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About a week after dry assembly, two stringers started to crack along weak grain lines. This was not where they had been steam bent.
Repaired by wicking in epoxy then binding with string.
Please don't use this image on websites, blogs or other media without my written permission.
License available via Getty Images clicking on the link located in the right bottom corner of this page.
© Fon-tina. All rights reserved
BLE #904 South holds short of the grade crossing at Waldo with U-797. The radio control switch at Waldo would not clear and the conductor tried for 20 minutes to get it to clear to no avail. After the dispatcher talked them through the red, the crew was able to complete their run down the hill into Two Harbors.
A Bienal de Berlim deixa na memória a marca de uma curadoria ambígua e por vezes egocêntrica, que celebra a transgressão, mas esbarra por isso nos limites do próprio sistema. Apesar de aparentemente ingênua, uma mostra que se propôs a correr riscos, ao contrário da maioria das grandes exposições do gênero.
Quando um artista decide realizar uma ação em um contexto que não o da arte propriamente dita, ele imediatamente tem diante de si alguns dilemas a enfrentar. O primeiro e mais importante deles é: qual a presença que este “evento” terá no circuito de museus, galerias e espaços culturais do qual depende e que lhe dará legitimidade? E depois, como manter e exibir a potência que ele experimentou no espaço não-institucionalizado? Outros problemas decorrem destes. Como evitar que esta “representação” assuma imediatamente o caráter de um mero registro, ou de simples objeto de uso e consumo? O que fazer para evitar que parte de sua natureza real, instável e sedutora não se perca, o que abre rapidamente espaço para sua comoditização?
Com a sétima edição da Bienal de Berlim, cujo mote é Forget Fear (Esqueça o medo), o sistema da arte contemporânea internacional mais uma vez se depara com antigos fantasmas, notadamente em torno das tensões entre arte e política, de modo geral, mas também da espetacularização de seus agentes, formas e materiais, da dificuldade em fazer frente ao poder instituído e tradicional de governos e empresas, da sedução pela fama individual versus a opção pelo trabalho coletivo, do risco de teatralizar suas propostas e esvaziar sua potência.
Objetivo alcançado ou fracasso absoluto?
Aumentar
Seu curador, o artista polonês radicado em Berlim Artur Zmijewski, enfrentou desde o início da mostra, em 27 de abril, o desafio de, justamente, abolir estas fronteiras e oferecer novos modelos e alternativas – ou pelo menos abrir caminho e espaço para que surgissem por conta própria. Passados dois meses, próximo ao final do projeto (no dia 1o de julho), permanece uma dúvida que pode ser entendida, ela também, como parte de uma estratégia do artista-curador: não sabemos se seus objetivos foram alcançados, uma vez que a repercussão da mostra é inegável, dentro e fora da Alemanha; ou se estamos diante de um fracasso absoluto, que é o que disse a maior parte da imprensa e da crítica.
Ou seja, não parece haver meio termo possível para uma Bienal como esta, que ocupou e foi ocupada. A polêmica presença das ações artísticas, que decidiram se manifestar para além do espaço delimitado, é prova de ânimos conflagrados – e que foram a sua marca desde pelo menos o anúncio de que Zmijewski iria ser o curador, já que o artista costuma ser acusado de hipocrisia e demagogia, uma vez que suas ações no campo artístico são responsáveis por lhe garantir projeção instantânea.
Desde o início da mostra, a instalação pública da artista macedônia Nada Prlja, Peace Wall, foi criticada por alegadamente estar obstruindo a passagem de pedestres e entregas comerciais na Friedrichstrasse, bairro de Kreuzberg, até que a obra passou a ser duramente atacada e a artista decidiu retirá-la, no dia 15 de junho, antes do término do evento, como previsto. Seu “muro da paz”, uma estrutura de madeira de 12 metros de comprimento por 5 metros de largura, estava posicionado próximo ao histórico posto militar Checkpoint Charlie, mas se referia a uma divisão mais recente: a da parte rica, ao norte, repleta de lojas e restaurantes da moda; e a pobre, no extremo sul da mesma rua, onde a maior parte de moradores é de imigrantes e seus descendentes em dificuldades sociais.
Subversão e transgressão – com regras e limites
Já o grupo de pichadores brasileiros, chamado pela Bienal de Movimento Pixação, exemplifica outra postura ambígua por parte da curadoria: a de convidar “oficialmente” indivíduos e grupos, cuja postura política, social e artística é marcada pela subverssão das regras institucionais e pela não-submissão a estatutos de conduta, caso é o caso também do movimento Occupy Museums, que depois de invadir o MoMA e o Lincoln Center no final do ano passado, liderado pelo artista norte-americano Noah Fischer, participa agora da Bienal como convidado. Os pichadores, de quem era esperado que oferecesse um “workshop de pixação” no dia 9 de junho, na Igreja de Santa Elisabeth, da década de 1830, se rebelaram contra a proposta de ensinar uma prática que consideram subversiva, passando então a pichar os muros da igreja. O espaço foi fechado e a Bienal terá de pagar pelo restauro das paredes danificadas. Houve uma discussão entre o pichador Djan Ivson Silva, conhecido como Cripta, e o curador. Ao final, Zmijewski, que teria atirado um balde de água no brasileiro, foi atingido por jatos de tinta amarela.
Novamente, a postura da curadoria foi contraditória em relação ao próprio partido da exposição. Segundo Zmijewski, os pichadores haviam sido alertados de que não era permitido fazer inscrições para além dos painéis de madeira ali instalados para tanto. Parece ingênuo acreditar que uma prática marcada justamente pela transgressão às regras vá respeitá-las por estarem em um contexto artístico, de resto em um lugar que eles abertamente rejeitam. Já a ideia de instituir alguma pedagogia para ensinar a pichar, com workshops em plena Berlim, é um disparate.
Para além da zona de conforto
Aumentar
A construção desta situação e o modo como foi conduzida diz muito sobre a posição de Zmijewski no sistema da arte e o papel que ele assumiu na Bienal de Berlim, em que se via muitas vezes nitidamente desconfortável. Apesar de terem ficado amplamente conhecidos filmes seus que chocam o espectador (caso de Them e The Game of Tag, este censurado em outras ocasiões por mostrar um grupo de pessoas nuas brincando de pega-pega em uma locação de câmera de gás, e agora exposto na Bienal), ele é na verdade um profissional mais da ambiguidade que da polêmica.
Suas performances parecem racionalmente concebidas para confrontar a arte da maneira como ela está estabelecida, particularmente seu circuito e as engrenagens institucionais que o mantém em funcionamento. Da mesma forma que Joseph Beuys (como assinala Zoran Terzic em The Felt Revolution), Zmijewski parece estar sempre falando no modo “eu”, mesmo quando fala em “nós” no sentido de que suas ações sempre se voltam para sua própria linguagem e discurso – e dele dependem totalmente para circular pelo mundo da arte, dar alguma voltas, bater contra paredes, mas então concluir seu percurso curiosamente no mesmo ponto que parece ter sido o mesmo de origem.
Aumentar Este paradoxo, que parece ser compartilhado por esta edição da Bienal, pode ser colocado deste modo: estamos diante de algo “legítimo”, sincero se não com o circuito que o sustenta, pelo menos com o público; ou então vemos um objeto que apenas estetiza e torna ainda mais espetacular as tragédias e contradições do nosso tempo? Não há uma resposta pronta para este dilema em que a Bienal se colocou – em parte por vontade de seus curadores, em parte pelo cinismo permissivo do circuito global das artes visuais. Com o rosto contra a parede, o alcance da nossa visão fica limitado, mas resta ainda certa mobilidade que nos faz ligeiramente estranhar o fato de o próprio Zmejewiski ter aproveitado a ocasião de estar à frente de um projeto coletivo para inserir nele um trabalho de sua autoria – e novamente podemos invocar as críticas feitas a Beuys: “eu” ou “nós”?.
Na saída do Kunst-Werke, ainda com imagens e ideias revolucionárias em mente, o visitante pode passar na lojinha da Bienal e comprar a edição especial de um caderno de notas Moleskine criado especialmente por Pawel Althamer, ao preço de 14 euros. Batizado Draftsmen’s Congress, a seção shop do site da Bienal oferece ainda a venda de cópias personalizadas pelo artista polonês, ao custo de 165 euros. Apesar de suas inevitáveis contradições, que não se furtou a enfrentar, a curadoria desta Bienal de Berlim mostrou vigor e deixou a impressão de que existe, sim, um lugar para uma ideia de arte que não seja absolutamente conivente ou negligente com ela mesma, seu circuito e as esferas sociais e políticas de nosso tempo. E, mesmo que pareça muitas vezes ingênua e quixotesca, ao fim não se pode dizer que esta Bienal de Berlim não se propôs a correr riscos, a sair da zona de conforto em que se colocam a maioria das grandes exposições bienais pelo mundo hoje.
Fernando Oliva
é curador, pesquisador e docente (Faap e Faculdade Santa Marcelina, São Paulo). Integra o Conselho Curatorial do Videobrasil e editou o Caderno Videobrasil 6. Foi diretor de curadoria do Centro Cultural São Paulo e curador responsável por exposições no MAM-SP e na Galeria Vermelho.
The problem of affording to house society's working classes with dignity and comfort has been at the subject of much architectural theorising during the 20th Century, from the Constructivist communal hosuing experiements in 1920s Soviet Union, to Le Corbusier's Unite D'Habitation in Marseille www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Unite_d_Habitation.html to the many experimental housing complexes, successful and unsuccessful, across big cities of Western Europe. Amid subsequent demolition of so many of these "utopian" living experiments, the building of social housing has been scaled back.
Even in China, "Communist" in name only these days, many city governments, such as in Guangzhou, have largely handed over housing construction to private developers and individuals in the last ten years. Many garden suburbs and chic high-rise developments have appeared to house those with money to invest in the property market, yet with such rapid urbanisation, the market economy and lack of appropriate planning enforcement has also given rise to dense slum-like regions throughout the city, with little daylight and often high crime rates.
A Chinese architectural comapny based in nearby Shenzhen called Urbanus www.urbanus.com.cn/residential-05044.html recently came up with another solution, based on the traditional circular houses of Fujian Province, the "Tulou", self-contained mud-covered "villages" based around a communal central courtyard en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujian_Tulou. This urban tulou also functions as a small village, with a shop, restaurant, library, internet bar, and even some ping-pong tables (...well, this IS China).
The urban tulou has around 200 units with each unit utilising its 30 sq meters of space to pack in two small bedrooms, and a living room-kitchen. Each unit rents for 500 yuan a month, somewhat lower than the market rate for a new-build apartment complex. If each unit sleeps 5 people (2 couples and someone on the sofa), each paying only 120 Yuan per month, the tulou could hold up to 1000 at full capacity.
Only built for six months, half the units in the urban tulou are still un-let, with only around 300 people living there, some are recent graduates waiting to find their first job, some are migrant workers from other provinces. All are screened to make sure the qualify as low-income.
I went to check it out, and walking around, my impression of it was a safe, clean, quiet, friendly place, with many doors left open if residents were at home. With the prototype built, the architecture company has plans for similar tulous throughout Chinese cities. Is this the answer to China's housing shortages, or is it destined to become another "utopian" experiment loved more by architects than its residents ?
Girls already cooling their feet in the Vancouver Art Gallery water fountain have bottle pointed out to them by their friend, sitting down.
This is the wheel of an old Gold mining rock crushing or Battery Stamp in the middle of the township of Stanley, Victoria.
A lot of locals wouldn't know this exists, I do because I used to swim in the pond in the late fifties, early 1960's, , I was born in 1955, so it would have probably been after 1959, and our family left the area in 1964,so it was before then. The water we swam in was to the right of this wheel.
Behind here was the old Stanley Mill that Joan Kirner closed down back in time her time in Government.
This wheel turned the cams that were on it, raising and lowering long rods that had weights at the top and dollies at the bottom, the dollies used to drop down and crush the quartz ore in the bottom of the battery plant and that's part of the process of how they extracted the gold out of the ore.
Here is the Google street view, it is just to the left of the pole, in behind the bushes in a small hidden gully, only problem here is you advance Google Street forward it misses half of Stanley. ... ... www.google.com.au/maps/@-36.402448,146.752604,3a,75y,20.0...
Here is is in Google satellite view, it is in the middle of the picture, hidden in the clump of bushes that hide the small gully it sits in, it's on the right hand side of Main St, between the dirt driveway on the left and the winding driveway on the right of Main St, ... ... www.google.com.au/maps/@-36.4021327,146.7524702,165m/data...
Santuario Nuestra Señora de Juquila,Santa Catarina Juquila,Estado de Oaxaca,México
Fotos por Cortesia de Mayte Campos para Catedrale se Iglesias
Parroquia de Santa Catarina Juquila
Pbro. Alberto Pacheco Quiroz
Plaza Principal
Zona Centro
C.P. 70900
Tel. 01 954 52 400 21
Santa Catarina Juquila,
Estado de Oaxaca
México
Visita la Pagina Facebook y da clik en me gusta
www.facebook.com/catedralesiglesias
© Álbum 0068
By Catedrales e Iglesias
By Cathedrals and Churches
By Catedrais e Igrejas
Par Cathédrales et Eglises
Diócesis de Oaxaca
ORACION DE LOS PEREGRINOS
Madre querida, virgen de Juquila, virgen de nuestra esperanza, tuya es nuestra vida, cuidanos de todo mal. Si este mundo de injusticias, de miseria y pecado, ves que nuestra vida se turba, no nos abandones Madre querida. Protege a los peregrinos, acompáñalos por todos los caminos, vela por los caminos, vela por los pobres sin sustento y el pan que se les quita retribuyéndoselos. Acompañanos en toda nuestra vida y libéranos de todo tipo de pecado (HACER PETICION). Doy gracias a Dios y a la Virgen de Juquila por los favores recibidos.
Rece nueve días esta oración y publíquela al noveno día, pida tres deseos, uno de negocios y dos imposibles. Al noveno día de haber publicado la oración, se le cumplirá lo pedido, aunque no lo crea.
GRACIAS VIRGEN DE SANTA CATARINA JUQUILA OAXACA
ORACION PARA EL TRABAJO
Virgen de Juquila, intercesora en todo problema difícil,
consígueme un trabajo en el que me realice como humano,
y que a mi familia no le falte lo suficiente en ningún aspecto de la vida.
Que lo conserve a pesar de las circunstancias y personas adversas.
Que en él progrese, mejorando siempre mi calidad y gozando de salud y fuerzas.
Y que día a día trate de ser útil a cuantos me rodean.
Asocio tu intersección a la Sagrada familia, de la cuál eres pariente y prometo
difundir tu devoción como expresión de mi gratitud a tus favores.
Amén.
ORACION DE LOS ESPOSOS Y LA FAMILIA
Señor: Haz de nuestro hogar un sitio de Tu amor
que no haya injuria, porque Tú nos das comprensión.
Que no haya amargura porque Tú nos bendices.
Que no haya egoísmos porque Tú nos alientas a dar.
Que no haya rencor porque Tú nos das el perdón.
Que no haya abandono porque Tú estás con nosotros.
Que sepamos marchar hacia Tí en nuestro diario vivir.
Que cada mañana amanezca un día más de entrega y sacrificio.
Que cada noche nos encuentres con más amor de esposos.
Haz Señor de nuestras vidas que quisiste unir, una página llena de tí.
Haz Señor de nuestros hijos lo que tú anhelas; ayúdanos a educar,
a orientar por tu camino.
Que nos esforcemos en el consuelo mutuo.
Que hagamos del amor un motivo para amarte más.
Que demos lo mejor de nosotros para ser felices en el hogar.
Que cuando amanezca el gran día de ir a tu encuentro,
nos concedas el hallarnos para siempre en tí. Amén.
ORACION PARA LOS CASOS DIFICILES
Madre Querida, Virgen de Juquila, Virgen de nuestra esperanza,
Tuya es nuestra vida, cuídanos de todo mal.
Si en este mundo de injusticias, de miseria y pecado
ves que nuestra vida se turba, no nos abandones.
Madre Querida, protege a los peregrinos,
acompañamos por todos los caminos, vela por los pobres sin sustento
y el pan que se les quita retribúyeselos.
Acompáñanos en toda nuestra vida y libéranos de todo tipo de pecado. Amén.
---- (hacer petición) -----
Doy gracias a la Virgen de Juquila, por los favores recibidos.
Rece los 9 días esta oración y publíquela al noveno día, nueve
Ave Marías durante nueve días.
Pida tres deseos. Uno de negocios, dos imposibles.
Al noveno día publique esta oración y se cumplicará aunque no lo crea.
Amén.
PRAYER OF THE PILGRIMS
Dear Mother, Juquila virgin, virgin of our hope, yours is our life, watch over us from evil. If this world of injustice, misery and sin, you see that your life is troubled, do not abandon us dear Mother. Protect pilgrims accompany them on all the roads, sailing along the roads, sailing for the poor without sustenance and bread that is removed retribuyéndoselos. Join us throughout our lives and free us from all sin (MAKE REQUEST). I thank God and Our Lady of Juquila for favors received.
Say this prayer nine days and publish the ninth day, have three wishes, one business and two impossible. On the ninth day of publishing the prayer, you will comply with the order, believe it or not.
THANKS LADY OF OAXACA Santa Catarina Juquila
PRAYER FOR THE JOB
Virgin Juquila advocate throughout difficult problem,
get me a job where I do as a human,
and that my family does not miss enough in any aspect of life.
Store it in spite of adverse circumstances and people.
That it progresses, improving quality and always enjoy my health and strength.
And that every day try to be helpful to those around me.
Associate your intersection to the Holy family, which are relative and promise
Share your devotion as an expression of my gratitude for your favors.
Amen.
PRAYER OF THE SPOUSES AND FAMILY
Lord, Make our home a place of your love
there is no injury, because you give us understanding.
Let there be no bitterness that You bless us.
Let there be selfish because you encourage it to give us.
Let there be no bitterness because you give us forgiveness.
Let there be no abandonment because You are with us.
To our knowledge go to You in our daily lives.
Every morning dawns another day of dedication and sacrifice.
Every night we find more love of spouses.
Ask the Lord of our lives we wanted to merge, a page full of you.
Ask the Lord of our children what you crave, help us to educate,
to guide your way.
We strive in mutual consolation.
We do love a reason to love you more.
We give our best to be happy at home.
That when the big day dawns to go to meet you,
grant us the find us forever in you. Amen.
PRAYER FOR DIFFICULT CASES
Dear Mother, Our Lady of Juquila, Virgin of our hope,
Yours is our life, watch over us from evil.
If in this world of injustice, misery and sin
see that our life is troubled, do not abandon us.
Dear Mother, protect pilgrims,
accompanied by all roads, sailing without a livelihood for the poor
and the bread is removed retribúyeselos.
Join us throughout our lives and free us from all sin. Amen.
---- (Make request) -----
I thank the Virgin of Juquila, for favors received.
Say this prayer 9 days and publish on the ninth day, nine
Hail Marys for nine days.
Ask for three wishes. One business, two impossible.
On the ninth day post this cumplicará prayer and believe it or not.
Amen.
Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
Schweiz / Wallis - Matterhorn
seen on the way from Riffelsee to Riffelalp
gesehen auf dem Weg vom Riffelsee zur Riffelalp
The Matterhorn (/ˈmætərhɔːrn/, German: [ˈmatɐˌhɔʁn]; Italian: Cervino, [tʃerˈviːno]; French: Cervin, [sɛʁvɛ̃]; Romansh: Mont(e) Cervin(u)) is a mountain of the Alps, straddling the main watershed and border between Switzerland and Italy. It is a large, near-symmetric pyramidal peak in the extended Monte Rosa area of the Pennine Alps, whose summit is 4,478 metres (14,692 ft) high, making it one of the highest summits in the Alps and Europe. The four steep faces, rising above the surrounding glaciers, face the four compass points and are split by the Hörnli, Furggen, Leone/Lion, and Zmutt ridges. The mountain overlooks the Swiss town of Zermatt, in the canton of Valais, to the northeast; and the Italian town of Breuil-Cervinia in the Aosta Valley to the south. Just east of the Matterhorn is Theodul Pass, the main passage between the two valleys on its north and south sides, which has been a trade route since the Roman Era.
The Matterhorn was studied by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure in the late eighteenth century, and was followed by other renowned naturalists and artists, such as John Ruskin, in the 19th century. It remained unclimbed after most of the other great Alpine peaks had been attained and became the subject of an international competition for the summit. The first ascent of the Matterhorn was in 1865 from Zermatt by a party led by Edward Whymper, but during the descent, a sudden fall claimed the lives of four of the seven climbers. This disaster, later portrayed in several films, marked the end of the golden age of alpinism. The north face was not climbed until 1931 and is among the three biggest north faces of the Alps, known as "The Trilogy". The west face, the highest of the Matterhorn's four faces, was completely climbed only in 1962. It is estimated that over 500 alpinists have died on the Matterhorn, making it one of the deadliest peaks in the world.
The Matterhorn is mainly composed of gneisses (originally fragments of the African Plate before the Alpine orogeny) from the Dent Blanche nappe, lying over ophiolites and sedimentary rocks of the Penninic nappes. The mountain's current shape is the result of cirque erosion due to multiple glaciers diverging from the peak, such as the Matterhorn Glacier at the base of the north face. Sometimes referred to as the Mountain of Mountains (German: Berg der Berge), it has become an indelible emblem of the Alps in general. Since the end of the 19th century, when railways were built in the area, the mountain has attracted increasing numbers of visitors and climbers. Each year, numerous mountaineers try to climb the Matterhorn from the Hörnli Hut via the northeast Hörnli ridge, the most popular route to the summit. Many trekkers also undertake the 10-day-long circuit around the mountain. The Matterhorn has been part of the Swiss Federal Inventory of Natural Monuments since 1983.
Names
The name Matterhorn derives from the German words Matte ("meadow") and Horn ("horn"), and is often translated as "the peak of the meadows".
In the Schalbetter map, printed by Sebastian Münster in 1545, the valley is labelled Mattertal, but the mountain has the Latin name Mons Silvius as well as the German name Augstalberg, in concord with the Aosta Valley (German Augstal). The 1548 map by Johannes Stumpf gives only Mons Silvius.
The French name Cervin, from which the Italian term Cervino derives, stems from the Latin Mons Silvanus (or Mons Sylvanus), where silva means "forest"; this was corrupted to Selvin and then Servin. The change of the first letter "s" to "c" is attributed to Horace Bénédict de Saussure, who thought the word was related to "deer" (French: cerf and Italian: cervo).
Josias Simler hypothesized in De Alpibus Commentarius (1574) that the name Mons Silvius was readopted by T. G. Farinetti: "Silvius was probably a Roman leader who sojourned with his legions in the land of the Salassi and the Seduni, and perhaps crossed the Theodul Pass between these two places. This Silvius may have been that same Servius Galba whom Caesar charged with the opening up of the Alpine passes, which from that time onward traders have been wanting to cross with great danger and grave difficulty. Servius Galba, in order to carry out Caesar's orders, came with his legions from Allobroges (Savoy) to Octodurum (Martigny) in the Valais, and pitched his camp there. The passes which he had orders to open from there could be no other than the St. Bernard, the Simplon, the Theodul, and the Moro; it therefore seems likely that the name of Servius, whence Silvius and later Servin, or Cervin, was given in his honour to the famous pyramid." It is unknown when the new name of Servin, or Cervin, replaced the old, from which it seems to be derived.
The Matterhorn is also named Gran Bècca ("big mountain") by the Valdôtains and Horu by the local Walliser German speaking people.
Because of its recognizable shape, many other similar mountains around the world were named or nicknamed the 'Matterhorn' of their respective countries or mountain ranges.
Height
The Matterhorn has two distinct summits, situated at either end of a 100-metre-long (330 ft) exposed rocky crest which forms the Italian/Swiss border. In August 1792, the Genevan geologist and explorer Horace Bénédict de Saussure made the first measurement of the Matterhorn's height, using a sextant and a 50-foot-long (15 m) chain spread out on the Theodul glacier. He calculated its height as 4,501.7 m (14,769 ft). In 1868 the Italian engineer Felice Giordano measured a height of 4,505 m (14,780 ft) by means of a mercury barometer, which he had taken to the summit. The Dufour map, which was afterwards followed by the Italian surveyors, gave 4,482 m (14,705 ft) as the height of the Swiss summit.
In 1999, the summit height was precisely determined to be at 4,477.54 m (14,690 ft) above sea level by using Global Positioning System technology as part of the TOWER Project (Top of the World Elevations Remeasurement) and to an accuracy of less than one centimetre, which allows future changes to be tracked.
The topographic prominence of the Matterhorn is 1,042 metres (3,419 ft) as the ridge connecting it with a higher summit (in this case the Weisshorn, which is the culminating point of the range west of the Mattertal valley) sinks to a height of 3,436 m (11,273 ft) at the Col Durand, a saddle between the Pointe de Zinal and the Mont Durand. The topographic isolation is 13.9 km (8.6 mi), as the nearest point of higher elevation is the one-metre (3 ft 3 in) higher Western Liskamm
Considering mountains with a topographic prominence of at least 300 m (980 ft), the Matterhorn is the sixth-highest summit in the Alps and Europe outside the Caucasus Mountains. It is the fifth-highest summit of Valais and Switzerland and the third highest summit of the Aosta Valley and Italy. Locally, it is the third-highest summit in the municipality of Zermatt and the highest summit in the municipality of Valtournenche. On the official International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation list of Alpine four-thousanders, which also includes subsidiary summits of higher mountains such as the nearby Monte Rosa, the Matterhorn is the 12th highest summit in the Alps.
Geography
The Matterhorn has a pyramidal shape with four faces nearly facing the four compass points. Three of them (north, east and west) are on the Swiss side of the border and watershed (Mattertal valley) and one of them (south) is on the Italian side of the border (Valtournenche valley). The north face overlooks the Ober Gabelhorn (7 km away) across the Zmutt Glacier and valley (above Zermatt), the east face overlooks the Gorner Glacier system between the Gornergrat and Monte Rosa (respectively 10 and 17 km away) across the Theodul Pass, the west face overlooks the upper basin of the Zmutt Glacier between the Dent Blanche and the Dent d'Hérens (respectively 7 and 4 km away) and the south face fronts the resort town of Breuil-Cervinia and overlooks a good portion of the Valtournenche. The Matterhorn does not form a perfect square pyramid, as the north and south faces are wider than the west and east faces. Moreover, the latter faces do not actually meet on the summit but are connected by a 100-metre-long horizontal west–east ridge between the north and south faces.
The Matterhorn's faces are steep, and only small patches of snow and ice cling to them; regular avalanches send the snow down to accumulate on the glaciers at the base of each face, the largest of which are the Tiefmattengletscher to the west, part of the Zmutt Glacier, and the Matterhorn Glacier to the north. Smaller glaciers lie at the base of the south face (the Lower Matterhorn Glacier) and the east face (unnamed). In this area, the border between Switzerland and Italy coincides with the main Alpine watershed, separating the drainage basin of the Rhone on the north (Mediterranean Sea) and that of the Po on the south (Adriatic Sea). The north side is drained by the Zmuttbach (west and north faces) and the Gornera through the Furggbach (east face), tributaries of the Rhone through the (Matter) Vispa. The south side and face is drained by the Marmore torrent, a tributary of the Po through the Dora Baltea (or Doire baltée). The Theodul Pass, located on the watershed between the Matterhorn and the Breithorn, at 3,295 metres, is the easiest passage between the two valleys and countries (the slightly lower Furggjoch not being used as a pass). The pass was used as a crossover and trade route for the Romans and the Romanised Celtic population Salassi between 100 BCE and 400 CE. The area is now heavily glaciated and covered on the north side by the Theodul Glacier.
Well-known faces are the east and north, visible from the area of Zermatt, although mostly hidden from the Mattertal by the chain of the Weisshorn. The east face is 1,000 metres high and, because it is "a long, monotonous slope of rotten rocks", presents a high risk of rockfall, making its ascent dangerous. The north face is 1,200 metres high and is one of the most dangerous north faces in the Alps, in particular for its risk of rockfall and storms. The south face, well visible from the Valtournenche, is 1,350 metres high and offers many different routes. The west face, the highest at 1,400 metres, has the fewest ascent routes and lies in a more remote area than the other faces.
The four main ridges separating the four faces are the main climbing routes. The least difficult technical climb and the usual climbing route, the Hörnli ridge (Hörnligrat), lies between the east and north faces and is aligned towards the Oberrothorn above Zermatt. To its west lies the Zmutt ridge (Zmuttgrat), between the north and west faces and aligned towards the Wandfluehorn; this is, according to Collomb, "the classic route up the mountain, its longest ridge, also the most disjointed." The Lion ridge (Cresta del Leone / Arête du lion), lying between the south and west faces and aligned towards the Dent d'Hérens is the Italian normal route and goes across Pic Tyndall; Collomb comments, "A superb rock ridge, the shortest on the mountain, now draped with many fixed ropes, but a far superior climb compared with the Hörnli." Finally the south side is separated from the east side by the Furggen ridge (Furggengrat), which is aligned towards the Klein Matterhorn. It is, according to Collomb, "the hardest of the ridges [...] the ridge still has an awesome reputation but is not too difficult in good conditions by the indirect finish".
While the Matterhorn is the culminating point of the Valtournenche on the south, it is only one of the many 4000 metres summits of the Mattertal valley on the north. Its height is exceeded by four major summits: the Weisshorn (4,505 m), the Dom (4,545 m), the Liskamm (4,527 m) and the second-highest in the Alps, Monte Rosa (4,634 m). This section of the Pennine Alps, including the Matterhorn, the Zinalrothorn, the Dent Blanche, the Dent d'Hérens, the Breithorn, the Strahlhorn, the Rimpfischhorn and the Alphubel, concentrates most of western Europe's highest mountains and forms a crown of peaks around Zermatt. The deeply glaciated region between the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa (named Dent Blanche-Matterhorn-Monte Rosa) is listed in the Federal Inventory of Landscapes and Natural Monuments since 1983.
Weather
The Matterhorn is an isolated mountain. Because of its position on the main Alpine watershed and its great height, the Matterhorn is exposed to rapid weather changes. In addition, the steep faces of the mountain and its isolated location make it prone to banner clouds formation, with the air flowing around the mountain producing condensation of the air on the lee side and also creating vortices.
Geology
The Matterhorn's pyramid is composed of Paleozoic rocks, which were thrusted over the Matterhorn's Mesozoic base during the Cenozoic. Quaternary glaciation and weathering give the mountain its current shape.
Apart from the base of the mountain, the Matterhorn is composed of gneiss belonging to the Dent Blanche klippe, an isolated part of the Austroalpine nappes, lying over the Penninic nappes. The Austroalpine nappes are part of the Apulian plate, a small continent that broke up from Africa before the Alpine orogeny. For this reason, the Matterhorn has been popularized as an African mountain. The Austroalpine nappes are mostly common in the Eastern Alps.
The Swiss explorer and geologist Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, inspired by the view of the Matterhorn, anticipated modern theories of geology:
What power must have been required to shatter and to sweep away the missing parts of this pyramid; for we do not see it surrounded by heaps of fragments; one only sees other peaks - themselves rooted to the ground - whose sides, equally rent, indicate an immense mass of débris, of which we do not see any trace in the neighbourhood. Doubtless, this is that débris which, in the form of pebbles, boulders, and sand, fills our valleys and our plains.
Formation
The formation of the Matterhorn (and the whole Alpine range) started with the break-up of the Pangaea continent 200 million years ago into Laurasia (containing Europe) and Gondwana (containing Africa). While the rocks constituting the nearby Monte Rosa remained in Laurasia, the rocks constituting the Matterhorn found themselves in Gondwana, separated by the newly formed Tethys Ocean.
100 million years ago the extension of the Tethys Ocean stopped and the Apulian plate broke from Gondwana and moved toward the European continent. This resulted in the closure of the western Tethys by subduction under the Apulian plate (with the Piemont-Liguria Ocean first and Valais Ocean later). The subduction of the oceanic crust left traces still visible today at the base of the Matterhorn (accretionary prism). The orogeny itself began after the end of the oceanic subduction when the European continental crust collided with the Apulian continent, resulting in the formation of nappes.
The Matterhorn acquired its characteristic pyramidal shape in much more recent times as it was caused by natural erosion over the past million years. At the beginning of alpine orogeny, the Matterhorn was only a rounded mountain like a hill. Because its height is above the snowline, its flanks are covered by ice, resulting from the accumulation and compaction of snow. During the warmer period of summer, part of the ice melts and seeps into the bedrock. When it freezes again, it fractures pieces of rock because of its dilatation (freeze-thaw), forming a cirque. Four cirques led to the shape of the mountain.
Rocks
Most of the base of the mountain lies in the Tsaté nappe, a remnant of the Piedmont-Liguria oceanic crust (ophiolites) and its sedimentary rocks. Up to 3,400 metres the mountain is composed of successive layers of ophiolites and sedimentary rocks. From 3,400 metres to the top, the rocks are gneisses from the Dent Blanche nappe (Austroalpine nappes). They are divided into the Arolla series (below 4,200 m) and the Valpelline zone (the summit). Other mountains in the region (Weisshorn, Zinalrothorn, Dent Blanche, Mont Collon) also belong to the Dent Blanche nappe.
Tourism and trekking
Since the eighteenth century, the Alps have attracted more and more people and fascinated generations of explorers and climbers. The Matterhorn remained relatively little known until 1865, but the successful ascent followed by the tragic accident of the expedition led by Edward Whymper caused a rush on the mountains surrounding Zermatt.
The construction of the railway linking the village of Zermatt from the town of Visp started in 1888. The first train reached Zermatt on 18 July 1891 and the entire line was electrified in 1930. Since 1930 the village is directly connected to St. Moritz by the Glacier Express panoramic train. However, there is no connection with the village of Breuil-Cervinia on the Italian side. Travellers have to hire mountain guides to cross the 3,300-metre-high glaciated Theodul Pass, separating the two resorts. The town of Zermatt remains almost completely free of internal combustion vehicles and can be reached by train only. (Apart from the local police service which uses a Volkswagen car, and the refuse collection lorry, only electric vehicles are used locally).
Rail and cable-car facilities have been built to make some of the summits in the area more accessible. The Gornergrat railway, reaching a record altitude of 3,100 metres, was inaugurated in 1898. Areas served by cable car are the Unterrothorn and the Klein Matterhorn (Little Matterhorn) (3,883 m, highest transportation system in Europe). The Hörnli Hut (3,260 m), which is the start of the normal route via the Hörnli ridge, is easily accessible from Schwarzsee (2,600 m) and is also frequented by hikers. The Zermatt and Breuil-Cervinia resorts function as separate ski resort all year round and are connected by skilifts over the Theodul Pass. In 2015 it was expected that there would be constructed a cable car link between Testa Grigia (or Tête grise) and Klein Matterhorn. It will finally provide a link between the Swiss and Italian side of the Matterhorn.
The Matterhorn Museum (Zermatt) relates the general history of the region from alpinism to tourism. In the museum, which is in the form of a reconstituted mountain village, the visitors can relive the first and tragic ascent of the Matterhorn and see the objects that belonged to the protagonists.
The Tour of the Matterhorn can be effected by trekkers in about 10 days. Considered by some as one of the most beautiful treks in the Alps, it follows many ancient trails that have linked the Swiss and Italian valleys for centuries. The circuit includes alpine meadows, balcony trails, larch forests and glacial crossings. It connects six valleys embracing three different cultures: the German-speaking high Valais, the French-speaking central Valais and the bilingual French/Italian-speaking Aosta Valley. Good conditions are necessary to circumnavigate the peak. After reaching Zinal from Zermatt by the Augstbord and Meiden passes, the trekker crosses the Col de Sorebois and the Col de Torrent before arriving at Arolla. Then the Arolla Glacier and the Col Collon must be crossed on the way to Prarayer, followed by the Col de Valcournera to Breuil-Cervinia. In the last and highest section, the Theodul Pass must be crossed before returning to Zermatt. In total, seven passes between 2,800 and 3,300 metres must be crossed on relatively difficult terrain.
As of 2015, almost two million visitors arrive at Zermatt annually. An average of around twelve people per year have died on Matterhorn in the ten years from 2005 to 2015.
Climbing history
The Matterhorn was one of the last of the main Alpine mountains to be ascended, not because of its technical difficulty, but because of the fear it inspired in early mountaineers. The first serious attempts were all from the Italian side, although, despite appearances, the southern routes are technically harder. The main figures were Jean-Antoine Carrel and his uncle Jean-Jacques Carrel, from the Valtournenche area, who made the first attempts in 1857 and 1858, reaching 3,800 m (12,500 ft) on the latter occasion. In July 1860, three brothers from Liverpool attempted the mountain, Alfred, Charles and Sandbach Parker, but they turned back at about 3,500 m (11,500 ft). In August of the same year, Jean-Jacques Carrel returned to guide, with Johann Joseph Bennen , Vaughan Hawkins and John Tyndall to about 3,960 m (12,990 ft) before turning back. In 1861 the Carrels managed to reach the Crête du Coq at 4,032 m (13,228 ft). In July 1862, Jean-Antoine, together with César Carrel, accompanied as porters (sic) John Tyndall, Anton Walters and J.J. Bennen to Matterhorn's Shoulder at 4,248 m (13,937 ft), which was subsequently named Pic Tyndall in honor of the client.
Edward Whymper joined the efforts in August 1861, but in his first 7 attempts with a variety of companions could only reach a maximum height of 4,100 m (13,500 ft). However, on 14 July 1865, in what is considered the last ascent of the golden age of alpinism, he was able to reach the summit by an ascent of the Hörnli ridge in Switzerland, guided by the famed French mountaineer Michel Croz and the Swiss father and son Peter Taugwalder Sr. and Jr., and accompanied by the British gentlemen Charles Hudson, Lord Francis Douglas, Douglas Robert Hadow. Upon descent, Hadow, Croz, Hudson and Douglas fell to their deaths on the Matterhorn Glacier, and all but Douglas (whose body was never found) are buried in the Zermatt churchyard.
Just three days later, on 17 July 1865, Jean-Antoine Carrel and Jean-Baptiste Bich reached the summit from the Italian side.
Before the first ascent
In the summer of 1860, Edward Whymper came across the Matterhorn for the first time. He was an English artist and engraver who had been hired by a London publisher to make sketches of the mountains in the region of Zermatt. Although the unclimbed Matterhorn had a mixed reputation among British mountaineers, it fascinated Whymper. Whymper's first attempt was in August 1861, from the village of Breuil on the south side. In Châtillon he hired a Swiss guide, who remained anonymous in his accounts, and in Valtournanche he almost hired Jean-Antoine Carrel as well, but, disliking the looks of Carrel's uncle, he changed his mind. The Carrels decided to give Matterhorn a try by themselves again, and caught up with Whymper at nightfall. Whymper now had "a strong inclination to engage the pair; but, finally, decided against it" and the Carrels went alone to reach a new high on Matterhorn of 4,032 m (13,228 ft) the next day. Whymper and his guide camped one more night on the Col du lion (= Col Tournanche) 3,479 m (11,414 ft) and were forced to turn around only an hour above this pass the day after.
In 1862 Whymper made further attempts, still from the south side, on the Lion ridge (or Italian ridge), where the route seemed easier than the Hörnli ridge (the normal route today). On his own, he reached above 4,000 metres, but was injured on his way down to Breuil. In July John Tyndall with Johann Joseph Bennen and another guide overcame most of the difficulties of the ridge that seemed so formidable from below and successfully reached the main shoulder; but at a point not very far below the summit they were stopped by a deep cleft that defied their utmost efforts. The Matterhorn remained unclimbed.
Whymper returned to Breuil in 1863, persuading Carrel to join forces with him and try the mountain once more via the Italian ridge. On this attempt, however, a storm soon developed and they were stuck halfway to the summit. They remained there for 26 hours in their tent before giving up. Whymper did not make another attempt for two years.
In the decisive year 1865, Whymper returned with new plans, deciding to attack the Matterhorn via its south face instead of the Italian ridge. On 21 June, Whymper began his ascent with Swiss guides, but halfway up they experienced severe rockfall; although nobody was injured, they decided to give up the ascent. This was Whymper's seventh attempt.
During the following weeks, Whymper spent his time climbing other mountains in the area with his guides, before going back to Breuil on 7 July. Meanwhile, the Italian Alpine Club was founded and its leaders, Felice Giordano and Quintino Sella, established plans to conquer the Matterhorn before any non-Italian could succeed. Felice Giordano hired Carrel as a guide. He feared the arrival of Whymper, now a rival, and wrote to Quintino Sella
I have tried to keep everything secret, but that fellow whose life seems to depend on the Matterhorn is here, suspiciously prying into everything. I have taken all the best men away from him; and yet he is so enamored of the mountain that he may go with others...He is here in the hotel and I try to avoid speaking to him.
Just as he did two years before, Whymper asked Carrel to be his guide, but Carrel declined; Whymper was also unsuccessful in hiring other local guides from Breuil. When Whymper discovered Giordano and Carrel's plan, he left Breuil and crossed the Theodul Pass to Zermatt to hire local guides. He encountered Lord Francis Douglas, a Scottish mountaineer, who also wanted to climb the Matterhorn. They arrived later in Zermatt in the Monte Rosa Hotel, where they met two other British climbers — the Reverend Charles Hudson and his young and inexperienced companion, Douglas Robert Hadow — who had hired the French guide Michel Croz to try to make the first ascent. These two groups decided to join forces and try the ascent of the Hörnli ridge. They hired another two local guides, a father and son, both named Peter Taugwalder.
First ascent
Whymper and party left Zermatt early in the morning of 13 July 1865, heading to the foot of the Hörnli ridge, which they reached 6 hours later (approximately where the Hörnli Hut is situated today). Meanwhile, Carrel and six other Italian guides also began their ascent of the Italian ridge.
Despite its appearance, Whymper wrote that the Hörnli ridge was much easier to climb than the Italian ridge:
We were now fairly upon the mountain, and were astonished to find that places which from the Riffel, or even from the Furggen Glacier, looked entirely impracticable, were so easy that we could run about.
After camping for the night, Whymper and party started on the ridge. According to Whymper:
The whole of this great slope was now revealed, rising for 3,000 feet like a huge natural staircase. Some parts were more, and others were less, easy; but we were not once brought to a halt by any serious impediment, for when an obstruction was met in front it could always be turned to the right or left. For the greater part of the way there was, indeed, no occasion for the rope, and sometimes Hudson led, sometimes myself. At 6.20 we had attained a height of 12,800 feet and halted for half an hour; we then continued the ascent without a break until 9.55, when we stopped for fifty minutes, at a height of 14,000 feet.
When the party came close to the summit, they had to leave the ridge for the north face because "[the ridge] was usually more rotten and steep, and always more difficult than the face". At this point of the ascent Whymper wrote that the less experienced Hadow "required continual assistance". Having overcome these difficulties the group finally arrived in the summit area, with Croz and Whymper reaching the top first.
The slope eased off, and Croz and I, dashing away, ran a neck-and-neck race, which ended in a dead heat. At 1.40 p.m. the world was at our feet, and the Matterhorn was conquered. Hurrah! Not a footstep could be seen.
Precisely at this moment, Carrel and party were approximatively 400 metres below, still dealing with the most difficult parts of the Italian ridge. When seeing his rival on the summit, Carrel and party gave up on their attempt and went back to Breuil.
After building a cairn, Whymper and party stayed an hour on the summit. Then they began their descent of the Hörnli ridge. Croz descended first, then Hadow, Hudson and Douglas, the elder Taugwalder, Whymper, with the younger Taugwalder coming last. They climbed down with great care, only one man moving at a time. Whymper wrote:
As far as I know, at the moment of the accident no one was actually moving. I cannot speak with certainty, neither can the Taugwalders, because the two leading men were partially hidden from our sight by an intervening mass of rock. Poor Croz had laid aside his axe, and in order to give Mr. Hadow greater security was absolutely taking hold of his legs and putting his feet, one by one, into their proper positions. From the movements of their shoulders it is my belief that Croz, having done as I have said, was in the act of turning round to go down a step or two himself; at this moment Mr. Hadow slipped, fell on him, and knocked him over.
The weight of the falling men pulled Hudson and Douglas from their holds and dragged them down the north face. The Taugwalders and Whymper were left alive when the rope linking Douglas to the elder Taugwalder broke. They were stunned by the accident and for a time could not move until the younger Taugwalder descended to enable them to advance. When they were together Whymper asked to see the broken rope and saw that it had been employed by mistake as it was the weakest and oldest of the three ropes they had brought. They frantically looked, but in vain, for traces of their fallen companions. They continued their descent, including an hour in the dark, until 9.30 p.m. when a resting place was found. The descent was resumed at daybreak and the group finally reached Zermatt, where a search of the victims was quickly organized. The bodies of Croz, Hadow and Hudson were found on the Matterhorn Glacier, but the body of Douglas was never found. Although the elder Taugwalder was accused of cutting the rope to save himself and his son, the official inquest found no proof of this.
Second ascent
On 16 July, two days after the first ascent and the catastrophe, Jean-Antoine Carrel set out to crown Whymper's victory by proving that the Italian side was not unconquerable. He was accompanied by Amé Gorret, a priest who had shared with him the first attempt on the mountain back in 1857. Jean-Baptiste Bich and Jean-Augustin Meynet completed the party. Giordano would have joined them, but Carrel refused absolutely to take him with them; he said he would not have the strength to guide a traveller, and could neither answer for the result nor for any one's life. After hearing Sunday mass at the chapel of Breuil, the party started. Amé Gorret has described this ascent with enthusiasm: "At last we crossed the Col du Lion and set foot upon the pyramid of the Matterhorn!" On the following day, the 17th, they continued the ascent and reached Tyndall's flagstaff. "We were about to enter unknown country," wrote Gorret, "for no man had gone beyond this point." Here opinions were divided; Gorret suggested ascending by the ridge and scaling the last tower straight up. Carrel was inclined to traverse to the west of the peak, and thence go up on the Zmutt side. Naturally the wish of Carrel prevailed, for he was the leader and had not lost the habit of command, notwithstanding his recent defeat.
They made the passage of the enjambée, and traversed the west face to reach the Zmutt ridge. A false step made by one of the party and a fall of icicles from above warned them to return to the direct line of ascent, and the traverse back to the Lion ridge was one of the greatest difficulty. A falling stone injured Gorret in the arm.
At last they reached the base of the final tower. "We stood," wrote Gorret, "in a place that was almost comfortable. Although it was not more than two yards wide, and the slope was one of 75 percent, we gave it all kinds of pleasant names : the corridor, the gallery, the railroad, &c., &c." They imagined all difficulties were at an end; but a rock couloir, which they had hitherto not observed, lay between them and the final bit of ridge, where progress would be perfectly easy. It would have been unwise for all four to descend into the couloir, because they did not know where to fix the rope that would be needed on their return. Time pressed: it was necessary to reduce the numbers of the party; Gorret sacrificed himself, and Meynet stopped with him. Very soon afterwards Carrel and Bich were finally on the top. Meanwhile, Giordano at Breuil was writing in his diary as follows: "Splendid weather; at 9.30 saw Carrel and his men on the Shoulder, after that saw nothing more of them. Then much mist about the summit. Lifted a bit about 3.30, and we saw our flag on the western summit of the Matterhorn."
Other ascents
Ridges
The first direct ascent of the Italian (south-west) ridge as it is climbed today was by J. J. and J. P. Maquignaz on 13 September 1867.Julius Elliott made the second ascent via the Hörnli (north-east) ridge in 1868, and later that year the party of John Tyndall, J. J. and J. P. Maquignaz was the first to traverse the summit by way of the Hörnli and Italian ridges. On 22 August 1871, while wearing a white print dress, Lucy Walker became the first woman to reach the summit of the Matterhorn, followed a few weeks later by her rival Meta Brevoort. The first winter ascent of the Hörnli ridge was by Vittorio Sella with guides J. A. Carrel, J. B. Carrel and L. Carrel on 17 March 1882, and its first solo ascent was made by W. Paulcke in 1898. The first winter solo ascent of the Hörnli ridge was by G. Gervasutti in 1936.
The Zmutt (north-west) ridge was first climbed by Albert F. Mummery, Alexander Burgener, J. Petrus and A. Gentinetta on 3 September 1879. Its first solo ascent was made by Hans Pfann in 1906, and the first winter ascent was made by H. Masson and E. Petrig on 25 March 1948.
The last of the Matterhorn's four ridges to be ascended was the Furggen (south-east) ridge. M. Piacenza with guides J. J. Carrel and J. Gaspard on 9 September 1911, climbed most of the ridge but bypassed the overhangs near the top to the south. Not until 23 September 1942, during the Second World War, did Alfredo Perino, along with guides Louis Carrel (nicknamed "The Little Carrel") and Giacomo Chiara, climb the complete ridge and the overhangs directly.
In 1966, René Arnold and Joseph Graven made the first solo enchainement of the four Matterhorn ridges in 19.5 hours. Beginning at the 3,300m Bossi Bivouac hut, the pair followed the normal route up the Furggen Ridge and then descended the Hornli Ridge. After crossing the Matterhorn Glacier at the base of the north face, they ascended the Zmutt Ridge and then descended the Italian (Lion) Ridge to the village of Breuil. In 1985, Marco Barmasse repeated their achievement, but this time his route included the first solo ascent of the Furggen overhangs. He completed the enchainement, reaching the Abruzzi Hut after 15 hours.
On 20 August 1992, Italian alpinist Hans Kammerlander and Swiss alpine guide Diego Wellig climbed the Matterhorn four times in just 23 hours and 26 minutes. The route they followed was: Zmutt ridge–summit–Hörnli ridge (descent)–Furggen ridge–summit–Lion ridge (descent)–Lion ridge–summit–Hörnli ridge (descent)–Hörnli ridge–summit–Hörnli Hut (descent). However the Italian route (Lion Ridge), was not climbed from Duca degli Abruzzi Refuge at 2802 m, but from Carrel Hut, at 3830 m, both uphill and downhill.
In 1995, Bruno Brunod climbed Matterhorn from the village Breuil-Cervinia in 2 h 10 min. and from Breuil-Cervinia to Matterhorn and back, in 3:14:44
On 21 August 2013, the Spanish mountain runner Kilian Jornet broke Brunod's record as it took him 1 hour, 56 min to the top from Breuil-Cervinia - a round-trip time of 2 hours 52 minutes to return to his starting point.
Faces
William Penhall and guides made the first (partial) ascent of the west face, the Matterhorn's most hidden and unknown, one hour after Mummery and party's first ascent of the Zmutt ridge on 3 September 1879. It was not until 1962 that the west face was completely climbed. The ascent was made on 13 August by Renato Daguin and Giovanni Ottin. In January 1978 seven Italian alpine guides made a successful winter climb of Daguin and Ottin's highly direct, and previously unrepeated, 1962 route. But a storm came during their ascent, bringing two metres of snow to Breuil-Cervinia and Zermatt, and their accomplishment turned bitter when one of the climbers died during the descent.
The north face, before it was climbed in 1931, was one of the last great big wall problems in the Alps. To succeed on the north face, good climbing and ice-climbing technique and route-finding ability were required. Unexpectedly it was first climbed by the brothers Franz and Toni Schmid on 31 July – 1 August 1931. They reached the summit at the end of the second day, after a night of bivouac. Because they had kept their plans secret, their ascent was a complete surprise. In addition, the two brothers had travelled by bicycle from Munich and after their successful ascent they cycled back home again. The first winter ascent of the north face was made by Hilti von Allmen and Paul Etter on 3-4 February 1962. Its first solo ascent was made in five hours by Dieter Marchart on 22 July 1959. Walter Bonatti climbed the "North Face Direct" solo on 18-22 February 1965. The same year, Yvette Vaucher became the first woman to climb the north face. Bonatti's direct route was not repeated solo until 29 years later, in winter 1994 by Catherine Destivelle.
Ueli Steck set the record time in climbing the north face (Schmid route) of Matterhorn in 2009 with a time of 1 hour 56 minutes.
After Bonatti's climb, the best alpinists were still preoccupied with one last great problem: the "Zmutt Nose", an overhang lying on the right-hand side of the north face. In July 1969 two Italians, Alessandro Gogna and Leo Cerruti, attempted to solve the problem. It took them four days to figure out the unusual overhangs, avoiding however its steepest part. In July 1981 the Swiss Michel Piola and Pierre-Alain Steiner surmounted the Zmutt Nose by following a direct route, the Piola-Steiner.
The first ascent of the south face was made by Enzo Benedetti with guides Louis Carrel and Maurice Bich on 15 October 1931, and the first complete ascent of the east face was made by Enzo Benedetti and G. Mazzotti with guides Louis and Lucien Carrel, Maurice Bich and Antoine Gaspard on 18-19 September 1932.
Casualties on the Matterhorn
The four men lost in 1865 have not been the only fatalities on the Matterhorn. In fact, several climbers die each year due to a number of factors including the scale of the climb and its inherent dangers, inexperience, falling rocks, and overcrowded routes. The Matterhorn is thus amongst the deadliest mountains in the world. By the late 1980s, it was estimated that over 500 people have died whilst attempting its summit since the 1865 ascent, with an average of about 12 deaths each year.
In the 2000s, there was a trend of fewer people dying each year on the mountain. This has been attributed partly to a greater awareness of the risks, and also due to the fact that a majority of climbers now use local guides. However, in the summer of 2018, at least ten people died on the mountain.
Here is a list of people who died on the mountain whose bodies were not recovered until later:
1954 French skier Henri le Masne went missing on the Matterhorn. In 2005 remains were found, identified as le Masne in 2018
1970 Two Japanese climbers missing; remains found after 45 years in 2015
1979 British climber missing; remains found after 34 years in 2014
2014 Japanese hiker missing; remains found 2018
2016 Two British climbers missing; remains found 2016
Legacy: beginning of mountain culture
The first ascent of the Matterhorn changed mountain culture. Whymper’s book about his first ascent, Scrambles Amongst the Alps, published in 1871, was a worldwide bestseller. Tourists began to visit Switzerland in the summer to see the Alps and often hired locals as guides. With the beginning of alpine skiing in the early 20th century, tourists began traveling to Switzerland in winter also. Mountaineering, in part, helped transform Switzerland’s mountain regions from poor rural areas to tourist destinations. This combination of mountain climbing, skiing and tourism, was used in the western United States, creating Sun Valley, Vail, Jackson Hole, and other mountain towns around the world.
Climbing routes
Today, all ridges and faces of the Matterhorn have been ascended in all seasons, and mountain guides take a large number of people up the northeast Hörnli route each summer. In total, up to 150 climbers attempt the Matterhorn each day during summer. By modern standards, the climb is fairly difficult (AD Difficulty rating), but not hard for skilled mountaineers according to French climbing grades. There are fixed ropes on parts of the route to help. Still, it should be remembered that several climbers may die on the mountain each year.
The usual pattern of ascent is to take the Schwarzsee cable car up from Zermatt, hike up to the Hörnli Hut elev. 3,260 m (10,700 ft), a large stone building at the base of the main ridge, and spend the night. The next day, climbers rise at 3:30 am so as to reach the summit and descend before the regular afternoon clouds and storms come in. The Solvay Hut located on the ridge at 4,003 m (13,133 ft) can be used only in a case of emergency.
Other popular routes on the mountain include the Italian (Lion) ridge (AD+ Difficulty rating) and the Zmutt ridge (D Difficulty rating). The four faces, as well as the Furggen ridge, constitute the most challenging routes to the summit. The north face is amongst the six most difficult faces of the Alps, as well as ‘The Trilogy’, the three hardest of the six, along with the north faces of the Eiger and the Grandes Jorasses (TD+ Difficulty rating).
Overcrowding on the several routes have become an issue and guides and local authorities have struggled with how to regulate the numbers. In 2015 the Hörnli hut became the first mountain shelter in Europe to limit beds.
History
Aegidius Tschudi, one of the earliest Alpine topographers and historians, was the first to mention the region around the Matterhorn in his work, De Prisca ac Vera Alpina Raethi, published in Basel in 1538. He approached the Matterhorn as a student when in his Alpine travels he reached the summit of the Theodul Pass but he does not seem to have paid any particular attention to the mountain itself.
The Matterhorn remained unstudied for more than two centuries, until a geologist from Geneva, Horace Benedict de Saussure, travelled to the mountain, which filled him with admiration. However, de Saussure was not moved to climb the mountain, and had no hope of measuring its altitude by taking a barometer to its summit. "Its precipitous sides," he wrote, "which give no hold to the very snows, are such as to afford no means of access." Yet his scientific interest was kindled by "the proud peak which rises to so vast an altitude, like a triangular obelisk, that seems to be carved by a chisel." His mind intuitively grasped the causes which gave the peak its present precipitous form: the Matterhorn was not like a perfected crystal; the centuries had laboured to destroy a great part of an ancient and much larger mountain. On his first journey de Saussure had come from Ayas to the Col des Cimes Blanches, from where the Matterhorn first comes into view; descending to Breuil, he ascended to the Theodul Pass. On his second journey, in 1792, he came to the Valtournanche, studying and describing it; he ascended to the Theodul Pass, where he spent three days, analysing the structure of the Matterhorn, whose height he was the first to measure, and collecting stones, plants and insects. He made careful observations, from the sparse lichen that clung to the rocks to the tiny but vigorous glacier fly that fluttered over the snows and whose existence at such heights was mysterious. At night he took refuge under the tent erected near the ruins of an old fort at the top of the pass. During these days he climbed the Klein Matterhorn (3,883 metres), which he named the Cime Brune du Breithorn.
The first inquirers began to come to the Matterhorn. There is a record of a party of Englishmen who in the summer of 1800 crossed the Great St. Bernard Pass, a few months after the passage of Bonaparte; they came to Aosta and thence to Valtournenche, slept at the chalets of Breuil, and traversed the Theodul Pass, which they called Monte Rosa. The Matterhorn was to them an object of the most intense and continuous admiration.
The Matterhorn is mentioned in a guide-book to Switzerland by Johann Gottfried Ebel, which was published in Zürich towards the end of the eighteenth century, and translated into English in 1818. The mountain appeared in it under the three names of Silvius, Matterhorn, and Mont Cervin, and was briefly described as one of the most splendid and wonderful obelisks in the Alps. On Zermatt there was a note: "A place which may, perhaps, interest the tourist is the valley of Praborgne (Zermatt); it is bounded by huge glaciers which come right down into the valley; the village of Praborgne is fairly high, and stands at a great height above the glaciers; its climate is almost as warm as that of Italy, and plants belonging to hot countries are to be found there at considerable altitudes, above the ice."
William Brockedon, who came to the region in 1825, considered the crossing of the Theodul Pass from Breuil to Zermatt a difficult undertaking. He gave, however, expression to his enthusiasm on the summit. When he arrived exhausted on the top of the pass, he gazed "on the beautiful pyramid of the Cervin, more wonderful than aught else in sight, rising from its bed of ice to a height of 5,000 feet, a spectacle of indescribable grandeur." In this "immense natural amphitheatre, enclosed from time immemorial by snow-clad mountains and glaciers ever white, in the presence of these grand walls the mind is overwhelmed, not indeed that it is unable to contemplate the scene, but it staggers under the immensity of those objects which it contemplates."
Those who made their way up through the Valtournanche to the foot of the mountain were few in number. W. A. B. Coolidge, a diligent collector of old and new stories of the Alps, mentions that during those years, besides Brockedon, only Hirzel-Escher of Zürich, who crossed the Theodul Pass in 1822, starting from Breuil, accompanied by a local guide. The greater number came from the Valais up the Visp valley to Zermatt. In 1813, a Frenchman, Henri Maynard, climbed to the Theodul Pass and made the first ascent of the Breithorn; he was accompanied by numerous guides, among them J. M. Couttet of Chamonix, the same man who had gone with de Saussure to the top of the Klein Matterhorn in 1792. The writings of these pioneers make much mention of the Matterhorn; the bare and inert rock is gradually quickened into life by men's enthusiasm. "Stronger minds," remarked Edward Whymper, "felt the influence of the wonderful form, and men who ordinarily spoke or wrote like rational beings, when they came under its power seemed to quit their senses, and ranted and rhapsodised, losing for a time all common forms of speech."
Among the poets of the Matterhorn during these years (1834 to 1840) were Elie de Beaumont, a famous French geologist; Pierre Jean Édouard Desor, a naturalist of Neuchâtel, who went up there with a party of friends, two of whom were Louis Agassiz and Bernhard Studer. Christian Moritz Engelhardt, who was so filled with admiration for Zermatt and its neighbourhood that he returned there at least ten times (from 1835 to 1855), described these places in two valuable volumes, drew panoramas and maps, and collected the most minute notes on the mineralogy and botany of the region. Zermatt was at that time a quiet little village, and travellers found hospitality at the parish priest's, or at the village doctor's.
In 1841 James David Forbes, professor of natural philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, came to see the Matterhorn. A philosopher and geologist, and an observant traveller, he continued the work of De Saussure in his journeys and his writings. He was full of admiration for the Matterhorn, calling it the most wonderful peak in the Alps, unsealed and unscalable. These words, pronounced by a man noted among all his contemporaries for his thorough knowledge of mountains, show what men's feelings then were towards the Matterhorn, and how at a time when the idea of Alpine exploration was gaining ground in their minds, the Matterhorn stood by itself as a mountain apart, of whose conquest it was vain even to dream. And such it remained till long after this; as such it was described by John Ball twenty years later in his celebrated guide-book. Forbes ascended the Theodul Pass in 1842, climbed the Breithorn, and came down to Breuil; as he descended from the savage scenery of the Matterhorn, the Italian landscapes of the Valtournanche seemed to him like paradise. Meanwhile, Gottlieb Samuel Studer, the geographer, together with Melchior Ulrich, was describing and mapping the topographical features of the Zermatt peaks.
Rodolphe Töpffer, who first accompanied and guided youth to the Alps for purposes of education and amusement, began his journeys in 1832, but it is only in 1840 that he mentions the Matterhorn. Two years later Töpffer and his pupils came to Zermatt. He has described this journey of his in a chapter entitled Voyage autour du Mont Blanc jusqu'à Zermatt, here he sings a hymn of praise to the Matterhorn, comparing its form with a "huge crystal of a hundred facets, flashing varied hues, that softly reflects the light, unshaded, from the uttermost depths of the heavens". Töpffer's book was illustrated by Alexandre Calame, his master and friend, with drawings of the Matterhorn, executed in the romantic style of the period. It is an artificial mountain, a picture corresponding rather with the exaggerated effect it produces on the astonished mind of the artist, than with the real form of the mountain.
About this time there came a man who studied the Matterhorn in its structure and form, and who sketched it and described it in all its parts with the curiosity of the artist and the insight of the scientist. This was John Ruskin, a new and original type of philosopher and geologist, painter and poet, whom England was enabled to create during that period of radical intellectual reforms, which led the way for the highest development of her civilisation. Ruskin was the Matterhorn's poet par excellence. He went to Zermatt in 1844, and it is to be noticed as a curious fact, that the first time he saw the Matterhorn it did not please him. The mountain on its lofty pedestal in the very heart of the Alps was, perhaps, too far removed from the ideal he had formed of the mountains; but he returned, studied and dreamt for long at its feet, and at length he pronounced it "the most noble cliff in Europe." Ruskin was no mountaineer, nor a great friend to mountaineering; he drew sketches of the mountains merely as an illustration of his teaching of the beauty of natural forms, which was the object of his whole life. In his work on Modern Painters he makes continual use of the mountains as an example of beauty and an incentive to morality. The publication of Ruskin's work certainly produced a great impression at the time on educated people in England, and a widespread desire to see the mountains.
It is a fragment of some size; a group of broken walls, one of them overhanging; crowned with a cornice, nodding some hundred and fifty feet over its massive flank, three thousand above its glacier base, and fourteen thousand above the sea, — a wall truly of some majesty, at once the most precipitous and the strongest mass in the whole chain of the Alps, the Mont Cervin.
Other men of high attainments followed, but in the years 1850 scientists and artists were about to be succeeded by real climbers and the passes and peaks around Zermatt were explored little by little. In the preface to the first volume of the Alpine Journal, which appeared in 1863, the editor Hereford Brooke George wrote that: "While even if all other objects of interest in Switzerland should be exhausted, the Matterhorn remains (who shall say for how long?) unconquered and apparently invincible." Whymper successfully reached the summit in 1865, but four men perished on the descent. The English papers discussed it with bitter words of blame; a German newspaper published an article in which Whymper was accused of cutting the rope between Douglas and Taugwalder, at the critical moment, to save his own life.
In 1890 the Federal Government was asked simultaneously by the same contractor for a concession for the Zermatt-Gornergrat railway, and for a Zermatt-Matterhorn one. The Gornergrat railway was constructed in 1896-1898 and has been working since August 1898, but there has been no more talk of the other. The project essentially consisted of a line which went up to the Hörnli, and continued thence in a rectilinear tunnel about two kilometres long, built under the ridge, and issuing near the summit on the Zmutt side. Sixty years later in 1950, Italian engineer Count Dino Lora Totino planned a cable car on the Italian side from Breuil-Cervinia to the summit. But the Alpine Museum of Zermatt sent a protest letter with 90,000 signatures to the Italian government. The latter declared the Matterhorn a natural wonder worthy of protection and refused the concession to the engineer.
2015 marked the 150th anniversary of the first ascent. Events and festivities were held throughout the year. A completely renewed Hörnli Hut opened the same year in the month of July.
In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, light artist Gerry Hofstetter started projecting country flags and messages of endurance onto the mountain peak as part of a nightly series designed to show support and spread hope for everyone suffering and those fighting the pandemic.
Other mountains
Hundreds of other mountains have been compared with the Matterhorn, either for their resemblance to it or because of their apparent inaccessibility.
Mountains named after the Matterhorn
Little Matterhorn (1,480 m), Australia
Matterhorn (1,600 m), in Antarctica
Matterhorn (3,305 m), in Nevada
Matterhorn Peak (3,744 m), in California
Matterhorn Peak (4,144 m), in Colorado
Matterhorn Peak (2,636 m), in British Columbia
Neny Matterhorn (1,125 m), Antarctica
In culture
During the 20th century, the Matterhorn and the story of the first ascent in particular, inspired various artists and film producers such as Luis Trenker and Walt Disney. Large-scale replicas can be found at Disneyland and Window of the World. In 2021, a Matterhorn-related attraction opened in the Swiss Museum of Transport, enabling visitors to climb it virtually from the Solvay Hut to the summit.
Designed in 1908 by Emil Cardinaux, a leading poster artist of the time, the Matterhorn poster for the Zermatt tourist office is often considered the first modern poster. It has been described as a striking example of a marriage of tourism, patriotism and popular art. It served as decoration in many Swiss military hospices during the war in addition to be found in countless middle-class living rooms. Another affiche depicting the Matterhorn was created by Cardinaux for the chocolate brand Toblerone in the 1920s. The image of the Matterhorn first appeared on Toblerone chocolate bars in 1960. Since then, the Matterhorn has become a reference that still inspires graphic artists today and has been used extensively for all sort of publicity and advertising.
Paintings
The Matterhorn (1849), John Ruskin
The Matterhorn (1867), Albert Bierstadt
Matterhorn (1879), Edward Theodore Compton
Le Cervin (1892), Félix Vallotton
Filmography
Struggle for the Matterhorn (1928)
The Mountain Calls (1938)
The Challenge (1938)
Climbing the Matterhorn (1947)
Third Man on the Mountain (1959)
Im Banne des Berges (2015)[90]
Soarin' Around the World/Soaring Over the Horizon (2016)
The Horn (2016) - Documentary series following the mountain rescue teams in the Swiss Alps.
(Wikipedia)
Das Matterhorn (italienisch Monte Cervino oder Cervino, französisch Mont Cervin oder Le Cervin, walliserdeutsch Hore oder Horu) ist mit 4478 m ü. M. einer der höchsten Berge der Alpen. Wegen seiner markanten Gestalt und seiner Besteigungsgeschichte ist das Matterhorn einer der bekanntesten Berge der Welt. Für die Schweiz ist es ein Wahrzeichen und eine der meistfotografierten Touristenattraktionen.
Der Berg steht in den Walliser Alpen zwischen Zermatt und Breuil-Cervinia. Ost-, Nord- und Westwand liegen auf schweizerischem, die Südwand auf italienischem Staatsgebiet.
Wissenswertes über das Matterhorn vermittelt das Matterhorn Museum in Zermatt.
Geschichte des Namens
Im Allgemeinen kamen im Gebirge die Bergspitzen erst spät zu ihren Namen, die daruntergelegenen Passübergänge und Alpen jedoch meist früher. So nannte Johannes Schalbetter 1545 den heutigen Theodulpass als «Mons Siluius» (deutsch übersetzt Salasser-berg) oder deutsch Augsttalberg. Mit Augsttal ist dabei das Tal von Aosta (lateinisch Augusta Praetoria Salassorum) gemeint, das Aostatal.
«Siluius» wurde dann sehr wahrscheinlich volksetymologisch falsch interpretiert über vermeintlich lateinisch «silvius» und «silvanus» zu französisch und italienisch «Cervin/Cervin(i)». 1581 wurde das Matterhorn erstmals als Mont Cervin erwähnt, wie später Mons Silvanus und Mons Silvius. Im Jahr 1682 nannte Anton Lambien das heutige Matterhorn Matter Dioldin h[orn] (Matterhornspitze) zur Abgrenzung vom gleichnamigen Pass, der bis Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts (beispielsweise auf der Dufourkarte) noch «Matterjoch» genannt wurde.
In der Lokalbevölkerung wird der Berg auch einfach ds Hore («das Horn», Zermatter Dialekt) oder ds Horu («das Horn», Oberwalliser Dialekt) genannt.
Geologie
Das Matterhorn ist ein Karling, und seine charakteristische Form entstand durch Erosion und Gletscherschliff in den Eiszeiten. Das Matterhorn ist Teil der Dent-Blanche-Decke des Unter-Ostalpins, also eines weit nach Westen auf die penninischen Decken der Westalpen aufgeschobenen Trümmerstücks eines ostalpinen Deckgesteins. Die untere Gesteinsschicht des Matterhorns, die bis zur Höhe der Hörnlihütte reicht, ist penninisch, also westalpin. Das im Vergleich dazu kleine Horn selbst sitzt auf dieser Basis auf und gehört zur Dent-Blanche-Decke, und zwar der untere Teil bis zur «Schulter» zur Arolla-Serie aus Orthogneisen und Metagabbros und der oberste Teil zur Valpelline-Serie aus hochmetamorphen Paragneisen der Dent-Blanche-Decke. Einfach ausgedrückt, besteht das Matterhorn aus zwei verschiedenen, schräg aufeinanderliegenden Gesteinspaketen. Der heutige Matterhorngletscher entstand erst wieder im Pessimum der Völkerwanderungszeit nach dem Optimum der Römerzeit.
Eine Besonderheit ist die charakteristische «Matterhorn-Wolke». Sie ist ein herausragendes Beispiel für einen Wolkentyp, den Meteorologen als Bannerwolke bezeichnen: Wie eine mächtige Fahne bildet sich die Wolke auf der windabgewandten Seite (Lee-Seite) des Gipfels als fast ständiger Begleiter des Berges. Die plausibelste Erklärung für ihr Entstehen ist die folgende: Das Matterhorn überragt das umgebende Gebirge wie ein Turm, so dass sich an ihm Leewirbel bilden, die feuchte Luft aus dem Tal nach oben führen, wo es zur Kondensation und Wolkenbildung kommt. Ist das Gipfelniveau erreicht, so wird die Wolke von einem waagerechten Ast des Leewirbels erfasst, der zu der typischen Fahnen-Form führt (Leewirbel-Hypothese).
Erstbesteigungen
Seit 1857 wurden mehrere erfolglose Versuche unternommen, das Matterhorn zu besteigen, zumeist von der italienischen Seite her. 1862 erstieg John Tyndall mit den Führern Johann Josef Benet, Anton Walter, Jean-Jacques und Jean-Antoine Carrel erstmals die Südwestschulter, den heutigen Pic Tyndall. Die Fortsetzung des Aufstiegs entlang des Liongrates erschien ihnen unmöglich.
Dem Erstbesteiger des Matterhorns, Edward Whymper, erschien der Liongrat weiterhin als nicht machbar. Insgesamt war er bereits sieben Mal gescheitert und überlebte u. a. einen Sturz über 60 Meter. Whymper versuchte daher, seinen Freund Jean-Antoine Carrel zu einer Besteigung von der Zermatter Seite zu überreden. Carrel beharrte darauf, von Italien her aufzusteigen.
Im Juli 1865 erfuhr Whymper zufällig von einem Gastwirt in Breuil-Cervinia, dass Carrel sich – ohne Whymper zu benachrichtigen – wieder zum Liongrat aufgemacht hatte. Whymper fühlte sich getäuscht und eilte nach Zermatt, um dort eine Gruppe für einen sofortigen Versuch über den Hörnligrat zusammenzustellen. Am 14. Juli 1865 gelang der 7er-Seilschaft Whympers die Erstbesteigung. Die Gruppe stieg über den Hörnligrat auf die Schulter; weiter oben, im Bereich der heutigen Fixseile, wich sie in die Nordwand aus. Edward Whymper erreichte als erster den Gipfel, weil er sich vor dem Gipfel vom Seil losschnitt und vorauslief. Ihm folgten der Bergführer Michel Croz (aus Chamonix), Reverend Charles Hudson, Lord Francis Douglas, D. Robert Hadow (alle aus England) sowie die Zermatter Bergführer Peter Taugwalder Vater und Peter Taugwalder Sohn. Sie sahen Carrel und seine Gruppe weit unterhalb am Pic Tyndall.
Beim Abstieg der Erstbesteiger stürzten die vorderen vier der Seilschaft (Croz, Hadow, Hudson und Douglas) noch oberhalb der «Schulter» über die Nordwand tödlich ab. Josef Marie Lochmatter brach ab dem 15. Juli 1865 mehrmals mit Rettungsmannschaften auf, um den vier Abgestürzten Erste Hilfe zu leisten. Am 19. Juli barg ein Bergungstrupp die Leichen von Croz, Hadow und Hudson auf dem Matterhorngletscher. Douglas' Leiche wurde nie gefunden.
Am 17. Juli gelang auch Carrel zusammen mit Jean-Baptiste Bich und Amé Gorret der Aufstieg über den Liongrat bis zum Gipfel. Die drei traversierten vom Nordende der italienischen Schulter durch die oberste Westwand auf den Zmuttgrat (sog. Galleria Carrel) und schlossen die Besteigung über diesen ab.
Runde Jahrestage der Erstbesteigung des Matterhorns sind feierlich begangen worden. So zeigte das Schweizer Fernsehen zum 100. Jahrestag am 14. Juli 1965 eine internationale Live-Sendung einer Matterhornbesteigung mit Beteiligung von Berg-Reportern der BBC und der RAI. Am 30. Juni 1965 zeigte das Schweizer Fernsehen den eigens produzierten Dokumentarfilm Bitterer Sieg: Die Matterhorn Story (Regie: Gaudenz Meili). Anlässlich des 150. Jahrestages wurde am 14. Juli 2015 auf dem Bahnhofplatz in Zermatt eine Countdown-Uhr aufgebaut, im Dezember 2014 wurde im Zentrum der Stadt («Matterhorn Plaza») ein Treffpunkt für das Jubiläumsjahr ins Leben gerufen.
Am 22. Juli 1871, sechs Jahre nach Whymper, bestieg die britische Alpinistin Lucy Walker als erste Frau das Matterhorn. 1869 hatten Isabella Straton und Emmeline Lewis Lloyd als reine Frauenseilschaft die Besteigung versucht; sie scheiterten kurz vor dem Gipfel. 1871 bestieg auch Anna Voigt aus Frankfurt das Matterhorn; sie war damals eine der ersten Frauen in der Sektion Frankfurt am Main des Deutschen Alpenvereins. Yvette Vaucher (* 1929) ist die erste Frau, die die Nordwand des Matterhorns bestiegen hat.
Routen
Der am weitaus häufigsten begangene Aufstiegsweg ist der Hörnligrat von Zermatt aus über die Hörnlihütte (Nordostgrat, ZS+). Er stellt den sogenannten Normalweg, also den leichtesten Aufstieg, dar. Auf 4003 Metern Höhe, nordöstlich unterhalb des Gipfels, gibt es als Biwak für Notfälle, wie Wettersturz und Zeitverzug, die von der Hörnlihütte aus betreute Solvayhütte mit zehn Notlagern. Weitere Aufstiegsrouten gibt es am Südwestgrat über den kirchendachartigen Pic Tyndall (auch Liongrat oder Italienerweg genannt, ZS+), am Nordwestgrat (Zmuttgrat, S) und am Südostgrat (Furggengrat, SS, wenig begangen). Auch durch die abweisende Nordwand verläuft eine Aufstiegsroute, die hin und wieder von Spezialisten, z. B. Walter Bonatti, gewählt wird.
(Wikipedia)
BNSF 8261 gets a turn on the Cool Water set out track this day. Soon enough though, the BNSF 6933 West will be arriving shortly to pickup this engine and set it out 4 hours later in Barstow, CA., only 5 rail miles down the road.
©2002-2014 FranksRails Photography
Portrait of Homeowner Ron ____ who learned about the problem with the Spotted Lanternfly (SLF) from a local wildlife and hunting organization, and after contacting his State's Department of Agriculture, he invited U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) technicians to survey and help stop the spread of the SLF on his property, in Elverson, Pennsylvania, on August 29, 2018. He was given a quick reference pest identification card and an informational door hanger. He invited a survey team to inspect his property where they found masses of SLF. They then invited him to volunteer for treatment of his outdoor property.
The SLF is a destructive insect that feeds on a wide range of fruit, ornamental, and hardwood trees, including grapes, apples, walnut, and oak; a serious threat to the United States' agriculture and natural resources,
In this wooded area, hundreds of SLF from each Tree of Heaven seen here are expelling a drizzle of sticky excrement down onto his lawn, ornamental plants, garden ornaments and outdoor fire pit sitting area, blackening the surface and promoting the growth of mold. To prevent entry and transportation to other areas the residents keep the windows and doors of vehicles and structures closed.
The pest damages plants as it sucks sap from branches, stems, and tree trunks. The repeated feedings leave the tree bark with dark scars. Spotted lanternfly also excretes a sticky fluid, which promotes mold growth and further weakens plants and puts our agriculture and forests at risk. Native to Asia, the spotted lanternfly has no natural enemies in North America. it's free to multiply and ravage orchards, vineyards, and wooded areas. The invasive insect was first detected in the United States in Pennsylvania in 2014, and has now spread to several states, by people who accidentally move infested material or items containing egg masses.
Most states are at risk of the pest. USDA and our state and local partners are working hard to stop the spread of this invasive pest, but we need your help. Look for signs of spotted lanternfly. Inspect your trees and plants for young spotted lanternfly, adults, and egg masses. Adult spotted lanternflies are approximately 1 inch long and one-half inch wide, and they have large and visually striking wings. Their forewings are light brown with black spots at the front and a speckled band at the rear. Their hind wings are scarlet with black spots at the front and white and black bars at the rear. Their abdomen is yellow with black bars. Nymphs in their early stages of development appear black with white spots and turn to a red phase before becoming adults. Egg masses are yellowish-brown in color, covered with a gray, waxy coating prior to hatching. Look for nymphs, adults, and eggs on trees. The Tree of Heaven is the preferred tree. Spotted lanternfly lay their eggs on a variety of smooth surfaces. Look for egg masses (which are off-white to grey and textured patches) on tree bark, vehicles, buildings, and outdoor items. USDA Photo by Lance Cheung.
Find it, report it!
Contact your State Department of Agriculture or the Extension specialist near you to report signs of spotted lanternfly. If possible, take a picture or capture the insect in alcohol.
Stop the Spread
Everyone can play a role in stopping the spread of spotted lanternfly
Remove and Destroy
Crush nymph and adult spotted lanternflies. Scrape egg masses into hand sanitizer or rubbing alcohol.
For more information about the Spotted Lanternfly, please see www.aphis.usda.gov/hungrypests/slf
For more information about the Tree of Heaven, please see www.nps.gov/shen/learn/nature/tree-of-heaven.htm
ROMA ARCHEOLOGICA & RESTAURO ARCHITETTURA. MIBACT & COMUNE DI ROMA - I FORI PROGETTO 2015: Mibact - "Impossibile demolire la strada", LA REPUBBLICA (06|01|2015). Foto: Dott.ssa Arch. Paola Giannone, Roma (06|01|2015).
-- Roma, Fori, il no del ministero allo smantellamento: "Impossibile demolire la strada." Volpe, presidente della commissione Stato-Comune sull'area archeologica, contrario all'idea dell'assessore Caudo. "Si verrebbe a creare un dislivello tra il piano antico e quello di piazza Venezia-largo Corrado Ricci."
___
Nota:
1). Roma, "...La notizia e` importante: via dei Fori Imperiali, come la conosciamo oggi, diventera` presto un ricordo. Quanto agli scavi archeologici, fiore all’ occhiello della Roma pre Giubelio, non sarebbero stati realizzabili senza gli sventramenti operati in epoca fascista. A dirlo e` Adriano La Regina, autorevole soprintendente archeologico di Roma."
Fonte: Rivive L’ Urbe antica "Anche grazie al duce," Gli espropri gia` realizzati da Mussolini costerebbero centinaia di miliardi, Corriere Della Sera, (29 Lug 1999), p. 27.
2). Roma, “…Si sentono sempre più spesso annunciare rivoluzionarie scoperte archeologiche in merito ad un diverso impianto planimetrico del Foro di Traiano, sulla vera forma del Foro di Cesare e di quello di Nerva, sul presunto muro di Romolo sul Palatino: scoperte che suscitano interesse e curiosità, ma sono spesso messe in dubbio da qualificati studiosi perché basate su indizi o su ipotesi non sufficientemente suffragate dalle fonti e da altri riscontri filologici. Anche il metodo dello scavo stratigrafico, che non era affatto ignoto agli archeologi della generazione di mio padre [Prof. Giuseppe Lugli 1890 – 1960] non aiuta a ricostruire un’immagine globale della zona archeologica che, già in epoca antica, era stata radicalmente modificata con le sovrapposizioni, e più spesso con le sostituzioni, di nuovi edifice rispetto a quelli preesistenti.”
Prof. Arch. Piero Maria Lugli,*
“Roma: la trasformazione dello spazio urbano nel tempo – Documenti di architettura,” L’intervento del Prof. Lugli è stato anche pubblicato da Palladio, rivista di Storia dell’architettura e restauro, Anno XII N. 24 (dicembre 1999), pp. 2-4. Ordine degli Architetti, Pianificatori, Paesaggisti e Conservatori di Roma e provincial, Roma (2013).
[retrieved 23 September 2013].
* Figlio di Giuseppe Lugli, valente archeologo e topografo, professore ordinario di Topografia romana all’Università di Roma La Sapienza dal 1933 al 1960 [ = G. Lugli, ‘Roma Antica: Il Centro Monumentale’, Roma: Bardi editore, (1946), Pp. 1-632.], scomparso nel 1967. Dal padre ereditò l’attenzione all’urbanistica ed alla topografia. Per altro pubblicò postume alcune planimetrie dell’Italia antica lasciate da lui incompiute alla morte. (Roma, 13 settembre 1923 – Roma, 30 giugno 2008) è stato un architetto italiano.
3). Roma, “Così demoliremo via dei Fori imperiali”, LA REPUBBLICA (03|01|2015). Foto: Prof. A. M. Colini, "Via dei Fori Imperiali," (1979|1981), in: IL TEMPO (30|11|1981), [pdf] p. 4.
4). Roma, “monumenti antichi riporti alla lezione con cui li ammanniscono nei polpettoni dell pellicole storiche. Sicche’ per un pelo si e` capitolato pericolo di veder sorgere a Roma, una Roma in miniatura tipo Disneyland."
Fonte: – Prof. Cesare Brandi, ‘La situazione archeologica. Ulisse, 2, Sansoni, 1966, pp. 9-15; in: Dott. Arch. Maria Grazia Ercolino”The preservation of ruins. The topicality of Cesare Brandi’s theory,” pp. 205-204; J. D. Rodrigues & J.M. Mimoso (edt.), Theory and Practice in Conservation, National Laboratory of Civic Engineering, LISBON (2006).
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Mibact - Roma, "Impossibile demolire la strada", LA REPUBBLICA (06|01|2015).
Professor Giuliano Volpe, l'assessore all'Urbanistica del Campidoglio, Giovanni Caudo, ha affermato che sullo smantellamento di via dei Fori Imperiali la commissione Mibact Comune di Roma, da lei presieduta, ha avuto un atteggiamento contraddittorio. Qual è stato il giudizio della commissione su questo progetto?
"Credo che l'assessore Caudo" risponde il presidente della Commissione abbia frainteso i contenuti della relazione su questo punto".
Il Campidoglio è favorevole allo smantellamento della strada da piazza Venezia a largo Corrado Ricci. E voi?
"La Commissione ha sottolineato che "via dei Fori Imperiali è l'esito di un progetto risalente già al SetteOttocento e poi realizzato, carico anche di finalità ideologiche e retoriche, in epoca fascista, un asse che oramai è parte integrante del paesaggio urbano, oltre ad aver svolto e a continuare a svolgere, sia pure in maniera ridotta e limitata al trasporto pubblico, una funzione di collegamento essenziale nella città"".
Che proponete?
"Abbiamo proposto una soluzione progressiva, partendo da una revisione del decreto di vincolo e da un sostanziale miglioramento della situazione dell'attuale strada".
Che cosa bisognerebbe aspettare?
"Un aumento e un miglioramento della pedonalizzazione, dei servizi didattici, comunicativi e di supporto alla visita e all'attraversamento della strada e una forma di trasporto pubblico con bus elettrici".
Ma la pedonalizzazione ormai è stata decisa e il Comune sta anche progettando una linea di tram da largo Corrado Ricci a piazza Vittorio. Dunque che manca per realizzare un sogno coltivato ormai da tanti decenni?
"C'è un problema tecnico, che riguarda i livelli degli scavi, molto inferiori a quello della strada, sia a piazza Venezia che a largo Corrado Ricci. Ci sembrerebbe difficile proporre percorsi ai livelli di età romana, salvo che non si pensi a soluzioni come quella progettata dal professor Panella: un viadotto in acciaio tra piazza Venezia e largo Corrado Ricci, poggiato sui livelli antichi, ma capace di conservare il percorso attuale".
Non le sembra che sia un'idea piuttosto invasiva, rispetto a quella di trovare invece un collegamento diretto, anche tramite scale, con i livelli romani?
"Proprio perché il problema è ancora da affrontare con soluzioni adeguate, la Commissione ha proposto di proseguire sulla via dello studio e della progettazione di soluzioni innovative. La mera eliminazione di via dei Fori Imperiali senza queste soluzioni ancora da trovare rischia di isolare l'area archeologica rispetto alla città contemporanea".
Su questo nodo la commissione si è divisa: da una parte l'ex soprintendente archeologo La Regina, favorevole allo smantellamento, e da quella opposta gli altri componenti.
"In realtà il professor La Regina ha partecipato a tutto il lavoro e ha condiviso l'intera impostazione. Solo su questo punto, relativo alla conservazione o meno del tracciato della strada, c'è stata una posizione differente, ma più in relazione ai tempi che agli obiettivi da raggiungere".
Quale sarà il futuro del progetto?
FONTE | SOURCE:
"Ci auguriamo che il sindaco Marino e il ministro dei Beni Culturali Franceschini, che sono i committenti dello studio della Commissione, vogliano prevedere una prosecuzione e un approfondimento ulteriore dei lavori, in modo da passare da uno studio ad un progetto strategico condiviso. Noi non abbiamo preconcetti. Ora è necessario evitare polemiche e superare posizioni ideologiche contrapposte".
FONTE | SOURCE:
-- LA REPUBBLICA (06|01|2015).
roma.repubblica.it/cronaca/2015/01/06/news/impossibile_sm...
FOTO | FONTE | SOURCE:
Dott.ssa Arch. Paola Giannone, ... [Via dei Fori] "...Più di 500 anni, ma non li dimostrano!Roma," | FACEBOOK (06|01|2015).
"I sampietrini di Roma godono ottima salute e grazie alle nuove tecniche di posatura i prossimi interventi di ripristino garantiranno per lungo tempo una "vita"di gran lunga superiore che il "millantato" asfalto, per di più "fonoassoebente"!!!
-- Dott.ssa Arch. Paola Giannone, FACEBOOK (06|01|2015).
www.facebook.com/paola.giannone.560
s.v.,
-- ROMA ARCHEOLOGICA & RESTAURO ARCHITETTURA. The Imperial Fora – MiBACT’s New Archeological Plan for Central Rome 2015. Sorry Prof. Volpe; But, Dr. Tomaso Montanari & Dr. Manlio Lilli are both correct: ‘Nobody Believe’s This Crap!’ (01-03 Jan. 2014).
Filey is a seaside town and civil parish in the Borough of Scarborough in North Yorkshire, England. Historically part of the East Riding of Yorkshire, it is located between Scarborough and Bridlington on Filey Bay. Although it was a fishing village, it has a large beach and became a popular tourist resort. According to the 2011 UK census, Filey parish had a population of 6,981, in comparison to the 2001 UK census population figure of 6,819, and a population of 6,870 in 1991.
Filey is at the eastern end of the Cleveland Way, a long-distance footpath; it starts at Helmsley and skirts the North York Moors. It was the second National Trail to be opened (1969). The town is at the northern end of the Yorkshire Wolds Way National Trail which starts at Hessle and crosses the Yorkshire Wolds. Filey is the finishing point for Great Yorkshire Bike Ride. The 70-mile (110 km) ride begins at Wetherby Racecourse.
Filey has a railway station on the Yorkshire Coast Line. A second station at Filey Holiday Camp railway station to the south of the town served the former Butlins holiday camp. The camp has since been re-developed into a 600-home holiday housing development, The Bay Filey. It is one of the largest coastal developments of this kind in the UK and the first homes were completed in 2007.
In July 2007 Filey was hit by flash floods which caused major problems.
In 1857 the foundations of a 4th-century Roman signal station were discovered at the Carr Naze cliff edge at the northern end of Filey Bay. The structure is 50 metres long with a square tower 14 metres wide, a defensive ditch and ramparts from a later era. Excavations at the time of the find and subsequently in the 1920s and 1990s uncovered Roman pottery and hoards of coins. The site is a protected Scheduled Monument. The find of Roman remains supports the case for Filey being the Roman settlement of Portus Felix.
The 12th century parish church dedicated to St Oswald, on Church Hill in the north of the town, is a Grade I listed building. It is the oldest building in Filey and Nicholas Pevsner wrote "This is easily the finest church in the NE corner of the East Riding" (Buildings of England). St Oswald's has nearly 1,500 pieces of well-preserved medieval graffiti on the roof of the tower, ranging from initials up to complicated images of fully rigged sailing vessels, including one known as a Whitby Cat. The graffiti covers around 400 years of Filey's history, and maps out identifiable people, their occupations, changes in literacy and coastal shipping, the start of tourism in the area, and even a possible record of 17th century plague. The graffiti was recorded and analysed by Historic England in 2016.
Filey was a small village until the 18th century when visitors from Scarborough arrived seeking the peace and quiet that Filey then offered. In 1835 a Birmingham solicitor called John Wilkes Unett bought 7 acres (2.8 ha) of land and built the Crescent, later known as the Royal Crescent, which was opened in the 1850s.[18] On several occasions in the mid-19th century, the novelist Charlotte Brontë visited Filey with the aim of recovering her faltering health. In June 1852 she wrote to her father: "The Sea is very grand. Yesterday it was a somewhat unusually high tide - and I stood about an hour on the cliffs yesterday afternoon - watching the tumbling in of great tawny turbid waves - that make the whole shore white with foam and filled the air with a sound hollower and deeper than thunder.
Fishing at Filey has been tradition, going on for a multitude of centuries, with most of those undertaking it coming from a long line of fishermen and women in their families. The fishing boats at Filey are cobles, like most of the others along the Yorkshire and North East coasts, and the catch is mostly sea trout. Limitations have been placed upon how and where they use their nets which also trap salmon; some fear this may lead to the end of the fishing industry in Filey. In 1804, a lifeboat was procured for the town and it became a Royal National Lifeboat Institution asset in 1852. Filey Lifeboat Station is still in existence and has an inshore and an all-weather boat on station. The all-weather lifeboat was replaced in early 2021 with an Atlantic 85 vessel.[22]
English composer Frederick Delius stayed as a boy on the Crescent with his family at Miss Hurd's boarding house (number 24) in 1876 and 1877, and then at Mrs Colley's (number 24) in 1897.
In 1931 the spire of a church was damaged by the Dogger Bank earthquake.
For more than 40 years Butlin's Filey Holiday Camp was a major factor in Filey's economy. Building began in 1939 and continued during the Second World War when it became an air force station known as RAF Hunmanby Moor. In 1945 it became a popular holiday resort with its own railway station and by the late 1950s could cater for 10,000 holiday makers. It closed in 1984, causing a decrease in the holiday makers visiting Filey.
Filey was historically split between the North Riding of Yorkshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire, with the boundary running along Filey Beck. When County Councils were formed by the Local Government Act 1888, the whole of Filey was placed in the East Riding.
Filey also boasts the Grade II listed Langford Villa on The Crescent (c. 1830) which was often chosen by the famous chocolatier Sir Joseph Terry as his place to "summer"; it is situated next door but one to The White Lodge Hotel.
In 2018, the town was featured in the Tour de Yorkshire for the first time.
At the lowest level of governance is Filey Town Council, electing a total of thirteen councillors. These councillors are responsible for burial grounds, allotments, play areas and some street lighting. Elections to the town council are held every four years and the most recent elections were held in May 2019. The Mayor of Filey is elected annually by the members of the town council.
At district level, the town was part of the Scarborough Borough Council area. The town was represented by three councillors on the Borough Council. On the North Yorkshire County Council the town elected one representative. Both councils were abolished in 2023 and replaced with a unitary authority, North Yorkshire Council.
Parliamentary representation
Filey was in the Ryedale constituency until the 2010 general election when it became part of the newly formed Thirsk and Malton constituency. Proposed boundary changes to the constituencies, would see Filey be moved from Thirsk and Malton into the Scarborough and Whitby constituency.
Development
Coast & Country Housing Limited plan to build 300 houses in Filey. Scarborough council has approved plans for the £45 million housing project off Muston Road by Coast & Country. Independent councillor Sam Cross, who represents Filey on the borough council, said: "The infrastructure of the town can't cope with it." Coast and Country replied to the concerns by stating that the houses are being built to meet a pent-up latent demand for affordable housing and other housing within the town.
Local media
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC Yorkshire and ITV Yorkshire. Television signals are received from the Oliver's Mount and via a local relay transmitter at Hunmanby. BBC North East and Cumbria and ITV Tyne Tees can also be received from the Bilsdale TV transmitter.
Filey’s local radio stations are BBC Radio York on 95.5 FM, Yorkshire Coast Radio on 96.2 FM, Coast & County Radio on 97.4 FM and This is The Coast that broadcasts online and on DAB.
Local newspapers are Filey Bay Today and The Scarborough News.
Notable people
Leo Blair, the father of Tony Blair, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom was born in Filey.
Edmund Crawford, footballer, Liverpool & Clapton Orient
Andy Crawford, footballer, Derby County & Blackburn Rovers
Honor Fell (1900–1986), zoologist, was born at Fowthorpe, near Filey.
We took down a cabinet that had been built...into (sort of) a guest room. It was very odd construction - and we're used to that. Behind it was "brown paper covered drywall board". My wife put some plaster on the ceiling to decorate and cover holes in that area - and these brown squares developed. We don't know why - any ideas? Fixes?
Ein neu gegründeter Verein „Kommunikationsstelle Demokratischer Widerstand“ um den Kulturwissenschaftler Anselm Lenz ruft dazu auf, gegen die Corona-Schutzbestimmungen aufzubegehren und organisiert seit dem 28.03. regelmäßige Demonstrationen auf dem Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz. Dabei wird auf Basis von Verschwörungserzählungen die Corona-Epidemie geleugnet und eine „Beendigung des Notstands-Regimes“ gefordert. „Polizeistaatliches Gebaren im Übergang zum Präfaschismus“ sei völlig indiskutabel. Die Webseite der Organisatoren behauptet in einer Chronologie zu Corona, der deutsche Bundestag habe sein „Ermächtigungsgesetz“ beschlossen. „Wir sollen ein Jahr lang in einer de-facto-Diktatur leben.“
Von solch einer Sprache angesprochen, fühlen sich die schon von den rechtsoffenen Mahnwachen seit 2014 bekannten Netzwerke. Vor Ort werden auf Plakaten antisemitisch aufgeladene Welterklärungsmodelle bemüht, wonach eine unheimlich operierte Elite an einer "neuen Weltordnung" arbeite. Selbsternannte „alternative Medien“, die zu anderen Gelegenheiten keine Probleme mit autoritären Staaten haben, arbeiten die Veranstaltung propagandistisch auf und vermitteln das Bild eines diktatorischen Polizeistaats. Darunter sind Rubikon News, KenFM, EingeschenktTV, der Erdogan- und Hamas-Fan Martin Lejeune, der die Veranstaltung für das braune Blatt „Rote Fahne“ von Stephan Steins in Szene setzt. Auch die sich selbst als proamerikanisch und proisraelisch beschreibende rassistische Seite „Politically Incorrect (PI News) nahm positiv Bezug auf die Veranstaltung.
Dass mittlerweile weitere offen rechte oder auch neonazistische Protagonisten auf den Aufruf aufmerksam geworden sind und zur Unterstützung aufzurufen - darunter der notorische Lügner Henryk Stöckl, ist für Anselm Lenz offensichtlich kein Problem.
Er inszeniert sich als Widerstandskämpfer und meint, aufgrund kritischer Berichterstattung politisch verfolgt zu sein, weshalb er nach Eigenaussage um Asyl in der schwedischen Botschaft gebeten hat.
Die Fotos unterliegen dem Copyright. Sie sind in druckbarer, hochauflösender Qualität ohne Wasserzeichen vorhanden und können für kommerzielle wie unkommerzielle Zwecke erfragt werden.
A moment of stillness in a universe of chaos. The Three-Body Problem tells us that stability is an illusion—every system is one small perturbation away from unpredictability.
Frans Verheijen, Rutger Hermans, Henk Vergouwen en Jan Koot in een Nederlands opleidingsinstituut van de luchtvaart.
DE VLIEGERIJ EN ZIJN BETEKENIS VOOR HET MISSIEWERK
Een apart hoofdstuk over de missievliegerij lijkt me hier wel op z'n plaats, omdat de missie zonder dat bedrijf nooit had kunnen doen wat zij heeft gedaan.
Al lang was het duidelijk dat de missie in Nieuw Guinea op een gegeven moment gebruik zou moeten maken van eigen vliegtuigen. De bevoorrading van de posten over land zou op de duur een te grote belasting gaan vormen voor de plaatselijke bevolking. Bovendien zou de groei van de missie
belemmerd worden als er niet een betere en meer frequente manier zou worden gevonden om de posten in het binnenland te voorzien in hun materiële en personele behoeften. Missievliegerij was noodzakelijk wilde de missie blijven functioneren en uitgroeien. Gestart in 1958 zou de missievliegerij rond de jaren 1965-1969 zorgen voor een grote verandering: een verandering die niet alleen de bevoorrading van de posten betrof, maar ook het contact van de posten onderling. De radiozenders, die noodzakelijk waren voor het vliegverkeer, zorgden er ook voor dat de communicatie tussen de missionarissen beter en intensiever werd.
Over het ontstaan en de geschiedenis van de missievliegerij wil ik het hier niet hebben: die is elders al uitvoerig beschreven. Ook niet hoe missionarissen een eigen vliegveld moesten aanleggen en de problemen die daaraan verbonden waren, want zelf heb ik nooit een vliegveld hoeven aan te leggen en zijn mij de zorgen daaromtrent bespaard gebleven. Wel heb ik van mijn medebroeders vernomen dat het aanleggen van een vliegveld een heidens karwei was. Meestal volgde de ene ontgoocheling na de ander, voordat het vliegveld eindelijk goedgekeurd werd door de piloten. Niet dat de piloten in hun eisen onredelijk waren, maar zij waren zich terdege bewust van hun verantwoordelijkheden wilden het graag zelf ook overleven.
Meestal moest zo'n missionaris een paar jaar al zijn energie geven aan het aanleggen van een eigen strip. Wanneer hij dan eindelijk dacht klaar te zijn en een testvlucht kreeg (vlucht over de strip heen), kreeg hij meestal te horen wat er nog aan mankeerde wilde de strip goedgekeurd worden. En
met dat "wat er nog aan mankeerde" was hij weer vier maanden of een half jaar bezig... En dan nog was het niet zeker of zijn strip door de piloten voor 100 procent vliegwaardig werd bevonden. Meestal volgde er dan wel een
testlanding en als die goed verliep kwam de piloot een paar keer met een halve lading. Maar om een volle lading te krijgen moest er meestal dit of dat nog "even" in orde gemaakt worden. En dan kon de missionaris er weer "even" tegen aan gaan staan. En dan te bedenken dat die vliegveldjes vaak op een schuine kant van een helling lagen of achter een bergje, dat de aan- of uitvlucht bemoeilijkte. Had er eenmaal een crash plaats gevonden, dan had het vliegveld van die missionaris een slechte naam bij de piloten. Het gevolg was dat bij slecht weer een vlucht op zijn vliegveld al snel gecanceld werd.
Het aanleggen van zo'n strip was veel tijdrovender en problematischer dan een keer een opvoer over land organiseren.
Vliegen in Nieuw Guinea, vooral in het bergland, was een riskante zaak. Bergen, regen, mist, verraderlijke windvallen, snel wisselende weersomstandigheden: het waren allemaal dingen waar een piloot regelmatig mee te maken kreeg. Als piloot in Nieuw-Guinea moest je de risico's op hun juiste waarde weten in te schatten: niet te voorzichtig (want dan kwam je nergens), maar ook niet onbezonnen. Een flexibele geest was beslist noodzakelijk: op de juiste momenten moest je kunnen improviseren. Een goed oriëntatievermogen was eveneens gewenst, want het instrumentenbord van een Cessna was maar beperkt.
Bij aanvang van het eigen missievliegbedrijf was men er van uit gegaan dat het bedrijf door paters gerund zou worden. Dus ook de piloten zouden paters zijn. De achterliggende gedachte hiervan was o.a. dat de missionaris op een eenzame post zodoende ook eens een medebroeder op bezoek zou
krijgen. In praktijk is dat nog al tegengevallen. Die paters-piloten hadden er meestal nog een andere functie bij, zodat een nachtje overblijven bij een medebroeder er meestal niet in zat.
Waren priesters nu geschikt als piloot? Theo Jansen, een lekenpiloot, zei me eens:: "Paters hebben een verkeerde opleiding en instelling om piloot te zijn!" Ik geloof dat ik begreep wat hij wilde zeggen. Als je piloot bent, heb je
daaraan een volledige en verantwoordelijke job, die niet toelaat dat je er ook nog iets bij doet. Bovendien worden paters voor alles en nog wat gevraagd en kunnen vaak maar moeilijk weigeren. Een leken-piloot heeft daar minder last van: hij wordt veel minder voor iets anders gevraagd en kan gemakkelijker weigeren.
Van de drie paters die in Hilversum een pilotenopleiding hadden gevolgd, werd er één al direct bij aankomst in Nieuw-Guinea afgekeurd: hij bleek zich onvoldoende te kunnen oriënteren tussen de bergen. Bovendien was hij te zenuwachtig. De tweede maakte al spoedig een crash, waarbij de vier inzittenden ternauwernood aan de dood ontsnapten: van verder vliegen zag hij maar af. En de derde vloog in de mist tegen een boom : hij overleefde het niet. Het was dus geen succes, die vliegende paters franciscanen. Evenmin bij de broeders franciscanen. De eerste broeder verongelukte al bij de tweede of derde solovlucht: hij bracht het er gelukkig levend vanaf. De tweede broeder piloot vloog tegen een berg, waarbij alle inzittenden om het leven kwamen.
Lag het misschien aan de franciscanen dat het zo vaak mis ging? Het begon er wel op te lijken, want een broeder van de Kruisheren, die na zijn uittreden piloot bij de missievliegerij werd, bleek een zeer bekwame piloot te zijn. Maar ook hij kwam na jarenlang uitstekend vliegen bij een ongeluk om. Van de leken-piloten echter is, ofschoon ze bijna allemaal wel eens gecrasht zijn, niemand omgekomen (behalve dan die uitgetreden broeder en een Indonesische piloot). Vliegen was dus beslist niet zonder gevaren, en alle missionarissen hebben dat op een of andere manier wel eens ondervonden. Allemaal hebben ze wel eens een hachelijk moment beleefd. Zelf heb ik twee keer in mijn rats
gezeten.
Vanuit Enarotali moest ik eens naar Moanemani. Ik zou als eerste afgezet worden en de piloot zou met twee andere passagiers doorvliegen naar Timeepa en dan naar de kust. Waarom weet ik niet, maar onderweg besloot de piloot (Theo Jansen) van de route af te wijken en eerst naar Timeepa te
gaan. Vermoedelijk omdat het daar tegen de middag nogal eens winderig kan zijn met het risico van een landing met staartwind. Pater Zwartjes in Timeepa gaf, voordat hij zich naar het vliegveld begaf, via de radiozender aan ons door dat er geen wind was. Maar nog voordat hij op het vliegveld was aangekomen (een kwartier lopen) was de wind opeens opgestoken. Terug naar huis gaan om ons via de zender voor die wind te waarschuwen, had geen zin meer: we waren al vlak bij de strip. De piloot zette de landing in, maar boven de strip merkte hij dat de wind te sterk was en hij besloot door te starten. De wind was echter zo sterk dat hij geen hoogte meer kon maken. We vlogen recht op een Ekagi-hut af. Ik dacht: dit is het einde. Rakelings scheerden we over de hut. Daar waren we goed vanaf gekomen. Maar meteen deed zich het volgende probleem al voor: rechtdoor vliegen was onmogelijk vanwege de bergen die meteen achter de strip opdoemden.
De piloot was dus gedwongen om met geringe hoogte een bocht te nemen. Dat lukte hem ook wonder wel, al was het dat we tussen de bomen door vlogen. Misschien droom ik daarom nog wel eens dat we tussen bomen door vliegen en er niet uit kunnen komen. Een tweede landingspoging lukte beter, maar toen we uitstapten stond de piloot te trillen op zijn benen. Later hoorden we dat zich drie mensen in die hut bevonden en dat het vliegtuig alle dakbedekking van het huis had weggezogen.
27 Jaar missionaris in Irian Jaya, Cleophas Ruigrok 1996 pag. 163-168
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Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
A friend had problem stairs. The tread plates were only about eight inches deep. Also, the 2x's bowed when stepped on.
Solving the problem meant an expensive rebuild to push the stairs out about twenty-eight inches and would involve dealing with load bearing beams, cutting into other rooms and so forth.
I tried a simple experiment of adding two inch bull noses to the front of each step. Though this moved all steps out two inches, it also brought the tread plate depth up to around ten inches.
To deal with the bowing of the steps, I shimmed the tops and bottoms of each of the kick plates. This added significant strength by, essentially, tying all the steps together.
After a few months, everyone agreed it made a notable difference in the comfort of using the heavily traveled stairs. Of course, it also meant solving the problem at a fraction of the cost of an entire rebuild.
Since the bull nose additions worked, I made new ones out of oak [from a commercial wine vat]. However, this, essentially, resulted in a cantilever effect and required some form of support under the bull noses. Since I had a little time on my hands, I cut one hundred ninety-five micro corbels and mounted them on 1/2" thick wood strips, then glued them to the tops of the kick plates and the bottoms of the bull noses. This took care of the gaps at the tops of the kick plate as well.
The owner then carpeted between the corbel strips and the bull noses.
The protector under the front of the tram dislodged accidentally causing the emergency brakes to be applied and causing the pantograph to collapse. © Henk Graalman 2748E
In 1987 Denis Sweeting DFC,198 Typhoon Squadron, first thought of the idea of a memorial for the pilots killed in the Normandy battles discussing it in June with General Yves Paul Ezanno DFC and Bar, CdeG, who had been the commanding officer of 198 Squadron during the Normandy campaign. It was also discussed with various Maires and dignitaries, but little interest was shown due to possible funding problems.
Meanwhile, Monsieur Jacques Bréhin had already formed an organisation involved in digging up Typhoon aircraft and arranging burials of Typhoon pilots with full military honours. The association is called "Association pour le Souvenir des Ailes de la Victoire de Normandie". Their English translation, "Association for the Memory of the Wings over Normandy Victory". M. Jacques Bréhin is the President.
The reason for his interest in the Typhoon. Jacques Bréhin was just a boy, a month from his 11th birthday, having experienced 4 years of enemy occupation, when on the 7th June 1944 (D-Day + 1), he witnessed an R.A.F. Typhoon hit by flak near Villers-Bocage. Jacques Bréhin saw the pilot parachute from the damaged plane and heard the aircraft crash to the ground and explode on his parents farm nearby. He was told by his parents that the pilot F/Lt Peter Roper had been seriously wounded. A German soldier had quickly found him, but left him because of his condition. Nearby, French families were doing all they could for the injured pilot who had landed on the farm of M. Lemenuel a tenant of Baron d'Huart who also owned the land rented by Jacques parents.
This happening was to become one of the key factors in this memorial project. It remained a very vivid memory, starting M Jacques Bréhin on what was to become a great fascination for the Typhoon and its pilots.
He grew up to become an Agricultural engineer, remaining a part time farmer with his wife and family at Tilly-sur-Seulles.
During early 1969 Jacques' son Michel who had been made very much aware of the war during his upbringing, was taken to the crash site by Jacques' godmother. This led to even more family interest in the Typhoon which continued with greater enthusiasm as Michel got older and heard more about the war and the role of the Typhoons from his father. This resulted in Jacques and his son returning to the site in early 1984 to dig up F/Lt Peter Roper's aircraft. Many parts of the aircraft were recovered including the engine, which was taken to a Museum at Tilly-sur-Seulles.
Leeds & Liverpool Canal
10 August 2012
Narrow Boat 'hung-up' sinking.
'scars' where the Bottom Plate 'hung-up'
26 февраля 2014, Пленум ХМКК "Кризис семьи и проблема сиротства" / 26 February 2014, Family crisis and the problem of orphanhood
Fazer um filme chegar às telas de cinema não é nada fácil. Há vários aspectos envolvidos, como a produção, a escolha dos artistas, o roteiro, entre outras coisas. Às vezes, até os criadores mais geniais são rejeitados pelas produtoras de Hollywood, que querem que os filmes sejam muito rentáveis.
É estranho pensar, mas vários filmes clássicos, como Titanic, Psicose e Pulp Fiction, por pouco não foram produzidos. Eles enfrentaram vários problemas, mas, por um golpe de sorte, acabaram chegando às telas e foram bem recebidos pelo público.
1 – Guerra nas Estrelas (1977)
Três grandes estúdios – United Artists, Universal, Disney – não deram muita credibilidade ao roteiro de Guerra nas Estrelas, até que a Fox concordou em financiar o filme. Foi feito um um orçamento de US $ 8 milhões e o criador do filme, George Lucas, foi para a Tunísia para começar a filmar. No entanto, até mesmo os atores de Guerra nas Estrelas não estavam convencidos do sucesso do filme.
Antes do lançamento, George Lucas mostrou algumas partes da história para um grupo de amigos, e um deles chamou de “o pior filme de todos os tempos”. Até George Lucas – o próprio diretor – tinha tanta certeza de que o filme fracassaria, tanto é que em vez de assistir à estreia, ele foi passar as férias no Havaí com seu amigo, Steven Spielberg.
2 – Pequena Miss Sunshine (2006)
O filme foi escrito pelo ex-assistente de Matthew Broderick e dois diretores inexperientes. Não havia “nenhuma estrela de cinema nem bilheteria estrangeira previsível”, escreveu o New York Times há mais de uma década.
Os diretores tiveram o projeto recusado por vários estúdios, até que um deles decidiu se autofinanciar, acreditando que seria bem-sucedido. Por fim, o filme provou ser um enorme sucesso, recebeu 81 prêmios.
3 – O Mágico de Oz (1939)
O filme passou por tantos problemas, que foi quase um milagre ele ter chegado às telas. Para começar, o longa passou por quatro produtores diferentes e três diretores antes de ser lançado ao público. Houve problemas na produção, com os figurinos tendo prejudicado os atores. Por exemplo, o traje de Espantalho deixou o ator Ray Bolger com sérias cicatrizes e Margaret Hamilton (Bruxa Malvada do Oeste) sofreu graves queimaduras.
Como se não bastasse, dizem que a atriz Judy Garland começou a se viciar em drogas por causa do filme. Na época das filmagens, Garland já era adolescente, mas a história exigia uma menina pré-adolescente, então ela recebeu prescrições de anfetaminas para manter o peso baixo, seguidas de barbitúricos para ajudá-la a dormir após 16 horas de filmagens e grande cansaço mental e físico. Acredita-se que este foi o começo de seu vício em drogas, que provocou sua overdose fatal em 1969.
4 – Toy Story (1995)
Um ex-diretor de criação da Disney, John Lasseter, ficou fascinado com a ideia de fazer um filme totalmente animado por computador e mostrou o projeto para seus chefes da Disney. No entanto, a Disney não estava tão interessada e rejeitou a proposta. Mas depois que John foi co-fundador da Pixar e criou o curta de animação por computador Tin Toy, que ganhou um Oscar, isso fez com que a Disney se arrependesse de sua decisão inicial.
A Pixar foi abordada pela Disney para produzir outro filme de animação por computador, mas desta vez um longa. Quando o roteiro foi finalmente aprovado pela Disney, em 1993, a Pixar começou a trabalhar em sua produção e elenco. Mas as coisas foram dando errado, e depois de muitas mudanças e reescritas, um dos executivos da Disney declarou que o filme estava uma bagunça completa e interrompeu toda a produção.
John Lasseter pediu ao estúdio mais uma chance, e conseguiu. Três meses depois, a equipe da Pixar voltou com um novo roteiro e, em fevereiro de 1994, o filme estava de volta à produção. Em um mês, os dubladores voltaram para gravar suas novas falas e a equipe cresceu de 24 para 110 pessoas. Quando Toy Story foi finalmente lançado em 1995, foi um verdadeiro sucesso, tendo recebido 22 prêmios (incluindo um Oscar).
5 – Titanic (1997)
As coisas ficaram tão tensas durante as filmagens de Titanic, que a imprensa assumiu que o filme seria um fracasso total. Muitos membros do elenco, incluindo Kate Winslet, estavam com resfriados, gripes e problemas nos rins devido às longas horas passadas em água fria. Três dublês haviam quebrado seus ossos, e vários membros da equipe deixaram a produção juntos. As coisas pioraram quando um dos funcionários colocou uma droga alucinógena conhecida como “pó de anjo” na sopa que a equipe estava comendo. 50 pessoas foram internadas, muitas delas estavam fora de si com alucinações.
Além disso, quando o diretor James Cameron soube que os chefes do estúdio queriam cortar o filme porque era “muito longo”, ele afirmou: “Vocês querem cortar meu filme? Vocês vão ter que me demitir!” Ninguém se atreveu a demitir Cameron, e hoje Titanic é um verdadeiro clássico e sucesso de bilheterias.
6 – Blade Runner (1982)
Quando o diretor Ridley Scott começou a filmar, ele enfrentou vários problemas. As filmagens foram atrasadas, vários chefes de estúdio ficaram bravos com o diretor por ter ultrapassado o orçamento original, o roteiro original foi reescrito por várias pessoas em muitas ocasiões antes, depois e durante a produção. Além disso, o estúdio não gostou do final original de Blade Runner e levou o diretor a mudar o final do filme.
Embora Blade Runner não tenha sido recebido com entusiasmo por críticos ou telespectadores, ele cresceu ao longo do tempo e agora é considerado um dos melhores filmes de ficção científica.
7 – A Nova Onda do Imperador (2000)
O filme de animação da Disney foi originalmente planejado para ser um musical dramático chamado Kingdom of the Sun – uma “comédia romântica musical no estilo tradicional da Disney”. No entanto, os grandes executivos da Disney sentiram que o projeto precisava de mais comédia para não ser um fracasso.
Infelizmente, no verão de 1998, tornou-se evidente que a equipe não seria capaz de cumprir o prazo de produção, que era até o verão de 2000, conforme o planejado. O produtor recebeu um ultimato: duas semanas para salvar o projeto ou a produção seria completamente encerrada. O filme também teve problemas relacionados à trilha sonora.
Embora o filme não tenha sido um grande sucesso de bilheteria, os críticos o receberam bem e se tornou o DVD mais vendido de 2001.
8 – Psicose (1960)
O filme Psicose foi baseado em um romance de 1959 com o mesmo nome, o qual Alfred Hitchcock comprou os direitos anonimamente de Robert Bloch por apenas US $ 9.000. O diretor comprou o máximo de cópias possível do romance, para tentar manter o final em segredo.
Antes do filme ser rodado, a Paramount e o diretor Alfred Hitchcock tinham um contrato que significava que o próximo filme de Alfred seria rodado sob esse gigante dos estúdios. No entanto, a Paramount não queria que Psicose fosse rodado. Os diretores do estúdio acharam o livro “muito repulsivo” e “impossível para filmes”. O estúdio negou a Hitchcock seu orçamento habitual e estava completamente convencido de que o filme fracassaria.
No entanto, Alfred acreditava sinceramente em seu projeto e concordou em receber 60% da receita bruta do filme, em vez do salário habitual de US $ 250.000. Para manter os custos baixos, o filme foi filmado em preto e branco. Hoje, Psicose é considerado um dos melhores filmes de Hitchcock e uma importante obra de arte cinematográfica.
9 – O Exorcista (1973)
Se não fosse por um golpe de sorte, não teríamos o filme O Exorcista hoje – um dos filmes de terror mais famosos (e assustadores) feitos até hoje. Foi escrito pela primeira vez como um romance de William Peter Blatty em 1971, posteriormente adaptado a um roteiro e finalmente levado à tela grande pelo diretor William Friedkin.
No entanto, quando Blatty publicou o livro, “recebeu críticas muito boas”, lembrou o escritor. “Mas ninguém estava comprando o livro.” Então, segundo o escritor, ele foi ajudado por uma “mão divina”. Depois que ele fez uma pré-entrevista para uma possível participação de um dos episódios de “The Dick Cavett Show”, o entrevistador disse a ele para não ter esperanças, já que o apresentador não era um grande fã de histórias paranormais. Então, um dia ele estava jantando com uma das editoras, quando de repente ela recebeu uma ligação do programa de TV. Eles precisavam de William Peter Blatty para chegar ao show em alguns minutos, pois um de seus convidados havia cancelado.
Aparentemente, o outro convidado que entrou no programa a tempo estava um pouco embriagado e o que tinha que ser uma entrevista de 5 minutos com o escritor de O Exorcista, estendeu-se a uma conversa de 45 minutos em seu livro na TV nacional. Isso deu ao livro o impulso necessário e chamou a atenção dos executivos de Hollywood. Logo, o então diretor da Warner Bros. deu uma luz verde para fazer o filme e abriu o caminho para que ele se tornasse um clássico no gênero de terror.
10 – A Profecia (1976)
Depois que os filmes O Bebê de Rosemary e o Exorcista já tinham feito um enorme sucesso, os produtores sabiam que A Profecia teria que ser um ótimo filme também. No entanto, depois de assinar o contrato, o executivo que lançou a ideia do filme começou a avisar a todos que o longa seria amaldiçoado. Além disso aconteceram coisas realmente estranhas durante e após a produção do filme.
Dois meses antes da filmagem, o filho do ator principal, Gregory Peck, cometeu suicídio. Pouco tempo depois, o avião do mesmo ator foi atingido por um raio. Poucas semanas após o incidente, o produtor executivo do filme estava também teve o seu avião atingido por um raio. O hotel em Londres onde o mesmo produtor e outros estavam membros da equipe estavam hospedados foi bombardeado pelo IRA (Exército Republicano Irlandês).
Além disso, um treinador de animais que ajudou o elenco com a cena do babuíno foi morto por dois leões logo após as filmagens. O produtor de efeitos especiais John Richardson, responsável pela cena da decapitação, sofreu um acidente de carro ao dirigir em uma estrada deserta. Ele colidiu de frente com outro carro e a colisão decapitou a cabeça do passageiro. Por fim, um avião que foi contratado pela equipe do filme, mas que foi trocado no último minuto, caiu logo após a decolagem e matou todos a bordo.
11 – Quero Ser John Malkovich (1999)
Escrito por Charlie Kaufman, o filme foi difícil de convencer. Kaufman escreveu o roteiro em 1994 e, embora tenha sido amplamente lido por executivos de vários estúdios, todos recusaram. Ainda na esperança de encontrar um produtor para o projeto, o escritor enviou o roteiro a Francis Ford Coppola, que o repassou a seu então genro Spike Jonze.
Spike concordou em dirigir o filme e levou o roteiro à Propaganda Films, que decidiu produzi-lo em parceria com a Single Cell Pictures. Os produtores da Single Cell enviaram o projeto para vários estúdios. Novamente, todos os estúdios o rejeitaram. Finalmente, o filme foi finalizado e distribuído graças à USA Films, tornando-se um sucesso imediato e conquistando três indicações ao Oscar.
12 – De Volta Para o Futuro (1985)
De Volta Para o Futuro foi o filme de maior bilheteria de 1985. No entanto, em 1981, o roteiro foi rejeitado mais de 40 vezes por quase todos os grandes estúdios. Posteriormente, a Universal Pictures topou produzir o filme somente depois de testemunhar o sucesso do outro filme de Robert Zemeckis, Tudo por uma Esmeralda.
13 – Pulp Fiction (1994)
“Esta é a pior coisa já escrita. Não faz sentido. Alguém está morto e depois está vivo. É muito longo, violento e insolúvel.” Isso foi dito sobre o filme Pulp Fiction, quando seu co-escritor Roger Avary e Quentin Tarantino levaram o roteiro para a TriStar. Os executivos do estúdio definitivamente não eram fãs de histórias não lineares (principal característica do filme). Se não fosse a produtora Miramax, Pulp Fiction nunca teria teria chegado às telas do cinema.
14 – Debi & Loide – Dois Idiotas em Apuros (1994)
O filme que finalmente solidificou a carreira de Jim Carrey foi recusado por praticamente todos os grandes estúdios de Hollywood, principalmente porque os estúdios consideravam o título ridículo.
Eventualmente, o roteiro chegou ao New Line Cinema, cujo presidente Mike De Luca adorou e concordou em fazê-lo. No entanto, o CEO Bob Shayne não gostou, mas após uma longa discussão, concordou em fazê-lo sob uma condição: que os diretores pudessem garantir dois atores principais de uma lista de 25 atores fornecidos pelo estúdio. Surpreendentemente, todos os atores recusaram o papel. Então, um dos produtores do filme levou o roteiro à Jim Carrey, que era um novato promissor na cena da comédia. Jim gostou do roteiro, os cineastas gostaram de Jim e, juntos, fizeram o filme acontecer.
15 – Apocalypse Now (1979)
O diretor do Apocalypse Now, Francis Ford Coppola, disse uma vez sobre o filme: “Estávamos na selva. Tínhamos muito dinheiro. Tínhamos muito equipamento. E pouco a pouco, ficamos loucos”.
Vários inconvenientes ocorreram durante a produção. O filme levou muito mais tempo para ser feito do que o estimado, a equipe estava enfrentando várias doenças tropicais enquanto filmava nas Filipinas, Martin Sheen sofreu um ataque cardíaco, Francis Ford Coppola sofreu vários colapsos nervosos. Além disso, Martin Sheen estava lutando contra seu vício em álcool na época e problemas de saúde mental e teria dito a seus amigos: “Não sei se vou sobreviver a isso”.
Além disso, o lendário ator Marlon Brando chegou ao set completamente despreparado, sem ter lido o roteiro. Ele também estava acima do peso, o que não era a aparência que os cineastas estavam procurando para um soldado. No geral, apesar da produção ter passado por vários perrengues, o filme conseguiu decolar e hoje é considerado um clássico de todos os tempos.
Fonte: Bored Panda
O post 15 Filmes famosos que por pouco não foram produzidos apareceu primeiro em Tudo Interessante.
A sizeable handlebar bag looks horrible with normal barcon housing. It pushes the housing out of the way, making the bag look like an afterthought. No bueno
I live in the city centre and based on experience I can say without doubt that the homeless problem is increasing at an alarming rate. Today I counted seven tents, occupied by homeless people, in this public park. A few months ago there were two. However, there was little sign of what might be described as anti-social behaviour.
Within the park there is a memorial and a plaque which refers the the "Croppy's Acre" as the official name is currently the "Croppies Acre 1798 Memorial Park".
[WHAT I SAID IN OCTOBER 2018]
The good news is that this park now appears to be safe to visit and the decision to have it open twenty four hours a day must have solved the anti-social problems that had resulted in it being closed to the public for extended periods of time.
[WHAT I SAID BACK IN NOVEMBER 2016]
There are two separate parks which may be related but in general most tourist guides are unaware of this fact to the extent that some claim that Anna Livia is located in the park beside the the Museum Luas Tram Stop.
The major park, the one normally associated with the museum, is officially the Croppies Acre 1798 Memorial Park while the smaller park featuring Anna Livia and a small pond is the Croppies Memorial Park. The distinction is important because the larger park has been closed to the public for extended periods.
For many years due to anti-social behaviour, mainly drugs related, the major memorial park was off-limits to the public. There was also problems with homeless people occupying parts of the park. Even today, there was a tent towards one corner of the park. One cannot blame the homeless for taking advantage of the available space.
On Tuesday, 14th June at 2:00 p.m. the Croppies Acre 1798 Memorial Park, Wolfe Tone Quay, Dublin 7 was once again open to the public but I did not get a chance to visit until today [November 7 2016]. Having been conditioned to the park being always closed I found the fact that the gates were partly opened a little bit unsettling and as I was the only person [if one ignores the tent and one person who left immediately I arrived] in the park I was a bit worried that an official might come along and lock the gates without informing me. This has happened to me in the past elsewhere.
Following discussions in 2013 with the Office of Public Works it was agreed that the management of the 4.3 acre Park would transfer from the Office of Public Works to Dublin City Council.
Dublin City Council’s Parks and Landscape Services have carried out an extensive works programme to upgrade the park and make it more accessible for the citizens of Dublin and visitors to the city.
The works include a new circulatory path system, upgrading of the existing pedestrian gates and the provision of a new pedestrian gate at the south west end of the park. Existing memorial structures have been upgraded and general landscape improvement works have been carried out. The total cost of the works, were in the order of €120,000.
To be fair the park was in excellent condition when I visited today but the presence of a tent was a bit worrying as was the careless attitude to properly opening the gates.
The name ‘Croppy’ was used in Ireland in the 1790s and was a reference to the rebels who closely cropped their hair to mimic the French Revolutionaries of the period who cut their hair in contrast to the aristocracy who wore powdered wigs.
Historically the Croppies Acre was located on land under common pasturage and part of what was termed ‘Oxmantown Green’.
In the 17th century, a portion was later presented to the Viceroy, the Duke of Ormond to build a palace, however this was never built and the site was sold to the City Authorities for a Barracks. Built in 1704, it served as a military base for 250 years, it was formally the Royal Barracks and later Collins Barracks.
The Esplanade where the Croppies Acre is located today was fully constructed by the 1850s, complete with boundary walls and ornate railings. During the Great Famine, the Esplanade was the site of a food kitchen. By the 1900s, the land was levelled to form two football pitches for the military. In 1997, the Decorative Arts Section of the National Museum was opened in Collins Barracks and the Memorial Park was subsequently designed and laid out in 1998.