on to the roof for a better view and we went up them – more than once!
The modern buildings of The City of Arts and Sciences – ( Ciutat de Las Arts I de les Ciencies ) are what the city has more recently become famous for, with tourists arriving by the coachload all day until late at night. They must be photographed millions of times a month. We went during the day and stayed till dark one evening, I gave it my best shot but a first time visit is always a compromise between ambition and realism, time dictates that we have to move on to the next destination. I travelled with a full size tripod – another first – I forgot to take it with me to TCoAaS! so It was time to wind up the ISO, again! Needless to say I never used the tripod.
On a day when rain was forecast but it stayed fine, albeit a bit dull, we went to the Bioparc north west of the city, a zoo by another name. There are many claims made for this place, were you can appear to walk alongside some very large animals, including, elephants, lions, giraffe, rhino, gorillas and many types of monkey to name a few. It is laid out in different geographical regions and there is very little between you and the animals, in some cases there is nothing, you enter the enclosure through a double door arrangement and the monkeys are around you. It gets rave reviews and we stayed for most of the day. The animals it has to be said gave the appearance of extreme boredom and frustration and I felt quite sorry for them.
The course of The River Turia was altered after a major flood in the 50’s. The new river runs west of the city flanked by a motorway. The old river, which is massive, deep and very wide between ancient walls, I can’t imagine how it flooded, has been turned into a park that is five miles long. There is an athletics track, football pitches, cycle paths, restaurants, numerous kids parks, ponds, fountains, loads of bridges, historic and modern. At the western end closest to the sea sits The City of Arts and Sciences – in the river bed. Where it meets the sea there is Valencia’s urban Formula One racetrack finishing in the massive marina built for The Americas Cup. The race track is in use as roadways complete with fully removable street furniture, kerbs, bollards, lights, islands and crossings, everything is just sat on the surface ready to be moved.
We found the beach almost by accident, we were desperate for food after putting in a lot of miles and the afternoon was ticking by. What a beach, 100’s of metres wide and stretching as far as the eye could see with a massive promenade. The hard thing was choosing, out of the dozens of restaurants, all next door to each other, all serving traditional Paella – rabbit and chicken – as well as seafood, we don’t eat seafood and it constituted 90% of the menu in most places. Every restaurant does a fixed price dish of the day, with a few choices, three courses and a drink. Some times this was our only meal besides making the most of the continental breakfast at the hotel. We had a fair few bar stops with the local wine being cheap and pleasant it would have been a shame not to, there would have been a one woman riot – or strike!
On our final day, a Sunday, we were out of bed and down for breakfast at 7.45 as usual, the place was deserted barring a waiter. We walked out of the door at 8.30 – in to the middle of a mass road race with many thousands of runners, one of a series that take place in Valencia – apparently! We struggled to find out the distance, possibly 10km. The finish was just around the corner so off we went with the camera gear, taking photos of random runners and groups. There was a TV crew filming it and some local celebrity (I think) commentating. Next we came across some sort of wandering religious and musical event. Some sort of ritual was played out over the course of Sunday morning in various locations, it involved catholic priests and religious buildings and another film crew. The Catholic tourists and locals were filling the (many) churches for Sunday mass. Amongst all of this we had seen men walking around in Arab style dress – the ones in black looked like the ones from ISIS currently beheading people – all carrying guns. A bit disconcerting. We assumed that there had been some sort of battle enactment. We were wrong, it hadn’t happened yet. A while later, about 11.30 we could hear banging, fireworks? No it was our friends with the guns. We were caught up in total mayhem, around 60 men randomly firing muskets with some sort of blank rounds, the noise, smoke and flames from the muzzles were incredible. We were about to climb the Torres de Serranos which is where, unbeknown to us, the grand, and deafening, finale was going to be. We could feel the blast in our faces on top of the tower. Yet again there was a film camera in attendance. I couldn’t get close ups but I got a good overview and shot my first video with the 5D, my first in 5 years of owning a DLSR with the capability. I usually use my phone ( I used my phone as well). Later in the day there was a bullfight taking place, the ring was almost next to our hotel, in the end we had other things to do and gave it a miss, it was certainly a busy Sunday in the city centre, whether it’s the norm or not I don’t know.
There is a tram system in Valencia but it goes from the port area into the newer part of the city on the north side, it wouldn’t be feasible to serve the historic old city really. A quick internet search told me that there are 55,000 university students in the city, a pretty big number. I think a lot of the campus is on the north side and served by the tram although there is a massive fleet of buses as well. There is a massive, very impressive market building , with 100’s of stalls that would make a photo project on its own, beautiful on the inside and out but very difficult to get decent photos of the exterior other than detail shots owing to the closeness of other buildings and the sheer size of it. Across town, another market has been beautifully renovated and is full of bars and restaurants and a bit of a destination in its own right.
A downside was the all too typical shafting by the taxi drivers who use every trick in the book to side step the official tariffs and rob you. The taxi from the airport had a “broken” meter and on the way home we were driven 22 km instead of the nine that is the actual distance. Some of them seem to view tourists as cash cows to be robbed at all costs. I emailed the Marriot hotel as they ordered the taxi, needless to say no answer from Marriot – they’ve had their money. We didn’t get the rip off treatment in the bars etc. that we experienced in Rome, prices are very fair on most things, certainly considering the city location.
All in all we had a good trip and can highly recommend Valencia.
Third in a set of five photos about the rapid evolution
of HaringAi - Haringey Council's Artificial Intelligence
Report-a-Problem online e-form.
________________________
Back in April 2008, I felt I'd begun to make friends with HaringAi.
Spotting this dumped vacuum cleaner I supplied my electronic chum with a street-name and a real house number. But like a small child, it kept asking for more information.
Realising its database was then at an early stage, I typed into the Council's webform:
"A vacuum cleaner is a domestic cleaning machine which uses suction to remove unwanted matter - for example, crumbs, dust, cat hairs etc - from household objects like furniture; and surfaces such as carpets and other flooring. This model - dumped on the pavement in Carew Road - can be easily spotted by its shiny cherry-red colour."
______________________
Third in a set of five photos
◄◄ First photo | | ◄ Second photo | | ► Fourth photo | | ►► Fifth photo & what HaringAi did next.
How to handle night time potty training problems www.pottytrainingchild.com/how-to-handle-night-time-potty...
You can also read more potty training tips at www.pottytrainingchild.com/
Starting to put out new needles
Topsail Hill Preserve State Park, FL
Repost due to an apparent file sync problem (grrr)
.....but a penguin ain't 1? This toy belongs to a 9 year old boy. What's he know 'bout 99 problems? I HOPE he means penguin considering the lyrics to the actual Jay-Z song and all.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the model, the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
The Dornier Do 319 was directly inspired by the (modest) successes experienced by the Messerschmitt Me 262 fighter, the world's first operational jet-powered fighter aircraft. Design work started before World War II began, but problems with engines, metallurgy and top-level interference kept the aircraft from operational status with the Luftwaffe until mid-1944.
However, when it became clear that the new jet engine carried the potential for aircraft that were faster than piston engine counterparts, the German Navy urged the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM) to develop an amphibian fighter, attack and reconnaissance aircraft. This was not to be a navalized Me 262 (which was regarded as impossible due to the aircraft’s layout with low wings and underslung engine nacelles, and added floats would have ruined the aircraft’s aerodynamics, too), but rather a dedicated single-seat jet aircraft. This new design was to be either operated from catapults (replacing the Marine’s standard on-board aircraft, the Arado Ar 196 floatplane) or, with foldable wings, from submarines with water-tight hangars. This concept had already been discussed in the mid-late 1930s, when German class III submarines were to be outfitted with such compartments – but at that time for small motorboats only, for covert landing operations, and no submarine was converted accordingly. But the concept still found a lot of attention.
Dornier was tasked with the development of such an aircraft, based on the experience gained with the Me 262 and its innovative means of propulsion. Dornier realized that the new turbojet engine presented an opportunity to overcome the drawback of floatplanes if it was possible to combine the light jet engine with a streamlined flying boat hull, which would impose only a small aerodynamic penalty. Such an aircraft could still be at least on par with piston-engine land-based aircraft.
Using aerodynamic research data from the Messerschmitt fighter, Dornier conceived a compact flying boat with shoulder-mounted gull wings, carried by a narrow pylon behind the single seat cockpit. The engine nacelles were placed on the wings’ upper sides, as far away from spray water as possible. Through this layout, however, stabilizer floats would have necessitated very long and draggy struts, and the relatively thin, swept wings did not allow a (favored) retracting mechanism.
As a consequence, the aircraft was designed with Dornier’s trademark stub-wing floats, which added uplift in both water and air and offered, despite a permanent drag penalty, a convenient amount of space for extra fuel and the wells for a fully retractable landing/beaching gear, which made the aircraft fully amphibious and independent from a beaching trolley. Armament consisted of four 30mm MK 108 machine guns in the aircraft’s nose section, and the aircraft’s main task would be ground attack, air defense and, as a secondary mission, fast tactical reconnaissance.
Dornier first presented the initial concept to the RLM in mid-1943. Performance with two Junkers Jumo 004 axial-flow turbojet engines was – naturally – lower than the clean Me 262 fighter, but still impressive. The Me 262 was supposed to achieve a maximum speed of 900 km/h (559 mph), while the Dornier aircraft, with basically the same engines, was expected to have a top speed of 520 mph at 40,000 ft. But this was still regarded as sufficient, and the project was officially given the RLM’s type number 319. Two prototypes were built (under the designation Do 319 A-0), the first one making its maiden flight in February 1944.
However, at that time the German navy had lost much of its power and sovereignty, and more and more resources had to be allocated to defense projects. As a consequence, the Do 319 as a combat aircraft (originally designated Do 319 A) became a secondary priority only, and the original aircraft was cancelled. Still, the small amphibious aircraft attained a lot of interest through the type’s potential as a fast reconnaissance plane and for special purpose transport duties – namely as a personal transport for high-ranking officials and for covert operations behind enemy lines and at foreign shores – was discovered and the type nevertheless ordered into small-scale production.
As a consequence and as an adaptation of the airframe to its new role, the Do 319’s design was modified: the fuselage behind the cockpit was widened into a compartment for passengers, cargo or other equipment. The cabin could hold up to two passengers, sitting vis-à-vis, and it was accessible through a watertight door on each side above the stub floats. The cabin was open to the cockpit in front of it, but the opening was blocked if the front passenger seat was in place. Alternatively, up to 300 kg (660 lb) of cargo or photo equipment could be carried, and one or both seats could also be replaced by internal auxiliary tanks. The provision for the Do 319 A’s cannon armament was retained, but the weapons were rarely mounted in order to save weight.
In this form, and now designated Do 319 B and christened “Seeschwalbe”, the aircraft entered service with the Luftwaffe and the Kriegsmarine on a limited scale. Most machines were exclusively assigned to staff units and reserved for special missions like liaison duties for high ranking officials, but they were also used in recce and other special missions. At least one Do 319 B was shot down over the American east coast, probably while deploying German agents from a submarine. How the aircraft with its limited range itself could come close to American shores remains a mystery until today, since Germany did not build or operate submarine aircraft carriers.
Production numbers remained low, though, reaching roundabout 20 aircraft (even this number is uncertain) until the end of the war, and no Do 319 survived the hostilities.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1 pilot plus up to 2 passengers
Length: 10.80 m (35 ft 4 1/2 in)
Wingspan: 12.60 m (41 ft 6 in)
Height: 3.78 m (12 ft 4 1/2 in)
Wing area: 26.8 m² (288 ft²)
Aspect ratio: 7.32
Empty weight: 4,120 kg (9,075 lb)
Loaded weight: 6,830 kg (15,044 lb)
Max. take-off weight: 7,385 kg (16,266 lb)
Powerplant:
2× Junkers Jumo 004 B-1 turbojets, 8.8 kN (1,980 lbf) each
Performance:
Maximum speed: 820 km/h (510 mph)
Range: 1,200 km (652 mi)
2,100 km (1,300 mi) with extra internal fuel cells
Service ceiling: 10,850 m (35,538 ft)
Rate of climb: 1,000 m/min (At max weight of 7,130 kg) (3,275 ft/min)
Armament:
Provisions for 4× 30 mm MK 108 cannon in the nose, but rarely mounted
The kit and its assembly:
Another entry for the “Flying Boat, Seaplane and Amphibian” Group Build at whatifmodelers.com in late 2017, and the result of a spontaneous inspiration from a drawing of a Luft’46/fantasy creation of a Me 262 fuselage with a planning bottom, a parasol(!) wing and a single jet engine exhausting right above the cockpit, and no (visible) stabilizing floats at all. Rather spurious.
Well, nevertheless, the Me 262 jet fighter has a very shark-like profile and shape, and it has already been converted into flying boats or even submarines by modelers, and I decided to create my personal interpretation of the theme. I remembered a lone He 115 float in my stash (maybe 35 years old or even more!), and when I held to a Me 262 fuselage the parts had almost the same length and width. So, creating a flying boat jet fighter seemed like a realistic task.
Things started straightforward with an 1:72 Smer Me 262 fighter, which is actually the vintage Heller two-seater night fighter with a new fuselage and canopy. My kit of choice would have been the Matchbox kit, but the Heller kit is also O.K., due to its simplicity and simple construction.
Creating something amphibian from a Me 262 is not a trivial task, though. With its low wings and underslung engine nacelles there’s a lot to be changed until you get a plausible floatplane. Another challenge is to integrate some form of stabilizer/outrigger floats, what also influences the wings’ position. Placing the engines where they are safe from spray ingestion is also a serious matter – you have to get the high and the intakes as far forward as possible.
Doing some legwork I found some similar builds, and they all did not convince me. And, after all, I wanted to create my own “design”; in order to incorporate some realism I eventually settled on Dornier’s typical WWII designs like the Do 18 and Do 24. These elegant aircraft had a common, elegant trait: low stub wings as stabilizer floats, paired with high wings (in the case of the Do 18 held by a massive central pylon) which carried the engine out of the water’s reach. This appeared like a feasible layout for my conversion, even though it would mean a total re-construction of the kit, or rather assembling it in a way that almost no part was glued into the intended place!
Work started with the cockpit, which had to be moved forward in order to make room for the wings behind the canopy, placed high on a pylon above the fuselage. For this stunt, the cockpit opening and the place in front of it (where the original front fuselage tank would be) were cut out and switched. The cockpit tub was moved forward and trimmed in order to fit into the new place. The nose section was filled with lead, because the stub wings/floats would allow a retractable landing gear to be added, too, making the aircraft a true amphibian!
The He 115 float was cut down in order to fit under the OOB Me 262 fuselage, and a front wheel well was integrated for a tricycle landing gear. Once the fuselage was closed, the planning bottom was added and the flanks sculpted with putty – lots of it.
In the meantime the Me 262 wing received a thorough re-arrangement, too. Not only were the engine nacelles moved to the upper wing surface (cutting the respective wing and intake sections of the nacelles off/out and turning them around 180°), the original connecting ventral wing part with the landing gear wells were turned upside down, too, the landing gear covers closed (with the respective OOB parts) and the inner wing sections modified into a gull wing, raising the engines even further. VERY complex task, and blending/re-shaping everything took a lot of PSR, too.
Under the central wing section I added a pylon left over from a Smer Curtiss SC Seahawk kit, because a massive Do 18-esque construction was out of question for a fast jet aircraft. The gaps were filled with putty, too.
In order to keep the stabilizers free from water spray they were moved upwards on the fin, too. The original attachment points were sanded away and hidden under putty, and the OOB stabilizers placed almost at the top at the fin.
Finding suitable stub wings/floats became a challenge: they have to be relatively thick (yielding buoyancy and also offering room for the retractable landing gear), but also short with not-so-rounded tips. It took a while until I found suitable donor parts in the form of the tips of an 1:32 AH-64 Apache (!) stabilizer! They were simply cut off, and openings for the main landing gear cut into their lower sides.
Once glued to the lower flanks and the stabilizers in place it was time to place the wing. In the meantime the moved cockpit had been blended to the fuselage, and initial tests indicated that the pylon would have to be placed right behind the canopy – actually on top of the end of the clear part. As a consequence the canopy was cut into pieces and its rear section integrated into the fuselage (more PSR).
However, the relatively thin and slender central pylon from the Curtiss SC indicated that some more struts would be necessary in order to ensure stability – very retro, and not really suited for a jet-powered aircraft. And the more I looked at the layout, the more I became convinced that the wings and engines were in a plausible position, but placed too high.
What started next were several sessions in which I shortened the pylon step by step, until I was satisfied with the overall proportions. This went so far that almost everything of the pylon had gone, and the wings almost rested directly on the Me 262’s spine!
However, this new layout offered the benefit of rendering the extra struts obsolete, since I decided to fill the small gap between wing and fuselage into a single, massive fairing. This would also mean more internal space, and consequently the original idea of a jet-powered combat aircraft was modified into a fast multi-purpose amphibian vehicle for special tasks, capable of transporting personnel behind enemy lines with a quick move.
More PSR, though, and after some finishing touches like a scratched landing gear (front leg/wheel from an Italeri Bae Hawk, main struts from a Mistercraft PZL Iskra trainer, wheels from an Academy OV-10 Bronco and with improvised covers), several antennae and mooring lugs made from wire, the aircraft was ready for painting. On the downside, though, almost any surface detail had been lost due to the massive, overall body sculpting – but the application of the light zigzag pattern helped to recreate some “illusionary” details like flaps or panel lines. ;-)
Painting and markings:
Originally, when the Seeschwalbe was still conceived as a fighter, the model was to receive a daylight scheme in typical German naval aircraft colors (RLM 72/73/65). But this plan changed when the aircraft’s role became a ‘special purpose’ transporter for covert operations.
Nocturnal operations appeared plausible, so that the scheme became much more murky: from above, a splinter scheme with RLM 73 and RLM 74 (naval dark green and dark, greenish grey, both from the ModelMaster Authentic enamel paint range) was applied as a basis, and the undersides became black – as if standard daylight colors had been overpainted, a frequent practice.
Since this black paint was made from soot, it easily wore away and many Luftwaffe machines with improvised black undersides quickly gained a rather shaggy look. I wanted to re-create this look, and built up the lower paint accordingly: In an initial step, RLM76 (I used Humbrol 87, which is a tad darker than the RLM tone, for less contrast with the black) was painted on the lower wing surfaces, the fuselage with a medium waterline and the fin. Once dry, the national marking decals were added. Then a coat of thinned Revell Acrylics 6 Tar Black was applied on top of the lower surfaces, including the lower decals, and later wet-sanded in order to reveal some of the grey underneath for a worn look.
In order to break up the aircraft’s outlines, esp. at low altitude, a disruptive meander pattern in light grey (RLM 76) was painted on top of the upper surfaces. For this task, I thinned Humbrol’s 247 enamel and used a simple brush, painting the curls free-handedly. The finish looks pretty convincing, and it mimics well the technique with which those improvised patterns were applied in the field in real life: quickly, with anything at hand. The way the finish turned out, the pattern could have been applied with a broad brush – the use of a spray gun was rather uncommon, and IMHO the use of an airbrush on a model to recreate such a zigzag pattern rarely leads to convincing results?
This pattern was painted tightly around all the upper markings, and the markings themselves were kept at a minimum. For instance, the tactical code only comprises the aircraft’s individual letter “Blue O” behind the fuselage cross, which indicates an air staff machine. This would, following the official German squadron code system, be confirmed by an “A”, following as a fourth digit. The squadron’s code (“P7”, which is fictional, just like the aircraft’s sea reconnaissance squadron itself) was omitted, too. Such minimal markings became a frequent practice towards the final war stages, though, and it fits the aircraft’s special duty role well. The only individual marking is a squadron badge under the cockpit – lent from an Italian night fighter and placed on a dark blue disc. Another, subtle indicator for the aircraft’s operator are the blue air intake center bodies, repeating the staff flight’s blue color code.
Only some light weathering was done, with dry-brushed light grey on the leading edges, and finally the kit was sealed with matt acrylic varnish (Italeri). In a final step, some very light dry-brushing with aluminum was done on some of the fuselage edges, esp. the spray dams, and the position lights were painted with translucent paint over a silver base.
A messy project, in many ways, but I am happy with result. Most stunning is IMHO the fact that all major parts for this compact flying boat actually come from a single, simple Me 262 kit – but visually there’s not much of the left from the jet fighter. But it’s also amazing that the proportions look right, and the whole thing quite plausible and Dornier-esque! Turned out better than expected.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!
Some Background:
The Hawker Typhoon was a British single-seat fighter-bomber, produced by Hawker Aircraft. It was intended to be a medium-high altitude interceptor, as a replacement for the Hawker Hurricane, but several design problems were encountered and it never completely satisfied this requirement.
Even before Hurricane production began in March 1937, Sydney Camm had embarked on designing its successor. Two preliminary designs were similar and were larger than the Hurricane. These later became known as the "N" and "R" (from the initial of the engine manufacturers), because they were designed for the newly developed Napier Sabre and Rolls-Royce Vulture engines respectively. Both engines used 24 cylinders and were designed for over 2,000 hp (1,500 kW); the difference between the two was primarily in the arrangement of the cylinders – an H-block in the Sabre and an X-block in the Vulture. Hawker submitted these preliminary designs in July 1937 but were advised to wait until a formal specification for a new fighter was issued.
In March 1938, Hawker received from the Air Ministry, Specification F.18/37 for a fighter which would be able to achieve at least 400 mph (640 km/h) at 15,000 feet (4,600 m) and specified a British engine with a two-speed supercharger. The armament fitted was to be twelve 0.303” Browning machine guns with 500 rounds per gun, with a provision for alternative combinations of weaponry. The basic design of the Typhoon was a combination of traditional Hawker construction, as used in the earlier Hawker Hurricane, and more modern construction techniques; the front fuselage structure, from the engine mountings to the rear of the cockpit, was made up of bolted and welded duralumin or steel tubes covered with skin panels, while the rear fuselage was a flush-riveted, semi-monocoque structure. The forward fuselage and cockpit skinning was made up of large, removable duralumin panels, allowing easy external access to the engine and engine accessories and most of the important hydraulic and electrical equipment.
The Typhoon’s service introduction in mid-1941 was plagued with problems and for several months the aircraft faced a doubtful future. When the Luftwaffe brought the new Focke-Wulf Fw 190 into service in 1941, the Typhoon was the only RAF fighter capable of catching it at low altitudes; as a result it secured a new role as a low-altitude interceptor.
By 1943, the RAF needed a ground attack fighter more than a "pure" fighter and the Typhoon was suited to the role (and less-suited to the pure fighter role than competing aircraft such as the Spitfire Mk IX). The powerful engine allowed the aircraft to carry a load of up to two 1,000 pounds (450 kg) bombs, equal to the light bombers of only a few years earlier. Furthermore, from early 1943 the wings were plumbed and adapted to carry cylindrical 45 imp gal (200 l; 54 US gal) drop tanks increasing the Typhoon's range from 690 miles (1,110 km) to up to 1,090 miles (1,750 km). This enabled Typhoons to range deep into France, the Netherlands and Belgium.
From September 1943, Typhoons were also armed with four "60 lb" RP-3 rockets under each wing. Although the rocket projectiles were inaccurate and took considerable skill to aim and allow for ballistic drop after firing, "the sheer firepower of just one Typhoon was equivalent to a destroyer's broadside".
By the end of 1943, eighteen rocket-equipped Typhoon squadrons formed the basis of the RAF Second Tactical Air Force (2nd TAF) ground attack arm in Europe. In theory, the rocket rails and bomb-racks were interchangeable; in practice, to simplify supply, some used the rockets only, while other squadrons were armed exclusively with bombs, what also allowed individual units to more finely hone their skills with their assigned weapons.
The Typhoon was initially exclusively operated in the European theatre of operations, but in 1944 it was clear that a dedicated variant might become useful for the RAF’s operations in South-East Asia. In the meantime, Hawker had also developed what was originally an improved Typhoon II, but the differences between it and the Mk I were so great that it was effectively a different aircraft, and it was renamed the Hawker Tempest. However, as a fallback option and as a stopgap filler for the SEAC, Hawker also developed the Typhoon Mk. IV, a tropicalized late Mk. I with a bubble canopy and powered by the new Bristol Centaurus radial engine that could better cope with high ambient temperatures than the original liquid-cooled Sabre engine. The Centaurus IV chosen for the Typhoon Mk. IV also offered slightly more power than the Sabre and the benefit of reduced vulnerability to small arms fire at low altitude, since the large and vulnerable chin cooler could be dispensed with.
3,518 Typhoons of all variants were eventually built, 201 of them late Mk. IVs, almost all by Gloster. Once the war in Europe was over Typhoons were quickly removed from front-line squadrons; by October 1945 the Typhoon was no longer in operational use, with many of the wartime Typhoon units such as 198 Squadron being either disbanded or renumbered.
The SEAC’s few operational Mk IVs soldiered on, however, were partly mothballed after 1945 and eventually in 1947 handed over or donated to regional nascent air forces after their countries’ independence like India, Pakistan or Burma, where they served as fighters and fighter bombers well into the Sixties.
The Burmese Air Force; initially only called “The military”, since there was no differentiation between the army’s nascent servies, was founded on 16 January 1947, while Burma (as Myanmar was known until 1989) was still under British rule. By 1948, the fleet of the new air force included 40 Airspeed Oxfords, 16 de Havilland Tiger Moths, four Austers, and eight Typhoon Mk. IVs as well as three Supermarine Spitfires transferred from the Royal Air Force and had a few hundred personnel.
The Mingaladon Air Base HQ, the main air base in the country, was formed on 16 June 1950. No.1 Squadron, Equipment Holding Unit and Air High Command - Burma Air Force, and the Flying Training School, were placed under the jurisdiction of the base. A few months later, on 18 December 1950, No. 2 Squadron was formed with nine Douglas Dakotas as a transport squadron. In 1953, the Advanced Flying Unit was formed under the Mingaladon Air Base with de Havilland Vampire T55s, and by the end of 1953 the Burmese Air Force had three main airbases, at Mingaladon, Hmawbi, and Meiktila, in central Burma.
In 1953, the Burmese Air Force bought 30 Supermarine Spitfires from Israel and 20 Supermarine Seafires as well as 22 more Typhoon Mk. IVs from the United Kingdom. In 1954 it bought 40 Percival Provost T-53s and 8 de Havilland Vampire Mark T55s from the United Kingdom and two years later, in 1956, the Burmese Air Force bought 10 Cessna 180 aircraft from the United States. The same year, 6 Kawasaki Bell 47Gs formed its first helicopter unit. The following year, the Burmese Air Force procured 21 Hawker Sea Fury aircraft from the United Kingdom and 9 de Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otters from Canada. In 1958, it procured 7 additional Kawasaki Bell 47Gs and 12 Vertol H-21 Shawnees from the United States. Five years later, No. 503 Squadron Group was formed with No. 51 Squadron (de Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otters and Cessna 180s) and No. 53 Squadron (Bell 47Gs, Kaman HH-43 Huskies, and Aérospatiale Alouettes) in Meiktila.
When the non-Burman ethnic groups pushed for autonomy or federalism, alongside having a weak civilian government at the center, the military leadership staged a coup d'état in 1962, and this was the only conflict in which the aging Burmese Typhoons became involved. On 2 March 1962, the military led by General Ne Win took control of Burma through a coup d'état, and the government had been under direct or indirect control by the military since then. Between 1962 and 1974, Myanmar was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by the general. Almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalized or brought under government control under the Burmese Way to Socialism, which combined Soviet-style nationalization and central planning, and also meant the end of operation of many aircraft of Western origin, including the last surviving Burmese Typhoons, which were probably retired by 1964. The last piston engine fighters in Burmese service, the Hawker Sea Furies, are believed to have been phased out in 1968.
General characteristics:
Crew: One
Length: 32 ft 6 in (9.93 m)
Wingspan: 41 ft 7 in (12.67 m)
Height: 15 ft 4 in (4.67 m)
Wing area: 279 sq ft (25.9 m²)
Airfoil: root: NACA 2219; tip: NACA 2213
Empty weight: 8,840 lb (4,010 kg)
Gross weight: 11,400 lb (5,171 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 13,250 lb (6,010 kg) with two 1,000 lb (450 kg) bombs
Powerplant:
1× Bristol Centaurus IV 18-cylinder air-cooled radial engine with 2,210 hp (1,648 kW) take-off
power, driving a 4-bladed Rotol constant-speed propeller
Performance:
Maximum speed: 412 mph (663 km/h, 358 kn) at 19,000 ft (5,800 m)
Stall speed: 88 mph (142 km/h, 76 kn)
Range: 510 mi (820 km, 440 nmi) with two 500 lb (230 kg) bombs;
690 mi (1,110 km) "clean";
1,090 mi (1,750 km) with two 45 imp gal (200 l; 54 US gal) drop tanks.[65]
Service ceiling: 35,200 ft (10,700 m)
Rate of climb: 2,740 ft/min (13.9 m/s)
Wing loading: 40.9 lb/sq ft (200 kg/m²)
Power/mass: 0.20 hp/lb (0.33 kW/kg)
Armament:
4× 20 mm (0.787 in) Hispano Mk II cannon in the outer wings with 200 rpg
Underwing hardpoints for 8× RP-3 unguided air-to-ground rockets,
or 2× 500 lb (230 kg) or 2× 1,000 lb (450 kg) bombs or a pair of drop tanks
The kit and its assembly:
The Hawker Typhoon is IMHO an overlooked WWII aircraft, and it’s also “underwiffed”. I have actually built no single Typhoon in my 45 years of model kit building - time to change that!
Inspiration was a lot of buzz in the model kit builder community after KP’s launch of several Hawker Tempest kits, with all major variants including the Sabre- and Centaurus-powered types. While the Tempest quickly outpaced the Typhoon in real life and took the glory, I wondered about a Centaurus-powered version for the SEA theatre of operations – similar to the Tempest Mk. II, which just came too late to become involved in the conflict against the Japanese forces. A similar Typhoon variant could have arrived a couple of months earlier, though.
Technically, this conversion is just an Academy Hawker Typhoon Mk Ib (a late variant without the “car door”, a strutless bubble canopy and a four-blade propeller) mated with the optional Centaurus front end from a Matchbox Hawker Tempest. Sounds simple, but there are subtle dimensional differences between the types/kits, and the wing roots of the Matchbox kit differ from the Academy kit, so that the engine/fuselage intersection as well as the wing roots called for some tailoring and PSR. However, the result of this transplantation stunt looked better and more natural than expected! Since I did not want to add extra fairings for air carburetor and oil cooler to the Wings (as on the Tempest), I gave the new creation a generous single fairing for both under the nose – the space between the wide landing gear wells offered a perfect location, and I used a former Spitfire radiator as donor part. The rest, including the unguided missiles under the wings was ordnance, was taken OOB, and the propeller (from the Academy kit) received an adapter consisting of styrene tubes to match it with the Matchbox kit’s engine and its opening for the propeller axis.
Painting and markings:
This was initially a challenge since the early Burmese aircraft were apparently kept in bare metal or painted in silver overall. This would certainly have looked interesting on a Typhoon, too – but then I found a picture of a Spitfire (UB 421) at Myanmar's Air Force Museum at Naypyidaw, which carries camouflage – I doubt that it is authentic, though, at least the colors, which markedly differ from RAF Dark Green/Dark Earth and the bright blue undersides also look rather fishy. But it was this paint scheme that I adapted for my Burmese Typhoon with Modelmaster 2027 (FS 34096, B-52 Dark Green, a rather greyish and light tone) and 2107 (French WWII Chestnut, a reddish, rich chocolate brown tone) from above and Humbrol 145 (FS 35237, USN Gray Blue) below – a less garish tone.
As usual, the model received a black ink washing and post-panel-shading for dramatic effect; the cockpit interior became very dark grey (Revell 06 Anthracite) while the landing gear became Medium Sea Grey (Humbrol 165), as a reminder of the former operator of the aircraft and its painting standards. The red spinner as well as the red-and-white-checkered rudder were inspired by Burmese Hawker Sea Furies, a nice contrast to the camouflage. It's also a decal, from a tabletop miniatures accessory sheet. This contrast was furthermore underlined through the bright and colorful national markings, which come from a Carpena decal sheet for exotic Spitfires, just the tactical code was changed.
After some signs of wear with dry-brushed silver and some graphite soot stains around the exhausts and the guns the model was sealed with matt acrylic varnish.
Voilà, a whiffy Hawker Typhoon – and it looks better than expected. Not only does the brawny Centaurus look good on the rather burly Typhoon, the transplantation worked out better than expected, too. However, with the radial engine the Typhoon looks even more like an Fw 190 on steroids?
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You can read more about my $2 Portrait Project here.
Earlier today while shooting Derek up in the Tenderloin District, I ran into Frida. Frida asked if she could sit for a portrait as well and I told her more about my $2 Portrait Project and she said ok.
Frida was born and raised in San Francisco. I asked Frida if she had any kids and she told me she did. She said she had 11 of them. The oldest one was 26 she said and the youngest was 6. She also said she had 10 grandkids.
Frida told me that one of her sons had just almost been killed last month but that God saved him. She said that he was shot in a case of mistaken identity by someone when he was coming out of his house. Thank God he saved him for us she said. I asked Frida if she saw her children a lot and she smiled back and said every day.
Frida told me that she had her 11 different children with 3 different men. Two were Puerto Rican, she added. Frida told me that all three of the men were dead now.
Frida and I talked a bit about her being out on the street. She told me that she had had an alcohol problem but that she was over it now and better. She told me that it was hard work being out on the street. She said that a lot of people will just rush right past her saying "get a job." She said what they didn't understand was that this *was* her job. That asking people for money is a lot of hard work. Especially for a woman she added. "All the time men are coming up to me and saying 'Hey Baby,'" she told me.
I told Frida that I had four kids and she smiled and asked if they were all with the same woman. I told her they were and she laughed and said, oh well, not me.
Frida was a friendly woman who smiled a lot. She seemed very happy with her life and very proud of her children.
Caen (prononciation : /ˈkɑ̃/3) est une commune française du Nord-Ouest4 de la France en Normandie. Préfecture du département du Calvados, elle était jusqu'au 1er janvier 2016 le chef-lieu de l'ancienne région Basse-Normandie. Depuis 2016, elle est le siège du conseil régional de Normandie et donc la capitale politique de la région tandis que Rouen avec le siège de la préfecture (chef-lieu) est la capitale administrative. La Normandie présente donc, à l'instar de la Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, la particularité de posséder une gouvernance « bicéphale ».
Elle est nommée la « Ville aux cent clochers », comme Rouen. Ses habitants sont appelés les Caennais (/ka.ˈnɛ/ ou /ka.ˈne/)5.
Cité de Guillaume le Conquérant et capitale du duché de Normandie avec Rouen, la ville a hérité d’un très riche patrimoine architectural en partie détruit lors de la bataille de Caen. La ville a gardé la mémoire de ce moment clé de la Seconde Guerre mondiale en édifiant notamment un Mémorial pour la Paix, célèbre dans le monde pour les cérémonies de commémorations qui y ont lieu.
Du fait de son positionnement dans la recherche (avec le Ganil par exemple), de l'ancienneté de son université (fondée en 1432 après celles de Paris et Montpellier), de sa grande richesse culturelle (ville d'Europe la plus pourvue en librairies indépendantes et agglomération française la plus dotée en équipements culturels rapportés au nombre d'habitants) et de son caractère festif, Caen est souvent considérée comme étant la capitale culturelle et intellectuelle de la Normandie.
Peuplée intra-muros de 105 512 habitantsNote 1, Caen est la commune la plus peuplée du département du Calvados. La ville se situe ainsi en 39e position de toutes les communes de la France métropolitaine et se classe au 40e rang en ce qui concerne le territoire français pris en totalité (métropole et outre-mer). Elle est au centre d'une agglomération de 200 230 habitants (3e après Rouen et Le Havre) et à la tête d'une aire urbaine de 419 974 habitants (2e de la région après celle de Rouen et au 22e rang national). Elle est le siège de la communauté urbaine Caen la Mer, qui avec 268 476 habitants, est le second plus important établissement public de coopération intercommunale de Normandie après la Métropole Rouen Normandie.
Étymologie
On dispose de peu de sources sur la fondation de la ville de Caen et l’origine de son nom. Les hypothèses anciennes sur la question ont été multiples et la plupart du temps farfelues. Par exemple, celle qui considère que « Caen » puisse être une altération du saxon, sans doute *Gatehēm « maison de la barrière », si l'on reconstitue un étymon plausibleNote 5, en partant du fait historique que Caen aurait été un lieu de péage. Or, il s'agit d'un point de vue qui ne relève pas de l'analyse toponymique.
Seules les attestations anciennes permettent d'étudier un toponyme et d'organiser un corpus cohérent, c'est-à-dire conforme à l'évolution phonétique connue des langues d'oïl, à savoir pour Caen : Cadomo > Cadon pour *Cadom (chute de la voyelle finale -o) > Cathum pour *Cathom (lénition [d] en [ð] à l'intervocalique) > Cathem > Cahem (amuïssement de [ð] et passage de [o] à [ə]). Cette évolution est comparable à celle de Rouen, mentionné à une époque ancienne comme Ratomagos, Rotomagus, puis Rodomo > Rothom > Rothem > Rohem. D'autres Ruan, Rouans, etc. offrent des formes comparables ou encore Condom issu de Condatomagus avec traitement occitan des consonnes [d] [t].
Un élément -magus est identifié avec certitude dans les exemples précédents, il représente le celtique (gaulois) magos > magus « champ, marché » (cf. vieil irlandais mag « plaine »). Il est vraisemblable qu'on le retrouve aussi dans Caen étant donné la similarité des formes postérieures de Caen et de ces exemples. En revanche, le premier élément de Caen est radicalement différent. Il s'explique probablement aussi par le gaulois. La plupart des toponymistes proposent catu- « bataille, combat »43,44,45 attesté, entre autres, dans le nom du peuple gaulois des Caturiges. Le vieux celtique catu- a évolué en celtique insulaire comme en ancien français (lénition de [t] en [d]), d'où le gallois cad « combat, troupe », le breton kad, l'irlandais cath « combat »46 et cad- en ancien français, d'où les formes Cadon, Cadomo.
La signification globale du toponyme Catumagos est donc « champ de combat », c'est-à-dire peut-être « terrain d'exercice au combat », ou « champ de bataille ».
Homonymie avec Cahan (Orne) et Cahon (Somme)46.
Histoire
De la Préhistoire au Haut Moyen Âge
Il existait sur le site de la ville de Caen des petits noyaux d'habitats préhistoriques dispersés sur les bords de l'Odon et sur les hauteurs.
Au début de l'âge du Fer, des constructions s'implantent dans le secteur de Beaulieu47.
Du Ier au IIIe siècle, un bourg s'est développé à l'emplacement de l’actuelle abbaye aux Hommes à proximité d'une voie romaine reliant Augustodurum (Bayeux) à Noviomagus (Lisieux). Ce bourg n'était qu'un vicus sans fonctions politiques ou administratives, ce rôle étant attribué à Aregenua, capitale des Viducasses située à une quinzaine de kilomètres au sud de Caen. Sa vocation était essentiellement artisanale. Le bourg connait de profonds changements au IIIe siècle. À partir de 275, les invasions barbares mettent fin à la prospérité antérieure et désorganisent les réseaux commerciaux. On constate que le bourg artisanal se tourne progressivement vers les activités agricoles. À la même époque, la transgression marine dunkerquienne provoque une montée progressive des eaux qui a pour conséquence une multiplication des inondations. À la fin du IIIe siècle, les bâtiments sont laissés au marécage qui progresse et les habitants se déplacent vers le coteau légèrement plus au nord48.
Aregenua perd de son importance et l'actuel territoire de Caen passe sous l'influence d'Augustodurum. Au VIIe siècle, des missionnaires venus de Bayeux, notamment saint Regnobert de Bayeux, fondent des oratoires, entourés de leur cimetière, le long de l'ancienne voie romaine au centre de petits villages isolés dans la vallée de l'Orne et de l'Odon. Les invasions normandes viennent interrompre cet essor pré-urbain.
Caen sous les ducs de Normandie
Articles détaillés : Château de Caen et fortifications de Caen.
Au Xe siècle, un nouvel essor urbain accompagne le grand redémarrage du duché de Normandie. Les paroisses Saint-Étienne, Saint-Sauveur, Saint-Georges, Saint-Gilles49 et probablement Saint-Michel-de-Vaucelles sont fondées à cette époque. Le bourg de Caen (burgus Cadomus) est attesté depuis le règne du duc Richard II (996-1026)50. Une ville, constituée de plusieurs noyaux, commence à se structurer sur l'axe reliant Saint-Pierre à Saint-Martin en passant par Saint-Sauveur. Au début du XIe siècle, le premier texte se référant à Caen, la charte de l’abbaye de Fécamp, la décrit ainsi « la ville qui s'appelle Cathim, sur la rivière Orne, de part et d'autre, avec ses églises, ses vignes, ses prés, ses moulins, avec le marché, le tonlieu et le port, et toutes ses dépendances ».
Ce mouvement urbain est confirmé et accru au XIe siècle par la politique de Guillaume le Conquérant et de son épouse Mathilde de Flandre. En 1047, après sa victoire à la bataille du Val-ès-Dunes, le duc de Normandie organise le concile de la Trêve de Dieu sur la rive droite de l'Orne vers Vaucelles51 et fait construire en 1061 la chapelle Sainte-Paix, alors sur le territoire de Mondeville, pour recueillir des reliques de saints amenées pour cette occasion. Le couple ducal fonde également deux grandes abbayes à l'est et à l'ouest du tissu urbain existant dans lesquelles ils se feront inhumer, en 1083 dans l'abbaye aux Dames pour Mathilde de Flandre et, en 1087 dans l'abbaye aux Hommes pour Guillaume le Conquérant. Surtout, il fait édifier vers 1060 une vaste forteresse, qui n'est encore qu'un vaste camp clos de murs, entre ses deux abbayes, au sommet de l'éperon calcaire dominant la vallée de l'Orne, dans lequel le duc et sa cour résideront régulièrement, et dote le bourg en plein développement d'une enceinte urbaine englobant le noyau central de l’agglomération naissante entre Saint-Étienne-le-Vieux et Saint-Pierre (Bourg-le-Duc)52.
D'un gros bourg de constitution anarchique, Caen devient une ville majeure et la seconde capitale de la Normandie, au détriment de Bayeux, pourtant ville épiscopale, qui voit sa prééminence rapidement remise en cause. Le choix de Guillaume est guidé par sa volonté d'une capitale positionnée au centre du duché, et surtout à vise à imposer son pouvoir dans cette partie orientale de la Normandie, terres indociles dont était issue les conjurés de 1046. Ainsi, c'est dans la cité développée par leur père que Guillaume le Roux, roi d'Angleterre, et son frère aîné, Robert Courteheuse, duc de Normandie, signent en 1091 le traité de Caen censé régler les querelles de succession. La ville poursuit son développement sous Robert Courteheuse qui fait creuser un canal entre l'Orne et l'Odon formant ainsi l'île Saint-Jean ; ce bras d'eau, appelé canal Robert, a pour effet d'assainir ce terrain marécageux, d'offrir une protection face aux agressions extérieures et d'ouvrir un bief permettant l'érection de moulins. Son frère, Henri Ier Beauclerc, qui s'empare du royaume d'Angleterre en 1100 et du duché de Normandie six ans plus tard, fait aménager le château en construisant un donjon et une nouvelle salle d'apparat (actuelle salle de l'Échiquier). Selon le chroniqueur Robert de Torigni, en 1123, Henri Beauclerc « fait édifier un grand donjon dans le château de Caen, et surélever l'enceinte que son père y avait fait construire ». C'est lui également qui établit l'Échiquier de Normandie alors que sa chambre des comptes siégeait dans un bâtiment, aujourd'hui disparu, rue Saint-Jean, et sa chambre de justice dans la grande salle romane, et fait clore de canaux et de murs le nouveau faubourg de la ville, l'île Saint-Jean52.
En 1203, Jean sans Terre affranchit la commune de Caen qui peut alors se doter d’un beffroi, d’une cloche, d’un sceau et d’un hôtel de ville, bâti sur le pont Saint-Pierre. Au cours de l’incorporation du duché à la France par le roi Philippe II Auguste, Caen tombe le 21 mai 1204, avant Rouen. Le roi de France maintient les droits municipaux et remanie profondément les défenses du château, avec notamment la construction de la chemise du donjon.
Guerre de Cent Ans
Édouard III d'Angleterre lors de sa chevauchée qu'il mènera à travers la Normandie, le Vexin, le Beauvaisis, le Vimeu, le Ponthieu, le Boulonnais et le Calaisis, après avoir débarqué le 12 juillet 1346 à Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue dans la baie de Morsalines, est le 26 juillet aux portes de la ville dont les fortifications sont médiocres et comble de malchance les eaux de l'Orne et de l'Odon sont très basses qu'elles peuvent être franchies à gué. Le capitaine de la place Robert de Warignies s'enferme dans la citadelle alors que Raoul de Brienne, connétable de France, avec ses chevaliers se rendent au comte de Kent, Thomas de Hollande53. La ville est pillée et brûlé pendant trois joursNote 6. Pressé de gagner la Picardie Édouard III n'assiège pas le château, et peu après son départ la garnison française reprend la ville53. Dans les années qui suivirent, tirant la leçon, la ville et ses deux abbayes s'enferment dans de solides remparts. Ils permettront de détourner les chevauchées d'Henri de Lancastre et de Charles le Mauvais, malgré quelques faiblesse dont la division en trois bourgs : Bourg-le-Roi, bien fortifié, l'île Saint-Jean, médiocrement, et l'Île-aux-Prés (place de la République) pas du tout et la présence aux deux extrémités du bourg des deux abbayes qui peuvent servir de retranchement dans le cas où elles seraient prises. C'est de Caen que Bertrand du Guesclin, connétable de France, qui a fait de la ville son quartier général, part, en 1373, reconquérir le pays, Normandie, Guyenne, Saintonge et Poitou. Sa statue, par Arthur Le Duc, orne la place Saint-Martin55.
Durand l'été 1417, la ville après avoir été isolée, est de nouveau assiégée et oppose pendant dix-sept jours une résistance héroïque face à Henri V56 qui a débarqué le 1er août à l'embouchure de la Touques avec une armée forte de 10 000 hommes57, alors que Caen dispose seulement d'une centaine d'arbalétriers à cheval, vingt-deux dizainiers et leur demi-millier de fantassins, la milice bourgeoise et la garnison du château aux ordres du sire de Montenay comprenant cent hommes d'armes et un corps d'archer génois55.
L’envahisseur anglais massacre 2 000 bourgeois, pille et traite les survivants en rebelles à « leur » roi. La région de Caen sera le lieu d’une très vive résistance à l’occupant anglais qui y procédera à un grand nombre d’exécutions de résistants entre 1418 et 1450.
La fondation, en 1432, de l’université de Caen fait partie des mesures de Jean de Lancastre, duc de Bedford, régent de Normandie, afin de tenter de se concilier la population caennaise. La fin de l’année 1434 voit un soulèvement commandé par Jean de Chantepie. Après la bataille de Formigny, Dunois avec une partie de l'armée française met le siège devant la ville le 4 juin 1450. Charles VII vient en personne à l'abbaye d'Ardenne commander les opérations. Le 1er juillet, le duc de Somerset, Edmond Beaufort, capitaine du château, et Richard Harrington, grand bailli de Caen, remettent la forteresse à Dunois avec la somme de 300 000 écus d'or, pour les frais de siège et embarquent à Ouistreham58.
Le 6 juillet Charles VII fait son entrée solennelle dans la ville, escorté de René d'Anjou, roi de Sicile, du connétable de Richemont Arthur III de Bretagne, des comtes de Clermont et de Dunois58. La Normandie redevenue française, Charles VII récompensera la ville de sa « fidélité et loyauté » en confirmant tous ses privilèges et libertés en 1458 (confirmation de la Charte aux Normands).
Après avoir réuni, à Tours, les représentants des villes marchandes du royaume le 20 octobre 1470, Louis XI autorise, en novembre, un établissement des foires à Caen, par ses lettres patentes59. L'objectif étant de favoriser la croissance du commerce en Normandie et de ralentir la fuite de devises, liée notamment à la puissance des foires de Bruges et d'Anvers.
XVIe siècle
Les protestants, prennent le contrôle de la ville en avril 1562, leur iconoclasme s'en prend, entre autres, au tombeau de Guillaume le Conquérant et de la reine Mathilde. Le service catholique est suspendu. Gabriel Ier de Montgommery, chef des huguenots de Normandie, après s’être enfui de Rouen et avoir rassemblé des nouvelle troupes au Havre s'empare de la ville. Arrivé à Caen en décembre 1562, le chef du parti huguenot, l'amiral de Coligny, ordonne, avant son départ le 19 mars 1563, la démolition, « afin d'avoir le profit qui se tireroit des plombs ont elle étoit couverte », de l'abbaye aux Hommes dont le chartrier est brûlé. En 1584, la peste fait 10 000 victimes à Caen. Le Parlement de Normandie et la Cour des Aides et la Chambre des Comptes sont déplacés à Caen de janvier 1589 à avril 1594 à la suite du soulèvement de Rouen contre le roi ; les parlementaires fidèles au roi se rendant à Caen60.
XVIIe siècle
La Révolte des va-nu-pieds amorcée à Caen le 13 août 1639 fut menée par un certain Bras-Nus se donnant le grade de colonel de l’armée souffrante ; il finit roué. Prudemment restée à l’écart des troubles de la Fronde, Caen va voir la création de l’Académie des sciences, arts et belles-lettres de Caen et de la première Académie de Physique de France qui lui acquerra une réputation de capitale des beaux esprits et le surnom d'« Athènes normande ».
Au XVIIe siècle, la croissance démographique et l'essor économique que connait la ville sous le règne personnel de Louis XIV obligent la ville à lancer de grandes opérations d’urbanisme afin de régler les problèmes posés par la congestion de la circulation et la pression démographique. Entre 1629 et 1635, la ville fait détruire les maisons qui se trouvaient entre le carrefour Saint-Pierre et le Châtelet et déplacer la partie du cimetière de l’église Saint-Pierre qui se trouvait derrière ces maisons. La place Saint-Pierre est ainsi formée dans le deuxième quart du XVIIe siècle. La ville, trop à l’étroit dans ses murailles, finit par repousser ces frontières en investissant les Petits près. Entre 1609 et 1603, la ville fait abattre des maisons pour transformer en rue une simple venelle servant à conduire les chevaux à l’abreuvoir sur le Grand Odon et, en 1626, un pont sur l’Odon est construit au bout de la rue des Jésuites (actuelle rue Saint-Laurent). En 1635-1637, la ville lance une importante opération d’urbanisme consistant à aménager une grande place carrée entourée de maisons construites en pierre de taille sur un alignement déterminé. Cette place royale (actuelle place de la République) est terminée par l’érection du séminaire des Eudistes et de son église dédiée aux Très Saints Cœurs de Jésus et Marie entre 1664 et 1703. Non loin de la place Royale, les Jésuites, installés au collège du Mont en 1609, se font ériger l’église Sainte-Catherine-des-Arts (actuelle église Notre-Dame-de-la-Gloriette) entre 1684 et 1689. Des promenades publiques arborées sont aménagées dans la Prairie le long de l’Orne et du canal Robert ; le cours-la-Reine (actuel cours Général-de-Gaulle) est planté en 1676 et le cours de l’Orne (actuel cours Kœnig) en 1691.
Pour préserver l'orthodoxie catholique et stimuler la foi, les ordres de la Contre-Réforme, soutenus par les autorités royales, multiplient les fondations d’églises, de couvents et de monastères destinés à accueillir les formes rajeunies de la piété. De nombreuses congrégations s’installent donc à Caen : Jésuites, Carmélites, Ursulines, Visitation. Jean Eudes fonde à Caen la congrégation de Jésus et Marie (Eudistes) et l'ordre de Notre-Dame de Charité. La révocation de l’Édit de Nantes s'accompagnent de nombreuses persécutions : destruction du temple, internement aux Nouveaux et Nouvelles Catholiques… Ces représailles forcèrent de nombreux Caennais protestants refusant d'abjurer, riches marchands et industriels pour la plupart, à l'exil. L’émigration atteignit les proportions d’un véritable dépeuplement et le commerce de la province en fut ruinéNote 7. Un rapport de l’intendant Foucauld adressé au ministre Pontchartrain qui voulait établir une juridiction consulaire à Caen, affirme l’impossibilité de recruter un semblable tribunal en cette ville : « La plupart des marchands de Caen, étant « religionnaires », ont quitté le royaume ; ceux qui y sont restés sont passés à Paris ou à Rouen, et le commerce est à présent « peu de chose à Caen. » L'absolutisme louis-quatorzien mit également fin aux franchises municipales dont jouissait Caen en supprimant les élections municipales et en transformant les offices d’échevin des nobles, des bourgeois et des marchands en charges vénales.
XVIIIe siècle
Caen vit, en 1713, 1715 et 1725, des émeutes liées à la cherté du pain.
Le 30 décembre 1775, se produit un des plus violents séismes qu'ait connu la Normandie. L'intensité à l'épicentre situé dans la région de Caen est estimé à VII sur l'échelle MSK. Toutes les maisons de la ville ont été agitées, de nombreux dégâts sont signalés61.
À la Révolution, le procureur-syndic Georges Bayeux et le commandant de la place Henri de Belzunce furent massacrés par la foule. En 1793, la section caennaise des Jacobins de Caen rompit ses attaches avec ceux de Paris. Nombre de Girondins cherchant refuge à Caen lors de leur chute, celle-ci devint le centre des insurrections fédéralistes auxquelles se joignit la société caennaise des Carabots. C'est le faible recrutement des armées fédéralistes qui incita Charlotte Corday à quitter Caen le 9 juillet 1793 pour aller assassiner Marat à Paris.
Révolution et Empire
Le 2 août 1793, l’armée de la Convention entre à Caen, signant la fin de l’insurrection fédéraliste.
Le 2 mars 1812, des émeutes débutent à la halle aux grains et au moulin Montaigu. Les émeutiers protestent contre la disette qui sévit depuis 1811. Le préfet Mechin et le maire Lentaigne de Logivière sont pris à partie. L'ordre est rétabli le soir même. Plusieurs personnes sont arrêtées dans les jours suivants. Le 6 mars, 4 000 soldats arrivent en renfort dans la ville. Le 14 mars, 61 personnes sont jugées, 4 hommes et 4 femmes sont condamnés à mort. Ils sont exécutés le 15 mars. Les autres personnes sont condamnées à des travaux forcés ou à de la prison.
XIXe siècle
Le XIXe siècle voit notamment l'inauguration du canal de Caen à la mer, immédiatement suivie de celle de la gare ferroviaire (1857-58). La ville est alors un centre intellectuel important de la Normandie, avec notamment la fondation, par Arcisse de Caumont, de diverses sociétés savantes (Congrès scientifique, Société française pour la conservation des monuments, en 1834, Association normande pour la vulgarisation des sciences; Caumont participe aussi aux travaux de la Société des antiquaires de Normandie) 62. La ville sort de ses limites historiques et s'étend sur les pentes au-dessus de la vieille ville (quartier bourgeois autour de la gare Saint-Martin, ouverte en 1884) ou quartier plus populaire au-dessus de Vaucelles.
Chronologie
Les dates marquantes sont :
•6 avril 1815 : Charles X fait un passage à Caen et fait libérer les personnes emprisonnées depuis 1812 ;
•1837 : début des travaux du canal de Caen à la mer ;
•1857 :
o5 mai : inauguration du premier système de distribution d'eau ;
o23 août : inauguration du canal de Caen à la mer ;
•3 août 1858 : inauguration de la gare de Caen par le couple impérial ;
•10 août 1863 : inauguration des bains et lavoirs.
Démographie
La croissance démographique s'amenuise. On recense 36 231 habitants en 1806, 41 394 habitants en 1856 et 45 380 habitants en 190663. Régulièrement, l'évolution est même légèrement négative :
•entre 1851 et 1856 (– 3 886 hab.)
•entre 1861 et 1876 (– 2 559 hab.)
•entre 1891 et 1906 (– 938 hab.)
La croissance reprend à partir de 1906. En 1936, les Caennais étaient 61 334.
Caen au XXe siècle
1900 à 1940
Caen durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale
Caen perd environ 68 % de son volume bâti durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale car elle s'est trouvée sur une ligne de front très disputée lors du débarquement en Normandie le 6 juin 1944 (Jour J). Les bombardements anglo-américains du 6 juin au 19 juillet 1944 font près de 2 000 victimes parmi les habitants de la ville64. Elle est libérée par les forces canadiennes qui ont combattu pendant un mois les troupes SS. Quelques-uns de ses principaux monuments ont néanmoins été sauvegardés.
La reconstruction de Caen a officiellement duré de 1947 à 1963 avec de larges avenues rectilignes bordées par des immeubles de pierre de Caen d'environ cinq étages, ce qui confère une certaine unité architecturale à plusieurs parties de la ville. De nombreux immeubles qui avaient un toit plat ont été chapeautés d'un toit à pentes traditionnel. La ville, profondément meurtrie par la guerre, a été décorée de l'ordre national de la Légion d'honneur en 1948.
1945 à 2000
En réparation des dommages de guerre, et comme le monastère des Bénédictines avait été en grande partie détruit en 1944 pendant la bataille de Caen, il a été confié à l'architecte Jean Zunz de le reconstruire à la Folie-Couvrechef, qui est maintenant intégrée à l'agglomération. Il a confié la verrière de la Création du Monde à l'artiste Sergio de Castro en 1956. La réalisation durera trois ans65.
Article détaillé : 1968 à Caen.
En 1963 est inauguré le parc des expositions, symbolisant ainsi la fin de la reconstruction de Caen. En 1968 Caen est touchée de plein fouet par trois événements : les grèves ouvrières et la nuit d'émeute du 26 et 27 janvier : les mois de mai et juin dans le cadre des événements de mai 68 et enfin l'affaire du Théâtre-Maison de la Culture (TMC) au mois de décembre.
Monuments et lieux touristiques
Une longue histoire a doté la ville de Caen de nombreux monuments historiques dont les principaux (deux abbayes et le château) ont été construits sous Guillaume le Conquérant au XIe siècle. Notons qu'il existe, contrairement à l'image véhiculée par la Seconde Guerre mondiale, un centre ancien (le vieux Caen) situé à l'ouest de la ville.
Surnommée « ville aux cent clochers »169 (comme Rouen, Dijon ou Poitiers), on y dénombre une quarantaine d'églises dont il ne reste parfois qu'un pan de mur. La capitale bas-normande compte 86 édifices protégés monuments historiques170, ce qui est assez remarquable compte tenu des sinistres causés par les bombardements de l'été 1944.
Bien que beaucoup d'entre eux aient été détruits en 1944, la ville compte encore de nombreux hôtels particuliers et de demeures plus modestes. Les plus anciens datent de la Renaissance, mais la majeure partie d'entre eux a été édifiée aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles.
La reconstruction de la ville a également doté Caen de nombreux monuments remarquables.
Saint-Pierre 1910
huile sur toile de Pierre Ucciani.
•Éléments fortifiés :
ole château de Guillaume le Conquérant, en particulier la salle de l'Échiquier
oles vestiges des fortifications de Caen, notamment la Tour Leroy
•Maisons à pans de bois :
ola maison des Quatrans, une maison traditionnelle du XVe siècle.
ono 52 et no 54 rue Saint-Pierre, l'ancien musée de la poste, maisons datant du début du XVIe siècle.
•Une collégiale : la collégiale du Saint-Sépulcre
•Nombreuses églises :
oL'ancienne église Saint-Martin, aujourd'hui en ruine,
oL'ancienne église Saint-Gilles, aujourd'hui en ruine,
oSaint-Pierre, édifiée entre les XIIe et XVIe siècles sur la place Saint-Pierre,
oSaint-Jean, penchée car construite sur d'anciens marais,
oSaint-Sauveur,
oSaint-Michel de Vaucelles
oSaint-Nicolas,
oSaint-Ouen,
oVieux Saint-Sauveur,
oSaint-Étienne-le-Vieux.
•Deux abbayes :
ol'abbaye aux Hommes (église Saint-Étienne, Palais Ducal, salle des Gardes, mur d'enceinte)
ol'abbaye aux Dames (église abbatiale de la Trinité)
Renaissance
•Remaniement des églises par Hector Sohier :
ole chevet de l'église Saint-Pierre
ole chevet de la nef Saint-Eustache de Notre-Dame-de-Froide-Rue (actuel Saint-Sauveur)
ole chœur du Vieux Saint-Sauveur
•Hôtels particuliers Renaissance :
ol'hôtel de Than (vers 1520-1530)
ol'hôtel d'Escoville (vers 1540)
ol'hôtel de Mondrainville (vers 1550)
ola cour des Imprimeurs, maisons construites pour Jean Macé dans les premières années du XVIe siècle
omaison natale de Malherbe (1582)
Époque classique
•Église et abbayes :
ol'église Notre-Dame-de-la-Gloriette
ole portail des églises du Vieux-Saint-Sauveur et Saint-Michel
oles bâtiments conventuels de l'abbaye aux Hommes (occupés actuellement par les services municipaux de Caen) et de l'abbaye aux Dames (actuel siège du conseil régional de Normandie)
oancien couvent de la Visitation de Caen
•Bâtiments civils officiels
ole Logis des gouverneurs au château (actuel musée de Normandie)
oPavillon des sociétés savantes
•Hôtels particuliers :
odu XVIIe autour de l'ancienne place Royale, aujourd'hui place de la République (hôtels Daumesnil et de Banville)
odu XVIIIe autour de la place Saint-Sauveur, de la place Fontette et le palais de justice de Caen et dans le quartier Saint-Jean (hôtel le Brun de Fontenay et hôtel de Blangy)
XIXe siècle
•Palais de Justice
•L'hôtel de préfecture du Calvados
•Le Bon-Sauveur (chapelle classée monument historique et jardins)
•La gare Saint-Martin
•La statue de Louis XIV par Louis Petitot
•Les hôtels particuliers (maison Charbonnier) et villas (Villa Baumier)
•Monastère des Visitandines (1890)
XXe siècle
•Maquette historique : plan de Rome à l'époque de son apogée monumentale (IVe siècle) de Paul Bigot, situé dans l'enceinte de l'université de Caen, à la maison de la recherche en sciences humaines.
•Statues :
oStatue équestre de du Guesclin de Arthur Le Duc, inscrite en 2006171
ole Phénix de Louis Leygue, classé en 2012172
•Les cités-jardins
ola cité-jardin des Rosiers, inscrite en 2007173
ole Nice caennais
•Bâtiments de l'Entre-deux-guerres :
ol'hôtel des postes (1932), inscrite en 2010174
ola gare de Caen, reconstruite par Henri Pacon (1934)
•Immeubles de la Reconstruction :
opar Henry Bernard
actuel campus 1 de l'université (1957), classé en 2012172
l'église Saint-Julien (1963), inscrite en 2005, classée en 2007175
ol'église du Sacré-Cœur de la Guérinière, inscrite en 2005176
ole château d'eau de la Guérinière, inscrit en 2010177
ole monastère des bénédictines, en partie classé et en partie inscrit en 2005178
ol'ancienne chambre de commerce de Caen, inscrite en 2003179
•Architecture contemporaine :
ole stade Michel-d'Ornano, inauguré en 1993, terrain du Stade Malherbe, club qui alterne entre Ligue 1 (saison 2010-2011) et Ligue 2.
ole Musée des Beaux-Arts, dans l'enceinte du château
ole Mémorial pour la Paix, inauguré en 1988.
ole nouveau palais de justice par Architecture-Studio
XXIe siècle
•Le Cargö (2007)
•les salles du rempart, musée de Normandie (2008)
•l'École supérieure d'arts et médias de Caen (2009)
•Le Dôme, prix de l'Équerre d'argent dans la catégorie lieu d'activité en 2016
•la bibliothèque Alexis-de-Tocqueville, construite par Rem Koolhaas sur la presqu'île portuaire (2017)
Les orgues
Les orgues de l'abbatiale Saint-Étienne (grand-orgue Cavaillé-Coll 1885 et orgue de chœur Dupont 1992), de l’église réformée et de l’église Saint-André (orgue Dupont 1982)180, ainsi que les églises Saint-Pierre (JF Dupont, 1997), Saint-Jean, Saint-Julien, Saint-Paul, Saint-Ouen, chapelle de la DRAC.
- Vanille, o Blu tá caindo!
Vanille: Não tem problema, ele não se machuca. Agora olha pra foto, mamãe!
A foto mais temida do projeto! E a mais difícil também. Foi terrível conseguir uma que a Vanille estivesse olhando.
Mas tá ai. Mãe e filha de rosa! ^----^
Problem solving with RCECC - Red clowns enter caves carefully - Read Choose Estimate Calculate Check
We decided to go for a city break rather than sun in Tenerife again this September. Other than a few days in the North East we haven’t been away since last March and wanted a change and hopefully some sun. The problem is getting flights from the north of England to the places we want to go to. We chose Valencia as we could fly from East Midlands – which was still a pain to get to as it involved the most notorious stretch of the M1 at five in the morning. In the end we had a fairly good journey, the new Ryanair business class pre-booked scheme worked quite well and bang on time as usual. It was dull when we landed with storms forecast all week, the sky was bright grey – the kiss of death to the photography I had in mind. I was full of cold and wishing I was at work. It did rain but it was overnight on our first night and didn't affect us. There has been a drought for eleven months apparently and it rained on our first day there! The forecast storms didn't materialise in Valencia but they got it elsewhere.
You May notice discrepancies in the spelling of some Spanish words or names, this is because Valencian is used on signs, in some guide books and maps. There are two languages in common use with distinct differences. There may also be genuine mistakes - it has been known!
Over the course of a Monday to Sunday week we covered 75 miles on foot and saw most of the best of Valencia – The City of Bell Towers. The Old City covers a pretty large area in a very confusing layout. There was a lot of referring to maps – even compass readings! – a first in a city for us. The problem with photography in Valencia is that most of the famous and attractive building are closely built around, some have poor quality housing built on to them. Most photographs have to be taken from an extreme angle looking up. There are no high points as it is pan flat, there are a small number of buildings where you can pay to go up on to the roof for a better view and we went up them – more than once!
The modern buildings of The City of Arts and Sciences – ( Ciutat de Las Arts I de les Ciencies ) are what the city has more recently become famous for, with tourists arriving by the coachload all day until late at night. They must be photographed millions of times a month. We went during the day and stayed till dark one evening, I gave it my best shot but a first time visit is always a compromise between ambition and realism, time dictates that we have to move on to the next destination. I travelled with a full size tripod – another first – I forgot to take it with me to TCoAaS! so It was time to wind up the ISO, again! Needless to say I never used the tripod.
On a day when rain was forecast but it stayed fine, albeit a bit dull, we went to the Bioparc north west of the city, a zoo by another name. There are many claims made for this place, were you can appear to walk alongside some very large animals, including, elephants, lions, giraffe, rhino, gorillas and many types of monkey to name a few. It is laid out in different geographical regions and there is very little between you and the animals, in some cases there is nothing, you enter the enclosure through a double door arrangement and the monkeys are around you. It gets rave reviews and we stayed for most of the day. The animals it has to be said gave the appearance of extreme boredom and frustration and I felt quite sorry for them.
The course of The River Turia was altered after a major flood in the 50’s. The new river runs west of the city flanked by a motorway. The old river, which is massive, deep and very wide between ancient walls, I can’t imagine how it flooded, has been turned into a park that is five miles long. There is an athletics track, football pitches, cycle paths, restaurants, numerous kids parks, ponds, fountains, loads of bridges, historic and modern. At the western end closest to the sea sits The City of Arts and Sciences – in the river bed. Where it meets the sea there is Valencia’s urban Formula One racetrack finishing in the massive marina built for The Americas Cup. The race track is in use as roadways complete with fully removable street furniture, kerbs, bollards, lights, islands and crossings, everything is just sat on the surface ready to be moved.
We found the beach almost by accident, we were desperate for food after putting in a lot of miles and the afternoon was ticking by. What a beach, 100’s of metres wide and stretching as far as the eye could see with a massive promenade. The hard thing was choosing, out of the dozens of restaurants, all next door to each other, all serving traditional Paella – rabbit and chicken – as well as seafood, we don’t eat seafood and it constituted 90% of the menu in most places. Every restaurant does a fixed price dish of the day, with a few choices, three courses and a drink. Some times this was our only meal besides making the most of the continental breakfast at the hotel. We had a fair few bar stops with the local wine being cheap and pleasant it would have been a shame not to, there would have been a one woman riot – or strike!
On our final day, a Sunday, we were out of bed and down for breakfast at 7.45 as usual, the place was deserted barring a waiter. We walked out of the door at 8.30 – in to the middle of a mass road race with many thousands of runners, one of a series that take place in Valencia – apparently! We struggled to find out the distance, possibly 10km. The finish was just around the corner so off we went with the camera gear, taking photos of random runners and groups. There was a TV crew filming it and some local celebrity (I think) commentating. Next we came across some sort of wandering religious and musical event. Some sort of ritual was played out over the course of Sunday morning in various locations, it involved catholic priests and religious buildings and another film crew. The Catholic tourists and locals were filling the (many) churches for Sunday mass. Amongst all of this we had seen men walking around in Arab style dress – the ones in black looked like the ones from ISIS currently beheading people – all carrying guns. A bit disconcerting. We assumed that there had been some sort of battle enactment. We were wrong, it hadn’t happened yet. A while later, about 11.30 we could hear banging, fireworks? No it was our friends with the guns. We were caught up in total mayhem, around 60 men randomly firing muskets with some sort of blank rounds, the noise, smoke and flames from the muzzles were incredible. We were about to climb the Torres de Serranos which is where, unbeknown to us, the grand, and deafening, finale was going to be. We could feel the blast in our faces on top of the tower. Yet again there was a film camera in attendance. I couldn’t get close ups but I got a good overview and shot my first video with the 5D, my first in 5 years of owning a DLSR with the capability. I usually use my phone ( I used my phone as well). Later in the day there was a bullfight taking place, the ring was almost next to our hotel, in the end we had other things to do and gave it a miss, it was certainly a busy Sunday in the city centre, whether it’s the norm or not I don’t know.
There is a tram system in Valencia but it goes from the port area into the newer part of the city on the north side, it wouldn’t be feasible to serve the historic old city really. A quick internet search told me that there are 55,000 university students in the city, a pretty big number. I think a lot of the campus is on the north side and served by the tram although there is a massive fleet of buses as well. There is a massive, very impressive market building , with 100’s of stalls that would make a photo project on its own, beautiful on the inside and out but very difficult to get decent photos of the exterior other than detail shots owing to the closeness of other buildings and the sheer size of it. Across town, another market has been beautifully renovated and is full of bars and restaurants and a bit of a destination in its own right.
A downside was the all too typical shafting by the taxi drivers who use every trick in the book to side step the official tariffs and rob you. The taxi from the airport had a “broken” meter and on the way home we were driven 22 km instead of the nine that is the actual distance. Some of them seem to view tourists as cash cows to be robbed at all costs. I emailed the Marriot hotel as they ordered the taxi, needless to say no answer from Marriot – they’ve had their money. We didn’t get the rip off treatment in the bars etc. that we experienced in Rome, prices are very fair on most things, certainly considering the city location.
All in all we had a good trip and can highly recommend Valencia.
Painting and markings:
As mentioned above, the livery is based on an official profile which I deem authentic and canonical. My aircraft depicts a different machine from VFT-127, though, since I could not (and did not really want to) 100% replicate the profile's machine from the Macross PLUS source book, "13 Red". Especially the squadron’s emblem on the fin would create massive problems.
For the two-tone wrap-around scheme I used Humbrol 72 (Khaki Drill) and 98 (Chocolate Brown), based on the printed colors in the source book where I found the scheme. The pattern is kept close to the benchmark profile, and, lacking an underside view, I just mirrored the upper scheme. The starboard side pattern was guesstimated.
As a second-line aggressor aircraft, I weathered the VF-4 with a black ink wash, some post-shading with various lighter tones (including Humbrol 160, 168, 170 and 187) and did some wet-sanding treatment for an uneven and worn look.
Interior surfaces were painted according to visual references from various sources: the landing gear and the air intakes became white, while the cockpit was painted in RAF Dark Sea Grey.
In order to add some color to the overall brown aircraft I decided to paint the missiles all around the hull in white with tan tips – in the profile, the appear to be integrated into the camouflage, what I found dubious.
Most stencils come from the OOB sheet, but I added some more from the scrap box. The grey "kite" roundels come from an 1:72 Hasegawa Macross F-14 Tomcat kit sheet, which I acquired separately for a reasonable price. Even though it took four weeks to be delivered from Asia, the investment was worthwhile, since the sheet also provided some useful low-viz stencils.
The VAT-127 “Zentraedi Busters” unique tail insignia was more complicated, because these had to be printed at home. As a side note, concerning the fin marking, I recently found a translation of the benchmark profile's text on mahq.net, which is interesting: "The Regult within the targeting reticle on the tail met with disapproval from micronized Zentraedi pilots, and so was only used for a short time." The comment also reveals that the original aircraft's modex is "713", not just "13" as depicted, so I tried to reflect these details on my build, too.
I eventually settled for a solution that was partly inspired by the kit’s OOB fin marking and the wish for more contrast for the motif: I scanned the original Regult pod illustration from the source book and printed it on white decal sheet. This was sealed with two layers of glossy acrylic varnish (applied with a rattle can) and then cut into a white field that fills the fixed part of the fin (using the WAVE kit’s OOB fin markings as reference). Once in place and dry, two black outlines were added separately (generic decal material) which help blend the decal and the surroundings. Finally, thin strips of silver decal sheet were used for the fins’ leading edges.
This design variation, compared with the original “13 Red” illustration, led to the idea of a flight leader’s machine with slightly more prominent markings. In order to take this concept further I also gave the aircraft a white stripe around the front fuselage, placed under the kite roundel and again with black outlines for a consistent look. It’s not much different from “13 Red”, but I think that it looks conclusive and, together with the white fin markings and the missiles, livens up the VF-4’s look.
The appropriate flight leader tactical code “01 Red” was puzzled together from single digits from a Begemot Su-27 sheet, the rest of the bort numbers were taken from the OOB sheet (which incidentally feature a “01” code, too).
Concerning the OOB decal sheet, there’s much light but also some deep shadow. While the register is excellent and the carrier film flexible enough to lay down smoothly, the instructions lack information where to place the zillion of stencils (“No step” and “Beware of Blast” stuff) are to be placed! You only get references for the major markings – the rest has either to be guessed, OR you are in possession of the VF-4 source book from Softbank Publishing which was (incidentally?) released in parallel with the WAVE kit. This mecha porn offers an overview of all(!) relevant stencils on the VF-4A’s hull, and ONLY with this information the exhaustive decal sheet makes some sense…
As final steps, the VF-4 received some dry-brushing with light grey around the leading edges, some chipped paint was simulated with dry-brushed aluminum and, finally, light soot stains around the vectoring nozzles all around the hull and the weapon bays were created with graphite. Then the kit was sealed with matt acrylic varnish (Italeri).
John Dutton, Head, Uplink; Member of the Executive Committee, World Economic Forum, Switzerland -
Olivier M. Schwab, Managing Director, World Economic Forum, Switzerland - Joe Ucuzoglu, Global Chief Executive Officer, Deloitte, USA - Suzanne DiBianca, Chief Impact Officer, Salesforce, USA - Tatiana Malvasio, Chief Operating Officer and Co-Founder, Kilimo, Argentina - Faisal Alibrahim, Minister of Economy and Planning, Ministry of Economy and Planning of Saudi Arabia - Lindiwe Matlali, Chief Executive Officer, Africa Teen Geeks, South Africa and Roy Gori, President and Chief Executive Officer, Manulife, Canada speaking in the Press Conference: Trailblazing entrepreneurs tackling the world's biggest problems session at the World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 2023 in Davos-Klosters, Switzerland, 19 January. Media Village - Press Conference Room. Copyright: World Economic Forum/Manuel Lopez
While the Mirage III/5 family was very successful, the delta wings used in these designs required a long runway, and Mirage IIIs in combat had shown problems with stalling in high-G maneuvers. To counter these problems, the French Armee de l’Air asked Dassault to design a more conventional multirole aircraft. This became the Mirage F.2, but the F.2 proved to be too large and expensive for the AdA. Dassault had already begun design work on a smaller version as a private venture, the F.1. Despite being smaller than the Mirage III, the Mirage F.1 had longer range, better maneuverability without the stall problem, and only needed half the runway of its delta-winged cousins. The prototype took to the air in December 1966.
The AdA liked the design, but changed the requirement from a low-level strike aircraft to a multirole interceptor. This proved to be no trouble for Dassault, which simply enlarged the nose to take a multimode radar, and the first Mirage F.1C entered service in May 1973. Like most Dassault designs, the Mirage F.1’s reliability and low cost made it very attractive for export customers, and it was adopted by 13 air forces over the next decade. Also like the rest of the Mirage family, the Mirage F.1 was converted to a number of roles, acting as not only an air superiority fighter, but also for ground attack and reconnaissance.
Flying during the turbulent 1980s and 1990s in the Middle East, South America, and Africa, the Mirage F.1 was also to see a great deal of combat service. The first was Morocco, using its Mirages in attacks against Polisario Front guerillas in 1979, quickly followed by South Africa, who used its Mirages successfully against Cuban-flown Angolan MiG-23s in border disputes; SAAF Mirage F.1s shot down at least two MiGs and proved resilient to damage.
Iraq was to employ their Mirage F.1s with some success in the Iran-Iraq War, and the type proved to be the only Iraqi fighter to be able to dogfight Iranian F-14 Tomcats with any success. Iraqi Mirages fared less well in the First Gulf War, where several were lost against US Air Force and Royal Saudi Air Force F-15 Eagles; Kuwait’s Mirage F.1s had already seen action against Iraq earlier during the Iraqi invasion that started the war, and a significant number of Iraqi Mirages ended up interned in Iran during the war, later being incorporated into the Iranian Air Force. This was not the first time that two nations operating Mirage F.1s had the potential of fighting each other: France had already attacked Libya during the conflict in Chad in the early 1980s. The most recent combat involving Mirage F.1s was in Libya in 2011, again both France and Libya operating the type, though Libyan Mirages either remained on the ground or sought asylum in Malta. French Mirage F.1s also saw action in Afghanistan and the Ivory Coast.
Though the Mirage F.1 is approaching 40 years in service, it remains a viable fighter, and still serves in four air forces worldwide. France, ceding the fighter-interceptor role to the Mirage 2000, converted its Mirage F.1s to Mirage F.1CT standard, allowing the Armee de l’Air to replace the Mirage III/5s in service in the mid-1990s. These were finally retired in 2014. 720 Mirage F.1s were built.
As part of his "Arab-Israeli War" series of 1/48 scale models, Dad got this Esci kit in the late 1970s and built it as an Egyptian Air Force aircraft. Egypt never flew the Mirage F.1, however; I'm not sure if Dad just assumed they would get the Mirage eventually to replace their Mirage 5s, or Egypt had considered the aircraft but then ordered the F-16 instead.
Dad had the Mirage sitting on his shelf for a long time, and after the First Gulf War, realized that while the kit was inaccurate for Egypt, the camouflage scheme was almost perfect for Kuwait, which operated Mirage F.1CKs during the war--only the light blue underside would have to be changed. (Kuwaiti Mirages' undersurfaces were light gray.) He stripped the roundels off and got decals for "Free Kuwait" Mirages, but then figured that there were much better 1/48 scale Mirage F.1 kits and shelved the project. I'm not sure what happened to this model.
Whatever its fate, this Mirage is configured for the air superiority mission, with two Matra R.550 Magic infrared homing missiles on the wingtips, two Matra R.530 radar-guided missiles under the wings, and a single drop tank under the fuselage. While the Magic was one of the world's first true dogfighting missiles, the R.530 was considered worthless by pilots who flew with them; it was replaced by the superior R.530D/F series. Dad was still learning how to use his Minolta, so a good portion of the model is blurry.
Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
One problem with a majority of waterfall shots taken at the Columbia Gorge is that you see little in way of perspective to show just how mammoth many of the falls are. For that reason I often tried to capture my buddy Steve (lower right) doing his thing to illustrate just that. This was at Wahclella Falls along McCord Creek...one of our favorite areas that we encountered during our trip.
The iFi iDSD Pro.
I came to discover ifi after a past of positive and negative experiences in the audio in the last 30 years, in the search for the holy grail of sound in my living room, I have had a lot of brands, Nad, Rotel, Mark Levinson, Linn, Sony, Cyrus, Audiolab, Pioneer, Marantz, Rega, Bowers & Wilkins, Castle Speakers, Vandersteen, Paragon Regent Speakers, monitor Audio, Kef, Mission Cyrus speakers, only to name a few.
Some of my old gear I sold until today I remember them as pieces I regret not having today, My Marantz CD10 and Marantz CD16, My Sony SCD1, my loving Levinson 383 had circuit board problem and was 14 months waiting an internal circuit board repair in the Portuguese representative of the brand, and because of that bad experience and some others in the audio world, I sold my Levinson at a low price and almost all audio gear I had, I loved that Levinson, and that warranty experience was something very negative for me as a user, I abandoned audio and that search that never ends, and for 8 years the computer and headphones was my way to interact with music, a big downgrade from what I was used to.
Six years ago I started looking for a DAC and some better speakers to my iMac, the speakers I found that in my opinion produced an acceptable sound was the Harman Kardon GLA-55, latter paired with a monitor audio subwoofer, and sound was ok, at least a better experience that the iMac speakers had, In a search for a good computer DAC I discovered the ifi brand and their range of products, a perfect match for what I was thinking.
The products made by ifi were good looking and they supported DSD and HD audio formats something I was willing to try as I own many SACD’s, DSD was very appealing format to me, I purchased the ifi iDSD, it came in a beautiful package and well built, I connected the iDSD to my iMac and clicked on play on the iTunes App, a glimpse of what I have had in the past for a fraction of the price, for me it was it, the holy grail in price paid and return that I was receiving, so I started a new journey, maybe a never ending one certainly full of new product discoveries, but at every step taken up is a more engaging and pleasant one.
So ifi brought me back to the audio experience, today my computer audio system is a little upgraded from the Harman Kardon GLA55 and Micro iDSD, I just acquired an ifi Pro iDSD that was launched in the end of May. It finely arrived and took the place of my ifi Micro iDSD Black, micro iTube 2 and micro iUSB 3.0, every person quantifies the upgraded differences obtained by each component change differently, for some is the same experience a little better and a justified investment or not, for others a small sonic achievement is a huge upgrade in the final result, for me and after some weeks of listening to the ifi Pro iDSD there is no way I could live anymore without it, so I acquired it.
The Pro iDSD has a lot of functionality that you could see on the ifi website ifi-audio.com/home/products/pro/ I will focus more on the sound and changes I have noticed from the micro iDSD Black.
The global sound grows in small big changes, the separation, fluidity, speed, soundstage of the tracks is so better defined that you can’t stop playing and thinking constantly “this one is really on another level of gear”. That’s not a subtle change, the global sound character is similar to the micro iDSD Black Label, but sounds are presented very fast, the sense of speed is really impressive, the impact, transients, instrument separation, identification of the elements on the soundstage, multiple voices are perfectly separated, it’s all there, every audio file you play on the Pro iDSD is a new experience. I do remember in the past of investing a lot more and get almost none.
If you own one of the other ifi product line like the nano, micro, or even other brand DAC of the same price level, when you connect the Pro iDSD you will have a constant audio discover on each track of your library, it’s noticeable right away if your system has the quality to show and reveal what the iDSD pro can archive you will be amazed.
The micro iDSD Black was a feat for the price, but the Pro iDSD takes every aspect from the micro iDSD BL and gives him super powers.
The iDSD Pro has almost all features you will ever need, there are two absent from the pro iDSD the XBass and 3D sound, you can have this feature in the Pro iCan, but having them in the Pro iDSD is a miss in my most minimalistic good sounding system I can have, and to add these features the pro iCan is a necessary add-on that comes with more cables and more accessories in the middle of the sound signal. The iDSD approach for me is more a puristic approach and first a DAC, all the other features come for me as a bonus, it’s a product that will reveal all elements of the sound presentation, and plays your music files from multiple formats, it’s very easy to setup and very well built, and the oled in the middle of the unit makes me in love by it
So the iDSD Pro for me it’s finesse, fireworks, emotion, love, an even better capacity of turning small detail perceptible in a way that appears natural to my ears, it’s adds macro to the texture detail in the mix, better quality bass, initially the bass appears to be less present, less present in this case of the Pro iDSD is not less bass, but a bass with musical scale and better defined, there is no 3D or XBass, but there is a lot more to take out from every track.
The iDSD Pro will not hide a bad recording, It will show without any guilt the quality of a bad studio engineer or a low quality mix, if the mix is bad it will sound very bad, but if you give the Pro iDSD a better quality track, you will make your speakers rock has they never think they would be capable of, after that you will not let the iDSD Pro go back to the store.
There are a lot of offers in this segment, some more expensive, some less, I have built my system from the beginning on the original ifi IDSD Sound Signature, so in my case it was a perfect match.
I didn’t focus on many aspects like streaming, digital filters, upsampling to DSD1024, playing directly from SD or SSD USB HD, and finely Airplay, the Airplay functionality is my favorite and there is a lot more the Pro iDSD can do, In the last weeks I tried some of this functionality for curiosity and they all shine in a way that describing it will take weeks or months, my main use will be in the desktop computer and I am loving it.
If you are serious about your audio, the ifi Pro iDSD should be one of the higher priorities on your list of a DAC acquisition. If the price is too hot, the micro iDSD Black Label could give you a lot from the Pro iDSD at a very affordable price, and is my favorite DAC in the price / sound return equation.
All devices where connect to an Audioquest Nigara, the power cables including computer and ifi IDSD Pro were with Audioquest Tornado, and Audioquest Thunder for each of the Speakers.
USB Cables in use are ifi Gemini 3.0 and Audioquest Diamond USB Cable, also used ifi iUSB 3.0 in between.
Speakers are Focal Solo 6BE.
Interconnect Linn Silver balanced.
Software used, Roon and Audirvana.
The related review is a personal opinion of the experience and use of the products acquired. All products were acquired at retail price, in normal stores that have them in stock, and I am not sponsored by any of the brands mentioned or any kind of brand.
Clearly, Peerless was once a thriving town. It has several grain elevators. A big restaurant. Churches. A good size school. The problem is that when I was there most of those things seemed empty--abandoned, even. The church was overgrown. The school was clearly empty at a time when school should still have been in session. One of the elevators is falling down (though the others seem used). The big restaurant was listed for sale and seemed totally devoid of life. And there were far more abandoned homes than ones that are lived in. Peerless was very very quiet. I had to wonder what happened here, that so many people left? This place used to have plenty of amenities. But when I was there the only activity I saw was a tumbleweed blowing across main street.
"Peerless was originally a development of the Great Northern Railroad. It appears that Peerless once went by the name of Tande or Battleson, but because of the popularity of a local beer the name was changed to Peerless...Dutch Henry's Bar...is a namesake of an outlaw who roamed these parts in the late 1800s. A display of photos on the walls tells quite a bit about the history of the surrounding area. The original town, settled in 1914, was a few miles away. Like many other places in northeast Montana, the laying of the railroad bed required the town to be moved to the railroad." -travelmt.com
We decided to go for a city break rather than sun in Tenerife again this September. Other than a few days in the North East we haven’t been away since last March and wanted a change and hopefully some sun. The problem is getting flights from the north of England to the places we want to go to. We chose Valencia as we could fly from East Midlands – which was still a pain to get to as it involved the most notorious stretch of the M1 at five in the morning. In the end we had a fairly good journey, the new Ryanair business class pre-booked scheme worked quite well and bang on time as usual. It was dull when we landed with storms forecast all week, the sky was bright grey – the kiss of death to the photography I had in mind. I was full of cold and wishing I was at work. It did rain but it was overnight on our first night and didn't affect us. There has been a drought for eleven months apparently and it rained on our first day there! The forecast storms didn't materialise in Valencia but they got it elsewhere.
You May notice discrepancies in the spelling of some Spanish words or names, this is because Valencian is used on signs, in some guide books and maps. There are two languages in common use with distinct differences. There may also be genuine mistakes - it has been known!
Over the course of a Monday to Sunday week we covered 75 miles on foot and saw most of the best of Valencia – The City of Bell Towers. The Old City covers a pretty large area in a very confusing layout. There was a lot of referring to maps – even compass readings! – a first in a city for us. The problem with photography in Valencia is that most of the famous and attractive building are closely built around, some have poor quality housing built on to them. Most photographs have to be taken from an extreme angle looking up. There are no high points as it is pan flat, there are a small number of buildings where you can pay to go up on to the roof for a better view and we went up them – more than once!
The modern buildings of The City of Arts and Sciences – ( Ciutat de Las Arts I de les Ciencies ) are what the city has more recently become famous for, with tourists arriving by the coachload all day until late at night. They must be photographed millions of times a month. We went during the day and stayed till dark one evening, I gave it my best shot but a first time visit is always a compromise between ambition and realism, time dictates that we have to move on to the next destination. I travelled with a full size tripod – another first – I forgot to take it with me to TCoAaS! so It was time to wind up the ISO, again! Needless to say I never used the tripod.
On a day when rain was forecast but it stayed fine, albeit a bit dull, we went to the Bioparc north west of the city, a zoo by another name. There are many claims made for this place, were you can appear to walk alongside some very large animals, including, elephants, lions, giraffe, rhino, gorillas and many types of monkey to name a few. It is laid out in different geographical regions and there is very little between you and the animals, in some cases there is nothing, you enter the enclosure through a double door arrangement and the monkeys are around you. It gets rave reviews and we stayed for most of the day. The animals it has to be said gave the appearance of extreme boredom and frustration and I felt quite sorry for them.
The course of The River Turia was altered after a major flood in the 50’s. The new river runs west of the city flanked by a motorway. The old river, which is massive, deep and very wide between ancient walls, I can’t imagine how it flooded, has been turned into a park that is five miles long. There is an athletics track, football pitches, cycle paths, restaurants, numerous kids parks, ponds, fountains, loads of bridges, historic and modern. At the western end closest to the sea sits The City of Arts and Sciences – in the river bed. Where it meets the sea there is Valencia’s urban Formula One racetrack finishing in the massive marina built for The Americas Cup. The race track is in use as roadways complete with fully removable street furniture, kerbs, bollards, lights, islands and crossings, everything is just sat on the surface ready to be moved.
We found the beach almost by accident, we were desperate for food after putting in a lot of miles and the afternoon was ticking by. What a beach, 100’s of metres wide and stretching as far as the eye could see with a massive promenade. The hard thing was choosing, out of the dozens of restaurants, all next door to each other, all serving traditional Paella – rabbit and chicken – as well as seafood, we don’t eat seafood and it constituted 90% of the menu in most places. Every restaurant does a fixed price dish of the day, with a few choices, three courses and a drink. Some times this was our only meal besides making the most of the continental breakfast at the hotel. We had a fair few bar stops with the local wine being cheap and pleasant it would have been a shame not to, there would have been a one woman riot – or strike!
On our final day, a Sunday, we were out of bed and down for breakfast at 7.45 as usual, the place was deserted barring a waiter. We walked out of the door at 8.30 – in to the middle of a mass road race with many thousands of runners, one of a series that take place in Valencia – apparently! We struggled to find out the distance, possibly 10km. The finish was just around the corner so off we went with the camera gear, taking photos of random runners and groups. There was a TV crew filming it and some local celebrity (I think) commentating. Next we came across some sort of wandering religious and musical event. Some sort of ritual was played out over the course of Sunday morning in various locations, it involved catholic priests and religious buildings and another film crew. The Catholic tourists and locals were filling the (many) churches for Sunday mass. Amongst all of this we had seen men walking around in Arab style dress – the ones in black looked like the ones from ISIS currently beheading people – all carrying guns. A bit disconcerting. We assumed that there had been some sort of battle enactment. We were wrong, it hadn’t happened yet. A while later, about 11.30 we could hear banging, fireworks? No it was our friends with the guns. We were caught up in total mayhem, around 60 men randomly firing muskets with some sort of blank rounds, the noise, smoke and flames from the muzzles were incredible. We were about to climb the Torres de Serranos which is where, unbeknown to us, the grand, and deafening, finale was going to be. We could feel the blast in our faces on top of the tower. Yet again there was a film camera in attendance. I couldn’t get close ups but I got a good overview and shot my first video with the 5D, my first in 5 years of owning a DLSR with the capability. I usually use my phone ( I used my phone as well). Later in the day there was a bullfight taking place, the ring was almost next to our hotel, in the end we had other things to do and gave it a miss, it was certainly a busy Sunday in the city centre, whether it’s the norm or not I don’t know.
There is a tram system in Valencia but it goes from the port area into the newer part of the city on the north side, it wouldn’t be feasible to serve the historic old city really. A quick internet search told me that there are 55,000 university students in the city, a pretty big number. I think a lot of the campus is on the north side and served by the tram although there is a massive fleet of buses as well. There is a massive, very impressive market building , with 100’s of stalls that would make a photo project on its own, beautiful on the inside and out but very difficult to get decent photos of the exterior other than detail shots owing to the closeness of other buildings and the sheer size of it. Across town, another market has been beautifully renovated and is full of bars and restaurants and a bit of a destination in its own right.
A downside was the all too typical shafting by the taxi drivers who use every trick in the book to side step the official tariffs and rob you. The taxi from the airport had a “broken” meter and on the way home we were driven 22 km instead of the nine that is the actual distance. Some of them seem to view tourists as cash cows to be robbed at all costs. I emailed the Marriot hotel as they ordered the taxi, needless to say no answer from Marriot – they’ve had their money. We didn’t get the rip off treatment in the bars etc. that we experienced in Rome, prices are very fair on most things, certainly considering the city location.
All in all we had a good trip and can highly recommend Valencia.
El empleado “bomba de tiempo” podría conducir a clientes insatisfechos, compañeros de trabajo infeliz, litigios costosos, violencia en el trabajo, o en algunos casos, todo lo anterior. Cualquiera sea la forma de una explosión toma, sus efectos pueden ser devastadores. Así que, como de...
revistarecursoshumanos.com/2016/09/05/evitar-empleados-bo...
My S2 has a problem with a clouded mirror patch in the rangefinder. I decided to give it a second try, but in bright light where the lens would be stopped down and zone focusing would do.
I made a mistake with the film, though. Kodak Gold is one of the few Kodak films I don't like. The grain is excessive, especially for a fairly slow film.
Nikon S2 black dial, s/n 6192741, late 1950s
Nikkor-S 1:2 50mm
Kodak Gold 200 consumer grade colour negative film
Developed and scanned by www.meinfilmlab.de
Choose the best alternative:
1) I haven't an objective wide enough
2) the subject i too BIG
3) I am too close
4) stitching several photos is frustrating
5) anything else, pls describe.
Marriage Problem Solution Specialist Astrologer Ankit Sharma Ji
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I have several photo 'series' like this one I seem unable to stack with Registax or IRIS, and wondered if anyone could point me in the right direction.
As you can see from this montage, I took four photos as the sun drifted across, re-adjusted the view and took four more, and re-adjusted a final time and took four more.
Trouble is, it would seem there's too much 'drift' for Registax to cope with, and loading all 12 images at full resolution seems to blow it's mind.
And ideas?
SOLVED
I got this reply in Astronomyshed.co.uk:-
[quote="Bizibilder"]Try this: sites.google.com/site/astropipp/ 'Tis freeware - just bung in your pictures and it will centre and crop them for you, then back to Registax 5 for preference and you should be OK.[/quote]
It works! Now I can get on with stacking the 3,000 or so photos I took like this - thanks for your time folks!
Result:-
Memorandumul a reprezentat o petiţie semnată de liderii românilor din Transilvania şi adresată în 1892 împăratului austro-ungar Franz Joseph. Acesta prezenta consecinţele instaurării dualismului austro-ungar şi cuprindea principalele revendicări ale românilor transilvăneni, printre care se număra recunoaşterea drepturilor politice şi confesionale.
Totodată, memorandumul se dorea a fi un semn de protest faţă politica de maghiarizare practicată de autorităţi împotriva românilor din Ardeal şi faţă de persecuţiile la care erau supuşi aceştia, cuprinzând o analiză bine documentată a situaţiei economice, politice, sociale şi culturale a românilor transilvăneni de la formarea dualismului austro-ungar în februarie 1867. A fost al treilea moment major de manifestare al ardelenilor faţă de tendinţele evidente de deznaţionalizare promovate de autorităţile maghiare, după Supplex Libellus Valachorum (1791) şi Pronunciamentul de la Blaj din mai 1868.
Memorandumul a marcat apogeul luptei de emancipare a românilor din Transilvania din sec al XIX-lea, aducând problema românească în conştiinţa europeană.
Între 12 şi 14 mai 1881 la Sibiu a avut loc conferinţa de unificare a Partidului Naţional Român din Transilvania, prilej cu care liderii noului partid au hotărât trimiterea unui memoriu Curţii de la Viena, care să aducă problema românilor transilvăneni în atenţia opiniei publice europene. Memorandumul a fost redactat de Iuliu Coroianu şi elaborat la Sibiu în prezenţa lui Ioan Raţiu, preşedintele PNR, Vasile Lucaciu, Gheorghe Pop de Băseşti, Eugen Brote şi Septimiu Albini.
Petiţia a fost aprobată la 25 martie 1892 şi prezentată la Viena pe 28 mai 1892 de o delegaţie compusă din 300 de reprezentanţi a tuturor stărilor din Transilvania: intelectuali, meseriaşi, lucrători. La cererea guvernului de la Budapesta, împăratul Franz Joseph nu a dorit să primească delegaţia, deşi nu cunoştea conţinutul memorandumului, apoi l-a trimis autorităţilor maghiare. Acest fapt a nemulţumit profund pe români, care au considerat că împăratul nu doreşte rezolvarea problemelor naţionalităţilor din Imperiu. Autorităţile maghiare au trimis petiţia prefectului de la Turda cu specificaţia de a fi returnat lui Ioan Raţiu. Motivaţia invocată a fost că Ministerul de Interne nu este dispus a înainta împăratului „memorii ale unor indivizi” pe care nu-i socoteşte îndreptăţiţi a reprezenta poporul român. Memorandumul face o analiză a sistemului legislativ ungar (legea naţiunilor, legea electorală, legile şcolare, legea presei etc.), evidenţiind faptul că românii erau discriminaţi, neavând nici un drept politic. Documentul contestă şi modul în care s-a instaurat dualismul austro-ungar, fără a se lua în seamă şi dorinţele românilor majoritari în Transilvania. De asemenea, este combătută declararea statului maghiar ca „stat naţional”, în care elementul maghiar a avut puterea, în timp ce românii erau supuşi unui proces de maghiarizare. Autorii Memorandumului subliniază faptul că ei nu şi-au propus schimbarea regimului politic, ci doar îmbunătăţirea situaţiei românilor, prin desfiinţarea dualismului austro-ungar şi revenirea la autonomia Transilvaniei.
Textul Memorandumului era acesta:
MEMORANDUL ROMÂNILOR DIN TRANSILVANIA, BANAT ŞI UNGARIA către
Majestatea Sa Imperială şi Regală Apostolică Francisc Iosif I, Împărat al Austriei, Rege Apostolic al Ungariei, Rege al Boemiei, Dalmaţiei, Croaţiei, Slavoniei, Galiţiei, Lodomeriei şi Iliriei, Arhiduce al Austriei, Mare Duce al Cracoviei, Duce al Lorenei, Duce al Salisburgului, Stiriei, Carintiei, Carneolei, Bucovinei, Silesiei, Superioare şi Inferioare, Mare Principe al Transilvaniei, Margraf al Moraviei, Comite Princiar al Habsburgului şi Tirolului etc. etc. etc.
MAJESTATEA VOASTRĂ IMPERIALĂ ŞI REGALĂ APOSTOLICĂ!
PREA GRAŢIOASE DOAMNE,
Reprezentanţii Românilor din ţările Coroanei Ungare a Majestăţii Voastre, întrunindu-se în zilele de 20 şi 21 ianuarie 1892 în conferinţă la Sibiu au constatat că Românii sunt nemulţumiţi cu situaţia politică creiată de sistemul de guvernământ inaugurat în anii 1866-1868 şi cu întreaga desvoltare a vieţii noastre publice de atunci şi până acum, nu mai au, după tristele experienţe, pe care le-au făcut, nici o încredere în dieta dela Budapesta şi în guvernul maghiar, şi după lungi şi mature cumpăniri, au căzut cu toţii de acord, că e o chestiune de prudenţă patriotică, ca Românii să nu mai facă încercarea de a se folosi de dreptul lor de a alege deputaţi, ci să se considere ca nefiind reprezentaţi în dieta ţării lor.
Din însărcinarea acelei conferinţe, în care au fost reprezentaţi toţi Românii din Cisleithania, ne prezentăm cu omagială supunere la treptele gloriosului Tron al Maiestăţii Voastre, ca să atragem părinteasca luare aminte a Majestăţii Voastre asupra primejdiilor ce rezultă pentru Patria comună din actuala politică de stat şi să aducem la cunoştinţa Majestăţii Voastre faptele în urma cărora Românii, cei mai credincioşi şi mai răbdători dintre cetăţenii Monarchiei, s-au văzut siliţi a renunţa, deocamdată, la exercitarea celor mai mari dintre drepturile, pe cari le au din îndurarea Maiestăţii Voastre, drept răsplată pentru jertfele de avere şi de sânge, pe cari le-au adus întru gloria Casei Domnitoare şi pentru Monarchie.
În anii 1866-1868, dorind o mai fericită convieţuire a popoarelor adunate sub ocrotirea Maiestăţii Voastre, V-aţi îndurat preagraţios a consimţi ca guvernarea Monarchiei să fie aşezată pe bazele Dualismului.
Românii au întâmpinat cu îngrijorare această reformă radicală a sistemului de guvernare, deoarece pregătirile făcute pentru această nouă organizare, indicau înclinarea spre o politică internă greşită şi primejdioasă.
Greşită şi primejdioasă, zicem, fiindcă în viaţa de stat e greşală primejdioasă orice încercare spre o desvoltare retrogresivă, făcută prin răpirea drepturilor câştigate. În desvoltarea istorică a vieţii statului nostru s-au cimentat în scurgerea secolelor drepturile deosebitelor popoare ce constituiesc Monarchia, iar desrobirea făcută după tristele evenimente dela 1848 aducea cu sine în mod firesc nu numai asigurarea acestor drepturi din partea statului ci totodată şi aplicarea lor în viaţa practică, conform cuvintelor dreptăţii şi egalităţii. Şi era de prevăzut, că sub noul sistem de guvernare, exercitarea drepturilor câştigate ar fi aproape imposibilă.
Românii, popor iubitor de ordine, şi plin de încredere în părinteasca priveghere a Majestăţii Voastre, au primit cu supunere noua stare de lucruri.
Prea curând însă au trebuit să se încredinţeze că, în cercurile conducătoare, pretutindenea e încurajară tendinţa de a face, printr-o falsă aplicare a formelor constituţionale, iluzorii drepturile sancţionate de Majestatea Voastră din plină putere Monarchică.
În ciuda solemnelor promisiuni de a satisface toate naţionalităţile, prin respectarea drepturilor odată câştigate, deodată cu noul sistem de guvernare s-a inaugurat în Regatul Ungar şi dominaţiunea de rasă, egemonia naţională artificială.
Străduinţele pentru asigurarea acestei egemonii naţionale au predominat întreaga noastră viaţă constituţională în timpul ultimilor 25 de ani.
Această politică de stat e diametral opusă cu desvoltarea vieţii noastre politice şi istorice de peste o mie de ani, în contrazicere cu aspiraţiunile politice tradiţionale ale poporului Român şi cu interesele lui de existenţă naţională, opusă şi cu cerinţele organizaţiunilor constituţionale ale statelor moderne.
Istoria ne e martoră, că în viaţa milenară a statului nostru şi în desvoltarea lui istorică relaţiunile de popor cuceritor şi cucerit, ca principiu de drept public, n-au existat niciodată, n-a existat deci nici dominaţiune politică naţională.
Toate frecuşurile, cari au eşit la iveală în viaţa socială şi în relaţiunile vieţii legislative a statului, se reduc la acţiunea pornită pe la anii 1790-1791 şi la reacţiunea provocată de acea acţiune. Ea se prezintă ca o fază a luptei pentru existenţa şi asigurarea naţională la popoarele ce compun acest regat.
Poporul Român, atunci, ca în totdeauna, în baza dreptului său istoric milenar şi în virtutea importanţei ce i se cuvine, din punctul de vedere al numărul fiilor săi, al poziţiunii sale etnice şi geografice, precum şi a calităţilor sale, a nizuit spre validitarea drepturilor sale naţionale.
Paşii făcuţi în anii 1696, 1700, 1790 şi 1791, atitudinea din 1848, precum şi toate insistările de până la inaugurarea sistemului actual, sunt totatâtea dovezi, că a stăruit asupra acestor drepturi şi că în toate manifestările aspiraţiunilor lui a dominat ca idee fundamentală şi ca ţintă de realizare validitarea individualităţii sale naţionale ca factor de stat. Dreptul istoric, întocmai ca dreptul public al Transilvaniei, legile fundamentale, "Pragmatica Sancţiune" asigură autonomia Transilvaniei într-o formă inatacabilă şi poporul român, mai ales după proclamarea egalei îndreptăţiri la 1848 şi după desvoltarea făcută în anii 1863-1865 în dreptul public, avea în acest act preţios, suprema garanţie pentru viaţa naţională română pe viitor şi aspiraţiunile lui naţionale culminau în această autonomie.
Contrar prevederilor politice dominante într-un şir de secole, autonomia a fost, prin uniune, nimicită, într-o formă nejustă, contrară dreptului public şi drepturilor elementelor libere, cari constituesc Transilvania şi fără considerare la poziţiunea etnică şi geografică şi la desvoltarea ei specifică, cari toate reclamă cu insistenţă această autonomie.
Prin acest act, poporul român se simte vătămat în drepturile sale istorice şi naţionale, pentrucă: a) Uniunea s-a enunţat fără participarea românilor într-o formă corespunzătoare cu numărul lor şi cu însemnătatea lor în această ţară - s-a enunţat prin o dietă, care ca atare, îşi avea reprezentanţii săi pe baza legilor electorale din anii 1790-1791 şi a legilor din anul 1848, adecă a legilor din timpul întunecosului feudalism, relativ la care însuşi Majestatea Voastră, V-aţi îndurat a accentua în discursul de Tron dela 15 Iunie 1863 următoarele:
"Acea parte a Constituţiunii avitice a marelui Principat Transilvania, care priveşte compunerea Dietei, s-a schimbat în urma ştergerii stării excepţionale a nobilimei, a robotelor şi a prestaţiilor urbariale şi în urma stabilirii egalităţii de datorii şi de drepturi civile pentru toate clasele locuitorilor ţării, atât de esenţial, încât o Dietă convocată pe baza Art. XI. al Legii din anul 1790-91, prin care ar fi exclusă cea mai mare parte a poporului dela exercitarea drepturilor civice politice în contra adevăratelor interese ale ţării, nici nu ar putea să fie privită ca o adevărată reprezentaţiune a poporaţiunii întregi din toată ţara, fără deosebire de stare, de naştere, de naţionalitate şi de religiune, care posedă autoritatea morală neapărat trebuincioasă, pentruca atât treburile din lăuntru ale Transilvaniei să le rezolve spre mulţumirea tuturor naţiunilor conlocuitoare în ea, cât şi în privinţa relaţiunilor de drept public ale aceleia către întreaga Monarchie să aducă la îndeplinire intenţiile noastre de părinte al ţării de repeţite ori respicata.
Iar, "Fiindcă uniunea Transilvaniei cu Ungaria, conclusă în anul 1848, nu s-a înfiinţat niciodată cu deplină putere legală şi de fapt îndată s-a desfăcut, am lăsat neatinse decisiunile Noastre dela 20 Octombrie 1860 şi am ordonat numai restaurarea reprezentaţiunii regnicolare a Transilvaniei."
b) Vătămat se simte, de altă parte poporul român prin această uniune, pentrucă prin acel act s-a lucrat la efectuirea unei fuziuni fără considerare a legilor ce garantează autonomia acestei ţări.
Uniunea şi inaugurarea ei prin Art. 43 al legii din 1868 sunt desconsiderarea făţişă a tuturor drepturilor poporului român ca element, care compune în absolută majoritate vechea Transilvanie, precum şi a tuturor legilor fundamentale, cari asigură autonomia acestui principat, sunt înlăturarea totală a elementului român şi o nedreptate atât din punct de vedere legislativ şi juridic cât şi din cel politic.
Ajungând, prin sistemul dualist şi prin uniune puterea statului în mâinile elementului maghiar, acesta nesocotind interesele comune, a urmărit numai asigurarea egemoniei sale şi unificarea naţională maghiară, şi toate legile create de atunci, cât şi executarea lor, adeveresc mersul spre povârniş.
Drept ilustrare a acestui trist adevăr ne luăm voe a aprecia în linii generale, câteva din aceste legi, ca: Legea electorală, legea pentru egala îndreptăţire a naţionalităţilor, legile şcolare, legea municipală, legea de presă şi legile agrare.
În continuare memoriul demonstrează toate nedreptăţile ce s-au făcut românilor prin legile indicate, cum şi-au bătut joc de elementul românesc, atât pe teren politic, economic, cultural, cât şi naţional. Prin descrierea Legii electorale memorandul demonstrează cum s-au răpit drepturile cetăţeneşti şi politice ale românilor. 90 la sută din alegătorii români au fost excluşi dela dreptul de vot, pentru a putea fi majoraţi de ungurii în minoritate etnică.
Cu privire la prigoana bisericei şi şcolii româneşti - dupăce face o amănunţită descriere a actelor de guvernământ, cari stingheresc aceste instituţii - declară:
"Majestatea Voastră! Românii şi-au păstrat naţionalitatea în cele mai grele timpuri şi o vor păstra şi în lupta cu actualul sistem de guvernământ. Lupta îi opreşte însă în desvoltarea lor firească, îi umple de amărăciune şi-i înstreinează din ce în ce mai mult de concetăţenii lor maghiari, cari, seduşi şi preocupaţi de idealuri nerealizabile, au pierdut simţul comunităţii de interese, care leagă pe popoarele adunate sub ocrotirea Majestăţii Voastre şi risipesc puterile statului în opintiri zadarnice pentru anularea a tot ce nu e maghiar în statul ungar. Din datorie cetăţenească protestăm împotriva acestor opintiri, având conştiinţa că această datorie ne-am făcut-o în toate împrejurările şi nu ni se poate imputa că am încurajat guvernul să meargă spre prăpastia spre care se apropie, că nu i-am atras atenţia la timp asupra acestui mare pericol."
Privitor la Legea de presă constată: că "în timp ce nici un ziar maghiar nu a fost sancţionat pentru ura de rasă ce o provoacă încontin, pentru combaterea bunei înţelegeri şi aţâţarea la ură între popoarele conlocuitoare din Monarchie, ziarele româneşti ca "Federaţiunea", "Albina", "Observatorul", "Gazeta Transilvaniei", "Tribuna" şi "Rumenische Revue" au fost condamnate de Tribunale şi curţile cu juraţii pentrucă au desaprobat procedurile ilegale şi au combătut aţâţarea la ură a ziarelor maghiare. Ba a fost condamnat şi un deputat român pentrucă a făcut o circulară către alegătorii lui. Într-un singur an au fost înscenate şapte procese de presă ziarelor româneşti, pentrucă au atras atenţiunea celor în drept asupra gravei situaţii în care ajunge ţara prin permanenta aţâţare la ură contra românilor. Nu a fost cruţat nici Generalul deputat Traian Doda, fiind condamnat la doi ani închisoare şi o mie de galbeni amendă pentru un manifest electoral. Un procuror "regal" a declarat cu prilejul unui proces de presă că devotamentul faţă de împărat nu este patriotism şi a insultat decoraţiunea oferită de Maiestatea Voastră grănicerilor dela Năsăud, spunând că faptele pentru cari au primit această decoraţiune sunt o pată ruşinoasă, care nu se va şterge în veci de pe obrazul poporului valach."
În "Politica Agrară" memorandul descrie cum au fost jefuiţi românii de către magnaţi de pământurile lor, apoi continuă:
"Majestatea Voastră! în cele două decenii, dela 1849 până la 1866 Românii au câştigat, în tocmai ca celelalte popoare asuprite ale Monarchiei, o serie de drepturi şi de garantii pentru desvoltarea lor naţională. Deşi în tratatele dualiste s-a stabilit respectarea acestor drepturi şi garantarea lor prin constituţie, totuşi experienţa a produs în inima românilor convingerea, că elementele ridicate prin falşa aplicare a Constituţiei, în fruntea statului, nu respectă drepturile acordate de majestatea Voastră, ci din ambiţie naţională legiferează răpirea drepturilor acestora. Călcarea angajamentelor, ascunderea adevărului asupra relaţiunilor interne, reaua credinţă în compunerea legilor şi aplicarea lor, proclamarea arbitrarului şi violului ca axiomă de stat, a devenit principiu de stat în Ungaria şi legile făcute dau drept unei minorităţi gălăgioase să asuprească majoritatea compusă din elemente muncitoare şi credincioase monarchiei."
În concluzie Memorandul subliniază: "Ori cât de indispensabilă trebue să pară pentru fiecare patriot o schimbare salutară, totuşi românii în conferinţa lor, faţă cu turnura ce o iau evenimentele, se simt constrânşi a face o dureroasă mărturisire, că şi-au pierdut încrederea faţă de regimul maghiar şi faţă de parlamentarismul lor. Românii cred că asanarea marelui rău arătat nu-o poate aştepta decât dela intervenţia celuilalt factor suprem: Coroana, care reprezentând cele mai înalte interese de stat are menirea de a se intercala între cetăţeni, atunci când statul ajunge într-o stare în care organismul său este ameninţat să se destrame.
Pătrunşi de dorul păcii, pe care de mult nu o mai avem, îngrijoraţi de soarta patriei şi plini de încredere în înţelepciunea şi părintrasca solicitudine a Majestăţii Voastre, Românii se mângăe cu speranţa, că şi de data aceasta, ca de atâtea ori, se va adeveri tradiţionala lor credinţă că vindecarea relelor şi împăciuirea inimilor numai dela Tron poate veni în cele din urmă, căci inimile sunt ale Monarchului şi ele sunt plenitudinea puterii.
Ai Maiestăţii Voastre cei mai credincioşi supuşi: Comitetul Adunării generale a reprezentanţilor alegătorilor români din Transilvania şi Ungaria ales pentru redactarea memorandului.
Sibiu, 26 martie 1892.
Dr. Ioan Raţiu preşedinte,
Gheorghe Pop de Băseşti, vicepreşedinte, Eugen Brote, vicepreşedinte, Dr. Vasile Lucaciu, secretar general, Septimiu Albini secretar.
Comitetul se mai compune din următorii: Dr. D. P. Barcianu, Dr. Teodor Mihali, Vasile Ignat, Alexandru Filip, Ludovic Ciato, Patrichie Barbu, Dr. I. Tripon, Nicolae Cristea, Gavril Manu, Dimitri Comşa, Aurel Suciu, Dr. I Nichita, Mihai Veliciu, Gavril Lazăr, Dr. Iuliu Mera, Gherasim Domide, Dr. A. Popovici, Rubin Patiţa, Iuliu Coroianu şi Vasile Raţiu.
Memorandiştii au pornit în revendicările lor de la afirmarea drepturilor istorice ale românilor bazată pe importanţa lor etnică din Transilvania (aprox. 65% din populaţia Transilvaniei), numerică (3 milioane de români la totalul de 13 milioane al Regatului Maghiar) şi economică (în aproximativ 65% din totalul teritoriului românii stăpâneau proprietate privată, pentru care plăteau dări la stat). Totodată, se pune accent pe „jertfa de sânge” pe care au dat-o românii pentru apărarea ţării, precum şi pe aspiraţiile culturale. Prin acestă petiţie s-a criticat foarte aspru sistemul legislativ al Ungariei, în special legea de deznaţionalizare şi legea electorală, precum şi aşa-numita „lege pentru egala îndreptăţire a naţionalităţilor”, care afirma existenţa unei singure naţiuni, cea maghiară.
„Faţă de toţi acuzaţii condamnaţi se constată caracterul periculos al delictului de agitaţie, atacându-se valabilitatea puterii obligatorii a uneia dintre cele mai cardinale legi fundamentale ale Ungariei, a legii numite Legea Uniunii, prin care s-a decretat uniunea vechiului Ardeal cu Ungaria propriu-zisă [...] Instanţa a găsit că pedeapsa aplicată acuzaţilor este în consonanţă cu gravitatea infracţiunii comise”
Sentinţa de condamnare a memorandiştilor din 25 mai 1894
Se arată că în cei 25 de ani de dualism, autorităţile maghiare au adus grave prejudicii atât românilor, cât şi celorlalte naţiuni din Imperiu. În concluzie, memorandiştii solicită ca „în formă egală legală şi prin concursul factorilor competenţi sistemul de guvernare să fie reformat în patria noastră, astfel ca să asigure drepturile odată câştigate şi să ţină seama de interesele legitime ale tuturor popoarelor care compun statul maghiar”.
Trimiterea în judecată a fruntaşilor ardeleni. Graţierea
Iniţial, guvernul de la Budapesta nu a luat nici o măsură împotriva memorandiştilor pentru a nu periclita reînnoirea Tratatului de asociere a României la Tripla Alianţă din 1883. În toată acestă perioadă are loc o amplă acţiune de solidarizare în străinătate cu românii din Transilvania, poate şi din prisma faptului că autorii au tradus documentul în limbile de circulaţie internaţională, făcându-l cunoscut peste hotare. După ce Tratatul secret cu Austro-Ungaria este prelungit pe 13 iulie 1892, autorităţile maghiare deschid acţiune juridică împotriva Comitetului Naţional Român şi altor fruntaşi ardeleni în mai 1893, sub acuzaţia de atentat împotriva statului maghiar. Procesul s-a desfăşurat la Cluj, între 25 aprilie şi 7 mai 1894 şi s-a încheiat cu condamnarea a 14 fruntaşi memorandişti la o pedeapsă cumulată de 31 de ani şi 18 luni de închisoare.
Acest rezultat a stârnit imediat protestul oamenilor politici din Vechiul Regat, dar şi ale unor personalităţi din străinătate, precum William Gladstone, Georges Clemeanceau, Emile Zola, Lev Tolstoi etc. Guvernul maghiar nu îşi revizuieşte decizia în pofida tuturor protestelor, iar pe 16 iulie 1894 interzice activitatea PNR. În cele din urmă, cel care îi va graţia pe memorandişti la 19 septembrie 1895 va fi însuşi împăratul Franz Joseph ca urmare a presiunii imense la care era supus din partea opiniei publice, dar şi datorită intervenţiei diplomatice a regelui Carol I pe lângă Curtea de la Viena.
Mişcarea memorandistă a fost cea mai importantă acţiune naţională care a pregătit Marea Unire de la 1918. A îndreptat linia tactică a Partidului Naţional Român spre activismul politic şi a întărit sentimentul naţional împotriva dualismului austro-ungar, proiectând problema românească în conştiinţa europeană. De asemenea, începând din acest moment, relaţiile româno-austro-ungare încep să se deterioreze treptat, culminând cu decizia Consiliul de Coroană din 21 iulie 1914 de a rămâne neutră în „Marele Război”, deşi România avea tratat de alianţă cu Austro-Ungaria.